The Book of the Farm: Detailing the Labours of the Farmer, Farm-steward, Ploughman, Shepherd, Hedger, Farm-labourer, Field-worker, and Cattle-man [2, 4 ed.]

Table of contents :
Front Cover
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME
ANIMAL PORTRAITS PLATE DEVON BULL 14
RED POLLED BULL 15 16
SUSSEX
POLLED ABERDEEN-ANGUS BULL 17
GALLOWAY BULL
AYRSHIRE COW 19
WEST HIGHLAND COW AND CALF 20
KERRY AND DEXTER COWS 21
JERSEY COW 22
GUERNSEY COW 23
LEICESTER
COTSWOLD RAM 24 25
26
SHROPSHIRE RAM 27
GENERAL ILLUSTRATIONS SPRING
188
FIG PAGE FIG PAGE 135 12 22 240 Head of timothy with numerous ergots
Bullock-holder
Milking cows
Milk-pail 243 Milking-stool
Milking-tubes
Calf-rearing
Calf's-crib wicket
Calf-rearing in pure-bred herds
Lambing period-Details of man-
Shepherd's house on wheels 247 Shepherd's crook
Shropshire flocks
Hill flocks
Mode of holding a lamb for castra- tion
248
Abortion among ewes
Ewe and lamb house
Mountain turn-wrist snow-plough
Produce of lambs
Mountain snow-harrow
A word for dung
Phosphatic manures
Potassic manures
Application of manures
Rothamsted experiments
Frying-pan or lime shovel 253 Steel graip 254 Broadcast manure-distributor
Aberdeen and Sussex experiments
Fowler's double-furrow plough with single lever 25 256 Cooke's double-furrow plough 26
Apparatus for pickling wheat
Sowing-sheet and hand-sowing corn
English sowing-basket
Broadcast sower ready for work 60 261 Broadcast sower in transit 262 Horse-hoe
Broadcast hand-sower 84 264 Corn and seed drill 85 | 265 “Excelsior" seed-drill
Hand seed-drill 127 267 English iron harrows 128 268 Scotch iron harrows
Presser-roller
Saddle drill-harrow
Cast-iron land-roller
Sweet-scented vernal
Italian rye-grass
Common yellow clover or trefoil 233 329 Vertical section of style and stigma
Swine in spring
Soil with water and without air 240 334 Common spade
The weather
SUMMER
Summer farm-work
Hay-knife
189
Hemp
Sowing turnips
Square mode of planting hops 329 367 Organs of fructification in wheat
Drill-plough
196
Manuring turnips
Scotch drill-scuffler or horse-hoe 366 | 379 Wheat-midge
Horse-hoe and harrow
Sowing mangels
Kohl-rabi, carrots, and parsnips
Cross-fertilisation of grain
eelworm
Hop-jumper
Turnip saw-fly
Insect pests
Section through a fragment of
Anbury or club-root-early stage
Live stock in summer
Salt-roller
Sheep-washing
Washing-pool and sheep-washing
Clipping with the left hand
Third stage of clipping a sheep
Weaning lambs
Punching-nippers for sheep
Treatment of bulls
Opened bull's ring
Sandringham dairy herd recoriler 476 455 Wooden chesset or cheese mould

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NYPL RESEARCH LIBRARIES

3 3433 00763000 1

L

slephens

THE

BOOK

OF

THE

FARM

çtci VPC

Wherefore come on , O young husbandman ! Learn the culture proper to each kind . VIRGIL.

THE

BOOK OF THE FARM DETAILING THE

LABOURS OF THE

FARMER , FARM-STEWARD, PLOUGHMAY, SHEPHERD, HEDGER,

FARM -LABOURER, FIELD -WORKER , AND CATTLE -MAN

BY

HENRY STEPHENS , F.R.S.E. OORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL AND CENTRAL SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURE OF FRANCE ; OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF GALICIA ; OF THE AQRICI'LTURAL INSTITI'TE OF GOREGORETZK IN RI'SSIA : OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SWEDEN ; OF THE ROYAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY OF NORWAY

FOURTH

EDITION

REVISED, AND IN GREAT PART REWRITTEN, BY

JAMES OF THE AUTHOR OF

6

MACDONALD FARMING WORLD ';

FOOD FROM THE FAR WEST ' ; JOINT AUTHOR OF

" POLLED CATTLE, ' ' HEREFORD CATTLE ,' ETC. , ETC.

IN

THREE

VOLUMES

VOLUME

II .

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND EDINBURGH

AND

MDCCCXCI

LONDON

Vi

SONS

TO R AS

AR

BR

แ16731

Y JUN 2

NE 1893 W ORK Y

CONTENTS

OF VOLUME II .

PRACTICE- SPRING. PAGE

Field operations and spring weather Cattle in spring

I

9 9

The calving season Abortion . Calving Milking cows Calf - rearing

12

14 24

PAGE

Highland and Agricultural Society's experiments Seed- time Wheat Beans Peas

175 185 188 201

205 207

30 Barley

Details of calf-rearing

32

Oats

211

Calf-rearing in pure-bred herds

42

Rolling land, &c.

Sheep in spring

46

Grass seeds

214 219

The lambing season . Lambing period - Details of man agement

47

Varieties of grasses

Early market lambs :

61 62

Hampshire customs.

Varieties of clovers 60

Suffolk flocks .

65

Shropshire flocks

66 68 72

Scotch flocks Hill flocks

.

Varieties of grasses sown Seeds for rotation grasses

220

231 234 234

Grasses and clovers for permanent pasture Grasses for different soils

235

Standard seed mixtures Germination of seeds

235 239

235

After lambing

75

Different methods of sowing and

Abortion among ewes

Forage crops

Lambing table

80 86 87

Manures and manuring

89

Vetches Lucerne

Farmyard manure

94

Sainfoin

257

Rye . Cabbages Rape

258

Produce of lambs

A word for dung

IOI 102

Artificial manures

Nitrification Characteristics of nitrogenous man ures

Phosphatic manures

105

258 259 260 261 261 261

106

Planting potatoes

109

Tillage for potatoes .

119

Manuring potatoes

I 20

Details of planting .

265

Varieties of potatoes

271

Gypsum Gas- lime .

I 20 120 I21

121 .

242 254 255

256

Mustard

Potassic manures

Compound manures Economical purchasing of manures Analysis explained . Mixtures and mixing Application of manures

germination .

123 126

The boxing system of preparing

potato sets

274

Raising new varieties of potatoes Horses in spring The foaling season

Application of dung

126 Reviving weak foals .

Application of artificial manures Rothamsted experiments . Aberdeen and Sussex experiments

130

135

Rearing foals Weaning foals . .

169 | The mating season

276 281 281

283 283 288

289

CONTENTS.

vi

Swine in spring

290 | Hatching geese

Farrowing of sows Poultry in spring Hatching

290 292

Hatching ducks Hatching pea-fowls

292 Hatching pigeons 295 Paring and burning .

Hatching and rearing turkeys .

297 299 300 300

304

PRACTICE - SUMMER . Horses in summer

The weather

309

Summer farm -work .

314 Horses injured by green food :

Hay-stack for horses

316 318

Dairy work Dairy utensils .

Hemp

327

Power for the dairy .

Hop culture Sowing turnips

328 Milk

474

336

Cream -raising

479

Manuring turnips Sowing mangels

353

Similar other methods

375 Centrifugal separator

485

Kohl-rabi, carrots, and parsnips

383

Selling cream and skim -milk .

Summer culture of corn crops . Cross - fertilisation of grain

387

Butter -making .

486 487

Insect pests Fungoid attacks on crops

395 Churning 414 Butter-working

Flax culture

.

Important features in a churn

469 470 471 473 473

485

493 494 495 499

Live stock in summer

430

Butter extractor

Sheep in summer Sheep -washing Shearing of sheep

434 438 441 445 |

Cheese-making Cheddar cheese Quantity of rennet The curd .

Weaning lambs

452

Stilton cheese .

Dipping lambs Marking sheep Drafting sheep

454 454 456

Cheshire cheese Cream cheese Skim -milk cheese

500 505 507 507 511 512 513 513

Foreign cheeses suitable for Britain

514

Clipping with the left hand

Cattle in summer

458

Treatment of bulls

465 Associated butter and cheese making

Soiling

468

519

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II.

ANIMAL PORTRAITS. PLATE

DEVON

14

BULL

RED POLLED BULL

15

SUSSEX COW

16

POLLED ABERDEEN -ANGUS BULL

17

GALLOWAY BULL .

18

AYRSHIRE COW

19

WEST HIGHLAND COW AND CALF

20

KERRY AND DEXTER COWS

21

JERSEY

.

22

COW

GUERNSEY COW

LEICESTER RAM

23

24

.

COTSWOLD RAM SOUTHDOWN RAM

25 26

SHROPSHIRE RAM

27

GENERAL ILLUSTRATIONS. SPRING. FIG .

PAGE

240. Head of timothy with numerous 12

PAGE

FIG .

254. Broadcast manure-distributor 255. Fowler's double-furrow plough with

135

ergots 241. Bullock -holder

22

242. Milk -pail

25

256. Cooke's double-furrow plough

243. 244. 245. 246. 247.

26

257. Apparatus for pickling wheat

190

28

258. Sowing-sheet and hand -sowing corn 259. English sowing -basket

192 193

260. Broadcast sower ready for work

194 194

Milking-stool Milking-tubes Calf's -crib wicket Shepherd's house on wheels Shepherd's crook

33 51 60

248. Mode of holding a lamb for castra tion

.

single lever

.

261. Broadcast sower in transit 262. Horse -hoe

76 263. Broadcast hand -sower

249. Ewe and lamb house

84

250. Mountain turn-wrist snow -plough

85 | 265. “ Excelsior " seed -drill

251. Mountain snow-harrow .

252. Frying -pan or lime shovel 253. Steel graip .

86

189 189

264. Corn and seed drill 266. Hand seed -drill

127

267. English iron harrows

128

268. Scotch iron harrows

194 195 195 195

196 196 196

ILLUSTRATIONS .

viii 269. Presser-roller

199 | 307. Wheat plant in the state of germina

270. Action of theedge of presser-wheels 200 271. 272. 273. 274. 275. 276.

Clay's cultivator Broadshare cultivator Saddle drill- harrow Acme harrow Cast -iron land -roller Water -ballast roller

203 203 205

Meadow foxtail Sweet -scented vernal Yellow oat -grass Crested dogstail

242

309. Positions of seeds on regular furrows 243 310. Irregular braird upon regular fur. rows .

208

277. Field feered for cross -ploughing 278. Fiorin, or creeping bent grass 279. 280. 281. 282.

tion

308. Well-ploughed regular furrow -slices 242

215

311. 111-ploughed irregular furrow-slices

243 243

216

218

312. Irregular positions of seed on ill ploughed furrows

243

220

313. Irregular braird on ill- ploughed fur

220 221

row

243

222

314. Regular depth of seed by drill-sow : ing 315. Regular braird from drill-sown seed

283. Rough cocksfoot

223

316. Newberry's one-rowed dibbling .

284. Meadow fescue 285. Tall fescue

223

286. Sheep's fescue

225 225

221

224

.

287. Hard fescue 288. Perennial rye-grass

226

289. Italian rye-grass 290. Timothy

228 229

291. Smooth -stalked meadow -grass

229 230

.

292. Rough -stalked meadow -grass . 293. Evergreen meadow -grass 294. 295. 296. 297.

230

Perennial red clover Red or broad clover Perennial white clover Alsike clover ,

298. Common yellow clover or trefoil 299. Grass- seed iron harrows, with wings and swing-trees . 300. Chain harrows

302. Cloddy and stony soil

248

317. Newington's 6 -rowed dibbling-ma chine . 318. Double roots of deep-sown wheat 319. Roots of shallow -sown wheat . 320. Scotch drill- plough 321. Potato hand -basket

322. Triple drill-plough

249

250 250

267 269

.

.

323. Section of a flower 324. Horizontal section .

270

277 277

231 232

325. Vertical section of a potato -blossom 277

326. 232327. 233 328. 233 329.

277 Stamen discharging pollen 277 Pistil with pollen -grains on top Pollen -grain magnified . 278 Vertical section of style and stigma

237

330. 331. 332. 333.

278 Potato -plum . 278 Plum cut, showing seeds inside Potato -seed magnified 278 Sties for brood -sows under one roof 292

278

magnified

238

301. Carriage for conveying harrows, &c. 238 .

machine

243 244

240

303. Soil with water and without air

240

334. Common spade

304. Soil with air and without water 305. Soil with water and with air .

241 241

335. Flauchter-spade at work

306. Component parts of a grain of wheat

242

305

.

306 306

336. Paring-plough 337. Paring -sock

306

SUMMER.

338. Hay -knife 339. Lightning hay- knife

317

340. Crosskill's clod - crusher

318 | 363. Turnip hand -hoe . 364. Weed -hook

317

341. Side view of one wheel of the clod crusher

.

319

319 366. Organs of fructification in wheat

343. Square mode of planting hops 344. Quincunx mode of planting hops

329

345. Barclay and Sellar's patent digger or cultivator

346. Digging and pulverisingplough 347. Drill-plough 348. Farm tip-cart

349. Tip-cart going down hill 350. Cart tipped 351. Dung- spreading machine .

352. Turnip drill-sower . 353. Seed and water drill 354. Scotch drill-scuffler or horse - hoe

342 343

368 368 388

389 392

365. Steerage horse- hoe

342. Norwegian harrow .

329

368

361. Wardlaw's turnip -thinner 362. Improved hand -hoe

367. Organs of fructification in wheat 368. Bean aphis 369. Beet -fly

393 395 397 397 397 398 398

376. Large white cabbage butterfly

371. 346 372. 349 373. 350 374. 350 375. 351 | 376. 351 377.

Small white cabbage buttertly Grain aphis . Daddy longlegs Ribbon -footed corn -fly Corn saw -fly . Hessian fly Hessian fly attack on barley

399

399 399 400 400 401 402 402

352 378. Chlorops 366 | 379. Wheat-midge

355. English horse -hoe or turnip -scutler

366

356. Horse -hoe and harrow 357. Turnip horse-hoe .

366 381. False wire -worms 367 | 382. Ear cockles

358. M‘Kidd's drill-scarifier 359. Dickson's turnip -cleaner 360. Briggs's turuip -thinner .

367 367

380. Wire -worms .

403

383. Tulip -rooted oat plant infested by eelworm

367 | 384. Hop aphis

.

403 404

ILLUSTRATIONS . 405 405

385. Hop-jumper . 386. Red spider 387. Onion fly

406

388. Pea and bean weevils

406 407

389. Colorado beetle

407 408 409

390. Death's -head moth

391. Turnip -fly 392. The strawsoniser at work 393. Turnip aphis . 394. Dart moth

410

ix

421. Scalder and cooler .

478

422. White Wedgewood -ware milk -dish . 480 480 481 481

423. Enamelled iron milk -pan 424. Iron milk-pan 425. 426. 427. 428. 429.

Milk -sieve Cream -skimmer Cream -jar Movable milk -stand Swartz system

481 481 482 482

430. Cooley system 411 431. Devonshire cream stove . 411 395. Turnip saw -fly 412 432. Jersey creamer 396. Turnip saw -fly grub at work . 433. Speedwell cream-raiser 397. Section through a fragment of a potato -leaf 419 | 434. Speedwell method of skimming 398. Section through a fragment of old 435. De Laval separator 436. “ Baby ” separator . 421 potato -leaf 399. Anbury or club -root - early stage . 427 437. Speedwell cream -cooler . 400. Secure mode of fixing the hanging 438. The “ ladies' " plunge -churn

483

.

.

.

post of a field - gate 401. Salt - roller

432

402. Washing-pool and sheep -washing

439 442

433

403. Wool-shears .

439. Barrel churn . 440. End -over -end churn

.

.

churn and

.

492

443 444

443. Box churn

445

444. Speedwell crystal churn

407. New -clipped sheep.

446

445. Butter -worker

408. Rolling a fleece of wool

448 446. “ Délaiteuse ” centrifugal butter:

409. Fleece of wool rolled up

449 449

411. 412. 413. 414. 415. 416. 417. 418.

Weighing and packing wool Punching- nippers for sheep Buisting-iron for sheep . Branding-iron for sheep and cattle . Opened bull's ring . Closed bull's ring . Swivelled spring-hook Sandringham dairy herd recoriler

419. Temperature can

420. Lawrence's refrigerator .

.

.

455

451. Single cheese -press

465

452. Double cheese-press

466 453. Curd - knives . 467 454. Metal chesset or cheese mould 476 455. Wooden chesset or cheese mould 476 456. Curd -breaker

493 493

.

494

.

496

drier .

448. Butter -boxes . 449. Milk -vat 450. Curd -mill

477

.

447. Butter- beaters or boards,

455 455

450

486 491 491 491

butter

worker

404. First stage of clipping a sheep 405. Second stage of clipping a sheep 406. Third stage of clipping a sheep

410. White -shouldered wool-moth .

484 485 485 486

441. The “ Index Diapılıragm ” churn 442. Charlemont

483 484

.

.

.

497 497 498 500 501 501 502 507 508 508 509

66 DEVON BULI ,

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OLSELEY JY ."LORD

PLATE 14

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PLATE 20

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PLATE 23

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PLATE 24

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PLATE 27

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A CERAM

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NY

THE

BOOK OF

THE

FARM .

SPRING , FIELD OPERATIONS AND SPRING WEATHER .

of the newly risen sun are nearly level with the surface of the earth ; and this is

the time when the morning birds are in

In the vegetable world winter is the their finest song, when the earth and the season of repose, of passive existence, of air are in their greatest freshness, and dormancy, though not of death. Spring, when all nature mingles in one common

on the contrary,is the season of returning morning hymn of gratitude. There is life, of passing into active exertion, of something peculiarly arousing and streng hope, and of joy; of hope, as the world thening, both to the body and the mind, of life springs into view immediately in the early time of the morning ; and were we always wise enough to avail our the seed upon the ground — and of joy, in selves of it, it is almost incredible with contemplating with confidence therepro- what ease and pleasure the labours of the after the industrious hand has scattered

ductions of the herds and flocks.

It most diligent life might be performed.

would be vain to attempt to describe the When we take the dayby the beginning, emotions to which this delightful season we can regulate the length of it according

gives birth.

It is better that the pupil to our necessities; and whatever may be

of agriculture should enjoy the pleasure for himself; for “ the chosen draught, of which every lover of nature may drink, can be had, in its freshness and purity, only at the living fountain of nature ; and if we attempt to fetch it away in the

our professional avocations, we have time to perform them, to cultivate our minds, and to worship our Maker, without the one duty interfering with the other.”. The Morning of Life.— “ The day

spring of the morning leads us, by an

clay pitchers of human description, it easy and very natural transition, to the loses all its spirit, becomes insipid, and acquires an earthy taste from the clay." Early Rising and the Joys of Spring. To enjoy the beauties of spring

dayspring of human life, the morning of our sojourn upon earth ; and the parallels

between the commencement of life itself, and of those successive days by whichit

in perfection, “ it is necessary to take ad- is numbered , is a parallel the most strik life

vantage of the morning, when the beams ing. There is a freshness in VOL. II .

young А

SPRING.

2

which no experience can acquire for us at herd, too, has his painful watchings,day any future time ; and there is a newness and night, on the lambing ewes ; and his in every object, which is not felt after care of the tender lambs, until they are

years have passed over our heads. Our bodies are light, flexible, easily moved, and not liable to be injured. Our minds, too, never become wearied or listless ; and although the occupation and the thought

able to gambol upon the new grass, is a task of peculiar interest, and naturally leads to higher thoughts—“ we cannot refrain from thinking of the unspeakable condescension and kindness of Him who

are necessarily different from those of ' feeds His flock like a shepherd, gathers persons of mature age, they are far more the lambs into His arms, and carries them

energetic, and what is learned or done in His bosom, and gently leads those that takes a more permanent hold of the are with young.' Field -work in Spring. – The condi “There are many circumstances which tion of the fields demands attention as render the morning of life of far more well as the reproduction of the stock.

memory .

importance than the morning of an indi- The day now affords as many hours for vidual day. It is a morning to which labour as are usually bestowed at any no tomorrow morning can follow ; and season in the field. The ploughmen, therefore, if it is neglected , all is inevit- therefore, know no rest for at least ten

ably and utterly lost. We cannot exactly hours every day, from the time the har the loss of even one morning, rows are yoked for the spring wheat until

make up

though we can repair it a little by our the turnips are sown. The turnip land,

diligence in future mornings. We must bared as the turnips are consumed by bear in mind, however, that the means of sheep, or removed to the steading, is now

doing this are a mercy to us, and not a privilege that we can command as our own . We never know what a day may bring forth ; ' and as there daily occur around us instances in which the young and the strong are at once levelled to the

ploughed and prepared for spring wheat, barley, or oats that is, should the weather be mild and the soil dry enough . The first sowing is the spring wheat; then the beans, the oats, and the barley. The fields intended for the root crops then

dust, we never can be certain that the receive a cross-furrow, in the order of the demand shall not be made on ourselves— fallow crops—the potatoes first, thentur “ this night is thy soul required of thee. ' nips, and lastly the bare fallow , if there But if it is thus perilous to neglect one should be any, which is now very ex

morning out of many, how much more ceptional. perilous to neglect the one morning of a This is the course followed with the

life - a life granted by a beneficent God, root-land inmany cases, but where the in a world full of the wonders of His stubbles are ploughed with a strong loose power, capable of enjoyment, and deny furrow in early winter, the soil is so

Him service while it lasts, and in the ful- pulverised by the influences of winter, ness of time entering,through the atone- that spring ploughing may be unneces

ment of the eternal Son ,a life of bliss sary, grubbing and harrowing being suffi which shall have no end ! ” Cares of Stock -owners in Spring.-

cient to bring it into the required con

dition .

This will, of course , much de

Spring is the busiest of all seasons on the pend upon the nature and condition of farm . The cattle-man, besides continu- the land.

Stiff, dirty land will most

ing his attendance onthefeeding cattle , likely have tobe cross-ploughed in has nowthemore delicate task of waiting spring, andgrubbed once oreven twice on the cows at calving, and providing as well. comfortable lairs for new -dropped calves. Grass seeds are then sown amongst the

Thedairymaid commences her labours, not in thepeculiar avocations ofthe dairy, inrearing calves — the support of" but future herd . The farrows of pigs also claim a share of attention. The shep1 Mudie's Spring , 12-15 .

young autumnalwheat, as wellas amongst the spring wheat andthe barley or oats. d -workers devote their busy hours Thefielryi to car ng seed to the sower,turning dunghills in preparation the continu manure the potato for and turnip of crops, ing the barn-work to supply litter for the

FIELD OPERATIONS AND SPRING WEATHER .

3

stock yet confined in the steading, and arctic spring, in which the snow melts to prepare the seed -corn for the fields. without rain, and the meads are covered The hedger resumes his work of water- with vernal flowers ere the last traces of tabling and scouring ditches, cutting winter have disappeared. Possessing

down and breasting old hedges, and this variability in its atmospherical phe taking care to fence with paling the young quicks upon the hedge-bank, which he may have planted at the commencement and during fresh weather in winter, as also to make gaw -cuts in the sowed

nomena, spring presents few having pecu liarities of their own , unless we except

fields.

occur in February. East Wind.So invariable is the

The steward is now on the alert, urges

the cold unwholesome east wind which

prevails from March to May, and the very heavy falls of snow which occasionally

the progress of every operation, and in- phenomenon of the east wind in spring, trusts the sowing of the crops to none that every person who dwells on the east but himself, or atried hand, as the skil- coast of Great Britain is quite familiar

ful hedger , or ploughman experienced in the management of an approved cornsowing machine. Thus every class of labourers have their work appropriated

with it, having felt its keenness and known its aptitude to produce catarrhal, pulmonary, and rheumatic affections. In its dread, many migrate to a milder

for them at this busy season ; and as climate until summer shall have set in.

the work of every one is individually An explanation of this remarkable phe defined, it is scarcely possible for so nomenon has been given by Mr Samuel great a mistake to be committed as Marshall. “ In Sweden and Norway," that any piece of work should be ne- he observes, “ the face of the country is covered with snow to the middle of May glected by all. The Farmer's Duties in Spring.-

The farmer himself now feels that he

or longer.

This frozen covering, which

has been formed during winter, grows

must be “ up and doing.” His mind be- gradually shallower to the 15th or 16th of comes stored with plans forfuture execu- May, oruntil the sun has acquired 17 ° or tion ; and in order to see them executed

18° N. declination ; while, on the other

at the proper time and in the best man- hand, the valleys and mountains of ner, he must now forego all visits, and England have received an accession of 24° or 25º. On this account, when the tem perature of Sweden and Narway is cooled hasty and occasional an most undertake

remain at home for the season ; or at

down by snow to 32°, that of Britain is 24° or 25° higher than that of the preced ing countries. Because, while the ground is covered with snow , the rays of the sun aswell as body becomes fatigued, and, are incapable of heating the air above 32°,

journey to the market town to dispose of other pressing transact and work surplus cornThe business. of the fields now requiring constant attendance, his mind

on taking the fireside after the labours of the freezing-point.

For this reason the

the day are over, the farmer seeks for air of England is 24° or 25° more heated rest and relaxation rather than mental

than that of the before -mentioned coun

of Sweden and Norway toil. He should at this season pay par- tries. Theofaircourse , by the law of com ticular attention to the state of the wea- will then, ther, by observing the barometric, and parative specific gravity, displace that of thermometric changes, and make it a England, and, from the relative situation

point to observe every external pheno- of those countries with this country, will menon that has a bearing upon the produce a N.E. wind. The current is in

changes of the atmosphere, and be guided common stronger by day than by night, accordingly people. in giving his instructions to because the variation of temperature is at his that time the greatest, being frequently Weather in Spring . — The weather in from 50° to 60° about noon , and sinking spring, in the zone we inhabit, is exceed- to 32° in the night.”" 1 ingly variable, alternating, at short inSpring Winds. — All the seasons have

tervals, from frost to thaw, from rain to their peculiar influence on the winds. snow, from sunshine to cloud - very dif ferent from the steady character of the

1 Brewster's Jour. Sci., viii. 39.

SPRING .

4

" In spring,” says Schouw, " E. winds we need corresponding observations, em are common ; at certain places in March, bracing a great number of localities," 1 at others in April. They diminish the an advantage now very efficiently pro

force of the W. current, which in many vided by the Royal Meteorological countries is at that time weaker than Society and the Scottish Meteorological during the rest of the year. The relation Society. The character of the winds in spring of N. to S. winds is not constant, and varies according to the localities. In is, that they are very sharp when coming

some the direction is more N., in others from the N. or N.E. direction ; and they more S., than the mean direction of the are also frequent, blowing strongly some year.”

“ When winds come from distant

times from

the E. and sometimes from

countries, they possess a part of the pro- the W. In the E. they are piercing, perties by which those countries are char- even though not inclining to frost ; in

acterised ,” is an observation of Kaemtz. the W. they are strong, boisterous, “ Thus the W. winds, that blow from the squally, and rising at times into tre sea, are much more moist than the E., mendous hurricanes, in which trees es which traverse continents. The latter, cape being uprooted only in consequence

particularly when they are N.E.,are very of their leafless state, but by which cold , especially in spring ; and they give many a hapless mariner is overtaken rise to a great number of rheumatic affec- and consigned to a watery grave, or tions. The very opposite sensations, pro- dashed without mercy on a rocky shore. duced by violent S. or N. winds, aremuch Snow in Spring.- Very frequently more marked in countries whose inhabit snow covers the ground for a time in spring The severest snow storms and Kaemtz further explains the cause of falls usually occur in February. Truly

ants live in the open air.”

the very variable nature of the wind in awful is a storm of snow in spring our countries. After having mentioned amongst the hills. that the two great leading currents of

It is a serious affliction to the sheep

wind on the globe are the N.E. and farmer when a severe and protracted S.W., he observes that " meteorological snowstorm occurs in spring. The losses registers present to us the indication of caused by the storm are often very great, a great number of winds which blow especially in breeding flocks, where lambs from all parts of the horizon. When we are sometimes lost in hundreds daily.

compare corresponding observations made Then by providing extra food for sheep in many localities in Europe, we are not in spring storms, the sheep -farmer's out slow in recognising that thosewinds in- lays are frequently increased to a serious volve no other causes than difference of extent. Clouds in Spring. — The prevailing temperature. Suppose, for instance, that a general S.W. wind occupies the upper clouds in spring are the same as in win

regions, but that the W. part of Europe ter —— namely, the cirro-stratus, which is very hot, whilst the E. regions remain more frequently gathers itself into the

very cold, with a clouded sky, thediffer- cumulo - stratus, and hovers about the ence of temperature will immediately horizon, and either subsides entirely be

give rise to an E. wind ; and when this low it on the approach of frost at night, wind meets that from the S.W. there

or veils the zenith in the daytime in the

will be a S.E. wind, which may be trans- form of cirro-stratus ; but the cumulo formed into a true S. wind. stratus of spring presents a very different “ These differences of temperature ex- aspect to what it does in summer, having

plain the existence of almost all winds. generally a well-defined though ragged heated, and that there is no prevailing rency or clearness, which is preserved

Now, suppose that a region is unusually margin, and a peculiar look of transpa wind, then the cold air will flow in on all

even when the clouds become purple or

sides ; and according as the observer is nearly black . in the N., the E., the S. , or the W., he Rain in Spring. The character of will feel a different wind blowing from rain in spring is sudden, violent, and the corresponding points of the horizon. However, to put the fact beyond doubt,

1 Kaemtz's Cour. Metcoro., 50-54.

FIELD OPERATIONS AND SPRING WEATHER.

cold, not unfrequently attended with

February.

hail.

Evaporation in Spring. — Evapora-

5

February fill dyke, be it black or be it white :

:

tion is quick in spring, especially with But if itbe white, it's the better to like. E. wind, the surface of the ground Thehindhas as leif see his wife on the bier, an being as easily dried as wetted. Thus As that Candlemas day should be pleasant and clear.

two or three days of drought will raise the dust in March, and hence the cold

If Candlemas day be fair and clear,

felt on such occasions.

The half o' winter is to gang and mair ; But if Candlemas day be foul,

Prognostics of Spring . – The weather The half o' winter is gane at Yule.

in spring may be regarded as the key stone to that of the ensuing seasons.

Its

March.

indications are analogous to those of cirri, which make the first movement in March hack ham , comes in like a lion, goes out like a lamb. the upper regions of the sky when a of March dust is worth a king's ran change is about to take place in the A bushel som . tics of spring are therefore worthy of March grass never did good. March, and a showery April, make a attention , and the enumeration of a few A windy beautiful May. of them may point to that class of

state of the atmosphere. The prognos

windand Marchclothes May sun phenomena which deserves the greatest Make white and maids dun.

attention at this season .

Dalton says that the barometer is at So many frosts in March, so many in May. the lowest of all during a thaw following March many weathers. a long frost, and is often brought down March birds are best. by a S.W. wind. When the barometer is near the high extreme for the season

April.

of the year, there is very little probabil ity of immediate rain ; when the bar- April showers bring forth May flowers. ometer is low for the season , there is When that Aprilis with her showery soote

seldom a great weight of rain, though a The droughte of March had pierced to the roote.

fair day in such a case is rare ; the

general tenor of the weather at such When April blowshis horn, times is short, heavy, and sudden It's good both for hay and corn. showers , with squalls of wind from the A cold April the barn will fill.

S.W., W., or NW. When the appear. The borrowing days—the last days of ance of the sky is very promising for March and the first days of April— are fair weather, and the barometer at the proverbially stormy. This well-known sametimelow,it may be depended upon rhyme is regarding them :

that the appearances will not long con tinue so ; the face of the sky changes

March said to Averil,

very suddenly on such occasions. Very

Do you see thae hoggs on yonder hill ? If ye lend me days three,

dark and dense clouds pass over without

rain when the barometer is high ; whereas, when the barometer is low , it sometimes rains almost without any appear ance of clouds.

A sudden and extreme

I'll do my best to gaur them dee. The first day was wind and weet, The second day was snaw and sleet,

The third day was sic a freeze As festen'd the birdies to the trees ;

But when the three days war come and gane,

change in temperature, either from heat A’ the wee hoggies gaed hirplin' hame. to cold, or from cold to heat, is generally Birds in Spring Storms. — During a followed by rain within 24 hours. Weather Proverbs.- Many prognos- snowstorm in spring, wild birds, becom tics of the weather have been received as ing almost famished, resort to the haunts

proverbs by the country people ; and as ture experience, we may rely on their

of man .

The robin is a constant visitor,

these have become current only after ma- and helps himself with confidence to the

crumbs placed for his use.

The male

accuracy. These are a few relating to partridge calls in the evening within spring :

sight of the house, in hopes of obtaining

SPRING.

6

some support before collecting his covey to be at all aware how strong the tie is together for the night to rest upon the which binds man even to a little spot of snow. his native earth , if so be that he can Hares have been known to come to the consider it as his own, and that he him

door in the evening, and through the self, and those on whom he loves to be night in the moonlight, to receive the stow it, are to enjoy the fruit. food set down for them.

Rooks now

“ This is the very strongest natural hold which binds a poor manto his coun try, and to all those institutions estab lished for the wellbeing of society. Show

make desperate attacks upon the stacks, and will soon make their way through the thatch. Beginning their attacks at the top, they seem to be aware of the exact place where the corn can be most easily reached. Sparrows burrow in the

suckles on which are neatly trimmed and trained, and the garden behind is well

thatch ; and even the diminutive tomtit,

stocked with culinary herbs and a few

me the cottage, the roses and the honey

with a strength and perseverance one choice flowers, and I will speedily find who never wastes his time should suppose beyondits ability, pulls you a cottager or debases his mind, and learns

out whole straws from the side of the

ormoney,

stacks, to procure the grain in the ear.

' the broad road which leadeth to destruc

Further on in spring, the insect world tion,' in the contamination of an alehouse. come into active life in myriads, to serve If the garden is neat, one may rest as as food for the feathered tribes. Rooks, sured that the cottage, however humble

with sturdy walk and independent gait, it is, is the abode of contentinent and

diligently search the ground for them , in happiness; and that, however simple the thewake of the plough, and feed their fare may be, it is wealth and luxury in young therewith . Tomtits clamber round full store to the inmates, because they every branch of trees which indicate an are satisfied with it, and grateful for the

opening of their floret buds. A stream of migration to the north, of wild geese and other water-fowl, betokens the approach of genial weather.

possession of it.” 1 The contentment of the married ploughmen - in districts where comfortable cottages and little garden - plots are provided—and the at

Cottage Gardening.- " By the time tachment to the farm upon which they the season is fairly confirmed, the leisure

serve, may be traced to the feelings ex

hours of the cottagers," and of the plough- pressed in these remarks. The Farmer's Garden . Farmers, men, who are cottagers of the best description, are spent, in the evening, " in as a rule, are bad gardeners. Not un the pleasing labour, not unaccompanied frequently the garden, or where the gar

with amusement, of trimming their little den should be, isone of the most thor gardens, and getting in their early crops. oughly neglected spots on the farm .

There is no sort of village occupation This is much to be regretted, for the which men, women , and children set value of a good, well-stocked kitchen about with greater glee and animation garden to a household is very great.

than this; for, independently of the There should be a garden on every farm , hope of the produce, there is a pleasure

and it may be kept in good order at

to the simple and unsophisticated heart trifling expense.

The hedger, stable

in ‘ seeing things grow, which, perhaps, man , or some other of the farm -servants, they who feel the most are least able to should know as much of the art of gar dening as to be able to keep the farmer's “ Certain it is, however, that it would garden in decent order in the absence of be highly desirable that not only every a gardener, whose assistance may with country labourer, but every artisan in advantage be called in to crop the ground explain .

towns, where these are not so large as to

in the respective seasons. A field -worker

prevent the possibility of it, should have now and then could keep the weeds in a little bit of garden, and should fulfil subjection, and allow both sun and air the duty which devolved on man in a free access to the growing plants. Be

state of innocence, ' to keep it and to sides carelessness about the garden , the dress it.' It is impossible forany one who has not carefully attended to the subject,

i Mudie's Spring, 274-275.

FIELD OPERATIONS AND SPRING WEATHER .

7

same feeling is evinced by too many far- are about to occupy all hands for several mers in the slovenly state in which the months to come, the injunction of old shrubbery and little avenue attached to Tusser to undertake them in time, so their dwelling are kept.

that each may be finished in its proper

Fat Cattle. — In spring the farmer season, should be regarded as sound ad thinks of disposing of the remainder of vice. When field -labour is advanced ever his fat cattle. Should he not be offered so little at every opportunity of weather the price he considers them worth, he and leisure, no premature approach of the ensuing season can come unawares ; them perhaps for a month or two on and no delay beyond the usual period

may keep them on for a time- a few of

grass — for beef is usually plentiful and will find the farmer unprepared to pro cheap in spring, and scarce and dear ceed with the work. When work pro early in summer.

ceeds by degrees, there is time to do it

Grass Parks. — Spring is the season effectually. If it is not so done, the for letting grass parks. In the majority farmer has himself to blame for not

of cases the parks are held by landed looking after it. proprietors. The ready demand for old grass induces the retention of pleasuregrounds in permanent pasture, and removes temptation from a landlord to speculate in cattle. It is not customary

When work is advanc

ing by degrees, it should not be allowed to be done in a careless manner, but with due care and method, so as to im

press the work -people with the import ance of what they are doing. The ad

for farmers to let grass parks, except in vantage of doing even a little effectually the neighbourhood oflarge towns, where is not to have it to do over again after cowfeeders and butchers find them so wards; and a small piece of work may

convenient as to induce them to tempt farmers with high prices. Facility of obtaining grass parks in the country is useful to the mer who raises grazing stock , when he can give them a better

be done as well, and in as short a time, in proportion, as a greater operation. Keep the Plough going. - Even if

only one man is kept constantly at the plough, he would turn over, in the course

bite or warmer shelter than he can offer of a time considered short when looked

them himself, on thedivision of the farm back upon, an extent of ground almost which happens to be in grass at the incredible. Hewill turn over an imperial time. acre a -day — that is, 6 acres a -week, 24

Selling Wood. — The landed proprie- acres in a month, and 72 acres in the tor has also to seek a market in spring course of the dark and short days of the

for his timber, which he annually fells in winter quarter. All this he will accom thinning his plantations. Such sales afford convenient supplies to farmers in want of paling for fencing new hedges, wood for sheep-flakes or stobs, or timber for the erection of shedding for animals, or for implements. They are also serviceable to country joiners and imple-

plish onthe supposition that he has been enabled to go at the plough every work ing day ; but as that cannot probably happen in the winter quarter, suppose he turns over 50 acres in that time,these will still comprehend the whole extent

of ground allotted to be worked by every

ment-makers,in affording them necessary pair of horses in the year. Thus a large materials nigh at hand . The timber is proportion of a whole year's work is done felled by the owner, and assorted into in a single, and that the shortest, quarter lots of sizes and kinds best suited to the of the year. Now, a week or two may

local demand. Prunings and thinnings quicklypass, in winter, in doing things are sold as firewood .

which, in fact amount to time being thrown away,

ADVANTAGES OF HAVING FIELD -WORK WELL ADVANCED .

Instancesof misdirected labour are too apt to be regarded as trifles in winter ;

but they occupy as much time as the

The season— early spring — having most important work — and at a season, arrived when the labouring and sowing too, when every operation of the field is

of the land for the various crops culti- directly preparatory to others to be exe vated on a farm of mixed husbandry cuted ina more busy season .

SPRING.

8

Neglected Work ineficiently done. should be ploughed first, and the land - The state of the work should be a kept dry ; so that the worst weather in

subject for the farmer's frequent con- spring may not find the land in an un sideration, whether or not it is as far prepared state. The land intended for advanced as it should be ; and should he

potatoes, for turnips, or tares, or bare

find the work to be backward, he consoles his unsatisfied mind that when the season for active work really arrives, the people will make up for the lost time.

fallow, should be prepared in their re spective order ; and when every one of all these objects has been prepared for, and little to do till the burst of spring

Mere delusion — for if work can be made work arrives, both horses and men may up, so can time, the two being insepar- enjoy a day's rest now andthen, without able ; and yet, how can lost time be any risk of throwing work back. made up, when it requires every moment Spring Preliminaries . — But besides of the year to fulfil its duties, and which field operations, other matters require is usually found too short in which to do attention ere spring work come. The

everything as it ought to be done ? The implements required for spring work, result will always be that the neglected great and small, have to be repaired work is done in an inefficient manner.

the plough -irons new laid ; the harrow

tines new laid, sharpened, and firmly Field -labour should be perseveringly ad- fastened ; the harness tight and strong; vanced in winter, whenever practicable ; the sacks patched and darned, that no and some consider it a good plan, for seed -corn be spilt upon the road ; the Subdivision

of

Farm - work .

this purpose, to apportion certain plough- seed - corn threshed, measured up, and mento different departments of labour— some to work constantly on the farm , some constantly at the plough, others frequently at the cart. When the elder

sacked, and what may be last wanted put into the granary ; the horses new shod, that no casting or breaking of a single shoe may throw a pair of horses

men and old horses, or mares in foal, out of work for even a singlehour ;-in are appointed especially to plough, that short, to have everything ready to start most important of all operations will be for the work whenever the first notice of

well and perseveringly executed, while spring shall be heralded in the sky. the young men and horses are best suited

Evils of Procrastination . — But sup

for carting when not at the plough. Thus pose all these things have been neglected the benefits of the subdivision of labour until they are wanted — that the plough may be extended to farm operations. irons and harrow -tines have to be laid Advancing Field -work . — It is right and sharpened, when perhaps to-morrow

to give familiar examples of what is they may be wanted in the field — a stack meant by the advantage of having field- to be threshed for seed -corn or for horse's labour advanced whenever practicable.

corn when the sowing of a field should

The chief work in spring is to sow the be proceeded with ; suppose that only a ensuing crops. It should therefore be week's work has been lost, in winter, of the study of the farmer in winter to ad- a single pair of horses, 6 acres of land

vance the work for spring sowing. When will have to be ploughed when they the weather is favourable for sowing should have been sown , —that instead of

spring wheat, a portion of the land, having turnips in store for the cattle cleared of turnips by the sheep, may perhaps be ploughed for wheat instead of barley. If beans are cultivated, let the ploughing suited to their growth be executed; and in whatever mode beans

when the oat-seed is begun, the farmer is obliged to send part of the draughts to fetch turnips — which cannot then be

are cultivated, care should be taken in winter to have the land particularly dry,

all the busy season .

stored — and the cattle will have to be supplied with them from the field during

In short, suppose that the season of by a few additional gaw -cuts where incessant labour arrives and finds every necessary, or clearing out those already one unprepared to go along with it, what

existing. Where common oats are to be must be the consequences ? Every crea sown, they being sown earlier than the ture, man , woman , and beast, will then

other sorts, the lea intended for them be toiled beyond endurance every day,

THE CALVING SEASON .

9

not to keep up work , which is a light- time”—and after all, the toil will be some task , but to make up work, which bestowed in vain, as it will be impossible is a toilsome burden . Time was lost and to sow the crop in due season .

Those

idled away at a season considered of little implicated in procrastination may fancy value ; thus exemplifying the maxim,

this to be a highly coloured picture ; but

that " procrastination is the thief of it is drawn from life.

CATTLE

IN

SPRING.

To the stock -owner the spring months should not be too deep, as over -exertion are full of hopes and anxieties. At the in wading through soft litter may cause

opening of the season calving will most such an excited action of the cow's probably be in full swing ; and in breed- system as to make her slip calf. The

ing stocks this is themost critical period litter in a court constantlytrampled by in the whole year. Naturally, therefore, cattle at freedom becomes firm , and the treatment of cows and their young affords a good footing, and the cattle produce demands our first consideration man should spread every barrowful at this time.

thinly. Cows, as they calve, and after it is safe for them to go into the air, should not go into the court at the same time with

THE CALVING SEASON .

those yet to calve ; as calved cows soon The calving of cows is one of the chief come into season — that is, desire the bull events of the spring upon stock farms. —and when in this state, the other cows

Not that calving does not occur until ride upon them, and this propensity is spring — for most breeders of farm -stock strongest in those cows yet uncalved.

are anxious to have calves early, particu- Such violent action, upon soft litter, is larly bull-calves, and for that purpose likely to prove injurious to uncalved calves are born as early as the month of cows. The time of day in which cows in December. Besides, those in the new- different states may go out, should be

milk trade require to have the animals dropping their young at intervals during the whole year. Still by far the largest proportion of cows do not calve until January, February, and March, and the season of calving continues good till the middle of April. After that date the

left to the discretion of the cattle-man , who knows that cows, after calving, be come more tender in their habit than before, and should have the best part of the day — from 12 to 2 o'clock.

calves are accounted late.

the fifth and sixth months of their gesta

Symptoms of Pregnancy.- Cows

may be ascertained to be in calf between

An early calfpossesses the advantage of tion. The calf quickens at between four having passed through its period of milk and five months. The calf may be felt

drinking in time to be supported upon by thrusting the points of the fingers grass, as soon as it affords sufficiency of against the right flank of the cow , when food . A late calf somehow seems never a hard lump will bound against the

to fully regain the lost time.

abdomen , and be felt by the fingers. Or Risks of the Calving Season.— when a pailful of cold water is drunk From eight to ten weeks at this season by the cow, the calf kicks, when a con

is a period of great anxiety for the state vulsive sort of motion may be observed of the cows. Every care, therefore, that can conduce to her passing in

safety over this critical period ought to be cheerfully bestowed . When the cow first shows heavy in calf, which is after the sixth month, the litter in the court

in the flank , by looking at it from be

hind, and if the open hand is then laid upon the space between the flank and udder, this motion may be most distinctly felt. It is not in every case that the calf can be felt at so early a period of

ΙΟ

CATTLE IN SPRING.

its existence ; for lying then in its na- delayed my examination until the fætus tural position in the interior of the was three months old , I should have womb, it cannot be felt at all ; and when assurance that it was there by its now

it lies near the left side of the cow, it is increased bulk, while the pulsation of not so easily felt as on the opposite one. its heart would tell me that it was So that, although the calf cannot be felt living."

at that early stage, it is no proof that

hen still older, the pulsation of the heart may be distinctly heard on apply When a resinous - looking substance ing the ear closely to the flank here and

the cow is not in calf.

can be drawn from the teats by stripping there, and upwards and downwards,

them firmly, the cow is sure to be preg- while the cow is held quietly and nant. After five or six months, the flank steadily. in the right side fills up, and the general Cow's Womb. — The womb of the

enlargement of the under part of the cow is a bag of irregular form , having abdomen affords an unequivocal symp

a chamber or division attached to each

tom of pregnancy .

side, called the horns of the womb ; and But there is seldom any necessity for so called, perhaps, because of the horn -like

thus trying whether a cow is in calf, for form they present in an unimpregnated if she has not sought the bull for some state . The womb consists almost en months, it is almost certain to be because tirely of muscular fibres, with a large proportion of blood vessels and of vascular she is pregnant. Youatt's Method of Testing Preg- matter, which admits of contraction and nancy . — These are the common modes extension. Its ordinary size in a large

of ascertaining the pregnant state of the cow is about 2/2 feet in length, but, when containing a full-grown fætus, it is scientific means of ascertaining the fact. 7 feet in length. This is an extraordin He says he would not give, nor suffer ary adaptation to circumstances which

cow ; but Youаtt has afforded us more

any one else to give, those terriblepunches the womb possesses, to bear an expan on the right flank, which he had no sion of 7 feet, from about a third of that

doubt were the cause of much unsus- length , and yet be capable of performing pected injury, and occasionally, at least, all its functions. were connected with, or were the origin The Fætus.- " The fætus of the cow

of, difficult or fatal parturition. At a is huddled up in the right side of the very early stage of the gestation, he belly ," says Youatt.

says, by introducing the hand gently and

* There its mo

tions are best seen , and the beatings of

cautiously into the vagina, the state of its heart best heard.

The enormous

the womb may be ascertained. If it is paunch, lying principally in the left

in its natural state, the mouth of the side, presses every other viscus,and the womb or os uteri will be closed, though uterus among the rest, into the right not tightly so ; but if it is impregnated, flank . the entrance of the uterus will be more

Indication of Twins.— " This also ex

firmly closed, and the protrusion will be towards the vagina . He adds a caution, however, in using this mode of exploration : “ When half, or more than half, of the period of pregnancy is passed , it is

plains a circumstance familiar to every breeder. If the cow should happen to carry twins they are crowded together in the right flank, and one seems abso lutely tolie upon the other. Whenever

not at all unlikely that so much irrita- the farmer notices the kicking of the tion of the parts will ensue as to cause fætus high up in the flank, he at once

the expulsion of the fætus.” He would calculates on twins.” 1 rather introduce his hand into the recReckoning Time of Calving. — The

tum , and as the fætus of two months exact time of a cow's calving should be is still in the pelvic cavity, he would known by the cattle-man as well as by feel the little substance under his the farmer himself, for the time when hand. He adds : “ I am certain that I she was served by the bull should be

am pressing upon the uterus and its registered. Although this last circum I cannot, perhaps, detect the pulsation of the embryo; but if I had

contents.

1 Jour. Agric. Soc. Eng ., i. 172.

THE CALVING SEASON .

II

stance is not a certain proof that the cow period of calving, between the eighth and is in calf, yet if she has passed the period ninth months, and, from whatever cause when she should have taken the bull it may originate, the position of the cow, again without showing symptoms of sea- as she lies in her stall, should be amended son , it may safely be inferred that she by raising her hind quarters as high as

became in calf atthe last serving, from thefore by meansof the litter. The im

which date should be calculated the mediate cause of the protrusion of a part period of gestation, or of reckoning, as of the womb is, the pressure of the calf's it is called .

fore feet and head against that part of it

A cow is reckoned to go just over 9 which is opposite to the vaginal passage, months with calf, although the calving is and the protrusion mostly occurs when not certainto a day. The experiments the calf is in its natural position ; so that, of the late Earl Spencer afford useful in- although no great danger need be appre

formation on this point. After keeping the record of the calving of 764 cows, he came to this conclusion : “ It will be seen that the shortest period of gestation,

hended from the protrusion, it is better to use means to prevent its recurrence than to incur bad consequences by indif ference or neglect.

when a live calf was produced, was 220

Feeding In - calf Cows. — Much more

days, and the longest 313 days ; but I care should be bestowed in administering have not been able to rear any calf at an

food to cows near the time of their reck

earlier period than 242 days. Any calf oning than is generally done. The care produced at an earlier period than 260 should be proportioned to the state of days must be considered decidedly pre- the animals condition. When in high

mature; and any period of gestation ex- condition, there is great risk of inflam ceeding 300 days must also be considered irregular: but in this latter case the health of the produce is not affected . It will also be seen that 314 cows calved before the 284th day, and 310 calved after the 285th ; so that the probable period of

matory action at thetime of parturition. It is therefore the farmer's interest to check every tendency to obesity in time. This may partly be effected by giving fewer turnips and more fodder than the usual quantity; but some cows when in

gestation ought to be considered 284 or calf, and have been long dry, will fatten

285 days, and not 270, as generally be- on a very small quantity of turnips; and lieved ." there is a tendency in dry food to aggra Indication of Bull - calves. — It is vate inflammatory action .

also a popular belief that when a cow ex-

Medical Treatment of In -calf Cows.

ceeds the calculated period of gestation,

-Other means should therefore be used, along with a limited allowance of food . In as far as medical treatment can be applied to the case, there is perhaps no thing safer than bleeding and laxatives.

she will give birth to a bull-calf. The belief accords so far with experience. Lord Spencer observes, “ In order fairly to try this, the cows that calved before the 260th day, and those that calved after “Every domestic animal like the cow , " the 300th, ought to beomitted as being observes Skellett, " is to be considered as anomalous cases, as well as the cases in by no means living in a state of nature.

which twins are produced ; and it will Like man himself, she partakes of civilised then appear that from the cows whose life, and of course is subjected to similar period of gestation did not exceed 286 infirmities with the human race.

The

days, the number of cow -calves produced time of gestation is with her a state of

was 233, and the number of bull-calves 234 ; while of those whose period exceeded 286 days, the number of cow -calves was only go, while the number of bullcalves was 152.” 1

indisposition, and every manager of cattle should be aware of this, and treat her with every attention and care during this time. The actual diseases of gestation are not indeed numerous, but they are

Calf-bed coming Down. - Cows are frequently very severe, and they occasion

most liable to the complaint of the com- always a tendency to slinking, or the cow ing down of the calf-bed, when near the slipping her calf. As the weight of the calf begins to increase, it will then be necessary to take some precautions — and 1 Jour. Agric. Soc. Eng., i. 167, 168.

CATTLE IN SPRING .

12

these precautions will consist in an at- loss to the breeder of stock. It is not only a loss of perhaps a valuable calf, tention to her diet, air, and exercise.”" 1 Critical Period in Pregnancy.- but its want makes a blank in the

The eighth and ninth months constitute number of the lot to be brought up in the most critical period of a cow in calf. the season, which can be filled only The bulk and weight of the fætus cause by purchase, perhaps not even in that disagreeable sensations in the cow , and way. Another vexation is that the cow

frequently produce feverish symptoms, can never again be fully dependedupon the consequence of which is costiveness. to bear a living calf, as there will be The treatment is laxative medicine and considerable danger of her slipping in emollient drinks, such as a dose of 1 lb. after - years. Why this result should of Epsom salts with some cordial admix- ensue has never been satisfactorily ex

ture of ginger and caraway - seed and plained . The only safe remedy for the treacle, in a quart each of warm gruel farmer is to take the milk from the cow

and sound ale. Turnips may be given as long as she gives it, and then fatten in moderate quantities, as they have a her for the butcher. laxative tendency, especially the white Causes of Abortion . — The direct varieties. Potatoes are inadmissible, causes of this troublesome complaint are various, chiefly violent because of their great tendency to pro exercise, frights, bruises, duce hoven. If hoven were to overtake knocks, bad attendance, a cow far advanced in pregnancy, the calf diseased bulls, bad food would either be killed in the womb, or -particularly musty fod it would likely cause the cow to abort.

Oilcake for Calving Cows. — Oil

der — impure water, bad

cake as a laxative along with swedes is very satisfactory. The cake is given to

smells, sympathy, and hay affected with ergot.

the cows for two months, one month

Ergot and Abortion . -There has from time to

before and one after calving, and its

valuable property of keeping them in a fine laxative state, and at the same

time in good health , will be amply de monstrated. The quantity given toeach

time been much discussion as to whether or not abor tion in cows is due in any

large measure to their eat

cow daily is usually 2 to 4 lb. at any

ing grasses affected with

intermediate time between the feeds of

ergot. Ergot is a fungus

turnips. When a little oilcake is given

which attacks the ear or

to cows before and after their calving,

panicle of grasses and cere

less apprehension need be entertained of

als, rye particularly, takes the place of the seed, and

their safety as far as regards their calv ing, in whatever condition they may happen to be, as it proves a laxative to the fat, and nourishing food to the lean , COW .

Over -leanness to be avoided . — But

the state of over-leanness is also to be avoided in cows in calf. The cow should

is recognised there as a black spur. See fig. 240,

which represents a head of timothy grass with numerous ergotised ears. Ergot is a strong irritant, and the idea is , that the irritation which ergot con

have nourishing food, such as mashes of sumed in the food by cows boiled barley, turnips, and oilcake, not Fig. 240:-Headof with nu sets up in the womb re given in large quantities at a time, but timothy merous ergots. frequently, with a view to laying on flesh sults in the premature ex in agradualmanner, and at the sametime pulsion of the foetus. It is in ergotised of avoiding the fatal tendency to plethora. hay that the greatest danger exists, for in hay ergot is sometimes present in Abortion . considerable quantities.

But there is good reason to doubt the Slinking, abortion, or slipping of the calf, is a vexatious occurrence, and a great contention that ergot is one of the chief causes of abortion amongst cows. i Skellett's Partur. Cow , 41 .

It is

rarely present in farm crops in such large

THE CALVING SEASON .

13

quantities as to be likely to cause abor- if the symptoms make their appearance Farmers should certainly regard suddenly, and go through their course

tion.

ergot as a dangerous enemy, and should rapidly . burn any portions of hay in which it is

Mr C. Stephenson on Preventive

seen to exist extensively. We suspect, Means.

Mr

Clement

Stephenson ,

however, that the great majority of the M.R.C.V.S., Newcastle-on-Tyne, in a many cases of abortion which occur every suggestive paper in the Royal Agricul

yearamongst cows must be attributed to tural Society ofEngland's Journal (1885 ), says: “ All breeding animals should be other causes. Bad Smells and Abortion .- Skellett kept in as natural a condition as possible. observes : “The cow is remarked to pos- The food should be good in quality, and sess a very nice and delicate sense of apportioned according to the breeding smelling, to that degree, that the slinking state they are in ; remember that the of one cow is apt, from this circumstance, fætus as well as the cow is to be kept in

to be communicated to a great number a growing healthy condition. Avoid the of the same herd ; it has been often

practice of giving inferior and refuse

known to spread like an infectious food to in -calf cows.

Be very particular

disease, and great losses have been suf- respecting the purity of the water-sup fered by the cowfeeders from the same.” 1 ply ; neglect of this is a fruitful cause There is unquestionably much truth in of abortion . See to general sanitary

these remarks, and it is therefore desir- arrangements, ventilation, pure air, and able that everything in a byre occupied good drainage; use disinfectants freely. by breeding cows should be kept in a In the fields keep a sharp look -out for

clean and wholesome state. Every par- decomposing putrid matter, which event ticle of filth should be removed daily ually destroy. Exercise is most import from the feeding-troughs in front, and ant; even in winter cows should be let the urine-gutters behind the cows, and out for a short time every day. Before the byre should be thoroughly ventilated service be sure that the generative organs when the cows go out to the courts.

of both animals are healthy. Where pos

These circumstances also show the pro- sible, split up the herd into small lots, priety of preventing pigs being slaugh- cows with bull-calves, cows with heifer tered in the court in which cows walk,

calves, cows and heifers to serve, cows

and any animal being bled near the and heifers settled in calf, and doubtful byre. breeders by themselves, which do not Symptoms of Abortion . — The first serve with a valuable bull, or unless they symptomsof abortion are a sudden filling are regular.” of the udder before the time of reckoning Hemp-seed as aPreventive. — Many would warrant, a looseness, flabbiness, American breeders have strong belief in and redness of, and a yellow glairy dis- hemp-seed as a safe preventive of repeat charge from , the vagina, and a giving ed abortion in cows that had previously way of the ligaments on both sides of aborted — common hemp-seed , half a pint morning and night about the time of the rump. Preventing Abortion . — Whenever a

pregnancy at which the cow formerly

cow shows symptoms of slinking, which aborted. Fluid extract of Indian hemp may be observed in the byre, but not is also commended a table - spoonful easily in the grass field, she should be every second day in wet bran, from the .

immediately removed from her compan- time corresponding to former abortion ions. She should be narrowly watched, and means of preventing slinking instantly adopted . These consist in keeping her perfectly quiet, giving laxative food, such as oilcake and mashes, and

up to within a month of calving. This fluid in excess would itself cause abor tion, but in small doses it has a benefi cial effect by allaying irritation. After -risks from Abortion .

The

if there is straining, frequent doses of risk which the cow runs, after slinking, opium , belladonna, or antispasmodics. is in not getting quit of the cleansing,

But these means will prove ineffectual afterbirth,or placenta , it not being in a state to separate from the womb. Should 1 Skellett's Partur, Cow , 62.

it remain, it will soon corrupt, and send

14

CATTLE IN SPRING .

forth a very nauseous smell, to the detri- should be reduced in condition ; if in ment of the other cows.

If it does not very low , she ought to get nourishing

come away in the course of a few hours, food and strengthening medicines; and or at most a day, the assistance of the if she is much annoyed by nauseous veterinary surgeon should be obtained. smells, these should either be counter But in ordinary cases a dose of laxative acted, or the cow withdrawn from them.

medicine-such as 1 lb. Epsom salts, i Disinfecting powders and fluids must oz. powdered ginger, and i oz. caraway- be sprinkled about the byres — such as seeds — will be quite sufficient. Jeyes's fluid, or some preparation of car The cow should have plenty of warm bolic acid -- while washing the backs of drinks, such as warm water, thin gruel, the animals themselves with a weak and mashes made of malt, with bran, so solution of sheep dip or “ smear ” will as to keep the body gently open — which tend to counteract any smell or con should be attended to at alltimes. Should tagion about the animals themselves. the regimen not be sufficient to keep the

Coarse Pasture causing Abortion.

body open, and feverish symptoms ap –It is understood that cows which are pear, recourse must be had to stronger fed in the neighbourhood of, and in remedies, such as Epsom salts, 1 lb.; woods, and that live on coarse rank pas nitre, 2 oz .; anise-seed in powder, 1 oz. ; ture in autumn, are most liable to this

cumin -seed in powder, 1 oz.; ginger, 1/2 complaint. In Switzerland the complaint oz. ;—mixed together for one dose,which increases after the cows are put on rank is to be given in 2 quarts of water-gruel pastures in autumn. Similar experience with 12 lb. of treacle. This dose may be has been had in this country, where in

repeated,if the first dose has not had the calf cows have grazed pastures on which desired effect, in ten or twelve hours. Preventing recurrence of Abortion . -In regard to preventing the recurrence of this vexatious complaint, though the best thing for the farmer is not to

.

there was a rank growth of coarse her bage, especially after wet sunless years such as 1879. We know of some cases

where good has been done by having

coarse herbage of this kind cut by a attempt any, but milk and fatten the mower in the autumn and gathered into cow , yet a natural desire may be felt to the dung-pit or burned. retain a valuable and favourite cow, so

Is Abortion Infectious ? -- Although

that means may be used to enable her slinking is spoken of as an infectious again to bear a living calf. Skellett complaint, it has no property in common

mentions as preventive measures, that with any contagious disease; and sym “ when a cow has slipped her calf, in the pathetic influence being a main cause of next gestation she should be early bled,

it, the result is as fatal as if direct con

her body should be kept open by cooling tagion had occasioned it. physic ; she should not be forced to take any more exercise than what is absolute

Calving.

ly necessary for her health, and her inter Symptoms of Calving. — About a fering with other cattle guarded against fortnight before the time of reckoning, by keeping her very much by herself. symptoms of calving indicate themselves At the same time," he adds, “ it must

in the cow .

The loose skinny space

be observed, that though it is necessary between the vagina and udder becomes to preserve a free state of the bowels, a florid ; the vagina becomes loose and

laxity of them will often produce this flabby ; the lower part of the abdomen accident; cows fed very much upon pota- rather contracts; the udder becomes lar toes, and such other watery food, are very ger, firmer, more florid, hotter to the feel, apt to slink, from their laxative effects.

and more tender-looking ; the milk -veins

In the food of the cow, at this time, a along the lower part of the abdomen be proper medium should be observed, and

come larger, and the coupling on each

it should consist of a due proportion of other vegetable matter mixed with the fodder, so as the bowels may be kept regularly open, and no more . " If the cow is in high condition, she

side of the rump-bones looser; and when the couplings feel as if a separation had taken place of the parts there, the cow should be watched day and night, for at any hour afterwards the painsof calving

THE CALVING SEASON .

15

may come upon her. From this period even to have block and tackle to hoist up the animal becomes easily excited, and the hind-legs in order to adjust the calf on that account should not be allowed to in the womb.

These last articles should

go out, or be disturbed in the house. In be ready at hand if wanted. Straw should

some cases these premonitory symptoms be spread thickly on the floor of the byre, succeed each other rapidly, in others they to place the new -dropped calf upon . All

follow slowly. With heifers in first calf being prepared, and the byre-door closed these symptoms are slow . Attendance at Calving . – Different

for quietness, the cow should be attended every moment.

sisted sometimes by the shepherd, and other men if required. In some parts of the northern counties, as also in the south -western counties of Scotland, the

Progress of Calving. — The proximate described by Skellettas they occur in an ordinary case. “ When the operation of calving actually begins," he says, “ then signs of uneasiness and pain appear : a little elevation of the tail is the first

calving is left to women to manage. This difference in practice may have arisen from the degree of assistance required at the operation. The large and

mark ; the animal shifts about from place to place, frequently getting up and lying down, not knowing what to do with her self. She continues some time in this

practices exist in attending on cows at

calving.

In the southern counties the symptoms of calving are thus exactly

cattle -man attends on the occasion, as-

valuable breeds of cows almost always state, till the natural throes or pains come

require assistance in calving, the neglect on ; and as these succeed each other in of which might cause the cow to sink from regular progress, the neck of the womb, exhaustion, and the calf to be strangled or os uteri, gives way to the action of its or drowned at its birth . Powerful as- bottom and of its other parts. By this sistance is sometimes required, and can action the contents of the womb are

be afforded only by men, the strength of women being unequal to the task . The cows of the smaller varieties more frequently calve without assistance, and

pushed forward at every throe; the water bladder begins to show itself beyond the shape, and to extend itself till itbecomes the size of a large bladder, containing

with these women may manage the calv- several gallons ; it then bursts, and its

contents are discharged, consisting of the ing without difficulty . On large farms there should be a liquor amnii, in which, during gestation, skilled cattle -man to take the charge, the the calf floats, and which now serves to

farmer himself in all cases giving his lubricate the parts, and renders the pas sanction to the means about to be em- sage of the calf easier. After the dis

ployed — it being but fair that he himself charge of the water, the body of the should bear the heaviest part of the re- womb contracts rapidly upon the calf ;

sponsibility connected with the process of in a few succeeding throes or pains the calving.

head and feet of it, the presenting parts,

Preparation for Calving . - A few preparatory requisites should be at hand when a cow is about to calve. Flat soft ropes should be provided on purpose to

are protruded externally beyond the shape. The body next descends, and in a few pains the delivery of the calf is complete." 1

Assistance in Calving - The easy The cattle-man should have the calf's crib well littered, and calving here described is usually over in

tie to the calf.

2 hours, though sometimes it is protracted to 5 or 6, and even to 12 hours, particu larly when the water-bladder has broken before being protrudedbeyond the vagina, with which to smear his hands and arm , and then the calf is in danger of being

pare the nails of his hands close , in case he should have occasion to introduce his arm into the cow to adjust the calf; and he should have goose-fat or hog's lard

although the glairy discharge from the drowned in the passage. But although vagina will usuallybe sufficient for this the calf may present itself in the natural purpose.

Goose - fat makes the skin position, with both itsfore-feet projecting,

smoothest. It may be necessary to have its chin lying on both the fore-legs, and a sackful or two of straw to put under

the cow to elevate her hind -quarters, and

i Skellett's Partur. Cow , 105.

CATTLE IN SPRING .

16

the point of the tongue appearing out of presentation, only thetail should be put the side of the mouth, it may not be straight, and not folded up, before the calved without assistance.

To render legs are pulled out. The first obstruct

this, the feetof the calf being too slip- ing point in this presentation is the rump, pery to be held firmly by the bare hands, and then the thickest part of the shoulder.

the soft flat rope, with a folding loop at On drawing out thehead, which comes the double, is placed above each fetlock last, it should be pulled away quickly, in joint, and the double rope from each leg case the calf should give a gasp for air at is held by the assistants. A pull of the the moment of leaving thecow, when it ropes should only be given at each time might inhale water instead of air, and the cow strains to get quit of the calf. run the risk of drowning. The mouth

It should be a steady and firm pull, and nose should , in this case, be wiped

in a direction rather downwardsfrom the immediately on the calf being laid down back of the cow, and sufficiently strong upon the straw on the floor. to retain whatever advance the calf may

Restless Cows in Calving. – All as

have made. The assistance given is rather to ease the cow in her exertions in the throes, than to extract the calf from her by force. Meantime the cowman endea-

yet has been easily managed, and so will be as long as the cow lies still on her side in the stall, with plenty of straw around and behind her hind -quarter. But

vours to relax the skin of the vagina some cows have a restless disposition, and, round the calf's head by manipulation , as whenever the pains of labour come on,

well as by anointing with goose-fat, his start to their feet, and will only lie down

object being to slip the skin over the again when the pain ceases.

It is thus

crown of the calf's head ; and when this scarcely possible to ascertain the true posi is accomplished, the whole body may be tion of the calf, especially when not pre

gently drawn out. In obstinate cases of sented in a natural position. It is now this simple kind, a looped rope passed necessary to extract the calf energetically, across in the mouth round the under jaw and remove the uneasiness of the cow

of the calf, and pulled steadily, will help quickly; for until she gets quit of the calf, she will not settle in any one posi

the passage of the head ; buttothis expedient should not be resorted until the cowman cannot effect it with his hands, the cord being apt to injure the tender

tion.

When the calf is so near the ex

ternal air as toenable the operator to get the ropes round its legs, whether fore or

hind, they should be fastened on imme The Calf. — On the extrusion of the diately after the discharge of the water,

mouth of the calf.

calf, it should be laid on its side upon and, on gently pulling them ,her attention

the clean straw on the floor. The first will be occupied, and she will strain with symptom of life is a few gasps which set great vigour, the standing position giving the lungs in play, and then it opens its her additional power, so that the extrac its tion of the calf is expeditious. eyes, shakes its head, and sniffs with As the calf will fall a considerable nose. The breathing is assisted if the viscid fluid is removed by the hand from height, the ground should be well littered, the mouth and nostrils. The calf is then so as to receive the body of the calf upon carried by two men, suspended by the it.

Active means should be used after

legs, with the back downwards, and the the symptoms of actual calving have be head held up between the fore-legs, to gun. If such are neglected , the calf its comfortably littered crib, where we may be found killed, or injured for life. shall leave it for the present.

Reviving

Calves .

-

Some

calves,

Reverse Presentation . — The presen- though extracted with apparent ease, ap tation is sometimes made with the hind- pear as if dead when laid upon the straw. feet foremost.

At first the hind-feet are

Besides removing the viscid fluid from

not easily distinguished from the fore; the mouth and nose, the hand should be

but if a hind presentation is made in the placed against the side of the breast, to natural position of the body, with the ascertain if the heart beats. If it does back uppermost, the hind -feet will be in so, all that is wanted is to inflate the an inverted position, with the soles up- lungs. To do this the mouth should be

permost. There is no difficulty in a hind opened, and if no breathing is yet felt,

THE CALVING SEASON .

17

some one should blow steadily into the the calf will most likely be dead.

The

mouth, a device which seems to answer legs should be pushed back, retaining the purpose; and also a hearty slap of the hold of them by ropes, and the head open hand upon the buttock of the calf brought forward between the legs if will cause it to start, as it were, into possible. It may be beyond the strength

being. Perhaps bellows might be use of the operator to bring forward the fully employed in inflating the lungs. head ; if so, he should put a loop into Should no beating of the heart be felt, the calf's mouth, and his assistants pull and yet consciousness of life seem to forward the head by it. Still more difficult cases may occur,

exist, the calf should be carried without

delay to its crib , and covered up with the such as a presentation of the shoulder, litter, leaving the mouth free to breathe, with the head lying into the side ; a

and it may survive. But even after a few gasps it may die - most probably the cause of death arising from injury received in calving, such as too long detention in

presentation of the buttock, with both the hind -legs stretched inwards; or the calf may beon its back , with one of the worst presentations now enumerated,

the vaginal passage, or a too severe squeeze

In whichever of these positions the

of the womb on the thorax, or by the calf may present itself, no extraction can rashness of the operator. safely take place until the head, and one Dead Calf.— When a calf is thus lost, of the legs at least, are secured, or both its body should be skinned while warm , the hind - legs, with the back turned

cut in pieces, and buried in a compost for uppermost, are presented. In no case manure, and the skin sold or made into should a fore or hind leg be so ne “ wechts " or baskets for the corn - barn. Difficult Presentations. The diffi-

glected, as to either obstruct the body

on passing through, or tear the womb cult cases of presentation which usually of the cow. The safest practice is, to occur are with one foot and the head,

.

secure both legs as well as the head.

and the other foot drawn back, either This may cause the operator considerable with the leg folded back altogether, or trouble, but by retaining hold of what

the knee doubled and projecting for- parts he can with the cords, and dexter ward. In all these states the missing ously handling the part amissing, so as

leg should be brought forward. To effect to bring it forward to the passage whilst this, it is necessary to put round the presented foot a cord to retain it within the power of the operator, and the head is then pushed back into the womb to

the assistants pull as he desires, his ob ject will in most cases be attained . But it should be borne in mind that none of these objects will be attained without the

make room to get at the missing foot, to powerful assistance of the throes of the search for which the greased arm of the cow herself.

If this precaution is not

operator should be introduced, and the attended to and watched for by the foot gently brought beside the other. operator, the muscular grasp of the womb The rope which was attached to the first will render his arm powerless. foot now serves to pull the entire body One circumstance should here be con

into the passage, when the throes may sidered by the operator. When the hind-quarters of the cow have an inclina The presentation may be of the head tion downwards, she has the power to alone without the feet, which may be strain the stronger, and to counteract his

again be expected to be renewed.

knuckled forward at the knees, or folded efforts the more easily.

On finding her

back along both sides. In the knuckled position so, he should raise the hind case both legs should be brought for- quarters of the cow with sackfuls of ward by first pushing the head back, straw higher than the fore-quarters, and, in case of losing hold of the calf, a until he has got the calf in the position loop of rope should be put in the calf's he desires, and then, on letting the cow mouth : in the folded case, both should down again, and watching her strain be brought forward . ings, assist her at that time and only at A worse case than either is, when one that time, and the extraction may be or both legs are presented and the head successful. folded back upon the side. In this case But the power of the womb may VOL . II.

B

CATTLE IN SPRING .

18

have been exhausted . When it can no should be made in the best manner. longer render assistance by its strainings, If this is not likelyto succeed, it will be the operator must continue his exertion better to destroy the calf by cutting it with the greater force until the calf is away than lose the cow. Should the brought away.

When the head only of

cow die, the live calf can easily be ex

the calf is presented, and cannot protrude tracted by the Cæsarean operation. itself through the vagina, an inspection Veterinary Advice in Calving. - A should be made of the position of the skilful cowman may be able to manage

calf, by thrusting the head back with a

all these difficult cases within a reason

loop in the mouth, and on finding the able time; but unless he is particularly fore-legs bent backward, to bring them dexterous at cases of calving, it is much forward. When this inspection has been safer to work under the advice of a vet

too long delayed, and the head kept erinary surgeon, who may or may not confined in the passage, the violent operate himself. In the case of extract throes of the cow will most likely strangle ing monstrosities, his actual assistance is

the calf, and the head will swell to an indispensable. inordinate degree. The swelling will Isolation in Difficult Cases. — Calv prevent the calf's head from being pushed ing in a byre does not seem to produce

back to get at the legs, then the head any disagreeable sensations in the other

must be cut off, the legs brought forward, cows, asthey express no surprise or un and the body extracted . easiness in regard to what is going on One of the most difficult cases is, when beside them. When the cow gives vent

the fore-feet are presented naturally, and to painful cries, which rarelyhappens, the head is thrust down upon the brisket the others express a sympathetic sound ; between the legs. The feet must first and when the calf is carried away, they be pushed back, and the head brought exhibit some restlessness, but the emotion up and forward, when the extraction will arising therefrom soon subsides. But if become natural. difficult and protracted labour is appre Extracting a Dead Calf. — When the hended, it is better for the other cows,

symptoms of calving have continued for and also for the particular cow herself, a time, and no appearance of a presenta- that she be removed to another well tion by the calf,the operator should in- littered apartment, where the operator troduce his arm ascertain the to

cause,

and his assistants can have free action

and the probability will be that the calf around her. has been dead in the womb some time.

Mistaken Idea . - A notion exists in

A dead calf is easily recognised by the some parts of England that a cow, when hand of an experienced cowman . It seized with the pains of labour, should should be extracted in the easiest man-

be made to move about, and notallowed

ner ; but should the body be in a state to lie still, although inclined to be quiet. of decay, it will not bear being pulled “ This proceeds from an erroneous idea ,'

out whole, and must be taken away Skellett well remarks, piecemeal. Twin Calves. - As regards the ex-

" that she will

calve much easier, and with less danger ;

but so far from this being the case, the

traction of twin calves, before rendering author has known a great many in the cow any assistance it is necessary to stances where the driving has proved

ascertain whether there are twins, and the death of the animal by overheating that the calves have made a proper pre- her, and thus producing inflammation sentation ; that they are free of each

and all its bad consequences.

Every

other ; that one member of the one is rational man will agree in opinion with not interlaced, or presented at the same the author, that the above practice is time with any member of the other.

both cruel and inconsistent in the ex

When quite sepagrated, each calf may be treme ; and this is confirmed by what

treatedaccordin to its own case.

Desperate Cases.- The block and

he has noticed , that the animal herself, as soon as the pains of calving come on,

tackle should never be resorted to but immediately leaves the rest of the herd, If this might and retires to some corner of the field, be done by turning the calf, the attempt or under a hedge, in order to prevent to save the life of the cow .

THE CALVING SEASON .

19

the other cows, or anything else, coming with a handful of salt. This she will near, that may disturb her in bringing drink up greedily. A pailful is enough forward her young."" 1 at a time, and it may be renewed when Quietness for Cows at Calving.-

she expresses a desire for more.

This

In short, too much gentleness cannot be drink should be given to her for two or shown to cows when calving, and they three days after calving in lieu of cold cannot be too strictly guarded against water, and mashes of boiled barley and every species of disturbance. gruel in lieu of cold turnips ; but the oil

Afterbirth.— The afterbirth, or pla- cake should never be forgotten, as it acts centa, does not come away with the calf, at this critical period as an excellent a portion of it being suspended from the laxative and febrifuge. cow . It is got quit of by the cow on Barley for newly Calved Cows. — A straining, and when the calving has been common practice with some is to give the natural and easy , it seldom remains cow barley in the sheaf to eat, and even longer than from one to seven hours. raw barley, when there is no barley in In bad cases of labour it may remain the straw. Sometimes a few sheaves

longer, and may only come away in are kept for the purpose ; and barley -chaff pieces ; but when it remains too long is given where people grudge to part with

and is sound, its separation will be as good barley in this way. The practice, sisted by attaching a small weight to it, however, is objectionable, for nothing say of 2 lb., with the occasional straining causes indigestion more readily than raw of the cow . barley or barley-chaff at the time of calv

A draught in gruel, containing Epsom ing, when the tone of the stomach is im

salts 8 ounces, powdered ergot 1 ounce, paired by excitement or fever. Boiled and carbonate of ammonia 4 drachms, barley, with a mucilaginous drink, is given daily, will facilitate the cleansing quite safe. Nothing should be given at this time If the afterbirth should remain till decomposition actually commences, the hand of an astringent nature. The food should should be introduced and the placenta rather have a laxative tendency. Immediate Milking. It is desirable removed as gently as possible. The common custom is to throw the

to milk the new-calved cow as soon as

afterbirth upon the dunghill, or to cover convenient for her, the withdrawal of

it up with the litter ; but it should not be milk affording relief. It frequently hap put there to be accessible to every dog pens that an uneasiness is felt in the and pig that may choose to dig it up , udder before calving; and should it in pigs have been known almostto choke crease while the symptoms of calving are themselves with it. Let the substance yet delayed, the cow will experience much

be buried in a compost-heap; and if there inconvenience, especially if the flush of be none such, in the earth . The umbili- milk has come suddenly. The Udder.—The cause of cal cord or navel-string of the calf breaks in the act of calving.

uneasiness

is unequal hardness of the udder, accom

Refreshing the Cow.- When a cow panied with heat, floridness, andtender ness

seems exhausted in a protracted case of

.

Fomentation with warm water

calving, she should be supported with a twice or thrice a -day, continued for half warm drink of gruel, containing a bottle an hour at a time, followed by gentle of sound ale. Should she be too sick rubbing with a soft hand and anointing to drink it herself, it should be given her with goose-fat, will tend to allay irrita tion. In the case of heifers with the first with the drinking-horn. After the byre has been cleansed of calf, the uneasiness is sometimes so great the impurities of calving, and fresh litter during the protracted symptoms of calv strewed, the cow naturally feels thirstying, as to warrant the withdrawal of milk after the exertion, and should receive a before calving. Should the above remedial measures warm drink . There is nothing better than warm water, with a few handfuls of oat- fail to give relief, the great heat may meal stirred in it for a time, and seasoned cause direct inflammationand consequent

suppuration in the udder. To avertsuch i Skellett's Partur. Cow , 113.

an issue, the uneasiness should be attend

20

CATTLE IN SPRING .

ed to the first moment it is observed, neglect permitting the complaint to proceed so far as to injure the structure of the udder. Prevention of the congestion of the udder may be secured by refrain-

veterinary surgeon should witness the process, and afterwards administer the requisite medicines and prescribe the proper treatment and regimen . Uterine

Discharge.

-

About nine

ing to give rich food until after the ninth days after calving, should no uterine dis day, when the womb has discharged its charge come from the cow, means should contents attendant on calving.

be used to promote it, otherwise severe

costiveness and puerperal fever may Attention to the Cow . In ordinary ensue .

Oilcake for a fortnight before cases of calving, little apprehension need be felt for the safety of the cow ; but she and after calving has been found an

must be carefully attended to for at least excellent expedient for promoting the a fortnight aftercalving. No cold drinks, discharge — which discharge has the effect no cold turnips, should be given her, and of thoroughly cleansing the womb. no cold draughts of air allowed to blow

Coming in “ Season .” — A cow will

upon her. The hind -quarters, raised up desire the bull in four or five weeks after by litter for a few days, will recover the calving. The symptomsof a cow being tone of the relaxed parts.

in season

are thus well described by

Flooding.- In cases of severe and pro- Skellett : "She will suddenly abate of tracted labour the cow may be overtaken her milk, and be very restless; when in by several casualties, such as flooding or the field with other cows she will be

loss of blood, which is caused by the ves- frequently riding on them , and ifin the sels of the womb being prevented col. cow -house she will be constantly shifting lapsing as they should do ; but it is not often a fatal complaint, and may be removed by the application of a lotion, consisting of a quart of strong vinegar

about the stall ; her tail will be in con stant motion ; she will be frequently dunging, staling, and blaring ; will lose her appetite ; her external parts will

mixed in one gallon of spring -water,in appear red and inflamed, and a transpar which cloths should be dipped, and ap- ent liquor will be discharged from the

plied frequently to the loins, rump, and vagina. In old cows these symptoms are vagina. A drink of two quarts ofcold known to continue 4 or 5 days, but in water and a pint of ale will much relieve general not more than 24 hours, and at her and assist the efforts of nature. other times not more than 5 or 6 hours.

Should the Therefore, if a cow is intended for pro Protruding Womb. womb protrude when the placenta re- creation, the earliest opportunity should mains too long after delivery, in conse- be taken to let her have the bull ; for if

quence of long and severe straining of it be neglected then, it will often be 2 the cow, the womb should be washed per- or 3 weeks before the above symptoms fectly clean with a mixture of milk and will return . These instructions,” adds warm water, and replaced with care, Skellett, “ are necessary to be given only

taking hold of it only by the upper side. to the proprietor of a small number of The hind -quarter of the cow should be cows, where a bull is not always kept well elevated with straw , and a saline with them.

If a cow , after

dose of laxative medicine administered, calving, shows symptoms of season with some opium , to allay pain and pre- sooner than 4 or 5 weeks, which is some vent straining times the case, she should not be per Inflammation in the Womb . - Aftermitted to have the bull sooner than 4 or

severe calving, draughts of cold air may 5 weeks from that period — for the womb cause inflammation in the womb. Large before that time is, in general, in so re

drinks of cold water will produce the laxed a state, as not to be capable of same effect, as well as the irritation aris- retaining the seed, consequently she ing from retention of the cleansing. A seldom proves with calf if she is suffered 1 purge is the safest remedy, consisting of to take him sooner.” i lb. of Epsom salts, 8 drachms powdered

Too Early Bulling Unwise.

This

aloes, and 2 ounce ginger in a quart last remark is of great value,for there is of warm water or gruel. But in all casesof severe calving the

1 Skellett's Partur. Cow , 11• 13.

THE CALVING SEASON .

21

good reason to believe that many cases quires some hours to arrive at the same of cows not holding in calf with the first point, and the season continues for a serving aftercalvingarises from the want time in a languid state : a third runs

of consideration on the part ofbreeders as through the course of season in a few to whether the cow is in that recovered hours, while a fourth is only prepared to state from the effects of calving which may

receive the bull at the last period of her

be expected to afford a reasonable hope season ; a fifth may exhibit great fire in that she shall conceive. And this is a her desire, which induces her keeper to

point more to be considered than the have her served at once, when too soon ; mere lapse of time after calving ; for a whilst a sixth shows comparative indiffer cow , after a severe labour, maybe in a ence, and, in waiting foran exhibition of much worse state for conception, even at increased desire, theseason is allowed to

double the length of time, than another pass away ; and in this last case, cattle which has calved with ease, although she men, conscious of neglect, and afraid of may have come as regularly into season detection, will persist in the bull serving

as her more fortunate neighbour. The her, though she may be very much dis state of the body, as well as the length inclined, and does everything in her of time, should be taken into considera- power to avoid him. tion in determining whether or not the Attention in Serving.There is no cow should receive the bull.

way so natural for a bull to serve a cow ,

Fatigue affecting Pregnation . - A common practice in places where there is no bull, is to take the cow to the bull at a convenient time for the cattle-man to take her ; and should she have passed the

as when both are in the field together. The most proper time is chosen by both, and failure of conception then rarely happens. But it is possible that the bull cannot serve the cow in the field by

bloom of the season before her arrival at disparity of height. The cow should then be taken to a part of the ground which

the bull, the issue will be doubtful. The cow may have travelled a long distance and become weary, and no rest has been allowed her, although she hasto undergo the still farther fatigue of walking home. Fatigue renders impregnation doubtful. Many are not satisfiedwith the service

will favour his purpose. One thorough skip is quite sufficient for securing con ception,but two or three skipsare mostly insisted upon. The cow should be kept quiet in the byre after being served until the desire leave her, and she should have

of their cows until both bull and cow are no food or water for some hours after, as

wearied out. Others force cow or bull, any encouragement of discharges from holding her by the nose, and goading him the body, by food and drink, isinimical with a stick against the inclination of to the retention of the semen. Conception Cor eted . « When either. Such treatment renders impregnation doubtful . There is, beside, the nature is satisfied ,” says Skellett, “ or chance that the bull

worn out for the the symptoms of season disappear inthe

day.

animal, conception has taken place. The

None of these mischances can happen neck of the womb becomes then com

when a bull is at home. Even then a pletely closed by a glutinous substance discretion is requisite to serve the cow at which nature has provided for that pur the proper time, and this can only be pose, being perfectly transparent, and known by observing her state. with difficulty separated from the parts. Cow's Record of Character . - It is This matter is for the purpose of exclud

desirable that the farmer should keeping all external air from the mouth of or have kept a record of the character the womb during gestation, which, if of each cow, in regard to her state of admitted to the fætus, would corrupt the season, and of her reckoning to calve — a membranes and the pellucid liquor in

desirability all the greater because ofthe which the fætus floats, and would un great difference of character evinced by For example, one arrives soon at mature season after the symptoms are exhibited, and as soon it disappears ; a second re-

cows under the same treatment.

doubtedly cause the cow to slink . This glutinous substance also prevents the lips of the mouth of the womb from growing together ; and when the cow comes into season it becomes fluid - the

22

CATTLE IN SPRING .

act of copulation serving to lubricate the parts and prevent inflammation.” 1 In -CalfHeifers. — The heifers in calf that are to be transferred to the cowstock should be taken from their ham-

in the short period between each fort night can easily be calculated the par ticular reckoning of each cow:

mels, in which they have been all winter, into the byre, into the stalls they are to

A RECKONING TABLE FOR THE CALVING

occupy, about three weeks or a fortnight

OF COWS.

before their reckoning. If they had been accustomed to be tied by the neck when calves, they will not feel much

It is unnecessary to fill up the table with marking down every day of the year, as

When will When Bulled .

Calve ,

reluctance in going into a stall ; but if not, they will require some coaxing to do

Jan.

I.

Oct. 13

11

15. 29.

Nov. 1o.

When taking them to the byre at

Feb.

12 .

it.

26.

11

first, it should be remembered that a

fright received at this juncture may not be forgotten by them for a long time to come. To avoid every chance of that ,

let them go in quietly of their own ac cord ; let them snuff and look at every thing they wish ; and having assistants

11

10

Dec.

March 12. 26 .

April 9. 11

May 11

June 11

July

10

24. 8.

11

Nov.

March 2. 11 16.

11

16.

00

30 .

When will Calve,

April 27.

30 . 13.

May

27.

June

11

Sept. 10 . Oct.

21 .

2 .

HI

2.

Feb.

18.

Aug.

5. 19.

23. 7. 4.

July 16.

27.

22 .

Jan.

When Bulled .

Dec.

1

24. 8.

July

22 .

Aug.

5. 19. 3. 17 . 31 .

11 . 25. 8. 22.

6. 20 . 3.

17. 31 .

Sept. 14 28.

Oct.

12 .

April 13 .

to prevent their breaking away, let the Leading Cow8. — A cow is generally cattle-man allow them to move step by step , until they arrive at the stalls. easily led to the bull at a distance by a Here may be some difficulty : some halter round the head . If she is known favourite food should be put in the to have a fractious temper, it is better to put a holder in her nose than to allow her to run on the road and have to stop or turn her every short distance. A simple form of holder is in fig. 241 , which has the stake, from which it should be a joint that allows the two parts of the quietly taken down, without clanking holder to meet , and to open sofar asunder

manger to entice them to go up. Another difficulty will be putting the seal, fig. 104, round the neck . It should be hung, when not in use, upon a nail on

the chain ; and while the heifer is eat ing, let the cattle -man slip one hand

as to embrace the nostril of the animal. A screw

below the neck with the chain, while

nut brings the two knobbed points as close as to em

the other is passed over it, to bring the loose end of the seal round the neck,

brace firmly the septum of the nose. In using this nut it should not be so

and hook it into whatever link he first

finds. The moment the heifer feels she is bound , she will hang back, or attempt

tightly screwed as to squeeze the septum. The

to turn round in the stall to get away, which she should be prevented doing by

leading -rein is fastened to

the under ring. In Africa “ an unruly cow is never tied by the

gentle means; and after remaining in that state for some time, and feeling herself well used and kindly spoken to,

head : a man walks be

she will yield ; but although she may ap pear to submit, she must not be left alone

Fig . 241. Bullock -holder.

hind it, having hold of a

rope tied tightly round its ed hock ; this plan seems to points, not attempt to turn in the stall is certain . 0 Knobb meeting. Reckoning Table. – The following c Screw Rareyfy the animal most -nut. for rein. completely .”" 2 table, containing the dates at which cows e Ring rope. for some time- till the assurance she will

should calve from those at which they

a Joint .

Detecting Pregnancy.

were bulled,is founded upon the data – Theusual mode of determiningwhether afforded by Lord Spencer - namely, 285 a cow is in calf is deceptive. She may days as the average period of gestation. not have held when bulled ; she may i Skellett's Partur. Cow , 17.

? Grant's IValk across Africa, 52.

THE CALVING SEASON .

23

have taken the bull again in a few days, afterwards comatose ; the pulse becomes and she may not show evident symptoms irregular, and death ensues. of calving until only a few days before The promptest remedy to be used, after she actually calves. The application of the first symptom has been observed , is the ear to the flank of the cow is a to bleed to the extent of 3 or 4 quarts, simpler and more certain mode of ascer- but not after the earliest stages. The

taining the pulsation of the calf, and the next is to open the bowels, which will be unerring stethoscope renders the mode found to have a strong tendency to con truly philosophical. The existence of stipation. From i lb. to 1/2 lb. of

pregnancy may be detected by it at as Epsom salts, according to the strength early a stage as six or eight weeks, by of the cow, with a little ginger and car

which time the beating of the heart of away, shouldbe given as a purge. The the calf may be distinctly heard, and its spine should be stimulated by the appli

singular double beating cannot be mis- cation of ammonia liniment, and the taken .

head kept cool by cloths wet with cold Milk - fever.— " Although parturition water. The animal should be bolstered

is a natural process," as is well observed up into the natural position with bundles by Youatt, “ it is accompanied by a great of straw, and hoven prevented by the use deal of febrile excitement. The sudden of the trocar and canula. Perspiration transferring of powerful and accumulated must be induced by covering with cloths,

action from one organ to another — from the womb to the udder -- must cause a great deal of constitutional disturbance, as well as liability to local inflammation ." 1 One consequence of this constitutional disturbance of the system is milk -fever or puerperal fever. Cows in high condition are more subject than others to this complaint, and especially

and the animal must be prevented from injuring herself when she begins to throw her head wildly about. It must be con fessed, however,that the disease is nearly always fatal. Treatment rarely effects a cure, and practical experience has shown that, in the majority of cases, it is much better to kill the animal at once, as she is sure to die at any rate.

if they have been kept up for some weeks

Prevention of Milk - fever.- But it

before calving. The complaint may seize the cow onlya few hours after calving, or it may be days. Its first attack is probably not observed by those who have

is a preventable disease. It is due to overfeeding and having the body in a too plethoric state from the use of con

centrated foods. Regular physicking and

the charge of the cows, or even by the moderate feeding for a month or so be farmer himself, who is rather chary in fore calving, so as to reduce any " fulness " looking after the condition of cows, in of body, will almost always ensure safety. case he should offend his female friends, Red -water . — The ninth day after a to whose special care that portion of his cow has calved , a uterine discharge stock is consigned. should take place, and continue for a day The symptoms are first known by or two, afterwhich the cow will have all the cow shifting about in the stall, or the symptoms of good health. It has from place to place if loose, lifting one been observed that when this discharge leg and then another, being easily startled , does not take place, the cow will soon

and looking wildly about her as if she after show symptoms of red -water. She had lost her calf, and lowing for it. Then will evacuate urine with difficulty, which the flanks begin to heave, the mouth to will come away in small streams, and be

open and issue clear water, she staggers highly tinged with blood, and at length

in her walk, and at lengthloses the use appear like dark grounds of coffee. "The of her limbs, lies down and places her nature and cause of the disease are here head upon her side. The body then evident enough," as Youatt well observes. swells, the extremities feel cold and “ During the period of pregnancy there clammy. Shivering and cold sweats fol- had been considerable determination of low, the animal is at first wild and ex- blood to the womb. A degree of sus cited , throwing her head about, and ceptibility, a tendency to inflammatory 1 Youatt's Cattle, 546.

action had been set up, and this had been increased as the period of parturi

CATTLE IN SPRING .

24

tion approached, and was aggravated by The teats should be at equal distances the state and general fulness of blood to every way, neither too long nor too short, which she had incautiously been raised. but of moderate size, and equal thickness The neighbouring organs necessarily par- from the udder to the point,which should

ticipated in this, and the kidneys, to be smaller. They should not betoo large which so much blood is sent for the proper discharge of their function, either quickly shared in the inflammation of the womb, or first took an inflammation,

at the udder, to permit the milk to flow down too freely from the bag and lodge in them ; nor too small at that place,to allow the coagulation of the milk to cord

and suffered most by means of it.” 1

up or fill the orifice; nor too broad at the

The prevention of this disease is re- point, to have the orifice so large that commended in using purgative medicine the cow cannot retain her milk after the after calving ; but as purging never fails bag becomes full and heavy. They should to lessen the quantity of milk given by

be smooth, and feel like velvet, firm and

the cow for some time after, a better plan soft to handle, not hard and leathery. is to give such food as will also operate They should yield the milk freely, and as a laxative for some time before as well not require to be forcibly pulled. as after calving. One substance which When the milk is first to be taken from possesses these properties is oilcake. the cow after calving, the points of the teats will be found plugged up with a

resinous substance, which, in some in stances, requires some force to be exerted on them before it will yield.

MILKING COWS.

Structure of the Udder . — The struc-

ture of a cow's udder is remarkable.

It

First Milk . — The milk that is ob

tained for the first four days has a thick

consists of two glands, disconnected with consistence, and is of a yellow colour. each other, but contained within one It is known as the “ colostrum ," and has

bag or cellular membrane ; these glands obtained the name of biestingsin Scotland. being uniform in structure. Each con- It possesses the coagulable properties of sists of three parts, the glandular or the white of an egg , and will boil into a secreting, the tubular or conducting, and thick substance called biesting cheese.

the teats or receptacle or receiving part. But it is seldom used for such a purpose, The division is longitudinal, and each and is given to the calf, because in many half is provided with three teats, one of parts the people have a notion that it is

which, however, is abortive, so that milk not wholesome to use the biestings. is only yielded by four altogether, and

Theory of Milking.- " Thus, then,

thus each teat with its adjacent portion says a writer, " we perceive that the milk 9)

of the udder is called a “ quarter.”

The is abstracted from the blood in the glan

glandular forms much the largest portion dular part of the udder ; the tubes receive of the udder. It appears to the naked eye and deposit it in the reservoir or recep

composed of a mass of yellowish grains, tacle ; and the contractile tissue at the but under the microscope these are found end ofthe teat retains it there till it is to consist entirely of minute blood vessels wanted for use.

But we must not be

forming a compact plexus, which secrete understood to mean, that all the milk the milk from the blood.

drawn from the udder at one milking, or

The udder should be capacious, though meal, asit is termed , is contained inthe not too large for the size of the cow. It receptacle. The milk, as it is secreted, is should be nearly spherical in form , though conveyed to the receptacle, and when this rather fuller in front, and dependent be- is full, the larger tubes begin to be filled,

hind. The skin should be thin, loose, and next the smaller ones,untilthe whole and free from lumps, filled up in the fore- become gorged. When this takes place, but hanging in folds the secretion of the milk ceases, and ab part of the udder, part

in the hind

.

Each quarter should sorption of the thinner or more watery

contain about equal quantities of milk , part commences. Now, as this absorption though sometimes the hind ones yield takes place more readily in the smaller or the most. 1 Youatt's Cattle, 504.

more distant tubes, we invariably find that the milk from these, which comes

MILKING COWS.

25

the last into the receptacle, is much called a large milk-vein below the belly . thicker and richer than what was first This vein is the subcutaneous vein, and

drawn off. This milk has been significantly styled afterings ; and should this gorged state of the tubes be permitted to continue beyond a certain time, serious

drains a part of the udder of its blood, and when large, certainly indicates a strongly developed vascularsystem, which is favourable to secretion generally, and

mischief will sometimes occur : the milk no doubt that of milk in particular.

becomes too thick to flow through the tubes, and soon produces, first irritation, then inflammation, and lastly suppuration, and the function of the gland is materially impaired or altogether destroyed. Hence the great importance of emptying the smaller tubes regularly and thoroughly, not merely to prevent the occurrence of disease, but actually to increase the quantity of milk ; for so long as the smaller tubes are kept free, milk

Milk -pails . — The vessel used for re

ceiving the milk from the cow is sim ple, as in fig. 242, which is one of the most convenient form . The size may be made to suit the dairymaid's taste. It ismade of thin oak staves bound together with three thin gal

is constantly forming ; but whenever, as vanised hoops.

we have already mentioned, they become Pails similar in gorged , the secretion of milk ceases until shape are now they are emptied . The cow herself has made of tinned no power over the tissues at the end of iron , and

are

the teat, so as to open and relieve the preferable

for

overcharged udder : neither has she any cleanliness and power of retaining the milk collected in lightnes s. the reservoirs when the spasm of these is Pitchers of tin are mostly used overcome.” 1

Fig. 242. - Milk -pail.

Thus the necessity of drawing away for milking in the dairies of towns. the last drop of milk at every milking ; In Holland the milking -pails are made and the greater milker the cow is, thisis ofbrass, and must be kept quite bright, the more necessary . otherwise they would injure the milk. Hefting.Thus also the impropriety The Dutch dairymaids have a great deal of hefting or holding the milk in cows of trouble in keeping these vessels in

until the udder is distended much be- proper order. A pail, as fig. 242, is of yond its ordinary size, for the sake of a convenient size when 9 inches in dia

showing its utmost capacity for holding meter at the bottom, ui inches at the milk, a device which all cow -dealers, top, and 10 inches deep, with a handle and indeed every one who has a cow for 5 inches high ; which dimensions will

sale in a market, scrupulously adopts. give a mouth capacious enough to re It is remarkable that so hackneyed a ceive the milk as it descends, and of a practice should deceive any one into its sufficient height to rest on the edge of

being a measure of the milking power its bottom when held firmly between the of the cow ; for every farmer is surely knees of the milker, as he or she sits upon

aware that, when he purchases a hefted the three-legged stool. The pail should not be milked quite full for fear of spill

cow , he gains nothing by the device.

Why, then, encourage so cruel and in- ing, and should be large enough to con jurious a practice in dealers ? Were tain all the milk that a cow will give at purchasers to insist on a reduction in a milking, as it is undesirable to annoy

price of the cow that is hefted, the the cow by rising from her before the dealers would be obliged to relinquish milking is finished, or by exchanging one the bad practice.

pail for another.

The milking -stool, as in fig. 243, is -The milking properties of a cow are made of ash, to stand 9 inchesin height, to a certain extent indicated by what is or any other height to suit the conveni ence of the milker, with the top 9 inches 1 Blurton's Prac. Ess. Milk ., 6, 7. in diameter, and the legs a little spread Indications of Milking Properties.

CATTLE IN SPRING.

26

out below to give the stool stability. ently employed in milking the hinder Some milkers do not care to have a stool, teats of the cow , which are most difficult and prefer sitting on their haunches ; but to reach, because of the position of the a stool keeps the body steady, and the hind part of the udder between the hind legs. The near side is most common in Scotland, while in England the other

side is preferred. It is rare to see a cow milked in Scotland by any other than a woman, though men commonly do it in England.

LA Fig. 243. — Milking-stool.

The Operation of Milking:-Milking is performed in two ways, stripping and nievling. Stripping consists of seizing the teat firmlynear the root between the front of the thumb and the side of the

forefinger, the length of the teat lying

along the other fingers, and of pressing arms have more freedom to act, and the finger and thumb while passing them

ready to prevent accidents to the milk down the entire length of the teat, and in case of disturbance by the cow. causing the milk to flow out of its point Cows holding back Milk . — The cow, in a forcible stream . The action is re

being a sensitive and capricious crea- newed by again quickly elevating the ture, is so easily offended that, if the hand to the root of the teat. Both milker rise from her before the milk is hands are employed at the operation, all withdrawn, the chances are she will each having hold of a different teat, and

not again stand quietly at that milking ; moving alternately. The two nearest or if the vessel used in milking is taken teats, the fore and hind, are first milked , away before the milking is finished, and and then the two farthest. another substituted in its place, the proNievling is done by grasping the teat

bability is that she will hold backher with the whole hand, or fist, making the milk - that is, not allow it to flow . This sides of the forefinger and thumb press is a curious property which cows possess, upon the teat more strongly than the and how it is effected is not very well

other fingers, when the milk flows by the

understood ; butthere is nodoubtof the pressure. Both hands are employed, and fact occurring when a cow becomes irri- are made to press alternately ,but so tated or frightened by any cause . All cows are not affected to the same

quickly in succession that the alternate streams of milk sound on the ear like

degree; but, as a proof of their extreme one forcibly continued stream ; and al sensitiveness in this respect, it may be though stripping also causes a continued

mentioned that very few can be milked flow , thenievling, not requiring the hands so freely by a stranger the first time to change their position, as stripping as by one to whom they have been does, draws away the larger quantity of accustomed .

milk in the same time.

Stripping is thus performed by press near side of the cow is taken for milk- ing and passing certain fingers along the The Milking Side. — Usually, the

ing, and it is called the milking side ; teat ; nievling by the doubled fist press but whichever side is adopted, that ing the teat steadily at one place. should always be used with the same Of the two modes we prefer the COW. The near or left side of the cow nievling, because it is more like the may have been adopted for two reasons ; sucking of a calf. When a calf takes

because we are accustomed to approach a teatinto its mouth, it seizes it with

all the larger domesticated animals by the tongue against the palate, causing the near side—the animal's left side them to play upon the teat by alternate

as being the most convenient for our pressures or pulsations, while retaining selves ; and because most people are it in the same position. Nievling does

right-handed, and thereby the right hand this; but the action of stripping is quite being the stronger, it is most conveni- different.

MILKING COWS.

27

It is said that stripping is good for Cows are often troublesome on being agitating the udder, and agitation is conducive to the withdrawal of a large quantity of milk ; but there is nothing to prevent the milker agitating the udder while holding the teats in nievling -indeed, a more constant agitation is really kept up by the vibrations of the

milked ; and the kicks and knocks which

they receive for their restlessness only render them the more fretful. If they cannot be overcome by kindness, thumps

will never make them better. But the fact is, restless habits were engendered in them by the treatment they received

arms, than by pulling the teat constantly when first taken into the byre, when, down as in stripping.

most probably, they were dragooned into Stripping, by using a strong pressure submission. Udders and teats are very upon two sides of the teat, is more likely tender immediately after calving, and

to press it unequally than by grasping especially after the first calving; and the whole teat in the palm of the hand; when unfeeling horny hands tug the while the friction occasioned by passing teats in stripping, as if they had been the finger and thumb firmly over the accustomed to the operation for years , skin of the teat, is also more likely to no wonder that the young and inexperi excite heat and irritation in it than a

enced cow should wince under the inflic

grasp of the hand: This friction causes tion, and attempt by kicking to get quit an unpleasant feeling even to the milker, of her tormentor. Can the creature who is obliged to lubricate the teat be otherwise than uneasy ! and how frequently with milk , and to wet it at can she escape the pain but by strik

first with water, whereas nievling requires no such expedients; and as it gives pain to the cow, it cannot be employed when the teats are chapped, or

ing out a heel ? The hobbles are then placed on the hind -legs, to keep the heels down. The tail is next employed by her as an instrument of annoyance, which is

affected with cow -pox, while nievling can then held by some one while the milking be used with impunity. is going on , or is tied to the creature's

Milking should be done fast, to draw leg by the hair of the tuft. Add to

away the milk as quickly as possible; these the many threats and scolds uttered and it should be continued as long as by the milker, and a faint idea of how there is a drop of milk to bring away. a young heifer is broken in into milking This is an issue which the dairymaid may be conceived. Some cows are nat

cannot too particularly attend to herself, urally unaccommodating and provoking ; and see it in her assistants. Old milk but, nevertheless, nothing butgentleness left in the receptacle of the teat soon towards them will ever render them less changes into a curdy state ; and the SO . Some cows are only troublesome to

caseous matter, not being at once broken milk for a few times after calving, and and removed by the next milking, is apt soon become quiet ; others kick perti to irritate the lining membraneof the naciously at the first milking. In the

teat during the operation,especiallywhen lastcase, the surest plan is for the milker, the teat isforcibly rubbed down between while standing on his or her feet, to place the finger and thumb in stripping. The the head against the flank of the cow, consequence of this irritation being re- stretch the hands forward, get hold of

peated is a thickening of a part of the the teats the best way possible, and let lining membrane, which at length be- the milk fall to the ground. In this posi comes so hardened as to constitute a tion it is out of the power of the cow

stricture which at length closes up the orifice of the teat. The stricture may easily be felt from the outside of the teat, and the teat is then said to be corded .

to hurt the milker. Such ebullitions of feeling, at the first milking after calving, arise either from feeling pain in a tender state of the teat — most probably from

After this the teat becomes inflammation in the lining membrane of

“ deaf” or “ blind,” and no more milk the receptacle ; or simply from titillation

can afterwards be drawn from the quarter of the skin of the udder and teat, which of the udder with which the corded teat becomes the more sensitive as the heat communicates.

increases ; or the udder, being still hard,

Cows troublesome at Milking.– gives pain when first touched.

Should

28

CATTLE IN SPRING .

the udder be difficult to soften, the ad- as the cow does not possess the power of

vice of Youatt may be tried, by allowing retaining her milk in any one quarter of the udder while it flows freely from the

the calf to suck at least three times a-

day until the udder becomes soft. This will doubtless cure the udder, but

others.”

These tubes, containing a small and

may cause another species of restlessness larger end, beyond which they cannot in thecow when the calf is taken from pass into the teat, may be made of ivory , her. Still, rather let the milker suffer bone , or metal . They should be thrown inconvenience than the udder of the cow into the pail and milked on before being be injured . Be the cause of irritation used , and when taken out of the teat, let what it may, one thing is certain, that fall into the can. On being used they

gentle and persevering discipline will overcome the most turbulent temper in a Milking affords different degrees of pleasure to different cows. One yields its milk with a copious flow , with the gentlest handling ; another requires great

should be dipped in boiling water and blown through. They do not seem to possess any advantage over the hand ; on the contrary, the hand must be em

ployed to complete what they cannot accomplish, in drawing off the last drop exertion to draw the milk in streams no of milk , and must be in use when they larger than threads. The udder of the are employed. gentle one has a soft skin, and short Milking -tubes . - Milking -tubes have been invented by teats like velvet ; that of the hardened Cooper & Co. , Shef one, a thick skin, and the teats long and field . They consist of tough like tanned leather. 4india -rubber smooth Artificial Means of Milking . – A

plan of drawing milk from the cow

tubes about the thick

was recommended by Mr Blurton, Field Hall, Staffordshire, by introducing tubes

ness of a goose-quill,

into two teats, and milking the other

in fig. 244.

teats at the same time.

6 inches in length, as

opinion that a tube in each teat would draw away all the available milk from the udder; but, finding his mistake in

To one

end of them is at tached an electro

He was once of Fig . 244 : -

Milking -tubes.

plated tube, 2 inches

in length, closed at

this, he adopted the following method of the upper end, and perforated there with 3 opposite holes in each side, and at the other end is inserted a short open simi lar metal tube of about 34 inch in length ; the 4 tubes being held to gether with an indiarubber band. In using these tubes they are thrown into knees : he then takes hold of the near- the milking-pail, and a small quantity of hand teat with a slight pressure of his milk is milked upon them by the hand

milking. The tubes are called siphons, though they have none of the properties of the true siphons. His improved plan of milking is this : “ The milker sits down as in the common method, fixing the siphon can (pail) firmly between his

right hand, and with his left introduces from each teat. Each tube is then in the small tube of the siphon an inch or serted into the hole of the teat with the

more into the teat, putting the thumb right hand, while drawing down the teat on the large tube, to prevent the milk with the left hand, until the milk flows from running out till completely intro- freely through it. The pail is placed on duced — and so on with the near fore-teat, the ground under the combined orifices reserving the two furthest teats to be of the tubes, and remains there until the hod three milk ceases to flow , when the tubes are milked by hand. By this

teats can be milked with the right hand, removed. About 1862 an apparatus for milking assisted by the siphons, in the time one can be milked with the left, and this

cows was presented to public notice,

with ease and comfort. It may be here in which the air-pump was used to ex observed that the action of milking one tract the air out of tubes which were

or two teats by hand, is quite sufficient connected by finger-pieces to the teats

to induce the cow to give her milk down of the cows, and the pressure of freely from those milked by the siphons ; the atmosphere on the udder expelled

MILKING COWS.

the milk out of it. It was not easy to fit the finger-pieces air -tight upon the teats ; a restive cow could easily throw the whole apparatus out of gear ; and

29

and get rid of a portion of the hardened scabbiness about them , the continuance of which is the greatest pain in the act of milking ; and, afterthe milking, the

the apparatus did not milk clean. This teats should be dressed with the follow invention made a sort of sensation at ing ointment: Take i oz. of yellow wax the time, which soon subsided .

and 3 oz. of lard, and melt them to

In 1864 Barland's “ pocket self-milk- gether, and when they begin to get cool, ing apparatus was brought out. It rub well in 14 oz. of sugar-of-lead and 1 simply consists of the insertion of a drachm of alum finely powdered.” 2

tube, with a flange upon it, into each teat, and the milk flows through it from the udder. Mr Blurton very properly advocates clean milking, and describes a good plan of drawing away all the milk from an

Milking Period . — Cows differ much in

the time they continue to milk , some not continuing to yield it more than 9 months, others for years. The usual time for cows that bear calves to give milk is 10 months. Many remarkable instances

No implement can draw away of cows giving milk for a long time are the milk clean from the udder ; the hand on record. “The immense length of time alone can do that. “ In aftering,” he for which some cows will continue to give udder.

says, “ I have adopted the plan of using milk ,” says a veterinary writer, “if fa the left hand to press down the thick milk vourably treated, is truly astonishing ; so into the receptacle and teat, at the same much so as to appear absolutely incred time milking with the right hand ; then,

ible. My own observation on this subject

in a similar manner, discharging the extends to four most remarkable cases : whole from the remaining quarters of the

1. A cow purchased by Mr Ball, who re

udder.” He adds what is very true, that “ it must not be supposed that this method is distressing to the animal ; on the contrary, her quietness during the

sided near Hampstead, that continued to give milk for 7 years subsequently to having her first and only calf. 2. A large dun Suffolk cow, shownto me as a curios

process is a satisfactory indication that it ity by a Yorkshire farmer. This animal, occasions no pain, but rather an agreeable when I saw her, had been giving milk sensation .' for the preceding 5 years, duringwhich Sore Udder .— The udder, in cases of period she had not any calf. The 5 years' heifers, becomes not only uneasy before milking was the result of her second calv calving, but is subject to inflammation ing. During that period attempts had afterwards.

“ The new or increased func- been made to breed from her, but ineffec

tion which is now set up,” says Youatt, "and the sudden distension of the bag with milk, produce tenderness and irritability of the udder, and particularly of the teats. This in some cases shows itself in

tually. 3. A small aged cow, belonging to a fermier near Paris, that gave milk for 3 years subsequent to her last calf. 4. A cow in the possession of Mr Nichols, postmaster, Lower Merrion Street, Dub

the form of excoriations or sores, or small lin.

cracks or chaps on the teats ; and very troublesome they are . The discharge, likewise, from these cracks, mingles with the milk. The cow suffers much pain in

This animal was in Mr Nichols's

possession 4 years, during the entire of which time she continued to give an un interrupted supply of milk, which did not diminish in quantity more than 3 pints

the act of milking, and is often unman- per diem, and that only in the winter He disposed of her for ageable. Many a cow has been ruined, months. .

both as a quiet and a plentiful milker, butchers' meat, she being in excellent by bad management when her teats have condition. The morning of the day on been sore.

. She will also form a which she was killed, she gave

her usual

habit of retaining her milk, which very quantity of milk.” speedily and very materially reduces its

Spaying Cows . The same writer

quantity. The teats should be fomented proves fully the possibility of securing with warm water in order to clean them, permanency of milk in the cow . This is 1 Blurton's Pract. Ess. Milk ., 10-12.

2 Youatt's Cattle, 552.

CATTLE IN SPRING .

30

effected by simply spaying the cow at a teat may lose the power of retaining the proper time after calving. The operation milk in it. To prevent the running out consists in cutting into the flank of the cow, and, by the introduction of the hand, destroying the ovaries of the womb. The cow must have acquired her full stature, so that it may be performed at any age after 4 years. She should be at the flush

of the milk from the cow's udder, this expedient may be adopted with a chance of success : Place an india -rubber band round the teats of the cow, and, in case the band should insert itself too deeply into the teat to be easily removed at

of her milk, as the future quantity yielded

milking, wrap the teat round with a piece

depends on that which is affordedby her of linen or thin soft leather under the at the time of the operation. The opera band, so that the under part of the linen

tion may be performed in ten days after may be easily taken hold of in removing calving,butthe most proper time appears the band. to be 3 or 4 weeks after. The cow should be in high health, otherwise the operation

may kill her or dry up the milk . The only preparation required for safety in the operation is, that the cow should fast

CALF -REARING .

Importance of Calf-rearing. – Calf

12 or 14 hours, and the milk be taken away rearing, the root and the rise of the

immediately before the operation. The cattle-breeding industry, has not received wound heals in a fortnight or three weeks.

from the general body of farmers such

For two or three daysafter the operation full and careful attention as it deserves, the milk may diminish in quantity ; but or as it is capable of repaying. It is it regains its measure in about a week, undeniable that the live -stock resources and continues at that mark for the re- of the United Kingdom might advan

mainder of the animal's life, or as long tageously be developedto a much greater as the age of the animal permits the extent. The growing importance of live secretion of the fluid ; unless, from some stock interests in British agriculture is

accidental circumstance — such as attack manifest to all. In this expansion calf of a severe disease — it is stopped. But rearing must play a leading part. Breed even then the animal may easily be fat- ing is of course the starting-point, and tened. the rearing of the calf is thefirst great Advantages of Spaying . — The ad step in the progress of the industry. vantages of spaying are : “ 1. Rendering Aversion of Farmers to Calf-rear permanent the secretion of milk, and hav- ing. - With many farmers calf -rearing ing a much greater quantity within the finds little favour ; often, we venture to

given time of every year. 2.Thequality say, for no better reason than that it is of the milk being improved. 3. The uncertainty of, and the dangers incidental to, breeding, being to a great extent avoided. 4. The increased disposition to fatten , even when giving milk, or when ,

a troublesome business, demanding con

stant and careful attention. With skil ful and careful management, calf-rearing, where circumstances are at all favour able, is almost invariably remunerative.

from excess of age, or from accidental This much, however, it must have, and it

circumstances, the secretion of milk is rarely succeeds where not well conducted. checked ; also the very short time re- The young animals must be fed with

quired for the attainment of marketable skilland regularity, and their health and condition. 5. The meat of spayed cattle comfort carefully attended to in every being of a quality superior to that of ordi- way. When this responsible work is nary cattle .” 1

With these advantages breeders of stock can have nothing to do; but since the operation is said to be quite safe in its results, it may attract the

left entirely to hired servants, it may be imperfectly or irregularly performed, with the result that the calves make unsatis factory progress, or perhaps become im

notice of cowfeeders in town .

paired in health. The farmer thus loses

Preventing Udders from Running. faith in the benefits of calf-rearing. He - From some cause, the tissues of the has, perhaps, at last learned that the 1 Ferguson's Distem . among Cat., 29-36.

cause of the mischief is improper treat ment ; but personal supervision, or super

he

CALF -REARING .

vision by some member of his family or employees in whom confidence could be placed, may be found irksome or inconvenient, and thus again the industry of calf -rearing loses in favour. Calf -rearing on Large Farms.-

extent.

31

We are far short of that limit

yet ; and we would fain hope that until it is reached the best efforts of our leaders of agriculture may be directed to the encouragement of home-breeding rather than to the devising or providing of

This demand which calf-rearing makes means of increasing the embarrassments upon the careful personal supervisionof of home-breeders by importing foreign the farmer or some member of his family, bred lean stock. Rear more Calves.-- In any scheme is undeniably the main reason why upon

many large farms well suited for breed- for increasing the supply of home-bred ing, so few calves are brought up. We store cattle, calf-rearing must play an laya little of the blame for thisat the important part. We must not only door of modern social fashion. Upon a breed more calves, but we must also rear large farm the farmer himself has many more. We should rear all we breed, or other duties which draw him away from nearly so, and rear them well, too ; for let

superintending the feeding and treatment it ever be kept in view that what an ani of calves ; and it is not the fashion for mal loses with bad treatment as a calf, it sons and daughters of large farmers to

can hardly ever fully recover. But we

give their attention to such matters. do not mean by rearing well , any sort of This conception of social life upon the extravagant treatment. In fact, we be farm may easily be carried too far. It lieve there is room for much greater is not suggested that the sons and economy in the rearing of calves. In

daughters of men of capital should be connection with calf - rearing on dairy expected to put their hands to the farms, or wherever milk can be turned manual work of calf-rearing.

There is to good account , this point is of special

a difference between this, however, and importance. Breed longer from Cows . the superintending of work done by hired

We

should breed longer from cows. A cus tom by no means uncommon is to buy a gentlemen if they should make them- cow for a temporary supply of milk, and selves acquainted with certain details of fatten her off when she gets dry. Now their father's business, and assist him in this is a serious loss. Breed from all seeing that these details are carried out suitable cows as long as practicable.

The daughters and sons of servants. farmers will be none the less ladies and

Breeding from Heifers . - From all . regulari Cattle. witDeficiency h due care and -The heifers that are suitable, whether in of Store ty growth in the breeding of cattle has not tended for cows or not, take one, two, or

Řept pace with the increase in the con- perhaps even a third calf. Keep them sumption of beef. The supply of home- well all the while , letting the calves bred store cattle has not been equal to suckle ; and if the heifer is not to be Farmers kept for a cow , she may be fattened off the demands of the feeders. have been complaining of unsatisfactory and sold as heifer-beef. The calf or two financial results from fattening cattle, will have done her little or no harm in and the main difficulty has been the fact the butcher's eye, if only she does not that, on account of deficient supply, store show the udder of a cow. This will not cattle have been dearer than fat animals

often arise when the calves suckle.

This

-that feeders have had to pay more for question we lately put to an extensive the lean cattle than the price of beef salesman in the north of England, who would warrant. replied that his experience was that Home - breeding , not Importation , two calves or so in no way spoiled the the Remedy. The proper remedy for sale of the young heifer, if only there this state of matters is the extension of

were no display of udder, and if she were

home-breeding - assuredly not the im- plump, level, and well ' fattened. Let that be resorted to only when our own resources in cattle-breeding have been developed to the fullest advantageous

portation of foreign lean cattle.

He

added that a lot of young heifers never came before him for sale but he regretted

that so much valuable material was being wasted . Premature fatting of heifers

32

CATTLE IN SPRING .

is really killing the goose that lays the old. If the calves are of a good class

golden egg. In these times farmers they will sell readily at handsome prices. cannot afford such waste as that. Are Calves Nuisances --Unfortu-

While it may suit some to breed calves

and sell them young, it will undoubtedly

nately not a few dairy farmers look upon pay others to adapt their arrangements

calves as little else than nuisances — as specially for rearing. Instead ofkeeping necessary evils --- something which they large stocks of cows, they may buy in would never wish to have if only they young calves, and rearthem partly on milk could without them get cows in milk.

and other suitable food . In certain cases

This is a great misfortune, and shows these bought-in stock may be carried on clearly that while the cry is for more

and fattened when from two to three

store stock, there must be something years old. In others they may be simply radically wrong somewhere. The fact is, reared , and sold as lean stock when from calf - rearing is very imperfectly under- ten to eighteen months old. stood .

We are convinced that dairy farmers, as well as other farmers in all parts

Details of Calf-rearing.

There is, of course, much variety in

suited for breeding, would find, in well- the systems of calf-rearing pursued conducted calf - rearing, returns which throughout the country. And in this as would amply repay careful treatment in most other farming matters, it would

and judicious and liberal feeding. The be unwise to lay down hard - and -fast dairy farmer may dislike the calf because rules as the best for all circumstances.

he has found it à greedy and bad -paying Various approved methods will be de customer for its' mother's milk. But if scribed, and with these in view the in he has done so, he has had himself to telligent farmer will arrange his practice

blame. A good calf will well repay a to suit his own peculiar conditions and moderate allowance of its mother's milk objects. for a short time ; and we would emphasise Housing Calves.

The comfortable

this point, that it is only for a very short and economical housing of calves is time at the outset that there is any neces-

a matter that demands careful attention.

sity to give milk — at any rate, new milk

Calves are either suckled by their mo thers, or brought up by the hand on

—to calves.

Milk Substitutes. - Scientific research milk and other substances. When they

and commercial enterprise have placed are suckled, if the byre be roomy enough us in possession of many advantages un- —that is, 18 feet in width - stalls may

known to our forefathers. In the simple matter of calf-rearing we have gained much in this way. Why, the market is teeming with cheap milk substitutes ;

be erected for them against the wall behind the cows, in which they are tied up ; or, what is a less restrictive plan, they may be put together in large loose

and, without going the length of affirm- boxes at the ends of the byre, or in ad

ing that these foods are worthy of all joining apartment, and let out at stated their energetic vendors say of them , yet times to be suckled. When brought up by the hand, they we unhesitatingly say that, with substantial advantage to themselves and the are put into a suitable apartment, pref

general public, farmers might draw upon erably each in a crib to itself, where the them much more largely than they have milk is given to them. The advantage of

Undoubtedly the use having calves separate is, that it pre and we think that, by a judicious use of ance of milk, sucking one another, by done heretofore.

of these prepared foods is on the increase ; vents them , after having had their allow

them and other simple natural foods, calf-rearing might be increased to a very great extent, both on dairy and mixed husbandry farms. Rearing or Selling Calves. — We do

the ears, teats, scrotum , or navel, by which malpractice ugly blemishes are at times produced. When a number of calves are kept together, they should all be muzzled to prevent this sucking.

not say that all farmers should rear their

Calf - crib.— The crib for each calf

calves. It may suit some better to sell should be 4 feet square and 4 feet in

the calves when one, two, or three weeks height, sparred with slips of tile-lath,

CALF -REARING .

33

to prevent the door being thrown off the afford access to the calf. The floor of hinges by any accident. Cross-tailed iron hinges, of the light the cribs, and the passages between

and have a small wooden wicket to

them, should be paved with stone, or ness suited to such doors, would soon be laid with asphalt or concrete. Abund- broken.

ance of light should be admitted , either by windows in the walls, or skylights in the roof ; and fresh air is essential to the health of calves, so that ventilation should

a

1

be carefully attended to . So also should the cleaning of the calf -cribs. The cribs should be regularly cleaned out; and it

is a good plan to sprinkle the floors daily with some disinfectant, such as diluted

and

carbolic acid — one part of acid to twenty of water. This will keep the atmosphere

pure and wholesome, which is very de sirable for the young animals. If the calf compartment be separate from the cow -house, it should communicate with the latter by a close door, having upper and lower divisions, into a court with a shed , which the calves

may occupy till turned out to grass.

Fig. 245.-- Calf's -crib wicket. a Wicket to give access to the crib. b b Its hinges of wood. © Thumb -catch for fastening wicket. d Billet to prevent wicket being thrown off.

More frequently the spars forming the

The crib should be fitted up with a crib are placed upright, and are of greater

manger to contain cut turnips or carrots, strength than indicated in the illustration. and a high rack for hay, the top of Care in letting out Calves.- When

which should be as much elevated above the calves are fit to be put out in the the litter as to preclude the possibility open air, after it becomes mild, they of the calf getting its feet over it. should be put into a shed for some nights The general fault in the construc- before being turned out to grass, and

tion of calves' houses is the want of also for some nights when at grass. light and air — both great essentials ; The shed should be fitted up with light being cheerful toanimals in con- mangers for turnips, and racks for hay, finement, and air essential to the good and a trough of water. Navel - string. - The state of the health of calves. When desired , both may be excluded .

The walls of the

navel-string is the first thing that should

calves' house should be plastered, to be be examined in a new-dropped calf, that neat and clean, and should be white- no blood be dropping from it, and that washed at least once every year.

it is not in too raw a state.

The bleed

In some cases the cribs are so con- ing can be stayed by a ligature on the structed

that the calf has access, either string, but not close to the belly.

In

at will or when the door of the crib is attention to the navel-string may over

opened, to a larger enclosure in which look the cause of the navel-ill; and, in theyoung animal can exercise its limbs. significant as this complaint is usually The front and wicket of a calf's crib regarded, it carries off more calves than which we have seen in use, is shown in

fig. 245, in which a wicket-door gives access to the crib. The hinge is of wood, simple and economical. It consists of the rails of the wicket being elongated and rounded off, and theirlower face end shaped into a round pin, which fills and rotates in a round hole in a billet of wood securely screwed to the upright

most breeders are aware off. Youatt remarks : “ Possibly the spot

at which the division of the cord took place may be more than usually sore. A pledget of tow , wetted with friar's balsam, should be placed over it, con fined with a bandage, and changed every morning and night; but the caustic ap plications that are so frequently resorted

door-post of the crib. Another billet is to should be avoided. Sometimes, when screwed on immediately above the hinge, there has been previous bleeding, and VOL . II.

с

CATTLE IN SPRING.

34

especially if the caustic has been used

Some are afraid to give a calf as much

to arrest the hemorrhage, and at other times when all other things seemed to have been going on well, inflammation suddenly appears about the navel between the third and eighth or tenth day. There is a little swelling of the part, but

biestings at first as it can take, because it is said to produce the navel-ill. Let it take as much as it pleases. As to the navel-ill, it proceeds from neglect of the proper inspection and precaution after the calf is born .

with more redness and tenderness than

Teaching Calves to Drink .

The

such a degree of enlargement could in- process of feeding a new -dropped calf dicate. Although there may be nothing by hand is here minutely described, in the first appearance of this to excite because absurd modes are practised in

alarm , the navel- ill is a far more serious doing it.

It is common to plunge the

business than some imagine. Fomentation in the part, in order to disperse the tumour, the opening of it with a lancet if it evidently points, and the adminis-

calf's mouth into the entire quantity of biestings, and because the liquid bubbles around its mouth with the breath from the nose, and it will not drink, its head

tration of 2 or 3 oz. doses of castor-oil,

is the more forcibly kept down into the

made into an emulsion by means of an

vessel.

How can it drink with its nose

egg, will constitute the first treatment ; immersed amongst the liquid ? and why but if, when the inflammation abates, extreme weakness should come on , as is

should a calf be expected at first to drink with its head down, when its natural

too often the case, gentian and laudanum, instinct would lead it to suck with its with perhaps a small quantity of port head up ? wine, should be administered. It should be borne in mind that feed

Inflammation of the navel is often ing calves by the hand is an unnatural caused by one calf sucking another.

process ; nevertheless it is convenient,

Calf'sFirst Food. --Thefirst food the practicable, and easy, provided it is done calf receives is the biestings—the first in a careful manner.

The young calf

milk taken from the cow after calving: must be taught to drink, and a good Being of the consistence of the yolk of mode of teaching it is the one here the egg, it seems an appropriate food given. In this way it is fed as often for a young calf. By the time it gets as the cow is milked, three times a -day. Another Method of Teaching to its first feed, the calf may have risen to its feet.

If not, let it remain lying, and Drink.—After the first two or three

let the dairymaid take a little biestings days, another plan should be adopted , in a small dish-a vessel formed like a

for the calf should not be accustomed to

miniature milk- pail, fig. 242, and of suck the fingers, and it may refuse to similar materials, is a convenient one drink without their assistance.

The

--and let her put her left arm round plan is to put a finger or two of the the neck of the calf, support its lower right hand into its mouth, and holding jaw with the palm of the hand, keeping the pail of milk with the left under its

its mouth a little elevated , and then head, bring the mouth gradually down open the mouth by introducing the thumb of the same hand into the side of it. Then let her fill the hollow of her right hand with biestings, and pour it into the calf's mouth, introducing a

into the pail, with the nostrils free, where the fingers induce it to take a few gluts of the milk ; and while it is doing this, the fingers should be with drawn, while the mouth is gently held

finger or two with it for the calf to down in the milk, when it will drink a

suck , when it will swallow the liquid. little of itself. In a few days more the

Let it get handful after handful, as fingers will not be required, the head When only being put down to the milk, and in it refuses to take more, its mouth should a few more still, the calf will drink of

much as it is inclined to take.

be cleaned of the biesting that may have its own accord . run over.

Sometimes, when a calf is

Reform in Calf - feeding. - In the

begun to be fed lying, it attempts to get method of feeding calves during the upon its feet ; and, if able, let it do so, first few months of their existence, there and rather assist than prevent it.

has been almost as great a revolution as

CALF -REARING .

35

in any other branch of farm practice. sometimes averse to a strange calf, but The old notion that at least three months with a little care at the outset she will

of feeding upon whole milk as it comes gradually lose this, and will fondly wel. from the cow was necessary for success-

come its attentions when her udder is

ful calf -rearing, has been exploded. In in want of relief. many cases, almost entirely in herds of

Suckling two or more Calves.-- An

pure -bred cattle, the calves still suckle average milker will yield more milk than But beyond these herds

one calf requires. A second calf may

comparatively little new milk is now employed in rearing calves, reliance being more largely placed upon skim -milk and milk substitutes. Excellent results are obtained by the new method, and the

therefore be admitted, and a good, well fed cow will easily raise two strong calves. In many cases, indeed, one cow

their dams.

fresh milk and cream thus saved from

rears two sets of calves, sometimes four

in a -year, but more frequently three. After the first two calves have been

the calves are advantageously used for weaned, a good cow should have enough other purposes, sold to milk retailers, or milk remaining to rear at least a third calf, and if she had calved early in the

made into butter and cheese .

The season, be naturally a heavy and endur biestings or first milk after calving ing milker, she may, with liberal feeding, Composition of Biestings.

differsconsiderably in composition from be quite able to rear a second couple of ordinary milk. It contains an excep- youngsters. A cow that is capable of

tionally large proportion of casein or doing this will give a good account of her cheesy matter, as the following analysis year's feeding. of ordinary milk and biestings will Ordinary Biestings. Milk . 15. I 4.48 3.13 2.6 4.77 0.60

Casein ( cheese) Butter

Milk -sugar Saline matter . Mucus Water

Suckling and Milking combined. When these additional calves cannot be

show :

2.0

:

87.02

80.3

100.00

100.00

advantageously obtained, or when fresh milk is desired for some other purpose

than calf -rearing, the cow may be left with the one calf and her surplus milk drawn from her once, twice, or thrice a -day, according to her supply and the requirements of the calf. This method has other advantages apart from the supply of milk it provides for household

The prevailing methods of feeding or other purposes.

It accustoms the

calves may be briefly described as fol- cow to milking as well as to sucking, and by the operation of milking, syste lows :

Suckling. This is " nature'smethod .” matically and efficiently performed , the It is the surest and simplest means of attaining the highest development in the calf. When maximum growth in frame, flesh, and fat is the main object, and “ cost of production ” of little moment,

capacity of her milk -vessels is developed, and her flow of milk stimulated ; while the risk of the calf gorging itself with too much milk at any one time is ob viated. Of course this supplementary

suckling is the most reliable system . It process of milkingthe nurse-cow may be is therefore pursued largely in herds of carried too far. The calf must not be

pure-bred cattle, especially by breeders robbed of its due amount of food. One who enter the showyard lists. The usual objection to partial suckling is, that a plan is to allow the calf to run with its cow suckling a calf does not allow milk

dam , and to suck the cow at pleasure, or ing afterwards with the hand in a kindly allow it access to her at regular intervals.

manner.

Unless, therefore, cows

are

The formeris preferable,and will make kept for the purpose of suckling through the best calf. If the dam has not suffi- out the season, they often become trouble cient milk to raise the calf, or if her milk some to milk with the hand after the

is desired for other purposes, the calf calves are weaned. Decrease in Suckling. – Suckling is may be put to a nurse-cow , which the youngster will suck as readily as it would not pursued nearly so extensively asfor A nurse -cow is merly. Increased facilities for utilising suck its own mother.

CATTLE IN SPRING .

36

surplus milk and cream , and the better

est or most economical, as well as the

understanding of calf-rearing by other most perfect, food for calves. The in means, have tended to curtail the practice of suckling calves. Even in purebred herds it has lost ground. It is a comparatively costly system , and is

creased and still increasing demand for milk and its products for household pur poses has withdrawn vast quantities of milk formerly employed in calf-rearing.

therefore not to be commended in ordi-

This dive

on

still going on, and it is

nary farm practice. Suckling saves the to the farmer's advantage that it should trouble of milking the cows and giving be stimulated, for it practically adds an the milk to the calves; but a saving of other string to his bow . If he can

trouble may be a loss of money in the rearing of calves. An objection to suckling exists when one cow brings up two calves at a time, that the quantity of

advantageously sell or utilise his milk otherwise, he should use as little as pos sible of it in rearing calves. For these youngsters he has the choice of an ample

milk received by each calf is unknown,

assortment of other foods, the economical

and the faster sucker will take the larger worth and efficiency of which have been share. True, they are both brought up ; well established . In the selection, mix but are they brought up as well as when ing, preparation, and feeding of these

the quantity of milk consumed isknown foods lies the art of modern calf-rearing: to be sufficient for the support of each ? It is an important item in the routine of The milk becomes scarcer, too, as the the stock -owner's duties, and demands calves get older, instead of becoming studious and careful attention . more plentiful, as should be the case to Prevalent Methods. Perhaps the satisfy the growing wants of the young most widely prevalent method of rearing animal.

calves is to feed them entirely on new

Suckling with Heifers.- Reference has already been made to the plan of taking at least one crop of calves from heifers that are not intended to be added

milk for a short period at the outset that period varying from two to six weeks, -- and afterwards partly on new milk, skim -milk, and artificial food ; or

to the regular stock of cows.

This is a upon skim -milk and artificial food, with

species of " catch crop " which may often be taken with advantage. It is the usual practice to allow these calves to suck their youthful mothers. This does not as milking would — develop the udder so as to spoil the sale of the young cow in the fat - stock market, and by liberal feeding she may be fattened while she is rearing her calf . Hand-rearing.– Although this is an artificial, it is nevertheless the most gen-

out any of the rich milk as it comes from It is, nodoubt, a good plan to let the calf have all the new milk it can readily consume for at least two or three weeks at the outset. By degrees skim milk may be substituted for new milk, and when the new milk is wholly, or almost wholly, withdrawn, the skim -milk

the cow .

must be supplemented by some other richer food . Skim -milk for Calveg . — Skim -milk

eral, as well as the most economical, sys- alone is not a well - balanced food for tem of rearing calves. It enables the calves. The butter -fat has been almost farmer to use for his calves as much or wholly removed from it, and what re

as little as is thought desirable of his supply of milk, and it permits him also to avail himself of those cheaper milk substitutes which are now within his reach. He has thus, in the hand -rearing

mains is not sufficiently provided with all the elements necessary for the healthy development of the young animal. Skim milk, left by an efficient system of cream ing, will, on an average, contain the

methods, much freer choice and greater following per 100 lb. : scope for economical and skilful man agement than in the simple system of

Casein

suckling.

Albumen

.7

Fat

.5 "

It may be admitted that no perfect substitute for milk has as yet been dis covered or devised.

Sugar Ash

3.5 lb. 11

4.0 8

It by no means

follows, however, that milk is the cheap

9.5 lb.

CALF -REARING .

The skim -milk thus retains almost all calves every day.

37

The supply of this

the casein and sugar in the new milk ; milk often lasts the whole week.

If the

but so effective are some of the modern Sunday's milk falls short, the calves get processes of separating the cream from two quarts of new milk , with one quart the milk, that only the merest traces of of water added.

butter-fat may remain in the skim -milk . Artificial Food for Calves.- The About one-sixth of the casein and albu- other substances most largely used either men consists of nitrogen, and as far as it

in supplement of or as substitutes for

goes, skim -milk is undoubtedly a valuable milk in rearing calves, are linseed, lin food, and may be used with great advan- seed - cake, oatmeal, Indian -corn meal,

tage in conjunction with other feeding palm -nut meal, malt, pea-meal, barley material.

meal, or some specially prepared food. Skim -milk should not be fed largely The characteristics and composition of by itself to calves, for calves so fed are these articles are described in the chap liable to scour, indigestion, and other ter on 66 Foods," which should be referred

bowel - complaints.

It is a dangerous to and consulted carefully in arranging

practice to abruptly substitute skim -milk the dietary of animals. for new milk as the main food of calves.

Preparing Foods for Calves . - All

The withdrawal of the new milk should these articles of food are given to calves take place gradually, and other substances in the form of gruel, and they can hardly

should be introduced in corresponding be too well steeped or boiled. It is de ratio to make up for the deficiencies of sirable to have the linseed and linseed cake ground into meal before boiling.

the skim -milk .

Professor Stewart on Skim -milk. Gruelfromlinseed -cake is often prepared - “ Skim -milk is much more valuable as by adding four parts of boiling water to a food than is generally supposed. It one part of the meal derived by grinding contains all the qualities of the milk ex- the cake, and allowing the mass to remain cept the cream .

The casein , the most covered up for twelve hours.

Palm -nut

valuable food - constituent of the milk, meal maybe prepared ina similar man ner.

and the milk -sugar, or whey, are still in In making linseed - gruel, water it. If you feed only skim -milk to a should be added so as to give almost a healthy calf, it will require on an aver- gallon and a half of gruel for every pound

age from 15 to 20 lb. of milk to make of linseed. If the gruel is found to purge

1 lb. of live - weight during the first the calf, add a little more water, and for ninety days, if the calf is given all it a day or two give rather less of the gruel

wants; and a good eater will gain 22 and more of the skim -milk .

A little

Ib . per day.” Professor Stewart has a wheat-flour, mixed with gruel, is also a

high opinionof boiled linseed as food useful and simple remedy in cases of for calves. He points out particularly purging. Mixtures of these meals are that, given along with skim -milk , the often made into gruel for calves, and the oil of the linseed “will make good the selection of the particular articles to be loss of the cream in the milk .” 1

used will be regulated mainly by their

Scalding Skim -milk . - It is well to market prices atthe time. have the skim -milk scalded as soon as the

Quantities of Milk for Calves . - In

cream has been taken from it, because it the majority of cases where calves are

will thus longer remain sweet. A simple raised by hand -feeding, they get about way of scalding is to insert a vessel full two quarts of new milk twice or three of the skim -milk into a larger vessel con- times a -day - four to five or six quarts

taining hot water. Some even boil the in all - during the first two, three, four, skim -milk, and are thus able to keep it or six weeks of their existence. At these sweet a whole week . various periods, according to custom or Weknow of one large farmer who sells to the supply of new milk and the other milk on the six week -days,keeps at demands for it at the time, a beginning his home his Sunday's milk, has it boiled on is made with the substitution of skim Monday, and gives a portion of it to his milk for new milk. A very small pro portion of the latter is given at first, by degrees it is increased , and soon the new Peeding Animals, 235-237. 1

TLE

CAT

38

ING

IN SPR

.

milk is wholly withdrawn. Some indeed seed supplied with 1 lb. each per day of lin -cake all through the year.

give new milk only for about two weeks,

and others continue it for six weeks or

A Common Plan with whole Milk .

two months, perhaps even longer. The --Mr Wilson, late of Edington Mains, new milk and skim -milk are given to- Berwickshire,describes the following sys gether. Some feed calves three times tem of feeding , which is common where a -day in the first few weeks, and others whole milk and no skim -milk is used : only twice. Whole milk, warm from the cow , is given Allowances of other Foods. — Sup- three times a-day for the first fortnight,

plementary foods should be begun soon, as soon perhaps as the curtailing of the new milk has commenced. Theartificial food, made into gruel, is given along with the milk, and at the outset the gruel should be given in very small quantities.

and the calf is allowed to have as much

of it as it will take. It may then be tempted to suck (and at length to eat) small bits of oilcake and sweet hay, and the mid -day meal of milk may be grad ually reduced and ultimately discontin

Sudden changes of food may inflict serious ued ; and when the calf at length takes injury upon the health of the tender slices of turnips and mangels freely, the young animal. Some begin to give gruel milk may be brought down to five or six

to calves before they are a month old, quarts per day, water being added to others delay till the animal is in its sixth make up the necessary quantity. At or seventh week.

The daily allowance seven or eight weeks the milk may be

of gruel will of course vary with the age gradually reduced, and soon altogether of the calf, and the quantity of milk it is discontinued. A Gloucestershire Practice. Mr receiving. No fixed “ bill of fare" can

be prescribed with safety. The appetite Ruck, Cirencester, has reared his calves of the young animals must be watched successfully upon the following food, closely, and special care taken to keep the bowels in good order.

with whole milk for the first few days,

Feed calves and then a little skim -milk : 7 lb. of

liberally, but never overdo them. Let finely ground linseed -cake dissolved in them have just as much as they can 2 gallons of hot water, to which is added

readily consume at the time ; keeping 2 gallons of hay -tea, made by pouring on the scrimp rather than the abundant hot water on good hay in a tub;and to this again is added 7 lb. of mixed meal,

side.

Perhaps the best guide to the young of wheat, barley, oats, and beans, in farmer will be a description of methods equal parts, steeped in 2 gallons of hot which have been pursued with success by water. Of this mixture the calves get 2 quarts in the morning, further diluted

various breeders.

Mr W. T. Carrington's System.— The late Mr T. Carrington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire, who kept a dairy herd of over 100 cows, reared about 40 of his

with two quarts of warm water ; and 2 quarts at night, also diluted with 2 quarts of warm water. Upon this gruel the calves thrive well, and are weaned when

earliest heifer calves as follows : “ They about 12 weeks old. are not allowed to suck their dams ; they Mr Bowick's Plan have from four to eight quarts of new paper on “ Calf-rearing,”

In his useful

Mr Thomas

milk per diem , according to age, for three Bowick gives this account of his mode or four weeks. They are then fed with of rearing calves : “ We manage to turn

skim -milk , thickened with boiled linseed out from 25 to 30 calves annually or oatmeal, and are taught as soon as such as will pass muster anywhere

and possible to eat hay and a small quantity never use at any time more than 6 gal of linseed -cake. They are allowed to run lons of new milk daily. For this pur on a grass field in May and June, and are

pose, as well as to obtain a regular

generally left out altogether, supply of milk for other purposes, the after then with shed to run into in very wet wea- calves are allowed to come at different a

ther, or to avoid the heat of the sun and periods extending from October to May. the teasing of the flies. The milk -feed ing is altogether discontinued when they

are aboutfour months old.

They are

1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng ., sec. ser. , xiv. 401 .

CALF - REARING .

39

We begin with new milk from Spare Dietary for Calves . — The late the pail, which is continued for a fort- Mr J. Chalmers Morton described the

night after leaving the cow. Then skim- system of feeding in a case in which “ 5 milk , boiled and allowed to cool to the cows reared 50 calves, their milk having

natural warmth, is substituted to the been also to some extent skimmed for extent of one -third the allowance.

In

butter for the household .

The cows

were brought to the pail one after an to half, and at the same time, not before, other from February until May ; and boiled linseed is added to the mess : 5 the calves, brought as they could be got,

another week the new milk is reduced

Ib. of linseed will make about 7 gallons received each a share of the partly

of gruel, and suffice for 5 good -sized skimmed milk , more and better milk calves. As soon as they take freely to being given to the very youngest, until

this food, the new milk may be replaced they began to nibble shred swedes and with that from the dairy, and the calf is hay.

encouraged to indulge in a few sliced carrots, green hay, or linseed - meal, or finely crushed oilcake. Amongst the multitudes of substitutes for milk that have at different times been recommended, we have found nothing better than those previously referred to ; or linseed, 2 parts, and wheat i part, ground to meal, and boiled to gruel ofmoderate thickness, and then mixed with an equal quantity of skimmed milk.

The sole addition to this food was

oatmeal gruel; half a pint of finely ground best oatmeal for each calf being put

morning and evening into about 2 quarts of scalding water, which was cool enough and cooked enough, by staying there all day or night, for use at the evening or morning meal respectively, after having thus stood 12 hours. This, with care always to give food which is perfectly sweet and not too cold, with attention

It is true wehave omit- also to the warmth and dryness of the

ted any allusion to ' Irish moss,' which calves seem to relish well, though it does not prove of a fattening nature. For the lot of calves named (25 to 30), 2 cwt. of this article is found a desirable addition, " 1 and lasts throughout the season .

accommodation that is given to the calf, has reared them in health, without a single loss, during the season .” 3 Liberal Treatment desirable.- Re

marking upon the scrimp character of this dietary, Mr Morton adds : “ It is

more and more coming to be generally writes thus : “ It is very difficult to lay acknowledged, that for the production of General Rules.- Major M'Clintoch

down an exact rule for feeding calves, as the best and most profitable animals,

far as quantity is concerned ; nor can a whether for the dairy or the feeding-stall, time be fixed for weaning, the appear- the more liberal management of the calf ance of forwardness in the animals being is in the end the better way. To stint the best rule to go by. However, a the young beast is to diminish its quality

a general mode, supposing a calf tobe as a good doer from the very beginning. Whether for beef or for milk, it is well pure mother milk ' should be given for that good calf-flesh should be established

dropped in March, I would suggest that

à fortnight, then by degrees an admixture of oilcake gruel ( 1 quart of cake, ground fine, to 4 quarts of boiling water) introduced, and a sufficient drinkallowed at each meal, so as to remove all hollow-

at the outset , and that by no stinginess or severity of after-treatment should it

be lost.” 4 Mr E. Bowly's

System .

In his

prize essay “ On the Management of

ness from the flank . In a few weeks 6 Breeding Cattle," the late Mr Edward gallons will be taken by the calf, and Bowly, a noted English breeder of short when the weather is favourable it should

horns, thus describes his system of rear

be allowed to run in some well-sheltered ing calves : “ My early calves — those

place where the pasture is sweet. In 3 which drop from December till the end of months calves have an appetite for grass, February - I allow to suck the cows for and it is then that the process of wean- a fortnight, then take them off, and give them as much as they will drink of skim ing should begin ." 2 milk and thick gruel made from boiled 1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng ., xxii, 140, 152. xi 40 2 Ibid .

3 Ibid ., sec. ser .,

v.

3.

+ Ibid .

40

CATTLE IN SPRING .

linseed, in equal proportions, twice a -day. As soon as they are inclined to eat, I

A Perthshire Example. — On a well

conducted farm in Perthshire the follow

supply them with oilcake, carrots, and ing system is pursued : “ For the first

hay. When three months old I reduce the milk and linseed to once a -day, and in three weeks afterwards discontinue it altogether, continuing the food till they

fortnight we give nothing save new milk ; the third week the quantity of new milk is lessened, and skim-milk supplies the deficiency, a little linseed and oatmeal

Then I give porridge being added to it. The oatmeal them 2 lb. of oilcake daily, which I con- is well boiled, the linseed (cake ground

are turned out to grass.

water tinue, in addition to other food, for down very fine) steeped in boiling As to

twelve months — that is, till they go to an hour or two previous to use.

grass the following year.” Late Calves.- Mr Bowly states that those calves which drop late in March and during the summer months he allows

the quantity that should be given, ex perience will prove the best guide; a supply sufficient for one animal is fre quently too much or too little for its

to run with cows, after purchasing nurses neighbour. The great secret of success ' for the purpose. He considered it de- in calf-rearing lies in being careful not to sirable to remove the calves from their overload the stomach ; the appetite should

own dams, as those cows which are being never be quite satiated. When eight or sucked by calves will not always take the nine weeks old, a little clover-hay and

bull so soon as those milked by the hand. finely cut swedish turnips are given ,along Devonshire Custom.- A custom with a small allowance of dry linseed long prevalent, although not universal,in cake. Some difficulty is occasionally ex Devon, was to allow the calf to suck its perienced in getting them to take to the

dam for the first eight or ten days, then latter substance; but by putting a small take it away and give it five pints of bit into the youngster's mouth just after new milk per day for the first week, after it has finished its gruel or porridge, at

which the new milk is gradually with

which time it will suck greedily at any

drawn, and skim-milk added, until, at thing within its reach, it soon acquires the end of three or four weeks, the skim- a taste for it. The allowance of porridge milk is entirely substituted for the new should be continued until the animals milk, and then a little other food is by are five or six months old, after which

degrees introduced, such as turnips, cut it may be gradually discontinued . We into finger-pieces, as for sheep, and oat- have tried various of the calf meals, or meal or other gruel. In this way the milk substitutes, in the market, but

youngsters are carried on till the grazing found none fit to beat the oatmeal and season begins. linseed, either as regards moderation of

Daily Allowance. — The quantities of first cost or the satisfactory after - re food given to calves at each meal vary sults. ” 2 according to the size, breed, and condi-

A Useful Dietary . - Mr G. H. C.

tion of the animals. For a healthy calf Wright gives the following as a useful of any of the larger breeds the following table of rations for a calf : quantities are generally allowed : in the first week, 3 pints (new milk) at once, Ist week — 4 quarts of new milk at three meals . quarts of new milk and 2 quarts three times a day, making 472 quarts per 2d week—4 boiled ekim - milk at three meals . the in till, increased day ; gradually 3d week—2 quarts of new milk and 4 quarts fourth week, the quantity is 5 pints at once, and three meals, making up 772 quarts per day. At one month old,

boiled skim -milk at two meals, and 2 Ib. boiled linseed.

4th week - 6 quarts boiled skim -milk and 23 lb. boiled linseed at two meals .

when the calves eat hay, finely sliced 5th week - 6 quarts boiled skim -milk and 1 lb. roots and cake, two meals a -day may boiled linseed at two meals . suffice ; the quantity at two months old i lb. of crushed linseed ( flax -seeds, not cake) being 4 quarts at a meal, or 2 gallons willmakerather more than I gallon of gruel.3 daily. ? American Example.

Professor E.

Farming World , 1889, 23.

3 Ibid., 1889.

1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng. , sec. ser. , xiv. 495 .

2

CALF -REARING .

W. Stewart says : “ We have often had

41

sary. Fat-forming matter must be added

calves seventy days old fed with 72 lb. to make up for that removed in the flax -seed and 1/2 lb. of oatmeal each cream ; and nitrogenous matter, phos

with 20 lb. of skim -milk per day, that phate of lime, magnesia, sulphur, soda, have gained in weight 30 to 37 lb. in ten

&c., taken away in the casein , must like

days—an average of over 3/4 lb. each wise be replaced. These elements, added per day.

The flax -seed and oatmeal are in due proportion to the easily digested

boiled , and then mixed with the milk. milk -sugar in the whey, make a very

The average weight of these calves when wholesome food for calves. These sup weight at seventy days was 230 lb. ;—they by linseed and linseed -cake- say 1/2 lb. had consequently gained 2.42 lb. per day. of each well boiled and added to 2 gal They were fed on new milk for one week. lons dropped was about 60 lb. ; their average plements to whey would be well supplied of whey for a young calf.

Some

then half-and -half skim -milk for another might prefer oatmeal, barley -meal, or week, then upon skim-milk and 4 oz. of boiled flax -seed each per day; at thirty-

wheat-bran .

Care in use of Whey . - In utilising

four days old, flax -seed increased to 12 whey as food for stock, certain precau Ib., and 1/2 lb. oatmeal added ; the latter tions are necessary. It should be used was increased to 1 lb. in a few weeks, while fresh and sweet, as, if allowed to " 1 and afterwards another 1/2 lb. added .” Whey for Calves. - Whey - what remains of milk after the cream and casein or cheese are taken away - is much more

become sour, it may seriously derange the system of the animal. Then whey should not be fed alone, on account of its being so unevenly balanced — too much

useful as food than is generally supposed. water and too little dry matter. To en Often this refuse of the dairy is thrown able the animal to obtain the necessary away as of little value ; but some con- amount of dry matter, it would have thus sideration will show that in this there is to swallow too much water. Therefore, great waste .

Whey consists of about 93 give the whey in conjunction with other

per cent of water and 7 per cent of solids drier and more concentrated food. -nearly the same proportions as in comHay - tea for Calves.—There is con mon turnips. The solid matter consists siderable feeding value in hay-tea. In of about 70 per cent of the sugar of milk ,

fact, well -made hay -tea is almost a per

14 per cent albuminous compounds - con- fect food as far as it goes. Professor E. taining about 3.75 per cent of nitrogen, T. Stewart says: “The soluble nutritive 11 per cent of ash, and nearly 5 per cent constituents of the hay are extracted by of butter or pure fat. It is probable boiling, and this extract contains all the

that at least one - half of the mineral food elements required to grow the ani matter or ash is made up of common salt, mal, besides being as digestible as milk. derived from the salt used in the cheese. If the hay is cut early, when it has most

making. The albuminous matter makes soluble matter, and is of good quality, up very nearly 1 per cent of the whole of the tea will grow good calves ; but this

the whey, and this, with 1/3 per cent of extract frequently has too small a pro butter-fat and 5 per cent of milk -sugar, portion of albuminous and fatty matter. proves whey to be an article of food Yet if the hay -tea boiled downforsothe as not to contain too ismuch water worthy of careful utilisation. Supplementing Whey .-- But while dry substance, calves will usually thrive " 2 the food constituents in whey are con upon it.”

siderable, and may be turned to good

Experiment with

Hay -tea.

Pro

purpose in feeding calves, these must be fessor Stewart describes an experiment largely supplemented by other richer which he made with hay-tea and other commodities in order to sufficiently nour- foods in calf-rearing: To each of five ish the young animal. For the success- calves, thirty days old, he gave daily 2

ful and economical selection and propor- gallons of hay -tea, in which 14 lb. of tioning of these supplementary foods linseed and / lb. wheat middlings had great care and no little skill are neces- been boiled . The experiment was con ? Peeding Animals, 237 .

. Ibid. , 246 .

CATTLE IN SPRING.

42

tinued for sixty days, with a gradual Where the suckling method is followed , increase during the last thirty days of the calf is allowed to remain with the the middlings to i lb.

The calves did

cow or have regular access to her till it

remarkably well, gaining an average of is weaned at six or seven months old . a little over 2 lb. per head per day in A Gloucestershire Shorthorn Herd . weight. He also states that a similar -In Lord Fitzhardinge's herd of short experiment was tried by a dairyman who horns at Berkley Castle, Gloucestershire,

sold his milk for city consumption , yet the custom is to let the cows suckle their desired to raise a number of calves. Here calves, the calves running with their the results were even more satisfactory- dams and sucking at will for three weeks.

the average daily gain in weight for sixty The cows being milked between five and days being 24 ib.1

six in the morning, and at four o'clock

Making Hay-tea. - There is a knack in the afternoon, to take from them what in making all kinds of tea . There is a ever the calves may have left. At the good deal in the manner in which this end of three weeks the calves are taken

wholesome beverage for the calf is pre- away and brought up by hand, the finger

pared. Some make it by merely pouring being given them for a day or two, if boiling water over long hay in a tub. A necessary, to teach them to drink out of better plan is to cut the hay, as with a the bucket. They are fed twice a day,

getting about a gallon of new milk each time, the quantity being slightly lessened if there is a tendency to scour. Care is taken never to gorge a calf with too much milk ; the appetite and constitution of an hour, and then the short hay was each youngster being carefully observed. raised upon a wire-cloth sieve over the Sometimes a calf three weeks old can kettle and drained, whilst the flax -seed not beneficially take more than two

chaff-cutter, and boil it in the ordinary way for at least half an hour. Professor Stewart states that in his experiment mentioned above, he boiled hay cut 58 of an inch long, 3 lb. for each calf, half

and middlings were put into the kettle quarts of new milk at each end of the day. Milk is continued till the calf is and boiled to a jelly.

It is important for tea -making that the six or seven months old ; but when it hay should be cut young, when in full has been five or six weeks in this wicked bloom, so that it may be nutritious and world, it is allowed access to a little crushed oats, Indian meal, and barley easily digested. Wheremilk is scarce, the use of hay-tea meal, given very sparingly at the outset, in calf-rearing is to be commended. and not too finely ground, as calves do not so readily chew the cud when fed Calf-rearing in Pure-bred Herds. on finely ground meal.2

The methods of rearing calves in purebred herds does not vary quite so much as in ordinarystocks. In pure-bred herds the successful rearing of the calf is the first and main object. The utilisation of the cow's milk , apart from the upbringing

A Norfolk System .

In Mr Hugh

Aylmer's large herd of shorthorns at West Dereham Abbey, Norfolk, Mr Housman tells us, “ the calf at birth is allowed to remain with the dam , at least in the same box ; but there is in the

of the calf, is as a rule a matter of second- corner a little pen for the calf, in which ary importance. The pure -bred calf, it is kept, having the mother's com

therefore, usually gets all the milk that panionship, though not unrestricted ac is good for it. In the majority of cases, cess to her, for the first fortnight. From perhaps, it draws this directly from its that time the calf has a pen in some

dam, but the system of hand-feeding other house, sometimes in a box to itself pedigree calves is also extensively pur- but oftener in a compartment in a house sued. In most cases the calf sucks its with other calves, and is taken to the dam at the outset, and where hand -rear- mother twice a -day, morning and even ing is pursued it is taken away from the ing. If the mother is a deep milker, cow in ten days or two weeks—in some the herdsman takes from her as much

cases as early as its second or third day. 2 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., sec. ser ., xvi. 1

Feeding Animals, 246.

409.

CALF -REARING .

43

milk as he finds she can spare, leaving cow cannot retain her milk. When the plenty for the calf, which then comes in calf can manage all the milk , it is al and clears the udder, so that the calf lowed to go loose about at will, one

gets the richer strippings,' but does not stall being left for the use of cow and satiate itself by taking too much after a day's (or a night's) fasting. . . . There is no inflexible rule, but usually the calf, if a heifer, is suckled about six months ; if a bull, sometimes rather longer. As

calf.

When the cows go out to the

grass, the milk generally increases, and sometimes it is again necessary to resort to hand-milking to take away the sur plus. After the calf is weaned, the cow soon as the calf can be enticed to eat a is regularly milked three times a -day. little dry food, it has in its manger a Indeed, at all times, care is taken to mixture of crushed oats, oilcake, and relieve the cow of all her milk . The

ground maize (these ingredients varied in calves are trained to eat oilcake and proportion, and one or more omitted so sliced turnips as soon as possible, and are

as to tempt the appetite), andsometimes weaned at from seven to eight months a little cut cabbage or tares with the dry old .” 3 food ; but it does not do much more than Systems in Irish Herds. — There is flirt with the manger until it reaches the no part of the country where calf-rearing

age of six or seven weeks, when it be- is better understood than in Ireland. gins to eat in earnest, and by the time it The prevailing system in Irish pure-bred should be weaned , it is pretty well past herds is to let the cow suckle the calf.

the necessity of having milk, so that In Mr T. W. Talbot -Crosbie's herd of there is no checking of growth or loss of shorthorns at Ardfert Abbey, County

flesh after weaning. The quantity of Kerry, all the calves are suckled, and run milk, too, canbe regulated bythe quantity with cows while these are on pasture. taken from the cow before the calf is

The bull calves are taken in as soon as

turned in with her ; and the calf is thus, they begin to be troublesome, and put by easy transition, relieved of dependence into boxes in pairs, the same two being upon its mother.' A

Northumberland

Shorthorn

kept together until they are sold. The cows are brought in twice a -day to suckle

Herd . — In almost every instance, the the calves till weaning-time. The heifer cows in the Duke of Northumberland's calves are usually left with their mothers shorthorn herd at Alnwick Park are

till the cows are housed in the autumn,

allowed to suckle their calves. This plan, but no calf is ever allowed to be with the Mr Housman says, is found to be a safe cow after she is six months in calf. Food one for both cow and calf, and since it is given to the bull calves as soon as they was fullyadopted, the loss of a calf at are put into the boxes, but the heifers Alnwick Park has been very rare, and no get no extra feeding until they are shorthorn cow has died of milk -fever for weaned. The first food, other than milk,

The calves remain with given to calves, generally consists of their dams for six or seven months, when pulped turnips, sweet-hay, and a mixture they are weaned, in order to rest the of linseed -cake, decorticated cotton -cake, many years.

oats, and bran, in the following propor The tions, divided into four equal parts : most general plan in Scotch herds of Two of linseed -cake, one of cotton -cake, shorthorns is to allow the cows to suckle and one of crushed oats and bran . There

cow before she has another calf.2 Scotch

Shorthorn

their offspring.

Herds.

Describing the practice is no fixed rule as to quantity, except

in Aberdeenshire with the Sittyton short- that the bulls are fed pretty liberally horn herd specially in view, Mr Housman according to size, and the heifer calves says : “When the cow calves, the calf is sparingly.* tied up beside her ; and for some time, until it is well able to take all her milk,

In Mr Richard Welsted's old - estab

lished herd of shorthorns at Ballywalter,

the cow is regularly milked, the calf County Cork, the rule is to let the cow sucking at the same time, so that the suckle the calf for one day only,and to bring up the calves by hand -feeding, 1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng ., sec. ser. , xvi. 2' Ibid. , 395 .

415 .

3 lbid. , 388.

4 Ibid ., 422.

44

CATTLE IN SPRING.

Some give raw fresh eggs to veal calves, which are generally allowed to

mainly with new milk, until they are meal.

well able to consume and live upon cut

roots, hay, or grass, and roughly ground suck the cowat will, or at least three oats. To bring forward late calves, the times a -day. The usual period of fatten

suckling system is sometimes resorted to. ing for veal is from six to ten weeks, and Hereford Herds. - In herds of Here with the view of improving the colour of ford cattle the almost universal practice the flesh the calves are frequently bled. is to let the calves suck their dams. The In fattening veal calves, most careful at youngsters generally run with the cows tention must be given to cleanliness, ven

on the pastures in the grazing season, tilation, and regularity of feeding. and in the house they are either kept in Rearing Bull Calves.— As a rule, a compartment with the cow, or in an bull calves intended for sale for breeding

enclosure by themselves, and brought to purposes are fed more liberally than the cow two or three times a day, most heifer calves.

generally twice. If any cow gives more milk than is thought desirable for the calf, the cattle-man milks her at regular intervals. In Mr John Hill's herd at Felhampton Court, the calves, before the be-

They are reared more

largely upon new milk to begin with, the most general custom being to let them suck their dams for six, seven, or eight months. Then when other food is provided for them, it is usually of a

ginning of the grazing season, "are fed richer and more forcing kind than is us soon as they can eat (they begin when allowed to heifer calves. Gruel made a fortnight old to pick up a little), with from linseed or linseed -cake, oatmeal or hay, pulped swedes, or a few cut into barley -meal, is extensively used, and so

finger- lengths, with a little cake and is linseed -cake by itself or mixed with crushed oats. The allowance of cake and meal is increased as they get older, to half a pound each per day, and before the summer is over up to 2 lb. per day," I the calves sucking their dams at the same

bruised grain. Malt is a favourite food with some experienced breeders in push ing on bull calves. Some breeders sweeten the food -mixture for young bull calves with a little dissolved or diluted

treacle.

time.

This should be used sparingly,

Polled Herds.--In the herds of polled however, if used at all— as food which, Aberdeen -Angus cattle, suckling is the like treacle, is rich in sugar, is delete prevailing custom . The calves are train- rious to the procreating properties of ed, before being weaned , to eat other animals— that is if given in considerable food, such as linseed -cake, hay, cut roots, quantities. bruised grain ; and at the time of weanIt is specially important that bull ing they are fed and tended with the calves should have plenty of exercise and greatest care, so that there may be no fresh air. If long shut up and highly retrogression. In some herds the calves fed on forcing food, they are liable to go

are taken from the cows when about six wrong in the legs and feet. weeks old, and thereafter brought up on Danger of gorging Calves. - Great new and skim milk, and gruel made care should be exercised in the feeding chiefly from linseed -cake or oatmeal, or of calves in their tender days, especially during the first three weeks.

a mixture of these and other foods.?

At this

time they should be fed sparingly rather General Notes. than liberally. Many calves are lost by Feeding Calves for Veal. - Large sucking or drinking more milk when

numbers of calves are slaughtered for they are quite young than their weak veal, and these are of course forced with digestive system can readily dispose of. rich food from the very outset.

New Whether the calf is fed by the hand or

milk is the best of all foods for this pur- suckled by its dam , take care that it does pose , although it may be to some extent not over -feed itself. Never let it suck supplemented by rich gruel, made per- or drink till it is quite satisfied — at any haps from barley -meal or Indian - corn rate during its first three weeks. If the i Hist. IIereford Cattle, Macdonald & Sinclair, 274. · Polled Cattle.

Macdonald & Sinclair.

cow has too much milk for the calf, take

away a little by the hand. Referring to this point in his admi

CALF-REARING.

45

rable paper on “ The Management of a assumption that certain districts are Shorthorn Herd ,” Mr William Housman, more favourable than others to the one of our most reliable authorities on breeding propensity and reproductive live -stock matters, says : “ The theory is ness of cattle. In some herds it has

-and I believe it to be perfectly true

been found that cows rarely return to

that many of the frequent and discourag- the bull until after their calves are weaned. ing losses among young calves are caused In others the sucked cows come round as by the allowance of too much milk at a early and as regularly as those milked tender age. The calves should be kept by the hand. hungry — that is, never allowed to satisfy Licking and Rubbing beneficial. themselves

forthe first three weeks of Many skilled breeders systematically let

their lives. Scouring and indigestion, the newly dropped calf be licked by the with consequent formation of hair-balls COW . And there is more in this ap in the stomach, arise from too liberal or parently small matter than is generally irregular feeding.” 1 supposed. “ The bloomy appearance of

Irregular feeding - long fasts followed suckled calves is partly due to this by heavy meals of milk or other foodis quite as hurtful as, and of more frequent occurrence than, excessive feeding Many calves are killed by gorging with

motherly attention ; and the licking along the calf's spine, which the cow, withher rasp of a tongue, gives her calf immediately after birth , has evidently

milk after a long fast - perhaps after a an important meaning.

All careful

journey. When a purchased calf is taken managers, when the calves

are

not

to its new home it should be fed very reared by the cow, take care to imitate sparingly for at least two days. this process, rubbing well over the spine Does Suckling hinder Breeding ? with a wisp of straw. This not only

-By many experienced breeders it is dries the calf and prevents its taking contended that when the calf is allowed

cold, but evidently strengthens it ; and

to remain with and suck the cow , there the calf, if a healthy one, responds to

is a danger of the cow being longer in the rubbing by vigorous efforts, soon suc returning to the bull than if she were milked by the hand and the calf kept away from her. The subject has long been debated, and still opinion amongst leading breeders is sharply divided. The preponderance of opinion would seem to

cessful, to gain its feet.” 2 Weaning Calves. — Weaning is usu ally a critical event in calf -life. In dairy and ordinary stocks, where only a small portion of the milk is given to the calves, the youngsters are weaned when very be that the danger, if such exist at all, young. The process may be said to is not serious ; and this is confirmed by begin in some cases at the end of the

the fact that in pure-bred herds the second week, when some skim -milk or suckling system is the one which pre- gruel is substituted for so much of the vails the most extensively. Some con new milk . In pure - bred herds, and tend that it is the companionship of the wherever calves are reared largely on

calf, rather than the mere act of suck- milk , weaning is generally completed in ling, which retards the cow in breeding the sixth, seventh, or eighth month, after again ; hence some who practise the suck- which the calves are fed similarly to the ling, systematically keep the cows and other animals. the calves separate from each other Now in the weaning of calves there is except at feeding-times.

scope for the exercise of the utmost skill Mr Housman made a special point of and care. If success is to be attained,

investigating experience and observation both skill and care are essential. Pre upon this subject amongst breeders of pare the young animal for the weaning shorthorns throughout the kingdom , and

—the complete withdrawalof its mother's

he was quite unable to account for the milk - by feeding it partially for some divergence except by differences in local

time before with such food as will form

conditions of soil and climate, by the its main support after it has beenweaned . Let the milk be lessened , and the other 1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., sec . ser ., xi. 388.

? Ibid., 428.

P

SHEE

46

G IN SPRIN .

food gradually increased in quantity, so thriving as well as could be desired is that the transition may be effected almost a raw egg beaten up and added to the

imperceptibly . The more carefully and milk. Some beat up the egg shell and intelligently this is done, the more sat- all, others think it preferable to with isfactory will be the result in the calf. The amount of milk allowed to a suckled

hold the shell.

Setoning .-- A seton is a piece of string

calf may be regulated by drawing away or tape passed through a certain part of as much of the cow's milk by hand as the body, with the object of either draw

may be desired, and at last, just before ing an abscess, acting as a counter -irritant, final weaning, the calf may have access to or for the purpose of inoculation. As a prevention against black-leg, or quarter the cow only once a -day.

There is perhaps no better food for calves at weaning -time than good linseedcake — from 1 to 2 lb. per day, and a few sliced turnips or mangels, and fresh wellmade hay. If accustomed to this fare before being entirely deprived of their

ill, it is a useful custom to insert a seton in the calf's brisket in the spring. It is considered desirable to soakthe seton in some irritant such as the following em

brocation — viz., hartshorn, 1 ounce; tur pentine, 2 ounces ; spirit of camphor, 2

mother's milk, they will be found to pass ounces ; laudanum , j ounce ; olive-oil, through the ordeal of weaning without

any loss in condition or delay in pro-

6 ounces. Castrating. – The male calves can be

most easily castrated when a few weeks

gress. Diseases

Scouring of Calves. sometimes called white skit or white scour — is the most prevalent ailment among calves. It is generally caused by feeding, and may as a rule be improper cured by giving 2 ounces of castor-oil, or an egg beaten up shell and all, followed

old. They can then be cut standing, by twisting the tail around one hind leg. Stand behind the calf, cut through the bag, twist the stone several times, and

with scrape the cord closelya through blunt knife.

your finger - nails or

When the calves are several months

by tablespoonful doses of calf-cordial, old they must be cast. This may be prepared of the following : prepared done by tying the hind - legs together chalk , 2 ounces ; powdered catechu, i with a rope, placing a halter round the ounce ; ginger, 12 ounce ; opium , 2 neck, taking the shank end of the halter drachms ; peppermint - water, I pint. and running it through the rope that Oatmeal or linseed gruel should be the unites the hind -legs, tying it back, pass main food for a few days .

ing it through the portion that is around

Calves also suffer frequently from the neck, and drawing the legs tight, constipation. This will be relieved by then fastening the rope. The fore-legs giving 1 ounce of castor-oil beaten up in can be held by a man . The stones may the yolk of an egg, with a very little then be removed by the clams and hot

ginger, about 1 scruple, repeating the iron, as in the case of the horse - place dose if necessary .

the stone in the clams, and with a red

saw the cord slowly through Eggs for Calves. - An effective “ pick- hot iron to the clams.

me-up " for a calf that is not eating or

close

SHEEP IN SPRING.

The anxieties of the spring - the occasionally stretch into March, causing hopes and the fears

-

are as great to much anxiety, and it may be serious

the flock -owner as to the cattle-breeder. losses, to flock -owners,by deaths and by It very often happens that the heaviest outlay for extra feeding and manage part of the winter weather has to be ment. gone through in spring.

Severe snow

Sheep in Spring Storms. — As to

storms frequently occur in February, and the treatment of sheep in stormy weather

THE LAMBING SEASON .

47

in spring, the information given under the beauty of the dewy eve and rising the heading of“ Sheep in Winter" should moon, or listening as the amorous thrush be consulted. The particular kind of extra concludes his song ; or only to think of food to be given to the sheep in a spring the price of mutton and of wool, or of snowstorm will depend mainly upon lambs as fore and hind quarters. the supply on the farm and the sort of haunt o' Spring's the primrose brae, food cheapest and most easily obtained " The The Summer's joys the flocks to follow ;

at the time.

This one word of caution

we would repeat, Do not too long delay

How cheerie through the shortening day

Is Autumn in her weeds o' yallow ! '

hand-feeding if such should be necessary - do not postpone extra feeding till “ The sweetness of pastoral life is starvation has done its work of mischief. going. It is disappearing under the At such a crisis timely rather than liberal influence of commercial enterprise, the feeding is the essential point. spread of science, and the difficulties of

competition. We also ourselves are vic tims to utilitarianism , and must plead THE LAMBING SEASON.

guilty to sharing in the universal want of sentiment even when birds rejoice in

At this season of the year lambing is leafy bowers and bees hum round the the all-absorbing topic of interest with the sheep -farmer and the shepherd. No one who has not lived on a sheep-farm can conceive what the advent of the lambing-time brings to the chief actors in flock management . It arouses a depth of interest and a ceaseless anxiety not experienced at any other period of

breathing flowers; or when within yon milk -white hawthorn bush, among her nestlings sits the thrush. One is some times inclined to wonder if steam -power

and chemical manure, pedigree stock and iron fencing, weigh - bridges and milk

registers, will ever compensate us for the loss of the fresh and simple country life

the year. It is the time in which, above of our forefathers. It is useless to re all others, good or bad management tells pine, and perhaps the best thing we can -when every hour of carelessness may do is to cherish those pleasurable feel

rob the flock of the lives of valuable ings with which we may still view the flock spread o'er the down, or listen to

animals .

And the seriousness of the lambing the varied tones of the sheep-bell; and season is nearly allied to sentimentality ; to cultivate more of personal interest .

for while the faithful shepherd is toiling and affection for our domesticated crea day and night in the lambing -pens, he is tures. There is no doubt that the even then cheered by a foretaste of the humble dairyman, the carter, or the

unspeakable joys which come alike to shepherd, obtain more enjoyment from the owner and the tender of the flock watching and tending their charges than

from the sight of thriving "lambs at do their masters; and the pleasures of play.” It may be — we fear it is, al- farming might be greatly enhanced by though one is loath to believe it—that devoting more personal attention to our the hard utilitarianism of the present live stock, and studying their habits. age is depriving pastoral life of much of Love of animals may be cultivated, and the sentiment and poetry which gilded with it comes an interest in the wild creatures which surround us.” 1 it in the past. Poetry of Pastoral Life. We are

Assuredly the kindly interest here in

heart and soul in sympathy with Pro- culcated has a practical bearing upon fessor Wrightson when he says : “ There

the material wellbeing of the flock -owner,

is genuine poetry in pastoral life which who may do much to encourage his it is sad to lose entirely. Nevertheless, shepherd by sympathetic countenance agricultural science and literature are and intercourse by the side of the flocks. between them rapidly taking the ro- And a good shepherd is well worthy of

mance out of it. Perhaps we should all the encouragement that can be given add, hard times, and the vital import- to him. ance of making things pay. Still, it is i Live Stock Jour., Jan. 1889, 42 . a pity to lose the faculty of discerning

G SHEEP IN SPRIN .

48

A Good Shepherd. - A shepherd will prove mortal to sheep at lambing, whose unwearied attention and consum-

which even the most skilled veterinarian

mate skill become conspicuous at this cannot prevent. His acuteness will per critical period of the flock's existence, is ceive a sheep affected long before any

one else can detect it ; but it is not to His services, in fact, may be worth far be expected of any shepherd to treat more than the amount of wages he many of the diseases of sheep success receives. Such a man will save the fully when a veterinarian is not to be an invaluable servant to a stock - farmer.

amount of his wages every year, when found. compared with the losses sustained by Preparations for Lambing.– The the neglect of an unskilful shepherd, es- cautious shepherd will have several pre

pecially in a precarious season, when, by parations attended to before lambing be treating the ewes and lambs in the most gins. He will see that sufficient shelter proper manner under the circumstances, is provided - on arable land — either in the lives of many are preserved that permanent or temporary lambing pens, would otherwise have been lost.

will have conveniently at hand supplies

The Modern Shepherd . — As a class of extra food, such as turnips, cabbages,

of men the shepherds of the presentday hay, &c., also of straw for litter, and will are surpassed by none of their fellows on the farm for intelligence, efficiency, They are undoubtedor faithfulness. ly, as a rule, better informed , if not

see that his medicine-box isreplenished to meet emergencies. He will have a good lantern, such as shown in fig. 117, in readiness to guide him through the pens

more trustworthy, than the shepherds of at night, and likewise a piece of blanket many In many instances we in which to wrap a weak lamb. In have known, their success in treating cases the shepherd will have to spend the

former times.

their flocks at lambing-time has been night beside the lambing -pens, and he Yet the best of them need

remarkable.

must therefore have his own bed in

all their wits about them in the height order, either in his separate hut, or in of lambing, and in bad weather may a corner of the lambing-shed. There sustain numerous losses in spite of their should be a fire in the shepherd's com utmost efforts.

Skilful and Attentive Shepherds.

partment, and some coffee or tea will be useful.

All these essentials should be in

-Some shepherds are as attentive as readiness, and not have to be sought for could be wished, but lacking in skill.

when the active and critical work si of

They may have their ewes in too high lambing begins.

n

condition for lambing, and may be overClassifying Ewes for Lambingh. anxious and over -ready to assist in diffi- Ewes are drafted into the lambing efold cult cases of lambing — thus, through want or ground in lots as they are expected i to

of skill, causing the loss of both ewes lamb. The tups are usually left among and lambs.

Other shepherds, again, are the ewes for six weeks. After two weeks'

sufficiently skilful, but are wanting in attentiveness. Of these two sorts of shepherds — the attentive and the skilful —the skilful is the safer, as it will usually be easier for the master to enforce attentiveness than to inculcate

service the tups are marked with, say, red paint on the breast, and this, at the end of two weeks, is changed to blue paint. The marks of paint on the breast of the tup mark the served ewes on the rump, and thus their time of lambing is

skill — that is, if the skilful shepherd is ascertained. The in-lamb ewes unmarked not a positively careless fellow, in which are first taken in for lambing, then those case he should not be in this position with red marks, and lastly those with at all.

blue marks.

It is well to have the ewes

A Perfect Shepherd. It is only on the lambing -ground quite a week by the union of both qualities that a before their lambs are due, as early par

perfect shepherdis constituted - prevent- turition is frequent. ing evils by skilful attention, and curing them by attentive skill. Even with such

In many cases the order of marking service is the reverse of the above, the

a perfect shepherd losses will happen, unmarked ewes being the last to lamb. but they will be no fault of his : disease Lambing Folds or Pens . — Custom

THE LAMBING SEASON .

varies greatly in the providing of shelter for lambing. On many farms there are elaborate and costly lambing sheds and pens built of stone and lime. On others the lambing-pens are merely temporary erections, formed , perhaps, of hurdles and straw ; while in many cases no lamb-

49

have been fixed during the previous summer, and have determined the situa

tion of certain hay and corn ricks. As threshing proceeds, the corn - ricks yield straw - ricks, which are made long , and placed so as to secure the greatest amount of shelter from the wind. A

ing-pens ofany kind are provided . Costly gentle slope towards the south is the erections are not necessary, and therefore best site, and in close proximity to a undesirable , as all unnecessary outlays field of swedes or of late turnips. Lambing-pens of one kind or other,

The enclosure consists of a double row

however, should be provided upon all of hurdles, stuffed between with straw , farms carrying breeding- sheep, and for and kept firm by means of a few posts all kinds of sheep, whether the hardy and rails. About 2 feet from the out mountain breeds or the more tender side wall, and on the inside, are driven

southern varieties. Let the character of 6-feet posts carrying a head rail or plate, the shelter be suited to the farm , the and, resting on this plate and upon the locality, and the breed of sheep. Little outside hurdles, with a sufficient run or

roofed spacemay suffice, but there should slope, thatched hurdles are fixed ; thus bea dry bed and shelter from the pre- forming a continuous narrow shed, which The weather may be so is again divided by hurdles into coops or favourable as to make it unnecessary to cells. These coops are best open to the put any of the ewes and lambs under south and east, and backed to the north roof, yet the means of doing so should and west ; and in such a position ewes vailing winds.

exist.

The sudden occurrence of a storm

and lambs lie warm even in the severest

without proper shelter being at hand for weather.

Outside these cells, and in

ewes with very young or tender lambs, side the enclosure, the space is divided might result in serious losses. by hurdles into four or five good -sized The Old - fashioned Shed . — Professor yards, and a straw -rick ought to occupy

Wrightson, in the paper already quoted, a central position with reference to the says that shelter must be provided for entire space. The shepherd's portable the ewes at lambing -time. He mentions house is drawn up at a convenient dis two descriptions of enclosures for lamb- tance, and with such a fold we may look

ing -ewes. One is the old -fashioned per- forward to the throes of lambing with a manent shed, for which the rick -yard feeling of confidence and security . has often been employed. The advanFold for 300 Ewes. - In his paper on tages of this system are, that the flock is the treatment of Border Leicester ewes

near home, and that the rick -yard is a and lambs, Mr A. S. Alexander gives protected enclosure, which , when well the following description of a lambing littered down and fenced with thatched fold for about 300 half-bred ewes : “ A hurdles, forms a very suitable place for small field of half an acre is chosen be the purpose.

In some cases there are

hind the homestead .

At the north side

seen special walled enclosures, furnished there is a high stone wall, and on the east

with accommodation for the shepherd a thorn hedge, which effectually breaks and shedding for the ewes. The shed- the effect of the east winds.

Along the ding is most conveniently divided into north wall are erected a row of twenty coops by means of hurdles, and in such houses, ' parricks'or pens, the roofing of a shed ewes will lamb safely and com- which is made by fixing timber from the fortably. On large sheep - farms this top of the wall to the posts which form system is objectionable on account of the the doors and fronts of the pens.

One

distance between the flock and their door serves for two pens, there being in the interior a middle division which does

food .

The Modern Fold. — The more gen- not quite come to the same line as the eral plan now is to construct a pen near walls in front.

The door is closed by

to where the ewes and lambs are to turn means of a small hurdle or ' flake,' which

out after lambing. The position of the pen , says Professor Wrightson, should VOL . II.

1 Live Stock Jour ., 1889, 65. D

SHEEP IN SPRING.

50

moves between the partition and the anot should he not require the third lamb for her ewe.

inside of the walls.

There are fifty -four pens,

“The roof is thickly thatched with rye and the reason for such a large number is or wheat straw , tied in bundles, and on that, should severe weather - as a snow the outside or front, bunches of straw re- storm - come on during the season , the

sembling sheaves are set on end, so that ewes may be penned instead of lying out. their tops meet the thatch ; and when

28

“ By having a number of doors in the

fixed in this position by means of ' tarry' lambing -shed instead of a few, the lamber string or old sheep-netting, a most effec- is enabled to house the ewe at the point

tual covering is made, the straw materi- nearest the place where she lambed. ally adding to the warmth during the To make it all the easier for him, the cold nights so commonly prevalent in March .

pens are constructed round three sides of

This row of pens forms the the square court, so that at whatever

north side of a rectilineal figure. On the part of the court a ewe lambs he has east is the hedge ; and to form the other shelter at hand. A covered court en

two sides west and south, a fence of larch closed is also in connection with these posts, with three spruce rails, is erected lambing - pens, into which on stormy of the same height as a common fence. nights ewes and gimmers having single To make this enclosure as comfortable as

lambs are placed. There is also a store

possible , bunches of straw are fixed all house for food under the same roof.” 2 Lambing Shelter on Hill Farms. along the inside of the fence and hedge, and when fixed in position, form as it As a rule hill farms are deficient in lamb On these the lambing is

were a solid wall of straw, which is quite ing shelter.

impervious to the strongest wind.

delayed till so late a period in the season

56 The enclosure which is called the —from the middle of April till the end

court is provided with two gates — one of May — and the mountain breeds of for driving the ewes in at the evening, sheep are so hardy, that farmers are apt at the west end, and one at the east end, where ewes and lambs are turned into a

to trust too much to the clemency of the weather and the hardiness of the sheep.

seed ' field after a day or two. There is The more careful farmers have numerous also a little gate formed of two bundles small pens or

keb-houses

erected on

of straw, at which the shepherd enters at the lambing - ground, so that there may night.” 1 be plenty of protection for both ewes and Permanent Lambing -shed . — A sub- lambs from severe storms.

On many

stantial permanent lambing -shed erected farms, however, little attention is given on the farm of Crookhouse, Lanton, Nor- to this, and as the result the losses of

thumberland, is also described by Mr younglambs, and even of ewes, are often Alexander : “ All the pens are erected exceedingly heavy. This neglect is all under one roof of larch, timber, and slate, the more reprehensible from the fact that and enclosed in front and behind by sub- comfortable lambing pens or huts might stantial walls of stone.

The partitions be formed at nominal expense and very

between the pens themselves are con- little trouble. With some hurdles, or a structed of larch hurdles, fixed at each few boards, cuttings of turf, and perhaps end to larch uprights, which at the same a little straw , temporary shelter may be

time support the roof. Each set of pens provided by which the lives of many is divided by a passage communicating lambsmight be saved. And itis equally with the outside court, where the un- important that the shepherd should pro vide himself with some extra food , such lambed ewes lie at night. “ On entering a passage we have three as hay, roots, and corn , with which to

pens on each side, provided with gates nourish weakly ewes confined for a time hung on hinges, and fastening by means in these lambing-huts. Lambing Hospital. — A few pens in of an eye and draw -bolt. A few pens are made six feet square, so that should the a corner of the lambing - fold by them

shepherd have ewes with twins, he may selves should always be set apart for have ample accommodation for them , hospital purposes. In these, weakly ewes 1 Trans. High. and Agric. Soc ., 1882, 146.

? Ibid ., 1882, 148.

2

THE LAMBING SEASON .

51

and lambs may be made specially com- food , and the medicine-case or bottles fortable, the ewes receiving palatable, for the sheep, and of course a fireplace.

nourishing food, or such remedial treat- Fig. 246 represents a convenient portable ment as best suits their peculiar ailments. shepherd's

Many careful farmers have such hospitals house made formed at some convenient and well-shel- of corrugated

tered spot in a field quite independent of iron by the an ordinary lambing-fold. They may be Redcliffe formed of hurdles and straw at very little Crown Gal

trouble and expense, and would be of vanised Iron great benefit wherever a breeding flock Co., Bristol. is kept. Accessories to the Fold .

It is often

Shepherd's Medicine .

Fig. 246. - Shepherd's house on wheels.

difficult to keep the floor of the lambing- chest. — In many cases shepherds are fold dry .

It is a good plan to have the now provided with medicine -chests fur

floors of the roofed pens raised by a layer of gravel or burnt clay ; and the whole should be comfortably littered with straw . The stacks of straw and hay in the centre will add greatly to the comfort of the fold . A store of

nished with a considerable variety of medicines and stimulants, comprising laudanum , linseed -oil, castor-oil, spirits of nitre, Epsom salts, powdered ginger, powdered chalk , tincture of aconite, car bolic acid, Gallipoli oil, and whisky or

roots should be at hand, and so also brandy, & c., &c. Excessive physicking, should be a well-filled corn -bin , with a however, is not to be commended . number of small feeding -boxes which can Drugs should be used with caution be placed here and there for the ewes. only when necessary, and then as

Care should be exercised in placing the promptly as possible. In the lambing shepherd's hut, root-store, and hay and pen carbolic acid and Gallipoli oil are straw stacks, so as to provide the greatest most valuable agents, for they are re possible amount of shelter.

liable preventives of inflammation after

Supplementary Shelter.—In addi- lambing. tion to the regular lambing-fold it would Symptoms of Lambing . — These are, be well to provide additional shelter in enlargement and reddening of the parts

the form of small covered pens or huts at convenient well-sheltered parts of the farm , where weakly ewes and lambs might find comfort during a storm

under the tail, drooping of the flanks, patting the ground with the feet, and desire for separation from their com panions, stretching frequently, exhib

without having to be brought into the iting restlessness by not remaining in fold . These might be very cheap and one place for any length of time, lying temporary erections, constructed by the down and rising up again as if dissatis shepherd ; and they would be specially fied with every place , bleating as if in useful on hilly farms, or wherever the quest of a lamb, and appearing fond of ewes are not systematically brought into the lambs of other ewes. In a few hours, a fold for lambing. With several of or shorter time, the immediate symptom

these supplementary pens placed conveniently over the farm , odd ewes and lambs would be more easily provided with protection from sudden storms than if they had all to be driven to one cen-

of lambing is the expulsion of the bag of water from the vagina, when the pains of labour may be expected to come upon the ewe immediately. When the pains are felt, she lies down and presseswith

tral fold. The importance of even one earnestness, changing one place or posi night's shelter to a young lamb may be tion for another, as if desirous of relief. very great, often saving it from death, and setting it on its legs.

Assistance in Lambing. — Up to this time not a hand should be put

Shepherd's Hut. This should rest upon her, nor, as a rule, until the yellow

on wheels, and may be made of iron hoofs of the fore-feet of the lamb, and or wood. It should be large enough to its mouth lying upon them , are distinctly hold a bed for one man , a small table seen to present themselves in the passage. and chair, a cupboard for the shepherd's When time has been given, and the ewe

SHEEP IN SPRING.

52

is not able to expel the lamb by her own exertions, the shepherd renders assistance before her strength fails by unavailing straining. Before giving assistance to a ewe while lambing, the shepherd should smear his hands as well as the vagina of

and keep good what is obtained at each

strain , and not to tear the lamb from her prematurely by force. Whenever the lamb's head is clear, the shepherd

seizes the upper part of the neck behind the head with his left hand, the right the ewe with “ carbolic oil ”—that is, a hand still holding the legs, and pulls out mixture of i part of carbolic acid to 10 the body with ease . The lamb is then placed at the ewe's head, for her to lick parts of pure olive-oil.

The exact moment for rendering assist- and recognise, which she will instantly if her labour has not been severe. ance can be known only by experience. do,the labour has been very severe, she It is necessary to watch and wait, for a If hasty parturition often superinduces in- will likely become sick, and be careless flammation , if not of the womb, of the of the lamb as long as the sickness con external parts of the ewe.

If the labour tinues, which is evinced by quick, op

is unusually protracted, the ewe should pressed breathing. be examined , and if the lamb is found

If the pains have been sharp , and this

to be in its natural position — with its head resting onits two fore-legs - a little more time may begiven. Tedious labour often terminates in an easy birth. In nine cases out of every ten of natural presentation the ewe will lamb without

her first lamb, and she is not overcome by sickness, the ewe may probably start to her feet, and run away from the lamb. The attempt at escape must be prevented, and the end of the tail of the lamb put into her mouth, to make her notice it.

But the ewe should not be

The extraction of a lamb, as thus

assistance.

allowed to thoroughly exhaust herself related, is done by a shepherd who has before receiving assistance.

no assistant.

When he has, he adopts

When assistancemust be rendered, the another and more easy mode for the ewe ewe is taken hold of as she lies, and and himself. The assistant holds the laid gently over upon the ground on her ewe upon her side, in any way the most

far or right side, with her head up the easy for her and himself, to prevent its hill, where the ground has an inclination. To save her being dragged on the ground when the lamb is being extracted , the shepherd places the heel of his left foot pressing against the rump of the ewe, and kneels on his right knee on the ground, pressing against the lower part

body being dragged along the ground while the shepherd is extracting the lamb. In doing this, the shepherd places himself behind the ewe, and, on ascer taining the position of the lamb, pulls its legs towards him, whilst the assistant endeavours, by the pressure of the side

of her belly, having the body of the ewe of his hand below the tail, to make the

below his own body, between the heel vaginal membrane pass over the lamb's

and knee. Having his face towards the head, which when accomplished, the tail of the ewe, and both his hands free, he first proceeds to push out from him, with both hands, one leg of the lamb and then the other, as far as they will stretch ; then seizing both legs firmly

shepherd seizes the back of the neck by his right hand , and, holding the legs still in his left, takes away the lamb as quickly as he can , and places it before the ewe.

above the fetlock - joints between the

There is great difference in the dis

fingers of his right hand, he pushes the position of the ewes themselves to assist

legs from him rather downwards from in the lambing. Some, when they find the ewe's tail, with considerable force, they are assisted, give themselves little

whilst by pressing upon the space be- trouble ; others strain with vigour from tween the tail of the ewe and the head first to last ; and some only strain at

of the lamb towards him, with the lower long intervals. A ewe that strains edge of his left hand, he endeavours to strongly and continuously will become slip the vulva of the ewe over the cantle

sooner exhausted than one that takes

of the lamb. The action of both hands the matter more leisurely. In the case must be made simultaneously with the of the straining ewe there is greater strainings of the ewe, only to assist her, danger in neglecting to make examina

1

THE LAMBING SEASON .

53

tion of the presentation in time, before tions, is that given as follows by Pro fessor Wrightson, whose sound advice A Second Lamb. - If she continues should be considered carefully by flock to lie on her side, her abdomen should owners and their shepherds : the ewe has become exhausted .

be felt, to ascertain if there is another “ 1. One fore-leg only presented with lamb to come. If there is, the pains ac- the head lying upon it. In this case it is

companying the passage may have been difficult for a ewe to lamb without help. the cause of her carelessness for the first The operator will endeavour to get hold

lamb.

If the second lamb is in a natural of the missing limb, and, bringing it for

position, it will most probably, by this ward into its proper position, deliver the time, be showing itself in the passage. ewe. The best manner of doing this we If so it be, it should be taken away shall consider after passing in review the at once in the same manner as the first principal abnormalpresentations. and the ewe, feeling the attempt, will at " 2. Both fore-legs lying back, the once assist on her part by straining. head alone being presented. In this The existence of a second lamb is worth position the ewe must have assistance, attending to immediately on another ac- as birth without it is impossible. The count — some ewes become so engrossed head must be pushed back, the legs with the first lamb, that the pains at- brought forward, and the lamb ex tending the second are neglected for a tracted. " 3. The head slipped down between, or her, she must be watched, that whenever on one side of, the fore-legs. This must

time. When a second lamb is found in

it comes into the passage itmay be taken be set right by bringing the head into its away ; but unless it actually makes its natural position above the fore-legs, and appearance there , it should not be at- extracting the lamb. tempted to be taken away.

“ 4. A broadsidepresentation , in which

Should the second lamb not make its

case the broad side of the lamb is found

appearance in a reasonable time, it may be suspected that the lamb is either dead or not in a natural position, and examination should be made by the fingers into the state of the case. In cases of suspected twins, some make an

within the uterus, and of course no pro gress can be made until the hand and forearm of the operator are introduced and the fætus is turned and brought into position. “ 5. The fætus on its back, in which

examination to ascertain if they are case a similar manipulation must be em presenting themselves separately. If a ployed as in the last case.

complication is probable, the hand will have to be introduced to effect a separation of the twins by bringing one forward to the passage. A dead lamb is easily known by the feel, and should be extracted immediately ; but should the lamb be alive, and make no appearance, it may be necessary to introduce the hand toascertain its position. Before

" 6. A breech presentation. If the hocks are doubled, the breech of the lamb must be pushed forward, and the hind feet brought up. The lamb is then pulled away backwards without turning. 7. The fætus too large, or the pass age too small. This is a troublesome case, sometimes involving the loss of the lamb, and occasionally of the ewe. 66

the hand is introduced, it should be Shepherds sometimes are obliged to smeared with the mixture of carbolic carefully introduce a knife and cut off acid and oil. the shoulders, and remove the fætus

False Presentations. — Cases of diffi- piecemeal. More commonly by patience cult lambing generally arise from the and by exerting a good deal of strength presentation of the lamb in some false or the lamb is safely born. abnormal form . The natural position of " 8. Monstrosities are not

uncommon ,

the lamb in the passage is upon its belly, most seasons providing examples of with its head resting upon its two fore- lambs with five legs, headless lambs, legs. The false or abnormal presenta- fusion of two lambs into one, &c. These tions are of course variations from this cases are puzzling, and require special position. Themost recent, and one of the treatment, and when such malforma fullest definitions of abnormal presenta- tions are presented there need be no

SHEEP IN SPRING .

54

hesitation in employing the knife for of hard labour, by " bearing " or " strain their removal.

ing ” —after pains — and inflammation.

Assisting in Lambing. — “ Having Formerly the rate of mortality from in given all the possible unnatural presen- flammation after lambing was very high, tations likely to be met with, I shall next but it has been abundantly proved that explain how assistance ought to be ren- by timely treatment the danger may be dered to a ewe in distress. In all cases effectually averted .

It has already been

great care and gentleness are requisite, pointed out that in all cases the shepherd, and all roughness or hurry should be before assisting a ewe, should smear his avoided .

The hand should be anointed

hand in a mixture of carbolic acid and

with fresh lard or oil, and the finger-nails olive or Gallipoli oil — about i part must be short ( shepherds' nails always of the former to 10 parts of the latter.

are). The hand must be compressed into Then, after the removal of the lamb, as narrow a space as possible and gently about two tablespoonfuls of the carbolic introduced .

In giving assistance the acid and oil should be poured into the

operator should draw the lamb in ac- womb, while any of the external parts cordance with the natural pains of the which seem inflamed should be smeared

ewe, and wait for her to pain. Assist ance given at that moment is useful; but if force is used during the intervals of the labour-pains, the muscles of the uterus are excited, and the result is the early exhaustion of the mother. Again, in

with the same mixture. This treatment should be repeated every three or four hours, as may be found necessary. The strength of the carbolic mixture should be regulated — from 5 to 20 parts of Gallipoli oil to i of carbolic acid –

using force the fætus should be drawn according to the symptoms of the case. downwards towards the hocks of the Where the symptoms of inflammation are ewe, and the operator need not be afraid serious, a strong mixture should be ap

of using his strength when the fætus is plied promptly and frequently. The effi once brought into a proper position .” ] cacy of this simple and inexpensive treat One Fore -leg Presentation . - In re- mentin preventing after-birth inflamma

gard to the difficulty of one fore- leg presentation, Mr George Brown, Watten Mains, Caithness, says: “ If the lamb is well forward in thepassage, it is much

tion is remarkable — so much so indeed, that if it is applied in time, immediately after birth in hard cases of labour, and in all cases upon the faintest indication of

easier, and often safer, to bring the lamb after straining or inflammation, complete away as presented,than to attempt press- prevention may be expected in ninety

ing back the head to get forward the nine cases out of every hundred . It should be mentioned that the credit of

other foot. "

Cæsarean Operation . — The lamb is discovering this invaluable preventive sometimes in the Fallopian tube, from belongs to Mr Charles Scott, author of some cause or other not coming into • ThePractice of Sheep Farming .' the womb after conception.

Cases of

Rotten Turnips causing Inflam

this nature can only be managed by the mation . - Referring to the occurrence of Cæsarean operation — taking the lamb inflammation among ewes after lambing, out of the ewe's side. In cases of this Mr James A. Gordon, of Arabella, states kind, while the lamb may be saved , the that he had found the tendency to

ewe, unless a good deal of care and skill inflammation and mortification much greater when ewes were fed on turnips are used , is very liable to be lost.

The hardier the breed the rarer the of which a good manywere in a half-rot necessity for assistance in lambing. In ten condition. The best corrective in this flocks of Blackfaced and Cheviot sheep, case, he says, is to remove the ewes to a thousands of ewes lamb every season field where they can get plenty of young without the slightest assistance. clover, and will receive only a few roots,

Inflammation after Lambing . – Un- nothing being so suitable for ewes and less the utmost care is exercised there is their young lambs as fresh young grass. great risk of losing the ewe after a case Inflammation Infectious . - Referring to the infectious character of inflammation 1 Live Stock Jour ., 1889.

in ewes after lambing, Mr George Brown,

THE LAMBING SEASON .

55

Watten Mains, Caithness, says : “When with it — and what is still more tantalis a case of inflammation does occur, it is ing, the intense fondness of its mother absolutely necessary to separate the ewe urges her to turn herself round to it, in from the flock , and have the place she order to lick it with her tongue, mutter

lambed at thoroughly disinfected. The disease is most infectious, and will attack all ewes which lamb after the first case if they come into contact with the contagion. The shepherd, if he has touched

ing affectionate regards, while her wheel ing about removes the teat, the sole ob ject of the young creature's solicitude. When at length a hold of it is obtained, it does not easily let it go until satisfied

the affected ewe, must be very careful to with a good drink, which is indicated by wash his hands in either turpentine or its full flanks. When a fond ewe has carbolic oil, and even change his twin lambs, one can easily obtain the teat

clothes before touching another ewe ; while she is taken up in caressing the while ewes which die of inflammation other. This is the usual behaviour of should be skinned by some one else, strong lambs; and on once being filled not by the shepherd. with warm milk, they increase in strength

“ Oats are a fruitful cause of inflamma- rapidly, and are soon able to bear very tion in ewes, as ewes fed largely on them rough weather. become full and hot-blooded at a critical Assisting Lambs to Suck.- But time. Feeding on oats should therefore after a protracted labour, the lambs be discontinued a few weeks before lamb- may be so weakly at first as to be unable

ing, and cake or bran, or extra turnips, to reach the teat by their own strength. given instead .”

They must then be assisted, and the After Lambing. – When lambing has assistance is given in this way : turn taken place in the day, in fair weather, ing the ewe over upon her rump, the

the ewe with her lambs are best at liberty shepherd kneels upon the ground on his

within the enclosed area of the lambing- right knee, and reclines her back against ground ; but in rain or snow, and at his left leg, which is bent.

night, she should be taken into the shed , and kept there for some time until the weather proves better, or she has recovered from the effects of the lambing. In the day -time, it matters little

Removing

any wool from the udder by the finger and thumb if necessary, he first squeezes the wax out of the teats, and, taking a lamb in each hand by the neck, if twins, opens the mouth of each with a finger,

for lambs how cold the air is, provided it and applies the mouth to a teat, whenthe be dry.

It is considered a good sign sucking proceeds with vigour. A young ewe or gimmer is apt to be shy to her

of health when a lamb trembles after birth .

first lamb, but after being suckled, either

Cleansing.— The cleansings or pla- in this or the natural way, she will rarely centa generally drops from the ewe in forsake her offspring. the course of a very short time, in many

When lambs do not succeed at once

cases within a fewminutes after lambing. in finding the teat, the shepherd should It should be carried away, and not allowed soon give the lamb its first suck in this way, which not only saves it much trouble, to lie upon the lambing- ground.

The Lamb.— The lamb is fondly licked by the ewe at first, and during this process the youngster makes many fruitless attempts to gain its feet, and it is truly

and gives it strength, but affords himself a favourable opportunity of examining the state of the udder. The first good and early suck to a lamb imparts a

surprising how very soon after an easy strength to it beyond expectation. Gimmers often have scanty supply

birth it will stand.

so

The moment it does

a

so, its first effort is to find out the teat, of milk, that it is expedient for the shep expressing its desire for it by imitating herd to support their lambs partially on the act of sucking with its lips and cow's milk until the requisite supply ap tongue, then uttering a plaintive cry, and pears, which will be partly induced by wagging its still wet long tail. There are suckling, and partly by nourishment of

variousobstacles to its finding the teat at first — the long wool on the ewe's flank

succulent food .

Hand - feeding Lambs. — When the

hides it -- that on the udder interferes shepherd has lambs to support for a

56

SHEEP IN SPRING .

short time, he should supply them with and that quietly, and with plenty of time cow's milk at regular hours, in the morn- given them.

ing and evening, immediately after the Mothering Lambs. — When ewes and cows have been milked, and should see lambs are turned out to pasture, or out the lambs suckled by their mothers dur- of the lambing -fold, the shepherd ought ing the day, as also that the ewes have for the first ten days to see, at least

a sufficiency of milk. The dairymaid twice a -day, that every lamb is with its should put the cow's milk for the shep- own mother, and especially in the case herd in bottles, when the cows are milked of twins, to see that they are both hav

in the morning and evening, and he ing regular access to the right ewe. should feed the young lambs while the Distinctive marks with paint on ewes milk is warm from the cow . The feeding and lambs are helpful in this work of is done in this way : Sitting down, the mothering. shepherd takes a mouthful of milk from Risk of Over -forcing Lambs.-- In

a bottle, and, holding up the mouth of putting ewes and very young lambs on to

the lamb open, he lets the warm milk luxuriant grass, care is necessary to see drop into it in a small stream from his that the lambs are not too hard forced

mouth, which the lamb drinks as fast as with milk . Mr George Brown, Watten it comes ; and thus mouthful after mouth- Mains, Caithness, says: “ If the pasture ful until the lamb is filled. The auxiliary is rich and the ewes very full of milk, supply of milk should be withheld when ever the ewe can support her lambs.

there will be danger of lambs dying from

inflammation and apoplexy. Change of Removing Ewes and Lambs. - Ewes diet may stop this fell epidemic, for

are kept on the lambing -ground until such it may become, especially if there they have recovered from the effects of

is an east wind at the time. Scores of

lambing, the lambs have become strong, the strongest lambs have been lost in a and the ewes and lambs are well ac-

quainted with each other.

few days in this way.

Careful change

The time and moderation in feeding are the best

required for all this depends on the preventive treatment.” nature of the lambing and the state of Protecting Lambs from Foxes. the weather : the more severe the lamb- Foxes are apt to snatch away young

ing, and the more broken the weather, lambs at night, even close to a lamb

they are kept the longer in ward . When ing -house.

An effectual preventive to

quite recovered, the ewes, with their their depredations has been found in set lambs, are put into a field of new grass, ting a sheep-net (fig . 75, vol. i. p. 172) where the milk will flush upon the ewes, in front of the lambing-houses, leaving much to the advantage of the lambs. sufficient space for a few ewes with their

It is generally a troublesome matter to lambs making their lair within the net. drive ewes with young lambs to any dis- When thus guarded, with a lantern tance to a field, the ewes turning round burning outside, the foxes become appre upon and bewildering the lambs. The hensive of a snare, while the lantern dog irritates the ewes more than assists serves the useful part of affording ample

the shepherd in this task. A plan often light to the shepherd to see his valuable adopted is to leadthe flock, when small, charge. The expedient of net and lan instead of driving it, by carrying a single tern was tried after several lambs had lamb, belonging to an old ewe, by the been destroyed in successive years by fore-legs, with its head between the legs foxes, and a lamb was never afterwards —which is the safest way of carrying a lost in this way . A fox will seldom

lamb — and walking slowly with itbefore meddle with a lamb above a month old. the ewe ; she will follow bleating close at the shepherd's heels, while the rest of the ewes will follow her. If the distance to the field is considerable, the decoy lamb should be set down to suck and rest, and another taken for the purpose. When the number of ewes and lambs is

It is easy to distinguish between an attack by a fox and by a dog . The fox seizes the lamb by the neck behind the head, to throw it over his shoulder, and, if he is scared at the moment, distinct bite holes of the teeth will be found on each side of the neck ; whereas a dog seizes

considerable, they will have to be driven, any part of the body, and worries by

1

THE LAMBING SEASON.

57

The fostering is easily accom The lambs. fox, if not disturbed, carries off his prey plished while the lambs are stillwet, and bodily – he does not take time to eat it the two are placed before the ewe at the on the spot ; whilst the dog leaves behind same time. But in the case of a ewe

tearing the under part of the neck.

Some ewes

that does not die till two or three days

will fight off either dog or fox, and stoutly protect a single lamb ; whilst others are so afraid, that they know not whither to flee for refuge. After an attack , the bleating of the ewe in search

after she has lambed, it will be difficult to make another ewe that lambs a single lamb, at the time of the death of the

him what he does not eat.

ewe, take the older lamb along with her own ,

The usual plan is, to rub the body of night — will acquaint the shepherd of the the older lamb with the new -dropped one

of her lamb - an unusual occurrence at disaster that has happened.

before the ewe had recognised her own

both before her at the and to place lamb, Unkindly Mothers. — Much trouble sam e time. She may then take both

is imposed upon shepherds when ewes will not take their own lambs. In every case of a ewe refusing to let her own lamb suck, the shepherd should particularly examine the state of the udder, and as-

without scruple ; but the probability is, she will reject the older one. If so, she may be put into a dark corner of the shed, and confined by a board placed

If it be across the corner, giving her room only to inflammation , or simply hardness, reme- rise up and lie down, and to eat, but not

certain the cause of uneasiness.

dial measures must be used to restore the to turn round upon the stranger lamb to udder to its natural state. If the udder box it. Meanwhile, being strong, and be well, the ewe must be put under dis- rubbing itself against her wool, and suck cipline.

ing her againsther inclination, the lamb

The discipline consists of putting her into the shed, and confining her to a spot by a short string tied above the fetlock of one of her fore-legs, and fastened to anything. As she endeavours to avoid

will acquire the odour of her own lamb, and ingratiate itself in her favour. If she persist in refusing the lamb for some days, the discipline of tying the leg must be resorted to in the confined cell until

her lamb, the string pulls her foot off the ground, and while her attention is taken

she yield. Another troublesome case is, when the

up struggling with the string, the lamb lambdies at birth and the ewehas plenty seizes the teat and sucks in the mean- of milk, while another ewe with twins is

time ; the stratagem , often repeated, unable to support them . The expedient makes her take with the lamb.

It is is, to let the ewe smell her own new -born

surprising how soon the lamb learns to steal a suck from its mother; if itcannot approach her by the flank, it will seize the teat from between the hind -legs.

dead lamb, and then to strip the skin off it while wet, and sew it upon the bodyof one of the twin lambs, and present the foster-lamb to her, which she may accept

When a ewe will allow but one of her when she has been sucked by it. But it twins to suck her, she should be held till is possible that the dark corner will have both do it, and in a short time she will to be used before she gives a cordial re

yield to both.

ception to the foster-lamb. Should all

Introducing a Strange Lamb to a these expedients fail to mother the lambs Ewe. It is not surprising that a ewe upon the ewes — and they may all fail,

should refuse to take the lamb of an- though with a skilful shepherd they

other ; and yet, when a lamb is left an rarely do -- the lambs should be taken orphan, or happens to be a supernumer- away and brought up as pets on cow's ary, it is necessary to mother it upon an-

milk.

“ Stocks ” for Refractory Ewes. other ewe, or to bring it up byhand as a pet ; the former if at all possible. When Of the various forms of discipline ad à gimmer that has little milk has twins ministered to ewes that are unwilling at a time when a ewe that has plenty of to admit foster -lambs, placing in “the milk produces a single lamb, it is for the stocks” is perhaps the most irksome. In benefit of the gimmer and one of her bad cases it is usually the most speedily lambs that the ewe should bring up two effective. The stocks are formed in this

SHEEP IN SPRING .

58

way : Two small posts, such as hurdle after the lamb is born, says Professor

stakes, are driven firmly into the ground Wrightson, is to clear its mouth of about six inches apart.

The head of mucus, and see it draw its first breath.

the ewe is passed through between Previous to birth the fætus receives oxy

these posts, and a thong or shackle is gen through the mother. It is her lungs passed over their tops, so as to keep the which vivify its blood, and her digestive posts sufficiently close to hold the ewe by system which prepares its nourishment. the neck . A third stake is passed hori- But with the breaking of the umbilical zontally under the ewe's belly, and sup- cord comes the necessity for air,and after ported at the two ends on the bottom a convulsive movementof the diaphragm

bars of two hurdles placed on either side and intercostal muscles the young crea of the ewe, but far enough from her to ture gasps, and generally utters its first enable the lamb to approach its foster- cry. Whether the almost universal prac

mother. In this manner the ewe is most tice of shepherds, of blowing into the

effectually brought into subjection, for lamb's mouth, facilitates this action, is she can neither run away nor lie down, not certain ; but it is probable that this which many foster-mothers would do at simple expedient excites the slumbering first in order to prevent a strange lamb vitality, and causes the necessary mus

from sucking. A very short experience cular contraction. A slap with the flat of this form of discipline will usually be of the hand across the buttocks will also sufficient to induce the ewe to freely often cause a lamb to draw its first accept the lamb. breath, when animation appears to be

Changing Ewes and Lambs. — Mr suspended for a few seconds after birth ." George Brown, Watten Mains, Caithness, Reviving Weak Lambs.— Various considers that there need really be little devices are resorted to in order to revive difficulty in making a ewe take to any weakly lambs. “ Those naturally puny lamb. “ When a ewe becomes careless of one of her lambs,” he says, “ a good plan is to lift them both away from her, and place them in a box or barrel by the side

need to be kept in good shelter for some days, and if their dams have plenty of milk they will soon get strong.. The usual trouble with young lambs is cold

of the fence, and suckle them three or and hunger.

A lamb so chilled that the

four times a day. They thus soon be- thumb and finger held on opposite sides come so identical in smell that the ewe of the chest can scarcely detect the heart

is willing to admit them both. Another beats, can be restored by an immediate

plan is to rub both lambs with salt and plunge into blood -warm water. But this water, so as to make them alike in smell.

should be resorted to only in desperate

" When gimmers (or shearlings) and cases, for the water is likely to obliterate older ewes are lambing at the same time, the scent, by which alone the ewe recog . we often change lambs, always putting a nises heroffspring. For the same reason

single lamb with the gimmer. The best it is equally dangerous to wrap the lamb plan, when a gimmer lambs twins and an in malodorous cloths, and allow it to lie older ewe a single, is to lift the twins before a fire. It will probably be a long

from the former to the head of the latter, time in recovering, and the chances are and give the gimmer the single lamb. If that the natural scent will be lost ; then neither be allowed to smell her own lambs, there will be trouble in establishing rela

she will readily enough adopt the other. tions again between it and the mother. I have seen a hundred lambs so changed Then, too, the lamb will most likely have in one season without any great trouble."

to be fed on cow's milk, which is the greatest evil that could happen. derful how quickly the newly -born lamb “ If at all possible .the lamb should attains vitality and vigour enough to never be removed from its mother. Carry The Newly -born Lamb . - It is won-

move about and seek for its mother's out soft woollen wraps, well warmed, and udder.

As a rule, the lamb needs little wrap it up, letting the head remain out

attention after birth ; but it is of course where the ewe can smell and lick it when desirable that the shepherd should be at disposed ; she will thus keep up her ac hand to see that matters progress satis factorily. The first duty of the shepherd 1 Live Stock Jour. , 1889, 114 .

THE LAMBING SEASON.

59

quaintance with it. The sooner some is not so good for lambs as their mothers' warm milk is given it the better. The milk, though they thrive upon it. creature may be so chilled that it cannot

In the intervals of meals, in bad wea

suck, yet it may not be advisable to carry it to the fire. Catch the ewe gently with the crook ; lay her on her left side, yourself being squatted at her back ; lay the lamb on its right side ; with the thumb and fingerof the left hand hold the jaws apart, and milk a few drops into the mouth. Still holding the jaws apart, rub

ther, pet lambs are kept under cover, but in good weather they are put into a grass paddock during the day, and under shel ter at night until the nights become warm . They are fed by hand with as much milk as each can drink. They are first taught to drink with the finger, and as soon as they can hold the finger steady in the

the throat with a downward stroke, and

mouth, an india-rubber teat, about 3

it will swallow. If it cannot swallow , it inches in length, is used as a substitute, will probably have to be carried to the through which they will easily drink their kitchen. But try every expedient before allowance of milk . The lambs soon be carrying a lamb away from the sight and come attached to persons who feed them. touch of its mother. Never give a young The ancient Greeks had a notion that if lamb more than a tablespoonful of milk lambs were fed on ivy-leaves for 7 days, at a time, and a teaspoonful every ten they would ever continue healthy. minutes will be more effective still, when Stimulants

for Weak

Cow's Milk for Lambs . — Caution is

required in beginning a young lamb

life is but a spark .” 1 Lambs.

upon cow's milk .

Much difference of

When a lamb has become so prostrate as opinion would seem to have long ex to necessitate removal from the mother,

isted as to the influence of cow's milk

it should not only be placed upon a upon young lambs some contending woollen cloth near a moderate fire, but that it is dangerous, and others affirming have a little stimulant administered as well. Some experienced shepherds re-

that it may be used with safety. The milk of a newly calved cow is said by

commend from a half to a whole tea- some high authorities to be especially spoonful of gin or whisky in a little warm risky, but others equally well entitled to water, sweetened with moist sugar ; a confidence assert exactly the reverse .

very little of its mother's milk — or the Be all this as it may, the fact is, that milk of another newly lambed ewe, if its every year large numbers of lambs are own mother is not alive - should also be

reared upon the milk of cows newly

given without delay. The ewe should be calved and long calved ; and it is well milked into a small jug or cup, and the known that the pretty high rate of

milk at once conveyed to the lamb, which mortality amongst these " pet " lambs is may be fed by a teaspoon. If the milk due to irregular and excessive feeding.

gets cold before being given to the lamb, With intelligent care at the outset, giv it should be heated to the normal tem- ing small allowances and often, and tak perature by the addition of a few drops ing care to have the milk at the natural of hot water, or, better still, by a clean temperature, and afterwards feeding in hot piece of iron inserted into it.

moderation and at regular intervals, the

Pet Lambs.- Pet lambs consist of youngster will be found to thrive well

orphans or supernumeraries, and in either upon the cow's milk. condition are deserted creatures which

Heating Milk for Lambs.

It is

would die were they not reared by hand . not considered a good plan to heat milk

When ewes die, it may be difficult to for lambs by the addition of any appreci probability of ewes lambing single lambs be given immediately it is drawn from

avoidhaving pets, on account of the im- able quantity ofwater. The milk should just in time to receive those which have the cow. But if it has been allowed to become orphans. Pet lambs are brought cool it may be raised to its natural heat

up on cow's milk, which they receive by being placed in a cup upon the kitchen warm from the cow at each milking, and range for a moment, or by a clean hot as much as they can drink. Cow'smilk iron being inserted in the milk. 1 Prac. of Sheep Parm ., 82.

Scour in Lambs . — Cow's milk, given too freely, is liable to cause scour or diar

SHEEP IN SPRING.

60

rhoea in lambs. Especially when very until the shepherd has caught hold of the lambs are subject tovarious forms sheep, and allows its foot to slip through of diarrhoea, arising from various causes, the loop. Some caution is required in

young,

“ Scout ”

some of which are not easily removed . a fatal form of diarrhæa

using the crook, for should the sheep give a sudden

amongst lambs about two or three days

start forward to get away the moment it feels the

old. As soon as symptoms of this ail

crook touch its leg, it may forcibly draw the leg

ment are seen, the ewes and lambs

should be removed to a fresh lair or shed ,

CC

through the narrow part, and strike the fore edge

and, as a rule, this change of scene will A teaspoonful of castor-oil is often given with good effect check the disease.

of the bone with such vio

lence against the bend of the loop as to cause the

to lambs suffering from diarrhoea. Carrying

Lambs.

Young lambs

should be handled as little as possible.

animal considerable pain,

When they have to be carried, this should

and even occasion lame

be done by the two fore-legs. Never

ness for some days. On

seize or carry a lamb by the body. Cleaning Ewes’ Udders. — Any loose wool should always be removed from the udders of ewes at lambing, so as to pre vent the lamb from swallowing pieces of wool, and forming hair -balls in the stomach . These balls often prove fatal to the lambs, and they are sometimes

quietly hooking the leg from behind the ewe, the

crook should be quickly drawn towards you, so as

to bring the bend of the Fig. 247.

loop against the leg as Shepherd's Crook. t a Narrowes part high up as the hock,and of crook . lift the foot off the ground, formed by lambs on bare and dirty pas before the sheep is almost ture where pieces of wool are lying aware of the movement; and being

about.

Catching Ewes. — Great care should

thus secured at once, her struggles will cease the moment the hand seizes the

be exercised in catching ewes at all leg. The crook is placed in the figure times, more especially, of course, when to catch the off hind -leg. they are near the lambing-time. It is a common practice with shepherds when they wish to catch a ewe to give a weakly twin lamb a suck, or to examine the state of her udder, to stoop down and

LAMBING PERIOD - DETAILS OF MANAGEMENT.

It may at first thought seem curious run in upon her from behind and seize that within the narrrow limits of the her by a hind-leg. This is a safe mode British Isles there should be such a

of catching a ewe when dexterously length of time as there is between the done ; but when he fails, she will start dates of lambing in the earliest and and run off, and alarm the other ewes the latest districts. The lambing period beside her — and every alarm to a ewe, in this country now actually extends whether lambed or about to lamb, is over six months, beginning with Dorset injurious, and at any rate cannot do any sheep in the extreme south of England in November, and ending with mountain

good.

Shepherd's Crook . — A crook catches sheep in thenorth of Scotland in the the leg quietly and securely. It consists month of May. Lambing, therefore, of a round rod of iron, bent in the form stretches into three seasons of the year,

shown in fig. 247, terminating at one yet it is in a special sense associated end in a knob, and at the otherend in a with spring, and is conveniently dealt socket, which receives and is fixed to a with in this part of The Book of the

wooden helve, 5 or 6 feet long, according Farm . In detailing the different systems of to fancy. The hind -leg is seized from

behind the sheep ; and as its small bone management, the prevailing dates for just fills the narrowest part of thecrook, lambing in the various districts will be the leg cannot get loose backwards, and noted . Climate is, of course, the chief

remains in the roomy loop of the crook element in determining the time of lamb

THE LAMBING SEASON.

ing, as it is desirable that there should fully.

61

Castration is delayed till the

be a plentiful supply of green food for lambs are about a month old, it being the ewes while nourishing their young considered that lambs left entire for a In certain cases a more month are more fleshy when matured highly artificial system of rearing or than lambs castrated when ten days' old, forcing is pursued, with the object of which latter plan is pursued by many. providing early lambs for the meat Fattening Ewe and Lamb together.

with milk .

market.

-About the end of the first month the ewes and lambs are put upon roots, and liberal fare is provided, as the intention

Early Market Lambs.

Dorset Flocks.— The fattening of is most likely to fatten both the ewes lambs for slaughter when a few months and the lambs at the same time.

The

old is now pursued extensively in various system of feeding now pursued is thus parts of the country. This practice has described by Mr John A. Clark : been so skilfully carried on with Dorset

“ The roots are cut and given in troughs,

sheep in the extreme south of England, and the lambs feed in advance of, and that in some cases two crops of lambs separate from , the ewes — a lamb - gate are obtained in one year from the same being provided for the purpose, having The ewes of this breed are very a space between the bars to allow lambs ewes .

prolific, and have come to possess the to pass, without being wide enough for characteristic of turning very early to the ewes. As soon as it is light in the ram . For early market lambs the the morning, the shepherd gives hay to

Dorset ewes are usually crossed with a both lambs and ewes, and then fills

Down or cross-bred ram , and by feeding the troughs with cut roots, passing the the ewes freely upon trifolium and lambs' portion twice throughthe cutter, cut swedes or mangels — with a run on reducing the slices into bits the size of fresh dry pasture, and perhaps half a dice.

Next he gives oilcake and peas

pint each ofbeans daily — theyare brought in covered troughs, the allowance being to take the ram as early as May and as much as they will eat. To prevent June. When the rams are withdrawn, waste the oilcake is broken fine --- the

the ewes are changed to a dry pasture size of horse-beans—so that the lambs do with a fold of tares or other similar for- not take up large pieces and drop them age crop, and are kept in moderate con- beside the troughs. To induce the young dition. The ewes walk a good deal animals to eat cake and peas, it issome daily, and this healthy exercise has a times necessary to mix a portion of com

favourable influence on the crop of mon salt.

The ewes next receive their

lambs.

portion of oilcake, without peas, begin These ewes lamb in November and ning with 4 lb. per day - half in the December. In average seasons only the morning, half before the bait of roots at weakest of the lambs need to be taken

night. After two or three weeks of this

into the shed, the climate being so mild food, the cake is gradually increased up to that even in the middle of winter the 1 lb. each per day ; and towards the end young lambs thrive admirably by the of the fattening process half a pint of side of their mothers in the open fields. beans is added . This renders the flesh When the weather is wet and stormy, more firm ; the great objection to the the ewes and lambs have to be housed ewes being fattened while suckling being

or brought into some exceptional shelter that they are mostly deficient in firm till the worst of the storm is past, but no ness and quality of meat. "Hay or hay-chaff also is given to the unnecessary pampering is practised .

Preparation is made for the ewes with lambs twice a day ; but after eight or the early lambs by serving rye-grass on nine weeks old they have it three times a portions of the wheat stubble.

This day—the last feeding being not later than

fresh young grass is peculiarly suitable three o'clock, as the hay not eaten will

for newly lambed ewes, and upon this be spoiled in case of rain.

The portions

and the run of the stubble at night, and of hay, after having been picked over by

a “ bite ” of young clover by day, they the lambs, go to their mothers. The

are able to nourish their lambs bounti- lambs are ready for the butcher at ten

SHEEP IN SPRING.

62

or eleven weeks old — that is, in February cannot be formed, great store is placed upon the forage crops.

and March .” 1 Lamb for

Christmas

Dinner.

It is undesirable to force ewes into

In some instances in Dorset and the high condition before lambing; but it is Isle of Wight lambs are dropped in an essential feature in the management

September, and fattened for sale by of early lambing flocks that as soon as

Christmas. With this practice the sys- the lambs are dropped the ewes should tem of management has to be still more

be fed liberally with succulent milk -pro

artificial and forcing. This highly arti- ducing food. Liberal feeding has more ficial system is no doubt remunerative to do with the progress of young lambs to the enterprising farmers who pursue than the mildness of the weather. It is,

it. It is not to be assumed , however, indeed, wonderful how even very young that the rearing of fat lambs for Christ- lambs will withstand cold and wet wea mas, or even for Easter, would be either ther if only their mothers have plenty of

practicable or profitable in other parts of good milk for them. They are, of course, the country.

“ In Devon and Wilts all the better of shelter, and ought to

there are numerous sunny glades and have it ; but above everything else, see

warm sheltered vales, where, assisted by that they are well nourished with milk. the hot vapours of the Gulf Stream And the surest way of providing this is wafted across the Atlantic by the south- to feed the ewes liberally after lambing. western breezes, the grass is ever green .' Lambing on the Arable Farms. Thus the flock -owners in these favoured For this early lambing on the arable

parts have advantages not enjoyed to the farms of the south -west of England, mild same extent in other districts.

as the climate is, it is desirable to have

a well-arranged and ample lambing yard

Hampshire Customs.

or pen .

The practice of rearing and fattening

“ The forward ewes," says Professor

early lambs has been more extensively and successfully developed with flocks of Hampshire Downs than with any other variety of sheep outside the domain of

Wrightson , “ should be brought into the pen every night and lie upon the straw . A good -sized heap of swedes should also have been provided, and hay racks or

The

cribs should be placed around, so that

Hampshire Down has been skilfully cultivated with this end in view , and the whole system of farming in Hampshire has, to a large extent, been arranged to promote the rapid production of mutton. Lambing begins with the new year in Hampshire flocks, and at this season great care has to be exercised in protect-

the animals may receive a foddering when they come into shelter at about four o'clock in the afternoon . During the height of the lambing , the shepherd remains night and day with his flock, and provided with a good lantern, he makes periodical visits, carefully looking at every ewe. As soon as a lamb is born,

these wonderful Dorset flocks.

ing the young lambs from stormy weather it and its dam should be removed into when itoccurs, as it of course often does.

one of the coops or cells, as already men

The water-meadows in the chalk districts tioned, there to remain for three or four of the south -west of England are turned days, until the lamb is able to follow its

to good purpose in furnishing an early mother without difficulty, and until the supply of fresh grass for ewes, and in addition to these, a great deal of other succulent green food , such as roots, cabbage, thousand - headed kale, rape, rye,

two thoroughly know each other. When this is judged to be accomplished, the cell is vacated for other occupants, and the ewe and her lamb or lambs are transferred to

vetches, trifolium , &c., has to be provided

one of the larger divisions of the pen. “ As lambing proceeds, the various lots

for the ewes and lambs in winter and

spring. Where there is a considerable of ewes are classified and separated, as stretch of good water-meadows, there is follows : less necessity for other succulent food ; but in dry lands where water -meadows

1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng ., 1878, 520.

1. A yard of ewes heavy in lamb. 2.

11

with single lambs.

3.

with twins.

4.

and very young lambs.

THE LAMBING SEASON.

63

The plan of having one lambing-yard “ The older lambs, with their dams, are, when from four to seven days old, near the homestead , once general, is now

allowed to go out upon the turnips, and in most cases supplanted by temporary it is interesting to watch these young lambing -pens formed at some convenient creatures learning to fend for themselves, spot on the fields, near the supplies of

and imitating their mothers in their eat- green food, and where the manure is ing, choosing the softer parts of the tur- most required. Treatment of Ewes and Lambs. nips, nibbling at the rape or turnip greens, or sorting out the choicer portions As a rule, in fine weather the ewes go of the hay.

out from the pens on to the turnip-break

The Lambs' Corner.— " Lambs ought to be provided with a corner for themselves at an early age. A few hurdles should be placed around so as to include

when the lambs are two or three days old, but in some exceptional cases they are kept in shelter with their young lambs for two or three weeks. The ewes

some small troughs in which is placed a and lambs are usually kept on turnips mixture of split peas, bruised oats, and and hay till the water -meadows are

finely ground cake. Admittance is given ready to receive them , perhaps about the to this enclosure by means of lamb-hur- first of April, and then they go on to the dles, which , while allowing of the ingress water -meadows by day, and are folded

of the lambs, is a bar to the larger-sized overnight on Italian rye-grass, rye, win ewes.” 1 Lord Northbrook's Flock . - The fine

ter barley, winter oats, or trifolium , sown for the purpose — the tup and wether

flock of Hampshires kept at Stratton, lambs intended to be forced being ad Micheldever, by Lord Northbrook, is mitted in front of the hurdles to receive Where there are

managed similarly to the other leading a little cake or corn . Hampshire flocks.

His lordship's agent,

no water -meadows there is usually a

Mr T. Stirton, says : “ Lambing takes preserved portion of clover, which forms place, as a rule, from the middle of a most useful adjunct to the turnips and

January to middle of February. Ram forage crops. breeders commence on the ist of January.

Frequent changes of ground and food

Generally speaking, the ewes get plenty are a leading principle in Hampshire of hay or sainfoin with a limited supply flock management, and no doubt this

of turnips before lambing, and plenty of contributes largely to the success of the roots and hay afterwards. Ram breeders system .

use artificial food, such as malt-dust, cake,

Forcing Young Lambs . - For the

The ewes are always folded on first two, three, or four weeks the lambs arable land, and the roots are not cut for subsist upon their mothers' milk, but even

&c.

them . After the roots are finished , rye before they are a fortnight old they will and winter barley follow. As a rule, the be seen to nibble at the finer portions of lambs are weaned about the first week in

the food being consumed by the ewes.

May, when the lambs have field -grass, The forcing of lambs may be begun in followed by vetches during the summer the third week, and if the object is to rear

-usually a fold of each a -day - or sain- precocious ram lambs or fatten wether If not sold at the summer fairs,

lambs at as early an age as possible,

or sold fat at the auction sales, they then

a separate enclosure of hurdles in ad

foin .

get sainfoin, rape, and turnips, till the vance of the ewe-fold should be formed autumn fairs, with or without cake, ac- for the lambs. The lambs get access to cording to the views of the owner. The this enclosure through an opening in the

ewes live behind the lambs, for the latter ordinary hurdles — an opening not large have large folds. Ram breeders give their lambs at least two to three folds of different kinds of food each day, with various mixtures of artificial food. The green foods are vetches, early rape, and sainfoin ." 1 Live Stock Jour., 1888, 65.

enough to admit ewes or by what is called a lamb-hurdle. In this lamb-fold

the young lambs will pick at the fresh food before it has been spoiled by the

ewes running over it, and in troughs they should receive cut roots - put twice through the cutter, so as to reduce them to small pieces — and just as much of the

64

SHEEP IN SPRING .

bruised cake and grain as they will Wherever the ewes are timed to lamb readily consume, with a very small quan- before the middle of March, ample shel tity of fresh hay.

The mixtures and

ter and green food must be furnished ;

quantities givenAs totolambs vary on differ- for without comfort and plenty of nourish ent farms. quantity, the rule ment for the young lambs, early lambing should be -- if the lambs are to be forced cannot possibly result in success. -to give them as much in two or three

The systems of management in some

mealsper day as theywill eatup at the time. A mixture of linseed-oil and peas gives excellentresults. Another very good mixture may be made of equal portions of finely ground linseed and decorticated

typical English flocks are described in Division I., pages 194 to 201 . Summersbury Southdowns.

Mr

Edwin Ellis, Summersbury, Guildford, Surrey, whose fine flock ofSouthdowns

cotton - cake, bean-meal, and palm - nut has taken a high position in the show meal, given perhaps with fine hay -chaff. yard, writes : It is not likely the lambs will eat much

“ For several years I have been de

more than about two ounces per day of sirous that my lambs (Southdown)should this mixture till they are weaned, after fall in January and February, instead which the quantity may be doubled. of from the middle of February till the Lamb - hurdles. --The lamb - hurdle beginning of April, but I have as yet or lamb-creep, contrived to let the lambs been unable to obtain this result. It is

run forward and hold back the ewes, is true that by forcing treatment and very an important institution where breeding high feeding a few ewes would come into flocks are kept on arable land . “ The season in August, possibly even at the

lamb-hurdle," says Professor Wrightson, latter end of July ; but this would be “ is in constant requisition throughout very expensive work at a period when the spring, and by its means the lambs we expect the flock to be kept at the are able to run forward and crop the smallest possible outlay. In the present

choicest herbage before it is soiled or year (1888), although the rams were put trampled by the older sheep.

The best out on the 16th August, the first ewe was served on the 27th, and it was not

creeps are adjustable to the size of the

lambs, and the upright bars through till several weeks after this that any which the young animals pass are round considerable numbers were tupped. and smooth, and revolve easily upon a

“ Lambing, therefore, begins with us

central axis of iron. They are also fur- about the beginning of February, and nished with a similar roller, which forms we generally get half- through by the

the top of the creep, so that the lamb end of the month ; and by the end of passes through withoutrubbing the wool. March the season may be said to have The opening is hinged inwards, but is finished, although a few ewes will be

rigid when pushed outwards, and this is still later than this. done to allow of lambs running quickly Feeding of Ewes .— “ When the ewes back into the fold if frightened, but at have gone half their time, we take care the same time to prevent the ewes from that they shall be well fed, having a passing outside the fold .” 1 little hay, and sometimes a few oats, but Various English Methods.

The

no roots if we can avoid it.

After lamb

foregoing details, which relate chieflying we feed very liberally — good hay, to Hampshire flocks, embrace the out-

swedes and swede-tops, if there are any,

standing features of the systems of and sometimes a few mangels as well.

management which prevail wherever I consider mangels better even than early lambing is pursued — that is, lamb- swedes for milk . The ewes are driven

ing in January, February, and the be- into a fold if the weather is bad , other ginning of March. The amount and wise they do better in the open field. character of shelter and green food proTreatment of the Lambs.—“ Directly

vided for the ewes and lambs vary with the lambs begin to feed, they have a pen

the locality, climate, class of sheep, pur- into which they can run, and sliced poses in view, and date of lambing. swedes, corn, and cake are at their dis posal. If we get a large proportion of 1 Live Stock Jour., 1888, 114.

twins, a separate flock is made, and the

3

THE LAMBING SEASON .

65

mothers have some corn in addition to as the ewes did, and were drawn from

their other food. I have generally weaned the ewes the last week in December. when the lambs are about 12 or 14 weeks

Lambs Dropped.— “ The ewes began

old, but I think it might be done earlier to lamb on 6th March, and ended 21st with advantage. of May. As for the number of lambs “When the lambs are taken away, dropped, I do not keep strict account careful attention should be given to the until I tail them , which is done when

ewes' udders for the next few days, other- they are about a fortnight or three weeks

wise great pain , and possibly inflamma- old; and I have tailed this season 454. tion, may be caused by the milk. My I have about 170 twins, 25 triplets, and lambs are kept on tares, trifolium , thou- the rest singles, with 3 barren ewes.

I

sand -headed kale, and clover, each in had 443 lambs living on May 29th. One their turn ; and if we find it practicable lamb has died since I tailed them , with to give a change of food to the ram a ball of wool in itsstomach , and another lambs, it is beneficial. Indeed the with sand ; the others died from what greater variety the better. we call scoley, caused by the cold severe “ As for the ewes, directly the wool is weather, such as I never before experi

off they run the commons around us,and enced. We had snowstorm , and hail come on to the meadows when the crop storm , and frost at night all through of hay has been harvested . March and part of April, and that is the “ Flushing ” Ewes.— “ I have always cause of the lambs being scoley and stiff had a good number of twin lambs, con- jointed. They then linger and die. I

sequent, as I believe , on “ flushing' the should think I have lost from 40 to 50 ewes with plenty of green food just in that way, though I had plenty of before they come into season . The young shelter. ewes have generally one lamb, but the Lambing -yard .— “ My sheep -yard was

old ewe flock with me generally bring made on the open common with hur three lambs to two ewes, and sometimes dles first, then whin fagots, then straw hurdle-pens round inside and outside to the number of about 70 pens, and then

even more than this."

Suffolk Flocks. thatched with straw. I keep them in With the leading flocks of Suffolk the pens two or three days, then turn

sheep, which have been greatly improved them on the field under the bank and in recent years, the ewes and lambs are battens made with whin fagots on

managed with much care and intelli- purpose. gence .

In his Prize Report to the

Feeding of Ewes.

“ The general

Farming World in 1888, George Last, feeding of the ewes consists of maiden shepherd to Mr S. R. Sherwood, Hazel- leys, marshes, and coleworts for the tup wood, Suffolk , says :

ping season .

Then follow on with white

“ The farm consists of marshes and turnips and a good bait of malt-combs rough pasture and arable land, and is and chaff every morning, and a run on about two miles and a half from the sea the whin common every day ; and about

-a cold, bleak place, but most of it good a month before lambing a bushel of best light land, withabout three or four fields oilcake to two bushels a -day mixed with black and poor land even for breeding the chaff and malt-combs, and from half a load to a load of mangels per day. “ My flock consists of 300 Suffolk When the ewes refuse the chaff, increase

ewes .

ewes, bought from the best breed of the the cake to three or four bushels, and Suffolks. Six ram lambs were used of the mangels to two and three loads per the same breed as the ewes on October day. One ram was put to 50 of the best

Feeding of Lambs. – " About the

ewes, and five to the other 250, which is fifty each for a ram . The 50 ewes and one ram are put on the marshes night and day for three weeks, and the 250 on the marshes during the day, and folded on coleworts at night. The rams lived

middle of April we begin to bait the lambs. I shut them from the ewes about an hourevery morning for the bait, then

11 .

VOL. II.

let the lambs run forward on the clover

leys for a time ; the ewes then clean out what bait the lambs leave, and which is E

SHEEP IN SPRING .

66

a good deal at first, but the lambs soon

is difficult for even a good judge to select

get hold of it and leave the ewes very a good lamb, or, in fact, anyimmature little. Losses of Lambs.2 " I have lost nine

animal.

The ram selected for use should be as

ewes from the following causes : One large as possible, combined with mascu in January from scour and inflammation ; line character, perfect type, and high two in February from ulcer-sores ; four quality ; and as a rule the size should be

in March—two broken down from weight, looked for on the side of the dam , as it one from dead lamb's putrefaction, one is next to impossible to procure a male

wasted by ulcers ; and two in April — one perfect in all the essential points, and casted or awal'd, and one choked with yet with sufficient size. Rams generally mangels. There are now 4431 lambs alive, will serve from thirty to fifty ewes satis reared from the 300 ewes. factorily, and in many cases this number is greatly exceeded . But a ram should Shropshire Flocks. seldom be used largely until his second

For the following description of the year as a sire, whenthe breeder has had prevailing system pursued during the à chance of seeing his produce and of entire year in Shropshire flocks, we are judging what they are likely to grow indebted to Mr Alfred Mansell, College Hill , Shrewsbury -- the round of the year

into. After the ewes have all been served

being commenced when the rams are ad- they run together, and for another month mitted amongst the ewes : or so should be kept in as thriving a The ewes are put to the ram early in state as possible. They then go to old September, so as to drop their lambs seeds or pasture and get a daily allow early in February or March ; but in high ance (not too large) of roots and hay; the cold districts the lambs, as a rule, are all latter loose on the fields is best, as the dropped in March and early in April. ewes are apt to get crushed if crowded Flushing the ewes is considered advis- at racks. able at the tupping period, as the ewes Preparation for Lambing. — Some

go faster to the ram , and are generally breeders, a short time before lambing, more prolific. If so treated and for this give the ewes boiled linseed, crushed

purpose, they are put on a fresh pasture, oats, andbran mixed with pulp and cut say second year's seeds, or a permanent stuff. This is a practice much to be pasture which has been purposely saved. commended, as it strengthens the ewes To ease the rams sometimes a teaser is and greatly assists a safe and easy par used, and the ewes as they come on are turition. taken to the ram . sary in the case

This is quite neces

As soon

as the lambing season ap

a very fat ram , or proaches ( end of January or early in

where it is wished to serve a larger num- February ) the ewes are folded at night.

ber of ewes with a certain ram than is When the lambs are a few days old usually the case.

they go on to the seeds which have been

If any show ewes have been added to the flock, they should be treated precisely in the same way, but perhaps may be put to the ram a little earlier, as they

kept up during the winter, and if the season has been moderately favourable these are usually very fresh, and a good pasture for promoting the secretion of

are apt to turn several times before hold- milk. Only the ewes with twin lambs ing to the rams. Still, with care and should get any assistance, as the ewes patience, they can generally be got to with single lambs if corn -fed are apt to breed .

get too fat and doubtful breeders. A

Ram Lambs. Atthe latter end of the mixture of beans, malt-dust, linseed -cake, season,should any of the ewes have turned and bran, is a capital food to sustain the several times, and this will probably be ewe and increase the flow of milk. the case with a few of the older ewes, a

The shepherd should, as far as possible,

ram lamb should be tried ; but, as a rule, be encouraged to keep up the returns I should not commend this practice, as it from the sheep by means of a bounty on each lamb alive at weaning-time (June), 1 Parming World , 1888, 526.

and also by giving him a further interest

I

THE LAMBING SEASON .

67

in another way in the wellbeing of the carelessness on this point, annually spoil flock .

several of their best ewes.

Castration in ram breeders' flocks is

The average number of lambs is 150 to not a general practice, and the process of 175 per cent. In smallflocks it has often selection is left until the winter, when been much more, but, speaking generally, the inferior rams are fed and sold to the

a lamb and half to three -quarters for each

butcher. In the case of ordinary flocks ewe is about the average. they are castrated as lambs and sold fat Dipping the lambs once or even twice the following spring. is very desirable, and for this purpose a

Shearing the lambs, which takes place non -poisonous dip is best. about the last week in June, is considered

To prevent husk or hoose in lambs, a

to have a good effect in securing greater most fatal complaint in the autumn, it is immunity from the fly in summer; also an excellent plan to drench the lambs in preventing the clinging of the soil to either with one of the well-known patent the belly of the sheep when on turnips. remedies, or with the following, which

Weaning the lambs takes place in May costs less, and is to all intents and or early in June. For this a good pasture is selected, as with good treatment they do not feel the change so much. Nostrong artificial food should be given

purposes as good : 18 oz. asafetida, 18 oz. turpentine, 38 oz. linseed oil, given in half a gill of milk or thin gruel, two days consecutively. at first, but a few common turnips may As a preventive against foot -rot it is be thrown about on the ground to teach a good plan to periodically, say two or

them to eat turnips. Following this, three times a -year, carefully pare all the rape or cabbages are given, and as the sheep's feet, and walk them through a

harvest-fields are cleared theyoung seeds trough containing a disinfecting solution are made use of. This would carry the composed as described on page 198, vol. lamb till the end of September or so, i.), after which they should be folded when they are folded on common turnips on a hard road or dry yard for a few till aboutChristmas, and then on swedes. hours. Mr Carrington on the Care of Ewes Linseed -cakes, oats, and bran, commenc-

ing at 4 lb. each per day, and gradually and Lambs. — The late Mr W. T. Car increasing, is the artificial food at this rington, in describing the general man agement of sheep on light-land arable

period .

As January and February come in, the farms in England, said : “ The time of cull rams are ready for the knife, and by putting the ram with the ewes varies the end of the latter month most of these have been despatched . The rams intended for show and sale and the shearling ewes are kept on the

with the locality, and the prospect of early spring food. In the south of Eng land, August and September are usual months. In the midlands, October; and

turnips a little longer, or until the land in the north, November. On those farms is wanted for barley -sowing. The rams where rams are bred for annual sale, they intended for show are housed early in are usually dropped early, so as to give

April and shorn, but the majority are not them a good start. housed until May. The rams then get Condition of Ewes at Mating -time. mangels, hay, and a small allowanceof _ “ It is better that ewes going to the ram

corn ,and as much green food as possible. should be, though not fat, inan improv

This latter is a most necessary food. ingcondition , a supply of succulent food Mellowing the mangels by exposure to at this period having also a favourable the sun is a good practice, as it renders influence on the number of lambs dropped ; them less liable to develop the water therefore many farmers put their ewes on rape. complaint amongst the rams. The ewes after the lambs are taken

Ewes in Winter.— " In the autumn

from them are kept on the barest pas- and early winter the ewes are run on the

stubbles, receiving an occasional tures, as they are apt to get gross and cloveroforrape or early turnips, or mangel fat and non -breedersif they areallowed a fold and a little cotton-cake. chaff with tops, months. summer good pasture during the Indeed many breeders, through a little They often follow the feeding sheep,

68

SHEEP IN SPRING.

clearing up all their leavings on the fold. clover orgrass produced by sheep-manure

The practice formerly pursued of giving being unhealthy food for lambs, and caus in-lamb ewes a full allowance of turnips,

is generally discontinued, it being found

ing scour. Dipping Lambs.- " The lambs, after

that they are much better without such weaning, are all dipped in some prepara watery food before lambing.

tion to destroy parasites, and to prevent

Lambing-time.— “ When about lamb- for a time the attacks of the maggot-fly, ing, the ewes are brought in at nights, which in some districts, especially where into a covered shed or yard ; or a move- much timber exists, is very troublesome,

able lambing-shed is taken into the open blowing up on the wool, and unless field , and protection against wind and quickly eradicated, spoiling the wool, rain is provided by means of hurdles and even sometimes killing the launb.” l wattled with straw , or one or two old waggons, part - loaded with straw , the

Scotch Flocks.

shepherds giving them unremitting atIn Scotland the lambing period comes on later than in England. In some ex tention both day and night. After Lambing. - " The ewes, after ceptional cases a few lambs are dropped lambing, are well fed, having straw, chaff, in February, but the general time is from

or hay, and 12lb. to i lb. of cake or meal, the middle of March till the third week in with roots. Whatever be the destination of the lamb, the ewe should at this time be liberally fed. “ When the lambs are two or three weeks old, they begin to eat food with

May. In the lower -lying and better fa voured districts — especially with Border, Leicester, and half-bred flocks — the ma jority of the lambs may be dropped in March ; but in exposed hill-farmslambing

their dams, and lamb-hurdles are often does not begin till about the middle or

provided, allowing them to run before 20th of April, and frequently extends till the fold and eat a little dust, linseed -cake, the closing days of May. Early Lambing risky. — The cli A change of food for

or bruised oats.

the ewes is desirable, as soon as it can mate, probable supply of early spring well be given. Early rye or Italian rye- food , and amount of shelter, are the few mangels, and 1/2 lb. each daily of the time of lambing. In cold late dis tricts early lambing is very undesirable, cotton -cake, proves an excellent diet. Castration.— " Castration of all male and can hardly lead to satisfactory re lambs not required for stock purposes is sults. The flock-owner is truly in a piti often done by drawing at ten to twenty able condition when struggling with a

grass, or the second year's clover, with a considerations which mainly determine

days' old,or is done by searing at three big flock of ewes and newly born lambs months old.

with a deficiency of shelter and little Weaning.– “ Weaning takes place at food for them, except what may be given

from three to four months old ; where by the hand. Heavy outlays may be in curred, and yet theresults may be very disappointing. There are few points more essential in the successful management of a breeding -flock than this—that, as soon age, they remain with the ewes until as the lambs are dropped, the ewes should the lambs are early taught to eat artificial food, it is not desirable to delay it too long. On those farms where fat lambs are sold to the butcher at an early

sold .

be liberally fed and protected from ex “ The lambs, when weaned, are either cessive storms. In order, therefore, to taken a distance away out of the sound ensure this as far as possible, it is desir of their dams bleating, or a double row able that lambing should be delayed till

of hurdles at a little distance keeps them the rigours of the winter are past and apart, when they before long become paci- moderately genial spring weather and a

fied. The lambs are provided with a suc- speedy growth on the pastures may be cession of green food, much importance reasonably calculated upon. The period being attached to a frequent change of of lambing will thus vary with the local diet. It is not well for them to graze on land which has been folded with older

1

1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., xiv., 1878,

sheep, the rank luxuriant herbage of 713.

THE LAMBING SEASON.

ity and the system of tillage farming-

69

Inflammation .

“ Four deaths oc

which latter has, of course, much to do curred amongst the ewes during lamb with the supplies of such extra food as ing. Five dropped dead lambs, and roots, grain , and hay. South of Scotland Flocks.

three of these ewes rank amongst the above deaths.

The other death was

that of a gimmer which exhibited signs In the Border Leicester flocks in the of lambing in the morning, but which south of Scotland many lambs are dropped went about all day without ever mak

early in March — some even in February. ing any effort to lamb. I lambed her As a rule, in these flocks ample provision all right at night, and both ewe and is made for the lambing -time both in the lamb looked as well and comfortable

way of food and shelter. Comfortable in the morning as wishes could desire. lambing-pens are provided ; and with tur- The lamb was full, and the mother nips, hay, cake, and grain, and a run eating her food and tending her little upon young grass, the ewes are kept so as to ensure a full supplyof milk . Keeping up the supply of milk is the chief object to have in view , for without this the crop of lambs will be disappointing. Orchard Mains Flock . — In his Prize Report on the management of the ewes

offspring with motherly anxiety and care. But before mid -day the lamb was sick and grievously swollen in the belly, and died shortly. The gimmer, just as I was about to give her another lamb,

gave signs of inflammation. I applied carbolic to her of the i to 5 strength, but

and lambs under his care in the winter to no purpose . Doses were repeated at of 1887-88 and following spring, Alex- intervals of about from two to three ander Burns, shepherd to LordsArthur hours, without abating in any way the and Lionel Cecil, Orchard Mains, Inner- virulent nature of the inflammation. In leithen, Peebles, says : the morning she was ready for skinning. “The sheep under my care are Cheviot The other three were similar in every

ewes — part with half-bred lambs and part respect, except that they dropped dead with Cheviot lambs.

lambs.

After similar treatment, they Whether

Park Sheep.- “ The Leicester rams were ready for skinning also.

were admitted amongst the park sheep the case presents itself as hopeless or on the 22d October, and were withdrawn not, I always like to apply carbolic, for on the 24th November, when two Cheviot the simple reason that it invariably

tups were admitted in their stead. The proves itself an efficient factor in keep park sheep, which numbered 205, com- ing down infection. menced to get a run of the turnip -break

Lambing in a Storm .

“ Turnips,

a week previous to the time of admitting with a little rye-grass hay, was the feed the rams. The latter were five in num- ing the park ewes got during the season, ber, and consequently had each an allot- and as each ewe lambed, she was housed In addition for a time— the weather being so cold to the regular fare of turnips and grass that young lambs could not do to be which the ewes were getting, the rams exposed to its severity. In fact, the 28th

ment of two scores of ewes.

were fed with corn and bran, while I of March was almost too much for the keeled them to indicate the proceedings. old sheep. Both old and young, lambed Lambing.– " Dividing them into two or not, I made thorough against that

lots, the first commenced lambing on the notorious night. The sheep lambed very

18th March. The weather was very cold slowly atthe beginning,which was greatly -in fact too severe for old sheep, not to in their favour in such weather, as it not speak of young lambs. The ewes were, only allowed space to accommodate, but perhaps, a little to the thin side in con- gave time for the bestowal of special

dition.

Though they did not drop a care upon each individual ewe as she

great quantity of lambs, they lambed

lambed .

fairly well throughout, but always grew

“ The percentage requiring assistance Harcer of milk, which no doubt might be was on the whole very small - perhaps attributable to the inclement state of the something like 10 or 15 per cent.” 1 weather and the wretched state of the turnips, which were simply slush.

1 Farming World , 1888, 526.

70

SHEEP IN SPRING .

1 lb, each of linseed -cake and oats — this A Perthshire Flock .

brings them rapidly into condition, and

The first of three prizes offered by the is also likely to lead to an increase in the

proprietor of the Farming World for crop of lambs. reports “ On the Management of Ewes

« When the rams are admitted the

and Lambs,” was won by Mr W. Sutherland, Peel Farm , Tibbermuir, Perth,who thus describes his practice in the winter 1887-88 and following spring :

hand - feeding is discontinued . During the period the rams are with the ewes eachof the breeds are kept separate, and previous to the rams being turned loose

“Our flock (in addition to a lot of the breast of each is rubbed with keel, blackfaced , into the treatment of which and this is repeated daily, so that the I shall not enter) numbered 138 — com- ewes that have been tupped are readily prising 45 Leicester, 14 Shropshire Down, recognised . After the rams have been and 79 half-bred and other ewes. On out for a week all the ewes served during the 17th September 1 Shropshire and i that period are marked with a little paint Oxford Down ram were turned in amongst

on the shoulder ; at the end of the second

the half-breds; and on the 8th October, and third weeks those served since the 2 Leicester rams amongst the Leicesters, previous markings have other distinctive marks put on them ; and any that may come in season afterwards are left un

and 1 Shropshire Down among the ewes of that breed. For about five weeks previously the rams got a daily allowance of about 2 lb. each of linseed -cake and oats ; but once they were admitted to the ewes they had no extra feeding what-

marked. By attention to this matter a deal of trouble is saved when the lambing

ever given them. The rams were with

longer than is customary , and find by

drawn from the three lots on the 20th December . The first of the ewes lambed on the 17th February, and, with one or two exceptions, the whole had lambed by the 15th April. Total, 245 lambs. “ The Leicesters dropped 77 lambs14 singles, 27 pairs, and 3 triplets — one

doing so we have seldom any eild ewes, and I have frequently seen a May ” lamb as far forward by the end of the season as those dropped two months

ewe being eild. The Shropshire Downs,

28 — each having a pair. The half-breeds,

season arrives.

“ I keep the rams with the ewes rather 66

earlier.

“ About the beginning of November

the whole of the sheep are dipped for the winter. “When the grass begins to get scarce

140—21 singles, 52 pairs, and 5 triplets. a daily supply of turnips are given - a “ Two of the ewes died from inflam- cart-load to a hundred sheep—and as mation, after very severe cases of lamb- much hay as they can consume without ing, and another was suffocated by a

waste.

A week before the first are ex

piece of turnip sticking in her throat. pected to lamb the first-marked lot are

Seven deaths occurred amongst the lambs. drawn out and kept on pasture adjoining Three weakly ones only survived for a the steading, and in addition to turnips few hours. Another lingered for ten and hay are allowed a little linseed and days. Two died from diarrhoea, and another from some undefinable cause . General Management.- - “ In order to

cotton -cake mixed with oats.

When the

other lots get within a week of lambing they are also separated and the same

explain the management thoroughly, it feeding supplied .

It is a mistake to

will be advisable to start with the treat- have the ewes too fat at this time; but ment given a month previous to the time a much greater one to allow them to be

I intend letting the rams along with the in poor condition - and the latter will be ewes. If the season has been a favour- found to be the most frequent error. able one, the latter will, on examination, Abortion .— “ With the exception of be found in good condition, and, conse- one season we have never had any cases

quently, no hand -feeding need be resorted of abortion. When this disease appears, to ; but if, owing to a deficiency of pas- inquiry into the circumstances connected ture, any of them are in rather poor con- with the outbreak usually reveals some

dition, I separate these from the others mismanagement in the feeding. The use

and give them a daily allowance of about of frosted turnips is a fertile source of

THE LAMBING SEASON .

71

the trouble, and the outbreak we had then remove them to one of the pens and

some years since I attributed wholly to keep them there for a day or two till the

this cause. On discontinuing the turnips lambs gain a little strength ; after which, and substituting an allowance of cake if the weather is not suitable for letting and corn for a time, no further cases oc- them outside, I divide one of the other Since then I have been careful sheds into spaces large enough to contain

curred .

to give only as many turnips during six or eight of the ewes with their lambs, frosty weather as will be at once con- giving sufficient room to afford the latter sumed without any being left lying over space for exercise . exposed to the frost; and in the event of “ I find gimmers and young ewes some

the turnips getting frozen in the pits, as times careless in looking after their lambs, they occasionally do in very severe wea- but by confining them in one of the pens ther, I discontinue using them altogether, for a few days they soon take to them and give other feeding until fresh weather without much trouble. In the event of ensues . two ewes lambing about one time, the one Rupture .— “ I have had a few cases having a single lamb and the other trip of rupture among the ewes, caused by lets, I take one of the lambs from the the weight of thelambs when near lamb- ewe having three and put it along with ing. By getting a piece of strong sheet- the one having the single. By haltering iron curved tothe shape of the ewe's her to a corner of the pen she takes to back, and having a few holes pierced the stranger in a very short time. along both sides, and then passing a “ Occasionally it is necessary tobring piece of sacking beneath the belly and up some of the lambs on cow's milk . I

tying it up to the plate, great relief is have often heard it said that the “ bother and expense of doing so exceeded the

given.

Shelter.— “ It is very important to have profit ; but in most cases I have found

proper shelter available during the lamb- both bother and expense amply repaid. More deaths occur among Once the lambs are a few weeks oldthey lambs from want of this during bad will readily eat a little cake and corn,

ing season .

weather than from all other causes put together. I have two large open sheds, and another divided into pens about five feet square. I commence taking the ewes into the sheds a few nights before the first are likely to lamb, and after dark take a turn among them by lamplight.

and if a piece of early well-shelteredgrass is obtainable, the milk can soon be in great measure dispensed with. “As soon as the weather is suitable, I

keep the ewes and lambs out on the pas ture during the daytime, but never care about leaving them outside at night until

By doing so they soon get accus- the beginning of April, when the weather

tomed to their new surroundings, and is more to be depended on. Before allow

are not so apt to hurt each other through ing many of them outside together I put fright as they might be if this practice a distinctive mark on each pair of twins, were deferred until lambing had actually so that in the event of anything going commenced . Lambing.

wrong, the ewe and both lambs belonging “ Once they commence to her can be recognised without trouble.

lambing I take a look amongst them

Inflammation of the Udder.- “ I

every two hours during the night. Should find inflammation of the udder somewhat any of them require assistance I rub my common. In such cases I give 2 oz. hands with linseed -oil before handling Epsom salts in gruel, bathe the udder them, and in any case where there has with hot water, and then rub with oint

been much difficulty in lambing I injectment composed of 2 oz. fresh butter, 1 a little carbolic oil into the womb to pre- drachm camphor, and one spoonful spirits vent inflammation, and give five or six of wine. In severe cases poulticing is drops tincture of aconite in a spoonful of necessary, so that the lambs must be water, repeating the dose in two hours removed from the ewe altogether . after if any uneasiness is shown.

Sore Teats.— “ This season, owing to

“ After the ewe lambs I examine the the cold unseasonable weather experi udder and clip away any wool that might enced for some weeks after lambing interfere with the lambs sucking, and commenced, sore teats have been more

SHEEP IN SPRING.

72

than usually prevalent among the ewes. hearing of the lambs, which I keep con I have found frequent applications of fined in the fold for ten or twelve hours glycerine and olive - oil a very good afterwards. By doing so they get hungry, and when allowed out at once commence

remedy.

Castrating.- " When the lambs are eating in place of breaking away in about ten days old their tails are cut,

search of their mothers, as they would

and as soon as the weather suits, the otherwise be apt to do. By keeping the youngest of the cross -bred tup lambs are ewes on bare pasture for a few days, the

castrated, a little turpentine being applied milk rapidly dries off them ; but I gener to the edge of the wound. The first- ally find it necessary to milk the most dropped lambs are usually too far for- of them once or twice to relieve them . ward in size and condition to risk castrat- A week after weaning, I examine them ing by the time the weather is mild all, and any found broken -mouthed or

enough for the operation, but as they are faulty in udders are drawn out andput early sold off fat it is a matter of little on good pasture, getting also an allow ance of other feeding, so as to have them consequence.

Fat Lambs.— " As soon as the grass has got a fair start, the Leicester and Shropshire ewes, with their lambs, are separated from the half-breeds— the lambs of the latter being intended for the fat market. I prefer to push them on as

early fattened. Those intended to be kept on are put on ordinary pasture. “ As soon as the lambs have got over the separation from the ewes, the ram lambs are separated from the ewe ones, and each lot put on the best grass avail

rapidly as possible, and therefore confine able, a small daily ration of cake and crease the quantity of hand -feeding, as are usually retained and sold as 'shear them to the young grass fields, and in- oats being also given. The ram lambs

the lambs will be taking a share of it. lings ' ; the best of the ewe lambs are Lambs for Breeding .— " The Leices- kept to fill the vacancies caused by the ter and Shrops are kept on the older drafting of the old and defective ewes ; pastures ; their lambs being intended for and the others are either sold in the end

breedingpurposes, there is not the same of the year, or kept on and disposed of necessity for forcing , and the hand -feed- the following season as ' gimmers.' ing is therefore discontinued. “ To keep the sheep in healthy thriv

ing condition frequent change of pastur-

Hill Flocks.

Early Lambing Undesirable .

The

lambing season, begun in the well-shel Diarrhea . “ A few of the lambs are tered vales of the south -west of England, d hill-farms of sometimes attacked bys diarrhæa. If it is wound up on the expose d. higher

age is necessary.

rise from the richnes

of the grass, a

the north of Scotlan

On the

little castor -oil, sugar, and ginger (the sheep -ranges of Scotland, and the north quantity varying with the size of the of England and Ireland, vegetation is lamb) will usually cure it ; but should it late in moving in spring, while severe

proceed from coagulation of milk in the snowstorms in the months of March and stomach, it is more dangerous, and fre- April are by no means rare occurrences. quently proves fatal. Occasionally a It is thus desirable that lambing should little hartshorn and magnesia given in not take place in these parts till the water will effect a cure. spring season is well through — desirable Clipping .- " The ewes are clipped in order that the young lambs may escape

about the beginning of June, and about the rigours of a severe snowstorm , and the end of that month the whole of the that, after lambing, the ewes may not

ewes and lambs are dipped to prevent have long to wait for a bite of fresh

the attacks of maggot-fly, which is very young grass, which is so effectual in bringing on

prevalent on our land. Weaning.—“ On weaning the pure-

a full supply of milk. From about the middle of April to the

bred lambs aboutthe istof August (the end of May is the most general period crosses are all sold off fat long before for lambing on hill-farms. then), I put the ewes to the furthest off pasture on the farm , out of sight and

1 Farming World , 1888, 525.

THE LAMBING SEASON.

Hardiness of Hill Sheep.- Mountain sheep are notbrought into lambing pens as is done with lowland breeds. They produce their young on the hillsides, and in average seasons the death-rate amongst hill lambs is wonderfully small. The vitality of these creatures when newly dropped is quite marvellous. A healthy blackfaced lamb will be on its feet and searching for the udder three or four

73

of straw , and small supplies of roots and hay to convenient places on the farm for the formation of shelter to ewes and lambs. Forethought and carefulness in matters of this kind play a large part in the successful management of breeding focks. The necessity for these huts will much

depend upon the amount of natural shel ter on the farm . If the farm abounds

It seems to in hills and hollows, with patches of rank care little for cold, and if the weather heather, there will be little need for be dry and the ewe have plenty of milk huts. The ewe will find a cosy bed the youngster will thrive rapidly, even for herself and her young by the side

minutes after it is born .

although there should be snow and frost. of a dry hillock or bush of heather. Rain is more hurtful to lambs than cold

But when such natural shelter is defi

with a dry temperature.

cient, artificial protection should be pro

Shelter on Hill Farms.It is there-

vided.

Typical Hill Flocks. — Describing hill sheep, some provision should be the general system of management in the fore desirable that, even for the hardy

made whereby the more weakly lambs lambing season on average hill-farms in may have shelter in excessively wet cold the north of Scotland, MrGeorge Brown, weather. It may not be practicable to provide shed accommodation for the

Watten Mains, Caithness, says : « On all hill farms there is more or

whole flock ; but in heavy rains it would less natural shelter, most of the ground

be well to have the weaker lambs drawn being interspersed with knolls and val out with their mothers and put under a roof, where they should be left over night while the ground is wet and cold. For this purpose, it will be found useful to have some artificial shelter provided at suitable points throughout the farms.

leys, and the high ground covered with heather, which forms excellent shelter for ewes and lambs. During the summer,

autumn, and winter, the ewes are kept out on the hilly ground, and the straths and glens are preserved until within a

ewe hirsels Little huts constructed perhaps of turf, fortnight of lambing. toThethese reserve

hurdles, and bundles of straw or rushes,

are then allowed access

d

will entail little outlay or trouble in for- pastures during the day, and are turned mation, and during inclement weather out again to the mossing or higher ground will be found of great benefit to the during the night. This fortnight of good ewes and lambs.

Ewes with weakly feeding brings on a flush of milk as soon

lambs can be accommodated comfort- as lambing takes place.

ably in these scattered huts for a few

“ Large hirsels are divided, 500 being

days and nights, the shepherd carrying the usual number in each, andthis num or having conveyed to them some hay and roots. It is desirable to have these huts at different points on the farm , so as to lessen the distance which ewes

ber are in charge of two shepherds who work together. Before lambing begins,

and weakly lambs have to be driven .

land to be lambed, or taken home to a

all the weak ewes, or those in low condi tion , are selected and either sent to arable

Before lambing begins the shepherd park which is usually found in connection should see that the means of shelter , with a pastoral farm, and there lambed, keb -houses, sheds, huts, or whatever name and fortified with extra feeding, being

and form they may take — are in good returned to their respective hirsels when

order, and sufficient for the probable they have regained sufficient strength. wants of the flock. If necessary, the This park, when lambing is concluded, is shepherd should receive assistance in pro- preserved, so that a cutting of hay is ob viding and repairing lambing shelter. A tained from it. On some farms there are lay or two of a man with a horse and three or four of these enclosures. • All weakly lambs are also taken from cart may be well bestowed upon this work, to convey hurdles, posts, bundles the hill ground to be treated specially in

74

SHEEP IN SPRING .

these home enclosures. After lambing, sheep - farmer will watch carefully the daily condition of affairs, and will not low ground on to the hill ground over hesitate to call in the aid of such ex night, where, amongst the heather and traneous food as roots and hay when the undulations, the ewes find comfortable time for its use has really arrived. A beds for themselves and their young. high death -rate, both of ewes and lambs, “ Late in the season when, through an occurs on many farms owing to the re

the ewes and lambs are driven from the

abundance of grass, the lambs become luctance and delay in resorting to hand

very big and strong before lambing, there feeding. This inhuman system cannot are often serious losses both of ewes and be commended. It cannot be profitable. To allow ewes to perish or to fall off

lambs.”

Hand -feeding for Ewes.— There is seriously in condition and in supply of much difference of opinion, and as great milk for the want of a handful of hay

variety of practice, amongst sheep-far- and a few roots, simply because the mers as to the feeding of ewes during animals may look for similar treatment stormy weather. It is contended, on the in after years, is short-sighted in the one hand, that hand -feeding should al- extreme.. Keep up the condition and

most, at all hazards, be avoided , for the vigour of the Hock at all hazards. If alleged reasons that, once indulged by liberal feeding does not pay, assuredly such treatment, the sheep will not again a starvation system will not. forage so well for themselves on the hill It is well to remember that if the pasture ; that hill pasture is not sufficient ewes are brought to the lambing in good ,

in quantity and quality to afterwards fresh, vigorous condition, there will be maintain in a thriving condition sheep the less likelihood of extensive hand

that have been once artificially fed, and feeding being then necessary. Ewes in that on this account when artificial food lamb should therefore be well wintered , is oncegiven it has to be continued every and never allowed to get low in con year. In former times this was no doubt dition or weakly. the prevailing idea ; but while it is still Just before lambing begins, it would both preached and practised by many ex- be well to draft out any ewes which perienced and successful farmers, yet it seem to be exceptionally thin in con

is certain that a more liberal and a more dition, and take these for lambing to artificial system of management is com- some low, well-sheltered field , where they ing into favour. may have good pasture or artificial food .

Assuredly the point is one which de-

For whatever extra or hand feeding

mands the most careful consideration.

may be necessary, hay and turnips are

No elaborate or universal system can be most suitable. Cake and corn may be laid down. Each season, and each set more speedily effectual in bringing round

of circumstances, must be considered

very weakly animals, but in their pamper

separately ; and the farmer must watch carefully the condition and progress of his flock, and his existing and probable supply of food, and decide for himself to what extent, if any, his ewes should be hand -fed. In itself the hand -feeding

ing influence on hill sheep these concen trated foods are more injurious than hay

and roots. Shepherds' Duties time.

at Lambing

The lambing season on hill

farms is a time of hard work and much

of hill sheep is unquestionably undesir- anxiety . As soon as lambing begins, the able. It should therefore be resorted to shepherd requires to see his flock three only in cases of necessity - when the times a -day. “ His first round is made at early

available supply of other food is mani-

festly inadequate, and with such ewes as dawn, before the sheep have left their to furnish their moorings ,' when any requiring attention are too thin and weakly cy lambs with a sufficien

of milk . can be readily noticed. Someshepherds With this consideration in view — that make this trip before breakfast, but this hand-feeding is to be resorted to only is not a good plan to adopt. When a

where it is necessary in order to ensure shepherd leaves his house he never knows as far as possible the full and uninter- how long he may be detained ; and going rupted progress of the young lambs — the out hungry may cause him to leave his

THE LAMBING SEASON .

work when he ought not to do so , especially in bad weather.

75

“ Lambs are, however, never taken from

On returning their dams if it can possibly be avoided.

from his rounds he brings home any Having keb -houses at various parts of the hill is of immense advantage at this time, and saves not only the shepherd a lot of un-

There is often some difficulty in getting the ewes to own them again , the natural odour by which they are recognised by

necessary work, but is much better for

tact with others of a different smell.

ewe that has lost her lamb.

the sheep every way.

the mother having been dissipated by the heat of the fire, or from coming in con A

Then there will better method of reviving chilled lambs

be a number of such stock in the hospital than warming them by the fire is to dip

individually requiring careful treatment, them in a tub of warm water, then, after all of which he needs to see before re- wiping dry, wrap in a woollen cloth, and turning to the house for a meal.

There

is no time for rest during the day, and

leave them beside the ewes in the keb house.

no sooner is one journey finished than “ On recovery , care must be taken to he starts on another, repeatingthe same accustom the lambs gradually to out morning, noon, and evening. Much de- door life. A sunny noon is a favourable pends on the weather, and the worse it time to set them out, but if the weather is the more need there is for exertion

continues cold they should be housed for

and daily perseverance, which the shep- a few nights, until they are strong enough herds, as a rule, never grudge in behalf to withstand the elements to which they of their flocks. are exposed ." "

2

“ In order to induce a ewe to take a

stranger lamb under her charge, the skin of her own dead lamb is flayed and put

After Lambing. Lambing is usually completed in four

on another lamb, when the smell of the

The after-treatment of or five weeks. the flock varies in accordance with the

old skin is usually enough to deceive and

induce her to take kindly to the new- class of sheep , and the objects in view .

comer. Instead of adopting this method, In pure-bred flocks, where ram -breeding which involves more or less labour, some- is carried on to some extent, the lambs to

times the ewe is milked, and the milk is be kept on as rams are early selected, rubbed over the skin of the lamb that and may be taken with their mothers to is to be transferred to her care ; and it is reserved pasture, where, from the out found that the smell of her own milk has set, the ewe and lamb receive liberal the same deceptive effect as the smell of treatment. Castration . — The male lambs not to the old skin .” 1

Reviving Hill Lambs. — Hill lambs be kept as rams are castrated when from are remarkably hardy, and when the ten days to five weeks old. In some ewes have plenty of milk, the young cases, indeed , castration is performed creatures make rapid progress .

when the lambs are only two or three

“ Their first andmost fatal enemy is days old, but the more general plan is cold or hunger. For reviving chilled to delay from two to four weeks. lambs the shepherd carries constantly in In hill stocks castration is not usually his bosom a bottle of warm milk, and performed until the lambs are fully a sometimes another containing gin or month old ; in other words, the ewes com

whisky, of which he supplies a mouthful mence to lamb in the third week in April, in extreme cases of weakness. Lambs and the “ marking " takes place about that are really prostrate with cold have end of May, varying a little according to be carried to some place of shelter. to circumstances and personal tastes.

Very often the shepherd's kitchen is Some farmers have a decided objection turned into a hospital for subjects of against too early castration, as it tends In a stormy day it is not to give a feminine appearance to the

this kind .

unusual to see 20 or 30 shivering lambs wedders, stunting the growth of horn, by his fireside, which his wife or children and weakening the neck too much . attend to while he is away on his rounds. Blackfaced Sheep, Scott, 118.

Great caution is required in castrating Ibid., 122 .

SHEEP IN SPRING.

76

lambs. It should not be done in rainy, cold, or frosty weather ; nor should the lambs be heated by being driven before the operation. It is best performed early in the morning, in fresh weather, with a westerly breeze. The ewes and lambs

the scrotum smooth ; and cutting through the integuments of the scrotum, with a sharp penknife in the right hand, first to one testicle and then the other, he pro trudes both testicles forward with both hands, and seizes first one testicle with

should be driven gently into the sorting- his teeth, drawing out the spermatic folds, the ewes being run out and the cord until it breaks, and then treating

lambs held back. One assistant should the other testicle in the same manner ; catch the lambs, and another hold them and, on adjusting the wounded scrotum , while the shepherd operates. It is not the operation is finished. Describing the system in the north , easy to catch the leg of a lamb with a

sheep's crook , their small active limbs Mr George Brown, Watten Mains, Caith easily escaping through the loop ; but it ness, says: " The pen is provided with may be effectually used in hooking the a half -door, outside of which stand front of the neck, when the captor rushes the cutter and holder. The catcher in upon the lamb and secures it. But enters the pen and catches the lambs

the historic crook is now seldom used for anyway or anyhow : no man who knows will hurt a lamb, and a novice this purpose,as the lambs when confined hiswork will soon learn by looking on. The

may be easily caught without it. On arable land, where there is no permanent catcher hands the lamb over the half fold , a few hurdles may be set up in the door to the holder, who waits until the

corner of the field and the lambs enclosed cutter completes operations, —the latter using one knife for castrating and another

there, and let out as castrated .

Castration may be performed in this for docking, and then lets it down out way : Let the assistant hold up the side the fold, where it quickly joins its back of the body of the lamb against his mother.”

Another mode of castrating lambs is to cut off the point of the scrotum , and extract both testicles through the large opening.

The amputated wound takes

a considerable time to heal, whereas the two simple incisions heal by the first

intention. It is argued , however, by those who prefer the latter plan, that there is an advantage in the larger open

ing, as all discharges are more readily got rid of. Whereas when the smaller wounds heal with the first intention there would be no outlet for pus re sulting from suppuration , and inflamma

tion would therefore be likely to ensue. Both methods are largely pursued. The penknife should be clean and sharp, and Fig. 248.--Mode of holding a lambfor castration . a Scrotum .

c Tail.

the whole operation should be quickly performed

Docking.- Advantage is taken of the

left breast and shoulder, and with each opportunity afforded at castration to dock hand raise a hind -leg towards the body, the tail, which in Scotland is left as long securing them by the shank ; while, to as to reach the meeting of the hams. In prevent farther struggling, a fore-leg is docking, the division should be made held firmly in connection with a hind one with a large sharp knife in a joint, when of the same side. The effect of this the wound will soon heal. The lamb, arrangement is to exhibit the scrotum to after being docked, is let down to the full view, as well represented in fig. 248. ground by the tail, which has the effect The shepherd with his left hand then of adjusting the parts in connection causes the testicles to make the point of with the castration. Ewe lambs are

THE LAMBING SEASON.

77

also docked at this time, but they are factory. This practice is pooh-poohed by not held up, being merely caught and some veterinary surgeons; but when a held by the shepherd between his legs farmer who uses such a simple and until the amputation is done. inexpensive mixture very rarely has a

In England, docking is performed at death amongst his lambs, whilst his the third joint, which gives a stumpy neighbour, who does not use anything, appearance to the tail. The object of loses 5 to 10 per cent, we think he is docking is to keep the sheep clean behind justified in pursuing his own course. from filth and vermin ; but as the tail is

Perhaps a still better preventive of in

a protection against cold in winter, it flammation would be a few drops of a should not be docked so short in Scotland

solution of carbolic acid and oil poured

as is done in England. Tup lambs, in into the scrotum . order to strengthen the back -bone, are

Rig or Chaser . — Sometimes one of

allowed to retain their full tails until the testicles does not descend into the one year old. Risks from Castration and Dock-

scrotum, when the lamb ultimately be comes what is called a rig or chaser - one

ing. — The scrotum does not bleed in which constantly follows and torments castration, but the tail often bleeds in the females of the flock, when near him , docking for some time in two minute from insatiable desire. It is not, as and forcible streams, though usually the a rule, safe to rely upon such a ram for bleeding soon stems. Should it continue breeding, although we have known of as long as to sicken the lamb, a small his becoming a successful and prolific cord should be tied firmly round the end sire. His career should be soon put an of the tail, but not allowed to remain

end to.

If one testicle comes into the

on above twenty -four hours, as the liga- scrotum and is taken away, or if neither

tured point would die by stoppage of the comes en down, the ram may be regarded circulation of the blood, and slough off.

In some instances inflammation ensues ,

as barr

.

Lambing Risks . — Ewes and lambs

and the scrotum swells, and even sup- are subject to several risks during the purates, when the wound should be care- first four or five weeks. When they

fully examined, the matter discharged , and have passed through them in safety, the shepherd may calculate on his results , The advantage of performing the oper- whether he has increased the breeding

the wound soon heals .

ation in the morning is, that the several part of his flock in the proportion it cases may be observed during the day ; should have increased . He is not satis and should the weather have changed for fied with his exertions if he has lost a

the worse towards the afternoon, the single ewe in lambing. What number of ewes, with the lambs that have just been lambs he should have to every hundred cut, should be brought under shelter over ewes will vary greatly with the breed and

night.

Besides the state of the weather, other circumstances.

one cause of inflammation is the scratch-

The death of single lambs is a vexa

ing of the wounds in the scrotum by the points of the stubble amongst the new grass ; and this irritation is most likely to be aggravated when castration has been performed by cutting off the point

tious matter to a shepherd, as not only breaking pairs, but imposing considerable trouble on himself in mothering lambs of stranger ewes. Yet the trouble must be undertaken, so as to retain the ewes in

of the scrotum .

milk that have lost their lambs, and thus To avoid this source of irritation, the maintain them in the breeding state for new -cut lambs should be put on new future years. Hence the shepherd's an

grass, where the stubble has been shorn xiety to save the lives of single lambs, by a reaping-machine, or on old grass, and hence, also, his pride in preserving for a few days. A Preventive.

Some farmers use a

pairs. Bad Weather and Lambing.—In

mixture of pure olive oil and spirit of turpentine for dropping into the scrotum after extracting the testicles, and the results, to themselves at least, are satis-

fine steady weather the shepherd's labour is comparatively easy ; but when stormy or wet weather prevails, or comes at un expected intervals, the number of lamb

78

SHEEP IN SPRING.

ings are not only accelerated , but every afterwards in fine growing weather, will ewe creates more trouble, even in the yield a heavier crop of hay than if it had day-time. Daylight has many eyes,” not been pastured in spring at all. Al

and permits him to observe casualties in though the whole of the young grass on time to evade their effects ; but at night, a farm , pastured lightly with ewes and in bad weather, with glimmering light, lambs inthe spring, were to grow , as the season advances, more rapidly than the convinced that every owner of a large ewes could keep it down, it will never difficulties increase tenfold ; and we are

flock would find it repay him at the end produce the fine sweet fresh pasture of the lambing season, by preserving the which field after field will yield that has number of lambs and ewes, to afford the been eaten down in succession, and then

shepherd assistance in the busiest period left to grow for a time. Caution in Changing Ewes on of the lambing, and especially in bad weather. Pasture. — But in removing ewes and Look to the Pastures. The state of lambs from a short to a full bite of grass , the new grass -fields occupied by ewes and caution is required in choosing the proper lambs requires consideration. Ewes bite time for the removal. It should be done very close to the ground, and eat con- in dry weather, and in the afternoon ;

stantly as long as the lambs are with because continued damp or rainy or cold them ; and as they are put on the new wet weather renders new grass so succu grass in spring, before vegetation is much lent and fermentable that it is almost

advanced , they soon render the pasture and especially so when the weather is unfavourable to vegetation . In cold weather, in spring, bitten grass soon becomes brown . Whenever the pasture is seen bare in the most favourable circumstances,

certain to produce the green skit in the lambs, although that sort of weather in creases the milk of the ewes.

In the af

ter part of the day the ewes have not time

to eat too much grass before nightfall. No Lambing on Carse Farms. to fail, the ewes should be removed to Carse farms have, as a rule, neither a

another field ; for if the plants are allowed to be bitten into the heart in the early part of the year, the greater part of sum mer will pass ere they will attain any vigour. In steady growing weather there need be little apprehension of failure in the pasture. At the same time, over-

standing nor a flying stock of ewes, and consequently have no lambing season ; neither have farms in the neighbourhood

of large towns, nor dairy farms, nor pas toral farms for the breeding of cattle alone. Ewes and lambs are thus found chiefly on pastoral farms devoted to the

stockinggrass should be avoided at all breeding of lambs, and on farms of mixed times. It not only incurs the risk of the husbandry. clover plants being bitten into the heart, but the pasture soon becomes foul with

Shepherding on Arable Farms.

On low country or arable farms with the the dung of the sheep . Of the sown softer breeds of sheep, from 200 to 300 pastures, consisting chiefly of red clover ewes are about as many as one shep

and rye- grass, the clover is always accept- herd can superintend during the day, to able to sheep ; and in the early part of render them the assistance they may the season young shoots of rye -grass are stand in need of ; to place the new much relished by ewes.

lambed ewes and lambs in shelter until

Rest beneficial to Pasture . — On re- they have both gained strength, and are

moving the ewes from the first to the able to take to the pasture; and, in case second field, it is better to eat the first down as low as it safely can be for the plants, and then leave it unstocked for at least a fortnight, to allow the young plants to spring again, which they will do with

of bad weather, to supply them with tur nips and hay, to enable them to support their lambs until the weather improves. If one shepherd fulfils these duties in the day, he does quite enough ; so that it

vigour, and with a much closer bottom ,

will be necessary to have an assistant for

than to pasture every field for a longer him in the night, to gather the ewes into time with fewer stock. Such a field, shelter at nightfall, and to take a weakly

eaten down to the end of May or begin- lamb, or all the lambs that have dropped ning of June, and then allowed to spring during the night, into sheds erected on

THE LAMBING SEASON.

79

purpose, or into sheltered stells,as a pro- It is not by walking much, and doing a tection against bad weather. To ascer- great deal, that a shepherd is a good tain the state of his flock, he should go one ; but it is knowing where to walk , through them with a lantern at least so as to disturb the sheep the least, and

everytwo hours, and oftener if necessary. by doing at the time whatever is neces Shepherding Hill Sheep . — The hardy

sary to be done. There is not an expe

breeds of hill sheep need less attention, rienced shepherd, who has been any especially during the night. Indeed, the length of time on one farm , who does general plan is to leave the flock undis- not, as soon as he rises in the morning, and observing the state of the weather, know almost to a certainty where to find the dry lair over night, and there the every sheep on the hill, and will ac turbed during the dead of the night

The ewes and lambs are turned out to

shepherd looks over them carefully, per- cordingly take his course to the places haps as late as eleven o'clock, while he where he knows his presence is most or his substitute returns to them as early wanted. “ The object in looking over a hill as 3 or 4 A.M., when daylight is making its appearance. If the lair is dry and every evening and morning, is to ascer free from holes, into which young lambs tainif there be no trespassers nor disease

the sheep which require looking might fall and get drowned, mishaps among after. If

rarely occur amongsthill sheep in lamb-

any of

your own or neighbour's

ing,anda prudenthill shepherd disturbs sheep have trespassed, it is very foolish his breeding flock as little as possible. to dog or abuse them, for the more Hill Shepherds.—The observations gently you can turn them back the of Little on the qualifications of a hill better. If the boundary should be on

shepherd are valuable, as containing the of aheight, to draw apt top is better to turn at night,to it whichsheepare

much good practical sense. “ Much , he says, “ of the success in sheep-

your own a littlecloser to the boundary

farming depends on the skill and ap- in the afternoon than to turn back your neighbour's, and it will answer the same purpose ; and if the two flocks are gently situation of a shepherd is one of con- divided in the morning, without dogs,

plication of shepherds, as well as on

the judgment of farmers.

As

the

siderable trust, he ought to be honest, they will become so well acquainted with active , useful , and of a calm temper ; for theirown side, that at thevery sight of if at any time a shepherd gets into a the shepherd they will take to it without passion with his sheep, it is attended further trouble.. with great disadvantage in herding, or “Those shepherds who dog, force, and in working among them . I have known shed much about a march , I consider a hasty, passionate man, with a rash them as bad herds for their masters as

dog, give himself double the trouble in for the neighbouring farmer. If the managing a hirsel of sheep, besides abus- boundary be a brook or low ground, ing the sheep, that a calm good -tempered where the sheep graze in the middle of man, with a sagacious close-mouthed dog, the day, and if trespasses are likely to would have had in the same circumstances .

be considerable, the same plan of turning the sheep should be taken as on the

“The qualification required in taking height, except that they are to be turned care of a hirsel of sheep , is, not in run- down in themorning, and set out in the

ning, hounding, and training dogs, nor afternoon. “When a sheep dies on the hill, or kind, but in directing them according to any disease appears among them, the

in performing a day's work of any other

the soil, climate, and situation of the dead or diseasedsheep should be removed farm , in such a manner as they shall immediately, but particularly so if the obtain the greatest quantity of food at all disease is of an infectious nature. seasons of the year.

Their health and

Look

ing regularly over a hill is of great con

comfort should be carefully looked after sequence, also, in case of any sheep fall by the shepherd ; and if his exertions ing into a ditch, or lamb losing its mother,

are made with judgment, they are of or when they are annoyed by flies or very great consequence to the farmer.

maggots, or by foxes or dogs worrying

80

SHEEP IN SPRING.

them, or when they fall on their back and cannot get up again .

“ All these incidents an active shepherd

Abortion among Ewes. Ewes in lamb are liable to abortion,

with a good eye will soon discover , how- or slipping of the lamb, as it is termed, ever much a flock may be scattered over as well as the cow, but not to so great a farm . an extent, nor is the complaint consid

“ In good weather the shepherd may ered epidemical in the sheep. Various the ewes in the lambing season ; but in in winter, having to endure much fatigue bad weather it is the farmer's interest to in snow , leaping ditches, being frightened afford every necessary assistance, for the by dogs, over-driving, feeding on unripe possibly do all that can be done among causes produce it, such as severe weather

want of which, serious losses have often watery turnips, &c. been incurred . . .

Great Outbreak in Lincolnshire.

Knowing sheep by head -mark often In the winter and spring of 1883, a saves a shepherd much trouble, particu- serious outbreak of abortion and pre larly in the lambing season , and at all mature birth occurred in the flocks of

sortings of the sheep ; yet there are many Lincolnshire ; and an investigation , car good shepherds who do not know sheep by head-marks, and there are some very ordinary ones who have a talent in that way. Every individual may be known

ried out on behalf of the Royal Agri cultural Society by Professor J. Wortley Axe, brought out information and con clusions of considerable value.? The by the stock mark. inquiry extended to 106 flocks, number “ To possess the knack of counting ing 51,475 ewes. Of these, 6234, or sheep readily is of no small service to a about 12 per cent, aborted, and 1494 shepherd, for he ought always to be able died. to count his flock when he makes his

Causes of the Outbreak.-Professor

rounds on the hill. There are few shepherds, who accustom themselves to count sheep , who cannot, wherever they meet with them on a hill, count 100 going at

Axe arrived at the conclusion that the outbreak of abortion was not produced by any special and particular cause, but by the concurrent operation of several

large, or even 200 ; and it seldom happens hurtful influences of a common character. that a greater number than 200 will be found together in an open hirsel. To

These he enumerates as follows : “ First and foremost stands the mis

know the number in the different lots is chievous and fatal practice of feeding

of great use in case of a hasty blast, as pregnant ewes exclusively on unripe wateryroots, and especially on unwhole

you can, in that event, know almost to a certainty whether or not any sheep are wanting, and from what part of the farm . “ A shepherd ought likewise to be able to do any kind of work about a sheep -farm , such as cutting lambs, smear-

by 66protracted foot-rot. Thirdly, exposure to cold winds and heavy continuous rains.

ing, slaughtering, dressing for the market,

“ Fourthly, fatigue arising out of the

some filth -laden shells. CG

‘Secondly, pain and suffering caused

repairing stone-dykes, cleaning out drains, deep and sticky state of theground. ” Unripe Roots and Abortion . The mowing grass, making hay, casting and winning peat-turf for fuel, &c.; but he clearest evidence as to the evil influence

at no time to neglect the sheep of exclusive feeding of in-lamb ewes upon ought for such work. unripe watery roots was obtained by “ Shepherds are generally accounted Professor Axe. The turnip crop in that lazy ; but those who really care for their season was unusually abundant, and, sheep will not be so.

Much walking owing to the mild winter of 1882-1883,

unfits a man for hard labour, as much continued to grow , and remained through as hard labour unfits a man for much out the season in an unripe and excep

walking ; but labourers will generally be tionally watery condition.

Of the total

found more lazy on a hill, or among number of ewes (about 7800) fed exclus sheep, than shepherds at field -work.” i 1 Little's Prac. Obser. Mount. Sheep, 79-86 .

2 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc . Eng ., vol. xxi. ( 1885 ), 199.

1

THE LAMBING SEASON .

81

ively on roots, no fewer than 19 per cent fresh break should be given every day aborted ; while, where theroots were sup- after the hoar-frost has disappeared, and plemented by frequent changes to grass, in the early spring the tops should be the rate of abortion fell to 3 per cent

and to 174 per cent where the roots were

removed . “ 3. Change from the fold to the open

supplemented by corn and cake, or some pasture twice or thrice a-week, or for a other substantial aliment.

Significant few hours each day, if convenient, is

enough , surely ! desirable, and especially when the lair In reference to the high -pressure sys- is bad . tem of forcing the growth of roots by the “ 4. Protection from cold winds and

free application of artificial manures, and driving rains should be provided in the growing practice of sowing roots late, stormy weather. and beginning their consumption early, “ 5. Plenty of trough -room should be

Professor Axe remarks that these are provided, and ample space allowed for the inconsistent with full maturation and

ewes to fall back .

ripening of roots, and that on this ac" 6. All troughs should be shifted count " the desirability of a guarded daily, and set well apart. and judicious employment of this de“ 7. Dry food should be given at the scription of food in the management of same time as the fresh breakof roots, to

breeding stock cannot be too forcibly prevent crowding at the troughs. insisted upon

“ 8. Rock - salt should be at all times .” He also very strongly objects to the accessible. “too common system which condemns “ 9. Animals suffering from foot-rot,

pregnant ewes to live exclusively on

or other forms of lameness, should be re

filth -laden shells ” behind other sheep, moved from the fold, and placed on dry which get the best of the fresh roots. litter, and receive such other attention as >

Foot - rot and

Abortion .

It was

shown clearly that foot -rot contributed

the nature of the case may indicate ." Mr Henry Woods on Abortion.

largely to the cases of abortion. In flocks Sheep-farmers have derived much benefit where it prevailed to any extent the rate from the investigations regarding abor of abortion was 472 per cent greater than tion in ewes which havebeen conducted in those in which there was no foot-rot. by Mr Henry Woods of Merton, Thetford, Twins and Abortion . — The cases of Norfolk , agent to Lord Walsingham . He

abortion were much more numerous with collected and published a mass of valu twin than with single lambs. Indeed, able information on the management of for every abortion with a single there breeding-flocks and the causes of the pre were six abortions with twin-lambs- valent and excessive loss of ewes from

pointing, as Professor Axe says, “ to the abortion — the facts having been gathered

existence of some debilitating cause un- from four hundred flock -masters in all fitting the ewes with twins to meet the parts of the kingdom . In fifty cases of greater demands on their nutritive re- sheep management, where the feeding

sources, while influencing in a less degree and results were satisfactory, there were those with singles.” Preventive Measures . -As the re-

25,281 ewes ; in that number the cases of abortion amounted to 126, and the

sults of his investigations into this Lin- deaths from all causes during the breed

colnshire outbreak of abortion, Professor ing season were 222. In fifty unsatisfac Axe submitted the following recommen- tory cases, there were 21,682 ewes ; and dations, with the view of avoiding similar in these returns, twenty-two farmers had occurrences :

very heavy losses, while twenty - eight

“ 1. That from the time ewes are

stated a total of abortions amounting to placed on turnips to the time when they 1884. In forty of the reports there were lamb down, they should receive a liberal totalled 1255 deaths.

Thus, fifty satis

amount of dry food, to be regulated ac- factory cases showed i abortion and not cording to the nature of the season and quite 1/2 deaths for every 200 ewes ; the condition of the roots. whereas the other cases showed 17772

“ 2. The quantity of roots should at all abortions and 11 % deaths for every 200 times be limited, and besides shells, a ewes, though nearly one-half the abor VOL . II.

F

SHEEP IN SPRING .

82

tions and one-fifth of the deaths were not my returns to be greatest where short woolled ewes have been put to long Mr Woods on Preventing Abortion . woolled rams. The evidence, I say, is

recorded.

-In his general conclusions, Mr Woods unquestionable that greater mortality remarks:

attends lambing where short - woolled

“ A most careful analysis of the returns --- in making which I have had some able assistance—shows that sheep fed on turnips now are not so healthy as sheep were when fed on turnips some years ago. As

ewes are put to large-boned, long -woolled rams, than where the ewes breed after their own kind. Where cross-bred ewes are served by Oxford Down rams, the loss of ewes has been less than in the case

you will have imagined, and as it needs of the short-woolled ewes served by long no philosopher to tell you, ewes fed on woolled rams ; and I presume the reason grass are much more healthy than when is that the half -bred ewes, having their fed on turnips. parts more fully developed from the cross, “ It is very evident that sheep are not are the better adapted to perform the so healthy as they used to be. One functions required of them .” reason is, I think, the land being farmed Youаtt on Abortion . It is stated

more highly for turnips; and I have ' by Youatt, that too liberal use of salt repeatedly remarked that we lose more will produce abortion . It is scarcely sheep after a heavy crop of turnips. I possible to predicate abortion in sheep, do not think the artificial manure of itself on account of their woolly covering, but is the cause, beyond forcing a turnip into its immediate effects of dulness on the a bad quality, which frequently causes us ewe, and of a redness under the tail, will

great loss just at lambing -time. I think it must be clear to any personwho has followed my remarks in giving details of cases, that swedes are proved to be unhealthy food for breeding-ewes. I might have adduced many other cases from my returns confirmatory of this. In the few

be symptoms noticed by an observant shepherd. “ The treatment after abor tion,” observes Youatt, “ will depend en tirely on the circumstances of the case. If the fætus had been long dead, proved by the fetid smell of it, and of the vagi naldischarge, the parts should be washed

instances where the ewes have done well with a weak solution in water ( 1 to 16)

when feeding onswedes, the daily supply of the chloride of lime, some of which has been limited, and there has almost may also be injected into the uterus. If invariably been an allowance of other fever should supervene, a dose of Epsom food - as hay-chaff, with a liberal admix- salts, timeously administered , will remove the symptoms. If debility and want of

ture of bran.

“ I believe that the verdict of a large appetite should remain, a little gentian

majority of the thinking and practi- and ginger, with small doses of Epsom cal farmers and experienced shepherds salts, will speedily restore the animal. throughout the country will be this, — Care should be taken that the food shall that if we make it a rule to flush our

ewes by stimulating food during the tupping season, to avoid feeding on swedes

not be too nutritive or too great in quan tity.” Ailments among Lambs. — Young

as much as possible, to limit the supply lambs, as long as they are dependent on of other roots as far as circumstances will their mother for food, are subject to few permit, to give a fairly liberal allowance diseases.

A change to new luxuriant

of digestible, nutritious, and health -pre- grass in damp weather may bring on the serving dry food, and to run theewes out skit or diarrhea, and exposure to cold on grass as much as possible ( taking care may produce the same effect. As long never to over-fatigue them ) before lamb- as the lamb feeds and plays, there is little

ing, there will in future be far fewer danger ; but should it appear dull, its cases of abortion and death amongst ewes eyes watery and heavy, and its joints

than we have now to deplore, and many somewhat stiff, remedial means should more strong and healthy lambs will be immediately be used . “ A gentle aperi reare than prese d

at

nt.

ent is first indicated in order to carry off

“ One other point is this. The ewes any offensive matter that may have accu lost during lambing would appear from mulated in and disturbed the bowels ;

THE LAMBING SEASON .

83

half an ounce of Epsom salts, with half panied with fever that may be dangerous. a drachm of ginger, will constitute the Half-ounce doses of Epsom salts should best aperient that can be administered. be administered every 6 hours until the

To that must be added 1 table-spoonful bowels are evacuated, after which both of sheep's cordial, consisting of equal ewe and lamb should be turned into more parts of brandy and sweet spirits of nitre, succulent pasture, as the cause of the complaint is to be found in bare pasture housing and nursing .” Butthere is a species of apparent purg- in dry weather. In cases of fever, which

ing, which is a more dangerous disease may be observed from the dulness of the “ In the natural and lamb and its quick breathing, the admin

than the skit,

healthy state of the milk and stomach, istration of tolerable doses ofEpsom salts curd produced by the gastric juice gra- will generally avert the malady at its dually dissolves and is converted into commencement. " chyme; but when the one takes on a Inflammation

in Ewe's Udder.

morbid hardness, and the other may have After recovery from lambing, the com lost a portion of its energy, the stomach is literally filled with curd , and all its functions suspended . The animal labours under seeming purging, from the quan-

plaint the ewe is most subject to is in flammation in the udder, or udder-clap or garget. Of this complaint Youatt gives a good idea of its origin and of

tity of whey discharged, but the actual its treatment : “ The shepherd , and disease is constipation . It is apt tooccur especially in the early period of suckling, about the timewhen the lamb begins to should observe whether any of the ewes graze, and when the function of the are restless and exhibit symptoms of

stomach is naturally somewhat deranged. Chemistry teaches us, that while a free acid produces coagulation of the milk , an alkali will dissolve that coagulum . Mag-

pain when the lambs are sucking, or will not permit them to suck at all. The

nesia, therefore, should be administered,

udder during the time of suckling, caused

ewe, like the cow , or oftener than that

animal, is subject to inflammation of the

suspended in thin gruel, or ammonia either by the hardness or dryness of the largely diluted with water, and with them soil on which she lies ; or, on the other

should be combined Epsom salts to hurry hand, by its too great moisture and filth, the dissolved mass along, and ginger to or by some tendency to general inflam excite the stomach to more powerful con- mation and determination to the udder

traction . Read's stomach-pump will be by the bumps and bruises, sometimes not found a most valuable auxiliary here. A alittle severe, from the head of the lamb. perseverance in the use of these means If there is any refusal on the part of the will sometimes be attended with success ; ewe, or even disinclination, to permit the and the little patient being somewhat re- young one to suck, she must be

ght

lieved, the lamb and the mother should and examined. There will generally be be moved to somewhat better pasture."

found redness and enlargement and ten Watery food in the lambing season derness of one or both of the teats, or

lays the foundation of a bad quality of sometimes the whole of the udder, and blood, and probably causes a number of several small distinct kernels or tumours deaths in the flock .

on different parts of the bag. “ Besides looseness, lambs are at times “ The udder should be cleared of the subject to costiveness in the bowels. In wood which surrounds it, and should be

the first few days of its existence the fæces they void has a very viscid consistence, which, when it falls on the tail, has the effect of gluing it to the vent and of stopping up that passage. On the removal of the obstruction by scraping with a knife, the symptom will also be removed. A worse species of costiveness

well fomented with warm water, a dose of Epsom salts administered , and then, if there are no large distinct knots or kernels, she should be returned to her lamb, whose sucking and knocking about of the udder will contribute, more than any other means, to the dispersion of the tumour and the regular flow of milk.

is, when a few drops of liquid fæces fall It may occasionally be necessary to con occasionally to the ground accompanied fine her in a pen with her little one, in by straining, as it is generally accom- order that it may have a fair chance to

84

SHEE

P IN SPRING .

A day, however, having passed, labour, or has a weakly lamb, or has and she not permitting it to suck, the twins which are apt to stray from her lamb must be taken away, the fomenta- or she from them , or has been overtaken

suck .

tion renewed ,and an ointment, composed by a rude blast immediately after lamb of 1 drachm of camphor rubbed down with ing, a contrivance to afford such a ewe a few drops of spirit of wine, I

drachm of mercurial ointment, and

d

I oz. of elder ointment, well incor

porated together, must be rubbed into the affected part, or the whole

of the udder, 2 or 3 times a -day. She must also be bled, and the phy

sic repeated.

If the udder should

continue to enlarge, and the heat and tenderness should increase, and the knots and kernels become more nume

rous and of greater size, and some of them should begin to soften or evi dently to contain a fluid , no time mustbe lost, for this disease is abun dantly more rapid in its progress in

the sheep than in the cow . A deep incision must be made into that part of the udder where the swellings are ripest, the pus or other matter squeezed out, and the part well fomented gain . To this should suc-

Fig. 249. - Ewe and lamb house. a Movable front of box, with hooks.

b Manger within .

c Rack for hay . d Broad lid with hinges. e Fork to assist in abing.

ceed a weak solution of the chloride

of lime, with which the ulcer should be temporary shelter, used byNicholas Bur

well bathed 2 or 3 times in the day. nett, Blaik Hedley, near Gateshead, and When all fetid smell ceases, and the illustrated in fig. 249, seems to deserve wound looks healthy, the friar's balsam notice. It consists of an enclosure of may be substituted for the chloride of boards, or a box, whereof the front re moves by hooks at the sides to admit the

lime.

“ The progress of disorganisation and ewe and her lamb within, and where she

the processof healing are almost in- is provided with a manger to contain credibly rapid in these cases, and the sliced turnips or oilcake, and a rack for lamb may sometimes be returned to the hay, to fill both of which access is ob mother in the course of a few days. tained by a broad lid movable on its

There are particular seasons, especially hinges. The box is light, and can be damp and warm ones, when there is à easily carried to any spot, and it might peculiarly frequent and fatal. Without ewes warning, the udder swells universally perish from exposure.

means of saving the lives bothof superfluity of grass, in which garget is be theand lambs which would otherwise with hardened teats, which sometimes

The size of this ewe-house, as it is

bring on great inflammation ; and if that called , may be made to suit that of the is not stopped in the course of 24 hours, sheep bred on the farm ; and as it is not

part, if not the whole, of the udder costly, any number can be made to be mortifies, and the mortification rapidly used at a time. A useful size will be spreads, and the sheep dies.” 1 Ewe and Lamb Box.—In case of an

found to be the following : Length, 5 feet 6 inches ; breadth , 3 feet ; height,

individual ewe, of a large flock of a pastor- 3 feet ; breadth of the covered part, 2 al farm , which has strayed a considerable feet 7 inches ; and rise of its slope, 7 distance from the shed erected to afford inches. The fork leaning against the shelter to ewes, or has suffered in hard side of the ewe-house may be used to grasp a ewe's neck, while lying on the 1 Youatt's Sheep, 497-515 .

ground, and to fasten it down while the

THE LAMBING SEASON .

85

shepherd is lambing her without other feet in length, the depth of the sides assistance ; but holding a ewe down be- being 15 inches a shifting head with tween the heel and knee renders such an unequal sides, one being 18 inches, the implement of little use. other 30 inches long, fixed by iron pins

Preparing Ewes for Railway Tran passing through 2 pairs of eyes attached velling. - Ewes with lambs at foot, un-

to the head and to the sides of the plough

accustomed to oilcake or hay, will get respectively, so as to bring the point of dry of milk on being sent on a long the attached head of the plough nearly journey by steam or rail. But if accus- into the line of its upper side, or next tomed with oilcake before, they will eat the hill. A stilt at the same time was made movable by a hinge - joint at its it readily on board ship or truck.

Snow in Lambing. — One of the anterior extremity, fixed to the bottom greatest sources of loss among lambs on

of the head from the post, so as to be

hill farms is a fall of snow at the lambing capable of being fixed to a cross-bar or season, and a continuance of it after that stretcher, either in the line bisecting the

period.

Ground rendered wet by the angle, which is the position for level

melting of new -fallen snow is in a worse ground, or in the line, alternately, of state for lambs than when wetted by

either of the sides, when to be used on

rain, as rain falls at a higher tempera- a declivity.

A draught-chain is fixed,

ture. Wet ground of any kind, however, not to the shifting head, but to the is inimical to the safety of new -dropped upright frame-post, in the nose of the lambs.

plough, which rises 10 or 12 inches above The driest part of the farm , combined the mould -boards. “When the plough so constructed is with shelter, should be chosen for the

lambing-ground, though it may be incon- to be worked along a declivity, with the venient in other respects. But should left hand towards the hill, the shorter the best lambing-groundbe covered with limb of the shifting head is fixed on the old snow , and in a sheltered spot, and left side of the plough, near the point, the temperature of the air above the and the longer limb on the right side, freezing-point, the snow might be re- towards the middle ; and the stilt being fixed in the left extremity of the cross

moved .

Snow -plough . — A snow -plough would bar, nearly in a line with the temporary prove useful in its removal. The snow- point, the plough is necessarily drawn plough, fig. 250, is thus described by Mr in the direction of its left side, so as to throw the snow wholly to the right down the hill.

“ When the plough is to return across the declivity, with its right side to the hill, the movable head is detached by drawing out the linch -pins, is turned upside down, and fixed in the reverse position ; the shorter limb being at tached to the rightside, and the longer Fig . 250.- Mountain turn -wrist snow.plough . ſ Post for stilt, with a a Theplough. hinge -joint, and for bed Shifting-head . draught-chain. be Head , 18 inches long. e Stretcher or cross -bar. bd Head , 30 inches long. dh Mould -board in this g Stilt, movable. arrangement.

to the left side of the plough, while the stilt is brought to the right extremity of the cross-bar. The plough is then drawn in the direction of the right side, and the snow is thrown wholly to the left, nes

the lower side.

Should the

Hepburn of Culquhailzie: "To enable lower side of the plough show a tend the plough to clear tracks for the sheep ency to rise, it mayeither be held down along the hillsides, it is necessary it by a second movable stilt, fixed to the should be made to throw the snow

wholly to the lower side.

middle of the cross-bar, or a block of

To effect this, wood or other ballast weight may be

I caused to be fitted to the plough — the placed on that side of the plough. The body of which forms an isoceles triangle, plough will be found to remove con whose sides are 772 feet and its base 6 siderably more than its own depth of

SHEEP IN SPRING .

86

When a plough of 1 foot high net 1 /2 -inch mesh upon a double row snow . passes through snow 18 inches or 2 feet of ordinary net-stakes, care being taken deep, very little of the snow falls back to have the bag of the net low enough into the track, and what does so fall to prevent the sheep from passing under

is easily cleared out by the plough in it.

A hay-rack which will last for years,

and of any desired length, may thus be

returning." Snow- harrow . — The snow - harrow ,

fig. 251 , consists of a single bull, 42

made at a moderate cost.

But many think the best way of giving

inches square, and 6 feet long ; and in hay to ewes during a snowstorm is to the middle of which , on the under side, lay it out in lines on the snow. Hill a piece of 1 /4 -inch plank, 3 feet long, is sheep will not, as a rule, eat hay unless they are confined, or the ground is d

covered with snow.

Sheep on Turnips. — The manage ment of sheep on turnips in spring differs very little from that in winter, which has been fully discussed.

Produce of Lambs. Single and Twin Lambs. - As to the probable produce of lambs, the fol lowing remarks by Professor Wrightson will be read with interest : “ The num plank. to attached d Stilt . ee 7 Long cutters

Fig . 251. - Mountain snow -harrow . a b Bull. c Plank , on which is

the draught-hook.

56 Short cutters.

sunk flush transversely, for the attachment of a draught-hook and a stilt to steady the motion of the implement. In the bull are fixed, by screw -nuts atintervals of 10 inches, 7 cutters, & c., 9 inches

ber of twins or of single lambs is an im portant matter affecting the profits of sheep -farming. An abundance of twins is a matter for congratulation, but is not an unmixed advantage. They will not attainthe size of single lambs for salein the following autumn; the ewes require

long and 138 inch broad , sabre-shaped, more food, and are often more reduced in with their points turned backwards, so condition through suckling, and the strain as to be less liable to be arrested by upon the mother is heavy, especially in obstacles on the surface of the ground. the case of two - tooths. Still, a good Between these cutters are fixed six many twins are required in order to keep

shorter ones, 3 inches long, having their up the number of lambs,which is liable points turned forwards. This implement, to drawbacks from death , barrenness,and dragged by one horse ridden by a boy, slipping. Twins give the opportunity to and the stilt held by a man, cuts the the shepherd of dividing them , and thus frozen snow into stripes of 5 or 6 inches supplying lambs to ewes which have lost broad, which are easily pulverised by the their own offspring, and which, otherwise, feet of the sheep, or divided by the snow- would go as barreners. Crop of Lambs.— “ Without a fair plough. In lowland farms the snow remains proportion of twins we should unques

around the fences long after the middle tionably suffer from a short supply of of the fields are clear. A speedy means lambs, even upon the assumption of a of getting rid of the snow is to cut it with lamb to a ewe throughout the flock. the common plough repeatedly. Hay -rack for Storm . - A cheap and

This apparently modest estimate is by no means always realised, in spite of twins,

most portable sheep hay -rack or heck for as barren and aborted ewes may easily

a storm , is the cart-horse hay -net, which constitute 5 per cent of a flock, and can be fixed in spite of wind and drift, often double that proportion. Deaths also fre and will save hundreds of sheep where among very young lambs are statement there is hay. Seven or eight sheep can quent, so that the general

get round one net, which will serve for that for every ewe put to the ram there years with care.

should be a lamb at weaning-time, is not

An excellent plan is to hang a wire far from correct.

MANURES AND MANURING.

87

How to obtain a Big Crop of been recorded. A ewe, the property of

Lambs.— " Someflocks, and some farms, J. Amall, of Thrussington, Leicestershire, seem naturally adapted for producing á had the immense number of 22 lambs in large number of lambs. It may be rea- six years. She had 3 lambs three times, sonably expected that twins will in turn 4 lambs twice, and 5 lambs once.—T.

produce twins, and hence rams and ewes Stephens, of East Deanes, St Neot, had which have been twins might properly be selected to propagate theirspecies. Fer-

12 ewes, which in one season produced 30 lambs — viz., i ewe, 4 lambs; 4 ewes,

tility is as likely to be inherited as any other property, and with it the natural accompaniments of good nursing and abundant milk -supply. I am inclined

12 lambs ; and 7 ewes, 14 lambs. Lambing Table. The duration of pregnancy in the ewe

to think that ewes are naturally dis- is generally reckoned at twenty -one weeks,

posed to produce a pair of lambs, and butmay vary from 136 to 160 days. that single lambs are to be regarded as a From the following table, which shows degree less normal than twins. Thus, when twenty -one weeks expire from the when ewes are in good order and keep ist and 14th of any month, the date for is abundant — both of which conditions the lambing of ewes may be easily ascer

must be regarded as strictly natural— tained : the number of twins is immediately in creased, and sometimes almost the whole flock produces doubly. This indicates the best method of obtaining a big crop of lambs, namely - keeping the ewes well throughout summer. Extreme fatness or extreme poverty both militate against fertility, but a judicious mean and plenty

From

January 11

February 41

March .

April May

1. 14 .

June

14 .

July

14.

Ewes. — Some remarkable

instances of the prolificacy of ewes have

12,

26.

August

14 .

14. 1.

September

8 22 .

October November

December 11

January 11

February 11

March

November 1 .

December

8.

26.

I.

--is known to have a wonderful effect in Prolific

July

I.

September 1 .

increasing the proportion of twin lambs.

28.

I.

generally produce a lot of lambs.” 1 Flushing — that is, forcing the ewes with rich and abundant food for a week or two before tupping, and during tupping

October

IO ,

11

I.

14.

August

June

I.

14 .

sale ewes which have been caked will

27.

May

I.

14 .

will often conceive early and produce two strong lambs the succeeding spring, and

14.

14 .

of good food during the period of concep tion produces an opposite effect. Ewes which have been barren during one season

To I.

8. 25. 8. 25. 9.

26. 8. 26. 9. 25. 10.

26.

14.

April

1. 14.

May

MANURES AND MANURING .

In the advanced agriculture of the the maintenance, utilisation, and recupera present day the question of manuring tion of fertility ; the discovery and devel possesses far more importance and in- opment of new sources of manurial com volves greater difficulties than were asso-

modities ; and the vastly increased and

ciated with it in the elementary farming still growing consumption of farm pro of olden times.

The extension and ac- duce of all descriptions, have with their

cumulation of knowledge, in regard to combined influence contributed largely to the great revolution which, since 1840, i Live Stock Jour ., p. 114, 1889. has taken place in British farm practice .

MANURES AND MANURING .

88

The farmer can no longer wait for the of the elements of plant-food withdrawn recuperating powerof nature to restore by the crop. reduced fertility.

He is not content to

It is not to be said here that this

merely “ turn over," as it were, the nat- system of selling crops and buying ar

ural store of plant-food which the soil tificial manures is preferable to the older possesses. Before the advent of “ arti- and still more general method of con manures and feeding - stuffs the

suming a large portion of the crops on

prevailing system of farming was little else thana " turning over " of the inherent fertility of the soil — the abstraction of fertility from one field in certain crops, and the returningof it, or a great partof

the farm , and so restoring fertility by farmyard dung. The pointis mentioned merely for the purpose of indicating the vastly extended scope which the develop ment of the manure-trade has imparted

ficial

it, to another field in the shape of farm- to the practice of farming. yard manure. This, however, was a slow It is thus seen that the subject of process, quite unequal to the wants, the manures and manuring is now one of sur

aspirations, and resources of the progres- passing importance. It has, indeed, be sive age in which we live. come the very keystone of British agri A speedier, more intense, more arti- culture. We have therefore deemed it

ficial system of farming has arisen, and to make provision for the greater demands which are now made upon the productive powers of the soil, active and persistent attention has for years been

right that in this edition of The Book of the Farm the subject should receive somewhat exceptional attention. It is dealt with more fully than has before been attempted ; and while dogmatism

devoted by scientists, capitalists, and as to the precise composition and quan practical farmers to the all - important tities of specific manurial doses has been question of manuring. Indeed the de- avoided , an effort is made to submit in velopment of the manure-trade is to some convenient form such information as will

extent the cause rather than the result safely guide the intelligent farmer in the of the increased activity and progress of economical and efficient manuring of his agriculture. They have grown up, as it land. were, hand in hand, the one fostering There is probably no process connected and encouraging the other. with agriculture as to which there is By the discovery of vast natural de- more difference of opinion, or in which

posits of manurial elements, and by the greater diversity of practice prevails, than

inanufacture of useful fertilisers from the manuring of land. This remark, too, waste products and other material, great is quite as applicable to professional possibilities, hitherto undreamt of, have been placed in the hands of the farmer. By the means of these agencies it is possible for him to vastly increase and

chemists as to practical farmers. To attempt to reconcile all these contradic tory views and customs would be hope less ; yet in the majority of cases the con

hasten the production of his farm - not only by adding to the supply of plantfood already in the soil, but also by so stimulating, equalising, and prepar-

tradiction is more apparent than real. The more intimately one becomes ac quainted with the routine of farm man agement in the various parts of the

ing that supply, as to render it far more British Isles, the less is one inclined to serviceable and nutritious to the growing dogmatise and to assert that a certain system is right and all others wrong. crops. The farmer is not now dependent The system which gives the best results

upon the residue of his crops for the in the cold regions and light friable well restoration of fertility to the soil. So far drained lands in the north of Scotland, as concerns the question of the fertility may be utterly unsuited to the stiff of the soil, the farmer may now grow clayey lands of England, or the moist what he pleases and sell what he pleases. soil and mild climate of the Emerald The abstracted fertility may be replaced Isle. One may be assured that the by purchased fertilisers, so prepared and marked divergences in farm practice are proportioned as to return to the soil in

not mere accidents.

As a rule, they

themost useful form the exact quantities will be found to be fully justified by

MANURES AND MANURING .

89

variations in local conditions, differences Prior to the introduction of artificial in soil, climate, and objects and possi- manures, farmers relied almost entirely bilities of the farmer. Then, as to the upon farmyard dung to replace the ab differences amongst men of science, it stracted fertility. This, however, was not

should be borne in mind that the great sufficient, for much of the ingredients of field of agricultural chemistry is only in process of exploration, and that while our knowledge regarding its wonderful truths has, in recent years, grown with gratifying rapidity, it is still far from

the soil were sold off in the form of grain, meat, milk , cheese, &c. It is thus ob vious that, if no other means of restoring fertility had been found, the soil would have, in course of time, become exhausted .

being perfect and entire. Deferring Exhaustion . — The agents In dealing with the subject of man- which were most effective in deferring

ures and manuring, the Editor has been this exhaustion were careful and season deeply impressed with these considera- able tillage, drainage, subsoiling, the tions , and, keeping them in view, he has decay of the roots of crops, rotation of

sought the counsel of many recognised crops, and bare fallow. authorities.

The combined

The writings of our most influence of these agents is certainly by

eminent chemists and practical agri- no means insignificant. It has been well culturists have been carefully consulted shown in the Rothamsted experiments

and freely drawn upon, notably those of that tillage and the decay of the roots Johnstone, Cameron, Voelcker, Anderson, of crops have a very important bearing Lawes, Gilbert, Wilson, Sibson, Mor- upon the duration of fertility in soil. ton, Ville, Liebig, Hellriegel, WrightIt is a curious and important fact that son , Warington, Aitken, Jamieson, Fal- the growth of crops in itself, while rob

coner -King, Aikman, MacAdam , Ber- bing the soil of certain ingredients, tends nard -Dyer, Lloyd, Cooke, Fream , Curtis, to enrich it in other elements of fertility. Brown, & c. And from several experi- The plants absorb nitrogen from the at

enced practical farmers, who have made mosphere, and draw nutritious ingre a special study of the subject, and who dients from the subsoil. By the decay reside in and farm different parts of of their roots they thus leave the surface the kingdom , the Editor has received soil richer in certain elements than it was

most valuable help and advice in his before. And the larger the crop the more effort to present the readers of this does it enrich the soil in these elements, work with useful information as to the for the greater is the residue of plant food in the roots which remain in the economical manuring of land. soil. See pp. 60 and 61 , Div. I. EXHAUSTION AND RESTORATION OF FERTILITY .

In the section on “Fertility of Soils ”

Restoring Fertility-But it is clear

that something more is necessary to re store to the soil the particular elements removed in the produce exported from

( p. 56, Div. I.), the principles relating it. For this restoration we have now to the existence, exhaustion, and restor- at hand an exhaustless store of artificial ation of fertility in soils are fully ex

manures.

plained. The reader should be familiar

Ingredients Removed by Crops.

with what is said there before perusing

The important question now arises : What are the ingredients which are re

what follows here.

Abstraction of Fertility . — It has moved in crops, and what are the quan

been seen that the fertility of the soil tities of each ? As to the elements of becomes reduced by the removal of in- plant-food and the sources of their ele gredients in crops and animals raised ments, see p. 57, Div. I. upon it, and by soluble matters being

On p. 63, Div. I., will be found an ex

carried away in drainage-water. It is also haustive table, showing the weight and

farm more than probable, as will be explained average composition of ordinary in connection with the Rothamsted ex- crops in pounds per acre. From that periments in this chapter, that loss of table it is easy to calculate the quantity plant- food occurs through evaporation of of each ingredient of plant-food removed in any rotation of the ordinary farm crops.

volatile ammonia.

MANURES AND MANURING .

90

And from the full explanations which accompany the table, useful deductions

Exhaustion in a Norfolk Rotation .

-Itmay be interesting to show here in

may bedrawn as to the manurial treat- tabular form the quantities of thechief ele ment which should be pursued under the ments of plant-food which would be with various systems of cropping, stocking, drawn from the soil in the course of the and disposal of crops and stock.

Norfolk rotation of wheat, turnips, bar

The subject is so fully and clearly dealt ley, and clover ; and with this total is with by Mr Warington, in the pages re- contrasted the amount of these ingre ferred to, that any further discussion here dients which would be returned in an

of the general principles relating to the ordinary dressing of farmyard manure exhaustion and restoration of fertility 8 tons or 16 yards of dung : would be needless repetition. Dry Matter.

Crop .

Wheat, 30 bushels per acre . Turnips, 17 tons Barley, 40 bushels 11 11

Clover, 2 tons

11

Nitrogen.

Potash .

Magnesia.

Phosphoric Acid.

Ib . per acre. Ib. per acre. ib . per acre. ib . per acre . lb. fer acre . 28.8 21.1 4183 48 7.1 I12 4657 9.5 33.1 148.8 48 35.7 6.9 20.7 3827 102 28.2 83.4 3763 24.9

Totals

310

Rotten farmyard dung, 8 tons per acre

296.7

51.7

99.8

96.8

95.2

18.94

48.0

213.2

201.5

32.76

51.8

It is thus seen at a glance that an ordi- more plant-food than would be exported nary dressing of farmyard manure, say 8 from the farm ; and thus, without the tons or 16 yards per acre, applied once aid of any of the artificial fertilisers, there in the above four-course rotation, would would be an accumulation rather than restore barely one-third of the elements an exhaustion of fertility. But extreme of fertility removed by the crops. Such cases of this kind are very rare . a large dressing as 24 or 25 tons of dung The extreme on the other hand is where per acre is impracticable ; hence the econ- the growing and selling of crops are the omy and advantage of having at com- main features in the system of manage mand the various artificial fertilisers in ment, and where few or no stock are kept

which, in a highly concentrated and beyond what is necessary for the working readily available form , the deficient ele- of the farm. Between these two extremes there are ments may be supplied.

Removal and Return of Plant-food

many gradations — an endless variety of

in Different Systems. This supple- systems, in which there is an ever-chang

mental work is indeed the chief functioning relation between three great factors Upon all farms, in successful agriculture – viz. ( 1 ), the

of artificial manures.

less or more farmyard dung is made; amount of plant - food withdrawn from

and as a means of restoring fertility, it the soil; ( 2) the amount returned in is first reckoned upon and employed. farmyard manure ; and ( 3) the quantity Under certain systems of farming, where of purchasedfertilisers necessary to make not only the great bulk of the produce of up the deficiency in the latter, as com

the farm, but also large quantities of pared with the first, or to furnish any purchased foods, are consumed on the increased fertility which the farmer may farm by stock, the quantity of dung may desire to impart to the land. be almost sufficient for all the manurial

requirements of the holding.

Sum and Substance of Successful

Indeed , Manuring. - Here, then -- in securing

under such a system , the manurial resi- the proper relations of these factors - we

due of the purchased foods might supply havethesumandsubstance of successful

91

MANURES AND MANURING.

manuring . It is by no means a simple the chemist fails in this particular point. matter. It is beset with many problems

By the aid of his powerful acids, alkalies,

requiring the most careful and intelligent and other decomposing agents, he can study, as well as technical knowledge. tell us the entire quantity of any element The farmer has to consider not only what in the soil and subsoil ; but he has not quantities of the various elements of as yet succeeded in determining definitely

plant-food he would have to purchase to make up the deficiency in his supply of farmyard manure. Hemust also see that he procures these elements from the best and cheapest sources at the time, and that they are in the forms most suitable to his

how much of that element exists in a form available to the plant, and how much of it is locked up in combinations which the weaker acids at the command of the plant are unable to break up. True, by diluting and weakening his objects. acids and alkalies, so as to bring them And it has to be kept in view that the as near as possible to the strength of ascertaining of the amount of purchased the dissolving agents at the command manure necessary to supplement the farm- of the plant,the chemist endeavours to yard dung is not the simple matter the estimate the amount of available plant uninitiated might at first sight regard it. food in a soil. In this way he is able

It is not sufficient to merely subtract the to obtain information of undoubted supply of plant-food in the stock of dung value. Yet it is merely an estimate, from that contained in the crops removed and in practice has to be followed from the soil. For instance, we have with caution. seen from the table on page go, that Evidence of the Crops. - Recognis

during the four - course rotation there mentioned the quantities of plant - food removed in the crops would exceed those returned in 8 tons of dung by 213 lb. of

ing the difficulty of accurately estimating the fertility of soil by analysis, Georges Ville, the eminent French chemist, recom mended the more elaborate and more re

nitrogen, 201.5 lb. of potash, 32.76 lb. of liable plan of testing the soil by the magnesia,and 31.8 lb. of phosphoricacid, “ evidence of the plants themselves.” per acre. Resources of the Soil to be Reck-

oned . — Now it is not enough for the

He says :

“ I laid down the principle that by means of four substances — phosphoric

farmer to have ascertained this. If he acid, potash, lime, and nitrogenous mat were to supply the full quantity of each

ter - it was possible to bring the most

ingredient here represented as deficient, barren soil to the highest degree of fer he would most likely be pursuing a waste- tility. We have learnt more than this

ful system of manuring.

The natural viz ., that these four substances, however efficacious they may be, only remain so

resources of the soil must be reckoned with . In many soils there is a great

as long as they are associated and united

natural store of certain elements of plant- one with the other ; for by suppressing

food, which will be capable of furnishing one, the remaining three are often ren the wants of crops for several years to come. For instance, if it is aclayeysoil, there will most likely be such an abundance of potash in it as that any direct application of this element would , for the

dered inert, and frequently lose the greater

partof their activity. 6 We have further said that these four

substances are not of the same degree of

utility to all descriptions of plants, but that each has a preponderant or subor dinate action by turns; that for cereals, The farmer has therefore a fourth fac- colza , and beetroot, nitrogenous matter tor to reckon with — namely, the reserve was the preponderant constituent; phos

time being, be entire waste of money, perhaps even hurtful to the crop. of plant-food in the soil.

phoric acid fulfils a similar functionwith

Chemical Analysis Unreliable.-

respect to maize, cane -sugar, and swedes ;

The accurate ascertaining of the quantity and condition of this “ reserve ” of plant-food in the soil is perhaps, of all, the most “ knotty ” point in the whole

whereas potash preponderates in the case of potatoes and leguminous plants . If you thoroughly understand these three fundamentalpropositions,you will readily

question of manuring. The acumen of see by what natural deductions we shall

MANURES AND MANURING .

92

Crop per acre of be able to found upon them a practical Potatoes. tons. cwt. method of analysis that will be accessible II Normal manure to all. 3 “ Suppose, for instance , that we ex8 Manure without lime 4 phosphate 6 periment upon the same soil with five 18 5 nitrogen re res rent manu 2 : first of all, a manu diffe 2 potash 14 2 Soil without manure composed of the four substances of which we have been speaking, and to which we have given the name of normal manure ; The potato, then, tells us that the soil of and next with four manures composed of Vincennes does not contain sufficient pro 11

!!

11

11

11

.

three ingredients only, excluding in rota- portions of potash and of nitrogen ; and tion nitrogenous matter, phosphoric acid , if it shows a preference for soil that is potash, and lime, and with these produce rich in potash, it is because that sub a parallel series of crops

stance is its dominant constituent — that

is to say, it is the ingredient in manure With the normal manure.

that acts most beneficially upon that

Manure without nitrogenous matter. phosphates.

special crop.

!!

potash. lime. The soil without any manure . 11

“ The evidence of these two plants is not contradictory but confirmatory, and

you will observe how the preponderance of certain constituents gives an additional The result will be that the complete value to the same facts. In order to

manure produces 43 bushels of wheat per gather an exact idea of the richness of acre ; manure without nitrogenous matter the under layer or subsoil at Vincennes, produces 14 bushels ; manure without it is necessary to consider the result which

phosphates, 2612 ; manure without po- was obtained at the same time with wheat tash , 31 ; manure without lime, 41 ; and and potatoes. A series of crops of wheat the soil without any manure, only 12 shows plainly that nitrogenous matter bushels per acre. and potash are present in restricted pro “ The conclusion is evident and con- portions, and a series of potato crops

clusive. The soil requires, above all, ni- confirms and ratifies this testimony ; only trogenous matter ; it is provided with with manure without potash, the crop lime, but insufficiently supplied with potash and calcic phosphate. What analysis, I ask, be it as delicate as it is possible to conceive, will ever be able to

of potatoes is feebler and comparative ly smaller than that of wheat, because potash is a dominant constituent in potatoes, and only a subordinate con

furnish us with a series of results like stituent in wheat.

“ Here, then, is a perfectly accurate this ? According as the crops obtained with the incomplete manures differ from system of experiments, and the informa or resemble those resulting from the use tion gained may at once be applied to of the normal manures, the conclusion practical use. With an experimental we arrive at is, that the soil lacks the field we always determine the nature of ingredient excluded from these manures, the substances useful to plants contained or vice versa .

in the soil, and also determine in what

“ But this is not all. In every soil constituents the soil is deficient, and with there are two portions to be considered this knowledge we can decide what sort —the surface soil and the subsoil, the of manure it will be advisable to em

upper and under layers — and it is most ploy. Method of Test Experiments.— " I ideas upon this subject. We may gain will briefly show you how we should pro the necessary knowledge very easily by ceed in the formation of such fields, ac substituting for wheat some tap-rooted cording to the purpose for which they are plant; beetroot, for instance, which buries to be used. If the results of our experi important that we should have definite

itself in the ground to a much greater ments are somewhat important, we must depth . choose a piece of land representing the

“With potatoes, the information gained mean fertility of the whole estate, and is no less instructive and precise :

divide it into ten plots, each containing,

MANURES AND MANURING.

93

say , a quarter of an acre, to be fertilised, touchstone, and in a certain measure completes and rectifies their signification.

as shown beneath : No.

I is to receive 24 tons of farmyard man . 2

12

#1

very rich normal manure . ordinary manure without nitrogen .

5 11

6

7 8

11

10 11

10

11

IO

ture becomes a source of information con

11

3 4

When you are once familiarised with this

mode of investigation, every kind of cul

ure , 11

ous matter. without

manure

calcic

phosphate. manure without potash .

cerning the state of the soil—its richness or its exhaustion.

Here, for instance, is

an example :

“ On two contiguous portions of land, say of a few square yards, sow peas and wheat without any kind of manure. This

manure without lime.

little experiment will amply suffice to

manure without mineral matter.

ascertain if the soil contains nitrogenous and mineral matter. We have already seen that nitrogenous matter was the

soil without any manure.

Here is a system equal to all the exigen- dominant constituent in wheat, and that cies of every kind of culture.

Thanks it was only of very secondary importance

to this method of growing crops side by to peas, if indeed its action could be side, we are able to follow methodically regarded as of any use at all to them ; the exhaustion of the soil; that advanced- whilst the dominant constituent in peas guard of the field of experiments indicates was potash. You see now , by the light with certainty the precise moment when of these simple facts, with how much im the soil is ready to receive nitrogenous portance the experiment just quoted can matter, potash , or calcic phosphate, as be invested. If the two squares of wheat the case may be. and peas are equally fine, it proves that

“ But it will be said that on every the soil contains a sufficiency both of farm it may happen, as it nearly always nitrogenous and mineral matter. does, that there are soils of verydifferent

Now , if the wheat becomes small,

nature. The experimental field, of which yellow, and rather soft, whilst the peas we have just been speaking, does not flourish well, it proves that the soil is suffice for an extended inquiry, and in lacking in the dominant constituent of order to arrive at useful results, it is wheat, which is nitrogenous matter,

necessary to set aside an additional quar- whilst it contains, on the contrary, a ter of an acre, divided into four parts, sufficiency of mineral matter, and above on which to experiment with these differ- all of potash. “We will extend the range of our manure , and nitrogenous matter, the observations. Lucerne has roots which

ent manures : normal manure, mineral

fourth part receiving no manure at all.? penetrate deeply into the subsoil.

It is

With these four combinations of manure, from these under layers that it principally under the condition that if necessary the obtains the mineral matter, of which it

trial may be repeated, we can acquire requires a large quantity. Suppose that with certainty all information of which, lucerne prospers whilst peas are weakly.

practically speaking, we have need . The What are we to conclude from this ? That the superficial layers of soil are and the more numerous and varied com- lacking in potash and phosphates, whilst bination of manure that it receives,is, as the deep layers are provided with them ; it were, a centre towards which all the but if the two plants progress equally first field , by reason of its greater extent,

others must gravitate. The results given

well, we know that the superficial and

by the smaller plots are tested by those deep layers of soil are well provided with of the first field , which acts as a sort of mineral matter.” 2 Farmers' Experiments.— Mr F. J.

1 The best arrangement as to experimental Cooke, Flitcham Abbey, Norfolk, in a plots in fields is to select so many drills if the

paper read before the London Farmers'

crop is roots, or so many ridges or yards wide Club, on March 25 , 1889, urged farmers if corn or pasture, so that each plot may run from end to end of the field, and thus, as far

to make trials upon their own land as to

as possible, embrace all the variations in the character and condition of the soil.

? Artificial Manures.

G. Ville, 176-183.

MANURES AND MANURING .

94

the kinds and quantities of manures best and present in an available form, but suited to their farms. He stated that he

likewise contain in due proportion all

had been doing so himself annually for the essential elements of plant nutrition. some twenty years, and he was not aware

Law of Minimum . — This due pro

of any other separate practice which had portioning or balancing of the elements been so useful to him . The information of fertility is a point of the utmost im

he thus obtained had saved him much portance. It is illustrated by what is unprofitable outlay on manures which known as Liebig's law of minimum.

had formerly been unnecessarily or im- Every soil contains a maximum of one or prudently applied.

more, and a minimum of one or more,

Mr Cooke's method of testing the wants of the soil and the crops is quite simple, and similar to that recommended by Ville, -namely, the use of the four necessary elements of plant-food - nitro-

of the ingredients necessary for plant growth. Now the growth or produce of the plants on this soil is governed not by the combined quantity of all the ingredients presentin the soil,but by the

gen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime— producing power of the essential ingredi separately and together, and as far as ent present in the smallest proportion, possible in the most economical forms,- no matter how small a part this deficient one plot remaining unmanured , another element may play in the economy of the

having all the ingredients, whilst upon particular crop. Again, let it be remem the other plots each ingredient is in turn bered that the strength of the chain is governed by the weakest link .

omitted .

An interesting example of the value

The object of manuring is to provide

of experiments in discovering the man- against deficiencies of this kind, and at urial wants of separate farms, and of the lowest possible cost to furnish the

the unreliability of chemical analyses of crops with a full supply of readily avail soils for this purpose, is given by Mr able well-balanced wholesome plant-food. Cooke. A dressing of 3 cwt. of nitrate

of soda and 3 cwt. of superphosphate was applied to a plot of barley at Flitcham, upon which the crop failed. An

VARIETIES OF MANURE - FARM YARD DUNG.

adjoining plot got these manures, and in addition 2cwt. of muriate of potash, and In a description of the various commo produced 54 bushels of barley per acre. dities employed as manure, the first place

Yet the soil of both the plots was found naturally falls to farmyard dung . At by chemical analysis to contain as much one time the only kind of manure avail

potash in the top foot of it as would be able, it is still in this connection, the found in 3 tons per acre of muriate of mainstay of the farmer. Its pre-emin potash .

There was an abundance of

ence is gradually lessening, yet it will

potash in the soil, but it was not avail- always be an important agent in main able to the barley. Hence, on this soil taining the fertility of the farm . There an application of potash was essential for are now many farmers who depend more

profitable cropping, and no amount of largely upon artificial manures than upon other manures would succeed without it.

dung . Upon the whole, however, “ muck "

All this tends to show not only the is still the staple manure, and artificial importance of, but also the difficulties in- fertilisers merely supplementary to it. volved in, the question of manures and

Variety in the Quality of Dung.

manuring. In arranging the dressings Farmyard manure consists of the solid of manure to be applied, the farmer and liquid excrements of farm live-stock,

must consider the probablecontents and and of the litter provided to them. Ex condition of the soil, as well as the wants cept when made and kept wholly under of the particular crop. He will endeav- roof, it also contains a considerable our, as fully as possible, to utilise the quantity of rain - water. Its manurial “ reserve fund ” of fertility in the soil, value depends upon the class of animals

and aim in particular at having the crop by which it is made, the age of these provided with a supply of plant - food, animals, the kinds and quantities of food which will not only be ample in quality, supplied to them , the kind and quantity

VARIETIES OF MANURE - FARMYARD DUNG.

95

of litter employed , and the manner in tice, this fact does not always have due which the manure is made and managed consideration. generally — whether well trodden, evenly What is said on pages 226-232, Div. mixed, the fermentation kept duly in I., as to manure in covered and open courts, should also be consulted here. check, and waste prevented. Manurial Value of Straw.— The In the chapter on the “ Treatment of

Farmyard Manure ” (p. 501 , Div. II.), information is given, not only as to the “ making ” of good and bad dung, but also as to the characteristics of the differ-

straw ofthe cereal crops does not possess such high manurial value as is by many accorded to it. The constituents of fresh straw are for the most part insol

ent kinds of dung. In this connection uble, so that straw is of little use in the Liquid soil unless it is well rotted . Indeed , the the succeeding chapter on 66

Manure ” (pp. 514-529, Div. II. ) should principal value of straw in the making also be consulted. of manure is that it, in the first place, The system of feeding is mainly re- forms comfortable litter for the animals,

sponsible for the original quality of the and thereafter becomes a suitable vehicle

dung.

The feeding of draught -horses for absorbing and holding in a manage

varies but slightly, so that farm -horse able condition the solid and liquid ex

dung is comparatively even in character. creta. From this it is apparent that the With cattle - by which the great bulk of excessive use of straw as litter is impru farmyard manure is made — the case is dent and wasteful ; for, while the bulk very different. All sorts of dietary are of the dung may be thereby greatly in given to them ; from very poor and reased, there may be little more fertilis scanty — such as will barely sustain the ing value than if one -third less litter had existing " condition ” of the animal- been supplied. Composition of Dung. — From the to very rich and abundant, far beyond it is of course obvious that the foregoing to assimilate. animal of the the power Then in one case the supply of litter, chemical composition of farmyard dung

generally cereal straw , which has little is liable to great variation. The follow manurial value ( see tables on pp. 285-287, ing detailed analyses of samples of farm Div. II. ), may form a much larger pro- yard dung were made by Dr A. Voelcker. Composition of fresh dung, composed portion of the bulk of the dung than in of horse, cow, and pig dung,about four another.

Obviously, therefore, there must be teen days old : many degrees of quality in farmyard

66.17 2.48

Water

dung, -a fact which farmers should * Soluble organic matter

1.54 25.76 4.05

keep carefully in view in considering Soluble inorganic matter how many tons of dung, and what sup + Insoluble organic matter plementary manure , should be given to Insoluble inorganic matter . this field or that. Moreover, as we have

100.00

seen , in pp. 501-513 , Div. II., the ori * Containing nitrogen . ginal character of the dung may be Equal to ammonia greatly altered - improved or --by the manner in which it and treated generally. These ations should never be lost

.149

damaged Containing nitrogen . is made, Equal to ammonia Total percentage of nitrogen . consider Equal to ammonia sight of. Ammonia in a free state

One ton from a certain dung-heap may

Do.

, 181 .494

.599

.643

.780 .034

.088

in form of salts

The information given on pp. 283-289, Div. II., as to the “ manurial value ” of

foods, indicates how, and to what extent, fected by the food supplied to the animal. It has long been recognised that dung made by fattening stock is much more valuable than that made by store cattle, which are sparingly fed ; yet, in prac-

the manurial value of dung may be af-

Soluble water ,in . cent per 27.55

be worth two tons from another .

Composition of the whole ash : Soluble silica

.

4.25 5.35

Phosphate of lime Lime

I.IO 0.20

Magnesia Potash Soda

10.26 0.92

Chloride of sodium Sulphuric acid . Carbonic acid and loss

0.54 0.22 .

4.71

MANURES AND MANURING. Soluble silica 17.34 Insoluble silicious matter . 10.04 Phosphate of lime Oxide of iron and alumina, 8.47 with phosphates

small proportion organic, and mineral substancesofinsoluble, fresh dung accounts

2

for its slow action compared with rotten

dung. Insoluble matters are very large

phosphoric containing acid equal to bone-earth Lime

(3.18)

—of organic matters, ten times as great as soluble ; and of mineral matters, three

(6.88) times as great as soluble. Fresh dung

20,21

contains a mere trace of free or volatile

Magnesia

2.56

Potash Soda

1.78

ammonia, and but a trifling quantity of

0.38

ammoniacal salts.

Chloride of sodium Sulphuric acid . The

The amount of ni.

trogen in fresh dung is inconsiderable. 1.27 10.40

Carbonic acid and loss

It is gradually liberated as the dung progresses in putrefaction, and is con

composition of rotten dung, mixed tained in the portion insoluble in water.

horse, cow , and pig dung, six months old.

Hence little nitrogen exists in fresh

dark brown, almost black in colour, well dụng in a state to be assimilated by plants. The principal constituent of soluble ash in quantity is potash 37.26

fermented and short, is as follows : Water

75.42 parts, equal to 54.7 parts of pure

*Soluble organic matter

3.71 1.47

Soluble inorganic matter +Insoluble organic matter Insoluble inorganic matter .

12.82

carbon

ate of potash, also silicate of potash ; and in the insoluble ash, lime, and in the

6.58 soluble, phosphate of lime, 1972 per cent. Chemically, farmyard dung is a universal 100.00

* Containing nitrogen . Equal to ammonia

Total amount of nitrogen

stituents are in that state of combina .606 .735

Equal to ammonia Ammonia in a free state Do. in form of salts

manure, because it contains all the con

stituents of our cultivated crops ; and it is a perfect manure, because its con

.297 .360 • 309 .375

Equal to ammonia +Containing nitrogen .

.046

tion favourable for the luxuriant growth of our crops.

Fresh and Rotten Dung.- Fresh

.057 dung contains considerably more potash

cent per .18.27

Soluble in ,water

than rotten, as also more phosphate of Composition of the whole ash :Soluble silica

Phosphate of lime

.

3.16 4.75 1.44

.

5.58

Lime

Magnesia , Potash Soda

Insol uble in water , per 81.73 .cent

Chloride of sodium Sulphuric acid . Carbonic acid and loss ( Soluble silica Insoluble silica .

lime. There is more nitrogen in rotten

than in fresh dung ; rotten dung has less insoluble organic matter, and contains more insoluble inorganic matters than fresh . On the whole, weight for weight, rotten dung is richer in soluble fertilising

0.59 0.29

0.46

constituents than fresh, and contains more

0.72 1.28

readily available nitrogen, and therefore produces a more immediate and powerful effect in vegetation. The preference evinced by farmers for rotten over fresh dung is thus sanctioned by chemistry.

17.69 12.54

Phosphate of lime Oxides of iron , alumina, with phosphates 11.76 containing phosphoric acid .

.

equal to bone-earth Lime

Magnesia . Potash Soda

Chloride of sodium Sulphuric acid . Carbonic acid and loss

Open and Covered Court Dung.

Farmyard dung, kept under roof for (3.40)

three months, was found to have suf

0.56

(7.36) fered little change in organic and min eral constituents in comparison with fresh dung, and the soluble and insoluble

0.47

portion of the ashes was almost iden

20.70 1.17

tical.

Rotten dung exposed to the air

16.05

in cold weather loses little substance, but in warm weather the loss may be

100,00

considerable ---principally in the soluble constituents, nitrogen and ammoniacal

0.79

1

Fresh Dung. — The comparatively salts rapidly becoming exhausted. Fresh

.... INI

Insolubl e water in , .cent per 72.45

96

VARIETIES OF MANURE - FARMYARD DUNG.

97

dung undergoes putrefaction rather than that any appreciablequantity of ammonia fermentation , the nature of which pro- volatilises. It is different, however, with

cess consists in the gradual alteration of the original organic matters, and in the formation of new chemical compounds. Putrefaction is accompanied with evolu-

the action of rain, which soon removes by solution a considerable quantity of nitro gen contained in farmyard manure; and the deterioration must necessarily be

tion of heat; air and water are both conspicuous in rotten dung, which some requisite for putrefaction. If kept per- times contains nearly half of its nitrogen fectly dry, organic substances remain un- in a soluble condition.

altered for anindefinite period. Fixing Ammonia.--Ammonia is generated in large quantities during the putrefaction of thenitrogenised constituents of dung. It is this free ammonia

Well

made and well - preserved farmyard manure will generally be found to differ comparatively little in value ; and when bought at the ordinary price, the purchaser is pretty sure to get full

which is liable to be lost. Fortunately value for his money, and the specialties some natural provision is made for its of its management are of comparatively conservation .

The straw in course of

little moment to him .

But the case is

putrefaction is, to a great extent, con- very different when the person who uses verted into humic and ulmic acids,which the manure has also to manufacture it.

have a powerful affinity for ammonia, and which, therefore, to a certain extent, fix the ammonia as it is generated. These acids form , with potash, soda, and ammonia, a dark - coloured, very soluble compound. Hence the dark colour of

Though the manure made in the ordinary manner may, weight for weight, be as valuable as at first, the loss during the period of preservation is usually very large, and it becomes extremely import ant to determine the mode in which it

the drainage of dung -heaps.

may be reduced to the minimum . In

Dr Anderson on Dung. — The che- the production of farmyard manure of mical remarks of Anderson on the an- the highest quality, the object to be alyses of Voelcker are worthy of atten- held in view is to retain, as effectually as tion by the farmer : “ On comparing and possible, all the valuable constituents of examining these analyses, it appears that the dung and urine. In the management the differences are by no means great, of the dung-heap there are three things although on the whole they tend to to be kept in view : first, to obtain a show , weight for weight, well -rotted manure containing the largest amount dung is superior to fresh, provided it of nitrogen ; secondly, to convert that has been properly treated. Not only is nitrogen more or less completely into the quantity of valuable matters exist- ammonia ; and, thirdly, to retain it ing in the soluble state materially in- effectually.” 1 Other analyses of dung show from 65 to creased, whereby the dung is enabled to act with greater rapidity , but, owing to 80 per cent of water, from 0.40 to 0.65

evaporation and escape of carbonic acid, per cent of nitrogen, and ash (exclusive of produced by the decomposition of organic earth and sand ) from 2.50 to 3.00 ; the substances, the proportion of those con- ash containing from 0.4 to 0.7 potash and

stituents which are most important to from 0.2 to 0.4 phosphoric acid per cent. This is partic Fertility in a Ton of Dung.-- Even ularly to be noticed in regard to the greater variations than these are to be the plant is increased.

nitrogen, which has distinctly increased met with in the analyses of farmyard in all cases in which the dung has been dung. The manurial value of dung is

kept for some time; and the practical governed by the amount it contains of importance of this observation is very nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid . great, because it hasbeen commonly sup- The quantity of these in one ton may posed that, during the process of putre- range as follows : lb. faction, ammoniais liable to escape into

the air. It would appear, however,

that

there is but little riskof loss in this way,

so long as the dung -heap is left undis turbed ; and it is only when it is turned VOL. II .

Nitrogen

8 8

Potash

Phosphoric acid

.

to 16 to 17

21/2 to 9

1 Anderson's Agric. Chem ., 176-179. G

RES

MANU

98

RING

AND MANU

.

A ton of first-class well -made farmyard about one-half of its most valuable con dung, all kinds mixed, should contain the following, or thereby : ib .

12 to 14 II to 15

Nitrogen Potash

to soluble phosphate of super

Insoluble phosphates (as in bones)

" According to other experiments, the loss on the weight of fresh, common , mixed farmyard manure, at different

periods, approximately, is as follows :

Soluble salts of phosphoric acid (equal phosphate)

stituents.

8 to 9 10 to 13

Produce of Dung per head of Stock .

-The quantity of dung produced by a

“ 10 cwt.of dry food and strawcwt.yield Of recent dung

23 to 25

At the end of six weeks .

21

After eight weeks

.

20

When half rotten

.

When fully rotten .

.

15 to 17 10 to 13."

given number of stock will vary with the

class of stock, the amount of food con Character and Uses of Farmyard Dung. sumed, the quantity of litter supplied, A Complete Manure.- Farmyard

and the amount of rain -water admitted

manure contains all the elements neces

Each farm - horse will make about 12 tons of dung in a year - producing about three-fourths of its food in manure. In stalls or covered courts, full-grown feeding cattle will each

sary for plant-growth , and is therefore a complete manure. If applied in sufficient quantity, it will, without any extraneous aid, maintain fertility even under an in tense system of cropping.

produce from 10 to 12 tons of dung in

Mechanical Uses of Dung. — As a

amongst the dung.

the year, allowing, say, from 10 to 20 lb. manure, dung is valuable, not only for of litter to each per day. In open yards its chemical but also for its mechanical the weight might be about 2 tons per properties. Referring to this point, Sir head more.

The solid excreta of an ox

John Bennet Lawes says that by reason

has been estimated at from 50 to 65 lb. of its bulk and the quantity of organic daily, and liquid from 65 to 95 lb. daily matter it contains, it serves to render the The above quantities of manure made by soil more open and porous, and so enable it stock would thus be still greater if the not only to retain more water in a favour

wholeof the urine were incorporated with able condition, but also to absorb and re tain more of the valuable constituents of

the solid excreta and litter.

Fresh and Rotten Dung. - In refer- the manure, and so arrest the passage of

ence to the effects produced by the rot- them in solution into the drains. Further, ting of farmyard dung, Dr A. Voelcker by the gradual decomposition of the or ganic matter of the dung, the pores of says : “ Direct experiments have shown that the soil become filled with carbonic acid , 100 cwt. of fresh farmyard manure are which probably serves to retard the oxi reduced to 80 cwt. if allowed to lie till

dation of the ammonia into the more sol

the straw is half -rotten ; 100 cwt. of uble form of nitric acid, in which it would fresh farmyard manure are reduced to 6o be more liable to be washed out and lost cwt. if allowed to ferment until it be- by drainage. From these facts, Sir John

comes ' fat or cheesy '; 100 cwt. of fresh considers it will be readily understood farmyard manure are reduced to 40-50 how it is that dung is more lasting in its effects than the more active artificial cwt. if completely decomposed. “ This loss not only affects the water manures. It is well known that, by repeated ap

and other less valuable constituents of

farmyard manure, but also its most fer- plications of farmyard dung, stiff clays tilising ingredient, nitrogen.

Chemical have been rendered more friable. And its

analysis has shown that 100 cwt. of mechanical influence on such soils is more common farmyard manure contain about effective when the dung is applied in a

40 lb. of nitrogen ; and that during fer- rank state,—that is, before the straw it mentation in the first period 5 lb. of contains - or rather,the straw which con nitrogen are dissipated in the form of the tains the manure, -has become thorough volatile ammonia ; in the second, 10 lb .; ly rotten. in the third, 20 lb. Completely decom posed common manure has thus lost

1 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. Eng., ii. 8, 1875.

VARIETIES OF MANURE - FARMYARD DUNG.

99

Dung Heating Soil. — Then it is about 14 or 15 per cent had been re equally certain, though not so generally covered in the increase of crop. From

recognised, that a heavy dressing of this it was calculated that if all the re rank dung benefits the soil by raising maining 3400 lb. of nitrogen had been its temperature. "The temperature of stored up in the soil, in a form as avail the soil is affected by other causes than able as that which had already been used

the sun's rays. Decaying vegetable mat- in the crop, this plot should have been ter is a source of heat, as evidenced by able for 150 years to produce an average the high temperature arising from the of 48 bushels of barley per acre per an fermentation of dung. Farmyard man- num .. Yet with the stopping of the ure thus supplies heat to the soil from annual dressing of dung, the crop showed two different sources, while it helps to a very marked decline. How is this decline to be accounted retain much valuable manurial ingredi? There had, no doubt, been some loss for mineral ents, which, in a more purely " 1

soil, would be washed away .' Lasting Influence of Dung . - The

of nitrogen in drainage , and some may

have been volatilised.

But, upon analy

great lasting influence or " staying power” sis, the soil was found to contain a great of farmyard manure is an important fac- accumulation ofnitrogen, as wellasother tor in practical agriculture. For the full

constituents. This great accumulation of

understanding of the extent, advantages, nitrogen and other constituents of the and risks of this enduring power and dung, if it had remained in the soil in a slow -acting characteristic of farmyard sufficiently available form , would have

dung, it is necessary to refer the reader to supplied the crop with all the food it the results of the Rothamsted investi- could absorb for many years. Why, then,

gations, as described by Mr Warington, does this abundant residue give such a under the heading of “ Rothamsted Ex- poor account of itself ? In reference to

periments ” (pp. 135-169, Div. III.) See this important question, Dr Gilbert re particularly what is said there as to the marks “ that it is only the comparatively accumulation of fertility in soil heavily small proportion of the nitrogen of farm

dressed with dung(pp. 153-167); as to the yard manure which is due to the liquid lower immediate efficiency of the nitrogen dejections of the animals that is in a in dung, as compared with a correspond- readily and rapidly available condition ;

ing amount of nitrogen supplied in am- whilst that due to more or less digested monia salts or nitrate of soda (pp. matter passing in the fæces is more slow 139-146 ) ; as to the loss of the nitrogen ly available, and that in the litter re of dung in nitrates formed during autumn mains a very long time inactive.” The potato experiments at Rothamsted and winter, and washed away in drainagewater (pp. 154-168) ; and as to the loss afforded equally striking evidence of the of surplus nitrogen - that is, of available slow recovery of the nitrogen supplied in nitrogen not immediately assimilated by dung. Fourteen tons of farmyard man a growing crop_by evaporation in the ure, applied every year for six years, form of nitrogen gas (pp. 166-168). yielded in potatoes only 6.4 per cent of

Similar resultsare shown in the Roth- its nitrogen ; while in the next six years, amsted barley experiments. For twenty the same crop every year, without any For twenty years up to 1871, 14 tons of dung were further dressing of manure, recovered

applied every year to one plot for barley, from the residue only 5.2 per cent more and the average produce was 4874 bush- that is, only 11.6 per cent in the course kind was els.

No further manure of

any

of the twelve years.

In other words, at

applied to this plot, upon which barley the end of the twelve years there was was continued, with the result that the still about 88 per cent of nitrogen sup

average yield for the next twelve years plied in the dung unrecovered by the fell off by about one-third. It was esti- crop. mated that of the 4000 lb. of nitrogen An Old Custom Questioned . - All

per acre supplied to the soil in the 14 these are considerations which — although tons of dung for twenty years, only subject to modifications under ordinary farm practice — should have studious at i Mark Lane Express, 1889, p. 412.

tention from farmers. They unquestion

MANURES AND MANURING.

100

ably suggest that in the past farmers might say that the best plan would thus have placed rather too much faith in farmyard manure-—that the old custom of manuring only once in a rotation - of applying with the root-crop a heavy dressing of dung, in the belief that what

be to apply nitrogen in a readily avail able form , just when it is required by the crop , and only in such quantity as may supply the wants of that particular crop. This is, no doubt, sound enough theoreti

of the manure the roots do not appro- cally, and may often be carried into prac priate will remain in the soil and be tice with the best possible results. available for the use of the succeeding But such a course will not, as a rule,

crops— may, in certain circumstances, be be practicable. It would practically ex found to be seriously mistaken . Loss of Residual Manure . — The un-

clude the use of farmyard manure ; and while it would be unwise to overlook

used portions of the manure unfortu- or disregard the important results ob natelydo not, in their entirety or nearly so , remain in the soil available for future crops. Much of this residue — of the most valuable portion of it too — is now

tained under certain conditions at Roth amsted, it would be a still more serious

error now to hastily jump to the other extreme, and unreasonably depreciate or

found, under certain circumstances, to discredit the great value of the fertil escape through channels which were for- ising materials in the solid and liquid merly unsuspected as means of loss. The excreta of farm animals. Practical Conclusions. The prac discovery of the great loss of excess or -

residual nitrogenby the washing away tical points to be kept in view are ,that of nitrates in drainage-water, and by from the investigations as to the behav evaporation as nitrogen gas, throws new iour of nitrogen in the soil, it is seen that

light upon the theory and practice of the enduring character of farmyard man manuring, which farmers cannot afford to ure is not an unmixed advantage to the rent-paying farmer ; that the excess ni

disregard .

Soil an Unreliable Custodian of trogen accumulated in the soil by heavy

Manure.- In times past we have placed dressings of farmyard manureis, in cer too much faith in the soil as the custo- tain circumstances, liable to serious losses While nourish- by drainage and evaporation, and cannot,

dian of costly manure.

ing a growing crop, the soil is commend- therefore,in all cases be to thefull extent ably faithful to its trust, and does not then readily part with its available plantfood, except to the crop itself. But the moment the crop is removed , the soil

depended upon for the nourishment of future crops; that, therefore,the practice of so entirely or mainly trusting to heavy dressings of dung at long intervals for

loses retentive power, and if the condi- the production of profitable crops is volatilising of nitrogen are present, loss the loss of nitrates from land which is of residual nitrogen is liable to set in. rich in residual nitrogen, may be re Moreover, results obtained at Rothamsted duced to a minimum by having the soil tions favourable to the washing away or neither reliable nor economical ; and that

seem to suggest the question whether covered with vegetation throughout the some portion of the nitrogen which ac- entire year, or in cold northern districts

cumulates in the soil may not, in certain by having it bare only in the winter circumstances, undergo some sort of re- months when the temperature is usually version by which it is rendered more too low for the formation of nitrates to

slowly instead of more readily available proceed in the soil. to the crops. Superiority of Dung Questioned.-

Vegetation Preventing the Loss of Nitrates.- For the last-named object

Now nitrogen is the most costly of all the many farmers, especially in England, sow elements of manure .

It is therefore ob-

some forage crop, perhaps rye, soon after

viously desirable that it should not only the removal of a cereal crop. This not be drawn from the cheapest sources, but only engages the attention of unused should also be supplied to the soil so as nitrogen , thus preventing the washing to guard as far as possible against any away ofnitrates, but most likely affords portions of it being lost in the manner a useful feed to sheep in the course just described.

At first thought, one of the winter, and likewise further en

VARIETIES OF MANURE-FARMYARD DUNG.

IOI

riches the soil when ploughed down in unquestionable, therefore, that dung, as spring.

a source of plant-food, has been depre

Cold Weather and Loss of Nitro . ciated in its relative intrinsic worth, factor gen . — The above safeguard , to be sure, and in its importance as

cannot be provided in the cold regions of in agriculture ; and that it should not the north, but then there is, fortunately, count for so much on the credit side of much less necessity for it there. It is the feeding account as it has often done in the form of nitrates in which nitrogen in times gone by. is washed away in drains. Nitrogen is Dung not likely to Diminish in transformed into nitrates by the opera- Production . — But farmyard manure is tions of myriads of living atoms, com- a necessary accompaniment of the rearing In very cold and feeding of stock , and there is little weather, with the temperature at or likelihood that, with the growing import near to freezing-point, these wonderful ance of the live-stock industry,there will little atoms of life seem, with com- be any falling off in the production of mendable beneficence, to relapse into farmyard manure . In all probability it

monly called bacteria.

idleness ; so that at this cold season of will be of a more concentrated character the year the northern farmers may with than in former times. Straw is now being tolerable, if not complete, immunity turned to better purpose as food for stock, from loss of nitrogen, till their land and or in other ways than as litter for cattle.

leave it exposed to the action of frost, The animals may therefore be littered as has been their wont from time im- with smaller quantities of straw , or with memorial.

other substances less bulky, such as peat Making Dung or Selling Crops.— moss litter. But while the dung may We are not to discuss fully the question thus be more concentrated, and less bulky as to whether farmers should endeavour per head of stock than it would be with to make as much dung as possible, or freer use of straw as litter, it is not likely

should sell produce and purchase artifi- that the amount of fertilisers annually cial manures. Local circumstances vary available in the form of farmyard manure

so much that the conditions which deter- for application to the soil will be less in mine the best systemin one case may not

apply equally to another. Much will de-

the future than it has been in the past. A Word for Dung . — Although farm

pend on the locality and character of the yard manure is not likely to loseits hold holding, and the tastes of the tenant- upon the affections of British farmers, it whether favourable to the breeding and

nevertheless seems desirable to remind

feeding of stock, or the growing and sell- the reader that in considering the practi ing of crops ; also upon the fluctuations cal lessons to be drawn from the Rotham

of market prices — especially as to the sted experiments with dung and other relative prices of beef, feeding -stuffs,and manures, it should be kept in view that litter, on the one hand, and of artificial these experiments were not framed as a manures on the other. guide to farmers in pursuing the ordinary Farmers now less Dependent on routine of farm practice. The scientific Dung. – With the abundance of excellent conclusions arrived at are undeniably of

artificial manure in the market, and with the great advance that has been made in the investigation and elucidation of the principles which govern economical and

great value to farmers, but it would be imprudent to attach to them a signifi cance which they were not intended to

and do not possess. If the course of

successful manuring, farmers are now cropping andsystems of tillage pursued much less dependent upon farmyard at Rothamsted had been similar to those manure than in former times. They observed in the rotations followed have no need any longer to consume their throughout the country, the dung would,

crops on the farm for the sake of provid- in all probability, have given a much ing manure with which to restore fertility better account of itself. In particular, to the soil. This may now be accom- it is probable that the accumulation of plished cheaply and efficiently by the use inert nitrogen would have been roused to of other manurial substances, of which greater activity and usefulness, so that exhaustless supplies are at hand. It is under a rotation of crops, with the

MANURES AND MANURING.

102

thorough tillage necessary for roots, the months, when vegetation is most luxu influence of the residue of the dung riant. would have been more

marked than

“ Hence farmyard manure subjected to

it has been upon the continuous growth gradual decay yields up its materials, of the same crops on the same respective especially nitrogen oxidised into nitrates, plots. at that period of the year when they are Professor Wrightson on Dung.- wanted. It is worth notice that the same

Professor Wrightson is a strong advocate forces which liberate nitrogen must also of the superiority of farmyard dung over liberate the mineral and other constitu artificial manures. As to the reasons ents of farmyard dung, gradually and why he thinks farmyard dung should

as required.” 1

hold a strong position in the estimation of the British farmer he says :

“ The first reason, no doubt, is what has been already advanced — the general com position of dung. A great many science students stop here. When they are asked why farmyard manure is a more potent and more valuable manure than many artificial fertilisers, they say it is because of its general composition. But there

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

In addition to farmyard manure there are the various artificial or special man

ures, which supply one or more of the ingredients necessary for the growth of plants. Classification .

These are classified

are a good many other reasons beside, in accordance with the proportion of the one of which is, no doubt, its effect upon more valuable or abundant constituents the mechanical condition of the soil — a present in them , and they are accordingly subject which we have already had before divided into the following groups : nitro us, and which it is therefore not neces- genous, phosphatic, potassic, calcareous sary to further enlarge upon. Then, in manures. The liming of land will be

the third place, there is the reaction of dealt with in a subsequent division of the carbonic acid gas which is evolved the work.

from farmyard dung, upon the mineral matter in the soil.

I do not doubt in

the least that it digests the soil. " I do not doubt that Jethro Tull was

Peruvian Guano. The chief of the nitrogenous manures is guano in its various forms.

In the year 1839, some twenty barrels perfectly right when he said farmyard manure prepared plant-food. No doubt of a red or light-brown substance were it does ; it is the source of carbonic acid imported into Liverpool from one of the

lie adjacent to the Peruvian gas, and we know that that gas in watery islands whichsubstance had been in use

solution reacts on the mineral matter in

the soil with great effect.

coast. The as a manure amongst the natives of Peru

“ Now take another reason . Farmyard for many centuries. It became known dung is rich in nitrogen ; that alone places as guano, a term which takes its origin it on a superior basis to most artificial from the Peruvian word “ huana," dung manures .

It is rich in nitrogen in a state

or manure, which consists of the accumu

of organic combination, from which it is lated droppings of sea - fowls during long liberated slowly by the process of decay, periods of time. that liberation of nitrogen being known As the temperature stands very high as nitrification. Performed under favour- in those regions (lying between 13°

able temperatures,with access of air, and and 21° south latitude), these bird no doubt also assisted by the agency of certain bacteria which work in the soil and produce the peculiar fermentation necessary, this nitrification of farmyard manure in the soil is arrested at freezingpoint. It proceeds very slowly at low

droppings soon dry ; and as the cli mate isalmost a rainless one, much of the soluble ingredients are preserved. The resulting manure is a complex one, possessing a composition similar to farmyard manure. After experiment,

temperatures, and with accelerated speed and when the merits of the guano were

at higher temperatures. Especially does it take place freely during the summer

Principles of Agric. Prac., 152.

j

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

103

brought home to the mind of the farmer, analysis. This arrangement is still in the demand for it rose very quickly. We can form some idea of the estima-

tion in which this manure was held by

existence ; and as a consequence, it is customary for sellers to attempt to sell cargoes upon

“ official analysis."

the Peruvians from the proverb, “Huano,

From the year 1850 to 1870 there was though no saint, works many miracles ; a large increase in the demand for guano, and from the fact that, under the govern- as many as 200,000 tons having been ment of the Incas, the killing of birds imported in a single season . The quality

which frequented the islets in which of the Peruvian deposits was yearly de a capital offence. were explored, resulting in the discovery When the exportation attained con- of deposits in the African coast which siderable proportions, the Peruvian Gov- lies between these latitudes. Ichaboe ernment, by exercising its lordship of was the richest, and Mejillones the These two guanos are fair the soil, created a monopoly of the sale poorest. of guano, which was sold at so much per representatives of what is known in the ton irrespective of quality. The first trade as high -class and low -class guanos.

guano deposits were formed , was made teriorating, and accordingly other coasts

contract made by British merchants was The one contains a large percentage of in 1840 or 1841. They made it a con- ammonia and a low percentage of phos

dition of the contract that for a period phates; the other a high percentage of of four years they would have the ex- phosphates and a low percentage of am clusive right to export from the island monia or none at all. of “ Chincha ” 20,000 tons of guano

Composition of Guanos . — The fol

lowing may be considered as an average The increasing demand and the mono- analysis oftheseguanos, to which is added poly, which raised the price of guano the analysis of “ Pabellon ,” which is now above its real value, together with the offered in the market, and which will yearly.

fact of the richer deposits becoming be seen to be very much lower than the

exhausted , led to guano being sold on others in quality : Phosphates Potash

Ammonia

Peruvian .

Ichaboe.

Mejillones.

" Pabellon . "

24.00

10.86

71.16

32.38

2.00

2.00

2.00

2.IO

17.00

13.00

.75

9.39

These analyses show Peruvian, Ichaboe, made to utilise this offal, which, besides and Pabellon to be rich in nitrogen, and

the heads and entrails of all the larger

are therefore called nitrogenousor high- fish, and the cleanings of the herring class guano . To these may be added curing stations, often included large

“ Punta de Lobos,” ” Huanillos,” which quantities of entire herring which the are somewhat richer in phosphates and curers were unable to manipulate. Neigh poorer in ammonia .

bouring farmers bought large portions of

Mejillones is purely phosphatic, and is this offal; but frequently they could not a low -class guano. The latter term , use up the supplies, so that many boat however, embraces guanos which contain loads of fish were emptied into the sea anything under 4 per cent ammonia and as being the only means of getting rid of over 40 per cent phosphates. The ab- the material. Such excessive waste could not long sence of ammonia is due to these guanos

being deposited in climates where fre- continue in the light of the nineteenth

These century. At length, at the various fish heavy rains supply the moisture neces- ing - stations, factories were erected in

quent and heavy rains occur.

sary to set up fermentation in the guano, which the offal is submitted to the and they wash away the soluble salts action of steam at a high pressure, and

and ammonia which are the products of afterwards it passes through the hydrau this fermentation .

lic press, by which means the greater portion of the oil is extracted .

Fish Guano.

The

whole mass is next passed through the Formerly there was great loss of fish- disintegrator, and thus is produced the offal.

In many cases no attempt was article known as fish guano.

MANURES AND MANURING.

104

Composition of Fish Guano. — The per cent of ammonia, but no other fertil composition of fish guano varies from 8 to 12 per cent of ammonia, and from 15 to 30 per cent of phosphates. The fish guano in the market seldom contains more than about 9 or 10 per cent of ammonia and 16 to 20 per cent of phos phates. But there is also present from 3 to 6 or 8 per cent of oil, which detracts

ising matter of much importance. They are used principally in the manufacture

of dissolved and compound manures, and contribute to the percentage of ammonia in these. Nitrate of Soda. Nitrate of soda, otherwise known as

from the value of this manure, as the Chili saltpetre or cubic nitre, is the

oil retards the dissolving of the elements most abundant and best known of these of plant nutrition which the fish guano salts. contains. This salt is a natural product of the soil in tropical climates, and as to its Frey Bentos Guano. formation, several theories, less or more In the manufacture of Liebig's extract different, are entertained. A fulldescrip of meat there is a large residue of flesh, tionor discussion of these theories need bone, and muscle.

These substances are

not be attempted here.

mixed together, dried, and ground, the product being a flesh guano, if we may so term it. In other instances a large supply is obtained from diseased meat

it is made from the action of water, im pregnated with soda salts upon guano. Others attribute its formation to sea weeds, which, by their decay, have given

and animal refuse of all kinds.

rise to nitrate of lime, which reacted

canic action . The sea -water on its evap oration would leave a large salt deposit,

The unequal character of natural thus furnishing the source of the large treated (some would say spoiled ) with nitrate beds. The lime would, according

guano in recent years has led to its being quantity of soda salts found in these

sulphuric acid, and its composition being to this sea -weed theory, be supplied by otherwise altered by the introduction of sea-shells, &c. ammonia from sulphate of ammonia , dried blood , or other organic source.

The chief sources of supply are Chili, Peru, and Bolivia, where it occurs in

This process dissolves the phosphates beds varying from 10 inches to 16 feet and organic matter, making these more in depth, sometimes quite near the sur soluble, and the nitrogenous matter face, but generally covered by several

as “ Costra." The raises the percentage of ammonia, so that feet of a layer known nitrate of soda is found

This regions in which commodity is known as Dissolved Peru- are quite destitute of vegetation, and vian Guano. there is often a period of several years Composition . — Dissolved Peruvian without rain . These beds lie in the an active manure is the result.

guano is usually in good mechanical Pampas known as “ Los Salinas, " which It seldom contains more is over 40 leagues in extent, and literally

condition .

than 8 per cent ammonia, and perhaps covered with beds of nitrate of soda. from 20 to 23 per cent soluble phosThe supply may be looked upon as phates, and 3 or 4 per cent insoluble almost inexhaustible. In its native state

phosphates.

it is mixed with impurities, notably chloride of sodium (common salt ) and Dried Blood, dc.

sulphate of potash, soda, lime, &c. ' But Dried blood, horn -dust, shoddy, and before exportation it undergoes a pro other waste products from the shambles cess of refining which renders it com

or factory, mayall be treated as insoluble paratively pure, 5 per cent being about nitrogenous substances, coming into ac- theamount of impurities remainingin it. tion slowly.

They contain from 5 to 16

Nitrate of soda, when first introduced

.

Composition. — The composition of upon sulphate of soda,the products being flesh guano varies from about 8 to 13 nitrate of soda and sulphate of lime. It per cent ammonia, and from about 10 is supposed that these beds were at one time isolated lagoons - isolated by vol to 20 per cent phosphates. Dissolved Guanos.

!

Some hold that

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

105

as an artificial manure, came into great every farmer, as he is in many instances, repute amongst farmers as a fertiliser. perhaps unknown to himself, producing Its high price, however, and the lack of this salt in the soil of his farm . correct views as to its action and un-

Forming Nitre - beds . — A brief de

sound mode of application, brought it scription of how nitre-beds are formed into such ill favour that on some estates will place the matter clearly before our its use as a manure was in certain cir- readers. A quantity of fertile loam is cumstances prohibited . procured, and with it is incorporated

In recent years, however, with more highly nitrogenous organic matter - such enlightened views as to its character and as blood, flesh, liquid manure, stable action, a steady increase in the demand manure, &c.

To this is added chalk or

has arisen. Indeed this salt is to a large old mortar - lime, and the whole mass extent, as a source of nitrogen, taking the turned over once or twice, after which place of that now more variable commo- the soil is washed and the water evap

dity Peruvian guano. We find that in orated, when the residue is found to be the year 1880, 50,000 tons of nitrate of crystals of nitrate of potash . soda were imported, while in 1887 the

The chemical changeswhich here take

imports of it exceeded 110,000 tons. It is likely, indeed , that the output of nitrate of soda will soon reach a million tons annually. At the present time

place are as follows : The decay of or ganic matter is hastened by the lime, and produces nitric acid. Ammonia is produced, and becoming oxidised it is

nitrate of soda is the cheapest source converted into nitric acid, which com

of nitrogen in the market, and has become the most important of the artificial manures . It usually consists of 95 per cent pure nitrate of soda, which is equal to about 19 per cent of am

bines with the lime in the first instance, and afterwards with the liberated pot ash, and thus is evolved the nitrate of potash. Nitrification.

monia .

Theory of Nitrification . — The latest Nitrate of Potash .

theory in connection with nitrification is

This salt is much more valuable than that organic matter, when it is allowed

nitrate of soda, both commercially and free contact with the air from an agricultural standpoint. Nitrate within certain ranges of of soda supplies only one of the ingredi- undergoes changes which ents of plant-food, whilst nitrate of pot- into simple bodies. This

and moisture temperature,

break it up result is pro

ash provides two - nitrogen and potash, duced by the presence of myriads of

- and is a valuable manure where ap- minute organisms termed " bacteria " plied to soils poor in clay and where no farmyard manure has been applied.

the Micrococcus nitrificans of Van Teighern, and other forms of bacteria .

Nitrate of potash has been imported These living bodies feed upon the nitro from India for many years, it being the genous matter, and increase in numbers nitre or saltpetre of commerce. The at a rate of which we can have but little

source of this Indian nitrate of potash conception. Every fertile soil, therefore, is believed to be human urine which had becomes the home of countless millions at some time been poured upon the soil, of these living organisms which carry on

these nitre-beds being found near the the work of nitrification, so that, as Pro sites of ancient cities. Until lately its fessor Cohn tersely puts it, “ Putrefac high price prevented farmers from using tion is the concomitant not of death but it as a manure.

of life.”

Conditions which favour Nitrifi It is, however, produced by artificial means, which is of interest to farmers, cation . — The conditions necessary for

as seen in the nitre-beds or saltpetre the life and development of the nitrifi

plantations which originated in France cation ferment are,-a) temperature during the last century so as to obtain a above 40° Fahrenheit and under 130° supply of nitre for the manufacture of Fahrenheit most favourable tempera

gunpowder. The manner in which this ture, 100° Fahrenheit, development at nitre is produced ought to be studied by that temperature being as great in a

MANURES AND MANURING .

106

few days as in months at a lower ; of ammonia. Another source of supply, (6) a certain amount of moisture ; which appears to be almost without limit,

(c) presence of organic matter, mine- is obtained in the manufacture of pig ral constituents of plant-food, carbonate iron into steel, but perhaps the largest of lime, and a plentiful supply of oxygen.

source of sulphate of ammonia is that

Any excess of putrefying organic matter obtained by the conversion of shale into in a soil is against nitrification. It is paraffin -oil. The production has been found to be most active near the surface largely increased by, if it has not been of the soil ; it is not found much below altogether due to, the introduction of 18 inches. Strong sunlight is not so the retort, invented by Young and Beilby, favourable as darkness. The bacteria by the oil companies into their works.

are easily killed by poisons, such as

The process by which the sulphate is

ferrous sulphate of iron, coal - tar, and produced is similar to that carried out sulphuretted hydrogen. at the gas -works. The preceding are the chief nitrogen Hellriegel's Theory . - A still further development in the theory of the forma- ous manures which are at present market

tion of nitric acid has been recently announced by a Continental savant named Hellriegel, who by careful observation, and a series of experiments on the manner of growth of legumes

3

able commodities. Other substances might be mentioned, but they are either too expensive for use as manures ,or con tain their organic matter in such insol uble compounds as to be practically

or pod-plants, has arrived at the con- worthless . clusion that the excrescences or warts

found on the roots of these are large Characteristics of Nitrogenous Manures. ly composed of bacteria, or fungoid There are a few points in connection matter, which have the power of with manures which should be carefully

changing the inert nitrogen of the at- considered by farmers, so that they may mosphere into the active form , as seen be guided to a wise selection of manures in nitrates or ammonia .

to suit their varied circumstances as to

There appears to be a wide difference soil, climate, and crop. Essential Points. - It should in par between the organisms of this orderand those present where organic matter is in ticular be borne in mind , ( 1 ) that the

process of decay, as the latter can work solubility of a manure depends on the only upon organic nitrogen , and break minute division of its parts; (2) that it up into simpler forms. It would be the greater the solubility, the quicker its unsafe as yet to draw definite conclu- action ; (3) that the shorter the time a sions ; but if this discovery is confirmed crop occupies the ground, the more abun by further research, there can be no

dant and the more soluble must be the

doubt it will lead to a considerable

manure ; and (4) that the rate of the

ib

1

change in the system of cropping and growth of a crop ought to indicate the The preceding will, at all kind of manure, and the best state in events, serve to suggest the reason why which to apply it.

manuring.

If these points are kept in view , the a big crop of wheat generally follows a classification of manures in relation to heavy crop of clover. their activity, and their action on thecrop Sulphate of Ammonia . and in the soil, will be comparatively Until recently, the chief source from easy. which sulphate of ammonia was obtained Slow and Active Manures. - A man was a by -product from the distillation of ure may, however, be perfectly soluble coal in the manufacture of gas. The am monia set free is absorbed in water at a

and yet not be available to the plant. It depends on the form in which its

low temperature, which, on being heated elements are combined whether the plant acid.

These enter into combination,and phate of ammonia are equally soluble

sulphate of ammonia is the result. Pure salts, but both are not alike available samples contain from 22 to 25 per cent for plant - food. Nitrate being a com

1.27 det --?-

by steam , gives off the ammonia, which will absorb it or not. For instance, nitrate of soda and sul is received in vessels containing sulphuric

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

107

pound of nitric acid and an alkaline base, applied to grass, nitrate of soda checks is readily absorbed and elaborated into the growth of clover, which , it would

the tissues of the plant; whilst, at any seem , dislikes the presence of an acid, rate to most plants , sulphate of ammonia although the acid is of great benefit to is not available until the ammonia ab- plants of a different order. sorbs oxygen , and is converted into nitric acid .

Action of sulphate of Ammonia.

The latter, therefore, does not Sulphate of ammonia being slower in its

come into action so quickly, and ought to action- -see above - gives more time es be applied to the land before the plant pecially for roots to grow , and on this

is ready to absorb it. Nitrate of soda, account the roots grown on land to on the other hand, is most economically which sulphate of ammonia is applied applied after the plant has developed its are oftendenser and heavier, and of leaf-surface to a greater or less extent.

better feeding qualities than where ni

Ammonia by trate of soda has been applied. This is Plants. — It is considered by some to true, although the direct action of the be too sweeping an assertion to say two is identical, and chiefly confined to Assimilation

of

that ammonia is not in any case avail- the shaws, the roots being injured in

able to plants until it is converted into keeping and feeding qualities by an ex nitric acid.

It is admitted that most

cessive dressing of either.

It has been shown by experiment that plants assimilate their nitrogen in the form of nitrates ; but that someplants, sulphate of ammonia improves grass both more especially at certain periods of in quantity and quality . Nitrate of Soda and Sulphate of growth, have the power of assimilating their nitrogen in the form of am- Ammonia Compared . — We have seen

monia would seem to be indicated by that sulphate of ammonia contains con

certain experiments by Lehmann. It is siderably more nitrogen than nitrate of pretty generally admitted that the leaves soda, the most general proportion being

of plants have the power of absorbing about 13 in the former to 10 in the latter. Experience, however, has shown Action of Nitrate of Soda . — Nitrate that the nitrogen in the nitrate of soda of soda, as will be seen further on, is is the more effective, producing at feebly retained by the soil, and should Rothamsted and Woburn about 14 per carbonate of ammonia from the air.

therefore be applied only to supply the cent more barley, and from about 5 to

wants of the crop then growing. The surplus will find its way to the subsoil, and may escape in the drainage -water. It exhausts the soil more quickly than any other manure, if the soil is unaided by the application of other manures. The

25 per cent more wheat, than sulphate of ammonia ; while, when applied with potash salts and phosphates to grass-hay and potatoes, similar results were ob tained. When applied alone, the nitrate

of soda was far superior to the sulphate reason of this is, that its action in the of ammonia . With mangels the evi first instance tends to increase the leaf- dence in favour of nitrate of soda has

surface of crops, which therefore make been still more striking. It may thus larger demands upon the soluble constit- be taken as fully established, that al uents of the soil, resulting in a heavier yield per acre. But if care is taken to · have the soil sufficiently furnished with the other elements of plant-food, this exhausting influence of the nitrate may

though sulphate of ammonia may con tain nearly one-third more nitrogen than nitrate of soda, it is not, as a rule, worth to the farmer more than from one- tenth

to one-eighth more money per ton . Guano, when of fairly good quality, The turnips and other roots produced gives better results than either nitrate of from nitrate of soda are light in weight, soda or sulphate of ammonia . porous and inferior in feeding qualities, Excessive Nitrogenous Applications and are apt to decay when touched by Injurious. — The excessive application of frost. In a dry season, nitrate of soda nitrogenous manure tends to increase

be effectually counteracted .

gives better results than sulphate of the percentage of nitrogen and diminish ammonia, and increases the produce of that of phosphoric acid in the composi straw , but produces light grain. When

tion of plants.

This fact leads to wide

MANURES AND MANURING .

108

issues ; for the relation between the soil

manures, one should not overlook the

and plant is in no way closer than that fact that some soils have a greater power between plants and animals. From this of retaining manures than others, and we have weed and diabetes in that some manures part with one or more horses, and, where phosphates are defi- of their elements more readily than others.

cause

cient, rickets, rotten teeth, and late dentition, & c., &c. Nitrogenous Salts are not suited for grain crops when applied alone, as the tendency is to produce straw at the expense of the grain. But when these are mixed with phosphates, excellent results are obtained .

The power of a soil to retain manure was at one time thought to be a mere physical

property pertaining to it, but later re search has modified that opinion. Mr Way, in the Journal of the Royal Agri cultural Society of England,clearly proves by experiment, that when solutionsof the various salts are filtered through a layer

Slow Manures for Slow Crops.— of earth, and the solution, after filtration, The period of time during which the is analysed, it is found to have lost all or crop occupies the ground has a consider- nearly all the substances which it held in able influence upon the economical use solution - it being the base rather than of soluble manures .

Wheat takes often the acid which the soil had the power of

seven to nine months to mature, and dur- retaining.

This affinity is greater in ing that period will have plenty of time some soils than in others, the following touse up the soil constituents which are being the order : arable soil— clay, peaty, Barley, on the other calcareous, sandy. It has also been slowly soluble.

hand, is often harvested in four months found that the soil has a greater power or less; so that this cereal, being a of retaining some manures than others, shallow -rooted plant, will require readily the following being the order, those

soluble manure in greater abundance. having the greater affinity being placed For this reason , top - dressing once or first : ammonia, potash, magnesia, lime, twice with any of the more soluble nitro- soda. In explanation of this, Mr Way ad genous manures, mixed with superphosphates, would give the best results; for it vances the following theory : In soils

must be kept in view that crops can take there are double silicates of lime and up nitratesonly when solublephosphates alumina. If potash be brought into and potash are present.

contact with this double silicate, it re

Action of Guano. — Guano is both a places the lime ; sulphate of lime and the quick and a slow acting manure . The ammonia present in guano is to the extent of one-third or more in the form of salts which are readily soluble ; the other portion is in the form of compounds

double silicate of potash and alumina are produced. Silicate of alumina com bines readily with ammonia, and least so with soda, &c.

Others, again, maintain that the oxide

Its phosphates of iron, which is abundantly present in are of secondary consideration ; but most soils, absorbs the ammonia. Mr

more or less soluble.

when guano of good quality can be Warington also finds that this oxide acts obtained, it is undoubtedly the best upon superphosphates. The soluble phos phoric acid may also be retained by re that is, next to farmyard manure. Its combining with lime and forming a slowly

manure in the hands of the farmer-

use has now become limited by its high soluble salt. price and very variable composition. Conserving Manures in Soils .Horn, Dried Blood, Shoddy, Wool- All agree, however, that the soil has little waste, &c., are very slowly acting man- or no power of retaining nitrates in any ures, and are, in consequence, more fitted combination. We must therefore look

for pasture-land than for quick-growing to some other means to preserve this crops.

But in a dry season they may valuable manure. The growth of catch

prove as effective on the root crops as the more soluble forms. They are used chiefly to fortify dissolved manures. Power of Soils to retain Manures. -In connection with the more soluble

crops has been recommended for this purpose. But this is impracticable in many instances, such as in ploughed land preparatory to the turnip crop. The work of the farm must go on in a regu

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

109

lar manner, and the leaving of the fallow of the latter county would seem to have unploughed until spring would throw the fully appreciated the beneficial action of work into confusion.

Where the land bones. Their active system of grazing

can be kept under crop of any kind this should certainly be done, for the nitrates will be preserved by being absorbed by the roots and elaborated into the tissues of the plants as albumen. It seems, however, that in this as well as in many operations connected with

with dairy cattle had greatly exhausted the phosphates of the soil, and the effect which followed a liberal dressing with bones was simply marvellous. Indeed the pastures to which they had been

applied very soon increased in value by 30s. per acre.

agriculture ,where the farmer fails nature

Fame of Bone -manure . — As would

steps in and provides a remedy. This may be understood when we are aware that nitrification proceeds in exact proportion to the rise or fall of temperature,

be expected, the story of this wonderful result rapidly attained notoriety, and led to an extended use of bones as manure in these districts. The small home-supply

being at a minimum during winter, and of bones soon became exhausted, and the ceasing entirely aboutfreezing -point. We importation of bones from Germany and thus see that, during the season of least

Northern Europe speedily developed into

growth, nitrates are not produced, or a regular trade, of which Hull was the produced only in small quantity ; but as chief centre. the temperature rises, and growth begins,

The bone-trade of Hull now became a

then the bacteria resume operations, in- leading factor in the agricultural world,

creasing in their productive powers until and the benefits which arose to all classes they reach the maximum during summer in the community may be summed up in

when the heat is greatest, and at the the proverb, “One ton of German bone period of the greatest growth, and when dust saves theimportation of ten tons of nitrogen is most largely required for the German corn . Benefits from the use of Bone further developmentofthe plants. >

Action of Nitrogen greatest on

manures .

- But a direct increase in

Young Plants.- We learn from experi- production was not the only benefit re

ments conducted by Arendt that the sulting from the use of bones as manure.

presence of albuminoids, which are largely The use of bone-manure played a leading composed of nitrogen, is greatest during part in the extension of turnip -culture, the first period of the growth of plants, and in the consequent change of the

and becomes a gradually diminishing whole system of farming formerly prac quantity until it nearly reaches maturity. tised - changes which have led not only The beneficial action of a soluble form

to a large increase in the production of

of nitrogen, such as in nitrate of soda,

food, but gave rise to that spirit of in

may be understood from this, especially quiry which has evolved and placed when applied to young grass or corn within our reach the mass of valuable crops when they come into braird . Phosphatic Manures.

information embraced in the term “ Agri cultural Chemistry." Forms of Bone -manure . — Bones have

Bones . — The use of bones as a source

been applied to the soil in many forms of phosphoric acid and nitrogen for the and conditions - raw or green, boiled, growth of crops, began longbefore the burned , broken, bruised , ground, fer

underlying principles of manuring were mented, and dissolved. understood . The reason why an increase of crops should follow an application of

Raw , Broken , and Bruised Bones.

-Raw bones, when dried so as to lose bones was consequently the subject of no more weight, are found to be made many unsound theories. up on an average of 28 per cent organic Early use of Bone - manure.— The matter and 72 per cent of inorganic first authentic account we have of the matter or bone -earths. The presence of

use of bones in this country tells of their these is determined as to quantity by

application in many parts of Yorkshire. the kind of animal, its age, and the state Soon after they were applied to the ex- of preservation of the bone. Organic Matter in Bones . — The or hausted pastures of Cheshire, the farmers

MANURES AND MANURING.

IIO

ganic matter is almost entirely composed lost part of their organic matter would of ossein or cartilage. This substance is also largely enter into the composition of very rich in nitrogen, which yields on an this dust. Hence their inferior quality. It is

Fineness of Division appreciated.

not, however, present in all bones in the

— The requirements of the turnip crop,

same proportion . In young growing animals the cartilage is present ingreater proportion than in an aged one, as the bones of the latter are composed largely of bone-earth , and are in consequence

however, increased the demand for

much more brittle, and when broken in

ever since remained the favourite form

average 22 per cent of ammonia .

quickly acting manure, so that farmers began to find out that the smaller the division the more soluble the manure. Thus bone-meal came into use, and has

a live animal take a much longer time in which to apply insoluble phosphates to mend,

Bones, again, are often col- to the soil.

lected from the plains of Russia and

Fermented Bones. — Before Liebig's

various parts of America, where they discovery of dissolving bones with acid, have been so long lying exposed to at various methods were tried to increase mospheric influences, that it is found the solubility of bones, fermentation being much if not all of the cartilage has dis- one of many.

It consists of mixing the

appeared. It has also to be considered bones with earth and saturating the that the manufactures of soap , glue, and mass with liquid manure, and allowing gelatine often abstract a part of this the heap to remain for a week or two substance along with fatty matter which before using. Some farmers in the adheres to fresh bones. Itmay therefore present dayferment their bone-meal by be accepted as a rule applicable to this throwing it into a heap after mixing it as well as to all phosphaticmanures which with water. In about a week the heat have not been adulterated, that the higher of the fermentation is at its greatest

the percentage of ammonia, the lower the height, after which the heap will de percentage of phosphates; and conversely, crease in bulk and change in colour, a high rate of phosphates means a low the latter being due to the presence of rate of ammonia. Preparing Bone -manure.

insects and germ -life, which attack the

When organic portion of the bone and de bones were first used, they were simply compose it. There can be no doubt

chopped into pieces or broken by ham- this process hastens the solubility of mers.

The advantage of their being bones. Bone -ash soon apparent, and mills

broken was

and Bone - flour. - In the

were erected at nearly all the ports at manufacture of glue and gelatine, and which cargoes of foreign bones arrived . as a source of ammonia , bones have Steam -power was first employed in break- been long used. The residue was found ing bones by Mr Anderson of Dundee to be an excellent manure in a much in 1829, his machinery preparing the more soluble form than could be attained bones in the form of 12-inch, 14 -inch, by any process of grinding. bones were thus brought under the notice For some time farmers seemed to be of farmers. But before this, bones were satisfied with these sizes, as they con- boiled to extract the fatty matter and and dust.

sidered that grinding the bones smaller part of their gelatine, by soap -boilers for detracted from theirbeneficial and last- the manufacture of soap. The residue ing effect. The more observant, how- was found to be more active than ordi

ever, by watching the progress of their nary crushed bones. We are now aware crops, noticed that the bone-dust came that in the manufacture of dissolved more quickly into action, and that it was bones this fatty matter carbonises and

mainly due to impurities that dust was forms an impervious layer over each

not in favour. The dust being the small fragment of bone, preventing the acid particles which passed through the riddles from acting upon it. of the mills, would contain all the sand Fat in Manure disadvantageous. and earthy matter which would find a The same process occurs in the soil. An

lodgment in the hollow parts of the bone; impervious envelope is formed around and much of the old bones which had the bone-fragments by the fat, and the

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

III

action of acids which are generated is terbalances this fact to a certain extent.

prevented , thereby retarding solution. Fat is of no manurial value. We would therefore infer that bone-

Burned Bones. — The burning of

meals of all descriptions would be en- bones is a wasteful process to effect the hanced as fertilisers if these fats were same object. In this form they are removed before grinding. largely imported from South America for Steamed bone- flour undergoes a more the manufacture of superphosphates. In

searching process, as the bones are intro- this process the nitrogen is entirely dis duced into a Papin's digester, and sub- sipated. No doubt it is a concentrated mitted to the action of steam at a high form in which to obtain phosphates, but pressure, which removes a portion of, and the plan is not commendable . Its only

in some instances nearly all, the organic redeeming point is that the charcoal

matter, thereby disintegrating thesub- resultingfromthe burning of bones can stance of the bone, which is afterwards be used for other purposes, sugar-refin reduced to an impalpable powder. The ing, &c., before it comes to the farmer abstracting of the gelatine decreases the as a manurial substance. manurial value, as it

the only source

Analyses of Bone - manure . - The

of nitrogen ; but the percentage of phos- following are analyses of average sam phates is largely increased, which coun- ples : Crushed

Moisture .

Organic matter 1 Phosphate of lime Carbonate of lime Insoluble matter

Yielding ammonia

Steamed

Russian Bones

Bones .

(steamed). 6.80

Bones .

Bone. meal.

7.13

7.45

36.61 48.32

41.85 46.36

67.53

7. II

9.31

.83

3.66 .68

100.00

100.00

100.00

4.56

5.27

1.94

5.20 17.50

16.70 59.31

.46

1.80

Analyses similar to the above are very weight of sulphuric acid diluted with general in trade circulars. It may be three or four parts of water, and after

explained, however, that bone-meal, made they have been digested for some time, by crushing pure bones from cattle, horses, to add about 100 parts of water, and to

or sheep, would not contain quite so sprinkle this acid -mixture (phosphate of much as 5.27 per cent of ammonia. In líme) before the plough," it was thought a bone- meal with the above analyses a solution to the problem had been

there would likely be a good deal of found. The plan could hardly be said to have be made partly of the bone of fish. come into use, as it was open to much skinny matter crushed up, or it might

The Russian bones of commerce are steamed .

objection on account of the form in which

the bones were to be applied to the soil. Dissolved Bones . — About the year A dressing of i cwt. of the dissolved

1840 a new departure was made in the mixture, entailing the application of manufacture of bones as manure.

The nearly aton of water, was simply imprac

development of this trade was rapid and ticable in most cases of ordinary farm

extensive, but farmers became at last ing. A remedy was found in putting less acid in the mixture, and thereby produc bones could not be carried to such a ing a nearly dry product whichcould be point as to suit the requirements of the sown by hand or machine. This sub turnip crop. Mechanical means had been stance came quickly into favour with all alive to the fact that the division of

tried , and had not, to the full extent, classes of farmers, as they found the fulfilled the purpose.

manure to be easy of application, rapid

But when Liebig announced that in its action, and in most climates and soils never failed to produce an increase of effecting their division is to pour over of crops. the bones, in a fine powder, half their Dissolving of doubtful Advantage.

“ the most easy and practical method

MANURES AND MANURING.

II2

-From the accounts to which we have had access, there would seem to have

been, until recently, a good deal too much manuring with dissolved bones. There can be no doubt of their efficacy, but we cannot help agreeing with Dr

7 cwt. bone-meal 14

11

15

11

3

11

I

11

coprolites acid sulphuric water Сурвит

40

Aitken when he says, “ Considering the

enormous quantity of mineral superphosphates now available, I am strongly of opinion that it is a mistake to dissolve bones, and that they are put to a much

This will give about 22 to 25 per cent soluble phosphate, from 8 to 12 insoluble, and about i per cent ammonia. It is specially important to notice that the

better use by applying them in their material from which the manure derives natural state in as finely ground a con- its name is present only to the extent of

being made dition as they can possibly be got. The nearly 1-6th part, the balance ls. Now let a germ-life in the soil and in the bones will up of cheaper materia

very rapidly convert the whole into a mixture of bone-meal and ordinary super

form available for the nourishment of phosphates be made up to give the fore plants ; but to dissolve bones in sulphuric going percentages, and our point is made. acid is to kill out the germ-life within it,

But there is another view . The farmer

for and retard the decayof any nucleus of is paying the dissolved - bone price super

bone it may contain .”

materials which he can buy at a

Bones and Mineral Phosphates.- phosphate rate.

That is, for 2 tons of a

Bones contain nitrogen and phosphates. substance which is made up to the extent Mineral phosphate contains only phosphates, but when dissolved this phosphate is probably as efficient a plantfood as phosphate obtained from bones. Some chemists still maintain that the origin influences the manurial value of the phosphates ; but the idea is gaining

of 33 cwt. of superphosphate materials, he is paying a dissolved -bone price. Further elucidation of this, and the

chemical changes which are involved in dissolving bones, are given under Super phosphates, p . 116.

The dissolving of bones and other ground that the only difference which manures has developed now into a great exists between the forms bone and industry, and, as a consequence, all

from mineral phosphates — is the presence of qualities are offered in themarket, This nitrogen, high -class dissolved bone down to adul

nitrogen in the bones.

however, can be readily introduced in terated rubbish entirely unworthy of the some other form ; and thus would result name of manure. Analyses of Dissolved Bones. — The a manure about equal to bones. To put

are average analyses of three following it another way, ordinary dissolved bones classes of dissolved bones :

are made up as follows :

Dissolved Bones .

No. 2 . Dissolved Bones .

10.68 7.12

9.92 5.32

78.36 3.84

78.30 6.46

3.28 80.92 6.40

Equal to tricalcic phosphate, rendered " soluble ” 23. 32

21.68 7.76

20.56

15.56 3.03

2.00

No. 1.

Phosphoric acid in a soluble state 1

Phosphoric acid in an insoluble state2 Lime, sulphuric acid, & c. . Insoluble matter

2 Equal to insoluble phosphate of lime a Ammoni

No. 3.

Dissolved Bones.

9.40

7.20 1.38

Coprolites.

appreciated, increased attention was given to the question of manuring, and active

Origin of the Manure - trade.

research was made for other fertilisers .

Fresh substances were found, and in the agriculture of this country with the proved to be successful and economical introduction of bones as a manure . As as fertilisers. A large increase in the the results obtained became known and demand for these manures rapidly arose, It hasbeen shown that a new era began

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

113

and with this movement began the man- are of various qualities. Those found in ure - trade of this country, which has the Suffolk Crag, in Buckingham, &c., developed from small beginnings to the were at one time known as false or

immense volume of about 600,000 tons pseudo-coprolites, from their containing a considerable quantity of alumina and Cambridge Road - scrapings. - In oxide of iron . It has been suggested

per annum .

the rise and progress of this trade the by Dr Buckland that the coprolite of effect of any substance when used as a this description was at one time chalk,

manure was closely observed, and thus which , after absorbing phosphoric acid we can therefore understand how the from the decay of organic matter, was

road -scrapings of Cambridge came into ultimately altered by natural forces into notice.

These scrapings, on being ex- a mineral phosphate.

Another theory as to the origin of amined , were found to be in part composed of phosphate of lime, obtained from these and other mineral phosphates has phosphatic nodules, which were dug up also had support. It was supposed

out of the underlying " greensand," that they were at one time nearly the and used for repairing roads. Dr Buck- same as many of the phosphatic guano land , their discoverer, found these nod- deposits, and had been altered by rains ules to be a mineral phosphate, and con- and afterwards by changes in the earth's sequently nearly insoluble. They are crust, so as to be converted into the now known under the name of coprolites. nodules or phosphatic rocks, now so A considerable period elapsed after the largely employed in the manufacture of discovery of these nodules before they superphosphates. came to be used as manure. The writDissolving or Grinding.– Until re

ings of Henslow and Hérapath , who min- cently, chemists were of opinion that utely described the extent and composi- mineral phosphates, unless treated with tion of this manurial wealth, effectedthis acids, were practically useless as a man object by bringing these resources under

ure.

Modern research, however, has

the notice of the Royal Agricultural shown that, if ground to an impalpable powder, they are of considerable value Origin of Coprolite. — Coprolites, or as fertilisers. dungstones, are the excrements and reWe shall not here attempt to deter

Society of England.

mains of saurians or lizards, Ammonites, mine or pronounce upon their precise Belemnites, &c.

relative value in a dissolved or undis

Sources of Coprolite. — The digging solved state. As yet, indeed, this ques of coprolites was at first confined to the tion occupies a debatable position in

midland counties, where they were found chemical investigation. All, however, in the greensands of Cambridge, the agree that coprolites, when dissolved , green marls, the gault, the bone-beds become a safe and valuable source of of the Lias, Ludlow bone-beds, Suffolk phosphoric acid for plant-growth. Crag, & c. After a time immense deComposition of Coprolites.

The

posits were found in various parts of following are average analyses of copro

Europe and America. These deposits lites by Sibson : Cambridge.

Moisture . Phosphoric acid Lime Carbonic acid

Other matters Sand

1 Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime

. .

1.24 26.80

Bedford . 2.06

Suffolk ,

Carolina .

French .

1.03 25.50 37.24

1.04 25.70

20.80

1.90

43.26

23.52 33.46

7.10 12.70

16.54 24.42

20.50 12.13

16.76

8.90

19.12

31.94 3.80 15.03 26.53

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

58.50

51.34

55.67

56.10

45.41

37.38

3.60

The preceding are very similar in com-

But there are many other sources of

position, and may be taken as fair repre- insoluble phosphates. We shall men tion briefly a few of those best known . sentatives of the phosphatic nodules. VOL . II .

н

MANURES AND MANURING .

114

and masses. It exists in lesser quantities

Apatite, Phosphorite, and Phosphatic Layers.

in other parts of the world . Phosphatic layers are generally poor in

These substances occur in varied proportions in nearly all rocks,but are more abundantly present in the Metamorphic. They are much alike in character and composition. The existence of these layers, veins, and pockets seems to be

quality, and aremet with in the Silurian rocks, notably in Wales. Phosphorite is very abundant in some parts of Portu gal, but these sources have not as yet been fully developed in consequence of bad roads. It is more sparsely present

due to the decay of organic matter; the in Spain and Germany. The Canadian residue being mixed up with shells of phosphorite beds have not been fully various kinds in which phosphate of lime explored. The specimens which have is present in considerable abundance- been sent to the market are extremely

these being deposited during long periods hard and brittle, very difficult to grind ; of time, and compressed amongst the the powder obtained being minute glassy other rock -material. Granite and syenite particles of a crystalline form . This seem to be more largely interspersed with

renders it more insoluble than most other

these substances than other rocks, and phosphatic materials. we have, in consequence, the best corn-

These substances are for the most part

growing lands on soils which overlie these manufactured into superphosphates. Composition of Phosphorite. - Un

rocks.

dernoted are aralyses of average speci Apatite is found largely in Canada mens :

and Norway, where it ispresent in veins

Canadian

Moisture

Phosphoric acid 1 Lime

Phosphorite. Traces . 35.30 47.22

Other constituents Sand, &c.

1 Equal to phosphate of lime

11.98

German .

Spanish.

1.30 28.02 37.11 15.44

Traces. 33.60 42.02 8.11

5.50

18.13

16.27

100.00

100.00

100.00

77.06

61.17

73.35

bination with lime as a base . Sombrero or Rock Guano. This substance is found in the West

In Re

donda phosphate we have instead of lime a base composed of alumina and iron.

be applied to the soil Indian island of Sombrero, hence its This substance can There can be little doubt that in its natural state only in a finely

name .

the greater part of the islands in the divided condition, as the absence of lime Caribbean Sea were at one time covered in its composition prevents the treatment

with guano deposits in the same manner of it with acid . as those found on the islands of the

There would seem to be a consider

South American and African coasts. able amount of conflicting opinion as this substance as a These deposits, by natural agencies, have to the efficacy ofhold it to be utterly been converted into the phosphatic rock manure . Many which coversthe greater part of this and useless. Fromits composition we would the other islands of the West Indies.

infer that it should become more readi

This rock has become known in the ly available than many other mineral manure-tradeas Sombrero guano, and is phosphates, for it not only depends largely used in the manufacture of com- on the fineness of division, but also pounds and other soluble phosphatic on the composition whether a substance becomes more or less dissolved in the

manures .

soil.

“ Redonda ” and “ Alta Vela ”

Phosphates.

The hard, brittle, and crystalline char

acter of some of the phosphorites, with

The preceding are all phosphates in little or no carbonate of lime or iron in which the phosphoric acid is in com- their composition, must necessarily be

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

115

less soluble than those phosphatic mate- render them more liable to disintegra rials in which these substances are pres- tion . ent to the extent of about 11 per cent Composition ofSombrero , Redonda,

carbonate of lime, and 7 per cent oxide and Alta Vela . — The following is aver of iron. These substances being dis- age analyses of a few of these materials solved out of the minute particles, must by Sibson Sombrero.

Redonda .

Alta Vela.

27.20

6.50

Moisture

16.50

Phosphoric acid i

31.60

Lime

44.67

21.13 30.24 3.16

Other constituents

15.99 1.24

24.84 20.63

26.23 21.14

100.00

100.00

100.00

Sand

1 Equal to phosphate of lime Alta Vela contains 11 Redonda

8.93

66.01 68.98 59.38 7.20 oxide of iron and 14. 16 alumina . 15.72 3.64

Thomas Slag.

such as manganese, silicon , phosphorus, and carbon, combine with the oxygen

We have in this substance not only present in a stream of air which is forced the most recently discovered, but also through the molten mass, and either the cheapest and most abundant source burns off or forms oxides with these sub

of phosphoric acid . It has been in the stances. But on an increase of the al

market only since 1886. The results ob- ready high temperature the phosphorus tained from carefully conducted experi- is converted into phosphoric acid , which ments in Germany and this country combines with the lime,and the resultant clearly indicate that this substance is an product is the Thomas slag, or phos excellent source of phosphorus to plants. phate of lime. It is, indeed, more quickly available to Solubility of Slag. — This substance plants than any previously known form can be readily ground into a very fine

of insoluble phosphate. As it is now powder ; and after being passed over produced in Europe to the extent of powerful magnets, which abstract a part about 600,000 tons per annum , the dis- of the iron, it is presented to the farmer covery of its manurial value is of great in the best form for application. importance to agriculture.

In this

state it is quickly rendered available to

Source of Thomas Slag.— Thomas the plant by

the carbonic acid and water slag is a by - product obtained in the present in every arable soil. This solu conversion of pig -iron into steel. Before bility arises from its peculiar composi the discovery of this new process, all the tion. slag resulting from the Bessemer method In bones and mineral phosphates we was treated as a waste product, and it have three atoms of lime as a base com

often became a serious difficulty with bining with one atom of phosphoric acid manufacturers how to get rid of this to form the salt termed phosphate of supposed rubbish. It was therefore lime. The combination may be stated allowed to accumulate in those unsightly thus, it being remembered that the heaps which are always seen in con- atomic weight of calcium is 40, oxygen nection with iron factories. Manufacture of Thomas Slag .

16, and phosphorus 31 : Chemical formula .

The new process was patented in 1879

by the inventors, Messrs Thomas & Gil- Lime christ, but the waste product was not utilised until some six or seven years later. The method consists of mixing the molten iron with about 20 per cent

Lime Lime

Cao

Phosphoric acid

Ca0 } Сао

Weight.

56 Q, = 3 s6 I42 56

Now, Thomas slag has four molecules

of lime. The converter, which is a large of lime in its composition, in combina pear-shaped vessel, is also lined with limetion with one molecule of phosphoric acid, instead of brick . The various impurities, thus

MANURES AND MANURING .

116

Lime Lime Lime Lime

Formula . Cao

Weight.

56

Phosphoric Cao acid

CaO Cao

P205

56 42 561 56

sulphuric acid, and the ammonia escapes in à volatile state into the atmosphere. Further information on this point will be found under mixtures and mix

ing.

In other words, 168 parts of lime are combined with 142 parts of phosphoric acid in the one instance, and 224 parts of

Soluble Phosphates or Superphosphates. When Sir John Bennet Lawes, about

lime with 142 parts of phosphoric acid the year 1840, announced that he could in the other.

That is to say, in Thomas obtain soluble phosphate of lime from

slag the acid is combined with too great the mineral phosphatic nodules as repre a proportion of lime to enable it to cohere sented by coprolites, it is not to be firmly.

To put it in still another way,

supposed that he then realised that from

its chemical affinity is weakened from this discovery a special industry would being over-saturated with lime, so that develop, which would go on increasing the compound is more readily broken up. in volume until it reached, as it had done Hence the solubility of Thomas slag. by 1888, the placing upon the markets Oxide of Iron in Slag . – There seems of Great Britain of over half a million to be one drawback which, in the opinion tons of superphosphates yearly. The of many farmers, detracts from the value great value of this discovery to the agri of slag as a manure. This is the great cultural world becomes apparent by a

quantity of oxide of iron in its composi- consideration of the large and increas tion, many samples containing from 10 ing quantities of superphosphate which to 20 per cent and over. From experi- farmers require under the changes which ments conducted by Sir John B. Lawes, the application of artificial manures

and in Germany, it seems that the has effected in the rotation of crops, presence of this material has little or

and the ever-diminishing supply of phos

no effect on the growth of crops. The phates. farmer, therefore, just loses the value of

Composition of Phosphate of Lime.

the fertilising ingredients in proportion to Phosphoric acid and lime in combina the quantity of this substance which may tion are the principal ingredients in the be present in the slag bought by him . salt, phosphate of lime. These substances Composition of slag. — Slag also are present always in the same propor contains, beside phosphate and silicate tion whether the phosphate is derived

of lime,a considerable quantity ofcaustic from bones or mineral phosphaticmate or free lime and magnesia . The following

is an average analysis of Thomas slag :-

rials—with the one exception of slag. This combination is known as insoluble,

tribasic, or tricalcic phosphate, which Phosphoric acid

18 per cent

consists of three atoms of lime and one

Lime

50

Oxides of iron, &c.

22

atom of phosphoric acid, thus

Silica

Magnesia

7 3

The quantity of phosphoric acid in a sample depends on the amount of phos phorus present in the iron, and the

Lime Lime

Formula . Cao

Phosphoric acid

Lime

Weight.

56 Cao } , 0 = 3 s6 143

CaO

15

56

Solubility of Phosphate of Lime.

quantity of lime which is added to the In thisform phosphate of lime is very molten liquid . If an excessive quantity

slowly soluble.

Were it not that this

of lime be added , then the residue must substance when applied to the soil comes

be poor The in caustic phosphoriclime,acid,althou and ghvice into contact with water impregnated versâ. a with carbonic and other acids, the phos good manure, prevents slag forming an all round ingredient in mixing manure , as in this form it is a strong alkaline base, which will readily drive out a

phate would remain unaltered for years. considerable dissolving power, and when insoluble phosphate is acted upon by

But the carbonic acid and water possess

volatile one, as ammonia . If these be carbonic acid, a molecule of lime is taken mixed , the lime combines with the away, and water takes its place, so that

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

117

the phosphate is now changed into a phoric acid combination, and abstracts more soluble form , known as biphosphate of lime or dicalcic phosphate. Precipitated , Reverted , or Reduced Phosphates . — This form is also effected

two atoms of lime from it, the vacancy being made up with water. After a short time the bottom of the mixer is opened , and the whole mass drops into

by mixing dissolved phosphates with an enclosure known as the den. In a day or two the mixture dries quickly, it is then passed through a disinte grator, bagged up, and sold under the name of " superphosphate ." This product, on examination, is found which may be present in a fertile soil. to have undergone a change different from bones, slag , or caustic lime, before applying it to the soil. These phosphates also assume this form after being applied, as the phosphoric acid rendered soluble will then combine with any free base The combination may be stated thusFormula .

Lime Lime Water

Weight.

the other forms, as the compound now retains only one atom of lime in com bination with the phosphoric acid, and

Phosphoric H2O Cao P,0;= 456 142 may be stated thus

Formula . Сао

Lime

The preceding form may be looked

Water

upon as the natural process by which

Water

Phosphoric acid

Weight.

H , 0 P-P,0 ,02 18 H20

142

phosphate of lime is rendered soluble, In chemical parlance this substance is and consequently available for plant-food. Dissolving of Phosphate of Lime. designated monocalcic phosphate, but it -We have next to consider the artificial is usual in analysis not to state the quan

method of rendering insoluble phosphates tity of this substance, but the quantity soluble.

The raw material is first ground of tricalcic phosphate from which it was

into a fine powder, after which it is placed in a vessel termed a mixer, and treated with sulphuric acid. It depends upon the composition of the raw material and

made — that is, the tribasic or tricalcic phosphate of lime rendered soluble by an acid .

In this form it is in its most

soluble condition, as it can be held in

the strength of the acid as to the exact solution by water. proportions in which these substances are Biphosphate . But some chemists

mixed, more acid or less being employed consider that in this state the phosphoric in proportion to the carbonate of lime acid is not available for plant-food - that

present. The general rule is to give as before becoming so, ithas to pass into the much acid as the material will take up quickly and dry readily after. In practice the quantity of acid varies from one-third to the full weight of the phosphatic material. The value of a superphosphate depends on the amount of soluble phosphates present. It is therefore questionable

biphosphate form . When this change is effected, it becomes a precipitate, and is then in the most finely divided condi tion a substance can assume. Many farmers consider the biphosphate the

best form in which to apply phosphate of lime, holding that it is more quickly effective upon crops, and that the super

policy to stint acid -- at least from a phosphate form is over-soluble, and liable manufacturer's point of view as the to escape into the subsoil or drains if unit value of soluble is much greater a base is not present. than that of insoluble phosphates. For But there are advantages which arise

reason, in low-class superphosphates from the use of phosphates, as in super the material is saturated with acid to phosphate - viz., the greater power of

this

prevent reversion, with old mortar, chalk , diffusion a substance has when it is held and other inferior substances which some- in solution by water ; because, wherever

times forma considerable portion of such this water, which is impregnated with mixtures. When the acid is put into phosphoric acid, comes into contact with the mixer, chemical action at once be- the soil in which lime or other base is

gins by the sulphuric acid, which is present, there a portion of the phosphor strong, driving out the weaker car- ic acid is precipitated , and in this man bonic acid . It then attacks the phos- ner the phosphoric acid is interspersed

118

MANURES AND MANURING.

throughout the soil in a way which could

The percentage of soluble phosphates

never be attained by any mechanical which average samples should contain is shown below :

means.

Bone or Mineral Phosphate . - It is

High -class Medium Low -class Superphos. Superphos. Superphos phate. phate. phate.

held by eminent chemists that the solu ble phosphates obtained from mineral Soluble phos phate (per phosphates are equally as good as those from bones, and that there is no special cent) .

}

35

28 to 30

23 to 26

virtue in one form over the other. It is

therefore of little importance to the far mer from which source his soluble phos-

Characteristics of Phosphatic Manures. In the selection of the form in which

phates are made, provided the material to apply phosphate to his crop, the far is fully dissolved, and in a dry, powdery mer has to consider the character of the condition .

soil, climate,and crops to be grown. The

But from this we do not infer that remarks made uponnitrogenous manures superphosphates are as good a manure apply with equal force to all kinds of asdissolved bones.

We merely conclude phosphates.

that the soluble phosphates present in Activity of Phosphatic Manures. each are equal in value as fertilisers. We have already tried to impress on the The dissolved bone owes its greater minds of our readers that the solubility

efficacy to the nitrogen ; but then this of a manure depends on the minuteness nitrogen can be supplied to the super- of its division : we can have therefore

phosphate either as bone -meal or sul- little difficulty in placing them in the phate of ammonia, by which means we order of their activity, beginning with can secure a cheaper manure, with an those which come into action slowly

equal if not a greater amount of fertil. crushed bones, finely powdered mineral phosphate, fine bone meal,steamed bones, An additional benefit which bone pos- precipitated phosphates, Thomas slag, dis sesses over mineral phosphate is due to solved phosphates. ising matter.

its containing a certain percentage of

Bones are the slowest in their action,

organic matter, which, in the process ofdecay, gives rise to carbonic acid and other organic acids, which have a dissolving action on the phosphate of lime,

and become available as plant-food only after being mixed with the soil for some time. It is therefore a safe rule to apply them early. In some soils they come

-an advantage of considerable import- more quickly into action than in others. ance, especially when no dung is being This is especially the case in porous soils applied.

where organic matter is present.

In

Composition of Superphosphates. clays, and soils of like texture, they may -Superphosphates are of three kinds remain unchanged for years. Bones are,

- low , medium , and high -class. As a however, good " stayers " —that is, being rule, amongst the superphosphates which slowly soluble, they last long, and raise abound in the market the medium is the the fertility of the soil. Therefore all best form , as the first too often contains mixtures of manure intended to last a

a considerablequantity of coarsely ground phosphate, which, in that rough condition, is comparatively worthless as a manure; whilst high -class is not unfrequently in

rotation should contain a proportion of bones. In a wet climate bones are also rendered more quickly soluble than in drier parts. Indeed, in wet seasons bones

bad condition , being wet and lumpy, and decompose rapidly. difficult to handle . But it should be The softer or less compact forms of understood that these defects in the so- mineral phosphates when ground into a

called low - class and high - class super- very fine powder, have been found to be

phosphates are not always present. Bet- moderately quick -acting manures, about ter attention is now given than formerly equal, some consider, to very finely

to fineness of grinding, and with skilful ground bone-meal or bone-ash. dissolving the high -class superphosphates

Finely ground steamed bone-flour is the should be dry, powdery, and quite free most active form of bones prepared by from lumps.

mechanical means, and gives a high -class

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

119

superphosphate when treated with an such as starch, dextrine, &c. , and is ulti acid.

The fineness of division of this mately deposited in the seed. We are

substance counterbalances the want of also aware that a deficient supply of

organic matter with relation to solubility. phosphates produces light grain and But this preparation is coarse when com- diminished yield. Phosphates produce pared to precipitated or reverted phos- dense roots, of excellent feeding quality

phates, which possess the highest degree and high keeping properties. of solubility of any ofthe forms of phos phates except slag. Slag comes next to superphosphate, and hasa great future before it, being, as we have seen , the

POTASSIC MANURES.

The use of potash manures is of recent

cheapest source of phosphoric acid in the date. Even yet many farmers do not market at present, while the supply is consider the application of potash to the soil necessary . Dissolved manures are the most active. Sources of Potash . — The only avail

abundant.

The chief advantage of this solubility is able sources of potash, before 1860, were their certainty of action, the rapid manner in which they become available in any soil or climate. The young plant is in consequence supplied with this essential ingredient at a period of growth when it is liable to sustain damage from

wood -ashes, sea-weed, and farmyard man ure .

In 1859 , vast deposits of potash

salts were found by the Prussian Gov ernment when sinking a shaft at Stass furt in the hope of discovering rock -salt. Overlying large deposits of rock -name salt,

untoward influences which may infest its they found layers of kainit, a surroundings. An abundant supply of given to carnallite or muriate of potash ;

manure or food at this critical period to and magnesia , polykalite or sulphate of reased ld l ed of magnesia. Similar deposits were also grain and early maturity being the foundat Leopoldshall, in Anhalt.

a great extent determines the future potash ; gypsum and kieserite, or sulphate crop, an inc yie of wel - fill results.

The discovery of these deposits put

Large crops require doses of the use of potash as a manure within manure, and short-livedlarge crops require the reach of the farmer. It can now be

quick -acting manures. A crop such as bought at about 358. per ton, containing wheat, which occupies the ground for a on an average 23 per cent of potash. long period, will not be benefited to the Use of Potash . — But notwithstanding

same degree by a ready supply of phos- its low price, potash has not come into phates as a short- lived crop like bar- general use. As a rule, it can be applied

ley. Wheat abstracts the ingredients at with advantage only to certain crops, leisure, and can search for them over a and on land much larger area of the soil.

deficient in clay, such as And as sandy or peaty soils.

phosphates are present in some propor-

When farmyard manure is applied, a

tion in all soils, this crop can , as a rule,

separate dose of potash is unnecessary.

acquire all its wants during the period Indeed it would be liable to lessen the of growth. Barley, on the other hand, produce, and also lower its quality, as grows rapidly, building up its tissue in with the potash in the dung there would a comparatively shorttime, and, owing be more available potash inthe soil than to itsroot-surface, has not the area nor would be beneficial for the crop. On the time to search for its supply of most soils containing a fair proportion of phosphates. clay, and where a good deal of farmyard In the well-known work, 'How Crops manure is used, there is, as a rule, a

Grow ,' we are told that the phosphorised sufficiency of potash. But where it is oils require phosphates for their elaboration ; that phosphates increase the diffusive rate of albumen , and thus help its transference to the different parts of the plant ; and that phosphates co-operate with the other ash ingredients in

deficient, thegain in produce obtained by a small application of potash, at a cost of a few shillings per acre, is often remark able. By observation and experiment with light doses on plots, farmers may ascertain if their soil needs potash, and

building up the proximate constituents, if so, its application in moderate quantity

120

MANURES AND MANURING.

will be sure to be profitable. Potash has these are gas-liquor, from which sulphate been found of some benefit when applied of ammonia is obtained, and gas - lime,

to mangels, and appears to be of consider- which is produced by spreading quick able benefit when mixed with other man-

or caustic lime over plates in a close

ures and applied as a top -dressing for chamber, through which the gas con hay and grass seeds. It also may be taining sulphuretted hydrogen is forced. applied with advantage to leguminous This latter substance combines with the crops, beans in particular. lime, forming in the purifying chamber

Wherever applied it ought to be sown sulphide of lime. In this form it is early, and care should be taken not to destructive to vegetable life ; but after

apply it in conjunction with farmyard exposure to the atmosphere it absorbs manure . It is positively injurious to oxygen, and is thereby changed into green crops when given in excess.

sulphate of lime or gypsum .

The caustic

lime which may be present is also changed GYPSUM .

into carbonate.

Use of Gas-lime. — Gas-lime ought to Sources of Gypsum . - Gypsum , or be applied in autumn, or allowed to lie sulphate of lime, occurs as rocks in the some months before using, so as to allow

form of beds, generally in conjunction with rock -salt. In the compact form it is commonly known as alabaster and selenite. Many of the deposits owe their origin to the evaporation of salt water, which contains gypsum in solution . At one period, where rock -salt is now found, there must have been in land lakes or seas, and by changes of

time for the changes just explained to take place. It is unsafe to apply it to any growing crop.

the earth's surface the outlets have been

Many Berwickshire and Roxburgh farmers mix gas-lime and salt, and apply the mixture to their leas which are tobe broken up for oats . They consider this application to be of service to the corn crops, and a preventive of anbury or finger-and -toe in the green crop. Gas

gradually cut off from the sea ; so that

lime is also much used as an insecticide.

all the saline matter brought down by

the drainage has been accumulating, the

COMPOUND MANURES.

water becoming more and more impreg nated with these salts, and thus, when In addition to the various manures evaporation has gone on for a certain already enumerated , there are in the period, the salts cannot be longer held in market many compound manures or

solution, and, becoming crystallised, they special crop mixtures bearing different are deposited in the form of beds, which names, such as cereal, turnip, potato, by compression assume the compact form . bean, and grass manures. Use of Gypsum . From an agricul-

Disadvantage of Compound Man .

tural point of view, gypsum is valuable chiefly as an absorber of ammonia (see p. 527, vol. i. ) It is of benefit to clover and other leguminous crops.

ures. Many of these mixtures are skil fully made up, and, when manufactured by respectable firms, analyse well, and

give good results on soils for which they The value of gypsum as a manure was are adapted. But there is one great

the subject of much discussion about drawback to this system of preparing 1850 to 1860 ; but since the introduc- manures, and it is this, that with such

tion of dissolved phosphates it has been variation in soil, climate, and customs of

unnecessary for the farmer to trouble farming, it is impossible to compound himself about it, as the application of 5

one manure equally suitable for all farms,

tons of superphosphate involves an ap- even in one district. Moreover, the trade plication of 2 tons of gypsum .

in compound manures opens a wide field for the unscrupulous dealer who would

sell inferior stuff as good material. Upon the whole, therefore, it is safer for In the manufacture of gas, many im- the intelligent farmer to avoid mixed GAS-LIME.

purities have to be got rid ofbefore the manures and select fertilisers from gas is ready for combustion. Amongst sources as to which there can be no

ECONOMICAL PURCHASING OF MANURES.

I21

suspicion , and blend these in mixtures dissolve in water, like sugar or salt; but suitable for the soil and climate where they are to be applied. Still there are many farmers who are sufficiently acquainted with the

to assist practical men to arrive at con clusions more correctly as to the value

of the manures, the percentage of dis solved phosphate of lime is also given characteristics of the various manures that is , the amount of tribasic phosphate to enable them to ensure perfect mixing, of lime or bone - earth required to give and in these cases it will be advantage- that quantity of phosphoric acid in a ous to have the mixtures prepared by a soluble state . thoroughly respectable firm , by whom Organic Matter. Chemists apply the composition of the mixture will be this term to every substance that will guaranteed . rot or decompose by “ heating " or burn ECONOMICAL PURCHASING OF MANURES .

by fire — no matter whether it belong to the animal or vegetable kingdom . The value of the organic matter in a manure

depends mainly upon the amount of nitrogen in its composition, and whether

In the purchasing of manures there or not that nitrogen becomes readily are a few points which farmers should available for the use of plants. For in always keep in view . From simple ex- stance, straw , wool, blood, or sawdust amination of any article sold as manure, are all organic matters, but the amount

the purchaser can have little or no idea of nitrogen present in each is very differ of its quality or value as a fertiliser.

ent.

For this reason the farmer ought-

may almost be looked upon as non

Straw and sawdust in themselves

blood and percen wool show substances, tage of ( 1. ) To buy only from respectable nitrogenous a very largewhile firms.

nitrogen.

( 2.) Never buy without obtaining a guaranteed analysis.

Again, we have to consider how soon the nitrogen shall become available for

(3.) Always buy the valuable ingredi- food to plants. This must necessarily

ents from the cheapest sources depend upon whether those substances in the market. are subject to rapid decomposition or The first point is so self-evident as to otherwise. Blood decomposes quickly, while wool may lie in the soil for years require no further remarks. unchanged, and its effects upon vegeta Analysis explained . tion cannot therefore be the same, be

It may be useful to explain some of cause all substances before they become the terms used by chemists in an analy- available as a manure must be broken up sis of manure . into the elements of which they are made Insoluble and soluble Phosphates. up, or in other words, decompose or rot. -As to the meaning of the terms insol-

It should also be noted here, as already

uble phosphate and soluble phosphate some explanation has already been given in the notes upon superphosphate, p . 117. It was there seen that soluble phosphates always mean tribasic phosphate of lime

indicated, that organic matter is of value as an indirect improver of the textureand mechanical properties of a soil as well as the generator of carbonic and otheracids, whose action on the dormant fertilising

made soluble by an acid. It is no mat- constituents of a soil is most beneficial. ter whether they are termed monobasic Nitrogen and Ammonia . — It may

phosphate, monocalcic phosphate, biphos- be here explained that when nitrogen phate, phosphoric acid in a soluble state, or superphosphate, the term superphosphate is generally applied to all dissolved phosphates in which

is liberated from a substance, it may go into combination with hydrogen and form ammonia, or it may be evolved as free nitrogen and pass off in the atmos ammonia is not present. phere, or it may be converted into nitric In analyses ofmanures, the term phos- acid, which, combining with lime, potash, phoric acid in a soluble state is often met or soda, forms nitrates of these bases. with. This means the acid will melt or But in most cases where organic nitrogen

MANURES AND MANURING .

I22

to know the cheapest sources from which

occurs in a manure it becomes converted

into ammonia - hence the term , nitrogen to obtain phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and equal to ammonia. potash . In order to enable him to form Alkaline Salts. — These may be acci- an approximate opinion of relative values, dentally present or may be added in the we shall try to explain the theory of

drying agents employed. They consist valuation by units, preluding it with chiefly of sulphate of soda or potash the remark that the value of a manure to salts. The latter is of considerable value, the farmer depends on the amount of

of much importance. valuable ingredients which may be pre former is not the foregoing butThe are the more valuable sent in its composition, but that its constituents in the analysis.

market price, like that of all other com

Lime and Sulphuric Acid . - Lime modities, is regulated by the law of and suphuric acid are present in pretty supply and demand. large quantities in the form of sulphate Valuable Ingredients of Manure. of lime or gypsum , this being a result of The valuable constituents in manure are :

the sulphuric acid applied to render sol- ( 1 ) nitrogen, equal to ammonia, quickly uble the insoluble phosphates. The acid , available, as in nitrate of soda and sul as before explained, acting on the phos- phate of ammonia ; ( 2) nitrogen slowly

phate of lime, abstracts from the phos- available, as in bones, blood, & c.; (3) phoric acid two equivalents of lime ; phosphoric acid quickly available, as

while, where carbonate of lime is present, in superphosphate ; ( 4) phosphoric acid it drives off the carbonic acid and com- slowly available, as in bones, guano,

bines with the lime to form the foregoing & c.; and (5 ) potash, as in kainit. salt. Gypsum is also employed as a Nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are available from many other sources, drying agent. Moisture.— Moisture is present in a but the foregoing will give an average.

to carefully con manure as the water of combination, and What the farmer has in which these are sider is the form

also as the water which is mixed with

the materials to enable the acids employed present, whether quickly or slowly avail able, and then judge which will be most to act with the greatest advantage. The amount of moisture present in a suitable for his purpose . manure is of considerable importance to Unit Value . — Let us now see how the the purchaser, as when a quantity of unit value is arrived at. Taking the manure dries, the water lost by evapora- prices per ton stated below as the selling tion is a direct loss of weight. price of the manures, and dividing the cost price by the percentage of units of The Cheapest Source. the various useful ingredients, we find

The greatest difficulty the farmer has the value per unit of these ingredients to encounter when purchasing manure is would be as follows : Per unit.

Per ton .

Sulphate ammonia = 24 per cent ammonia, at Nitrate of soda

Phosphatic guano Slag

Superphosphate

= 19

= 27 = 23.5

at

11

11

at

11

11

soluble phosphates, at at

11

£o 10 3 O II

3

2 12

6

O

I

2

I

o 0

o

09

IO 12

phosphates, at

46 = 40

£ 125

.

10

2 15 2 7

6

6

=

o

2

O

2

Muriate of potash = 50

11

potash, at

7

7

6

o

Sulphate of potash

11

at

4

2

6

O

3 3

O

I

5 15

o

Bones

26

ſ 50 { 4.5

phosphates 11

ammonia

at

O 10

0

0 2

3

The only difficulty is in regard to a seen, contains 472 per cent of ammonia. In This multiplied by 1os. 3d. (the cost of such a case the unit value of the con- ammonia per unit in sulphate of am stituents of a similar substance is taken . monia ), gives £2, 68. 2d. as the propor compound manure such as bones.

Sulphate ofThe ammonia is adopted in this tion of the cost ofthe represented bone - manure, we have by the 472 per cent ofbones ammonia.

instance.

This

3

MIXTURES AND MIXING .

123

deducted from the cost price of £5, 158. origin of the phosphate, be worth per per ton, leaves £3, 8s. rod. for the 50 perhaps 3d. to 4d. per unit more . The cent of phosphates.

foregoing figures will, however, give a

The foregoing, of course, cannot be useful idea of the approximate value, taken as hard- and - fast rules. The and indicate how, from the cost price chemist generally exercises a good deal and analysis, the value per unit is of discretion, and often raises the unit arrived at. í

value above what it will actually work

Estimating the value of a Manure.

+

out upon paper, much depending on the source of the material and its condition.

-Now, let us reverse the process, and from these values per unit and the an

For instance, the phosphates in bones, alysis of a manure, find what the cost although showing à net unit value of price per ton should be. Take, say, is. 4d., may, on account of the first -class dissolved bones, showing analysis of — 22 per cent soluble phosphate, worth 28. 2d. per unit. insoluble

I2

worth Is. 2d.

Ios. 3d. ammonia , worth 234 The total cost per ton should be £ 4, 98. iod.

Dissolved bones with this analysis can

Guide to Analysis. — The following

just now be bought at £4, 1os. per ton, table, compiled by Dr Aitken, will be and are therefore fair value in comparison found very useful in reading and under standing an analysis of manures : with other fertilising substances. multiplied by 1.214 gives amount of ammonia.

Amount of nitrogen ,

AS 11

ammonia, 11

11 11

11

11

11

11

potash ,

11

11

6.3 3.882

albuminoids.

11

sulphate of ammonia. muriate of

3. 147 3.706

5.0 1.85

nitric acid . nitrate of soda.

It

sulphate of potash.

1.585

muriate of

2.183

phosphate of lime. biphosphate.

phosphoric acid,

11

11

11

1.4

11

1.648

11

11

soluble or 11

soluble phosphate,

11

biphosphate, lime,

11

11

1.566 1.845 1.786 Manures.

MIXTURES AND MIXING.

mono

calcic phosphate. phosphate of lime.

1.325 11

11

11

carbonate of lime.

11

The

chemical

processes

which take place in this decomposition need not be fully described here.

For

Dangers of Careless Mixing. - In all practical purposes, the substances mixing manures, a knowledge of their which result may be regarded as acids character and composition is indispens- in chemical combination with alkalies able if loss is to be averted .

Indiscrim- as bases.

In chemical action, a strong

inate or careless mixing is almost certain or free acid will drive out a weak one,

to end in loss of fertilising material, and and a strong alkali will usurp the place may even, by generation of poisonous of one possessing a less degree of affinity gases in a close compartment, incur for acids. If we examine lists, we find that in danger to human life.

our manure

It should therefore be kept in view

( 1.) Highly soluble phosphates, to

that while the substances used as man-

which, as is sometimes the case, an

ure are more or less in the form of salts,

excess of acid has been applied , there is present free sulphuric acid ; in

which are harmless in themselves, yet if their complex forms are broken up, the products of the decomposition assume a very different character. Chemical

Processes

in

Mixing

(2. ) Nitrate of soda- an alkali having a strong affinity for sulphuric acid ; in

(3. ) Slag - a strong alkali in the form of caustic lime ; and in

MANURES AND MANURING.

124

(4) Sulphate of ammonia — a weak or volatile alkali, ammonia .

in the centre.

A man is now placed at

each heap, and alternate shovelfuls, less

When soluble phosphates are mixed or more - the quantity being determined with nitrate of soda, a portion of the by the relative proportion of materials de phosphoric acid rendered soluble ab- sired — are throwninto the centre, where stracts a portion of the soda from the a new heap is formed containing the

nitrate of soda, the products of the de- three materials. After this mixture is composition being lime and soda and an made, it is turned over, care being taken orange - coloured gas, better known as to always shovel the material from the

nitric acid vapour - a deadly poison. If bottom of the heap. The top portions 1/3 of nitrate of soda and 2/3 of super- of the material slip down, and thus by phosphates are mixed, and allowed to shovelling from the bottom , a thorough lie for six weeks or so, it may be found mixing is brought about. that nearly 1/3 of the nitric acid has been In a day or two the sulphate of am lost from this cause alone.

monia or nitrate of soda, when such is to

Again, if superphosphate and bones or be applied, may be added . The mixture slag are mixed, and allowed to remain is then driven to the field in carts, the

for some time, the soluble phosphoric mixing process being completed by the acid will combine with another molecule material being shovelled from the bottom of lime, and more or less precipitates, re- of the heap into the cart. When the verted or reduced phosphates, will be manure is to be sown by hand, equal produced . quantities should be placed in each cart,

Then if we mix sulphate of ammonia in order to facilitate even application. with slag, the caustic lime of the slag

By mixing in this manner, the risk of

will driveout the ammonia, which, being lossthroughany excess of sulphuric acid volatile, will become dissipated in the having been added to the superphos atmosphere, and the resulting product phate will be averted, as any free acid becomes sulphate of lime or gypsum .

will combine with the free lime of the

Comparatively few realise theloss and disappointments which have occurred to the great body of farmers by haphazard mixing of manure. The fact is, there are very few manurial substances which

slag, or with the bones if there is no slag in the mixture. A neutral salt is thereby formed and loss prevented. As already indicated, it would be unwise to allow a mixture of fine steamed bone-flour or

can be mixed at random , and allowed to slag and superphosphate to lie long, as lie, without some important change oc- the phosphates in the superphosphates

curring in their composition .

would be precipitated by the carbonate

Safe Mixtures. — The following man- of lime in the bone-flour, or by the

ures may be mixed with impunity : ( 1 ) caustic lime in the slag. bones with nitrate of soda or sulphate of

Another Method of Mixing. — Mr

ammonia ; (2 ) superphosphate and sul- William Grant, Wester Alves, Moray

phate of ammonia ; (3) bones and slag; shire, writing in the Farming World (p. and (4) slag and nitrate of soda. These mixtures will not, however, suit the requirements of farm practice. Organic nitrogen, such as fish guano or Frey Bentos guano (or meat-meal), may be

206, 1889) thus describes his method of mixing manures for turnips: “ The mix ing is done in a turnip-shed, about 16 ft. square, as follows: A layer of bone manure is laid down over the whole

mixed with any other manure without area, next a layer of superphosphate, incurring loss.

next another of bone meal or dust, on

Method of Mixing. The following which is put a layer of fish guano ; then plan of mixing has been adopted with another of the bone-meal, on which is As short a laid a layer of kainit, and the same sys

a fair amount of success.

time as possible before application, the tem gone over a second time till a quan superphosphates are emptied, and the lumps are broken by striking the lump a smart blow with the back ofthe shovel. Next, a heap of bones, and another of slag, are putdown, leaving a clear space

tity sufficient for 20 acres is laid down. A layer of the bone-manure is always put between each of the other kinds used, and, as a rule,only a day or two before being required for use. The heap has

MIXTURES AND MIXING.

125

sometimes lain two weeks without, as far per cent of ammonia, 18 to 30 per cent phos as I could see , sustaining any injury ; but phates, and not more than 3 per cent oil. These substances are present in insoluble I am always careful to have a layer of compounds, therefore this manure is slowly the bone-meal between the other layers, available. The oil retards decomposition. and do not stir up the heap till we begin Frey Bentos Guano. - Contains 6 to 12 per cent to use it.”

ammonia , and from 16 to 30 per cent phos

Mixtures injured by lying long.

phates, both in an insoluble form , consequent

If a long time is allowed to elapse before application, then reversion of phosphates will set in ; nitric acid and ammonia will be evolved, although in less degree ; and the mixture will become damp and

ly slow in their action as manures . Bone -meal. — Contains on an average 50 per

lumpy, and form into cake, which will prevent its even distribution. Early application after mixing is there fore a matter of great importance .

cent phosphates, and 4 % 2 per cent ofammonia. These are insoluble and slow acting. Their solubility depends on the fineness of their division . Steamed Bone Flour . - Contains on an average

60 per cent phosphates and 172 per cent am monia. This material can be ground into very fine powder, and is quicker in its action than bones, ground or fermented.

Guano, dissolved bones, superphos- Pure Dissolved Bones. — These ought to contain about 20 per cent soluble and 10 per cent in

phate, and sulphate of ammonia ought all to be riddled, and lumps broken be fore mixing Compounding Mixtures and Char .

soluble phosphates, with 292 to 372 per cent of ammonia . When pure, this substance is the most soluble and best form of phos

phates. It is, perhaps , also the dearest .

acter of Manures.In order to enable Dissolved Bones. —Differ from the preceding by being largely composed of mineral phosphates the farmer to make an approximate cal and nitrogen obtained from cheap sources culation of the quantities of the several dissolved together so as to generally contain; manures, he will require to make up 15 to 30 per cent soluble phosphates, and i a mixture containing certain propor- to 3 per cent of ammonia-to be purchased tions of phosphoric acid, soluble ; phos

with caution .

phates, insoluble ; nitrogen, and potash, Superpho sphates of a highclass are madea from mineral phosphates, which contain high we append a very useful table compiled

by Dr Aitken , slightly condensed : Vitrate of Soda . — The most available source of nitrogen ; contains 95 per cent pure nitrate,

equal to 19 per cent ammonia . Sulphate of Ammonia . — Not so quickly avail able ; contains 95 per cent pure sulphate of

ammonia , equal to 25 per cent ammonia . 5 parts nitrate equals 4 parts sulphate of ammonia .

5 parts nitrate equals i per cent of am-

percentage of phosphate of lime. They con tain between 30 and 40 per cent of soluble

phosphates. Medium -class Superphosphates contain from 26 to 28 per cent soluble phosphate. Low - class Superphosphates are dear at com paratively low prices, and it is a safe rule to avoid them .

Mineral Phosphates, Coprolites, &c. , ought to contain on an average between 50 and 60 per

cent of phosphate of lime, and be ground into an impalpable powder.

monia .

Dried Blood . - A slowly available source of nitrogen ; contains 12 to 16 per cent am monia .

Horn, Shoddy, Wool-waste. — Insoluble nitrog enous materials — therefore slowly available; containing about 17 per cent, 5 to 10 per cent

Slag ought to contain from 36 to 41 per cent

phosphate of lime, and the material, as also mineral phosphates, be so ground that 85 per

cent of it will pass through ascreen contain ing 10,000 holes to square inch . Uncertain Character of Compound

respectively.

of ammonia Perurian Guano. - A nitrogenous manure con Manures. — Compound manures are so numerous and varied in their composi taining soluble and insoluble nitrogen therefore in part available when applied, and tion that it is impossible to indicate balance slowly available ; contains from 8 to those most suitable for any crop or soil.

10 percent ammonia, and from 30 to 40 per They usually contain phosphate ,nitrogen, and potash in various proportions. But more phosphates, 3 to 5 per cent of ammonia, the purchaser must not only ascertain and 40 to 50 per cent phosphates. the percentage of these ingredients which

cent phosphate of lime, slowly available.

Low -class Guano . - Contains less ammonia and

Standard Guano. - Being similar to improved, may be present, but also the sources equalised, fortified, & c., these are mixtures from which they are derived, and the oflow -class guano and sulphate of ammonia, form in which these are present. and are generally guaranteed to contain 8 to 10 per cent ammonia. Fish Guano . - Should contain from 10 to 12

Home Mixing preferable. — It is

therefore considered more prudent for

126

MANURES AND MANURING .

a farmer to buy a suitable combination

On the other hand, many farmers and

of materials derived from known sources,

chemists regard the turning process as

such as bones, superphosphate, nitrate both unnecessary and injurious. Mr of soda, guano, & c., and make up the Milne, Mains of Laithers, Aberdeenshire,

desired mixture for himself — that is, if he looks upon the turning of ordinary dung has taken the very necessary precaution heaps as waste both of time and of am of acquiring a knowledge of the charac- moniacal matter. The more dung rots teristics of the different manures.

the denser it becomes, and therefore the

more difficult to spread evenly on the land, while the unbroken lumps will the APPLICATION OF MANURES .

longer lie on the land in a useless condi tion . This, Mr Milne says , any one can

The application of manures is a subject which should receive careful consideration and timely attention from the farmer. Upon the manner in which this part of the work is done will, to

verify after a dry summer. If the drills into which the dung had been put are split up, little or none of the fresh dung will be seen, while the rotten dung will turn up almost as solid as when applied.

a large extent, depend the success or

In his part of the country, Mr Milne has

not seen a dung-heap turned for twenty Amongst the points to be considered years ; and if artificial manure is to be the failure of the manurial treatment.

are the character and composition of used along with the dung, he considers the soil, the nature and requirements turning quite unnecessary. In so far as concerns the dung itself, of the crops, the rotation of crops pursued, the climate of the district in which there will, as a rule, be little necessity

the farm is situated, and the character for turning, provided it has been properly and condition of the manure itself.

made and taken care of in the cattle

court — that is, if the litter has been Application of Dung. evenly distributed (or, better still, cut In the application of farmyard manure, into short lengths), and well and regu simple as the matter may seem, there is larly saturated with urine, so that the great divergence of practice.

dung may come out moderately short

Turning Dung - heap8 . — Differences of opinion exist as to whether or not it is necessary or desirable to “ turn ” dungheaps before applying the manure to the land. This depends mainly upon the

and of uniform texture and quality. In deed, with dung so made and treated , there are strong considerations in support of the contention of many farmers, that it is better to cart such dung right from

manner in which the manure has been its original position in the court to the

made and treated generally during the land for distribution. time it has been accumulating. A cerCarting out Dung. - In many parts tain amount of fermentation is necessary

of the country the dung is turned, not

to prepare or “ ripen ” the dung: Turn- because the turning itself is considered ing promotes fermentation . It is desirablethat the dung should be as uniform in texture and character as possible. This may be ensured by turning . Rank,

necessary, but because it is deemed ad visable, in order to facilitate work in the busy season of laying down roots, to have thedung carted into heaps on the field

fresh, unevenly made dung, will there- some time during the winter, when in fore be improved by being turned over these parts there is little other work

and well mixed two or three weeks before which can be done by either the men or application. horses. In reference to this point, Mr Mr Gilbert Murray says that “ in no George Brown, Watten Mains, Caithness, case is the dung in a fit state for use remarks that it would be impossible for

until the manure in the yards has been farmers in many parts of the north to

turned over and allowed a little time put in the turnip crop seasonably without to ferment ; " and he adds, that “ when another pair — in some instances perhaps treated in this way the liquid manure two pairs — of horses, if the dung had remaining in the pond should be pumped all to be carted from the steading at this busy time of the year. He also points

over the heap."

APPLICATION OF MANURES.

127

out that if rank fresh dung is once turned unequally to the graip when thrown into before application , it is easier to spread the cart . Besides, trampling the centre it on the land. This is unquestionably when the dung was thrown to the ends, true, provided it is not allowed to become causes it to become harder than the rest

sorotten as to get into the dense lumps referred to by Mr Milne. Thus, while a certain amount of turning and fermentation facilitates the even spreading and speedy action of dung in the soil, excessive rotting may to some extent operate against both. It is certainly very im-

of the heap, and so to undergo a different degree of putrefaction. In fact, the whole job is bungled. Dung, properly speaking, does not fer ment, but putrefies. Intermixing . — The outside and drier

portions of the dung are put into the

portant, in carting out or turning dung, inside of the dunghill, and, where dif that great care should be taken not to al- ferent sorts of dung are met with, they

low fermentation to go too far, as in that are intermingled intimately. Each dace case a considerable portion of thevaluable plant-food in the manure might be lost. Fermentation may be regulated by compressing the dung when it is too

is cut off, and turned over from the top to the bottom . When the bottom is reached , the earth damped by

rapid , and by opening up the dung when

the exudation from the dung - heap is shovelled

it is too slow.

Process of Turning. — If a dung-heap up by the men with the

in the field is to be turned, a beginning square-mouthed shovel, should be made at the end farthest from or the frying-pan shovel, the head -ridge. The unturned dung-heap fig. 252, and thrown slopes a little at both ends, but the upon the breast of the turned dunghill should be made of the turned dung. When straw ropes are same height throughout. A dunghill is turned over in a succession of breadths met with, they should of 3 feet, which affords sufficient room be cut into small pieces

for people to work in ; but the first few and scattered amongst breadths should be narrower than 3 feet, the dampest parts of the

until the desired height of the turned dung-heap. Though the dunghill is attained atthat end. At the dung- heap is cut into centre, the height is lowered to that of parallel trenches, the the first end, and the last end is height- dung from the top of the new trench is not ened to the general level. There is more of good management in thrown down upon the attending to these particulars of turning bottom of the former Fig . 252: – Frying

a dunghill than isat first apparent. Å one, like trenchingland, pan orlime shovci. turned dunghill will not putrefy equally but upon the breast of

when of different heights — the greatest the turned dung, which slopes upwards heat will be at the highest part, where away from the workers. The advantage thedung will become short and compact, of this arrangement is not only that the

whilst at the shallowest it will continue dung is thereby intimately intermixed such different states of the manure will but that when the dung is carting away, comparatively crude and unprepared ; and and not in separate independent trenches,

have different effects upon the crop. In it rises freely with the graip. ordinary practice, the uniform height Fig. 253 represents an excellent steel of the dunghill is often miscalculated, graip, such as is used in filling dung, and thus the ends still continue lower made by Spear & Jackson, Sheffield. than the centre.

The endeavour to

In finishing the dunghill, the men

equalise the height by throwing dung shovel up all loose dung and earth from the middle to the ends does mis- along its sides and ends to the top,

chief, inasmuch as no complete union and a dung-heap thus turned over forms takes place between the turned dung and a parallelopipedon, and is a good -look that thrown upon it, the two portions ing piece of work . remaining in different states, and rising Lime-shovel. – Fig. 252 is a frying

128

MANURES AND MANURING .

pan shovel, which is so named from its similarity to that culinary utensil. It is also called the lime-shovel, as being well adapted for the spread-

greatest heat may be expected at the side opposite from whence the wind comes. The actual degrees of heat may be ascer tained by the dung-thermometer.

ing of lime upon the

The substance of the dunghill consoli

land, the raised back dates uniformly, and a black -coloured protecting the hand liquid oozes out at the ground. If the

from thelime, while the soil upon which the dunghill stands is sharp point passes easily soft, the oozing is absorbed by it ; but if under it and makes its firm , the moisture remains on the surface, way along the bottom and forms small pools in the ruts of the of the cart. This shovel

cart -wheels or open furrows. The leakage

is chiefly confined to the is trifling ; and much moisture cannot Border counties. It exude from dung derived from courts in makes clean work at which the cattle are supplied with as

everything, and is easily much litter as keeps themdry and warm . handled.

In some cases dung intended for tur

Turningand Putre- nips is twice turned , but the losses by faction . — Unless much

excessive fermentation are now better

rain has fallen from the understood than formerly, and farmers time the dung was led are therefore more careful in the treat out of the court until ment of their dung. the heap is turned, the

Turning Court Dung . – For potatoes,

dung will not be very moist, and not at all wet, but in a good workable state, with a slight

particularly well-made court dung, which has perhaps been made under roof, and is concentrated rather than rank, is con sidered by many to give the best results

degree of heat in it.

when taken direct from the court without

Any evaporation as yet previous turning and applied to the soil.

will contain no valuable Turning is by most farmers regarded as material, merely moist- more necessary for turnips than for pota

ure, as decomposition of toes. The riper the dung — that is, if the the dung has not begun. rotten dung is thoroughly broken and Very little moisture will evenly spread on the land — the earlier does it begin to afford nourishment to the have come from the heap. After this turning over, shaking up, plant, which, with the young turnips, is a Fig. 253.-- Steel graip.

and mixing together, which should be matter of specialimportance. Less Necessity for Turning. — The in the course of a few days. The first object of turning, we have seen, is to pro

quickly done, aheat will manifest itself

putrefaction produces no great degree mote the rotting of the dung. One of of heat, as the air is still cool at night, and the largest proportion of the heap consists of cattle -dung, which is slow of putrefaction . Symptoms of Putrefaction . — The

the main objects of having thedung well ripened or rotted is to ensure its speedy action after application to the soil. For merly, before the introduction of more

quickly acting manures, there was great

first external symptom of general putre- necessity for this, as otherwise, on ac faction is subsidence in the bulk of the count of the slow decomposition of fresh heap, which, in the course of 2 weeks, dung, the crops would be liable to suffer may contract 1 foot of height. A per- from scarcity of available food in their

ceptible smell will then arise from the earlier stages. Now , however, the crops dung, accompanied with a flickering of can be efficientlynourishedintheir youth the air over it, which is occasioned by the by highly soluble artificial manures, which escape of vapour and of gases. By in- are fit for assimilation by the crop as soon serting a few sticks into the heap here as they are applied. Thus more time and there, a heat considerably above that can be afforded to the dung for decom of the hand will be felt, and the relative position in the soil, so that there is less heat of different parts ascertained ; and the necessity for its prior ripening - less neces

APPLICATION OF MANURES.

129

sity for turning, thereby saving labour the manure covered in at the earliest and lessening the risk of loss by excessive fermentation. See pp. 501-530, vol. i. Time of Application.— The best time for applying farmyard manure will depend upon a variety of circumstances. Chief amongst these are the character of the soil, the climate of the district, and the crop to be grown.

opportunity. The land remains in this state until the season for sowing arrives.

Advantage must then be taken of the first favourable state of the land, when a chain harrow is passed lengthways over the ridges. This has the effect of further pulverising the surface, already reduced by the action of the atmosphere.

Supplemental Manure . If artificial On very strong land in preparation for a root crop, the autumn may be the best manures are used along with the dung, time. The dung will thus have more now is the time to apply them, sown time to exercise its beneficial mechanical broadcast over the surface. A double influence upon the soil, while summer mould -board plough is then passed be tillage, which would be detrimental to tween the ridges, and the fine soil set up such land, is avoided. But there is one and the seeds sown . Great care must

great obstacle to this practice. Dung be taken not to bring any of the solid cannot be applied until it is made, and

soil to the surface. Here the

young seeds

the main portion of dung is made during find a congenial soil in which to vegetate, the winter months. Thus autumn man- and a supply of moisture within avail. uring is impracticable, except where stock able distance. Dunging Light Soils. — The once po

are fed in the house in summer, or where

there is on hand a reserve supply of pular system of autumn manuring on manure.

light soils is now discontinued by the Southern Practice without Drills. best and more intelligent class of farmers.

-In many parts, especially in England, The very process of deeply stirring such the system is as follows: Assuming that soils in the autumn in warm climates is the stubble is clean, such manure as a source of much waste. Tillage stimu exists is carted from the yards after lates nitrification , and the rain - water

harvest, spread on the land, and turned passing through the soil washes out in with a moderately deep furrow . The nitrates, whether in the soil or in the land remains without further disturbance manure, or both.

In the south, where

throughout the winter. As the root - sow- the winter is so mild that there may ing season approaches, the land is scuffled not be sufficient cold to check nitrifica

and harrowed, care being taken not to tion, such soils are usually more fertile bring any of the crude soil to the surface. when broken up in spring. The chief desideratum on such soils, and

Northern Practice .

In the northern

the great secret of success, is to maintain and colder counties different systems of a finely pulverised seed -bed . The mangel

tillage and manuring are pursued .

Here

or turnip seeds are in this case sown in the winter tillage of land for roots is rows on the flat surface. In this way universally pursued, so that the full the moisture is retained , which is an im- benefit of the pulverising influence of the portant consideration under the more

winter frosts may be secured .

And this

arid climate of the south. By careful is done in these northern parts without attention to these details, a braird is incurring any serious loss of nitrates in drainage -water, as the winters are too almost invariably secured . With Drills or Ridges. If the land cold to permit nitrification to proceed. is to be ridged for the roots, then a some- Thus the general plan in the north is to what different course must necessarily be plough land for roots with a deep furrow pursued. The stubble is broken up by a in the autumn or early in winter, let it deep furrow early in autumn. As soon lie bare till spring, then cross-plough it, as the land has become mellowed by the and apply the dung in summer just before

rains and frost, the soil is ridged up in the seed is sown, the dung being usually the rough. Then when the land becomes spread in drills. This is the usual prac sufficiently dry, or should a frost set in, tice in Ireland also. the farmyard manure is carried and

Dung for Wheat. — For wheat, the

and spread in the ridges which are split, and dung is either spread in the autumn, I VOL . II.

130

MANURES AND MANURING .

at once ploughed in, or it is spread over certain cases the allowance of dung would the young plant during dry or frosty be less, and in other instances more. Dunging Often and Lightly .- As a weather. Mr Gilbert Murray says the best results are obtained by the latter rule it is the best plan to dung often, and method of application. in moderate quantity at each time. As to Dung for Grass Lands. - In top- this point, Mr Gilbert Murray says : “If dressing grass or meadow land with dung, the land is worked on the six course, I

the general practice is to apply the dung

should divide the farmyard manure into

Little or no loss arises three portions. One I should apply to through its exposure on the surface. the root break, supplemented by artifi Surface -manuring. - It is a mistake cials - phosphates and nitrogen - a sec to bury dung deeply in the soil. Indeed ond would be spread on the young seeds in the autumn.

it is now well known that nitrification immediately after the separation of the proceeds in inverse ratio to the depth at crop, and the third I should apply to the which the manure is buried ; hence the wheat stubble on the separation of that best results are obtained from farmyard crop and in preparation for the next cereal. “ I have long been convinced of the nanure when kept near the surface. This system of surface-manuring also benefits folly of applying the whole of the fold the layers of grasses and clovers as well yard manure to the root crop. Repeated as the young wheat. The alleged waste doses at short intervals is the most effec by exposure to atmospheric influences is tive system of applying dung.” Unsatisfactory Results from Ex now regarded as a popular error. Mr Gilbert Murray states that he has cessive Dressings.- Mr Murray adds:

farmed side by side with men occupying “ For the last twenty years I have good turnip land, whose practice was to carefully watched the effects of stable draw out and spread the manure on the manure on a kitchen -garden devoted to prepared land, and turn it in with a the production of ordinary garden pro shallow furrow. The roller closely fol- duce . The extent is under 4 acres. To

3

11

lowedwas the the Theirinusual plough. The June.sowing time last week land, having lain three or four weeks, was scuffled , harrowed, and rolled, and the seeddrilled 20 inches wide on the flat. A

manure is drawn fresh from the stables,

considerable portion of the manure was

is carted on to the land and covered in

the horses. this hasmanure summer The been applied and of thirty winter placed in heaps, watered , and turned several times until well rotted, when it

brought to the surface, yet he says he with a deep spit. I can scarcely con had considerable difficulty in growing a ceive a more convincing proof of the heavier weight of roots per acre on his unsatisfactory results to be obtained by 27 -inch ridges with the manure carefully heavy dressings of farmyard manure alone. The crops are not better than, Quantities of Dung per Acre . — The if so good as, those gathered from the old practice of applying excessive quan- same land twenty years ago. It is true covered .

tities of dung at one time has been shown the potatoes grow more tops, and the to be wasteful. On an average of years cabbage and cauliflower are more open better results will be obtained by a mo- than formerly. Light dressings often

derate quantity of farmyard manure, applied are the most efficient. supplemented by a good selection of

" Cabbages and mangels as field crops are gross feeders, and pay for extra So much depends upon soil, system dressings." of cropping, and quality of the dung, Economical Use of Dung. - It seems that toattempt to give definite directions to be well established that dung may be, as as to what quantities should be applied a rule, most economically used in moderate artificial manures .

for each crop might be more misleading dressings, along with judicious mixtures From 8 to 12 tons per of more quickly acting chemical manures.

than useful.

acre for roots, and from 15 to 20 tons for potatoes, are general dressings, along

Application of Artificial Manures.

with artificial manures, which may cost

In the application of artificial manures

from 255. to 6os. per acre additional. In there is ample scope for good or bad

N

APPLICATION OF MANURES .

131

management. By the use of these man- proportion in which its proximate con ures all the elements of plant-food may stituents, sand, clay, lime, or humus, be supplied either together or separately, may be present. If either of these pre

or asmany of them given and as many ponderate, then the product is known as withheld as may be considered desirable.

a clay , sandy, calcareous, or loam soil.

The subject is therefore one of vast im- These have all different textures, and portance, placing in the hands of the consequently vary in their capability of skilful farmer far greater possibilities retaining the more soluble manures. than were within his reach when farm- Sandy and open porous loams have less yard dung was the only available manure. power of holding manure than clays or

It is especially necessary in the use of heavy loams. Then the relative fertility artificial manures, that the farmer should of all soils is regulated by the character

most carefully consider the character and and composition of the materials of which

composition of the soil, the nature and the soil is made up, whether this material requirements of the crops, the rota- owes its origin to the disintegration of

tion pursued, the climate of the district the rock it overlies or is transported. in which the farm is situated, and the

A Knowledge of Geology useful.

There are few studies that would give Elements Absorbed by Crops. — In better paying results to the farmer than the first place, it would be well to have that of geology, as a knowledge of the

character of the manure itself.

in view the amounts of the various in- characterof the soils on the various rock

gredients abstracted from the soil and formations would correct many a blunder atmosphere for building up the sub- which occurs when a farmer changes to stance of the crops.

These have already a new locality.

Farm practice must al

been shown — see p. 62, vol. i., and p. 90, ways be modified by the relation of the vol. ii.

soil to the underlying strata , and not

These substances are present in soils only this, but the system of manuring in various proportions, the quantity of must also in so far be regulated by the each being dependent on the origin of same considerations. the soil in the first instance ; and second-

Manures for Different Soils . — The

ly, on the prior growth of plants on its surface — the residue left by the decay of these having a considerable influence on the natural fertility of every soil. The

surface-soil and the general practice as to the application of manures may now be considered. On clay soils the best results are usually obtained from nitrog majority of these constituents exist in enous and phosphatic manures — the for all soils in excess of the quantities re- mer having the greater influence ; on

quired to build up the substance of loams, from phosphatic and nitrogenous crops, no matter what system of cropping may be pursued ; and therefore the farmer, in order to render his soil fertile, has to supply only those few elements

manures —— the former exercisingthe great er power ; while on sandy soils a com bination of nitrogenous, phosphatic, and potassic manures generally gives the best

which are deficient in the soil.

return .

Soils intermediate

between

Elements to be supplied in Man- either of these groups will give results

ures. — The subject of manuring is thus in proportion to the modification of the reduced to the supply of an uncertain mixture of manures. Form of Application for Different deficiency of one or more of the follow-

ing substances — viz., nitrogen, phos- Soils . — Then, again, the form in which the manure is applied must depend on phoric acid, lime, and potash.

The form , manner, time, and quantity the composition of the soil. A sandy in which these substances are to be ap-

soil cannot retain a soluble manure : for

plied will manifestly depend on the pre- it, therefore, it is safest to give nitrogen ceding considerations enumerated in the in the form of fish guano, guano, or other

first paragraph under the above head- organic matter; phosphates, as bone-meal ing - considerations which we shall now or slag ; and potash, as kainit. Loamy examine in detail. soil will usually give the most satisfac

Character of Soil and Manuring.- tory results from nitrogen in the form The character of a soil depends on the of sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of

132

MANURES AND MANURING.

soda mixed , and one of bones to two of farmers that no soil responds more freely superphosphate ; whilst clay will respond to the application of artificial manure most freely to nitrate of soda,and super- than one which had been previously ne

phosphate, three parts - one of bones and glected and partially exhausted. The two of slag.

cause of this is obvious.

By the repeat

Evidence of the soil. — But the only ed cropping without receiving an ade

return in the shape of manure, evidence which is absolutely reliable as quatesoil becomes exhausted of certain to the immediate manurial wants of a this

soil is that of the soil itself, as expressed, not in chemical analysis, but invarious the crops carefully arranged so asto test eleavailable supplies of the different ments of plant - food contained in the land. As to how this evidence may be procured, refer to Ville's remarks on pp.

of the elements of fertility, while by the decay of the roots of the crops other elements of plant- food are stored up in increasing quantity. Then, when the neglected land is well tilled and the deficient elements supplied in a suitable manure, the store of fertility is called

91-93, and to “Farmers' Experiments,"

into action, and the result is a bountiful

on p. 93, in this Division .

crop.

1

(

Caution in Applying Bones. In the Manures for Different Crops. — The application of bones, care must be taken form and quantity of manure must be that carbonate of lime is not present in carefully adapted to the requirements of too great a proportion, as, if it is so, the the crop. carbonic acid present in the water, instead Limited Guidance of Experiments.

of attacking the tribasic phosphate of

— Many experiments have been car

lime, will combine with the carbonate ried out for the purpose of determin

of lime, and form a bicarbonate; also,

ing the best form , kind, and quantity of

if the carbonate of lime is deficient, the soluble phosphate will not precipitate, and will escape into the subsoil, or it will combine with iron and form phos-

various fertilisers for the different farm crops ; but, as has already been stated, the local circumstances of soil and climate and the customs of farming vary so great

phate of iron, which does not readily ly that the results and lessons of these yield up its phosphoric acid to the plant. experiments are not, as a rule, to be re Tillage and Manuring. - In applying lied on as guides beyond the respective artificial manures, it should be borne in districts and conditions in which they mind that the natural source of plant- have been conducted.

The results at

food is the soil, and that manure is tained at Rothamsted have most certainly merely supplemental. The farmer should been of great benefit to the agriculture therefore , by careful cultivation , endeav- of this country, yet it is well to bear in our to prepare these soil ingredients so mind tha the circumstances under which as to render them available to the plant. these have been carried out differ sub

The quantity of manure required may thus stantially from the conditions surround be, to a considerable extent, influenced by ing ordinary rotation farming such as the care bestowed on the tillage operations. prevails throughout the country. It is With efficient and timely cultivation, a thus obvious that farmers cannot with

certain amount of manure will produce safety resort to these experiments for better crops than would be obtained from specific directions as to the manuring of twice as much manure with bad, ill-timed

their land.

tillage. One of the most noteworthy Value and Uses of Experiments. facts demonstrated in the Rothamsted With a full knowledge and intelligent experiments is the great influence which conception of his own local surround

perfect tillage and the keeping down of ings-of the character and condition of weeds exercise on the productive power the soil, the requirements of the crops to of a soil. Indeed, the application of man- be grown, and the climate of the district ures cannot possiblybe profitable to the the farmer may unquestionably derive farmer unless thesoil bemoderately well valuable aid in his practice of manuring, cultivated, as well as efficiently drained. by careful study of such experiments as Return of Manure on Exhausted have been carried on at Rothamsted and

Land . - It is often remarked by practical elsewhere. We have taken care to pro

1

APPLICATION OF MANURES. vide him with convenient means of study-

133

nomical results, to at least 5 cwt. per acre,

ing the results of several of the more im- besides, perhaps, some bones and nitrog portant sets of experiments conducted in

this country ; and here we would speci-

enous manure .

Rainfall and Artificial Manures.

ally commend the farmer to peruse And the climate, particularly the rain the contributions to this volume by Mr Warington, on the Rothamsted experiments ; by Mr Jamieson, on the experiments in Sussex and Aberdeenshire ; and

fall, should also influence the form in which a manure is to be applied. Every farmer must have noticed that in a dry season the effect produced by artificial

by Dr Aitken, on the Highland and Agri- manures is very slight indeed, the more cultural Society's experiments. Manures for Slow and Fast Grow-

soluble showing better results than in soluble manures.

From this it may be

ing Crops.— It is important in the prac- concluded that soluble manures are most tice of manuring that the habit of growth suitable for a dry climate, whilst the of the different crops should be carefully less readily available kinds will give

considered. A slow -growing crop, for in- better results over a rotation of crops stance, should receive different manurial treatment from that which is best adapted

in a moist one. These remarks are fully borne out by

to fast-growing crops. A slow -growing the practice pursued in different locali crop requires a mixed manure, partly ties. In the north and east, where the soluble, and the balance coming slowly climate is moderately moist, the applica into action.

Wheat, which occupies the tion of artificial manure ranges from 5

ground for a comparatively long period, will, as a rule, be able to obtain from the soil all its mineral ingredients , and therefore a supply of readily available nitrogen seems to be all that is required . Barley, on the other hand, is a plant of

usual quantities in the dry climate of the south of England.

more rapid growth, and being shallow-

Manures for Different Rotations.

to 6 cwt. per acre ; while in the west and south -west, where the climate is wet, 7 to 9 cwt. per acre would be nearer the average ; 3 to 4 cwt. being

rooted, must have its food ready, and The length of the rotation must also be near the surface, to ensure a large pro- considered in determining the form of duce. Then, the leaf-surface is also im-

manure to be applied .

For instance,

portant , for a plant is dependent on the three years' grass will necessitate a larger soil or the atmosphere for its increase, in application of phosphates in the formof proportion to the extent of its foliage. bone-meal or slag. For long rotations Soil, Climate, and Manuring. But the slow -acting manures are employed. a still more important consideration is

More Frequent Manuring. — But

the bearing of soil and climate upon many farmers now consider that it is a the weight of the crop. For example, mistake to apply to the turnip or other in a dry climate 12 to 15 tons is a

green crop the entire quantity of manure

very general yield of roots ; while in required for a rotation of crops. When a moist climate and favourable soil the one considers the solubility of most of produce per acre will be nearly 30 the artificial manures now in use, one tons, often indeed as much as 40 tons.

can readily understand that the spread

Now it would be manifestly absurd to ing of the manure over the crops of the

apply the same quantity of manure in rotation would result in less loss of fer To the consideration tilising matter, and lead to a more reli involved here is due the diversity and able increase of crops on an average of

these two cases.

misunderstanding which frequently arises years.' Again, the insoluble manures, by as to the practice of manuring. ' About their greater specific gravity, must speed 3 cwt. of superphosphate per acre is usu- ily find their way to the subsoil, where

ally found a suitable quantity to allow they are beyond the reach ofthe plant for roots in the south of England, where the yield is generally under 20 tons per acre ; but in the north of Scotland, where much heavier crops of roots are grown, this quantity may be increased , with eco-

at its first period of growth. These con siderations would lead the farmer to in fer that a moderate dose of soluble phos phates, applied along with the seed, would be most suitable for green crops;

134

MANURES AND MANURING .

and if nitrogenous manure were con-

better results than nitrate of soda.

In

sidered necessary, then sulphate of am- dry seasons, and on dry soils, exactly

monia or nitrate of soda could be given with the seed or after singling, or guano might be applied at the time of sowing. Grass seeds then might receive an application of soluble and insoluble phosthe mixture being varied according to the intended duration of the grass, whether two, three, four, or more years. Then, again, the corn crops after lea would require another top - dressing of phosphates and nitrate of soda. This

the reverse is usually the case. But sulphate of ammonia is not nearly so well suited for top -dressing as nitrate of soda. A safe method of applying sul phate of ammonia is to mix it with dry fine soil (not ashes, as these might cause loss of ammonia ), sow broadcast, and plough in immediately, Mr Warington remarks that top -dress ing with nitrogenous manures is especi ally to be avoided when the soil con tains any considerable amount of lime, as

method would be specially suitable in

loss of ammonia might then occur.

phates, along with nitrogenous manure-

a climate subject to heavy rainfall, while Phosphates may be sown any time as a rule it would be safe and economical during winter or early spring. The usual practice of sowing in the drill, for average conditions in this country. Ratio of Different Ingredients.- when applied to green crops, has until On account of the diversity of conditions lately been considered satisfactory; but and influences which have been noticed, new ideas have sprung up, and the action it is considered unsafe to attempt to pre- of soluble phosphates has become better scribe definite doses of manure .

But it

understood.

Yet until further informa

may be stated approximately that the tion is obtained as to the benefits de ratio of the manurial elements for green rived from a change of practice, farmers crops should be about 4 of phosphoric would do well not to rashly abandon a acid to i of nitrogen ; for oats and

custom which has long been pursued

barley, 2 of phosphoric acid to i of nitrogen ; for wheat, 2 of nitrogen to I of phosphoric acid ; and for grass, i of nitrogen to 2 of phosphates and i

with fairly satisfactory results. Farmers might advantageously experiment for themselves on this point. They might make trials of different times of applica

of potash.

tion, and the result would guide them as

to the best method to adopt. cently , artificial manures were generally Sowing Manure in Drills . - In sow applied along with the seed . Slow- ing artificial manures in the drills the fol Time of Application .

- Until re-

acting nitrogenous manures may be thus lowing plan is found to work well , the

applied , but nitrate of soda, as a rule, manure, as we have already seen, being gives the best results when not sown till conveyed to the land in carts : The When a heavy loads ought each to contain 20 bushels ,

after the braird appears .

dressing of nitrate of soda is to be given , and thus in, say, a 20 -acre field 8 loads one-half the quantity should be sown are to be applied. The width of the then , and the balance held over for later field is, say, 240 yards, and we divide application .

it into breadths of 60 yards. Two carts

Nitrate of Soda is the most quickly full of manure are unloosed in each acting of all nitrogenous manures, and is breadth ; and the sowers, one to each

therefore the best adapted for a late drill-plough, are started with a weighed dressing to push on a dragging crop. quantity to sow along the drill so many

But in a late wet climate, or rainy yards. If the drills are 27 inches wide, season, it may not be advisable to apply then to sow 6 cwt. per acre, 21 lb. nitrate of soda, for it has a tendency to will sow one drill 200 yards. After the force up a rank growth of straw , thus

sower ascertains the quantity to take in

perhaps making the harvest too late, and the hand to effect this, he will have no so endangeringthe yield of grain. difficulty in applying the quantity cor Sulphate of Ammonia would be more rectly, and he will always have a check

suitable in these circumstances. Indeed, when each pair of carts are emptied . as a rule, in wet districts, or very rainy

The reason for having the carts in

seasons, sulphate of ammonia gives pairs is to save the carrying of manure

1

APPLICATION OF MANURES.

135

long distances. The sower can load -up farmers seem inclined to regard it. Un himself, as the space he will thus have less the manure is evenly distributed, its to travel will not be too great. In a full benefit cannot be obtained, and to field , say, 20 chains long, the carts will secure this, the cost of an efficient manure

be placed, one 5 chains from the top, distributor would be a good investment.

the other 5 chains from the bottom, There is still scope foringenuity in the about 20 yards away from the face on devising of machines for this purpose, although there are already some very the prepared land , not in the drills. Another Method. - Another method, good distributors in existence. One of

still more precise, is conducted as fol- the best is that made by Ben. Reid & Co., lows: The manure is sown with a machine, which does three drills at once, and is riddled just before being used, so that there may not be any lumps to interfere with even distribution in sowing. The length of the drills is measured to ascertain the number required for an acre . The quantity for each drill is

Aberdeen, represented in fig. 254. The hand-sower “ Little Wonder," fig.

263 (p. 195), is also well adapted for sow ing dry manures,and so also is Strawson's very ingenious air-power distributor. Farmers to Judge for themselves.

-It might perhaps have been expected that more precise prescriptions would

calculated, and the quantity necessary have been given as to the doses of to sow three drills put into one of the manure to apply for the various crops.

artificial manure bags and weighed on a Practical farmers, however, know only weighing -machine. A bag for each three too well that any attempt to lay down drills is laid down at each end of the hard -and-fast rules in manuring would

field, making it very convenient to put be liable to do more harm than good. into the machine without loss of time,

Doses which give good results on one

and each three drills in this way get farm may be quite unsuitable for another. their own exact quantity of manure.

It has therefore been considered advis

The weighing of the bags takes up very able rather to present in a convenient little time. They are filled to sight as form such information as will enable near the quantity as can be guessed, farmers to become acquainted with the then lifted on to the machine and ad- character, purchase, preparation, and ap

justed to the required quantity according lication of the various manures, and thus, with a careful study of this information, to the rate per acre . This system may be considered un- be qualified to judge for themselves, necessarily precise, but the result on the and adjust their practice to suit their crops has proved that it is worth more own peculiar plans, circumstances, and than the additional labour, which indeed environments. is very little, when properly conducted. Sowing Manures by Machines.

The practice of sowing artificial manures by machine is much preferable to sowing by hand, and it is fast coming into

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS. Rothamsted has become a household

word wherever science is applied to agri culture. In 1834 Sir (then Mr) John Bennet Lawes succeeded to the estate

of Rothamsted, Hertfordshire, and soon after began to conduct experiments with different manuring substances, first with Fig . 254. - Broadcast manure-distributor.

plants in pots, and afterwards in the field. In 1840 and 1841 somewhat ex tensive field trials were carried out, and

in 1843 the experiments were begun favour.

By an efficient machine a more upon the comprehensive and systematic

even distribution can be secured,and the form which they have ever since main importance of this is not easily over- tained . The foundation of the Rotham estimated .

Careful consideration cer-

sted Experimental Station is therefore

tainly shows it to be greater than most usually dated from 1843.

MANURES AND MANURING .

136

The experiments, the most elaborate for turnips. No sheep are kept on the and comprehensive of the kind ever at- farm . Dairy cows and bullocks are kept tempted in any country, have from the on the permanent pasture. The arable first been maintained entirely by Sir John land is largely devoted to corn crops. Scope of the Manurial Experi Bennet Lawes, Bart., LL.D .; and with

munificent liberality and public spirit he ments. — Different fields on the farm has set apart the handsome sum of have been set apart for the study of in £100,000, besides certain areas of land, dividual crops ; thus one has been de

to ensure to British agriculture the benefits and guidance derivable from the perpetual continuation of the Rothamsted experiments. The unique and splendid

voted to wheat, one to barley, one to roots, &c. In each of these fields the crop has, as a rule, been grown con tinuously for many years without the

inheritance which the country is thus to intervention of fallow or any other crop. receive from a private citizen is of price-

In the early years of the experiments

less value.

trials were made with various miscellane

Since 1843, Dr J. H. Gilbert has been associated with Sir John Lawes in the conduct of the experiments, and has had the direction of the laboratory. Since 1850, one, two, and sometimes three

ous manures, and the same plot of land did not each year receive the same man ure, but after a little while the present systematic treatment was adopted. In nearly every case farmyard manure has

chemists have been employed in the been annually applied to one portion laboratory ; and, as indicating the vast of the experimental field, while an amount of chemical work undertaken, other portion has been left entirely it may

be mentioned that in 1887 there without manure. The other plots have

were more than 40,000 bottles of samples received the various chemical constitu of experimentally grown vegetable pro- ents of manure, either singly, or in duce, of animal products, of ashes, or mixture with each other. The sub of soils, stored in the laboratory. stances applied have been generally Besides the experiments upon crops ammonia, salts, nitrate of soda, super and manures, many interesting points phosphate of lime, sulphate of potash, connected with the feeding of farm live- sulphate of magnesia, and sulphate of stock have been experimentally investi- soda.

The object has been to supply

gated, and much of the valuable infor- the various constituents of plant - food

mation thereby acquired has been incor- (see p. 57 ) in their most soluble and porated in different parts of this work .

active form , and thus obtain their great

For the following sketch of the general scope of the investigations with manures, of the detailed experiments with wheat under different manurial treatment, of

est effect. By employing substances of known composition, it is also possible to

the soil, and of the loss of plant-food in drainage-water, we are indebted to Mr R. Warington, who has long been engaged

calculate how much of each constituent has been applied to the land. Each plot of land has, during the later systematic portion of the experiments, received each year, as a rule, the same manure. The system pursued has in

in chemical work at Rothamsted.

fact been to grow the same

the behaviour of manurial substances in

crop

-Rothamsted adjoins the for many years on the same land with village of Harpenden. The land lies the same manure. By this plan trust mostly about 400 feet above the sea. worthy averages of the amount of pro The average rainfall is about 28 inches. duce yielded under each condition of The surface-soil is a heavy loam , con- manuring are obtained, and also ample taining many flint stones ; the subsoil information as to the influence upon the The Soil.

is a pretty stiff clay, resting on chalk . produce of seasons of different character. The chalk is usually about 9 feet from The permanent or temporary effect of the

the surface, and affords a good natural manures is also shown. drainage. The land does not bear a high By long -continued treatment of this rent. The soil is a fair one for wheat, kind the soil of the experimental field , but would not be considered as specially which was at first practically the same

suited for barley ; it is still less suited throughout, has been altered , so that the

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

137

different plots now represent extremely is necessary for an appreciation of the different conditions of food -supply.

On

certain plots the crop now grows in soil

results.

The mode of investigation adopted is,

specially exhausted of nitrogen, or phos- however, one which must add largely to phates, or alkalies, to an extent which our true knowledge of crops, manures, and 7

can very rarely occur in farm practice; soil. This knowledge will be turned to while in the soil of other plots abund- practical account in a number of ways ance of these constituents has accumu- by a skilful farmer ; but to provide him lated. with practical rules has not been the ob The work has not been confined to a ject of the investigation. To have made

be

obtained from each manure ; the crops would have cramped the whole inquiry,

determination of the amount of produce the practical result the chief object, have themselves been analysed at the and defeated its highest purpose.

Rothamstedlaboratory. Information has thus been obtained as to the proportion EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONTINUOUS

of the manure that is recovered in the GROWTH OF

EAT.

increase of the crop ; and also respect ing the alteration in the composition of

The experiments on wheat are among

1

the crop brought about by the differ- the oldestofthose at Rothamsted. Broad ences in the composition of the soil, and balk field has been under arable culture the character of the season .

for at least two or three centuries.

It

Soil and Drainage-water Investi- grew its last turnip crop in 1839 : this gations . — The investigation has further was followed by barley, peas, wheat, and extended to the soil. After applying the oats. The last four crops were without same manure to the same land for many manure . years, it becomes possible to learn by soil The continuous growth of wheat com

analysis what accumulation or exhaustion menced in 1844, and has since proceeded

has taken place, and the depth to which without interruption, so that the present manure has penetrated. In one of the fields the drainage-waters are collected and examined : the nature and amount of the soluble matters lost by drainage, under various conditions of manuring,

crop ( 1889) is the 46th. The cultivation of the land has been that usual in the district ; there has been no deep plough ing. The seed used in the first 5 seasons was old Red Lammas ; then followed Red

are thus indicated. The investigations Cluster (4 seasons ), Red Rostock (29 sea relating to the soil are, from the difficulty sons), Square Head (8 seasons). The area of the subject, in a less advanced stage of the full-sized plots (a and 6) is 6-10ths than those relating to the effect of of an acre ; there are some half plots. manures on crops.

All the artificial manures are sown broad

Scientific Character of the Trials . cast, screens being carried on each side

the manure fall -It will be seen from the above sketch of the sowers to prevent The wheat is drilled that the object of the investigations has been purely scientific. It has not

ing on other plots. in October, 2 bushels of seed being used.

been the aim to discover the most econo-

In the spring and early summer great

mical manuring for each crop. None of care is taken to remove weeds. The the experiments have been designed with luxuriance of weeds, in the absence of

1

a view to a money profit ; on very few of them would there be any profit if conducted on a large scale. The whole in vestigation, therefore, stands condemned by the so -called “ practical” man as a mere scientific amusement, from which he has nothing to learn . He, indeed,

fallow crops, will always prove a practical objection to the continuous growth of corn, and especially of winter corn. Without Manure.

In Table I. is shown the average pro

duce per acre on Plot 3, without manure,

may learn little, but it will be because in four succeeding periods of ten years, he lacks the elementary knowledge which and during the last five years. [ TABLE I.

MANURES AND MANURING .

138

Table I. -PRODUCE OF WHEAT WITHOUT MANURE, FORTY - FIVE YEARS, 1844-88 . Dressed Corn .

Total Produce .

Quantity.

Weight per Bushel.

bush .

Ib .

lb.

Ten years, 1844-53 1854-63

1524

58.3

2711

16 °/2

Five years, 1884-88

1234 104 1222

57.6 59.0

2728

1864-73 1874-83

Mean of forty -five years

1378

11

58.3

1924 1614

59.7

1648

58.5

2178

If all the seasons had been perfectly is interesting to note that this amount alike, the produce of the unmanured land is quite equal to the average yield of would doubtless have fallen steadily the principal wheat - producing countries throughout the experiment more rap- of the world . Thus, the average yield idly at first, and very slowly afterwards. of the United States is 12 bushels, The very variable character of the sea- of Australia ir bushels, and of India sons in our climate prevents any such 10 bushels.

regularity in the produce. The course

With Farmyard Manure.

of change is best seen by looking at the

Ordinary yard manure, at the rate of amounts of “total produce.” The average produce of forty -five years 14 tons per acre, has been annually

of continuous wheat -growing without ploughed in in October on Plot 2 ; the manure is seen to be 1358 bushels. It produce is shown in Table II. Table II. -PRODUCE OF WHEAT with Farmyard MANURE, FORTY- FIVE YEARS, 1844-88. Dressed Corn . Total Produce .

Quantity . bush.

Weight per Bushel.

lb.

1b .

27

59.8

4828

60.3 60.8 60. I

Five years , 1884-88

3734 35 % 2958 364

62.0

5797 5086 5778

Mean of forty - five years

3238

60.4

5546

Ten years, 1844-53 1854-63 11 11

1864-73 1874.83

6355

Plant-food in Dung.–The amount large amount of silica, which is at present

of plant-food supplied is much larger supplied to no other plot in the field . In than on any other plot in the field . The consequence of this large supply there fourteen tons of farmyard manure are has been a great accumulation of man

estimated to contain 201 lb.nitrogen, urialmatter in thesoil,which is now far 235 lb.potash, 35 lb. magnesia, 31 lb. richer than that of any other plot in the lime, and 78 lb. phosphoric acid, with a field . Limits to High Manuring. — The number of other substances, including a

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

139

table shows a considerable rise in the

With Ash Constituents. When water has been removed , the

produce during the earlier years of the experiment, owing to the accumulation

of food in the soil. This rise afterwards constituents of a plant may be classed Everything, indeed, in nature

under two heads — the combustible and

tends to come to an equilibrium . On

the incombustible. The incombustible portion is very small;

ceases.

the unmanured land the crop falls, till

its demands equal the annual supply in wheat grain it is about 1.7 per cent, in from soil and atmosphere.

On the wheat straw about 4.6 per cent. It con

dunged plot the produce rises, till sists of the phosphates, potash, lime, mag here, too, the crop equals the annual nesia, silica, &c., derived from the soil. supply of assimilable food. With very The combustible part is made up of the high manuring we meet with another carbon, oxygen , and hydrogen derived limit, that of season .

A larger crop from the atmosphere and rain, and of the

cannot be produced by manure than nitrogen derived from the atmosphere the character of the season will admit and soil. The quantity of the principal of.

ash constituents, and of nitrogen , con

The average produce with farmyard tained in a wheat crop of 30 bushels, manure in forty-five years has been 325/8 has been already given on p. 63. bushels ; the highest produce was 44 Of the substances present in the ash , bushels in 1863. six - potash, lime, magnesia, iron, phos

Nitrogen in Dung . - Notwithstand- phoric and sulphuric acid — are quite ing the richness of thesoil, the farmyard indispensable for plant- growth. Mineral Theory. - At the time manure plot very seldom yields the highest produce in the field, both nitrate of when the Rothamsted wheat experi soda and ammonia salts proving more ments commenced, chemists had a effective.

The nitrogen in farmyard very exaggerated notion of the amount

manure is in fact principally combined with carbon , and exists as nitrogenous humic matter ; only a limited portion of this is each season oxidised, the nitrogen forming nitrates, and thus becoming available to the crop. Mechanical Influence of Dung.Not a few of the advantages attending the use of farmyard manure are due to its improvement of the physical condition of the soil.

of ammonia annually supplied by rain. Liebig , owing to this mistaken idea , taught in 1843 that the ashes of a man ure contained its true active ingredients ; that where the necessary ash constituents of a crop were supplied by manure, the

, crop would have no difficulty in obtain ing all the nitrogen it required from the atmosphere. This view was known as the “ mineral theory.” The state of

In the present case opinion at the time must be borne in

the soil, while becoming less heavy, has mind in considering the Rothamsted also become more retentive of moisture, field experiments, as they were planned and the crop thus suffers less in time to a considerable extent to test the

of drought ( Jour. Royal Agric. Soc., truth of the mineral theory.

1871, p. 91). The produce of this plot

In the first season of the wheat ex

is more even, and less affected for good periments (1843-1844 ), one plot received or evil by the vicissitudes of season than

14 tons of farmyard manure, and a

the other highly manured plots in the second plot the ashes from another lot field . of 14 tons, with the following result : Dressed Corn .

Total Corn .

Total Produce.

bush .

lh.

lb.

Farmyard manure, 14 tons

2012

1276

2752

Ashes of ditto

1472

888

1992

15

923

2043

Unmanured .

MANURES AND MANURING .

140

The plot receiving the ashes thus phere Insufficient. - As these manures yielded no more produce than the plot have supplied all the ash constituents of the wheat crop (excepting silica, which entirely without manure. Various systematic experiments have we shall presently see to benon -essential), since been made with the ash constitu- it is quite evident that the amount of the ents of wheat ; these have been supplied

other necessary elements of plant - food

in abundance, and the crop left to obtain supplied by the soil and atmosphere was its carbon and nitrogen from the natural

insufficient to produce a full crop of

resources of the soil and air.

wheat.

The crop grown with a full

One plot has received superphosphate supply of ash constituents on Plot 5 has of lime only ; one a mixture of the sul- contained, on an average, about 20 lb. of

phates of potash, soda, and magnesia ; nitrogen per acre per annum . This quan and one these sulphates together with tity represents the average amount fur superphosphate. The latter mixture is nished by the soil and atmosphere without termed by Lawes and Gilbert the “ mixed the aid of manure . mineral manure. It has generally conWe shall presently see that the growth

sisted of 372 cwt. superphosphate, 200 wheat onthese plots was really limited Ib. sulphate of potash, and 100 lb. each by the small quantity of nitrogen at the of sulphate of soda and magnesia, per disposal of the crop. When nitrogen is acre . supplied, phosphates and potash become

The mixed sulphates of potash, soda, important elements in producing growth .

and magnesia, applied for thirty-two years

Ammonia Salts with Ash Constituents. ( Plot 1 ), have not increased the produce at all. Superphosphate of lime applied The ammonia salts employed have been alone (Plot o) has, on an average, increased a mixture of equal parts sulphate and

the corn by 3 bushels, and the straw by 2 cwt. The mixture combining both manures (Plot 5 ) has given an increase of about 2 bushels of corn, and 134 cwt. of

chloride : 200 lb. of this mixture are esti mated to contain about43 lb. of nitrogen. The systematic experiments with am monia salts did not begin, in several

straw over the produce of the unmanured cases, till 1852. We shall therefore take

the average produce after this date as

land.

Nitrogen of the Soil and Atmos- the basis of our comparison : Table III.—PRODUCE OF WHEAT VARIOUSLY MANURED, AVERAGE OF THIRTY-SIX YEARS. Average Produce, 36 Years, 1852-87.

Average Total Produce.

Dressed Corn . Plot. Straw and

Corn to

per Bushel.

Chaff.

Straw .

Ib.

Weight Quantity. bush .

3 Nomanure 5 Mixed ash constituents

100

First

Second

Ib.

Ib .

2421

1669

1258

66.5 66.9

2786

1944

5956 5934 5958 574

2178 334 40/4 1834

61.6

4480

56.0

6295

2574

5778

24 %

3334

60 %

3158

13

58

cwt. II

1578

5878

24

324 362 2022

Second 18 Years,

18 Years, 18 Years, per 100 1870-87 . lof first 18. 1852-69 .

68.9 69.8

Do., and ammonia salt, 200 lb.

7 Do. 8 Do.

do. do.

400 lb. 600 lb.

10a Ammonia salts, 400 lb. 11 Superphosphate and am monia salts, 400 lb. .

51.5

7152

61.8

4018

3449 5300 6518 2788

60.1

4936

3758

76.1

60.4

6066

5299

87.4

77.0

84.2 91.1

69.4

2 Farmyard manure, 14 tons .

Table III. shows, that whereas the con- addition of 200 lb. of ammonia salts

tinued use ofash constituents alone in- gave a further increase of 876 bushels, creased the crop by only 278 bushels, the the addition of 400 lb. of ammonia salts

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

141

an increase of 175/8 bushels, and the half of several of the plots received for

addition of 600 lb. an increase of 2138 four years an application of soluble sili bushels. The produce with ash consti- cates, and in the succeeding twelve years tuents and 400 lb. ammonia salts (Plot the straw of the crop was returned to the

7 ) nearly equals in corn, and exceeds in land. The half plots thus treated have straw, the produce from the annual ap- not shown any increase of produce, save plication of 14 tons farmyard manure ; in those cases where the straw was help

while the produce with 600 lb.of ammonia ful by supplying potash ; nor has the salts ( Plot 8) considerably exceeds both wheat-straw any greater power of stand in corn and straw that yielded by the ing in rough weather than that grown dung. The far greater effect produced by the nitrogen of the ammonia than by

without silica in the manure. Artificial Supply of Nitrogen es

the nitrogen of the dung is very evident, sential for Wheat.— The evidence af 86 lb. ofnitrogen as ammonia being on a

forded by these experiments with am

long series of years nearly equal to 201 monia salts shows unmistakably the lb. applied as dung. great need of the wheat crop for an artificial supply of nitrogen, if full crops Organic Manures Unnecessary.These results throw a flood of light on are to be continuously obtained. The the conditions required for producing assimilable nitrogen furnished by the air good wheat crops. The manure applied and rain is quite insufficient for the pro to these ammonia plots has been purely duction of a full cereal crop. The annual inorganic, it has contained no carbon ; application of 86 lb. of nitrogen per acre, yet the produce has been large , and in in the form of ammonia, has raised the favourable seasons very large . In 1863 average produce from 1576 bushels to the yield of corn on Plot 7 amounted to 3234 bushels per acre. Manures best for Cereals . — The 5372 bushels per acre. About I ton of carbon is contained in the average manures which experience has proved to

crop of Plot 7 , and still more in that be most effective for wheat, barley, or of Plot 8. All the carbon assimilated by oats, are those which, like guano, nitrate

these crops has been derived from the atmosphere. The atmospheric supply of carbon is apparently sufficient for the largest cereal crops. Such crops may be obtained in favourable seasons by the use of purely inorganic manures.

of soda, and sulphate of ammonia, supply nitrogen in a form readily assimilatedby plants. The enrichment of the surface soil with nitrogen is also the main effect of a variety of agriculturalmethods com

Silica Unnecessary . — The results are

monly employed to render land fit to pro duce good crops of cereals.

equally conclusive as to the uselessness of

Excessive Dressings Unprofitable.

applying silica in manure. The com -It will be noticed that the application position of cereal crops given on page 63 of 200 lb. of ammonia salts per acre gave shows silica to be by far the largest con- an average increase of nearly 9, bushels stituent of the ash of straw , and to its of corn, and 974 cwt. of straw. The presence the stiffness of the straw has

addition of a second 200 lb. of ammonia

been too hastily attributed.

German experiments have shown that silica is not an indispensable constituent of cereal crops ; that fully developed plants can be obtained without it ; and that in these plants the straw does not show any want

salts gives a further increase of nearly 9 bushels of corn , and 1138 cwt. of straw. The 400 lb. of ammonia salts was thus not an excessive dressing. With a fur ther addition of 200 lb. ammonia salts, however, the return is greatly diminished,

of stiffness.

the increase only amounting to 374

At Rothamsted , wheat crops, above the bushels of corn, and 7 cwt. of straw. average produce of the country, have It is plain, therefore, that 600 lb. was been continuously obtained for forty years not an economical dressing. with manures supplying no silica. The For thirteen years, 1852-64, as much produce with these manures has indeed

as 800 lb. of ammonia salts were applied

been larger than that yielded by farm- to one of the plots. The average produce yard manure which supplies silica. To of different amounts of ammonia during make the test still more complete, one- these thirteen years was as follows :

MANURES AND MANURING .

142

TABLE IV . - PRODUCE OF Wheat with VARIOUS QUANTITIES OF AMMONIA Salts, AVERAGE OF THIRTEEN YEARS, 1852-64. Dressed Coru . Plot.

Straw and

Corn to

Chaff.

roo Straw .

Manuring.

Goovaer

Weight per

Mixed ash constituents

Quantity.

Bushel.

bush . 1814

lb.

cwt.

58 %8

1658 27 % 3878

Do. with ammonia salts, 200 lb.

2812

400 lb. 600 lb. 800 lb.

3778

11 11

11

11

11

11

11

3878 3972

4234

4658

62.6

58.8 54.6 51.2 47.8

We have here a successive increase of chlorine in the ammonia salts ).

This

1074, 85/8, 194, and 5/8 bushels of corn, treatment has dated from 1845.

The

and 10/2 , 11, 45, 378 cwts. of straw for average produce in thirty-six years has each additional 200 lb. of ammonia salts. been 2012 bushels and 1834 cwt. of High Manuring and Wet seasons. straw ; or 772 bushels and 734 cwt. of -It will be noticed that though the straw over that of the unmanured land.

crops are larger in this shorter experiment, the return for the second and third addition of ammonia is less than in the longer series of trials. We shall see presently that the nitrogen of the

gen.- While the crop on Plot 5 was en tirely dependent upon natural sources of nitrogen , the crop on Plot ioa has been wholly dependent upon natural sources

ammonia is liable to be removed as

for its ash constituents.

Natural Supplies of Ash and Nitro

The supply of

nitrates in the drainage - water in wet ash constituents from the soil has clearly seasons. When this happens, the plots been insufficient, for the same amount of

receiving an excessive manuring will ammonia salts, when aided by a manuring suffer least ; as, notwithstanding their of ash constituents (Plot 7), has produced loss, they may retain enough to carry a much larger crop than on Plot 1oa . the crop. The explanation of the differThe natural supply of ash constituents, ence in the two series is therefore appa- though insufficient, is, however, more ef rently to be found in the large number of fective than the natural supply of nitro

wet seasons during the latter part of the gen ; for while, on Plot 5, the natural last thirty-six years. supply of nitrogen only produces 1513 Corn and Straw from High Man- bushels, the natural supply of ash con

uring. — It will be observed that there is stituents is equal to the production of a much larger increase of straw than of 2012 bushels. corn with the heavier dressings of amSoils better supplied with Ash monia salts ; the proportion of corn to than with Nitrogen . — The fact just

straw diminishes, indeed, with each addi- stated is one that holds true in general agricultural experience. A purely nitro

tion of ammonia.

The quality of the corn is improved genous manure will, in a vast majority of by the use of 200 lb. and 400 lb. of cases, produce a greater effect on wheat ammonia salts, but with further addi- or other cereals than any manure supply

tions of ammonia the weight per busheling ash constituents; not because the begins to decline. Ammonia Salts alone.

latter are less necessary for the growth

of the crop, but because the soil is gener ally far better supplied with available

We come now to Plot 10a, which has ash constituents than it is with available received annually 400 lb. of ammonia nitrogen. salts, without any supply of phosphates, It must be recollected also, that the potash, magnesia, lime, or other ash con- average results obtained in these Roth

stituents (saving the sulphuric acid and amsted experiments with purely nitro

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

genous manures, are by no means' so

good as would be obtained in ordinary practice. The soil on Plot 1oa is now in fact exhausted of ash constituents by forty-four successive wheat crops, remov-

143

with superphosphate. The average pro duce is 2534 bushels, and 24/4 cwt. of straw ; or 574 bushels and 572 cwt. of straw more than that given by the am Thus, on a phos

monia salts alone.

ing, at least 900 lb. of potash and 500 phate - exhausted soil, superphosphate lb. of phosphoric acid per acre. In the becomes a paying manure for wheat if earlier years of the experiment the am- nitrogen is not deficient. monia salts applied alone gave a much better result than they do at present. Importance of Ash Constituents.-

The produce on this plot is, however, far below that on which all the neces

The

sary ash constituents are applied.

The importance of ash constituents when superphosphate has increased the pro nitrogen is supplied is strikingly shown duce of the ammonia by 574 bushels, by comparing the produce of the ex- but the mixture of ash constituents hausted soil on Plot roa with that of applied on Plot 7 increases the pro

the soil of Plot 7, which has annually duce by 1274 bushels.

The

mixed

received an abundance of ash constitu- ash constituents include potash, soda,

ents, with the same amount of ammonia. and magnesia. The average produce with ash constitu-

A series of experiments has been made

ents and ammonia is 12 4 bushels greater in which the sulphates of potash, soda, than with the same quantity of ammonia and magnesia have been used separately, applied alone. As nitrogenous manures each with ammonia salts and superphos

are by far the most costly that a farmer phate. Unfortunately, previously to the purchases, it is important to remember commencement of this trial in 1852, the that economy in their use depends a

whole three plots had received during

great deal on there being a sufficient five or six years heavy dressings of supply of available phosphates and pot- potash. It has therefore required a ash in the soil.

Ammonia with Individual Ash Constituents. On Plot in the 400 lb. of ammonia

considerable time for the want of potash to affect the amount of produce. Tak

ing, however, the average of the last five seasons, 1884-88, the effect of the special

manuring is tolerably apparent, as will be salts have been continuously applied seen from Table V. TABLE V.-PRODUCE OF WHEAT VARIOUSLY MANURED, AVERAGE OF FIVE YEARS, 1884-88. Straw and

Corn to 10o

Corn .

Chaft.

Straw .

1b .

Ib.

2019 2721 2810

Total

Plot.

Manured with Ammonia Salts and Superphosphate.

116 12b

Alone With soda

1323 1777

145

With magnesia With potash .

1848 1983

With soda, magnesia, and potash

2130

13b 76

.

3108 3322

65.5 65.3 65.8 63.8 64. I

The sulphate of potash tbus yields the nesia is a less important ash constituent

largest crop, and its excess over the soda of wheat, and is usually found in suffi and magnesiawill doubtless become more cient abundance in the soil. Soda is marked as exhaustion of potash proceeds found to a very small extent in the ma ture crop ; but soda salts have some effect on these plots. Relative Importance of the Ash as manure : they probably act by liberat Constituents.-

Phosphoric acid and ing potash in the soil. Lime scarcely occurs in wheat grain, and to only a small

potash are the ash constituents of the greatest importance to the wheat crop,

extent in the straw ; the natural supply

and indeed to every other crop. Mag- is quite sufficient.

MANURES AND MANURING. 144

salts as a top - dressing at the end of

Effect ofAutumn and SpringApplications March or beginning of April, while Plot of Ammonia Salts.

7 received the same amount when the

Up to the year 1872, the whole of the wheat was put in in October. For the manures, with the exception of nitrate autumn of 1877 the manuring was re of soda, were applied to the land in au- versed, Plot 15 now received the ammonia

tumn at the time of wheat-sowing, and salts in the autumn, and Plot 7 received them in the spring. Both plots had at With the season 1872-73, an experi- all times a complete autumn manuring

ploughed in.

ment commenced on the comparative with ash constituents. The comparative results in ten years effect of autumn and spring applications

of ammonia salts. For five years ( 1873- of autumn and spring manuring are 77 ) Plot 15 received 400 lb. of ammonia shown in Table VI. TABLE VI . - COMPARATIVE EFFECT OF AUTUMN AND SPRING SOWING OF AMMONIA SALTS. Rainfall,

Manuring

Spring Manuring

to Spring

to end of

Autumn

1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76 1876-77 1877-78

Mean

July. inches.

inches.

inches .

18.53

6.92

11.45

7.05 10.55

7.93 13.55 7.58

2.89

0.42 0.58

11.17 15.05

.

8.18 12.96

5.21 10.14 15.78

8.11

3.86 1.94 1.18 6.02

13.09 3.37 12.75

6.76 1.58

15.20 10.34

17.10 10.82 6.16 14.73

7.62

12.79

10.59

9.04

5.78

1880-81 1881-82

Spring Spring Manuring Autumn to end of Manuring . Manuring. Manuring. July , Autumn

inches.

22.01

Total Produce, Corn and Straw .

Manuring to Spring

Manuring.

12. 17

1878-79 1879-80

Drainage, 5.ft. Gauge.

Spring Sowing preferable. - It appears that, out of the ten seasons, there was one ( 1874) in which the autumn sowing of the ammonia salts gave de-

lb.

Ib .

3344 7094 5110 3793 3048 4486 1275

5031

+ 1687

4588

- 2506

4915 4795 7017

195 + 290 + 1747 +2531

4063

+2788

4.48

6309 3489 5948

2.71

4390

0.25

Spring + or Autumn .

4083

lb.

6155

154

3917

+ 428

7981

+ 2033

5255

+ 865

soil ; and the soil, having no power of re taining nitrates, they are liable to be washed into the subsoil by heavy rain , and to be carried in drainage-water be

cidedly the best result ;there were four yond the reach of the roots. This is what in which the difference between autumn happens during a wet winter. and spring sowing was very small ; there In the table, the quantity of rain ,

were five in which the spring sowing and the amount of drainage -water pass gave much the best result. The average ing through 5 feet of uncropped soil (60

result was thus decidedly in favour of inch drain -gauge), ineach season, is given. spring sowing:

It will be noticed that a wet winter,

Rainfall and Time of Sowing Man- in some cases ( 1880-81 ), does little harm : - When we turn to the other columns

ure . -

to the autumn-sown ammonia salts.

In

in the table, it is plainly seen that the these cases the wet winter is followed by advantage or disadvantage of autumn a dry summer, and the crop is able to sowing depends on the amount of the draw up from the soil the solution of rainfall. The autumn application of nitrates which had passed downwards. ammonia salts is advantageous only The worst results of autumn manuring when a dry winter follows their applica- are when a wet winter is followed by a tion. This is owing to the fact that am- wet summer ( 1877-78, 1878-79, 1881-82). monia is converted into nitrates in the In these cases the nitrates washed below

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

145

are kept down by the subsequent spring ject of the experiment was to compare and summer rainfall.

the effect of nitrogen in the two forms of

In consequence of these results, the ammonia and nitric acid , the quantity time for applying the ammonia salts to of nitrate of soda employed was arranged

the experimental plots in the wheat-field to supply the same weight of nitrogen has been altered. For 1878-83, the ammonia was ( save on Plot 15 ) applied entirely in the spring. Since then 100 lb. of ammonia salts have been applied in autumn and the remainder in spring.

( 86 lb.) as 400 lb. of ammonia salts. The quality of the ammonia salts em ployed has since improved, so that in later years the quantity of nitrogen sup plied as ammonia has probablyexceeded by 3 or 4 lb. that supplied as nitric acid .

With Nitrate of Soda.

The nitrate of soda has always been ap

The trials with nitrate of soda com- plied as a top - dressing at the end of menced in 1852, but the quantities of March or beginning of April. The am

manure used did not become constant monia salts on the comparative plots till 1855. We shall therefore quote the were applied in autumn, till the season results from the latter year.

1877-78.

As one ob-

Table VII. –PRODUCE OF WHEAT with NITRATE OF SODA AND AMMONIA SALTS, AVERAGE OF THIRTY YEARS, 1855-84. Average Produce, 30 Years, 1855-84.

Average Total Produce.

Dressed Corn .

Second

Manure.

Plot.

Straw and

Weight Quantity.

Chaff.

Corn to 100

First

Second

15 Years ,

15 Years , 15 Years, 1870-84. Straw . 1855-69.

per 100 of first 15

per

Bushel. Ib.

Ib .

lb.

1078 66.9

2390

1578

58/4 59 % 8

1238 68.5

2695

1670 1964

69.9 72.8

33

5978

33% | 56.6

6284

5350

85.1

372 2134 2372

59/4 5734 5678

43

49.3

7368

7026

95.3

1978 62.3 2438 53.7

4271 4971

2947

69.0

3489

70.2

bush .

3 5 7

No manure

13

Mixed ash constituents Do. , ammonia salts, 400 lb,

cwt.

92

Do., nitrate of soda, 550 lb.

Ioab

Ammonia salts, 400 lb.

ob

Nitrate of soda, 550 lb.

Nitrate of Soda excels Ammonia given both by autumn and spring dress Salts . — The nitrate of soda applied alone

ings of ammonia salts during ten years,

has given 134 bushels more corn and each manure supplying approximately

4/4 cwt. more straw than the correspond- the same quantity of nitrogen, and the ing plot receiving ammonia salts. Where land receiving in every case a full supply an abundance of ash constituents is sup- of ash constituents in the autumn. It plied, as on Plot ga, the advantage from will be seen that, on an average, the

the use of nitrate of soda is still more spring-sown ammonia was 478 bushels marked, the excess over the corresponding ammonia plot reaching 472 bushels and 974 cwt. of straw . As the nitrate of soda, from its well-

better than the autumn sown, and the nitrate of soda 478 bushels better than the spring -sown ammonia.

With the

straw , the spring -sown ammonia is 538

known solubility, has always been applied cwt. better thanthe autumn sown, and in the spring, and the ammonia salts been applied in the autumn, the comparison may be thought hardly fair to the ammonia . In Table VIII., the produce by nitrate of soda is compared with that

have, in most years of the experiment,

VOL. II.

the nitrate 10 cwt. better than the spring sown .

Influence of Rainfall. — Ammonia

salts and nitrate of soda compare, how ever, very differently in different seasons; there are seasons in which the nitrate is K

MANURES AND MANURING .

146

immensely superior, and there are some spring, the nitrate is subject to immediate

seasons in which the ammonia salts give loss by drainage, while the ammonia is an equal or better result. With a dry spring and summer the nitrate is generally much superior to a spring dressing of ammonia salts,the nitrate being immediately available to the plant, while the ammonia has to undergo the process of nitrification, which in dry weather is not speedy.

not lost till it is nitrified, and thus for a few weeks partially escapes the losses which the nitrate is undergoing. In Table VIII., the comparative effect of nitrate of soda and ammonia salts is given for the ten seasons of which the rainfall and drainage have been already given in

On the other hand, in a wet Table VI.

TABLE VIII.-PRODUCE OF NITRATE OF SODA, AND OF AUTUMN AND SPRING SOWN

AMMONIA SALTS, IN VARIOUS SEASONS. Nitrate of Soda,

Ammonia Salts , 400 lb.

Season .

Autumn Sown.

Corn .

550 lb.

Spring Sown .

Spring Sown.

Straw .

Corn .

Straw .

Corn .

bush .

cwt .

3534 38%

3578

bush .

1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76 1876-77 1877-78

1878-79 1879-80 1880-81 1881-82

Mean

22

18

3278

272

3972

412 302

29 % 8 2572 2572 3378 31

2434

2578 2372

1934

29

163/8 2738 878 36 1758 3672

247

2578

1978 2218 578 3674

25/4

It would require a detailed discussion of the character of each season, month by month, if we were to attempt to explain all the differences between the crops; we can only refer to the most

1674 34'2 265/8 3534

2872 2134 2478 444 2678

3072 334 4018

Straw .

4434 4238 32

354 1958 5198

3572 3178

3438 504 38 39) 32/2 56

3072

3378

4012

29

37% 22

34

season than in the latter. In two seasons,

1874 and 1880, the autumn - sown am monia salts beat the nitrate in yield of corn .

These two seasons have a very

dry winter, as well as a dry spring ; the

striking instances. In 1874, 1876, 1877,

rain from spring sowing to the end of

and 1881, the nitrate crop exceeds the spring-sown ammonia crop by 7 to 9 bushels, and 10 to 20 cwt. of straw ; these are all years in which the spring

June in those two years was but 5.12 and 5.56 inches respectively. The weather during spring was apparently too dry for the nitrate to attain a' proper diffusion in

and summer rainfall are on the whole

the soil.

conspicuously deficient.

The nitrates from the autumn

sown ammonia were better diffused , and spring- sown ammonia yields 4 bushels gave the larger produce. In 1882

the

more than the spring-sown nitrate. This Practical Conclusions. It is evident year is seen by Table VI. to have had the from the facts now mentioned that nitrate wettest spring and summer in the series, of soda will give a better return than

with the exception of 1879. In 1882, spring applications of ammonia salts in however, a large excess of rain occurred à dry climate. In a very dry climate in April; while in 1879 the great excess the nitrate should be applied very early,

did not commence till May ; the nitrate or ammonia salts should be employed in not yet taken up by the crop thus prob- the autumn instead. Where the spring ably suffered a greater loss in the former months are usually wet, the nitrate should

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS .

147

be applied in two dressings, or recourse 8, ga, are those which have suffered had to ammonia salts.

When a late least in the second period ; the diminu

dressing is needed, nitrate of soda should tion in their case varies from 5 to 16 per be preferred to ammonia salts, as its cent. The smallest diminution takes nitrogen is immediately available. Very place on Plot ga , receiving nitrate of late dressings produce straw rather than soda and ash constituents. In these corn . cases we may probably assume that the decline in produce is due to the inferi Proportion of Corn to Straw . ority of the seasons in later years. In Tables III. and VII. will be found

The produce of other plots, as 3, 5 , 10,

the proportion of corn to 100 straw and gb, shows a diminution of about 30 in the produce of the various manures per cent in the second period . We have

we have considered. The proportion of here, besides the effect of bad seasons, corn is highest in the produce of the un- the still greater effect of the gradually manured land, and on that receiving only progressing exhaustion of the soil. the ash constituents of the wheat crop. Influence of Season . The addition of any manure producing luxuriance of growth increases the proThe 45 successive wheat crops in portion of straw ; thus, by the continu- Broadbalk field at Rothamsted, grown

ous application of farmyard manure, the for the most part under the same con proportion of corn to 100 straw falls ditions as to manuring every year, afford from 66 to 6o. splendid material to the statistician for With increasing quantities of ammonia indicating the varying produce of the salts, applied with ash constituents, the country in different seasons. We cannot proportion of corn gradually falls, being in this place regard them in this wide 61.6, 56.0, and 51.5, with 200,Th400 , and aspect. The produce of each during plot, and

600 lb. of ammonia salts.

is

con

the character of each season,

40

siderable increase in the proportion of years, will be found in two papers by straw with the higher amounts of am- Messrs Lawes and Gilbert, in Jour. monia is not, however, entirely due to Royal Agric. Soc., 1864, 93 ; 1884, 391 . the ammonia, as on Plot ioa, with 400 To these papers, and to a paper, “ Our lb. of ammonia salts alone, the propor- Climate and our Wheat Crops," ibid ., tion of corn is 61.8 ; and on Plot 11, 1880, 173, we must refer for full details.

with the same quantity of ammonia with We have here to regard the influence of superphosphate, the proportion is 60.1 season as a condition affecting the fer to 100. The increase in straw is clearly tility of soil and the action of manures. Every farmer knows that the effect of due in great part to the potash supplied

on Plots 6, 7, and 8, which helps largely season is greater than the effect of man to form straw when the nitrogen neces- ure. A season may be so bad that the best soil and manure may yield a miser sary to nourish the crop is present. The proportion of straw is much able produce, and it may be so good that greater with nitrate of soda than with moderate manuring may nearly equal in ammonia salts ( Table VII. ) Here, too,

result a liberal treatment.

A suitable

the effect of the ash constituents is seen, manuring will, however, assert itself in for while the nitrate alone gives 53.7 of a large majority of cases, redeeming a com to 100 straw , the proportion when bad season from utter loss, and securing phosphates and potash are added is 49.3 from a good season the grand return to 100 . which it is capable of yielding. Diminution in Produce.

Influence of Light and Heat . - No

large crop can be obtained without a

In Tables III. and VII. we have given sufficient amount of light and heat, as the total produce of the various plots the assimilation of carbon from the at during the first and second half of the mosphere only occurs with suitable light

period of experiment. In every instance and temperature. The formation of seed there is a diminution of produce in the especially requires heat. A bulky crop more recent years. The plots receiving in June will produce abundance of corn the most abundant manuring, as 2, 7, in July, if this month is warm , and not

148

MANURES AND MANURING .

too wet ; but it will remain a crop of straw if July is cold and rainy. The corn produced in a cold wet summer is

These are the conditions favourable to large produce on every description of soil, manured or unmanured . The dry

also imperfectly developed ; it contains weather between autumn and spring less starch, and a larger proportion of retains in the soil all the nitrates be albuminoids and ash constituents, than longing to it ; dry mild weather dur

well-ripened grain, and has a low weight per bushel.

ing winter and spring also occasions

The same defect in the corn a maximum development of root ; the

may be brought about by premature plant is thus enabled to levy contribu ripening, occasioned by sudden heat and tions from a considerable depth of soil. drought; but this will seldom happen If moderately dry weather continue, the upon a clay soil like that at Rothamsted.

plant is afterwards fed with a concen

Autumn and Winter Weather.-

trated solution of plant-food. The mod

The popular view of the character of a erate warmth of the season allows full wheat season is confined to the meteoro-

time for the collection of food from the

logical conditions of spring and summer.

soil.

There is finally a somewhat late

Winter is taken into account only when harvest, and a most abundant produce. frost or floods have injured the plant. High Temperature.- A different class We have already seen, however, when of good seasons are those with high tem

considering the very different results of perature, and (generally ) an early har the autumn and spring application of vest ; such seasons were those of 1857,

ammonia salts, that the dryness or wet- 1868, and 1870. The produce in corn, ness of the autumn and winter is a most though very good, is not equal to that of important factor in determining the the longer and cooler seasons; and the character of the next summer's crop . produce in straw is much less. In a wet winter, the nitrates produced Bad Seasons. - The worst possible .

in the soil since the last cropping, or

season is that in which a wet winter

resulting from autumn applications of is followed by a cold, wet, cloudy sum nitrogenous manure, may be removed mer, as in 1879. Under these circum

almost entirely in the drainage-water, and the soil reduced to an impoverished condition by the time the growth of wheat commences in the spring. A dry

stances the soil is robbed of soluble food ; the whole plant, roots included, is scarcely developed, and, fed with a copious supply of rain - water, a miser

winter is thus essential if a full wheat able crop is the inevitable result.

The

crop is to be harvested throughout the most liberal manuring is the one that country. under these circumstances yields the best The farmer who applies nitrate of return . soda, ammonia salts, or guano as a The seasons 1853, 1860, 1867, 1871, spring dressing , may of course make 1873, 1875, 1876 , were bad seasons for

himself independent of the character of the production of wheat, but none were the winter ; but if the winter has been nearly so bad as 1879. wet, he must apply more of those expenAsh Constituents and

the Seasons.

sive manures to produce the wished -for —The beneficial effect of giving a good effect.

supply of ash constituentswith theam

Conditions Favourable to Large monia salts or nitrate is generally very Crops. — The years of greatest total conspicuous in a season of low vitality,

produce during the Rothamsted experi- or in one of premature ripening. The ments have been 1863 and 1854. These bulk of the produce is not affected so seasons had dry winters, and in the case adversely by the season , and the grain has of 1863 the winter was also mild. There a higher weight per bushel where the soil

was also during spring and summer a is well supplied with ash constituents. deficiency of rain, though enough fell at critical times to prevent any check to growth. The summers were not unusually hot, indeed that of 1854 was de-

Effect of Residues of Manures. As only a portion of every dressing of

manure is taken up by the crop in the

cidedly cool; there was thus no prema- season in which it is applied, it becomes an important practical question whether ture ripening of the produce.

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

149

the unused portion of the manure re- ceived in 1847, and again in 1849, a mains in the soil in such a condition as liberal manuring of ash constituents,

to yield a supply of food to subsequent containing in all about 300 lb. of potash crops. The subject has recently received and 130 lb. of phosphoric acid .

The

additional importance, as, under some other half of the plot, named 10a, did not

circumstances, a farmer has now a property in the unused residues of the manures which he has applied. The Rothamsted experiments supply

receive this manure. For the season 1851 , and since, both halves of the plot have received annually 400 lb. of am monia salts without ash constituents.

numerous illustrations of the influence

As manuring with ammonia salts alone

of the residues of previous manuring. We will, in this place, refer to a few of the most important experiments on this subject occurring in the wheat field. We will consider first the results showing

is the treatment which produces the most rapid exhaustion of the ash constituents of the soil, it is naturally an excellent means of bringing into view any store of ashconstituents which the soil contains. Table IX. shows the average produce

the effect of residues of ash constituents. Residues of Ash Constituents.-

per annum of the two half plots since

One half of Plot 10, designated 10b, re- 1852 . TABLE IX . - AVERAGE PRODUCE OF WHEAT ON Plots 100 AND 106 DURING THIRTY - TWO YEARS. Dressed Corn .

Plot rod .

Plot rob.

Excess on rob .

Excess on 10b .

bush ,

bush .

bush .

Ib.

lb.

Ib .

2234

434 314 178 134

4055 4076 3060 2618

4885 4563 3264 2935

830

234

3452

3912

1860-67

24

11

1868-75

19

1876-83

1638

2772 27% 2018 1878

20 %2

23 %

Thirty -two years, 1852-83

Plot rod .

Plot 10b .

01

Eight years, 1852-59

Total Produce.

487 204 317

460

Residue of Ash and Ammonia The figures show an average annual excess of 234 bushels on the plot which Salts . — Our next illustration will show received in early years the dressings of not only the effect of residues of ash ash constituents. The excess was most constituents, but also the effect pro considerable in the first years, but was duced by a previous manuring with still perceptible in 1888. ammonia salts . The manures on Plots

In thirty-six years the residue of ash constituents on rob has produced in all ninety -one bushels of corn ! This is a very striking fact. It must, how-

17 and 18 have alternated each year since 1852. In each year one plot re ceives the usual full dressing of ash constituents, and the other plot 400 lb.

ever, be recollected , that the effect of of ammonia salts. In the following this residue of potash and phosphoric year the manuring is reversed, the plot acid is made apparent only by follow that had received ash constituents now ing a treatment very exhaustive to receives ammonia, and the one which

the land, and that such an exhaustive had received ammonia now receives ash system is very wasteful, and one that constituents. There is thus each year a it would never pay a farmer to follow . crop by ammonia salts, plus a residue

Had ash constituents been regularly ap- of ash constituents, and a crop by ash plied to Plot rob during the thirty -six constituents, plus the residue from the years, the same quantity of ammonia ammonia. would have yielded 340 bushels more The average effect of these annual corn !

residues is shown in Table X.

MANURES AND MANURING.

150

TABLE X. - EFFECT OF ANNUAL RESIDUE OF Ash CONSTITUENTS, AVERAGE THIRTY- SIX YEARS. Dressed Corn .

Total Produce .

bush .

Ib.

Ammonia and residue of ash constituents

3072

5258

Ammonia alone, Plot ioa

2072

3403

Excess, due to residue of ash constituents

IO

1855

EFFECT OF ANNUAL RESIDUE FROM AMMONIA SALTS, AVERAGE THIRTY-SIX YEARS. Dressed Corn .

Total Produce.

bush .

Ib .

Ash constituents and residue of ammonia

154

2500

Ash constituents alone, Plot 5

15

2365 .

14

Excess, due to residue of ammonia .

135

The abundant residue of ash constitu- much evidence to show that the unused

ents remaining from the preceding year ammonia has been in great part lost as has proved its effectiveness, by raising the produce by 10 bushels per year. We turn now to the result produced by the residue of the ammonia . It has yielded, according to the table, an in-

nitrates in the drainage-water. of the effect of residues of ammonia. Plot 16 received for thirteen years (1852 1864) 800 lb. of ammonia salts per

crease of but 14 bushel per year !

annum , with ash constituents.

We have one more instance to give

This was

Of the 86 lb. of nitrogen contained in the largest amount of ammonia salts the ammonia salts, not more than 43 lb. applied to any plot in the field. The

would be contained in the crop obtained average produce during these thirteen by its use ; what then has become of the years was 3972 bushels of corn . From

remaining 43 lb. ? It is quite clear that 1865-1883 the plot was left unmanured. the missing ammonia is not present in the excess of produce in these nine the soil ready for use in the next season,

teen years over the produce of the per

for it produces no effect on the crop. manently unmanured land is shown in We shall see presently that there is Table XI. TABLE XI.—ExcESS OF PRODUCE ON Plot 16 OVER PLOT 3, IN NINETEEN YEARS. Total Produce .

Dressed Corn .

Plot 3. Plot 16 .

1865 1866

1867 1868

Average - four years, 1869-72 11

eleven

10

1873-83

Excess of 16 over 3.

Excess

Plot 3. Plot 16. of 16 over 3 .

bush .

bush .

bush.

Ib .

13% 12 %8 878 1658 124 1072

3278 1778

1978

1861

5%

2046

1458

534

1505

2512 | 1007

2234 15 % 1134

6/8 2027

3503 | 1476

3

1943

1b.

Ib.

5007 | 3146 3081 | 1035 2493

14 | 1613 | 1821

550 208

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

151

It will be noticed that in the first EXAMINATION OF THE SOILS.

year after the cessation of the ammon iacal manuring on Plot 16, there was on

It may be assumed that, at the com

this plot a considerable crop, exceeding mencement of the experiment, the soil by 1978 bushels that of the permanently of the various plots in Broadbalk field unmanured land.

This considerable ex- was of a fairly uniform composition,

cess must be attributed to a residue of though the subsoils would then,as now , the preceding abundant nitrogenous man- be more or less irregular in character. uring remaining in the soil. In the As on some plots of the field no manure second, third, and fourth years, the ex- has been applied, while on other plots cess of crop on the previously manured there have been long-repeated applica

soil is only 5 or 6 bushels. After this tions of particular manures, the com time the excess rapidly diminishes, aver- position of the soil is now of the most aging in the last eleven years only 1/4 varied description. On some of the bushel per annum . plots the land is now extremely rich in

It is probable that only the excess of phosphoric acid and potash, on others the first year was due to an unused residue of nitrogenous manure. The excess of the later years, we shall see presently, was probably rather due to a gradual oxidation of the accumulated organic matter in the soil. Practical Conclusion .

it is exhausted of these constituents to an extent which could hardly occur in

ordinary farm practice. On some plots nitrogen has accumulated, on others the soil is impoverished. 1. Contents in Cinereal Plant- food. Little has been done in the way of

We learn,

then, that residues of phosphoric acid or potash remain available for future crops, but that no effective residue remains in the soil, even from abundant applications of ammonia salts. The use of such salts is apparently attended with

mineral analysis of the soil. Hermann von Liebig examined the soils of some of the plots collected in 1865, and de

a considerable waste of nitrogen.

and in dilute acetic acid, and the amount of phosphoric acid soluble in nitric acid.

termined the amount of various constit

uents soluble in dilute hydrochloric His results for the unmanured soil are

given in Table XII. TABLE XII.-SOME CONSTITUENTS IN 100 PARTS OF UNMANURED SOIL (Plot 3) IN BROADBALK FIELD, 1865. Soluble in

Dilute Hydro

Soluble in Dilute Acetic Acid .

chloric Acid.

First 9

Lime . Magnesia

inches.

2. 298

First 9 inches. Second 9 inches. Third 9 inches.

.092

2.065 .028

.085

.015 .012

Sulphuric acid

.066 .015

.377 .013 .018 .013

trace

.002

Silica .

.434

.065

.080

.075

.075

.047

Potash Soda

not deter mined OII

014 .003

mot deter

Phosphoric acid, soluble in dilute nitric acid

mined

,043

The lime in the surface-soil at Roth- the commencement of the experiments, is amsted is principally due to ancient estimated by H. Liebig as .084 per cent. dressings of chalk. The phosphoric acid This he considers as below that neces originally present in the surface -soil, at sary for a good wheat soil. He con

MANURES AND MANURING .

152

cludes, from his analyses of the soils and soda applied in the manures, had appar subsoils of other plots, that the phos- ently not been retained by the soil. phoric acid which had been applied as 2. Contents in Total Nitrogen . manure, and not removed in the crops, was still present in the soil, chiefly in the first 9 inches, but some also in the

The soils and subsoils of the various plots have been on several occasions

second 9 inches. Of the potash applied, carefully sampled, and the nitrogen he found somein the first 9 inches; but which they contained determined. The a large quantity was not found .

He last and most complete examination was

thought it most probable that it had made on soils collected in October 1881 . really entered into some insoluble com- The amount of nitrogen found in some bination which was unattacked by his of the principal plots is given in Table weak acid . The sulphuric acid, and the XIII. TABLE XIII. - NITROGEN FOUND IN FIRST 9 INCHES OF SOILS FROM BROADBALK FIELD, 1881. Average Total Plot.

Nitrogen in Dry Soil.

Produce per Acre,

Manuring.

Per Cent.

Per Acre .

O. 1045

Ib. 2404

0.1012

2328

0.1153

2652 2908

1852-81.

3

5a ба

96 IOA

400 !

600 "

6778

Do. and ammonia salts, 200 lb. 11

7a

Sa ga

lb. 2108 2394 3954 5710

No manure . Ash constituents

and nitrate of soda, 550 Nitrate of soda, 550 Ammonia salts, 400 "

.

106

Ammonia salts,

Ila 2

Superphos. and ammonia salts, 400 lb. Farmyard manure , 14 tons

400 "

6903 4293

3450 3923

4387

5696

0.1264 0.1320 0.1253 0.1106 0.1074 0.1077

0.1164 0.1957

3036 2883

Excess over Plot 5 per Acre . Ib.

324

580 708

2543 2471

555 215 143

2476 2676

148 348

4502

2174

The slowness with which the nitrogen The first thing that strikes one in looking at the figures is the smallness of the ous matter in the soil is oxidised , and

alteration in the nitrogen of the soil pro- made soluble and available to the plant, duced either by exhaustive cropping or is a great natural safeguard against the

by very liberal treatment with artificial complete exhaustion and sterilisation of the soil which might else speedily occur Slow Exhaustion of Soil-nitrogen . under bad treatment. Small Increase of Soil-nitrogen by -On Plots 3 and 5 no nitrogen has been manures .

applied ; the crop has drawn its nitrogen Ammonia or Nitrates. On the other entirely from the soil and atmosphere. hand, the liberal manuring with ammonia

On Plot 5 productionhas been stimulated salts, or nitrate of soda,which many of as far as possible by liberal manuring with the plots have received, and which has the ash constituents of wheat. In this resulted in large crops, has not produced condition of nitrogen hunger, all the any considerable increase in the nitro nitrogen has been taken from the soil gen of the soil. We have already seen

that could be taken ; yet at the end of that these nitrogenous manures, though twenty -nine years the soil still contains very active in the season in which they 2300 to 2400 lb. of nitrogen in the first are applied, leave no residue in the soil

9 inches. The amount of nitrogen lost available for the next season ; they, in in twenty -nine years of continuous wheat- fact, feed the crop but not the soil. cropping without nitrogenous manure is Soils Enriched in Nitrogen by

probably not more than one-fifth of the Heavy Crops. — Though, however, am amount originally present in the soil.

monia and nitrates do not themselves

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

153

permanently enrich the soil, it will be ( save Plot 2 ) at that date. From 1864 seen, on comparing the average total the soil has been unmanured; the crop, as

produce of the plots during nine years we havealready seen ( Table XI.), speedily with the nitrogen found in the soils at fell to nearly that ofthe permanently un the end of this period, that there is a manured soil. In 1881 the soil was ana distinct relation between the two. The lysed again, and found to contain not nitrogen of the soil rises or falls as the more than 2557 lb. of nitrogen per acre. previous cropping has been abundant or The soil had thus lost at least 350 lb. of not. Thus the same amount of am- nitrogen in 16 years, or about 22 lb. per monia has been applied on Plots 7 and 10. annum . The former plot, having been well supResidue of Dung. - The soil of Plot plied with ash constituents, has yielded a 2 , receiving farmyard manure every year, good crop ; the latter, having no ash con- is in very different circumstances from

stituents, has given a much smaller pro- those manured with ammonia salts or duce.

The soils now reflect, not the nitrates. There is here a very large ac

quantity of ammonia applied to them, cumulation of nitrogen and carbon in the which has been alike, but the amount soil, due, not to crop residues, but to of produce grown upon them, the soil large residues of manure. The amount of Plot 7 containing considerably more

of nitrogen in the soil is shown by Table

nitrogen than the soil of Plot 10. The XIII. to be much larger than in any other soil has in fact been enriched, not by the plot in the field.

It is indeed nearly

manure, but by the residue of roots, double that found on Plot 5,receiving stubble, and weeds left in it at the end no nitrogenous manure. On Plot 2 the of each harvest. That this is the case crop for some time steadily increased

is further proved by the fact that the from year to year ( Table II.)

This in

proportion of carbon found in the vari- crease of crop has now ceased, and the

ous soils rises or falls with the propor- increase of the nitrogen in the soil has also ceased, or is at least proceeding but

tion of nitrogen .

The permanence of the percentages of slowly. The annual oxidation of organic nitrogen and carbon in the soil thus de- matter in the soil is now , apparently, pends on the permanence of the amount about equal to the annual receipt. of produce. We shall expect a further In the first 9 inches of soil, manured decline in nitrogen in the soils of Plots for 38 years with farmyard manure, the

3, 5, 96, 10, and 11, because the crops proportion of nitrogen to carbon was on these must still further diminish in found to be 1:11 . On the other plots in

consequence of their imperfect nutrition ; butwe do not expect any further decline in Plots 6, 7, 8, 9a (unless there should be a series of seasons below the average),

the field the proportion was about 1:10. By comparing these proportionswith those shown by the original materials supplied to the soil, we see in a striking manner

because the nutrition on these plots is the character of the oxidation which complete, and the amount of crop and takes place in the soil. In moderately crop residue should remain fairly constant. rotted farmyard manure the proportion Effect of Exhaustive Treatment.of nitrogen to carbon is about 1:19 ; and Plot 16, which is not mentioned in the in the roots and stubble of cereal crops table, affords a striking instance of the 1:43. The carbon is thus first oxidised , rapidity with which a soil falls out of and a residue of nitrogenous humus re condition when it passes from a liberal mains in the soil. to an exhaustive treatment.

As already

Nitrogen in the Subsoil.

The

stated (p. 142), this plot received up to second and third 9 inches of the various 1864 a larger amount of ammonia salts,

soils have been examined.

They are

with ash constituents, than any other fairly uniform in their percentage of plot in the field, and surpassed every nitrogen throughout the field, being ap other plot in the amount of its total parently little affected either by manure

produce. In 1865 the soil was sampled. It then contained in the first 9 inches 2907 lb. of nitrogen per acre, a quantity larger than that found in any other plot

or crop residue. They lie, indeed, to a great extent, out of the sphere of ac cumulation or oxidation . The percent age of nitrogen in the soil of the second

MANURES AND MANURING .

154

9 inches is usually 0.07, and the amount but the reader is advised to peruse the

per acre about 1900 lb. In the third next section, on drainage-waters, before 9 inches the percentage of nitrogen is considering these results, as the subject about 0.06, and the amount per acre will become clearer by so doing. 1600 lb. The proportion of carbon to The composition ofthe drainage-waters

nitrogen diminishes as we descend, being of Broadbalk field proves that nitrates about 1 : 9 in the second 9 inches, and

are absent, or nearly absent, during

1 : 8 in the third 9 inches.

summer time in the soils of those plots their manure. The same fact is shown by the analysis of various soils at Rothamsted, taken from wheat barley fields immediately after harvest.

Soil -nitrogen unsuitable for Wheat. which receive no excess of nitrogen in

-One fact plainly taught by the results given in this section is the uselessness of the ordinary nitrogen of the soil for the wheat crop. The unmanured land con-

tains, to a depth of 27 inches, about At this time, unless heavy rain has 5700 lb. of nitrogen per acre, yet the lately fallen, the soils are nearly desti wheat on this land can barely appro- tute ofnitrates. After harvest, nitrates

priate 20 lb. per annum , and suffers from generally appear in considerable quanti nitrogen hunger ! The form of nitrogen ties in the drainage-waters, the amount that practically acts as food for wheat is depending on the richness of the soil

nitric acid. The growth of the wheat nitrogenous matter, and the abundance crop is limited (ash constituents being of the rainfall, and is much increased by present) by the amount of nitrates pres- ploughing. In soils containing an excess ent in the soil.

of ammonia or nitrates beyond the power of the crop to assimilateeither from

3. Contents in Nitric Acid . the largeness of the application , as on Determinations of nitrogen present as Plot 8, or from the fact that the ash

nitrates in the various soils and subsoils of Broadbalk field were made in the samples collected October 10 to 18, 1881. The results are described here, as they

constituents necessary for the assimila tion of nitrogen are absent, as on Plots 96, 10 , and 11 - nitrates are found in the drainage-waters, when the drains run,

fall naturally under the head of soil; both in summer time and at harvest. TABLE XIV . - THE NITROGEN AS NITRATES IN THE DRAINAGE -WATERS OF THE PLOTS IN

BROADBALK FIELD, FROM MARCH 1881 to JANUARY 1882, IN PARTS PER MILLION . August 30 .

2

March 5, 6, 7, Mixed.

IO II

5. 1 3.4 3.6 3.9 3.9 5.3 5.2 5.9 5.4

12

4.8

13 14 15

4.5 5. I

3&4 5 7 8 9

16

17 18

19

Sept. 25. Oct. 14. Oct. 23. Nov. 25. Nov. 27. Dec. 7. A.M.

1.2

0.9

4.7

6.3

8.7

1.5

1.4

6.0

8.1

9.5

5.4 6.0

1.9 4. I

7.0

12.3

13.3

8.5

18.91

16. 1 6.8 2.3

20.6 10.7 7.2

2.4

21.0

12.6 9.3 9.0

0.3

9.8 17.1 12.3 11.2

14.5

19.6

12.6 10.5 9.8 9.7

14.9

14.0 13.7

11.6

10.2

III

15.2 14.5

8.8

7.4 9.6

13. I 8.6 10.7

3.9 12. I

14.9

19.63

1 Farmyard manure applied October 27.

10.9 16.8

12. I

6.8 9.0 19.2

4.1

5.0 6.2 7.3

10.2 10. O

9.3 9.4

9.4 9.3 9.4 7.6 6.8 6.8

34.8

26.4

22.4

4. I

3.4

5.6 7.1

4.1

2.9 3.7 4.9

10.0

15.6

5.6

2 Ammonium salts applied October 27.

3 Rape-cake applied October 28.

3.5 3.9 6.2 7.2

II.2

13.8

66.6 ? 40.5 6.3 5. I 5.4 7.5

0.4

5.8 5.1 6.3 7.8

23.0 21.8 16.2

11.6

1.0

7.1 7.0 7.3 8.8 11.7 18.2

18.5

15.0

11.6

3. I 3.9

Jan. 9 .

Mixed . 2.3.

20.3 9.0

Dec. 17, 18 , 20 , 21 ,

P.M.

6.30

:::

Plot.

9. I 9.4 7.4 6.5

6.7

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

155

Nitrates in the Drainage. — Table supply of ash constituents (6, 7 , 12, 13), XIV. shows the amount of nitrogen as contained 2.7 per million ; while that re

nitrates in the drainage-water from each ceiving ammonia with incomplete ash plot in Broadbalk field immediately constituents ( 11 ) gave 7.9 ; and that

before and after the sampling of the receiving ammonia with no ash constitu soil. A blank in the table signifies ents ( 10) 18.2 per million . In the first division of plots we may

that no water ran from the pipe : drain

age would, however, actually occur in safely conclude that no appreciable such cases .

The thick line indicates the

amount of nitric acid existed in the upper

interval at which soil-sampling occurred. soil at harvest. In the second division

The drain -pipes did not run from March the amount, if any, was verysmall. In 7 till afterharvest. The ammonia salts the third division a considerable amount and nitrate of soda were applied to their of nitric acid had remained unassimilated respective plots on March 12. The spring all through the summer. Of the plots and summer months were dry.

The

that did not afford drainage -water in

wheat was cut August 8-11. Immedi- August or September , we may class ga, ately after followed a deluge of rain , 14, 15, 18 in the second division , and 8 amounting during the whole month to and 96 in the third division . 5.82 inches.

It is clear that after the soil became

The land was scarified

early in September, and ploughed towards saturated with water active nitrification

The soil was commenced, as with each running of the 10 Oct sampled between ober and 18, the drains the proportion of nitrates in the operation being interrupted by heavy rain water is increased, the maximum being

the end of the month.

on the 14th. It will be seen that on the first run-

reached on October 23. Nitrates in the Soil and Subsoil.

ning of the pipes after harvest, the drain- - We now turn to the amount of age -waters from the plots receiving no nitrogen as nitrates found in the soil :

nitrogenous manure (3 & 4, 5, 16, 17) this was determined in the first, second, contained on an average 1.0 per million and third 9 inches. The results yield

of nitrogen as nitric acid ; those receiving ed by the principal plots is shown in ammonia salts, with a complete or fair Table XV. TABLE XV . - NITROGEN AS NITRATES IN Wheat Soils VARIOUSLY MANURED, OCTOBER 1881, IN POUNDS PER ACRE.

9 inches,

Third 9 inches .

Ib.

lb ,

lb.

9.7 9.2 10.6

5.3

2.8 1.8 2.3 4.6 3.4

First

Manuring.

Plot.

9

3

No manure, thirty -eight years

4

No manure, thirty years

16a 5a 17a ба 7a

Sa ga

9b Ioa

ita 19 2

No manure, seventeen years Ash constituents, thirty years one year do. , Do. Do. and ammonia salts, 200 lb. Do. Do.

do. , do. ,

400 lb. 600 lb.

Do, and nitrate of soda , 550 lb. Nitrate of soda, 550 lb. Ammonia salts, 400 lb. Superphos. and ammonia salts, 400 lb. Rape - cake, 1700 lb.

Farmyard manure, 14 tons

inches.

12.6 10.3

16.5 22.8

Second

4.0

5.0 7.1 7.5 7.5

21.1

11.3 13.9

19.7

10.0

16.3

20. I

14.2 17.9 14.1 30.0

11.9 9.3 13.0 15.4

Total 27

inches.

Ib .

Excess over Plots

3 and

lb.

17.8 15.0 17.9

4.7

28.7

5.7 7.8 8.2 17.7 7.3

39.8

3.6

30.8

1.5 7.9 4.8 12.3 23.4 26.4 21.5 37.7 17.0 14.4

7.1 6.8

34.2 52.2

17.8 35.8

24.3 21.2

42.8 37.9 54. I 33.4

It must be recollected in discussing to the impossibility of obtaining a sample these results, as in all other results of of soil that shall exactly represent the

soil analysis, that the figures can only whole of the plot. approximately represent the truth, owing The first point calling for attention is

MANURES AND MANURING .

156

the preponderance of the nitrates in the Before leaving this section we will surface soil. Taking the mean of all the recapitulate what has been already said

plots, save 9b, the proportion of nitrates in various places as to the sources of the in the first, second, and third 9 inches very considerable amounts of nitrates is as 100, 59, and 31. This is owing to found in these wheat soils.

The nitrates

the fact that nitrification takes place are in some cases (Plots 3, 4, 16, 5, 17, chiefly near the surface, where the soil is 6) entirely derived from the oxidation of richest in nitrogenous matter, and most the nitrogenous organic matters of the freely exposed to air. After a continu- soil, consisting primarily of crop and

ance of rainy weather, the nitrates would weed residues, and thedead bodies of be found much more evenly distributed . On Plot gb, manured with nitrate of soda only, the nitrates are most abundant in the subsoil. Here a considerable part

insects and other animals ; for it should not be forgotten that the soil of our fields is a burial-ground. On other more highly manured plots the nitrates are

of the nitrate applied in spring has not mainly derived from a similar source

been assimilated by the crop, owing to (which in many cases is much more con the poverty of the soil in ash constitu- siderable, as the growth on the land has ents: it has remained in the soil all the been much greater ), but there is, in ad summer, and reached by drainage and dition, more or less nitrate which has diffusion a lower depth than the nitrate resulted directly from the ammonia or newly formed after harvest. nitrate applied , and which has existed

Nitrates in Soil without Nitrog- as nitrateall through the summer. There enous Manure. — The three unman- is, farther, on Plots 19 and 2 , but espe ured plots yield an average of 16.9 lb.

cially on the latter, nitrate derived from

of nitrogen as nitric acid per acre in the oxidation of organic manure. The quantities of nitrates found in 27 inches of soil. With a liberal supply of ash constituents this is increased to

October in these Broadbalk soils must

22.8 lb.

It is now known that phos- be considered as decidedly above an phates favour nitrification ; their effect average, the large rainfall in August will only be perceived by comparison producing a specially early and vigorous with a soil exhausted of phosphates. Nitrates, where Ammonia Applied.

- With an annual dressing of 200 lb.

nitrification . Losses by Autumn and Winter

Drainage.

As an example of the

ammonia salts, with ash constituents, the serious losses which soil may suffer from

nitric nitrogen rises to 28.7 lb. When autumn and winter drainage, it

may be

the ammonia is doubled, or an equiva- mentioned that before the spring of 1882

lent quantity of nitrogen as nitrate of there had been removed in drainage from soda is employed, thenitric nitrogen be- these plots of Broadbalk field a quantity comes 39.8 and 37.9 lb.

of nitrates equal to from one- half to

With an excess of ammonia salts (600 three -quarters of that shown by the lb.) the nitric nitrogen reaches 42.8 lb. analyses in Table XV. With an excess of nitrate of soda it is

54.1 lb.

The plot receiving ammonia

without ash constituents shows a com

paratively small amount of nitrates in the surface - soil, the crop and weed residue here being relatively small .

DRAINAGE-WATERS AND THE NITRATES OF THE SOIL .

In order to understand fully the facts shown by the drainage -waters, we must

Nitrates from Farmyard Manure. say a word, in the first place, as to the -The largest amount of nitrification composition of the rain falling on the soil. in the surface-soil occurs on the plot re-

Rain - water . — The rain is collected at

ceiving farmyard manure. The first 9 Rothamsted in a gauge having an area inches contains 30 lb. of nitric nitrogen of 1-100oth of an acre. The nitrogen per acre ; in 27 inches the total is 52.2

as ammonia which it contains amounts the

Ib. The large amount of nitrogen in this to 2.4 lb. per acre per annum ;

soil has been already noticed in the pre- nitrogen as nitric acid to barely 1 lb. The chlorine is 14.4 lb., equal to 24 lb.

ceding section .

Sources of the Nitrates in the Soil. of common salt. The sulphuric acid is

11

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

equivalent to 17.3 lb. of sulphuric anhydride per acre per annum .

157

Evaporation and Drainage.—The

proportion of the rainfall which passes

The amount

of organic nitrogen has been determined through a soil depends, if there is no in some samples of Rothamsted rain surface drainage, entirely on the amount water by Dr E. Frankland. If we take of evaporation that takes place from the The amount of drainage is, in composition, the total combined nitrogen fact, the amount of rainfall minus the in the rain -water becomes a little over 4 amount of water evaporated. The evapo Ib. per acre per annum . The nitrogen in ration is of course much greater in sum

this amount as expressing the average surface.

rain is thus small in quantity, while the

mer than in winter.

It is also much

chlorides and sulphates are rather con- greater from a soil covered by a crop siderable, and equal or even exceed the than from bare soil. Periods of Drainage. — In an average season comparatively little drainage oc curs in the seven months March to Sep

amounts presentin most farm crops.

The Drain -gauges.

Since 1870, the amount of drainage tember. The period of active drainage nsted by has been determined at Ro means of three drain - gauges, of the respective depths of 20 , 40, and 60 inches, and of the area of 1-100oth of an acre . The soil which they contain is in its natural state of consolidation, the gauges having been constructed by cutting under the soil, and then isolating the block of soil by building round it with brick and cement. The soil has been kept free from weeds. No

is the five months October to February. With land bearing a crop the amount of

1877, the amount of chlorine, and the amount of nitrogen as nitrates, have been systematically determined in the mixed drainage of each month. Average results for 11 years are given in Table

manure has been applied .

XVI.

summer drainage will be still further

reduced, and the autumn drainage com mence somewhat later. Chlorides in Drainage. — Since May

TABLE XVI. —THE AMOUNT OF DRAINAGE, AND THE NITROGEN AS NITRATES IN THE DRAINAGE. WATER, FROM UNMANURED BARE Soil, 20 AND 60 Inches DEEP, AVERAGE OF ELEVEN YEARS. NITROGEN AS NITRATES. AMOUNT OF

DRAINAGE.

inches.

March

1.60 2.31 2.50 2.40

20 - Inch

60 - Inch

20 - Inch

60Inch

20 - Inch

60 - Inch

Gauge .

Gauge.

Gauge.

Gauge.

Gauge.

Gauge.

inches.

inches .

0.78

7.5

0.69 0.66 0.52

0.88 0.90 0.70 0.66 0.45

0.85

0.76

3.26 3.26 2.48

0.91 1.77

17.8

October November December January

1.07 1.97

9.0 8.9 10.3 9.7 13.3 14.0 13.5

14. I

12. I

2.48

11.3

11.4

1.82

February

2.31

1.99

9.4 7.3 7.6

10.6

2.14

2.36 1.96 1.98 1.87

March - June

8.81

2.95

3.14

8.5

2.12

16.6

9.94

10.2

10.9

10.6

April May June

July

2.50 2.67

August September

2.88

8.05

July - September

October - February Whole year

.

Per Acre.

Per Million of Water .

RAINFALL.

0.82

1.97

2.44

13.45

10.23

30.31

15.62

15.20

8.2

9.0 9.5 15.4 15.9

Ib .

Ib.

1.33 1.53 1.40

1.80

1.82

1.42 1.81

1.45 1.35

3.05 4.32

1.63 2.40

6.30 6.64

2.78 4.83 6.13

9.0

4.19 3.00 3.41

3.91 3.80

9.4

5.68

6.70

13.6

9.18

6.53

10.4

23.54

23.39

38.40

36 62

8.7

4.72

1 158

MANURES AND MANURING .

The amount of chlorides found in the maximum strength for the year, though

water from the drain -gauges, when calculated as pounds per acre,is found to be practically identical with that furnished by the rain. The soil in the

on an average the maximum is a little

later. The largest quantity of nitrates is not, however,discharged till the season of active drainage commences in October.

drain - gauges has thus apparently been After November the amount discharged thoroughly washed out, and all residues in the drainage-water diminishes, the soil being gradually washed out.

of soluble manure removed.

Nitrates in Drainage. — The quan-

Nitrification does indeed continue dur

tity of nitrates in the water from the ing winter time (probably not in actual

frost ), but with far less activity than in drain-gauges is very large, amounting summer .

From the 20-inch drain-gauge, in the drainage from 20 inches of soil to 38.4 lb. , and in the drainage from 61 per cent of the nitrates,annually dis 60 inches of soil to 36.6 lb. per acre charged are expelled in the drainage of per annum . Of this quantity only about five months - October to February. The

4 lb. could possibly be supplied by the proportion for the same period with the rain ; the remainder has come from the 60 -inch gauge is 64 per cent. oxidation of the nitrogenous organic matter of the soil.

Total Production of Nitrates in the

Soil. — The 36-38 lb. of nitric nitrogen

Nitrification and Bacteria. - Nitri- discharged on an average each year from fication in soil is now known to be the drain -gauges, may be regarded as rep accomplished by the agency of a bac- resenting the average annual production terium. This requires for its action the in the soil. The rate of production is

presence of water ; the ash constituents apparently diminishing, the easily oxi of plant-food ; a salifiable base, as car- dised nitrogenous matter contained in

bonate of lime, with which the nitric the soil becoming slowly exhausted . We acid may combine ; a suitable temperature ; and the presence of sufficient oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere. Ammonia is apparently the substance which is oxidised into nitric acid.

shall see, by-and -by, that the rate of pro duction in a manured soil, or in a bare fallow subject to tillage, is considerably greater. Loss per Acre . — The significance of

The first stage in the nitrification of these results is at once apparent, when we the nitrogenous humic matter of soil is recollect that the amount of nitrogen as

probably the production of ammonia. nitrates present in a soil represents the This production of ammonia is also amount of nitrogen available as plant apparently the work of bacteria, but food for most crops. These nitrates are

whether of the same species which pro- annually produced in the soil, and they are lost with great ease by drainage. Consistently with these conclusions, The money value of nitrogen in nitrate

duces nitrification is at present unknown.

based on laboratory experiments, it is of soda is, at the present price of this found that nitrates are produced most salt ( £ ui a ton ), 7 % d. a pound. The abundantly in moist soils, during warm 38 lb. annually lost by the uncropped weather, and that the production is soil of the drain -gauge are thus worth greatly increased by tillage, and that 245. an acre, and this sum would have ammonia salts, when mixed with a to be spent in manure to replace the fertile soil, are rapidly converted into waste by drainage, if the fertility of the nitrates.

soil is to be maintained.

Discharge of Nitrates in different The Nitrates in Fallow Soils.

Months. — On looking at the amounts As the soils of the drain -gauges rep of nitrogen as nitrate found in the monthly drainage from the soils of the resent a bare untilled fallow in an drain - gauges, it will be seen that the exhausted soil, it will be most conveni smallest amount is found in March .

ent to mention here the amounts of

After this month the strength of the nitrogen as nitrates found in ordinary drainage-water slowly rises. In July a farmed soils at Rothamsted at the end

great stride is made, and the drainage- of a

season of

bare fallow .

Three

water in this month has sometimes the analyses of soil, taken in September or

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

159

October, from different fields, in fair laid in 1849, at from 2 to 3 feet below agricultural condition, showed 56.5, the surface. Since 1866 the lower end

58.8, and 59.9 lb. of nitrogen as of each pipe has discharged into a small

9

nitrates per acre, in 27 inches from the pit, so that the drainage-water can be When the preceding summer collected from the end of the pipe. The

surface .

had been dry, the principal part of this series of pits are connected by a large

nitrogen (40 lb.) was found in the first cross-drain which keeps them free from 9 inches.

water. There is no means of gauging In bare fallows, on unmanured and the quantity of water discharged from exhausted land, 33.7 and 36.3 lb. of each plot, nor would any measurement nitrogen as nitrates were found .

give a correct idea of the amount of

All these amounts represent the quan- drainage, as much drainage must occur tity left in the soil at the end of fourteen through the soil itself. or fifteen months fallow .

If we estimate

Run of Water in different Months.

the probable amount lost by drainage -There is no continuous run of water during the seasons in question, it will from these pipes. The discharge ceases appear that about so to go lb. of nitric

soon after the cessation of rain .

The

nitrogen hadbeen produced per acre in the dates on which each pipe has run since 1866 have been recorded . As an ex better soils during the period of fallow . 1

ample of the distribution of the dis The Nitrates in Cropped Soils.

c

.

-1

charge throughout the year, we will take The determinations of nitric acid in the case of the pipe from the unmanured soils that have just grown a cereal crop

land, Plots

3 and 4.

This pipe has

show a very small amount existing in the discharged in July, August, and Sep

soil. On permanently unmanured wheat tember,only on nine, six,and eight days land there was found, after harvest in respectively during twenty years.

In

1878, only 2.6 lb. of nitrogen as nitric October active drainage commences, 35 acid in the first 9 inches, and no deter- daily runnings occurring in twenty years.

minable quantity in the second 9 inches. In November the runnings reach 59, and The same land was sampled again in in December and January 60 and 61 . March 1881 (it had been left unploughed In February there is a diminution, the

through the winter )-it then contained total being 42. In March the runnings in the first 27 inches 14.5 lb. of nitric are only 18, and the monthly total nitrogen.

still further diminishes as summer is

In September 1877, after a good crop approached. Heavy Crops and Drainage.- On of barley, grown with nitrate of soda, 15.7 lb. of nitric nitrogen were found in those plots which bear the heaviest crops the first 9 inches of soil, but in45 inches the runnings are less frequent in spring

below this depth only 6.2 lb. The nitrate and summer, and begin somewhat later at the surface had probably been formed in autumn. Farmyard Manure and Drainage. in great part since the active growth of the crop had ceased. - The drain -pipe from the plot receiving The nitrates found in the wheat plots farmyard manure runs less frequently

of Broadbalk field have been already than any other. This is apparently due noticed in detail; in this case the sam- (at least in part) to the greater power of

pling of the soil did not take place till retaining water possessed by the soil of the middle of October, after heavy rain, this plot. Determinations made in Jan and the ploughing of the land, had caused uary 1869, when the soil of the field was vigorous nitrification to take place. saturated with water, showed that in the first 3 dung feet, thecontained soil continuously manured The Drainage-waters of Broadbalk Field . with 214 tons more

The principal plots of Broadbalk field water per acre than the permanently consist of two “ lands," each 478 yards unmanured land . wide, and forming thetwo halves, a and 1. Ash Constituents lost in Drainage. b, of the plot. The length of the plots Several series of drainage -waters col is 352 yards. Under the furrow, in the middle of each plot, is a drain - pipe, lected in 1866-68 were analysed by Dr

MANURES AND MANURING .

160

Other series, collected in in Jour. Royal Agric. Soc., 1874, p. 132 ;

Voelcker.

1868-73, were analysed by Dr E. Frank- 1881 , p. 1 . land. Since 1876, determinations of the We will, in the first place, call atten nitrates and chlorides have been made tion to some facts shown by the an

at the Rothamsted laboratory, in nearly alyses of Voelcker and Frankland. The

every running, or in mixtures of the following table gives the mean of five runnings, of every pipe.

The subject analyses by Voelcker and five by Frank

is a large one. We can only here dwell land, of the drainage -waters from the on the points of greatest practical im- principal plots. portance ; further details will be found TABLE XVII. -MEAN OF TEN ANALYSES OF BROADBALK DRAINAGE-WATER BY VOELCKER

AND FRANKLAND, 1866-73, IN PARTS PER MILLION. Plots .

3 &4

Total Solid

Lime and

Matter.

Magnesia .

228 330 450 542

132 207

99 171

Nitrogen as Chlorine ,

10.4 10.7

23.5 33.9 44.8

615

222

9

406

IO

442

126 173

37. 1

II

490

197

38.6

2

367

123

19.4

12.4

Nitrates.

3.9 4.7 9.0 15.9 20.2

16.0 17.6 19.4 11.5

Unmanured Plot Drainage. - The stituents applied on Plot 5, the solid drainage from the permanently unman- contents of the drainage-waters rise in ured plots, 3 and 4, is seen to have con- proportion to the quantity of ammonia

tained 228 of solid matter per million of

salts added .

Thus in the drainage

water ; the principal constituents of this waters from Plots 6, 7, and 8, to which solid matter are lime salts, chiefly the 200, 400, and 600 lb. of ammonia salts carbonate . are applied, the proportion of total solid Ash Constituents Plot Drainage.-

matter is respectively 450, 542, and 615

The superphosphate, and the sulphates of potash, soda, and magnesia applied to Plot 5, considerably increase the contents of the drainage-water, the solid matter rising to 330 per million. The sulphate of lime in the superphosphate, and the sulphate of soda, are thechief constitu-

iments are composed of equal parts sul phate and chloride. The solid matter which they remove from the soil consists chiefly of the sulphate, chloride, and nitrate of lime.

ents of the manure which appear in the

Ammonia Salts robbing a Soil of

per million. The ammonia salts used in these exper

drainage-water. The sulphates of potash Lime. The whole of the sulphuric acid and magnesia do not

appear directly in and chlorine contained in the ammonia the drainage-water, but by acting on the salts probably combines with the lime of lime in the soil, they contribute a fur- the soil. The nitric acid produced by ther quantity of sulphate of lime to the the oxidation of the ammonia will also unite with lime, and if not appropriated drainage. Ammonia Salts and Drainage.by the roots of the crop, the nitrate of When ammonia salts are applied to the lime will also appear in the drainage

land, the quantity of matterremoved in water. This action of ammonia salts in the drainage - water is much increased. impoverishing a soil of lime must be Thus the application of 400 lb. of am- borne in mind whenever their application monia salts alone to Plot 10 raises the to a soil poor in lime is in question. Nitrate of soda and Lime. - The solid matter to 442 per million. When ammonia salts are added to the ash con- nitrate of soda applied on Plot 9 has ap

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

161

parently little or no influence in increas- The former proportion would , with the

ing theproportion oflime in the drainage- drainage previously assumed, correspond water. As only one-half the plot receives to a loss of 3.6 lb., and the latter to a

ash constituents, the amount of lime applied as manure is one-half that received by Plot 5. Although receiving some lime in the manure, the quantity present in the drainage-water is considerably less than in the water from Plot 10, receiving

loss of 9.5

lb. per acre per annum.

It must be recollected, however, that

both potash and phosphoric acid would, in the absence of drain -pipes, be retained in great part by the subsoil. Soda in Drainage . — Soda is shown

by Voelcker's analyses to be present in

ammonia salts without lime.

Lime and Magnesia lost in Drain- much larger quantity in the drainage

age. For the purpose of illustrating the water. The water from six plots receiv annual losses of lime and magnesia ? ing no soda as manure contained a mean which the soil suffers by drainage, we of 6.1 of soda per million. The water

will assume that the average annual from five plots receiving 100 lb. of sul drainage in Broadbalk field amounts to phate of soda, gave 11.6 per million. 10 inches (274 million lb. per acre), and Where 3667/2 lb. of sulphate of soda that it has the composition shown in are applied ( Plot 12 ), the amount became The lime and magnesia 24.6 per million. Where 550 lb. of Table XVII. annually lost by the unmanured Plots, nitrate of soda were used (Plot 9), the 3 and 4, will then be 223 lb. ; by Plot soda is increased to 56. I per million.

5, receiving only ash constituents, 297

These results illustrate the well- known

ib .; by Plot 9, receiving nitrate of soda fact that soil has a far less retentive and half a dressing of ash constituents, power for soda than for potash.

The

284 lb.; by Plot 10, receiving 400 lb. soda in the drainage fromthe unmanured of ammonia salts alone, 389 lb. ; by Plot land was probably derived from rain . Chlorine and Sulphuric Acid in 11, receiving 400 lb. of ammonia salts with superphosphate, 443 lb. ; and by Drainage. — The chlorine and the sul Plots 6, 7, 8, receiving, on an average, phuric acid in the manures are not re the same manure as Plot it, with the tained by the soil, but appear freely in

sulphates of potash, soda, and magnesia the drainage-waters.

in addition, 450 lb. per acre.

As the

Drainage from Dunged Plot. — The

quantity of lime and magnesia in the scanty drainage from the farmyard man annual dressing of ash constituents is ure plot ( 2), though much stronger than only 104 lb. , the amount lost is greatly that from the unmanured land, is by no in excess of that applied to the land .

means so concentrated as that from many It is,

These results are goodexamples of the plots receivingartificial manure.

losses of lime occurring both on unman- according to Voelcker, specially rich in ured and on manured land. The neces- sulphuric acid . sity of restoring lime to many soils after a number of years is well known. Phosphoric Acid in Drainage .

2. Nitrates Lost in Drainage. We turn now to the part of the subject

The amount of phosphoric acid found by which, in recent years, has been most Dr Voelcker in the drainage-waters was thoroughly investigated at Rothamsted very small ; the average of all the deter- namely, the loss of nitrates in the drain minations is 0.93 per million. With 10 age -waters. inches of annual drainage, this would Not only the nitrates, but also the amount to a loss of 2.1 lb. per acre. chlorides removed in the drainage have

Potash in Drainage. - The drainage- been determined.

From the results re

many valuable facts receiving no potash lating to chlorides water from six plotstained, average, have been learnt. Indeed, without the

on an in their manurecon 1.6 of potash per million ; the waters information which they afford, our inter from eight plots receiving potash con- pretation of the course of action which

tained an average of 4.2 per million. takes place would be uncertain or imper We asshall however, possible results ourselves to the confine far ashere, 1 The magnesiashown inVoelcker'sanalyses fect. is small in amount, generally 4 to 5 per cent of the lime. VOL . II .

relating to nitrates . L

MANURES AND MANURING .

162

Unmanured Plot. - We take first the XVIII. shows the average monthly pro case of the wheat land which is left portion of nitrogen as nitrates, and of permanently without manure. Table chlorine present in the drainage-waters. TABLE XVIII. - NITROGEN AS NITRATES AND CHLORINE IN THE DRAINAGE OF UNMANURED

Wheat LAND, AVERAGE OF EIGHT YEARS, 1878-86. Per Million of Water.

Runnings of Drain -pipes ( Days).

Nitrogen to 100 Chlorine. Nitrogen as

Nitrates.

March

April May

.

June

July August September October November December

January

February March -May June- August

September -November December - February . Whole year

Chlorine.

7

2.0

4.5

IO

1.9 0.8

4.3 3.3 2.9 1.7

6 8

43.5 0.1 0.0 0.2

5 20

25 26 14 34 23 18 50 74

165

3.9 4.9 3.2 5.0 3.2 4.1 1.6

12.7

5.2

2.4

9.0 9.3

50.8

6.7

61.1

6.8 4.8 6.1

4.1 2.4

67-3

4.0 4.3

8.0

39.3 4.5 49.8

6.1

69.6

3.4

6.0

55.8

O. I

Loss of Nitrates Checked by Crop. energy as the weather becomes colder, -The nitrates in the drainage - waters and the amount of nitrate in the water

from the uncropped soil of the drain- diminishes to some extent, but is fairly

gauges increased in proportion as the maintained till after February, when the spring advanced, and the waters attained their maximum strength between July on the land and September. Here, on bearing an unmanured wheat crop, the nitrates diminish as the spring advances, and soon entirely disappear. In fact, out of the 18 collections of drainagewaters made during eight years in June, July, and August ,there were only two

nitrate is once more taken up by the new crop. The course of change shown in the table is not regular, because in some of the seasons drainage did not commence till winter, and the maximum strength of the water was consequently post poned . The chlorine in the drainage-water is derived from rain . It is permanently which contained any nitrate. The nitrates are thus entirely re- assimilated by the crop to only a small moved from the upper 27/2 feet of soil extent. The relation of nitric nitrogen

(the depth above the drain -pipes) during to chlorine thus serves to indicate the the period of active growth of the crop. Loss Resumes when Crop is Re-

formation or removal of nitrates in the soil.

moved . — After the crop has been re-

Dung Plot. — The nitrates in the

moved from the land, the first drainage- drainage from the plot annually manured water collected is sure to contain nitrates

with farmyard dung show the same

The proportion rapidly increases, and, if course of change that we have just no the season is wet, à maximum is reached ticed. The average results of fifty run

in October. Nitrification diminishes in nings during eight years were as follows.

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS .

163

The farmyard manure is ploughed in in these salts become mixed with the soil October :

they are speedily decomposed, the chlo

rine and sulphuric acid combine with the lime of the soil, forming soluble salts YARD MANURE, AVERAGE OF Eight Years, which can be removed by rain, while the

TABLE XIX . - NITROGEN AS NITRATES IN THE DRAINAGE OF Wheat LAND RECEIVING FARM-

ammonia is retained near the surface in

1878-86 . Runnings of Drain

Nitrogen as

pipes ( Days).

per Million.

March -May June- August

Nitrates,

combination with the hydrous silicates, the humus, and the ferric oxide of the soil.

If, therefore, drainage occurs immedi ately after the application of the am

4 5

2.9

September -November

15

December- February

26

8.2 5.8

monia salts, much chlorine and sulphuric acid are found in the drainage -water,

1.2

with some ammonia, but there is no con siderable increase in the quantity of After a few days the nitric

nitric acid. Whole year

50

acid in the drainage is much increased,

5.8

while the chlorides have begun to diminish.

The drainage is seen to be considerably We may quote, as an illustration of richer in nitrates than that from the what we have been saying, some analyses unmanured land, but it is by no means of the drainage -water of Plot 15 made in

as rich as we should expect from the very the autumn and winter of 1880-81. 400 large amount of nitrogenous manure lb. of ammonia salts were applied to this

applied. We shall refer to this point plot on October 25, 1880, and then ploughed in.

again .

Heavy rain occurred on

Ammonia Salts. — We turn next to the night of the 26th, and the drain-pipe the behaviour of ammonia salts. These, was found running the next morning. as used at Rothamsted, are a mixture of The analyses ofthe drainage -waters are

equal parts chloride and sulphate. When given in Table XX. TABLE XX . - COMPOSITION OF THE DRAINAGE -WATER OF Plot 15 BEFORE AND AFTER THE

APPLICATION OF AMMONIA SALTS on Oct. 25, 1880, IN PARTS PER Million . Date of Collection .

1880, October 10

1880 , October 27, 6.30 A.M. I P.M.

28 11 P1

11 1

29

November 15, 16 11 19, 26 December 22, 29, 30

1881, February 2, 8, 10

Nitrogen as

Nitrogen as

Ammonia .

Nitrates.

none

8.4

9.0

6.5 2.5 1.5 none 11 11 11

13.5 12.9

16.7 16.9 50.8 34.6 21.7 22.9

Chlorine .

22.7

Nitrogen as Nitrates to 100 Chlorine.

37.0

146.4

9.2

116.6 95.3 80.8

III

54.2 47.6 23.2 19.4

17.5 20.9 93.7 72.7 93.5 118.0

The occurrence of ammonia in the hours after the application of the am

Rothamsted drainage-waters is unusual. monia salts, and in three weeks it reached

It is only present in any distinct quan- its maximum proportion.

After the

tity when, as in this instance, heavy rain middle of November the nitrates steadi follows immediately after applying the ly declined, but not so rapidly as the ammonia salts.

It will be observed that the nitric acid

chlorides. The proportion of nitrogen to chlorine thus continued to increase

began to rise in the drainage-water forty throughout the winter.

MANURES AND MANURING .

164

When ammonia salts are applied as a average composition of the drainage

top -dressing in spring, they are, from the waters in four seasons of the year. The drier character of the season, less liable first period is from the top -dressing of to the rapid removal of their constituents the ammonia salts and nitrate of soda in March till the end of May. The into the drainage-water.

Relation of Manure to Loss of second period is from the beginning of Nitrates. — The relation of the character June till harvest. The third is from of the manuring to the contents in ni- harvest to the autumn sowing of the

trates of the drainage-waters from the wheat, when farmyard manure and rape principal plots in Broadbalk field, is cake are ploughed in on their respective

shown in Table XXI., which gives the plots, and ammonia salts applied to Plot TABLE XXI. — NITROGEN AS NITRATES IN DRAINAGE -WATERS FROM VARIOUSLY MANURED WHEAT LAND, AVERAGE OF FIVE YEARS, 1878-83, IN PARTS PER MILLION. Spring Sowingto

June to

end of

Harvest.

Autumn

May.

3 & 4

Unmanured

0.1

5.6

0.2

5.6 14.7

28.6

0.7 1.4 4.0 9.1 11.4

19.5

5.8

5.7 4.7 2.7

2.9 0.5 1.4

1.7 1.7 8.1

Ash constituents

á

Do. , ammonia salts, 200 lb. 11

}

400 lb. 600 lb.

nitrate of soda, 550 lb.

gab IO

Ammonia salts, 400 lb.

IT

Superphosphates, ammonia salts,

15

Ash constituents, ammonia salts, 400 lb..

19

Rape -cake . Farmyard manure

400 lb.:

2

15 .

Harvest to Sowing to Autumn Spring Sowing. Sowing.

16.3 21.5 48.4

The fourth period embraces the

c N oiro woow

Plots.

Whole Year .

3.5 3.9 5.0

5.2

6.4

7.3

9.3 12.3 9.9

9.2

7.1

8.5

7.4 8.2 7.4

26.4 12.5

IO. I

7.3

5.6

14.3 11.5

19.4

Looking next at Plots 6, 7, and 8,

winter months, from autumn sowing to which receive rising quantities of am monia salts with ash constituents, we see the spring top -dressing.

Only fairly general runnings of the that they are all liable to suffer loss of drain -pipes are taken into account, so

nitrates in the spring period, after the

that the comparison between the plots may be as accurate or possible. The numbers given for Plots 2 and 19 are, however, the average of but 45 and 53

top -dressing of the ammonia salts in March, the loss being greatest on Plot 8, where most ammonia is applied. Not withstanding the very considerableamount

analyses respectively, in place of 78 to 87 of nitrate produced from the ammonia drain -pipes of the two plots first named appeared entirely from Plot 6, and to

in the case of the other plots, as the salts, it is usually found to have dis

ran but seldom .

have disappeared, or have been reduced The general change in the amount of to a very small quantity, from Plot 7,

nitrates with the season of the year has when the drains run in summer time. been already discussed in the case of the Plot 8 receives nitrogen in excess of drainage-water from the unmanured plot. what the crop can assimilate.

The ni

We may now confine ourselves to the trates here do not disappear in summer, influence of manure .

though the quantity is greatly dimin

With the application of ash constitu- ished . ents to the soil ( Plot 5 ) there is some in- In a very mild early spring, as that crease in the proportion of nitrates over of 1882, the nitrates may disappear from that produced without manure, but no Plot 6 , and be reduced to little more

change in the general character of the than a trace on Plot 7, by the first week drainage.

in May. In other seasons a similar di

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

minution may not occur till June or July.

165

nitrates, and their removal from the soil in the drainage-water, affords an ample

When the drains commence running explanation.

after harvest, Plot 8 shows signs of the existence of nitrate that has remained unused through the summer ; but the excess of Plots 6 and 7 over Plot 5 is but small. The winter drainage shows a sur prising equality, the amount of nitrates

Nitrate of Soda . — There is but one

plot (9) on which we have the results of the direct application of nitrates. The numbers given for the nitric nitrogen should be compared with the mean of Plots 7 and Ιο,, since

one half of Plot 9

receives ash constituents and compares

removed from Plots 5, 6, and 7 being with 7, and the other half receives none more equal than the total nitrogen and compares with 10. Thus viewed , contained in their surface -soils. the loss of nitric nitrogen on Plot 9 is Excess Nitrogen Lost in Drainage. seen to be much greater than that of

- The results afforded by Plots 10 and ammonia salts applied at the same time. 11 are most instructive. The same quan- It is evident, indeed, that the nitrate is tity of ammonia salts is applied here as ready for removal directly it is applied, on Plot 7, but on Plot 10 without ash while in the case of ammonia, time must constituents, and on Plot 11 with super- be allowed for nitrification. phosphate only. The result is that on For this reason nitrate of soda is al

these plots, and particularly on 10, the ways applied in spring to a growing crop, crop is unable to assimilate the nitrogen which can at once commence the assimi supplied. The nitrates consequently are lation of the manure. Notwithstanding,

found in considerable quantity all through after harvest. The winter drainage, however, generally removes all excess, and

summer, and a distinct residue remains

however, the larger loss to which nitrates are liable, so active is the manuring power of nitrate of soda, that, as we have already seen , it actually produces

the crop starts the next spring no richer more effect upon the crop than the

for the unused nitrate of the previous same quantity of nitrogen applied as year.

ammonia .

Winter Application of Ammonia

A part of the efficacy of nitrate of

Salts Ruinous . — On Plot 15 the am-

soda is doubtless due to the fact that it

monia salts which are applied on Plot 7 leaves an alkali in the soil, while am in the spring are here applied in October; monia salts leave an acid. the salts arenot top -dressed, but ploughed Nitrogenous Organic Manures. The winter drainage is here ex- The composition of the drainage-waters tremely rich in nitrates, and as no crop from Plots 2 and 19, to which organic in.

is then growing, the losses are often ex- nitrogenous manures ( farmyard manure tremely heavy. On an average of five years, the drainage-water has contained for the whole year 19.4 per million of nitric nitrogen , as compared with 6.4 in the case of Plot 7, where the ammonia is

and rape - cake) are applied, does not fairly compare with the results given by the other plots, as these drain -pipes run much less frequently. These organic manures, from their slower nitrification, applied in March. accumulate nitrogen in the soil during Practical Conclusions. These re- the earlier years of their application.

sults furnished by the drainage -waters

The soil thus enriched with nitrogen

explain in a striking manner the results ous matter produces nitrates more evenly already shown by the crops. We have throughout the year than soils to which now no difficulty in understanding why ammonia salts are applied once in the å spring dressing of ammonia salts is season . This, however, will scarcely

in most seasons superior to an autumn prove an advantage when land is cropped dressing. The reason why the unused with cereals, as nitrates will be freely

nitrogen of an abundant application of produced in autumn and winter when ammonia salts produces no effect on the there is no crop to appropriate them . crop of the following season is equally The rape-cake contains nearly the same manifest. In both cases the conversion amount of nitrogen as 400 lb. of am

of the nitrogen of the manure into soluble monia salts. According to the figures in

166

MANURES AND MANURING .

the table, the drainage-water contains for of nitrates undoubtedly takes place in the whole year an average of 10.1 of seasons in which the period of drainage nitrogen per million. This is much less has been short, and the depth to which than the autumn - sown ammonia salts,

the nitrates are carried is therefore not

1

1

which give 19.4, but more than the spring- considerable. On the other hand, the recovery, after sown ammonia salts, which show 6.4 or 9.9, according as ash constituents are long -continued rain, must be very small, applied or not.

the nitrates being carried below the

The farmyard manure plot shows a possible action of the roots. much smaller quantity of nitrates in the Thus in good seasons the drain -pipes drainage - water than we should expect may rob the crop to some extent, while from the large amount of nitrogen in the in very wet seasons they do not really

1

manure, and especially from the large diminish the supply of soluble food, amount of nitrate found in the soil in while they make the crop more vigorous autumn by direct analysis (Table XV.) by removing the excess of water. Nitrogen Evolved as Gas. - It seems Nitrates in Deep -well Waters. very probable that a considerable part of We can only here just refer to an the nitrates produced on the farmyard

manure plot are afterwards destroyed, investigation concerning the drainage and the nitrogen evolved as gas. This water which exists at great depths in action is now well known to agricultural

the soil-namely, in deep wells. The

chemists. It takes place in soils rich in chalk - well waters at Rothamsted and organic matter, and ill provided with air. Harpenden have been subjected to a Itwill thus chiefly occur when the soil monthly examination, extending over two or three years. The unpolluted is for some time saturated with water. 3. Do Drain -pipes Increase the Loss ? In concluding this survey of the losses suffered by drainage, it may fairly be asked : Would the losses have been as

well - water, at depths from 60 to 140

feet below the surface, is found to be of nearly uniform composition. It contains 4.4 of nitrogen as nitrates, and 10 to 11 of chlorine per million of water. This considerable if the field had not been is the final result of the drainage from a

provided with drain - pipes, especially large area of land under pasture and with pipes so near to the surface as 2/2 arable. Analyses of 109 pure well and feet ? The amount of water passing spring waters, from various geological downwards through the surface - soil formations, gave Dr E. Frankland a would, of course, be the same whether mean of 3.8 nitric nitrogen and 16.5 pipes were present or not. All that the of chlorine. pipes have done is to remove a portion of Taking the higher figure of 4.4, the

the drainage -water before it had passed loss of nitrogenwill be 1 lb. per acre below 2/2 feet of soil. If the nitrates for each inch of drainage. With the

that have passed below 2 2 feet of soil lower figure of 3.8, the loss will be may afterwards be of service to the crop, 0.86 lb. per inch. Assuming the aver then the action of the drain-pipes has age drainage for England, excluding the tended to diminish the food -supply, and extreme western counties, as 8 inches per increase the amount of waste. annum, we have 8 lb. of nitrogen as the

Influence of Subsoil Nitrates.- annual loss by drainage, according to The influence of subsoil nitrates on the the evidence of the chalk wells, and 6.9 crop must depend very much on the lb. as the loss calculated from Frank

character of the spring and summer. land's analyses. The loss from arable If these are warm and fairly dry, the land will be, of course, much greater

crop becomes vigorous, extends its roots, than this, while that of pasture will and evaporates through its leaves much be less, the figure given being clearly more water than is then supplied to it by a mean of all. rain . Under these circumstances a part The average loss of nitrogen by drain

of the nitrates that have passed into the age is thus distinctly greater than the subsoil in winter will move upwards, and amount supplied to the land by rain , but

be consumed by the crop. This recovery it is probably less than the whole atmo

1

167

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS .

spheric supply, including the amount unaccounted for loss of nitrogen. The simplest case is that of Plot 7. The absorbed by soil and crop. ammonia salts have supplied 86 lb. of

NITROGEN STATISTICS — THE SUPPLY, AND nitrogen. Assuming, as above, 10 lb. of nitrogen from seed, rain, and air, we have in all 96 lb. to account for. The average The nitrogen contained in the crops nitrogen in the crop has been 46 lb.;the removed from the Rothamsted wheat- estimated loss in drainage 31 lb.; the field is approximately known. The total is thus 77 lb., leaving about 19 lb. WHAT BECOMES OF IT.

quantity of nitrogen applied as man- not accounted for. This is a simple case, as there is no We have also in-

ure is also known.

formation as to the nitrogen in the evidence of any serious change in the in the drainage -waters.

soil, and as to the nitrogen removed Is it possible,

nitrogen of the soil during the experi ment. The quantity shown as unac

putting these facts together, to tell what has been the supply of nitrogen to the unmanured crops, and what has become of the nitrogen applied as manure ?

counted for is very probably below the truth, as with a larger crop we should expect an increased supply of nitrogen from the atmosphere.

The problem is one of the highest in-

On Plot 8 and on Plot 10, where the

terest, and Messrs Lawes and Gilbert ammonia is present in excess of the capa city of the crop to assimilate it, and the have attempted to answer it. Unfortunately the data at command quantity of nitrate passing downwards is

are in part insufficient. The gains and very considerable, the quantity of nitro losses of the soil are not exactly known. gen unaccounted for in crop and drainage The composition of the water from the is much larger than on Plot 7. drain -pipes does not certainly indicate

Wheat

Annually Dunged .

The

the general composition of thewater per- farmyard manure annually applied to colating through the soil. The amount Plot 2 is estimated to contain 201 lb. of drainage in Broadbalk field is also un- of nitrogen. The average crop during certain, save during the winter months. thirty-eight years would contain about The figures, therefore, that we have to 46 lb. of nitrogen. The amount lost by

give, must be taken only as probable drainage is very uncertain , but it is pro estimates, founded upon the facts at bably not more than 17 lb. There is command.

Wheat without Nitrogenous Man

further to be taken into account a large

gain in the nitrogen of the soil, amount

ure. — The unmanured wheat crop has ing to perhaps an average

of 42 lb. per

in thirty years contained an average of annum ; much more in the earlier years, 18.6 lb. of nitrogen ; the estimated loss and much less in the later ones.

We

of nitrogen by drainage is 10.3 lb. ; or have here an average of at most 105 lb. 28.9 lb. in all have been removed from of nitrogen accounted for out of 201 lb., the land each year. On Plot 5 , receiv- plus that contributed by seed, rain, and ing only ash constituents , the average air received . The average loss thus ap nitrogen in crop is 20.3 lb., and in drain- pears to be about 106 lb. per annum ; age 12 lb. ; total, 32.3 lb. On these much less in the early years of the appli

plots the nitrogen in the soil has con- cation, and much more in recent years. siderably diminished ; the estimated

Nitrogen Disappearing.

It will be

diminution in the case of Plot 5 is observed that where nitrogenous manure

about 20 lb. per annum . There is thus left about 10 lb. of nitrogen to be supplied annually by the seed, the rain, and by direct absorption from the atmosphere. If any reduction of nitrates to nitrogen gas has occurred, the supply

is applied, there is generally a consider able proportion of the nitrogen which is not accounted for, either in the crop, the soil, or the drainage-water. It is quite possible that the estimates of the loss by drainage are too low. It is difficult,

from the atmosphere would have to be Wheat with Ammonia . — The plots receiving ammonia salts all show an

however, to believe that there is not fact, which reachesits maximum on the plot annually receiving farmyard manure.

proportionately increased .

some other source of loss, an action, in

MANURES AND MANURING.

168

This action is most probably the reduction

That it is therefore found advantage ous, when there is any considerable re of nitrates to nitrogen gas. The serious losses of nitrogen which sidual nitrogen in the soil, to sow some attend the continued abundant use of forage crop, such as rye, in the autumn

farmyard manure is a fact of great prac- after the removal of a cereal crop, so that tical importance. the growth of the plants may absorb The waste of manure with high farm- the soluble nitrates ; this forage crop ing must always be proportionately being, perhaps, pastured by sheep, and

greater than when smaller crops are ploughed down in spring. aimed at.

That, for the above reasons, the sys tem of bare fallow facilitates the loss

In addition to the fruitful investiga- of nitrogen in drainage. That lime and magnesia are liable to tions thus reported upon by Mr Warington, many important experiments have be washed out of soils in drainage-water. That the action of ammonia salts tends been conducted at Rothamsted. Amongst the other subjects experimented upon are to impoverish a soil of lime. That neither phosphoric acid nor pot the manuring of other farm crops, the

feeding of stock, the manurial value of ash is liable to serious loss in drainage. That soils have a far stronger retentive foods, the practice of ensilage, and other matters of interest to the farmer. In vari- power for potash than for soda. That the chlorine and sulphuric acid ous parts of this work we have drawn freely upon the great stores of knowledge supplied in the manure are not retained which have been accumulated by Sir John in the soil, but freely pass away in the Lawes and Dr Gilbert, and which they drainage-water. have with characteristic public spirit That the continued application of

placed so fully at the service of their farmyard manure tends to lessen the discharge of water from drains by in fellow -agriculturists. The results of the experiments on bar- creasing the capacity of the soil to retain ley, roots, potatoes, and leguminous crops moisture. will be referred to when we come to treat That the loss of nitrates is prevented of these respective crops. Here it may by a growing crop. be useful to present the following sumThat immediately on the removal of a

crop, any surplus nitrates remaining in the soil, and the nitrates resulting from

fresh nitrification, begin to pass away in the drainage-water. That this washing away of nitrates

amsted as to the behaviour of various will go on till the soil is robbed to a nitrogen. loss in great extentof its available manures in the soil, and the That when ammonia salts are mixed and other

drainage - waters of nitrates elements of plant-food .

with the soil they are speedily decom

That when nitrates --which are formed posed, the chlorine and sulphuric acid, by the agency of a bacterium - exist in combining with the lime of the soil, an uncropped soil, they are very liable forming soluble salts, which can be

indeed in a wet season certain — tobe ammonia removed by drainage -water, whilethe is retained near the surface

washed away in drainage-water.

That nitrates are produced most abun- in combination with the hydrous sili dantly in moist soils, and during warm cates, the humus, and the ferric oxide weather, their production being greatly of the soil. increased by tillage. That, therefore, if drain -water begins

That nitrification — the production of to flow immediately after the applica

nitrates—continues, though lessactively, tion of ammoniasalts, much chlorine during winter, That loss of

mild weather in autumn and there is little danger of serious nitrates in drainage-water while ceasing in times of frost.

the soil is covered with vegetation.

and sulphuric acid and some ammonia are washed away, and that after a few

days the rate of loss of nitric acid on drainage becomes very serious. That when ammonia salts are applied

AOWEN mwi

mary of someof the Practical Conclusions which may be drawn from, or are further confirmed by, the investigations at Roth-

EXPERIMENTS ON PHOSPHATIC MANURING .

169

as a top -dressing in spring, they are, crop is ready to commence the assimi owing to the drier season, less liable to lation of it. That with excessive or abundant man the rapid removal of their constituents in the drainage-water. uring the waste of manure will always

That when more nitrogen is applied be proportionately greater than with than can be assimilated by the crop to moderate manuring. which it is given , the whole of the excess

nitrogen remaining in the soil in the form of nitrates, after the removal of the

EXPERIMENTS ON PHOSPHATIC

crop, is generally washed away in winter drainage, so that the next crop starts in

MANURING .

the following spring no richer for the Their History, Development, and Results. unused nitrates of the previous year. That, in wet seasons,it is ruinous to In 1875 there were at Rothamsted no apply ammonia salts in winter. experiments showing the relative effect

That ammoniacal manures should be of different forms of phosphates; and, applied in spring, so as to be speedily other subjects fully engaging attention, used by the crop. the question has not there been taken That nitrate of soda is even more

up, or at least not largely, to the present

liable to rapid loss by drainage than time. Yet the annual expenditure for ammonia salts, for the former is ready phosphatic manurial matter was then , for removal directly it is applied to as now , very great indeed, while the the soil.

many forms of phosphate available varied

That, therefore, nitrate of soda should greatly in price. It was a source of great always be applied in spring to a growing national and individual loss if the most

crop which can at once commence to effective and economical form was not assimilate the manure .

the one generally used, and unfortun That farmyard manure and rape-cake ately no distinct information existed as

enrich the soil with nitrogenous matter.

to the relative values of the different

That this, however, is not entirely ad- forms. vantageous, as from this store of nitrogen Unless, however, private enterprise

nitrates are freely produced, and washed took the matter in hand, it seemed that away in drains in autumn and winter,

nothing would be accomplished. private station at Rothamsted was fully That nitrates washed into the subsoil engaged with other matters. There

after the removal of the crop.

by rain -water, are only partially service- were, no doubt, two large and wealthy able to the crop. agricultural societies — the Royal Agri That the seed of grain, rain -water, and cultural Society of England, and the

the atmosphere, contribute to an unman- Highland and Agricultural Society of ured wheat crop about 10 lb. of nitrogen Scotland ; but they also were fully en gaged on other matters, more in sym That where nitrogenous manure is ap- pathy with the views of their members plied there is generally a considerable -such as competition in cattle-rearing,

per acre per annum.

proportion of the nitrogen which is not and in implements for mechanical culti accounted for either in the crop, the soil, vation — and these societies were not en or the drainage-water. couraged to enter upon elaborate experi That the missing nitrogen most prob- ments by the fact that the little which

ably passes away into theatmosphere in had been done in that direction had not the form of nitrogen gas. That there is from this cause a serious

fulfilled expectation.

That such experiments did not come

loss of nitrogen where farmyard manure up to expectation was due to a want of

is applied abundantly.

the development and continuance of the

That the risks of loss are reduced to experiments: they were too limited, and a minimum , by giving only as much too desultory to reach the profitable

nitrogen as will supply the wants of point. Work that had no outward show, the crop to which it is to be given , and in its first stages no tangible benefit, and by applying the manure when the could hardly be expected to appeal to

170

MANURES AND MANURING .

those with whom the whole subject was Barclay, M.P., who was familiar with the not only more or less a mystery, but manure trade and with farming, and had was indeed looked at rather with sus- given close attention to the scientific

picion. This suspicion was engendered aspect of the question ; by Mr John both by the feeling that artificial manure Milne, Mains of Laithers, farmer, man was a departure from the old -fashioned ure manufacturer, and holder of the

idea of substantial and solid manuring Highland Society's diploma ; by Mr Ran in the form of dung, and also by the ald Macdonald, factor on the Cluny es feeling that the result of artificial man- tates ; and by the chemist to the Associ

uring was evanescent, if not positively hurtful. This, in fact, farmers had probably actually experienced, not being all so well trained in agricultural science as

ation. The scheme of experiments, pro visionally made, was thus scanned from all aspects, and was then laid before the committee (presided over by the Marquis

to distinguish between suitable and un- of Huntly), fully discussed, and finally suitable manure, nor to perceive that adjusted. It will thus be seen that its perfect artificial manure is natural plant- scientific accuracy and direct practical food, and that while there were evanes- bearing were well assured. cent and hurtful forms, there might also The Experimental Stations. - Five be more reliable and economical forms.

different sites were fixed upon, at alti

It was not therefore surprising that tudes varying from 1 to 400 feet above all appeals made by advanced members sea - level ; at distances from the sea

of these societies that experiments should be performed, fell on unsympathetic ears ; while there was also a tendency to point to Rothamsted as already doing all that was necessary, although, as has been stated, the points were actually not

varying from 2 to 30 miles ; and repre senting soils of different characters and different degrees of fertility ; the depth of mould varying from 8 to 36 inches; while the subsoils represented crumbling granite, gravel, and sand, yellow clay,

touched there which the farmer really bluish clay, and stiff red clay. Size of Plot. Each site was

required to know.

about

two acres in size, and was enclosed by a substantial fence. ABERDEENSHIRE EXPERIMENTS .

This area gave space

for a large number of plots, of the size

that had been so highly recommended by It was under these circumstances that the late Professor Anderson, chemist to

an effort was made in Aberdeenshire to the Highland and Agricultural Society , deal with the question. The work was viz. , ilith part of an acre. taken up successfully and carried on conIt may be mentioned in passing, that tinuously for seven years, by the Aber. Professor Anderson arrived at this size

deenshire Agricultural Association, which after much experience with experiments in 1882 was developed by the addition of on a larger scale. It may also be men a farm , laboratory, museum, &c., under tioned that the same experience was got the name of the Agricultural Research in Aberdeenshire ; preliminary experi Association for the North -Eastern Coun- ments on ith and on th acre plots ties of Scotland.

having been made, while along with the

At the request of the Editor of this large number of nigth acre plots, a large edition of The Book of the Farm , Pro- field was divided into 14th acre plots. fessor Thomas Jamieson, F.I.C., chemist This experience gradually led to a clearer to the Association, who has all along discernment of the objectionable features had the active management of the ex- of large plots, and to a distrust in their

periments, has kindly furnished the fol- results; while Professor Anderson's opin lowing account of the progress and re- ion was abundantly confirmed, that the 19th acre plot is a most suitable size for sults of these historical experiments.

The experiments were commenced in field experiments, while it is also very

1875. They had been framed with great convenient for calculation, as every pound care , scrutinised and amended by several of manure applied, or of crop reaped, gentlemen familiar with the various as- represents the same number of cwts. per pects of the question, chiefly by Mr J. W. acre.

ABERDEENSHIRE EXPERIMENTS .

171

Discussion as to Size of Plot. — It is phosphate would give it undue advan only what is to be expected that this tage in a fair trial of the relative powers

subject of size of plot will crop up every of the two substances. Possibly this now and again ; familiarity with work on adjustment was unnecessary ; the pro

large areas engendering a leaning towards bable effect was to provide a larger large experimental plots, while greater quantity of phosphorus in the case of

familiarity with actual experimenting the insoluble form than was necessary, leads to the small plot, as ensuring uni-

formity of soil, as well as identical cultivation under the same climatic conditions, and hence fair comparison. The iłoth acre plot is indeed too large ; but it is probably as small as can be adopted, unless the soil is actually taken up, and thoroughly mixed, and returned in equal quantities to the former position. Under such arrangement the dooth acre plot will be found in the highest degree satisfactory.

In the later experiments, therefore, equal

quantities were adopted, with about the in the crop. In the first instance, also, the soluble phosphates were exactly a

same result as had previously been got half soluble ( i.e., in commercial terms about 20 to 26 per cent superphosphate). In the later experiments, however, the highest practicable degree of solubility was sought- viz., about 35 per cent soluble. On singling the plants (turnips) it was

It is interesting to noticehow steadily sought to have an equal number in each

opinion grows in favourof small plots, plot-namely,about200 ; but that num and how constantly the above experience ber, from various causes, which will be is repeated - namely, that every beginner, easily understood by those engaged in especially if associated or influenced, di- practice, was seldom maintained to the rectly or indirectly, with practice on the end of the season .

Attacks by insects,

large scale, begins with large plots, and weakly plants, frost, drought, & c., fre

gradually works towards the smaller ones. quently reduced the number. Duplicated Plots. — Especial care was None of the operations on the plots taken to have each experiment dupli- were allowed to go on, nor weighing of

cated , a feature too often neglected in the crop, except in the presence of the experiments. It is indeed desirable that chemist who directed the experiments. they should even be triplicated.

It may thus be seen that the most

In the experiments having reference scrupulous care and attention were given specially to phosphate applied with and to the whole work. without nitrogen, special care was taken that there should be no hindrance to the

First Year's Conclusions.

action of these essentials by the absence At the end of the year the numerous of other materials understood to be essen- and duplicated results of this large

tial. This was prevented by the applica- series of experiments were tabulated, and tion, all over the plots, of a mixture con- presented such a varied and confirmed sisting of 3 cwt. potassic chloride, 1 cwt. series of results as probably had not

magnesia sulphate, and 72 cwt. common previously been available. salt.

They were

Each plot was surrounded by a carefully considered by the individuals

deal-board nine inches deep, driven edge- above mentioned, and others taking part wise into the soil.

in the direction, and finally the following Adjusting the Manures. — The soils conclusions were adopted : were subjected both to chemical and me1. That phosphates of lime decidedly chanical analyses. The manures were increase the turnip crop, but that farmers

also analysed , and care taken that equal need not trouble themselves to know quantities of the ingredients were used. whether the phosphates are of animal In the earlier experiments, however, the or of mineral origin. 2 . That soluble phosphate is not su proportion of insoluble phosphate was

a half more than soluble phosphate, an perior to insoluble phosphate to the ex adjustment considered necessary in order tent that is generally supposed. that the two phosphates might be fairly 3. That nitrogenous manures have

compared, assuming that the finer divi- little effect on turnips used alone, but sion or greater distribution of the soluble when used along with insoluble phos

MANURES AND MANURING .

172

phates increase the crop ; that the addi- most economical phosphatic manure for

tion of nitrogen to soluble phosphates turnips is probably insoluble phosphate does not seem to increase the solids or of lime, from any source, ground down dry matter in crop ; that there is no ma- to an impalpable powder.

terial difference between the effects of

Condensed Results . - It would oc

equal quantities of nitrogen in nitrate of cupy too much space to give the results soda and in sulphate of ammonia. Note . — Pure sulphate of ammonia contains about 5 or 6 per cent more nitrogen than nitrate of soda. 4. That fineness of division seems

in detail. It may suffice to give a few condensed results - namely, a few results

from the station that responded best to the action of phosphate, and there fore showed

action of

the relative

nearly as effective in assisting the braird the different forms most clearly ; and and increasing the crop as the addition also the results of the five stations aver of nitrogenous manures. Hence the aged : ABOYNE .

AVERAGE OF 5 STATIONS.

GROUP

I.

GROUP II. GROUP III.

No phosphate given Insoluble phosphate (ground coprolite) Soluble phosphate (superphosphate)

Insolublephosphate and sulphateof ammonia Soluble phosphate and sulphate of ammonia ( Steamed bone-powder

Insoluble Phosphates as Plant

concerns

Turnips.

Tons per acre . 5

Tons per acre.

19

16 18

22

{ Soluble phosphate and nitrate of soda

GROUP IV. Raw bone -meal

Turnips.

IO

21

18

26

21

23

20

24 16

20

23

20

16

so large a body as the whole

food . — From the point of view of new agriculturists of a kingdom .

But no

information, the first and last groups are responsible person will now be found to by far the most important. Formerly cop- take up an opposite position . The bearing of the New Doctrine. rolite was deemed of no manurial value

until rendered soluble by sulphuric acid ; and in placing a money value on a dissolved manure , no value was attached to the insoluble portion it contained . The above results indicated that this position was untenable . They led the

Aberdeenshire Association to say decisively that insoluble phosphate in the form of ground coprolite was directly

effective on plants, and to add the statement that the superiority of the soluble

--At this stage there ought to be promi nently brought forward the real bearing of this new doctrine on agricultural practice. What is the actual effect of the know

ledge that the natural coprolite, merely ground, is able directly tofeed the plant with phosphate ? Being decidedly the cheapest form of phosphate, does it fol low that it should be employed to the exclusion of all other phosphates ? As

form is not so great as is generally sup- suredly not, when it is so clearly brought It was thought well to limit ex- out that although it produces 16 tons pression to the latter general and tenta- per acre, other forms produce 18 tons, tive statement, reserving a definite state- and others 20 tons per acre. Assuredly posed.

ment till further results were obtained .

not again , when it is stated that greater

The fourth group indicates the excel- assistance is given to the plant in the lent results got by using phosphate in early stage, by more finely divided phos

a fine state of division, and led to the phate, or by soluble phosphate. So long fourth conclusion stated above.

as the latter two phosphates are not

It may be remarked that these opinions charged a higher price, as compared with are now generally accepted. No doubt coprolite, than is compensated by the

there may constantly be heard dissen- larger crop, they shouldbeused. So tients from thesedoctrines. That isonly soon , however, as the price advances what may be expected, when the subject much beyond that point,the agriculturist

ABERDEENSHIRE EXPERIMENTS.

173

can fall back on coprolite, which is found forms seemed more or less to have a simi abundantly in many parts of the world, lar effect. As to a remedy, the disease and requires no more manufacture than seemed lessened by whatever ensured simple grinding healthy growth, or a condition of soil

It is thus wholly and solely a matter uncongenial to fungoid growth, as well of price. And herein lies the important as such lapse of time between the two practical bearing ofthe new doctrine. It turnip crops as would reduce the natural

is well to grasp fully the significance of food of the fungus, while a heavy dose of the knowledge that coprolite may be used lime markedly lessened the proportion of directly. Put in fewwords it is this disease. that it provides a check to the undue 4. The variation in weight on oat grain

raising of the price of manufactured by storing ; the solid nourishing matter phosphates.

in oats differently manured ; and the pro portion of husk to kernel. 5. Different methods of storing turnips

Experiments of Subsequent Years. It would go beyond the limits of this during winterwere tried, and the method article to explain the many points that of storing in pits of two or three loads, and

engaged the Aberdeenshire Association covered with three or four inchesof earth, during the following six years — viz., till was found to answer best ; while the re 1882 — during which the experiments of sult was not greatly different whether or the first year were continued and re- not the roots or leaves, or both, were

peated, providing altogether many hun- cut offprevious to storing. The proceedings of The first series of experiments was, as the Association, for that period of seven mentioned, on turnips, and turnips were years, form a large volume, replete with grown on the same ground successively dreds of results.

tables, diagrams, and photographs, which for five years. provide the critic with full details, while

But in the second year of the experi

at the same time the main points are ments, the original experiments were re clearly brought out for the general reader. peated on new ground at each station, It may suffice to say that the following and the effect of the various manures points were very fully entered into : ascertained over a rotation . 1. The specific gravity of turnips, which Relative Value of Phosphates and was found to give no reliable indication Nitrogen. of their quality. At the end of seven years it was con 2. The proportion of water in turnips, which was found to be increased both sidered that the subject that had been

by nitrogenous, and, to some extent, by carefully avoided up to that time might soluble phosphaticmanures. 3.

then be approached — viz., to fix the rela Finger and toe” disease was in- tive agricultural value of phosphates and

vestigated ; farmers' opinions regarding nitrogen. This was done, not by attach

it widely ascertained ; many experiments ing a money value, which might vary every year, but by fixing on some large ures in giving rise to the disease; and natural source of phosphate, and a simi other experiments with the view of find- lar source of nitrogen, and adopting these ing a remedy. Speaking generally, it each as a standard, to be referred to by conducted to ascertain the effect of man-

was found that whatever weakened the the figure 10. The standard adopted for

plant predisposed it to disease, and rendered it an easy prey to its natural fungoid enemy, which then produced the disease. But while many influences, both mechanical and climatic, caused weakness,

phosphate was ground coprolite of the usual commercial degree of fineness, which was called 10 ; while the standard chosen for nitrogen was nitrate of soda, the value of which was also called 10.

it was found, in a very remarkable and

It may be necessary later on to make

unmistakable manner, that soluble phos- these standards more definite, by specify state of ing more distinctly phate produced this effect in a very mechanical obviously division;the the andprecise striking degree. Nor was this effect stand the for chosen division the finer soluble rendered confined tophosphate by sulphuric acid, but sulphur in various ard, the less will be the difference be

MANURES AND MANURING .

174

tween it and the forms standing above give a visible increase of root crop, but it. But for the immediate purpose the this increase is due mostly, and often

commercial forms were deemed sufficient. entirely, to excess of water in the bulbs. The values thus carefully arrived at Nitrogenous manures greatly increase cereal crops, and the increase in this case for phosphate were : is not due to excess of water.

Tribasic phosphate of lime in bone

3

‫ة‬ ‫و‬ ‫ب‬

Phosphate of iron Phosphate of alumina (redonda)

Tribasic phosphate of lime in insoluble 10

mineral

Monobasic phosphate of lime in soluble phosphate

12

Bibasic or tribasic phosphate of lime in form .

precipitated Tribasic phosphate of lime in steamed bone flour

13 14

While the values for nitrogen were as follows :

As to the relative efficacy of different forms of nitrogen : the ultimate effect of nitrogen in sulphate of ammonia , in guano, and steamed bone flour, is nearly identical, whether used with soluble or

insoluble phosphate. Nitrate of soda, when used with soluble phosphate, is also identical with the above forms, but is of less efficacy when used with insol uble phosphate.

4. Fine division (or perfect disaggre gation ) of phosphates assists the braird

Nitrate of soda

10 nearly as much, and with more healthy

Sulphate of ammonia

IO

Guano

IO

with dried blood ) .

results, than applications of nitrogenous manures.

Nitrogen (only) in bones (supplemented 8

The most economical phosphatic man

ure is probably non -crystalline, floury, At the same time the conclusions orig- insoluble phosphate of lime ; the cheapest inally framed were more specifically form being mixed with an equal quantity drawn out as follows :

Final Conclusions.

1. Non -crystalline phosphate of lime, ground to a floury state, applied to soil

deficient in phosphate, greatly increases the turnip crop, and also, though to a

of the form in which the highest degree of disaggregation is reached.

(At present these two forms are re spectively, ground mineral phos phate (coprolite ), and steamed bone flour.)

Duplicate Trials in England. less extent, the cereal and grass crops, but always with equal effect, whether It remains only to say, that it having it be derived from animal or mineral been argued that while these results matter. might apply to soil in Scotland , poor in

2. Soluble phosphate is not superior lime, and not to soils in England, gener latter be in finely disaggregated form— sirable to ascertain whether or not the

in effect to insoluble phosphate if the ally richer in lime, it was considered de e.g., disaggregation effected by precipita- results had only this limited application. A station was therefore established in tion fromsolution, or by grinding bones after being steamed at high pressure. Huntingdon, and another in Kent, while

In such finely divided conditions, the later on a large number of experiments difference is in favour of the insoluble were established in Sussex, and carried form , in the proportion of about 12 for on by the Sussex Association for the Im

and 14 for the above provement of Agriculture, under the same the soluble to 13respectively. In less chemical direction as the Aberdeenshire insoluble forms finely divided form (such as mineral experiments. These experiments in Eng phosphate impalpable powder), insoluble land showed, that while in soil actually phosphate is inferior tosoluble phosphate on the chalk formation soluble phosphate showed to more advantage than on all

in the relation of about 10 to 12 .

3. Nitrogenous manures used alone the other soils tried, yet inthe other soils have little effect on root crops, unless the in Sussex and in Huntingdon, where the soil is exceptionally poor in nitrogen, and soil was not so purely chalky, but yet con rich in available phosphate. tained the ordinary quantities of lime, Nitrogenous manures used with phos- the results were practically the same as

phate on soils in fairly good condition those got in Aberdeenshire.

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS.

175

of different seeding, different manuring, Outside Confirmation . liming, draining, & c. The value of these experiments in

Aberdeenshire and Sussex would be un certain unless confirmed not only in other

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL

places, but by other and independent

SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS.

experimenters.

The importance of the

question, however, was widely recognised; and after some time, both the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, and the Royal Agricultural Society of England, established experiments on the same subject, as did also a number of private experimenters, all of whose results pointed more or less con-

In the year 1878, a series of field ex periments was inaugurated by the High land and Agricultural Society of Scot land. For the following account of these experiments we are indebted to Dr A. P. Aitken, chemist to the Society, under whose care they were conducted :

Object of the Experiments.- The clusively in the same direction. object of these experiments was to test Still the march has been slow, if we the accuracy of manyviews then prev

judge its progress by the amount of cop- alent regarding the efficacy of the vari rolite applied, or by the small effect on ous light manures in use amongfarmers, the superphosphate trade. But for this to discover what was the agricultural or

there are two obvious explanations ; first, crop -producing values of these substances, as already explained, that the effect is and to see how far these values corre not to be looked for in the direction of sponded with the prices at which the

the greater use of coprolite, but rather in substances were being sold in the market. the reduction of theprices of superphosIt was believed by many advanced phate and other phosphates-- and this farmers that large sums of money were

reduction has indeed taken place to a annually being spent in the purchase of very marked extent ; and, second, that manurial substances, whose efficacy as the interest of the trade is more than manures was entirely out of harmony able to cope with the agriculturist, who with their market prices, and that noth

at the present day is hardly so skilled in ing short of an extended series of experi the intricacies of manure as in a few years ments, performed upon an agricultural he is likely to become. Scope of the Sussex Erperiments.

scale over two rotations, would be cap

able of uprooting old prejudices, and of enlightening farmers regarding the true Allusion has been made to the experi- value of the substances in which so much

ments conducted in Sussex under the of their capital was being invested. It name of the Sussex Association for the was believed that such a series of experi

Improvement of Agriculture. As these ments would not only determine, in a experimentshave been going on for eight years, in eight different sites throughout the county, representing the chalk formation, the weald clay, Hastings-beds and greensand, it will be evident that the

practical and reliable manner, what was the real value of manures, but would also supply much -needed information regard ing the special utility of the various in gredients of manures , the forms in which

amount of work and number of results they could be most profitably employed , thus ascertained are too extensive to

and the most rational and economical

admit of satisfactory treatment here. It methods in which toapply them. may be mentioned however, that, begin-

The Stations . — For this purpose the

ning with experiments testing not only Society rented two fields -- one at Hare

phosphorus but also nitrogen and potas- law, in East Lothian, and one at Pum sium in different forms, on which a great pherston, in West Lothian. At each amount of both interesting and useful information has been obtained, attention has been directed latterly to the means of improving old pasture, and

station 10 acres were set apart and divid ed into forty plots of one rood each. The soil of the former, a rich deep loam

near the sea-level, in a dry early district; to the laying down of new pasture in and that of the latter a thin clayey loam, such a way as to ascertain the effect resting on the till or boulder clay, a

MANURES AND MANURING .

176

somewhat wet and late district, 400 feet

Manures for Cereals .

When the

crop was barley or oats, the manure con

above the level of the sea .

No dung was applied to the stations tained lb. per acre.

during the course of the experiments, nor for four years previous to their com

Phosphoric acid Nitrogen

80 40

mencement.

Potash

60

Manures tried . — The three classes of

manures under experiment were phos-

The plots on which the various phos

phates, nitrogenous matters, and potash phatic manures were tested , received, in addition, their proper quantity of potash salts of the following kinds : in the form of a mixture of muriate and

Phosphatic Manures. Carolina

land phog. sulphate, and their nitrogen in the form

phate. Canadian apatite. Curaçoa phosphate.

The plots on which the various nitrog enous manures were tested, received, in Arubaphosphate,& c. addition, their proper quantity of phos

Mineral phosphates

ſ Phosphatic guano.

Of remote animal origin Coprolites. Bones, in

Of recent animal origin

phoric acid in the form of superphos

various phate, and their potash as mixed sulphate and muriate.

forms. Bone -ash .

These were applied in a finely ground state,

The plots on which the two potash salts were tested, received their proper

and also after having been dissolved in sul quantity of phosphoric acid as superphos phate, and their nitrogen as nitrate of

phuric acid .

soda.

Nitrogenous Manures. | Nitrate of soda. Sulphate of ammonia.

Soluble

Meat-meal Dried blood Horn -dust

The great majority of the plots on the stations were thus fully manured ; and

in so far as the essential ingredients

of animal phosphoric acid, ammonia, and potash wereconcerned, they all fared alike. It

Keronikon

Insoluble

origin.

was only the outward and accidental form and fashion of these substances that Rape-cake dust of vegetable differed . Cotton -cake dust ) origin. In order to form a starting -point or

Shoddy or wool. waste

Peruvian guano . Guanos, & c.

Ichaboe guano. Fish- manure.

basis of comparison for the whole sta

Frey Bentos manure .

whatever.

tion, three plots received no manure In order to measure the specific effects

Potash Manures.

of each of the three essential ingredients, Sulphate of potash . Muriate of potash .

three plots received one of each and

nothing else, while from other three plots These manures were so applied that each of the three essential ingredients each plot received the same quantity of respectively was withheld. phosphoric acid, of nitrogen, and of pot-

In addition to the two series of ex

ash, whatever might be the form in periments on the stations, there were which these were applied, and irrespec- annually carried out a selected number tive of the gross weights of the sub- of experiments on farms in various parts stances, or of their market prices. of the country to test the accuracy of

Cropping .- The cropping consisted of the results obtained , and to acquire a four-course rotation of turnips, barley, additional information regarding the action of manures when applied to dif Manures for Turnips and Beans. ferent soils and under different climatic

beans, and oats.

-When the crop was turnips or beans,

the manures applied to these plots contained 1b. per acre.

160 40

Phosphoric acid Nitrogen Potash

.

.

I 20

conditions.

Full reports of the experiments were published annually in the Society's Trans actions, and the following is a general statement of the chief results obtained and observations made.

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS. 177 different degrees offineness to which they happened to be ground. The finer they Produce of Dry Matter from Pum- were ground, the more effective they

1. Results with Phosphatic Manures.

pherston .- During the eight years com were as manures . A series of experiments made in 1886, prised in the two rotations, the total amount of dry vegetable matter per acre, on four plots of Pumpherston and on four in the form of roots, grain, and straw , re- Lowland farms, with the same mineral

moved from the plots to which complete phosphate, in two slightly different de manures had been regularly applied on grees of fineness, showed uniformly a that section of the station at Pumpher- difference of about 11 per cent in favour

ston devoted to the study of phosphatic of the more finely ground phosphate. manures was as follows: Tons of Dry Matter, per acre .

Bone -ash

Ground coprolites Bone-meal .

Phosphatic guano

Undissolved . Dissolved. 12.69 12.66 13.22 11.80 13.80 11.32 14.II 12.47

Ground mineral phos 11.66 phates

14.16

Average

13.59

Conclusions.

11.99

The whole question of the efficacy of ground phosphates has been shown to turn on the point of the fineness to which they are ground. Phosphatic Guano . — The reason why phosphatic guano is so effective a form

of insoluble phosphate is presumably because it consists in great measure of very finely divided matter, and also because it contains from 5 to 10 per cent of precipitated or "reverted ” phos

The facts apparent phate which is in an infinitely fine state

from a mere glance at these figures are, of division. that

Bone - meal. — The reason why bone

Soluble phosphates have produced about meal is slowest in its action, is probably 13 per cent more actual fodder than because it consists in large measure of insoluble phosphates.

very coarse particles.

Bone-meal, which is one of the dearest Judged by the standard of fineness of the phosphates, has given the of division alone, bone-meal, which was smallest return . enormously coarser than the other phos

Dissolved mineral phosphate, which is phates, should not have produced nearly just ordinary superphosphate, and so much vegetable matter. Its efficacy made from the cheapest material, must therefore depend on other circum has given the largest return . stances — notably its power of rotting in

Among the insoluble phosphates,phos- the soil, and of accumulating a store of phatic guano and bone-ash are best. phosphate, in no very long time becoming Over a series ofeight years, the amount available as plant-food. of fodder raised by the application Soluble Phosphates. - Although the of different kinds of insoluble phos- eight years' record shows that the soluble phates are not very different. phosphates differ more widely in their The following facts ,although not ap- efficacy than the insoluble ones, they have parent from a mere scrutiny of these not varied up and down so much as the figures, were attested from year to year latter.

Their action was much more

during the course of the experiments :- steady and reliable. Nevertheless their Insoluble Phosphates.

These vary relative order of activity did alter on some

in their efficacy far more than soluble occasions. phosphates. They are more dependent Just as the undissolved phosphates on moisture for their activity, and dur- differed from year to year in their fine

mg dry seasons they are of very little ness of grinding, so the dissolved phos Even during wet seasons they phates differed from year to year in the

use .

were found to be very capricious in fineness of their manufacture, or in their their action.

The phosphate which was state of aggregation due to dampness, or the best one year might be the worst the time during which they were kept in the next year. bags before being applied. Dissolved Fineness of Grinding .– This uncer- manures are liable to cohere into lumps

taintyVOLwasII. found to be caused by the from various causes, and the mostM careful .

178

MANURES AND MANURING .

riddling cannot restore the fine condition An extended series of experiments car of a manure that has become lumpy. Fine Powdery Condition essential. -Attention was early drawn to this circumstance during the course of the

ried out on the stations, and on other farms, to test the relative manurial value of bone -meal of different degrees of fineness, showed that the finer ground

experiments, and observations made bone-meals gave the best results during showed clearly that the efficacy of dis- the season in which they were applied, solved manures depends very much upon and also during succeeding seasonswhere the more or less powdery condition in their after-effects were observed. which they are applied.

? ** . 1

1

It is to this

circumstance, more than to any other, that the variation in the amount of the

II. Nitrogenous Manures. Produce of Dry Matter at Pum

produce from the application of different pherston . - The following are the forms of soluble phosphate must be at- amounts of dry vegetable matter removed tributed , and from the results of these from the plots at Pumpherston that were experiments the following affirmation set apart to determine the relative effi may be made :

cacy of nitrogenous manures during the

Given two phosphates of somewhat two rotations.

The manures contained

similar composition, but of different de- in each case the same amount of nitrogen, grees of fineness, the superiority will and there was given along with it a lie with the finer one, whatever be its definite uniformamount of superphos origin or history, or by whatever name phate and potash salts.

it may be called. More Vigorous Growth from Solu-

ble Phosphates. — On the plotsto which

Nitrate of soda . Sulphate of ammonia .

soluble phosphates were applied the plants

Horn -dust, shoddy, &c.

brairded sooner, the turnips came sooner to the hoe, and met sooner in the drills,

Rape-cake dust

Dried blood

Tons per acre . I 2.22

11.62 9.28 10.38 10.96

and the cereals were ripe and ready for As in the case of phosphates, so also in

harvesting from a week to a fortnight the case of nitrogenous manures, the earlier than on those plots manured with most soluble substances produced the insoluble phosphates. These important largest return. advantages were especially noticeable Nitrate of soda.- This is the most active and efficient of all the nitrogenous during dry seasons. Owing to the more vigorous growth on manures, and its action has been studied

the plots manured with soluble phos- under a variety of conditions at the phates, their crops were less liable to stations, and on other soils of very differ disease, and the land was always cleaner ent character. than on the other plots. Its chief peculiarity is that it acts

Harelaw Results . — The results ob- almost immediately on the crop, and pro

tained at the Harelaw station were very duces a marked effect whether ploughed similar to those obtained at Pumpher- in with the seed or applied as a top ston, but owing to the high state of fer- dressing during the growth of the crop. When applied to land in good condi

tility of the soil the differences were not so well marked.

1

T

tion, or when it forms part of a complete

Insoluble Phosphates for Mossy manure, it causes the crop to braird

Land , & c. — A large number of experi- vigorously, and is sometimes the saving ments to determine the relative utility of a crop whose youth is precarious. of soluble and insoluble phosphates were It is especially valuable in seasons of made on farms differing widely in their drought,as it enables the young plant soil and climate, and it was found that to root rapidly and become less depend insoluble phosphates produced their best ent on surface-moisture. results upon mossy land, and soils rich When applied to cereals it causes a in organic matter in wet districts. In more abundant growth of straw than such circumstances they were a more any other manure. When applied with

economical manure than superphosphate. the seed or to the young braird, it not Bones and Fineness of Grinding : only increases the bulk of the crop, but

. 1

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS.

it hastens its development and causes it to ripen sooner.

179

Sulphate of ammonia has been found

If applied at a later to check the growth of clover more effec

period, it causes the plant to grow too tively than nitrate of soda if applied in much to stem and leaf, and it unduly excess, but in moderate quantity it is an

prolongs the period of growth. When excellent manure for old grass. It is not applied late as a top -dressing to cereals, suitable for application to leguminous it causes a disproportionate growth of crops, which are intolerant of strong straw , retards the period of ripening, and nitrogenous manures, especially after the favours the production of light grain . first period of their growth.

When applied to a thin sharpsoil dur ing a wet season its effect is transient, showing that much of it has been washed

Insoluble Nitrogenous Manures. Insoluble nitrogenous manures are sub

through the soil and out of reach stances containing albuminoid matter. down of the roots of the crop. They are very suitable for wet districts,

When applied too liberally on good but none of them can be considered a land, it causes a rapid growth of ill- manure until it is finely ground, or matured vegetable matter, and produces rotted, or dissolved . a crop which is too abundant, unable to Rape - cake Dust.-- Among the in

ripen , of poor feeding value, and liable soluble nitrogenous manures rape - cake to accidents.

dust has produced the greatest amount

When applied to plants grown for of vegetable matter . It is very proba their seed, nitrate of soda must be ble that this is due in some measure to

used more sparingly ; for increase of the large amount of carbonaceous organic stem or straw , if overdone, is secured at

matter contained in

it.

It was also

the expense of the seed, both .in quantity noticed that the plot to which this man and quality ure was applied was singularly free from It may therefore be used with greater disease, and that the texture of the soil

impunity to crops which are grown for improved under its application. Dried Blood, Horn - dust, &c. and notably to grass of one or two years' Dried blood was found to be a good

the sake of their stem and leaf - chiefly

manure for roots, especially when ap

duration .

When applied liberally to grass, it in- plied early, but too slow in its action creases the growth of the grasses proper, for cereals. but diminishes the amount of clover and The same remark applies to horn -dust

other leguminous plants ; therefore, when and keronikon, which should be applied a good crop of clover is desired , nitrate long before sowing. Shoddy was tried should be used very sparingly . on only one occasion, and was found Sulphate of Ammonia . - Sulphate of quite inoperative. All these insoluble nitrogenous matters ammonia is slower in its action than nitrate of soda. It is therefore to be become, when dissolved in sulphuric acid,

preferred as a nitrogenous manure for good quickly acting manures. crops which have a prolonged period of

growth. When applied as a top -dressing to cereals, it retards the time of ripening.

III. Potash Manures.

Potash salts are chiefly important on

A similar effect is produced when applied land that has not been dunged. On with the seed in dry districts or during dunged land they frequently fail to pro seasons of drought.

It does not fail to

duce any marked effect.

benefit the cropeven upon thin soils and Sulphate and muriate of potash are during wet seasons. It is therefore nearly equal in their action. They are more appropriate than nitrate of soda for most effective when applied some months before sowing. The crops to which they application in these circumstances.

Sulphate of ammonia can do little for are most beneficially applied are beans, the germinating seed in dry weather, as clover, and leguminous crops generally. it is not in an immediately available form .

When applied to cereals, they increase Even after rain comes, it is some the amount of grain to some extent, and

time before the sulphate of ammonia they make the straw more elastic and comes into action .

less liable to lodge.

MANURES AND MANURING .

180

the amount of turnip-tops, but retard the Manuring Turnips. of the bulbs. manures decreases The manurial constituents of greatest ripening An excess of potash

importance in raising a crop of turnips very materiallythe quantity of roots, and are phosphoric acid and nitrogen. may greatly injure the crop. The relative importance to the turnip It is scarcelyphosphates crop at Pumpherston of these two ingre- application of possible toto overdo turnipsthe

, so dients of potash , is seen by comparing far as the health and feeding quality of plots manured as under during four the roots are concerned ; but too liberal years : anapplication of nitrogenous manure un Roots per acre. No. of Plot.

12. Phosphate (bone ash) Nitrate 18.

tons. cwt. 6 14 2 9 13 8

11. Potash and nitrate 21. Phosphate and nitrate

14

22. Potash .

10

1. Phosphate, nitrate, and potash

2

duly increases the tops and retards the ripening of the bulbs, and also increases their liability to disease. General Observations on Turnips.

Turnips contain a smaller percentage 16

of solids than swedes.

The turnips at

the stations contained from 7 to 9 per

Effects of Manures on Turnips.— cent solids, and the swedes from 10 to

The chief effect of manuring on turnips 12 per cent. The solid matter of the swedes con is to increase the quantity per acre, but the quality of the turnip is also much tained 15 per cent more albuminoids than that of the turnip, and there was as much affected by the nature of the manure . Turnips manured with dissolved phos- nourishment in 10 tons of swedes as in phate contain a higher percentage of ash 13 tons of turnips. than those manured with ground phosTurnips contained in their dry matter phates. nearly 8 per cent of ash, and swedes only contain somewhat

smaller about 572 per cent. The latter were They also a proportion of albumen, and upon the therefore less exhausting to the land. whole they have a wider ratio of albu-

Large turnips are not so economical as

men to carbohydrates, which means that medium -sized ones in any way. They they have not quite so high a feeding contain more water, and produce less value. solid matter per acre. The larger they The diminished percentage of albumen are, the smaller is the proportion of true produced by the use of dissolved phos- albumen in their solid matter ; they are phate was counterbalanced by the 'in- the less mature, and the less nutritious.

crease in the total crop, so that the total They contain a higher percentage of ash, andaretherefore more exhausting to the

amount of albumen per acre was some-

what in favour of the crop grown with soil. They have a low specific gravity, soluble phosphate. usuallyliable spongy heart. in and the do Dissolved phosphates when applied in and They are are more to rot, not April produced a better crop of turnips keep so well when pitted . Turnips at than when applied with the seed in June. their best are too watery a diet, but the The earlier manured turnips were denser, larger they are the poorer the diet. and produced more solid food per acre

Small turnips, on the other hand, are not so profitable as medium turnips, be Turnips manured early had more ash cause they do not produce so much solid

than the others.

than those manured with the seed .

acre, and although they contain per percentage When the nitrogenous manure of tur- afood higher of solids and a smaller nips is given entirely in the form of percentage of ash, yet their solid matter nitrate of soda or of sulphate of ammo- consists largely of indigestible woody nia , the latter has been found to produce fibre, and is therefore less nutritious. a denser, sounder turnip. The nitrogenous matter in turnips is The best way of applying potash to partly of a nutritive and partly of a non turnips is to apply it several months nutritive kind. before sowing.

The former consists of

albuminoid matter .

The ratio of nutri

Potash manures cause an increase in tive to non - nutritive nitrogenous matter

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS.

181

varies extraordinarily in different turnips, ond place, and to a much less extent, they affect the quality of both grain and straw , and they materially affect the time of weather and manuring. and under different circumstances of

Forced Turnips of Bad Quality .

Bulbs grown very rapidly, whether from excessof moisture or too liberal applica-

ripening Nitrogenous Manure for Barley .

- The most important constituent of a tion of soluble nitrogenous manure, have manure for the barley crop is nitrogen.

a smaller proportion of their nitrogenous In ordinary circumstances, it is the quan matter in the form of albumen .

tity of nitrogen in the manure or in the

Manures which unduly force the growth

soil which determines the bulk of the

of turnips may increase the quantity of crop. the crop ; but the increase of quantity is

In an ordinary rotation of cropping, in

got at the expenseof quality , and the de- which barley succeeds turnips, the phos terioration of quality is mainly expressed phate and potash required by the crop in the large percentage of water and the are relatively abundant in the soil, and a good crop can be obtained if only some Manures for Rich Crops of Tur- nitrogenous manure is applied in suffi nips. — In order to grow a large and at cient quantity to enable the plant to take

small percentage of albumen in the bulbs.

the same time a healthy and nutritious up its mineral food. crop of turnips, such a systemof manurThe kinds of nitrogenous manure most ing or treatment of the soil, by feeding suitable for barley are those which are

or otherwise, should be practised as will soluble and rapid in their action, such as result in the general enriching and rais- sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda.

ing of the condition of theland, so that Sulphate of ammonia, if applied as a the crop may grow naturally and gradu- top-dressing, and nitrate of soda, if so applied, much later than three weeks

ally to maturity.

For that purpose a larger application after the date of sowing, may increase of slowly acting manures, of which bone- the quantity of the crop both in grain meal may be taken as the type, is much and straw, but the quality of the grain, better suited than smaller applications of as indicated by the weight per bushel, will be lowered, and the timeof ripening the more quickly acting kind.

A certain amount of quickly acting manure is very beneficial to the crop,

will be retarded .

A difference of three weeks in the

especially in its youth ; but the great time of ripening occurred among the bulk of the nourishment which thecrop experimental crops. The earliest were requires should be of the slowly rotting those which were manured with soluble

or dissolving kind, as uniformly distrib- phosphate, and whose nitrogenous man ure wasnitrate of soda applied with the

uted through the soil as possible.

seed .

Manures for the Barley Crop.

The latest were those which re

ceived no nitrogenous manure, an over

The relative importance to the barley dose of it, or too late a top-dressing. crop of the three manurial ingredients Slowly acting nitrogenous manures are may be seen from a comparison of the of no use to the barley crop, unless ap

on the plots manured as plied some months before the time of resultsobtained under for five years : No. of Plot.

Grain per acre.

sowing A deficiency in the amount of nitrog

lb.

22. Potash

12. Phosphate (bone-ash ) . 17. Phosphate and potash 18. Nitrate

21. Nitrate and phosphate

875 1175 1256

1287 1706 1814

11 , Nitrate and potash 13. Nitrate, potash, and phos. phate 2596

enous manure applied to barley not only diminished the total amount of the crop, but it also diminished the percentage of albuminoid matter contained in the

grain.

Barley, top -dressed with nitrate of soda, contained somewhat more albu minoid matter than that which had the

Manures applied to the barley crop nitrate applied with the seed. affect, in the first place, the quantity per The amount of albuminoid matter acre both in grain and straw ; in the sec- varied from 8 %2 to 11 % per cent. The

182

MANURES AND MANURING .

former amount was contained in barley, beans cannot be successfully grown with from whose manure all nitrogenous mat- out dung. But the experimentsat Pum ter was withheld, and the latter from pherston station show that a full crop of barley top -dressed with nitrate. Phosphatic Manures for Barley.-

beans may be

grown with artificial man

ures upon land that has not been dunged

Phosphatic manures are next in order of for ten years. importance for barley. The more speedy The relative importance to the bean

their action the better; therefore super- crop of the three chief constituents of a manure may be seen by comparing the produce of eight plots manuredas follows phosphate. The plots to which soluble phosphates for six years :

phosphate is the most reliable form of

were applied came to maturity ten days

before those with insoluble phosphates. Potash for Barley .-- Potash manures somewhat increased the quantity of grain

Bushels Dressed

No. of Plot.

Kind of Manure. Grain per acre .

27. No manure . 12. Phosphate (bone-ash ) .

212 5%

18. Nitrate

6%

on the station where no dung was ap

21. Phosphate and nitrate'

plied, and they strengthened the straw . But it was noticed that the grain was

573

22. Potash

somewhat darker in colour than that to

which no potash was appplied.

2672 17. Potash and phosphate . 4273 10. Potash, phosphate, and nitrate 4572 38. Potash,gy phosphate, nitrate, and

Manures for Oats.

psum

51

The manures required for oats are The characteristic ingredient of a bean quick -acting manures, to enable the crop manure is potash . to geta good hold of the soil before the

Without potash in the manure, the

nourishment contained in the seed is ex-

other two ingredients are of very little use , unless, indeed, the land be very rich

hausted .

For this purpose superphosphate and in potash. nitrate of soda are peculiarly applicable. Potash salts alone may be a sufficient Sulphate of ammonia, although a sol- manure on land in good condition, and

uble manure,did not come into operation may even produce a fair crop on land in time for the wants of the young plant that is in poor condition. during the dry season of 1885, and the Phosphate, when applied along with crop which received that manure was a potash salts, or when applied to land rich signal failure at both stations. in potash, has a marked effect upon the Potash manures, especially muriate of crop. potash, had a very beneficial effect upon Nitrogenous manures, even when of the oat crop, and considerably increased the most favourable kind, have very little the yield of grain, and in a less degree influence in increasing the bean crop. the amount of straw . Lime, in the form of gypsum (or sul The general conclusions to be drawn phate of lime), has a beneficial effect upon from the experiments with the oat crop thecrop. are, that the treatment of the land should Dissolved phosphate acts far more

be such as to accumulate organic matter powerfully onthebean crop than ordi in it, to prevent too great a lossof mois- nary ground phosphate. ture, and to provide the young plant with Phosphatic guano was more effective

manures that come rapidly into operation . than ground mineral phosphate, presum When the young plant has safely passed ably for the reason that a small propor the critical period of its growthitroots tionof it was in an easily dissolved form. deeply, and lays hold of the moisture

The nitrogenous manures that are most

and nourishment contained in the sub- beneficial to the bean crop are those soil.

whose action is rapid and soon over. In

this respect nitrates are preferable to all

Manures for the Bean Crop. other nitrogenous manures. Nitrogenous manures should either be The usual practice in bean - growing districts is to apply dung to the bean applied in very small quantity, or alto break, and the opinion prevails that gether withheld from the bean crop.

TI

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS. 183 Nitrogenous manures that come into From these figures it is evident that the operation after the crop has made some manurial constituent most required for growth have an injurious effect. Even the production of the crops grown was

sulphate of ammonia is too slow in its nitrogenous matter, in the next place action , and retards the growth of the phosphates, and in the next potash. Potash alone. — The plot to which

crop .

Nitrogenous manures should not be potash salts alone were applied gave applied as a top -dressing to the bean

scarcely as much produce as the un manured plot. Peruvian and other nitrogenous guanos This plot went steadily from bad to

crop..

are among the worst manures for the They contain too much nitrogen and too little potash. The muriate of potash has proved a

of potash was hurtful to most of the

more effective manure than the sulphate.

There was one exceptional year, 1884, when the crop was beans, and then for

bean crop ..

The beneficial effect of gypsum is to be ascribed, not to the sulphuric acid it contains, but to the lime, which, in combination with sulphuric acid , is a soluble manure, and has the power of liberating potash in the soil.

worse, and was latterly the worst on the station, showing that the accumulation crops grown there.

the first time it threw up a crop five

times as abundant as the neighbouring plot, to which no potash had been ap plied. An Experiment for Farmers. — An

The general results of the experiments with different manures on the bean crop inform us that the bases potash and lime are the substances most required by the егор. The acids, phosphoric acid and

experiment of the above kind—in which, along with a completely manured plot, there are arranged side by side a series of plots from which in turn one of the essential ingredients of a complete man

nitric acid, are of secondary importance, ure is withheld—forms a most instruc tive lesson for farmers, and should be and sulphuric acid is of no importance. For land dunged in autumn- or for applied by them to all the fields on land in good condition — it would seem their farm . It serves to show what is

from the experiments at Pumpherston the ingredient in the soil or in the

that the application of superphosphate, manure that is most deficient for the muriate of potash, and sulphate of lime, in equal parts, would be a very appropriate manure for the bean crop . The composition of beans is very uni-

production of a crop, and thus guides the farmer in the selection of the light manures that are most appropriate for his purposes.

form whatever be the nature of the

manures applied.

It is the quantity

of the crop, and not the quality of it,

Manures for different Crops. A review of the manurial requirements

that is affected by the application of of a rotation of crops, consisting of tur nips, barley, beans, and oats, shows that while the three great constituents of a

manures .

Lessons from Incomplete Manure Experiments.

manure — nitrogen, phosphoric acid , and potash — are allrequired in order to raise

The following are the amounts of dry full crops and to maintain the fertility of vegetable matter yielded during eight the soil, the predominance which should years by those plots at Pumpherston be given to one or other of these constit from whose manures one or more of the uents varies with the crop. The pre

three constituents - nitrogen, phosphoric dominant constituent is — for acid, and potash — were withheld : Tons per acre .

Nitrate and potash (no phosphate) 9.78 Nitrate and phosphate (no potash) 8.97 Potash and phosphate (no nitrogen ) 7.65 Nitrate of soda alone Bone -ash alone Potash salts alone Unmanured

.

.

Turnips — Phosphoric acid. Barley and oats — Nitrogen . Beans - Potash .

Relative Importance ofthe Constit

uents. The relative importance of the

8.68

6.50 5.35 5.40

three constituents for these three classes

of crops must be arranged in the follow ing manner :

1 MANURES AND MANURING .

184

Cereals.

Beans .

1. Phosphoric acid , Nitrogen ,

Potash .

Turnips.

account of the large amount of sulphate lime contained manure of in that ; but if

2. Nitrogen ,

Phosphoric acid, Phosphoric sulphate oflime is applied to the crop,

3. ( Potash ),

Potash,

!

(Nitrogen). any other good phosphatic manure may form part of the mixture. The only kind

The constituents enclosed in brackets of nitrogenous manure that is to be re should not be applied to the crops to commended for this crop is a soluble one,

which they refer unless it has been learned and that in small quantity, applied with by experiment or observation that the the seed. land is deficient in them, and that the

Dung for Turnips, Cereals , and

crops are benefited by them, for it may Beans. — When farmyard manure is used happen that they have an injurious in- for the turnip crop, potash salts should stead of a beneficial effect. not be applied to it, and any nitrogenous Regarding the forms in which the threeconstituents should be applied, ref-

manure added should be soluble.

The need which cereal crops have of erence must bemade to the information nitrogen points strongly to the con

given under each heading in theprevious clusion that a part ofthe dung should But it may be shortly noted be withheld from the root crop and applied to the white crop ; and this is Forms of Manures for Turnips.— all the more to be recommended, as it is For turnips the phosphates should be ap- evident that a considerable loss of the plied either in a soluble form or in a state nitrogen of the dung is inevitable when of very fine division-in the case of a heavy dunging is applied to the fallow

pages. that

ground phosphates, they should be at break. If dung is to be used for beans, it least so finely ground as to pass through

a sieve of 120 wires to the linear inch , - should be applied to the stubble, rather or they should be of a kind that rapidly than put in with the seed. rot in the soil (such as bone-meal), and Organic Matter. at the same time so finely ground as to permit of their being rotted in great While it has been stated that on ordi measure during the period of the crop's nary soils the three constituents — phos

growth. The nitrogenous manure should phoric acid, nitrogen, and potash - are be partly of a quick-acting and partly of sufficient to formwhat is known as a a slow -acting kind, so as to be of service complete manure, and that a manure con to the crop during the whole period of its taining two of these substances, or, it may happen, only one of them, is a sufficient

growth.

Forms of Manure for Cereals . — For

manure to apply to certain crops in cer

cereals the nitrogenous manure should be tain circumstances, it is of the utmost

very rapid in its action, so as not to retard the ripening of the crop. If applied as a top -dressing, it should consist of nitrate. The phosphate cannot be too rapid, and on that account superphos-

importance here to observe that, never theless, it must not be supposed that, in the manipulation of these three constit uents, in reference to the crops they are producing, lies the whole question of

phate is to be preferred to any other manuring. Consider Soil as well as Manure form of phosphate. The importance of potash in a cereal and Crop .-- The rapidity with which

manure will depend on whether grass and light manures act upon the crops to which er seeds are sown with the crop. If they are applied has tended to restrict clov that is the case, potash salts take the our view too much to the two factors second place, as the presence of potash manure and crop -- and has caused us to in the manure is of importance for the think less of the soil than our forefathers nourishment of clover. Forms of Manure for Beans. - For

did.

Before the days of light manures

the bean crop , the form of potash salt time comparatively recent — when the that is most suitable is the muriate of wants of a crop for phosphates, nitrates, potash . Superphosphate is preferable to and potash were unknown, farmers fixed other forms of phosphate, probably on their attention upon the soil, and used

11

SEED-TIME.

185

every means to raise its general fertility tility of the land, and the health and —to put it into what is called high “ con- safety of the crop, are concerned in the dition ” —and this they did by the use of accumulation of organic .matter in the

heavy manures containing a large amount soil. of organic matter. Quick - acting Manures and Or. Function of Organic Matter. — It ganic Matter. — However much, there has since been discovered that plants can fore, we may commend the application of

grow to perfection without organic mat- quick -acting light manures - phosphates, ter, but the circumstances in which that nitrates, and potash salts — for the assist

is possible for crops are not those which ance of crops,it is quite evident that their prevail in ordinary farming and in this proper position on most kinds of land is subordinate to that of the heavier manures

climate.

It is to the organic matter in the soil and to the slowly acting manures rich in that are due many of the changes going organic matter, which perform the im on there that are beneficial to the roots portant work of building up the fabric of

of plants. The warmth and moisture of the soil, and accumulating therein a re the soilare increased by the organic mat- serve of fertility which is commonly ter in it, and the acids formed by its known under the name of " condition ,

decay have an important part to play in and which is also called “ backbone " by dissolving the mineral matter, which those who are able to appreciate its im forms the food of plants. It is indeed portance. the key to the treasures of the soil. But in theordinary operations of agriculture

Numerous other experiments of im

—in the constantdisturbing and working portance have been conducted through of the ground - organic matter is rapidly out the country, both by societies and destroyed, so that if farmyard manure individuals, all of which have contrib and organic composts or other substances uted to the fund of knowledge relating

rich in organic matter are not put into to the great subject ofmanuring. The land under cultivation, or fed on it, it Royal Agricultural Society of England, soon becomes unduly deprived of organic and the Bath and West of England, have

matter. And the soil is thus deteriorated been, and still are, specially prominent as a medium for the growth of roots and in this good work . In different sections for the retention of moisture, and as a of The Book of the Farm , notably in store of fertility gradually becoming avail- those relating to foods, and to the feed able for the nourishment of crops.

ing of stock, reference has been made to

During very dry or cold seasons, and the Woburn feeding experiments of the

even during very wet ones, the want of former society ; and the manuring experi organic matter in the soil is

source of ments there, although not as yet

con

danger to the crop. The fate of many clusive as could be desired upon the

plots at the stations during the recent main points under special investigation, drought showed how intimately the fer- are likewise interesting and important.

SEED - TIME. Seasonable Working of Land. The “ seed -time” is a season of con tinual stir and bustle on the farm . The Field -work will now be pushed on with

prognostics and variations of the weather all possible speed. Yet there are more are watched with the keenest interest

points to be considered than the mere and anxiety, for not only the progress of progress of the work. In particular, the spring work, but also the returns of care must be exercised as to the condition

the harvest are greatly influenced by the in which the different kinds of soils are character of the weather during the seed tilled and prepared for the crops. To time.

stir stiff clay when it is soaked with wet

SEED-TIME.

186

would be ruinous. Better delay a little gress of modern agriculture, has been

than commit the seed to a cold, unkindly, greater by far than is generally recog ill-prepared seed -bed. Better let the men and horses stand idle for a few days than run the risk of destroying the year's produce by working the land in an unseason-

nised.

It has, of course, been a matter

of business, not of philanthropy with them ; all the same, it is right to ac knowledge the great power which the

able condition. On the other hand, when development of the seed trade has ex the weather is favourable, and the land in ercised in the advancement of agriculture. good condition for tillage operations, let An Extensive Seed Firm . — The fact all hands do their very best, so that full that the work which the leading “ special

advantage may be taken of every favour- ist " seedsmen have been engaged in is of able spell of weather. Selecting Seeds.

advantage to the farmer, is indicated by

the vast proportions which the business of a few of these firms has attained .

Farmers cannot be too careful in the The business premises occupied by Messrs selection of seeds.

It matters not what

Sutton & Sons, Reading, cover no less

the crop may be, the best possible seed than six acres of ground. This firm , should be secured. To ensure thoroughly established in 1806, is now the largest reliable seeds of a high character, an of its kind in the world. At its experi

extra outlay of a few shillings per acre mental grounds at Reading thousands of shillings may add pounds to the value of made every year, and anything of special the crop

may be entailed, but then these fero trials with farm and garden seeds are .

promise is chosen for stock, and is in due

Improvement in Seeds. In this time, when by further culture the “ type ”

matter of seeds, the farmers of the pres- becomes sufficiently fixed , propagated ent day are well situated compared with extensively for sale. In this way, by The their brethren in former times. development of the Seed industry is indeed one of the most notable - one of the most beneficial - features in the progress of modern agriculture. The improvement of the animals of the farm has been accomplished on the farms by the stock -owners themselves. Equally important and equally great in its way has

this and other firms, many valuable varie ties of grain, roots, vegetables, and other plants have been placed in the hands of the farmer. During the busy seed sea son , from January 1 till end of April, the number of letters reaching Messrs Sutton & Sons' establishment average from 1200 to 1600 per day ; while the letters despatched range from 1800 to

been the improvement of the plants of 2000 daily.

From 700 to 800 seed

the farm . And this latter work has been orders have to be executed every day in carried out in the most thorough and the height of the season . The accounts

energetic manner by a number of exten- opened to customers approach 70,000 in sive and influential seed firms, who have number, and it is curious to note that for many years devoted great attention amongst these are no fewer than 800 not only to the improvement of the old with the name of Smith ! varieties of the farm crops, but also to With the excellent facilities that are the propagation and development of new thus provided by the leading seed firms

varieties of increased producing power. for procuring high -class seeds of proved There are many eminent firms who have in this way rendered good services to the country. Amongst the names most prominently associated with this great work

purity and germination, farmers now run little risk of loss by weak or im

pure seed. They should in all cases see that they obtain seeds which have been

of plant improvement are those of Sut- tested for their vitality, and which are ton, Carter, Webb, Drummond, and Dick- well cleaned and true to their kind. son ; but there are several other firms These remarks apply equally to all kinds which have also been active in similar of seeds; and once again we would re well-doing mind the farmer that a few shillings for

The part which these enterprising first-class seed may add pounds to the firms, who give us the improved, selected, value of the produce. and tested seeds, have played in the proSowing is sometimes delayed by dila

SEED-TIME.

187

toriness on the part of the farmer in try the change on a small scale in the providing the necessary supplies of seeds.

first year, and if the results are satisfac

Have these on the farm before they are tory , use the variety more extensively in required, so that they may be at hand subsequent years. Farmers should be when a suitable time arrives for sowing.

experimenting in this way very fre

Change of Seed . — It is well known quently, for by introducing fresh va amongst practical farmers that great ad- rieties well suited to their land, the vantage may be derived by judicious produce of their crops may be substan change of seed. As a rule with roots, tially increased . A change of seed from fresh seed is introduced every year, for a clayey to a light loamy or sandy soil

it is only in exceptional caseswherethe is generally beneficial. farmer grows his own turnip-seed. With

New Varieties of Farm Plants.

grain, however, the rule is reversed. The Farmers also derive much benefit by home-grown seed is used for the most taking advantage of the many new and part ; but it has been clearly shown that improved varieties of grain and roots

by an occasional change fromone climate, which are brought out by experimenting one soil, and one system of farming to seedsmen.

Our leading seedsmen are

another, the vitalityand producing power continually engaged in propagating fresh of a particular kind or " stock o " f grain and improved varieties of farm crops, are substantially increased . When one more particularly of grain, mangels, considers the artificial influences by which swedes, turnips, and potatoes, and by our improved varieties of grain have been availing themselves of these new and brought to their highly developed con- vigorous sorts of proved excellence, dition, one cannot be in the least sur- farmers may to a marked extent en prised that such changes of scene and hance their produce. surroundings should often exercise a beneficial effect upon the crop.

At the same time, it is well to say that caution should be exercised in in

But all changes are not successful. troducing new varieties. Let them be Neither are the conditions essential to tried on a small scale at the outset, and success very fully known. In almost adopted extensively only after their suit

every change of seed, as in every change ability and high qualities have been un

of asire, there is something of the nature mistakably established. of an experiment. As a rule, a change Testing Seed . - Farmers should care of seed from an early to a late districtis fully avoid using weak or unreliable seed. followed by a marked benefit, notablyin Seeds of all kinds may now be procured

the earlier ripening of the crop, but also pure, and of certain germination. This to some extent in the quantity and should always be insisted upon , and quality of the produce. The influence farmers should themselves test the seeds on the date of the harvest is most

when they take them home.

Even

marked. For instance, by the habitual home-grown seed, however well it may introduction of seed -oats from the south

look, should never be sown without

of Scotland every second or third year, having been first carefully tested . This the ripening of the crop on certain farms may be done very easily with grain or in the later districtsof the north -east has grass seeds, by placing say a hundred

been hastened by from six to ten days ; seeds between two foldsof damp blotting and practical farmers acquainted with a paper laid on a meat or soup plate, with late climate know that acceleration to another similar plate placed face down that extent in harvest is a very import- wards over that plate. No artificial heat ant advantage — perhaps all the differ- need be used , and the plates may sit on ence between a crop secured and a crop an open shelf in the farmer's parlour. partially lost. The weight of the grain The blotting- paper should be damped will also most likely be increased 2, 3, or every day by sprinkling a little water on

more pounds per bushel. Then in taking it by the hand. The object of having seed from a late to an early district there the two plates placed face to face is to

may sometimes be an advantage — notably cause a current of air to pass over the an increase in the bulk of the produce.

seeds.

In this way cereal seeds will

A good plan in changing seed is to germinate in about a week, and grass

SEED - TIME.

188

An efficient

Date of Sowing . - In former times,

testing apparatus may be purchased at

even under the most favourable circum

a moderate cost. Grain -seeds are often tested under a

stances, wheat was seldom sown after the

seeds in about three weeks.

first week of March, but later varieties

very thin damp turf in a well - exposed have been introduced which may be sown spot in the farmer's garden , We have as late as April On farms possessing the advantages of also seen it done on damp turfs, placed

on the rafters over the heads of cattle, where, of course, the temperature is considerably higher than outside early in spring, when testing is usually carried out.

favourable soil and climate, and on which it is customary to sow spring wheat every year, the root-land is usually ploughed with that view up to the beginning of March ; and even where spring wheat is

Clover, turnip, or any other legumin- sown only when a favourable field comes ous seeds may be tested in a more simple in the course of rotation , or the weather and expeditious manner. Count out say proves tempting, the land should still be 100 seeds, roll them into a piece of so ploughed that advantage may be taken

flannel, and dip into boiling water for to sow wheat. Should the weather take four or five minutes, and on opening an unfavourable turn after the ploughing, the piece of flannel all the reliable seeds the soil can afterwards be easily worked

will be found much swollen, and actually germinated, with the elementary root shooting out. The seeds which do not present this swollen appearance cannot safely be reckoned upon , and the quantity of seed to be given per acre should be

for barley. Tillage for Wheat. - The land should

receive only one furrow — the seed -furrow —for spring wheat, because if ploughed oftener, it would be deprived of that firmness so essential to the growth of regulated by the percentage of the re- wheat. The mode of ploughing this liable germinating seeds.

seed -furrow depends upon circumstances. a visible form of ridge,

If the land

and easily becomes wet, it should be gathered up ( fig. 34, p. 110, vol. i), and then it will have the appearance of being A large extent of wheat is sown in twice gathered up, as in fig. 40, p. 115, spring after a crop of roots of one kind vol. i. If the land is flat, and the sub SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

or another.

Good Land for Wheat. - To ensure

soil somewhat moist, gathering up from the flat will answer best, as in fig. 34.

a good crop of spring wheat, the land If the soil has a dry subsoil, though of

should be for some time in good heart, itself a pretty strong clay, it may be

otherwise the attempt will inevitably end cast with gore-furrows (figs. 36 and 37). in disappointment.

Wheat cannot be And should the land be fine loam , rest

sown in spring in every weather and ing on an open bottom , the ridges may upon every soil. Unless the soil has a be cast together without

gore- furrows, as

certain degree of firmness from clay, it is in fig. 36. not well adapted for the growth of wheat It is probable

that a whole field may

-it is more profitable to sow barley upon not be obtained at once to be ploughed,

it ; and unless theweather is dry, to allow and this often happens for spring wheat; strong soil to be ploughed in early spring, but when it is determined to sow wheat, it is also more profitable to defer wheat, a few ridges should be ploughed as con and sow barley in the proper season. venience offers, and then a number of

The climate of a place affectsthe sowing acres may be sown at one time. In this of wheat in spring; and it seems a curi- way a large field may be sown by de ous problem in climate why

wheat sown grees, whereas to wait till a whole field in autumn should ripen satisfactorily at a can be sown at once, may prevent the place where spring wheat will not. Ex- sowing of spring wheat that season. Bad

perience makes the northern farmers weather may set in, prevent sowing, and chary of sowing wheat in spring, unless consolidate the land too much after it had the soil is in excellent condition, and the been ploughed ; still a favourable week weather very favourable for the purpose. may come, and, even at the latter end of

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

189

the season, the consolidated land can be form is represented in fig. 255 (made by ribbed with the small plough, which will Fowler & Co. on Pirie's Patent), and

move as much of the soil sufficiently as another in fig. 256, made by J. Cooke & Sons, Lincoln . to bury the seed. Double - furrow Plough . — To exAdvantages of the Double -furrow

pedite the ploughing of the seed -furrow Plough . — The double -furrow plough is at a favourable moment, the double-fur- usually worked with 3 horses, and as to

row plough is used by some, though not the question whether it effects a saving so largely now as a few years ago.

One of draught as compared with two single

h

Fig. 255.- Fowler's double-furrow plough with single lever. a to Frame of wrought-iron flat bar. e Hind plough, movable, with like i Handle and screw -rod . a to c Frame of angleiron. d Front plough fixed , with mould . board, coulter, and share.

mounting. fg Inclined wheels with angular rims. h Vertical wheel with angular rim .

k Lever for adjusting wheel g. b c Cross or front baracting as the bridle.

furrow.ploughs, there has been much dis- furrow plough saves

I

man

and

1

cussion . Experiments with the dynam- horse. Turning over 2 furrows, and pre ometer have shown that there is little suming the plough to be drawn by 3

saving in this respect, and that the 3 horses have to exert about as much force as 4 horses, with 2 common ploughs doing the same amount of work,with a slight difference in favour of the double-furrow plough. In a trial with the double -fur-

horses (it is too fatiguing for 2 horses), it undoubtedly saves I horse and its keep, but it does not save a man . Two double ploughs might, indeed, be man aged by6 horsesand 2 men, and thus a saving be effected of i man and 2 horses —that is, if farmers can get plough men to undertake the grooming of 3 horses. Most of them think they

have enough to do with 2 horses, and it can hardly be expected that they will add a third to their labours Fig . 256. — Cooke's double -furrow plough.

without something like a correspond ing addition to theirwages. At the best, therefore, it will be seen that

row plough and others in 1870, the common plough, with a furrow of from 672 to 772 inches deep, gave a draught from 4 to 5 cwt.; while 9 double-furrow ploughs, with an average depth of furrow of 572

the new ploughs can save only i man out of 3, and of horses 2 out of 8, in turn ing over 4 furrows. But men at certain seasons of the year are needed on the

farm for other work than ploughing, and

inches, gave an average draught of 7 cwt. it is perhaps doubtful whetherthedouble In regard to saving either men or ploughs will effect more than the saving horses in employing the double-furrow of horses. This alone is a great matter . " I plough, a writer says : “ It is a mistake to suppose, as many do, that the double 1 The Farmer, January 26, 1870.

190

SEED - TIME.

In recent years double-furrow ploughs pickling the seed prevents the smut in have been losing favour in many parts of the crop, is a question more easily asked the country where they obtaineda footing. The modern Anglo -American plough is now preferred by many for speedy ploughing. Still, in some circumstances,

than answered; and it is, perhaps, from the want of a satisfactory answer that pickling is disregarded by incredulous farmers. Objection against the practice

the double - furrow plough may be em- is as difficult to be stated as any reason for it, but the palpable fact stands un ployed with advantage. Several improvements have lately been contradicted, that one field sown with

effected in the double - furrow ploughs, pickled wheat, andotherwise managed and now they are, as a rule, lighter in in the usual way, will most likely escape draught, and more easily manipulated the smut ; while the adjoining field ,man than in former times. aged in exactly the same way, but sown Sowing. — The land, having been with wheat without pickle, will most ploughed, should be sown at once. To likely be affected more or less with the economise time, the seed -wheat should disease. have been measured up in the sacks, or Various methods and materials for

ready to be measured up in the corn- pickling are employed . A solution of blue

barn or granary, and, if pickling is to be vitriol is now most generally used, and done, the means of doing it provided.

the process, as described in former edi

Quantity of Seed . — Wheat should be

tions of this work, is seen in fig. 257.

sown thick in spring, as there is no time for the plant to stool or tiller —that is, to throw up a number of young shoots from one root, as is the case with autumnal-sown wheat.

About 3 bushels per imperial acre will

CS

suffice of seed for spring wheat, but many farmers Sow a little more.

1222

There is always a controversy about thick and thin sowing. Since spring wheat does not tiller, it stands to reason that it should be sown thick

9

and buried regularly under the sur

face, which is most efficiently done by a drill-machine. Pickling Wheat. — There is much

to be said in favour of the pickling of seed -wheat — that is, subjecting it to a preparation in a certain kind of

liquor — before it is sown, in order

Apparatus for pickling wheat. Fig. 257.a Sackful of wheat. 6 Basket to receive the wheat from the sack .

c Tub of pickle. d Basket of pickled wheat. e Drainer for basket.

f Tub to receive draining of pickle from the basket.

g Heap of pickled wheat.

i Sacks for the pickled wheat.

to ensure it against the attack of a

fungoid disease in the ensuing sum- The pickling may be done on a part of mer, called smut, which renders the grain comparatively worthless. Some farmers affect to despise this precaution, as originating in an unfounded reliance on an imaginary specific. But the existence of smut, and its baneful

the corn-barn floor. Two upright bas kets are provided, each capable of hold ing easily about half a bushel of wheat, having upright handles above the rims. Pour the wheat into one basket from the sack , and dip the basketful of wheat

effect upon the wheat crop, are no im- into the tub of vitriol completely to cover

aginary evils ; and when experience has the wheat, the upright handles protect proved, in numberless instances, that ing the hands from the vitriol. After steeped seed protects the crop from this it remains in the liquid for a few seconds,

serious disease, the small trouble and lift up the basket, so asto let the surplus expense which pickling imposes may liquid run from it into the tub again,

the basket upon the surely be incurred, even although it and then place How drainer on the empty tub, to drip still

should fail to secure the crop .

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

191

more liquid, until the other basket is special preparations are Down’s “ Far filled with wheat and dipped in the mers' Friend ” and Clarke's and King's vitriol tub. Then empty the dripped basket of its wheat on the floor, and as

specifics. Placing Sacks in the Field .

There

every basketful is emptied, let a person is some art in setting down sacks of seed spread, by riddling it through a wheat- corn on the field. The plan of placing

riddle, a little slaked caustic lime upon the wet wheat to dry it. Thus all the wheat wanted at the time is pickled and emptied on the floor in a heap. Turning Pickled Wheat. — The pickled and limed heap of wheat is turned

the sacks of course depends on whether the seed is to be sown by the hand or by a machine. The sacks are set down across the field from the side at which the sowing commences. One row of sacks is sufficient, when the ridges are

over and mixed in this way : Let two just long enough for the sower to carry men be each provided with a square- as much seed as will bring him back

mouthed shovel ( fig. 114, p. 234, vol. i. ), one on each side of the heap, one having the helve of his shovel in his right hand, and the other in his left ; and let both make their shovels meet upon the floor,

again to the sack, and the sacks are then set in the centre of the ridge. When the ridges are short, the sacks are set upon a head -ridge ; and when of such length as the sower cannot return to the

under one end of the heap of wheat,

sack by a considerable distance, two rows

turning each shovelful from the heap behind them , till the other end of the heap is reached. Let them return in a similar manner in the opposite direction, and continue, until the wheat is thoroughly mixed and dried with the lime. The pickled wheat is then sacked up, and

of sacks are set, dividing the length of the ridges equally between them , setting the two sacks on the same ridge. The sacks are placed upon the furrow -brow of the ridge, that the hollow of the open furrow may give advantage to the carrier of the seed to take it out easily as the sack

carried to the field in carts,

becomes empty. In thus setting down

Seed - dressing to Ward off Birds. the sacks of seed, it is intended to give -A Surrey farmer says : “ We are much the supply of seed more easily to the troubled with crows and other birds eat- man who sows the seed by hand. When a machine is employed to sow ing the seed of wheat and other grain, but wheat more especially. The crows the seed, the sacks are set upon one of

do most damage justwhen the plant begins to come through the soil. I have tried various dressings for the seed, but found the following by far the most

the head -ridges connected with the gate of the field , unless the field is so long that a row of sacks must be placed in the middle.

effectual in warding off the crows : For

Where to begin Sowing . - If the

one quarter of wheat take a two-gallon surface is level, itmatters notwhich side pail, into which put quarter full of fresh of the field is chosen for commencing the lime, mixing and stirring with hot water, sowing ; but if inclined , the side which

just enoughwater to get it into a thick lies to the left on looking down the in paste ; then put in one pint of tar; stir all cline should be the starting point. The up together, and fill up the pail with reason for this preference is, that the first water, and keep stirring. Pour this over stroke of the harrows along the ridge is

the heap of seed, and keep stirring till most difficult for the horses to draw ; and all the seed is equally stained with the it is easiest for them to give the first mixture. This is also effectual for bar- stroke downhill. This first action of the ley, but no use for oats, as the birds can harrows is called breaking-in the land. pick out the kernel.” 1 It is the same to the sower at which side

There are several most useful prepara- he commences the sowing, but ease of tions for pickling wheat, not only for work for the horses ought to be studied. preventingsmut, but also for preventing Seed Carrier . - In Scotland the car insects and crows and other birds from rier of the seed is usually a woman, eating the seed . 1

Chief among these and the instant the first sack of seed is set down, she unties and rolls down its

Parming World, p. 471.

1887.

mouth, and fills the rusky, basket, pail,

SEED - TIME.

192

or whatever she uses in conveying the upon the ground where they are emptied, seed, and carries it to the sower, who to be flung aside as the harrows come to awaits her on the head -ridge from which he makes his start.

Her endeavour

them .

One - hand Sowing.

In former times

should be to supply him with such a the sower by hand in Scotland was habit quantity of seed at a time as will bring ed in a peculiar manner. He sowed by him in a line with the sack where he

one hand only, and had a sowing-sheet

gets a fresh supply ; and as the sacks wound round him , as shown in fig. 258.

are placed half - way down the ridges The most convenient sheet is of linen. when only one row is set down, this is It is made to have an opening large easily managed ; but with two rows of enough to admit the head and right arm sacks, she must go from row to row and of the sower through it, and a portion of supply the sower ,it being her special

duty to attend to his wants, and not to consider her own convenience.

Nothing can be more annoying to a sower than to have his sheet or

sowing-basket served too full at one time, and too stinted at another ; as also to lose time in waiting the

arrival of the seed -carrier, whereas she should be awaiting his arrival. When two rows are at a consider

able distance, on long ridges, two carriers are required to serve one sower .

Better that the carriers

have less to do than that the sower

lose time and delay the harrows, which will likely occur when the carriers are overtaxed . Seed -basket. — The basket or ves

sel in which the carrier conveys the seed is of various patterns— a deep or shallow basket, or ordinary pail, sometimes carried on the head, and in other cases in the hand or on the arm and haunches. The seed is

Fig. 258. – Sowing-sheet and hand -sowing corn .

most easily poured into the sowing

basket from the seed -basket on thehead. the sheet to rest upon his left shoulder. It should be filled each time with just On distending the mouth of the doubled the quantity of seed the sower requires part with both hands, and receiving the at a time.

seed into it, the loose part of the sheet

The Seed -sacks. — The mouth of the is wound tight over the left hand, by sack should be kept rolled down, that which it is firmly held, while the load

the seed may be quickly taken out, for of corn is supported by the part of the little time is usually at the disposal of sheet which crosses the breast and passes the carrier. The carrier should be very under the right arm behind the back to careful not to spill any seed upon the the left shoulder. A basket of wicker

ground on taking it out of the sack , work, such as fig. 259, was very common otherwise a thick tuft of corn will un- in England for sowing with one hand.

profitably grow upon the spot. As one sack becomes empty, the carrier should take it to the nearest sack ; and as the sacks accumulate, they should be put into one, and carried forward out of the

It was suspended by a girth fastened to two loops on the rim of the basket, and passing round the back of the neck ; the left hand holding the basket steady by the wooden stud on the other side of the

way of the harrows.

rim.

It is a careless

habit which permits the sacks to lie

Two-hand Sowing.But the system

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

193

of sowing with both hands is now more the form of a figure corresponding to the general than one-hand sowing. It should sweep made by the hand. The forward indeed be the universal method wherever motion of the hand is accompanied by a

hand -sowing is pursued. It is the most corresponding forward advance of the expeditious; and many people consider right foot, which is planted on the that the sowing can be done more evenly ground the moment the hand casts for with two hands than with one.

ward the bulk of the seed .

For two-hand sowing a simple form of

The action is well represented in fig.

sowing -sheet is a linen semi-spheroidal 258, except that some would consider the sower should give his hand a higher

sweep, especially on a calm day. The curve which the seed describes on fall ing upon the ground, is like the area

of a portion of a very eccentric el lipse, one angle resting on the open furrow , and the other stretching 2 or 3 feet beyond the crown of the ridge,

the broadest part of the area being on the left hand of the sower . The moment the seed leaves it the

hand is brought back to the sowing sheet to be replenished, while the left foot is advanced and the right hand is stretched back for a fresh cast, and

Fig. 259. - English sowing -basket.

thrown forward again with the ad bag, attached to a hoop of wood or of vance of the right foot. The seed ought to be cast equally over iron rod, formed to fit the sower's body, buckled round it, and suspended in front the ground. If the hand and one foot in the manner just described. Both alternately do not move simultaneously, hands are thus at liberty to cast the the ground will not be equally covered, seed, one handful after the other. and a strip left between the casts. When

Art of Sowing . — The following de- the braird — that is, the young plants tailed description of the art of sowing comes up, these strips show themselves. by one hand is also so far applicable to This error is most apt to be committed

sowing by both hands. Taking as much by a sower with a stiff elbow, who casts seed as he can grasp in his right hand, the grain too high above the ground. the sower stretches his arm out and a

The arm should be thrown well back

little back with the clenched fingers and stretched out, though, in continuing looking forward, and the left foot making the action, with the turning up the back an advance of a moderate step.

When

of the hand, the inside of the elbow

the arm has attained its most backward joint becomes pained. position, the seed is begun to be cast, If the hand is opened too soon , too with a quick and forcible thrust of the much of the seed falls upon the furrow

hand forward. At the first instant of brow , and the crown receives less than the forward motion the fore-finger and its proportion. This fault young sowers thumb are a little relaxed, by which some are very apt to commit, from the appre of the seeds drop upon the furrow -brow hension that they may retain the seed and in the open furrow ; and while still too long in the hand. If the hand is

further relaxing the fingers gradually, brought too high in front, the seed isapt the back of the hand is turned upwards to be caught by the wind and carried in until the arm becomes stretched before

a different direction from that intended.

When the wind becomes strong, the the sower, by which time the fingers are all thrown open, with the back of the sower is obliged to walk on the adjoining spread hand uppermost. The motion of

ridge to the windward to sow the one he

the arm being always in full swing, the wishes; and the sower should cast low in grain, as it leaves the hand, receivessuch windy weather. Some sowers take long steps, and make an impetus as to be projected forward in VOL .

II.

N

SEED - TIME.

194

long casts, causing some of the seed to well, but is so constructed that its long reach across the ridge from furrow to sowing -chest is divided into sections, the furrow . Such a sower spills the seed be- two end ones of which can be folded upon hind the hand, and makes bad work

in wind. The step should be short, the casts frequent, and the seed held firmly in the hand, then the whole work is under complete com mand.

The sower should never

bustle and try to hurry through his work ; he should commence with such a steady pace as to maintain it during the day's work . A sower with both hands makes

the casts alternate, the hand and

foot of the same side moving simul-

Fig . 260. - Broadcast sower ready for work .

taneously with regularity and grace.

Sowing - machines. – Hand - sowing the central division , whereby the machine has been to a large extent superseded by may pass through any field -gate without sowing-machines. These do the work having to remove the sowing-chest. better than it can possibly be done by By the use of the drill-machine less hand, and their use is therefore to be commended. Of seed -sow

ing machines there are many pat terns, some dropping the seed in

drills, others scattering it broad cast. A material difference exists between these two classes of ma chines. The broadcast machine

deposits the seed upon the sur face of the ground, and is in fact a direct substitute for hand-sow

Fig . 261. - Broadcast sower in transit

ing ; and as it deposits the seed

very regularly, this machine is now ex- seed will thus suffice, and another advan tensively used. tage is that the land between the rows may

The drill-machine deposits the seed at be hoed by the hand-hoe,orby a horse once at a specific depth under ground in hoe, such as in fig. 262 (Kells, Meats, &

rows, and at such distances between the

Co., Gloucester), thus tending to clean

rows, and with such thickness in the rows, as the will of the farmer may decide.

theland. Drilling is rightlyenough in

The seed being left by the broadcast machine on the ground like hand -sowing, is buried in the soil more or less deeply as the harrows may chance to take it ; whereas the drill-machine deposits the

seed in the soil at any depth the farmer chooses, and all the seed at the same

depth, thereby giving him such a com mand over the position of the seed in the soil as no broadcast machine or hand

sowing can possibly do. Broadcast Sowers. There are various

Fig. 262. - Horse hoe.

forms of the broadcast sowing-machine. The one illustrated in figs. 260 and 261, favour for good land in good heart, but made by Ben. Reid & Co. , Aberdeen, on poor or medium land it does not give exhibits the machine in the most perfect so much straw as broadcast sowing. The

form , not only doing the work easily and sowing-gear of the broadcast machine is

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

195

connected with the main axle of the car- easy of attainment. To ensure an even

riage, as shown in the figure. The arrangements for regulating the quantity of seed per acre are very simple and effective, and altogether the machine

braird, the machine should be carried in a level position. It sows all kinds of grain admirably, and is equally well adapted for sowing dry artificial manure.

is very easily worked and con trolled . About 18 feet is the usual

width sown at once by the machine. Hand Broadcast Sowers.

Fig. 263 represents a very ingeni ous and most useful hand broadcast sower, the “Little Wonder," of American invention, and brought to this country by Mr J. H. New

C

ton, West Derby, Liverpoool. The illustration pretty well ex

plains its appearance and action.

Fig. 264. - Corn and seed drill.

A light box of thin wood is carried under the left arm with a The quantity to be sown per acre is reg strap over the shoulder. To the top ulated by a little slide. part of this is attached a canvas reStrawson's ingenious air distributor ceptacle for the seed, while on front may also be adapted for sowing grain broadcast.

Drill terns of reliable efficient

Sowers. — There are many pat these, and they are now very in working. Ingenious and devices are employed for regu

lating the quantity of seed per acre, the width of the drills, and the depth to which the seeds are deposited . Fig. 264 represents the improved Suffolk corn and seed drill made by R. Garrett & Sons, Suffolk .

The “ Excelsior ” drill-sowing machine

( The Chadburn ManufacturingCompany ), Fig . 263.- Broadcast hand - sower

and below is fixed a little tinned iron

wheel, or rather four crossed pieces re-

represented in fig. 265, is a most ingeni ous American invention, designed to sow almost all kinds of farm seeds, as well as manure .

Width of Drill . — The width between

volving on a spindle. Round this spindle the rows of wheat varies somewhat.

is passed a thong which forms the string of a bow ,and by see -saw ing " this bow the wheel revolves 66

in alternate directions.

An eccen

tric on the spindle moves a little hopper which keeps a regular stream of seed falling on to the revolv ing “ wheel," and this in its turn

sends the grain spinning out all It will cover a width of about 30 feet, but some have found round .

it best in practice to go up the centre of one rig and down another, thus taking 14 or 16 feet at a time. It is

Fig. 265.- " E.rcelsior " seed drill.

thus possible, if kept supplied with seed, On good land in high condition, 9 to do four acres per hour, while three is

inches is a common width, but many

SEED-TIME.

196

consider that rather too great for ordi- uncertain, while its construction is of the nary land. simplest order. So simple indeed is this Hand Seed - drill.— There are small construction, that at a very remote period hand seed -drills both for grain and root it appears to have taken that form which, crops. Fig. 266 in so far as the simple principles of its represents R. action are concerned,is almost incapable Boby's very use- of further improvement. ful drill of this Iron Harrows. — Fig. 267 represents pattern . Howard's set of iron harrows for a pair Harrowing . - The Fig. 266. — Hand seed - drill.

land,

whether sown by hand or with any sort of ma

chine, must be harrowed. The order in time of using the harrows differs with the

sort of machine used for sowing the grain . When the grain is sown by hand or with

the broadcast machine, theharrow is used chiefly after the grain has been sown, although many consider it desirable to

수

“ break in ” the surface by a single or double turn of the harrows before sow

ing. But in sowing with drill-machines, the harrow is first used to put the

Fig. 267. - English iron harrows.

land into the proper tilth for the ma- of horses. Sellar's harrows, suited for heavy land, are shown in fig. 268.

chine.

Considering the operation the harrov Wooden harrows, once so common, are Iron harrows are now out of

has to perform in covering the seeds that

have been cast upon the soil, and reducing the surface-soil to a fine tilth, it is an implement of no small importance ; and yet its effects are apparently rude and

date.

made of many patterns. Most of them are wonderfully durable, light in draught, and very effective in reducing the soil to a fine condition . They are made

Fig. 268. - Scotch iron harrows.

heavy or light, according to the work the ridge whichever is nearest the open intended to be done.

In some the field . Each pair of harrows should be

teeth or tines are held in by screw and provided with double reins, one rein from nut, and in others by being driven each horse ; and the ploughmen should through holes of the required size. Process of Harrowing. — Two pairs of harrows work best together, their united breadth covering the entire ridge, and lapping over the crown where the soil is thickest. One pair takes the lead,

be made to walk and drive their horses

with the reins from behind the harrows. If a strict injunction is not laid upon them in this respect, the two men may be found walking together, the leading one behind the harrows, the other at the

by going usually on the near side of the head of his horses.

The latter is thus

ridge, while the other pair follows on the unable to know whether his harrows off side, but the leader takes the side of cover the ground which they ought to

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

cover, and the two are more engrossed in talk than in the work in hand.

197

Suppose the harrowing had begun at the top of the declivity, the breaking-in

To draw harrows as they should be commences at once on going down-hill ;

drawn, is really not so light work for horses as it seems to be. When the tines are newly sharpened and long, and take a deep hold of the ground, the labour is considerable. To harrow the ground well—that is, to stir the soil so as to allow the seed to descend into it, and bring to the surface and pulverise all the larger clods, as in the case of broadcast sowing - requires the horses to go at a smart pace ; and for efficient working harrows should on all occasions be driven with a quick motion.

and to preserve the propriety of giving the double tines in opposite directions, the harrows come up the same ridge and finish it, the double tine up-hill being easy because of the ground having been passed over by the harrowing down hill ; and so on with every succeeding ridge. Ăs there is little room for two pair of

harrows to turn at the end of one and the same ridge, the leading harrows are driven forward upon the head -ridge, and the horses are hied so as to movo round

When the seed is sown by a drill- upon the far side of the head -ridge, and machine, it is deposited at a given depth; still hied round , they take up their place and in order that the harrows shall not

disturb its position , the land is harrowed fine before the seed is sown, a single tine—that is, one turn of the harrows - along the drills covering the

on the same side of the ridge they had come down ; while the hind harrows are

hupped so far on the head -ridge as to turn on its far side, and then hieing, take up their position on the same side of the

seed sufficiently.

ridge they had come down, in rear of the - In har- leading harrows. rowing after the broadcast seed, one But where four pairs of horses are at Harrowing

on Incline .

must be guided by the circumstances of work — and four pairs are required to the case . If the harrowing commences cover in and finish as fast as the broad at the foot of the incline, and with two cast sower deposits the seed—this plan pairs of horses, the following plan is would be apt to lead to confusion . If adopted by some. The ridge next the the field ascends from the gate, each pair fence should be ascended by the 2 pairs of of harrows may go up a separate open

harrows ; and on gaining the top of the furrow, as these require more harrowing incline, the second ridge is descended, to than the other portions; and when the break -in its seed ; and hieing — that is, top of thefield is reached, all the pairs turning them round to the left—both godown the side of the field where the the pairs of horses at the foot, the first

sower has commenced.

At the bottom,

ridge is again ascended, which finishes the first pair of harrows pass along the its double tine ; and though both tines head -ridge to the left in front of the

(or stripes or courses of the harrow ) have second pair, which pass to the right, the been given on it in the same direction, one pair going up the land upon which the anomaly is submitted to in order to

the other came down.

The third and

gain a favourable position for the horses fourth pairs do likewise, and in this way to break -in the seed, which is from the confusion in turning is avoided. top of an incline where there is an inThe entire movements are easily and

cline. Hieing the horses again on the quickly managed with double reins ; but upper head - ridge, the third ridge is with a single rein , even with the voice, broke-in down-hill; and hieing again on this mode of turning at the end of a the lower head -ridge, the second ridge ridge is apt to create confusion.. is ascended, and is thus finished in its

If the incline is begun to be sown at

double tine- given in opposite directions. the opposite side of the field, the same Thus by hieing both pairs of harrows arrangements as have just been described

at both ends, one ridge is broke-in on for easy breaking-in of the seed for the going down, and another receives the horses, whether from foot or top of the

double tine on coming up the incline, incline, should be followed ; but in fol which affords an easymode of working lowing them here the horses should be the horses.

hupped -turned to the right - instead of

198

SEED -TIME.

hied , because the open side of the field is ciently fine and uniform , the harrowing on a different hand.

should cease, although the appointed When the field is level, it matters not number of double or single tines have from which side the breaking-in com- not been given ; for it is a fact, espe

cially in light , soft soils, that over Cross - harrowing. — After the ap- harrowing brings part of the seed up

mences.

pointed piece of ground, whether a again to the surface. whole field or part, has been sown and Water - furrows.--When the spring broken -in, the land is cross -harrowed a wheat was sown early in the season , in

double tine — that is, at right angles to January or near the end of February,

the former harrowing, and to the ridges. it was usually considered necessary in But as, for this operation, the ground is former times that the ridges should be not confined within the breadth of ridges, water-furrowed, so that, in case of much

the harrows cover the ground with their rain falling, or snow melting, it may run whole breadth, and get over the work in off the surface of the ground by the less time than in breaking-in.

water-furrows. Whatever of the spring

Cross-harrowing is not easy for the wheat is sown late in the spring, in the horses, inasmuch as the stripes left in last of February and beginning of March,

the ground by the breaking-in have to the water-furrowing is not executed un be cut through, and the irregular motion til after the sowing of the grass -seeds, if of the harrows, in jerking across the open any are to be sown with the wheat crop. furrows of the ridges, has a fatiguing Water-furrowing is making a slight effect upon the horses.

plough -furrow in every open furrow, as

To finish the harrowing, another double a channel for rain -water to flow off the tine along the ridges, as in the case of land. It may be executed lightly with a

the breaking-in, maybenecessary. This common plough and one horse, but better turn is easily and quickly performed, the with a double mould-board plough and soil having been so often moved ; and one horse ; and as the single horse walks should it seem uniform in texture, a single in the open furrow, the plough following tine will suffice for a good finishing. obliterates his footmarks. Efficient Harrowing.— To judge of The better water - furrowing by the

the harrowing of land, the sense of feel- double mould -board plough consists in ing is required as well as that of sight. When well done, the soil seems uniformly smooth, and the small clods lie loosely upon the surface ; the ground feeling uniformly consistent under the tread of When not sufficiently harthe foot.

the channel having equal sides ; and the furrow-slice on each side being small, compared with the one furrow -slice of the common plough on one side, the water can run more freely into the fur row . The plough simply goes up one

rowed, the surface appears rough, the open furrowanddown another until the clods are half hid in the soil, and the

field is finished, the horse being hied at

ground feels unequal under the foot—in the turns into the open furrow. Water some parts resisting its pressure, in others furrowing finishes the work of the field . Under -drainage v. Water -furrows. giving way to it too easily. The old saying that “ good harrowing - On average soils there will be no

is half farming” has more wisdom in it necessity for water-furrows if the land is than at first sight appears. The efficient thoroughly under-drained. The import harrowing of land is of more importance ance of this latter is now universally ac than seems generally to be imagined

knowledged, and great benefit has been

Its object is not merely to cover the derived by the large extent to which has been executed throughout seeds, but to pulverise the ground, and drainage When the soil is excep render it of a uniform texture. Uni- the country. and water apt to lie adhesive, tionally soil the in maintains formity of texture a more equable temperature, not absorb- in pools on its surface, it is very desir ing rain so fast, or admitting drought able that water-furrows should be pro too easily, as is the case when the soil vided to prevent this. Wheat after Grass. — The foregoing is rough and kept open by clods.

Whenever the texture becomes suffi- relates mainly to the sowing of wheat

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

199

after a root crop. But a large extent of than lose the advantage of sowing wheat spring wheat is also sown after grass, in good time before the winter sets in.

chiefly in England, and some of the But with others the aftermath is of earlier and drier districts of Scotland. greater importance, and they accordingly

The success of spring wheat after grass deferthe ploughing of the lea till winter, in England attests the superiority of the and the sowing of the wheat till spring. English climate, which is too dry, and January is considered a good month for

too warm in the southern counties, for wheat-sowing, but it is only in excep the perfect growth of oats. A great obstacle to sowing wheat in Scotland in spring is the action of two classes of soil on the growth of that plant. Clay soils are too inert in the average climate of Scotland to mature the growth of wheat

tional seasons and in favoured districts that the weather permits of this. There is thus a considerable extent of spring wheat sown after grass. Presser -roller. — This implement was called into use with the object of consoli

in a few months; and the light soils, dating light soils, so as they might with

though more favourable to quick vegeta- stand the drought of spring and support tion, want stamina to support the wheat the wheat plant until it attains maturity. plant, and are, besides, too easily affected The action of the presser-roller is to con by drought in early spring — it being no solidate the soil in the lineal spaces in uncommon occurrence in Scotland to ex-

which the seeds of wheat are to have

perience a severe drought in March, and root; hence it is applicable only in drill during the prevailing east wind . culture on loose soil, whether after lea or Wheat cannot be safely sown in the on bare land. autumn in Scotland after the end of The presser-roller is in perspective re October, which is the time for sowing presented in fig. 269, and fig . 270 gives after potatoes. Some sow it in Novem- edge - view of the two pressing -wheels ber, to the risk of producing a thin crop. detached from the carriage, in which is

To plough up lea before October would the axle of the two pressing-wheels as be to sacrifice the aftermath.' Many far- they appear edgewise, their weight being mers do this without hesitation, raiher about 2 cwt. each . The pressing -wheels

d

a a Rectangular frame. b Pair ofshafts.

Fig . 269. - Presser - roller. dd Two pressing wheels. e Light carriage-wheel.

f Iron stay -rod .

9 Two iron scrapers.

c Cast- iron bracket.

are held at the required distance by ning always upon the last - turned - up square collars. A transverse section of

furrows but one ; while the light car

the ground undergoing the pressing pro- riage-wheel runs always upon the solid cess is the shaded part of the section,

land, where the horse also walks, the

exhibiting the state of a soft soil when shafts being placed at that side. pressed by the roller ; and the dotted But the presser is now being more lines of the newly -ploughed furrow -slices advantageously used as to time, in the of lea undergoing consolidation. With consolidation of soft soils, by being con reference again to fig. 270, the press- structed with 4 , 6, or more pressing

ing -wheels are to be understood as run- wheels ; and in this form the carriage

SEED-TIME.

200

In using the is a powerful auxiliary to the farmer of

wheel is not required .

pressure of this construction, the field such soils ; perhaps .it is equal, if not must be ploughed for the seed -furrow , superior, to the drill in these respects.” either entirely or in part, before the

Spring Varieties of Wheat.As to

pressing is begun ; and the field is regu- the varieties of wheat which should be larly gone over by the presser, which, sown in spring in different localities, it from its now increased weight, will re- would be imprudent to dogmatise. With quire two horses. In this form , with 6 the great attention now being given to pressing-wheels and with 2 horses, the the improvement of farm plants, and to the bringing out of new varieties and stocks of exceptional vigour and power

of production, it is quite probable that the variety which is considered best to day will be excelled in the near future. Farmers must therefore be constantly on

11 f

the outlook for improved sorts, and be 1

f

Fig. 270. - Action of the edge of presser-wheels. a a Axle.

ob Two pressing-wheels . ccc Square collars upon the axle. d Transverse section of ground being pressed .

e f Newly ploughed lea , furrow -slices in dotted lines.

guided by the experience of the time as

to which variety they should select. It is this same consideration — the

great ingenuity and enterprise employed in developing new sorts, and the rapidity

with which one good sort is supplanted by a still better — which influenced us in deciding not to attempt in this work a

detailed description of the different varie ties or sorts of the respective farm crops now in use in this country.

For guidance as to the best varieties to use, no farmer need have any difficulty. By a careful study of the experience of

machine will press-roll from 8 to 9 acres other farmers, and due consideration of in a day. The entire weight of the 6- his own peculiar conditions as to soil and

wheel rollers amounts to about 12 or 13 climate, he is not likely to be far wrong work done

The cwt. efficient.

by them is very as to the selection of varieties. Of course care must be taken not to Use of the Land-presser . — The land- sow a distinctly winter variety of wheat presser is not now used so extensively as in spring. As to a winter wheat no mis

it was formerly. This is to be regretted, take can be made, for however early may for there can be no doubt of its beneficial be the habit of the variety sown, the influence upon light soils liable to suffer very circumstance of its being sown in

from drought in spring. The presser autumn, when sufficient time is not given may also be beneficially employed in com- to the plant to reach maturity before pressing light turnip -land when ploughing winter, will convert it for that season

into ridges, to render it more fit for spring into a winter variety. The wheat plant wheat ; and in using it for this purpose is a true annual, but when sown late,and it might be employed in the samemanner the progress of its growth is retarded by as on lea. The late Hugh Watson a depression of temperature, it is convert

Keillor, Forfarshire, stated that, having ed for the time into a biennial. Itis used the land-presser, he could “with therefore highly probable that, as the confidence recommend it on all light soils nature of wheat is to bring its seed to

The late maturity in the course of one season, any Mr A. Bowie,Mains of Kelly, Forfarshire, variety sown in time in spring would

with every sort of corn crop .” 1

remarked : “ The presser is a most use

mature its seed in the course of the ensu

ful implement for easy dry soils. For ing summer or autumn. This is believed saving seed and growing heavy crops it to be a fact ; nevertheless, circumstances may occur to modify the fact in this cli 1 Jour. Agric ., iv. 545.

mate.

Under the most favourable cir

SOWING BEANS.

201

cumstances, the wheat plant requires a plants are able to immediately assimilate considerable time to mature its seed ; and the manure.

From 1 to 2 cwt. per acre

a variety that has long been cultivated in are common quantities of these fertilisers winter, on being sown in spring in the for top -dressing wheat. same latitude, will not mature its seed

When the land has not been liberally

that season should the temperature fall manured with the preceding crop, a

much below the average, or should it be heavier dressing, including phosphatic cultivated on very inferior soil tothat to which it had been accustomed. In practice, therefore, it is not safe — at least in so precarious a climate as that of Scotland — to sow every variety of wheat in

and potassic manures, must be given to the wheat crop ; or it may be manured with dung. See chapter on - Manures and Manuring .”

spring Spring Wheat - seed from Early

SOWING BEANS.

Districts.- Wheat taken from a warm

to a cold climate will prove earlier there

Beans take about 7 months to come to than the native varieties, and, in so maturity, and should therefore be sown

far, better suited for sowing in spring; early - as early in spring as possible. They and if the same variety is an early one should be sown in February if the weather

in the warm latitude - bringing its seed to maturity in a short period, perhaps not exceeding 4 months — then it may safely be sown as a spring wheat, whether

and the condition of the land permit ; in no case later than March. A very favour able season may hasten the plant through its courses of vegetation in a shorter it be red or white, bearded or beardless. time ; but a very unfavourable season The long experience of the late Mr will so retard it as almost to prevent the Patrick Sheriff, East Lothian, led him to formation of the seed. the conclusion that autumn wheats should

In Scotland the bean is not a reliable

not be sown in spring, as they will not crop. It was never cultivated extensive produce a sufficient number of prolific ly there, and in recent years has lost ears . ground slightly. Strong land is best Late Varieties of Wheat.— Special suited for beans, and it still holds an attention has been given in recent years important place on good carse farms. to the bringing out of varieties of wheat The land must be in good heart, and is

suitable for sowing late in spring. Con- generally well manured with dung in siderable success has been attained , and the previous autumn or winter. Beans there are varieties now in use which in are sown on the flat surface, or in rows average years give fairly satisfactory re- from 15 to 20 inches apart, or in raised sults, although not sown till March or drills from 25 to 30 inches wide. The April bean crop occupies varying positions in

Manuring Wheat. - In the descrip- the rotation. It usually comes in be tion of the Rothamsted experiments in tween two cereal crops, between two pages 135-169 of this volume, much use- crops of wheat, between oats and wheat, ful and suggestive information as to the or between wheat and barley.

manuring of wheat will be found. Wheat is usually sown on land in good heart, for the most part after a potato or root crop , with which a heavy dressing of dung and artificial manure had been applied. In this case no special applica-

The bean crop is valuable both for its straw and grain. Though the crop fail in seed, it seldom fails to produce good fodder provided it can be well secured. A dry season stints the growth of the haulm, but produces beans of fine quality ;

tion of manure may be necessary for the and a wet season prevents the growth wheat beyond perhaps a top -dressing of the bean, but affords a bulky crop of with a little ammonia salts or nitrate of

fodder.

soda in spring. The sulphate of amThe culture for beans is not dependent monia may be sown at the same time as so much on the soil as on the peculiar

the seed for the spring wheat, or early growth of the plant. Bearing fruit-pods in spring for winter wheat, but nitrate on its stem near the ground as well as of soda should not be sown until the near the top, it should have both light

SEED - TIME.

202

and air ; and its leaves being at the top, the Highland and Agricultural Society's and its stem comparatively bare, weeds experiments, that idea was not well find room to grow.

The plant should

founded .

The artificial manures which

therefore be wide asunder in the row and gave the best results in these experiments between the rows, so that the crop may are described by Dr Aitken on p. 182. become luxuriant and the land cleaned.

Potash is the dominant ingredient. It

Beans were long wont to be sown is seen that, unaccompanied by potash, broadcast, and are so sown still in some neither phosphates nor nitrate is of much cases . It is not a good plan, however, use to the bean, whether applied sepa

for it has a great tendency to leave the rately or together ; but the addition of land full of weeds.

potash to either or both, at once enor Varieties of Beans. - Several varie- mously increases the crop. The artificial

Those most manures were applied in March, three largely sown are the common Scotch or days before the seed was drilled in with

ties are in cultivation.

horse bean, and the common tick-bean. The former is the best suited for northern

the three -drill bean -barrow .

districts, and under favourable circumstances grows to a height of 4 or5 feet, weighing from 62 to 65 lb. per bushel. The seed is large, flat, of a dingy whitish colour, with a black eye, and irregularly wrinkled on the sides. The tick -bean,

Seeing that a leguminous crop such as beans contains a great deal more nitrogen than cereal crops, it might be expected that nitrogenous manures would exercise a more beneficial effect upon beans than upon cereals. It has been found, how

Beans and Nitrogenous Manure.

which is shorter in the straw, and gener- ever, that such is not the case. At Roth

ally more prolific, is the variety most amsted extensive experiments have been largely cultivated in England. The seed carried out in the manuring of beans and is smaller, plumper, a pound or two other leguminous crops, but curiously heavier per bushel than the seed of the enough the results have not been so clear horse-bean.

Amongst the other best- or instructive as those obtained from the

known varieties are the Russian or winter manuring experiments with most other bean, the Mazagan, and the Heligoland crops. Sir J. B. Lawes says : The general result of the experiments Quantity of Seed.–From three to with beans has been, that mineral constit four bushels per acre are the most general uents used as manure (more particularly bean.

quantities.

In the north it is more potash ) increased the produce very much

frequently four than three, sometimes during the early years ; and to a certain even five bushels. The seed is sown by extent afterwards, whenever the season machines of various patterns - sort of was favourable for the crop. Ammonia

barrow - shaped appliances, worked by salts, on the other hand, produced very hand or horse power, and sowing usually little effect ; notwithstanding that a le one or three drills or rows at a time. Manure for Beans . — Land intended

guminous crop contains two, three, or more times asmuch nitrogen as a cereal

for beans is usually well dunged in the autumn, or early in winter, with perhaps from 8 to 12 tons of farmyard dung, spread just before the land is ploughed. The dung will be all the better for this purpose if it is tolerably fresh, and it

one grown under similar conditions as to soil, &c. Nitrate of soda has, however, produced more marked effects. But when the same description of leguminous crop is grown too frequently on the same land it seems to be peculiarly subject to dis

should be spread evenly on the land. In ease , which no conditions of manuring

other cases, the dung is spread early in that we have hitherto tried seem to spring on the flat or in drills, as for tur- obviate. nips. When the dung is to be spread in “ Experiments with peas were soon

drills, these are opened a little deeper abandoned, owing to the difficulty of than if the land were simply drilled to keeping the land free from weeds, and receive the seed.

an alternation of beans and wheat was

Formerly it was thought that beans substituted ; the beans being manured

could not be grown satisfactorily without much as in the experiments with the farmyard dung, but, as shown clearly by same crop grown continuously.

4

2

SOWING BEANS.

203

“ In alternating wheat with beans, the The improved grubbers or cultivators are remarkable result was obtained, that excellent implements for pulverising sur nearly as much wheat, and nearly as face soil. They do theirwork well, and much nitrogen, were yielded in eight are very speedy — a consideration of spe crops of wheat in alternation with the

highly nitrogenous beans, as in sixteen crops of wheat grown consecutively without manure in another field,

cial importance at this time of the year.

Fig. 271 represents Clay's well-known

and also nearly as much as were obtained in a

third field in eight crops alternated with bare fal low .”

Ploughing for Beans.

wy

-Strong land intended for beans is usually ploughed about the end of autumn or early in

winter, so that it may have the benefit of the

Fig. 272. - Broadshare cultivator.

pulverising influences of

winter. If the land is very heavy and cultivator, while in fig. 272. the same

liable to hold surface water, it will be implement is fitted as a broadshare cul useful to plough it in the direction of tivator. Other forms of grubbers will be

the greatest inclination or fall, so that referred to in dealing with tillage for there may be no cross -furrows to retain the water. But when the land can be

root crops.

The action of the grubber or cultivator

ploughed across the inclination it will in the soil is to stir it effectually as deep be well to do so , and then the drills,

as the tines descend, and at the same

if the crop is to be grown in drills, will time retain the surface-soil in its existing follow the inclination, thus crossing the position. This advantage is especially appreciated in early spring, when it is

autumn furrow .

Spring Tillage for Beans.— The precarious to turn over the soilwith the amount and kind of tillage which bean plough, lest by a fresh fall of rain it land should receive in spring will depend should become wetter and worse to work upon the nature and condition of land, than if it had not been ploughed at all. and the character of the season .

If the If the land be raw and not very clean ,

and the weather precarious, the grubber will prepare the soil for harrowing, of which it should receive one double

tine along the ridges, the

grubbing having been given O

across them. Should this not be sufficient to reduce

the clod , another double tine should be given across the ridges, when the land will be ready for sowing. If the weather in spring Fig. 271. - Clay's cultivator.

is favourable, and the beans are to be sown broadcast or

land lying in the winter furrow is toler- in rows on the flat, ploughing across the

ably friable, harrowing maybe sufficient. winter furrow is by many considered de As a rule, however, a turn of the grubber sirable. The modern grubbers or culti or cultivator will be found beneficial.

vators, however, do their work so well

SEED - TIME.

204

that the necessity for the plough in horses the heavy furrow down hill. The following morning fully as much seed is In preparing land in spring for beans, taken out to the field as will likely be care should be taken not to grub or har- needed during the forenoon, and the bags row more in one day than can be drilled should be placed along the top headland,

spring is much lessened.

up or sown on the same or the following.

if drills are not too long to admit of the

fall of rain on this prepared ground three-drill horse sowing-machine sowing A before it is drilled for the seed would be about ' or six drills before it needed to detrimental to the

be refilled, care being taken that the seed

crop .

Sowing Autumn -manured Beans. always covered the pinions for forcing -The process of sowing beans upon land out the beans.

“ In placing the bags with the seed, which had been purposely dunged and ploughed in autumn or early winter, is suppose that it takes thirty drills to be thusdescribed by Mr F. Muirhead :-

an acre imperial, and we wish to sow 18

“ We will suppose the time has arrived for sowing the seed. The young farmer should previously have had his bean -sowing machine examined, repaired if neces-

stones per acre, it will be more conveni

He should also

drill of each acre ; and in beginning to

sary , and well oiled .

ent to have the beans weighed up to that weight in each bag, and place the bags along the headland , one bag at the last

have provided the requisite quantity of sow, it will be found of advantage to seed — say 4 bushels of common Scotch take out as much extra seed in a bag as

beans for every imperial acre, and he cover the pinions of thesowing-machine, so that when the first bag is all sown, for every twenty he intends to sow, in the person in charge knows at once whe case he may need a little more to finish ther the machine is sowing too quickly the field than he anticipated , or too thinly. Perhaps if the first bag “ He should visit the field a day be- were accurately divided into two, and set had better have an extra bag of beans

forehand, and ascertain the length of the down separately, at half an acre for each, proposed drills, and how many make an the setting of the machine would be the imperial acre ; and the following table may assist him :

The sowing-machine will now begin and sow the three outside

sooner tested .

Inches wide.

Yards long.

drills, and the ploughs will commence and

Drills. 26 27 28

Imperial acre. 6701 6453

cover up the seed as they go down hill,

6222

and open fresh drills at the required width as they return . One sowing -ma chine will easily keep four or five pairs of horses at work ." i

“ The open furrows should be filled in Sowing Spring -manured Beans. with two or three bouts of a two-horse When the dung has to be applied to the plough, and the ends or headlands mark- drills in spring, it is carted to the field ,

ed off, say, to hold eight drills, which and thrown in graipfuls as the horse should be ample room to admit of horses moves along the drills, just as in the

and ploughs turning quickly without dunging of roots or potatoes. The graip treading on the newly formed drills. If fuls are then spread evenly along the the land requires à double stroke of bottom of the drills, which, having re heavy harrows before being drilled, as ceived the seed, are thereupon closed . much should be harrowed the afternoon

If the dung has to be applied in spring,

previous to sowing (provided weatheris and it is intended to sow the beans broad somewhat settled ) as to allow the ploughs to get to work readily the following morning, or the foreman had better be sent half a day beforehand to do this,

cast or in rows on the flat, then the land receives a single or double turn of the barrow , the dung is spread evenly on the surface, and theland ploughed, the seed,

and to open, say, ten or twelve drills; perhaps, being dropped by the single and care should be taken, if the field has bean -barrow into every third drill. And much inclination from top to bottom , to as the furrows are about 9 inches in begin at that side of it which will, in covering up the sown seeds, give the 1 Farming World Almanac, 1888.

SOWING PEAS.

breadth, the three furrows will place the

205

Botanical

Character of Beans.

rows of beans at 27 inches apart. This It was an observation of De Candolle,

ploughing finishes the operation.

that “ it is remarkable that the botanical

When the land is manured in the character of the Leguminos should so

spring, and the seed sown broadcast, the strictly agree with the properties of their dung in the same state is spread broad- seed. The latter may be divided into

cast upon the surface. The further part two sections -- namely, the first,Sarcoloba, of the operation depends on the state of

or those of which the cotyledons are

Should it promise well thick, and filled with fecula, and desti until the bean -sowing is finished, the tute of cortical pores, and which, more dung may be ploughedin, the seed sown over, in germination do not undergo any broadcast upon the ploughed surface, change, but nourish the young plant by harrowed in with a double tine, and the means of that supply of food which they ridges water- furrowed. Should the wea- already contain ; second, the Phyllolobe , ther seem doubtful, a safer plan is to or those of which the cotyledons arethin, Sow the seed broadcast upon the spread with very little fecula, and furnished

the weather.

dung, and plough in both seed and dung with cortical pores, which change at once together, and the surface will be secured from danger. In this case the plants will come up in rows of the breadth of the furrow - 9 inches apart. Harrowing Drills. — If it is consid-

into leaves at the time of germination, for the purpose of elaborating food for the young plant. All the seeds of the sarcolobce are used as food in different

countries, and none ofthose of phyllolobæ ered desirable to harrow the drills, this are ever so employed . " may be done about a fortnight after the

Ancient Notions regarding Beans .

sowing, if the surface is at all dry. If — The ancient Greeks had some strange the land is wet, the harrowing should be notions regarding the bean. Thus Didy delayed, and the first dry state of the mus the Alexandrian says : “ Do not surface taken advantage of.

The com-

mon harrow is sometimes used to harrow

plant beans near the roots of a tree, lest the tree be dried . That they may boil

down drills ; but a better implement is well, sprinkle water with nitre over them . the saddle drill-harrow , such asrepre- Physicians, indeed , say that beans make sented in fig. 273, made by C. Clay &

the persons that eat them heavy ; they also think that they prevent night dreams, for they are flatulent. They likewise say that domestic

fowls that always eat them be

Fig. 273. - Saddle drill -harrow .

Pythagoras also come barren . says that you must not eat beans, because there are found in the flour of the plant in auspicious letters. They also say that a bean that has been eroded becomes whole again at the increase of the moon : that

Co., Wakefield .

This harrow is worked

it will by no

means

be

boiled

in

in pairs; and, to render it applicable to salt water, nor, consequently, in sea its purpose, it is made of an arch form, water,” &c.1 partially embracing the curvature of the drill, and on this account is best fabri SOWING PEAS. cated of iron . The pair of harrows are

drawn by one horse, walking between the drills.

Peas are sown to a smaller extent than

they were at one time in this country. peas are often grown together, the seed They seldom take a prominent place as being sown broadcast. The most general an ordinary rotation crop, but are largely Beans and Peas Mixed . - Beans and

proportion is about one-third of peas to two-thirds of beans.

1 Owen's Geoponika, i. 82.

206

SEED-TIME.

grown near populous towns for sale in this is not the usual character of our the green pod. climate, the yield is but indifferent.

Dung is seldom given to the pea when Peas give the best results on light and friable loamy soils of a calcareous char- sown by itself, having the effect of forc with little grain. acter, or which had been recently dressed ing much strawand beans are reaped to When peas chalk . It is a general obwith lime servation, that annual weeds are encour- gether, they are separated when thrashed

aged in growth amongst peas ; and the simply by riddling, the peas passing pea being a precarious crop, yielding a through the meshes of the riddle, while small return of grain, except in fine warm the beans are left upon the riddle. Sowing Peas. - Peas are sown by seasons, a mere good crop of straw is in-

sufficient remuneration for a scanty crop hand when cultivated broadcast, and of grain , accompanied with a foul state of with the barrow when in rows, in every land. Hence in many cases turnips have third, or in every furrow . With beans, they are sown by a barrow ; on drilled been substituted for peas.

Peas, for a long period, were invari- land, broadcast by the hand : the seed ably sown broadcast; but seeing their falling to the bottom of the drills is

covered by the harrows passing across tendency to protect weeds, and that drillculture rendered the land clean, the con- the drills. Like beans, peas are sown clusion was obvious that peas sown in

on ploughed lea in some parts of Eng

drills would admit of the land being cleansed. It was found that the straw by its rapid growth creeping along the ground soon prevents the use of theweeds

land. On lea, the pea is dibbled in the about 9 inches asunder. When varieties of thewhite garden-pea are cultivated in the field, as in the southern counties of England, these various modes of sow ing them deserve attention ; as also in the neighbourhood of large towns, where the

ing instruments. To counteract this ten-

dency, the practice was introduced of sowing peas and beans together, and while their seasons of growth coincide,

harrowed surface, the holes being placed

the stems of the bean serve as stakes to garden -pea is cultivated and sent in a support the bines of thepea. The pro- green state to the vegetable market. The quantity of seed per acre varies, portion of pea to bean when mixed usuin drilling, from 27/2 to 3 bushels per ally is as 1 to 3. Tillage for Peas.-It is somehow considered of little moment how the land

acre in the south, and sometimes as much as 4

in the north .

The rows are usually

shall be ploughed, when the pea is to be from 12 to 15 inches apart.

A little

sown by itself. Sometimes only one fur- more seed is used in sowing broadcast. The varieties of peas are very numer row after the stubble is given ; and when the land is tender and pretty clean, a ous. Of the varieties of the field -pea, sufficient tilth may be raised in this man- the partridge grey pea in fig. 231, p. 497, ner to cover the seed, which requires vol. i., is suited to light soils and late

neither a deep soil for its roots (which situations, and isconsidered of excellent

are fibrous and spreading near the sur- quality, and prolific when the crop is full. face), nor a deep coveringof earth above them , 2 inches sufficing for the purpose. But a single furrow does not do justice to

TRANSPLANTING TURNIP BULBS

the land, whatever it may do for the crop.

FOR SEED.

The land should be double drilled or

grubbed after the spring ploughing.

When a farmer gets possession of a

Since the pea can be cultivated along first-class variety of turnip, which he with the bean, it will grow on good finds well suited to his land, he should strong soils ; and its spreading roots en- grow fromit every year at least as much able it to grow on thin clays, where the seed as will supply his own wants — per bean does not thrive. But as corn , the haps even a quantity for sale. The seed pea, as has been indicated , thrives best on

should be grown from well -formed bulbs,

light soils. In clay, it produces a large transplanted, perhaps early in March, bulk of straw,andthe grain depends on just before spring growth begins to show the season being dry and warm ; and as itself. With intelligent care, and good

SOWING BARLEY.

207

varieties of roots, the seed may be grown to this duty, others throw old fisher nets successfully over the seed, and this latter is the most

The extent of ground required is not effective method of prevention. great. Reckoning the crop of seed at 30 bushels per acre, weighing 50 lb. per bushel, and allowing 3lb. per acre of seed for the turnip crop, 10 square yards of ground will supply the seed for every acre of turnips grown on the farm . It is necessary to have the plants of different sorts of turnips at a considerable distance from each other ; because, if near, one

SOWING BARLEY.

It may be laid down as an axiom that the seed-bed upon which barley is to be

sown should be fine, moderately deep, and clean, with an abundant supply of all the ingredients necessary for the growth variety will be impregnated by another, of the plant present in a soluble or

by bees and other insects carrying the readily available form . Land after tur pollen of one flower to another.

nips is the place in the rotation which

Let a piece of ground be selected for is generally set aside for the growth of each variety of seed to be raised. Spare barley. spaces in the corners of fields may be converted into nurseries for the purpose.

Tillage for Barley . - If the land is

not of the heavy order of soils, all that is

Let the ground receive a little dung ; necessary is the ordinary ploughing, espe

and the easiest mode of making friable cially if it can be accomplished by the mould at once upon such places is trench- second week of February. The action ing with the spade, and removing stones

of the weather and frost will break

and weeds. Then select the best-formed bulbs of the different kinds from the fields as they are growing ; take them up carefully, preserving the roots and fibres entire, and cutting off the shaws nearly

down and mellow the soil, rendering it friable, so that a double tine of the har rows before putting in the seed is all that is needed to obtain a seed -bed in good tilth. On the heavier class of soils, and where ploughing cannot be done until

close to the bulb.

A line of trench is made in the ground,

later, more especially where the turnip

deep enough to contain easily the bulbs crop has been eaten off by sheep, two and roots,which are inserted at 12 inches ploughings may be necessary as well as apart, and leaving the tops only above the ground, when the earth is returned into the trench. The rows of transplanted bulbs should be 3 feet asunder, to allow air to the plants, and afford room for a

harrowing before seeding. But the simplest and easiest mode of

procedure is toplough the land with one of the new Anglo - American ploughs,

which will break down the furrow, leave person to pass between them to watch the land level, and in excellent tilth.

the seed, when it is near ripe, from the By this plan the old method of cross In rows ploughing, scarifying, grubbing, ribbing, wide apart the plants become stronger &c., may be obviated. and more prolific. It is probable that some of the tur The best time of transplanting turnips nip-land which may have been ploughed

depredation of small birds.

is about the beginning of March, before for spring wheat may have to be of In a large piece of ground the plough ent weather preventing theIn sowing that case

any symptoms of spring growth appear. sown with barley, on account of inclem can form the trenches, and harrows re-

wheat in seasonable time.

,

whether the land had been gathered up duce the ground into mould . The ground occupied for raising turnip- from the flat, or cast together, it should

seed should be protected by a fence of be seed-furrowed in the same form for hurdles against stock, otherwise the crop the barley, to retain the uniform ridging may suffer.

of the field ; for the ploughing for spring Birds often play havoc with turnip wheat being the seed - furrow, and the

seed as it approaches maturity. Unless ridges made permanent, it would be im some means are employed to scare off the possible to reverse the ploughing with one birds, they may indeed destroy almost furrow,without leaving one ridge on each the entire crop. Boys are often told off side of the field half the width of the rest.

SEED-TIME.

208

The ridges would have to be ploughed furrow -slice, to subdivide and pulverise twice to bring them back to their proper the soil. form, but for which there could not be Sowing . – Sowing barley upon a fine time, so they must be stirred with the evenly pulverised surface requires strict

grubber, or ribbed with the small plough. Another method which is being adopted by farmers is to plough the land after turnips, in breaks of six ridges, gathering four and splitting two. This has become advisable nowadays, owing to the ad-

attention, inasmuch as on whatever spot every seed falls, there it lies, the soft earth having no elasticity to make the seed rebound and settle on another spot. Hence, of all sorts of corn, barley is the most likely to be striped in sowing by

vent of the reaper, for which the old open

hand, so every handful must be cast with

furrows were very unhandy, while the great force. Walking on soft ground in crop was uneven, as the growth on the

sowing barley is attended with consider

crown of the ridge was heavier than able fatigue. Short steps are best suited that in the furrow which divided the for walking upon soft ground, and small handfuls are best for grasping plump ridges.

If the ridges have consolidated on being slippery barley. long ploughed, the grubber will make a The broadcast machine sows barley as suitable bed for the barley seed, and keep

well as oats on the ploughed surface, and

the dry surface uppermost. If the soil so do the corn -drills across the ridges is dry and loose on the surface, and tilly after the surface has been harrowed. The

below, it will be best preserved by rib- grubbed surface is best sown by a drill

machine, affording the seed a firm hold A capital implement for preparing a of the ground, while the surface ribbed

bing with the small plough.

"

with the small plough is best sown by illustrated in fig. 274, an ingenious hand, or with the broadcast machine, the fine seed - bed is the “Acme harrow ,

seeds falling into the ribs, from which the young plants rise in rows, the ground being harrowed only a double tine along

the ribs. Barley may be sown any time fit for spring wheat, and as late as the month of May. But the earlier crop will be of better quality and more uni Fig. 274.- Acmeharrow .

form, though the straw may be shorter. Quantity of Seed . — The quantity of seed sown broadcast is from 272 to 4 bushels to the acre. When sown early,

American invention, and brought to this less suffices; when late, more is required, country by Lankester & Co., London. because less time is given to tiller and It breaks up and pulverises the surface

cover the ground.

soil most thoroughly:

2 bushels suffice. Brown makes some sensible remarks

Sown with the drill,

By putting such ridges thus into the best state for barley, there will be no on this subject. "Amongst the farmers,"

difficulty in ploughing the rest of the he says, “it seems a disputed point, whe land. The first furrow upon the trampled ther the practice of giving so small a soil should be the cross-furrow .

quantity of seed (3 bushels per acre) to

Although the field may not be cleared the best lands is advantageous. That ofturnips to allow cross-ploughing from there is a saving of grain, there can be side to side, any portion should be no doubt ; and that the bulk may be as ploughed, and , after harrowing the cross- great as if more seed had been sown, ploughed land a double tinealong, it there can be as little question. e should be gathered up from the flat, or argument, however, is necessary to Littl prove

yoked together ; and both the cross and that thin sowing of barley must be at ridging -up furrows should be deep. The tended with considerable disadvantage ; cross-ploughing should be turned over for if the early part of the season be dry,

with a broad furrow -slice, but the ridg- the plants will notonly bestinted in their ing-up should be done with a deep narrow growth , butwill not send outoffsets ; and

SOWING BARLEY.

209

if rain afterwards falls — an occurrence guide as to the amount of harrowing re that must take place some time during quired in individual cases. the summer, often at a late period of itThe head -ridges are ploughed and sown the plants then begin to stool, and send out by themselves. a number of young shoots.

These young

Finishing. — The grass seeds are then

shoots, unless under very favourable cir- sown with the grass-seed sowing -machine; cumstances, cannot be expected to arrive the land harrowed a single tinewith the at maturity ; or if their ripening is waited light grass -seed harrows, and thereupon

for, there will be great risk of losing the finished by immediate rolling. On strong early part of the crop — a circumstance land, apt to be incrusted on the surface that frequently happens. In almostevery by drought after rain, rolling may pre instance an unequal sample is produced, cede the sowing of grass seeds, and the

and the grain is for the most part of infe- work is finished with the grass-seed har rior quality. By good judges it is thought rows, and perhaps another turn of the preferable to sow a quantity of seed suffi- roller. On all kindly soils, rolling last cient to ensure afull crop without depend- is best for keeping out drought, and giv ing on its sending out offsets. Indeed, ing a smooth surface for harvest-work. when that is done, few offsets are proSoil for Barley . - Medium and light duced — the crop grows and ripens equally,

and the grain is uniformly good . "

1

Germination of Barley and the Weather . — No grain is so much affected by weather at seed -time as barley. A dash of rain on strong land is liable to cause the crop to be thin, many of the seeds not germinating, whilst others burst. In moist, warm weather, thegermination is certain and very rapid ; and it has been observed , that unless barley germinate

loams of a calcareous and friable nature —such as are generally known as good

turnip lands — are best adapted to barley. Barley is grownmost largely after tur nips, and is especially suited for follow ing where a portion of the roots has been consumed on the land by sheep. In some cases it is sown after potatoes or beans,

especially if the land and the season are unfavourable for wheat. When intended for barley, the potato or bean land is

quickly, the crop will be thin. We have gathered up for the winter, water-fur seen the germ of barley pierce the ground only 36 hours after it had been sown, when the ground was smoking by evaporation of moisture, caused by a hot sun in a close atmosphere. We have also traced the germ of barley to its root to the depth of 9 inches below the surface ; and this

rowed, and gaw -cut ; and in spring it may or cross-ploughed and ridged be grubbed up for the seed -furrow. Barley is sown also after wheat, and the sample is always fine-coloured. Bar ley is never sown in Scotland after lea, but might be if the land were partially

shows that land should be ploughed to a fallowed in spring. Barley does not stand the winter in Scotland as it does moderate depth for barley.

Harrowing for Barley. - The har- in the warm calcareous soils of the south rowing required for barley land sown of England.

Winter barley is early ripe, broadcast is generally less than for oat and prolific ; but if the weather causes it

land, a doubletine being given in break- to tiller in spring, it produces an unequal ing-in the seed, and a double tine across sample, containing a large proportion of

immediately after. When sown with the light grain. drill-machine, the harrowing is perhaps a Varieties of Barley . — The varieties double tine along, and double tine across of barley are numerous. They are gen

the ridges, before the seed is sown . When erally distinguished by the number of

sown on ribbed land, the only harrowing rows of grain which grow upon the ear. may be a double tine along the ribs, just The kind which is cultivated in this to cover the seed, as the ribs afford it a country to the greatest extent is two sufficient hold of the ground. Care, rowed or long -eared, from which many

however, should be taken in all cases to improved varieties have sprung, notably ensure a fine even seed -bed for barley. the “ Chevalier,” “ Annat," " Dunlop,' The condition of the land will be the best

&c.

The Chevalier variety was propagated 1 Brown's Rur, Af., ii. 45. VOL . II.

by a Mr Chevalier, who, when examin O

210

SEED-TIME.

ing one of his fields, noticed an ear of quantities, per acre, are 2 to 3 cwt.

better quality, being larger, with better superphosphate, and %2 to i cwt. of the filled grain, than the othersaround. This nitrogenous manure. In many cases a ear he selected and propagated in his light dressing of sulphate of ammonia garden.

or nitrate of soda is found to be very

The Annat barley originated from the produce of three ears selected by Mr Gorrie, Annat Gardens, hence its name. The four -rowed or common barley is

effective alone. In other cases a com bined dressing of phosphatic, nitrogenous, and potassic manures gives the best re

sults . Rothamsted Barley Experiments. bigg, and is confined chiefly to Northern Europe, and in this country to the north The experiments on the manuring of best known under the name of bere or

of Scotland, or to poor upland soils. barley at Rothamsted are full of interest There is also a six -rowed variety, but it to farmers. They have gone on contin uously since 1852, and are capable of Uses of Barley .- The great bulk of teaching some important lessons. Briefly

is not extensively grown.

the better samples of barley is used for summarised, the results are as follows : No Manure. — The plot which has had being employed for the manufacture of no manure of any kind since the begin

distillery purposes, a small proportion

pot barley or barley - meal, chiefly con- ning of the experiments gave an average

fined for use in Scotland. The inferior of 1778 bushels for the thirty -two years or damaged barley is used as food for up to 1883-4%. bushels less than the animals.

Manuring Barley . - When it follows

a well-manured root crop, as it generally does, barley seldom requires or receives any further manuring. Barley is a suitable crop for land on which a portion of the root crop has been consumedby sheep, and in this case the soil is usually in good

average of the first ten years. Farmyard Dung. — Applied at the

rate of 14 tons every year for thirty-two years , this gave for that period an aver age of 4972 bushels, or about 31 % over the unmanured plot. Mineral Manures . — Mineral manures

alone — that is, superphosphate of lime,

heart, especially if the sheep have been and sulphates of potash, soda, and mag allowed extra food, such as cake or grain nesia - gave very poor crops, both of grain along with the roots. The custom is to and straw.

Superphosphate alone, on an

plough this land with a light or moderate average of thethirty-two years, gave only furrow, and thus give the barley an abun- about5 bushels more than the plot with dance of readilyavailable plant-food with- no manure ; the increase from potash, in the reach of its shallow roots .

soda, and magnesia over no manure was

But when the land has not, by previous barely 2 bushels per acre, and from all treatment, become sufficiently stored with these mineral manures combined scarcely fertility for barley, this crop will, as a 6 bushels. rule, respond satisfactorily to direct dressNitrogenous Manures.— These sup ings of suitable manure. Being a rapid- plied in sulphate of ammonia or nitrate

growing shallow - rooted . plant, barley of soda gave more than double the in should have plenty of readily available crease produced by the mineral manures.

food within easy reach of the surface. Ammonia salts, 200 lb. per acre (contain

Quickly acting artificialmanures are thus ing 43 lb. nitrogen ), gave an average of

specially suitedfor barley. Superphos- 3034bushels for the thirty-two years phate and nitrate of soda, or sulphate of nearly 13 bushels over the unmanured

ammonia, in different quantities and pro- plot. Nitrate of soda, 275 lb. per acre portions, according to the character and containing 43 lb, nitrogen ), gave nearly Rape-cake,

condition of the land, are extensively 4 bushels more per acre.

and advantageously used as top-dressing 1000 lb. per acre,calculated to yield 49 for barley. The first and last should be lb. of nitrogen, raised the produce to 434 applied at seed-time ; nitrate of soda, bushels. which acts more rapidly than sulphate

Nitrogenous and Mineral Manures

of ammonia, may be applied in moist combined. These in combination pro weather a few weeks later. Common duced excellent crops, more than the

SOWING OATS,

211

average of the country, continuously for ley ; from 6 cwt. to 8 cwt. would supply thirty-two years.

This result is very in- about as much nitrogen as would be equal

teresting, showing that barley responds to from 40 lb. to 50 lb. of ammonia. With admirably to the influence of readily act- this manure, as with guano, the addition ing artificial manures. Equal quantities of superphosphate is unnecessary. What of nitrogenous and mineral manures ap- ever manure be used, it should be broken plied in the autumn to wheat, and in up, finely sifted, sown broadcast, and har spring to barley, gave considerably more rowed in with the seed .” produce from the latter crop than the former. Practical Conclusions. — From the

results of the experiments with various manures for barley, it is inferred that in

SOWING OATS.

In Scotland and Ireland by far the

corn - growing the soil is most rapidly greater portion of the ploughed lea is exhausted of its nitrogen , next of phos- sown with oats — a small extent being phates, and most slowly of potash. Ni- sown in some parts with spring wheat or trogenous manuresare thus the first and vetches, &c.

cheapest essential, but, especially for barley, phosphatic manures are also required, and give a good return. To most soils of a clayey tendency, dressings of potash will be unnecessary for cereals ; but where it is deficient, a small allowance may be expected to exercise a wonderful influence

In England oats are grown

extensively after turnips or mangels, which have been carted off the land. And in all northern and high -lying dis tricts unfavourable for the ripening of wheat or barley, oats are the prevailing crop after turnips. Oats are sown on all sorts of farms,

on the crop. Here, as in general farm from the strongest clay to the lightest practice, it was found that superphos- sand, and from the highest point to phate is more effective with the spring- which arable culture has reached on sown than with the autumn-sown cereals. moorland soil to the bottom of the low Barley after Corn . - In reference to est valley on the richest deposit. The the practice of growing barley after a

extensive breadth of its culture does not

crop of wheat, Dr Fream says : 1 “ It may imply that the oat is naturally suited to be laid down as a general rule, applicable all soils and situations, for its fibrous to the country at large, that, on the heavier and spreading roots indicate a predilec

soils, full crops of barley of good quality tion for friable soils ; but its use as food may be grown with great certainty after among the agricultural population gener a preceding corn crop , under the following conditions: The land should be got into good tilth. It should be ploughed up when dry, as soon as practicable after the removal of the preceding crop. In the spring it should be prepared for sowing by ploughing or scuffling, as early

ally, and its suitability to support the strength of horses, have induced its exten sive cultivation. Varieties of Oats. — The oat plant thrives best in a cold climate, and is grown in the chief countries lying in the temperate zone. It comes to its greatest

inMarch as possible, if sufficiently dry. perfection in Scotland.

This is to a

The artificial manure employed should certain extent due to the climate, but contain nitrogen, as ammonia or nitrate the care which the Scotch farmer ex

(or organic matter), and phosphates. pends upon his oat crop also contributes From 40 lb. to 50 lb. of ammonia ( or its to this result.

The varieties which

equivalent of nitrogen as nitrate) should occupy the greatest breadth are the be applied per acre. These quantities Common Improved or White oats, and would be supplied in 1/2 cwt. to 2 cwt.

to a lesser extent Black or Tartarian .

of sulphate of ammonia, or 134 cwt. to Common oat is the name by which 214 cwt. of nitrate of soda. With either farmers designate the variety which is

of these there should be employed 2 cwt. commonly grown in the respective dis to 3 cwt. mineral superphosphate of lime.

tricts in which they farm .

For instance,

Rape -cake is also a good manure for bar- in the northern counties, Sandy oats are regarded as the Common oat ; in Perth 1 Rothamsted Experiments, 120 . shire and western counties, late Angus;

212

SEED-TIME.

in Roxburgh and Berwickshire, Blains- sows broadcast by one hand 16 imperial lie, &c.

acres of ground in ten hours. Some men The following are the chief varieties : can sow 20 acres ; and double - handed The Potato, Poland, Angus, Blainslie, sowers will do even more than 20 acres. Hopetoun, Sandy, Tartarian, Tam Finlay, Harrowing after sowing. — The

Red and Dun oats, Canadian oats, Swiss tines of the harrows should be particu larly sharp when covering in seed upon

oat, &c.

Sowing.— The sowing of the oat seed lea . After the land is broken in with a is begun with the common varieties of double tine, it is harrowed across with a

oats about the beginning of March. It double tine, which cuts across the furrow is the custom in some parts to sow the crests, and then along another double

improved varieties a fortnight after the tine, and this quantity commonly suffices. common. The ploughed lea ground should At the last harrowingthe tines should be be dry on the surface before itis sown, as kept clean from grassy tufts, and no otherwise it will not harrow kindly ; but stones should be allowed to be dragged the colour of dryness should be distin- along by the tines, to the injuriousrub guished from that arising from dry hard bing ofthe surface. On old lea, or hard frost, a state improper to be sown upon.

land, another single tine across or angle

Every spot of the field need not be alike ways may be required to render the sur dry even thorough draining will not face fine; and,on the other hand, on light ensure that, thoughspots of wet indicate soil a single tine along after the double where dampness in the subsoil exists.

one across may suffice.

In short, the

Harrowing before Bowing. – Should harrowing shouldbe continued untilthe the lea have been ploughed some time ground seems uniformly smooth and feels

and from young grass, the furrow -slices firm under the foot. The head -ridges are will lie close together at seed-time ; but harrowed by themselves at the last. when recently ploughed, or from old lea, Water -furrow8. — If the land is liable

or on clay land in a rather wet state, the to suffer from surface-water, water- fur furrow -slices may be as far asunder as to rows may be formed in the open furrow,

allow a good deal of the seed to drop down between them, and thus be lost, as oats willnot vegetate beyond 6 or 7 inches deepin the soil. In such states theground

after sowing. But since underground drainage has become so general and thor ough, this practice has become almost a thing of the past.

Almost every Machine - sowing. should receive a double tine or strip of the harrow before being sown. This should farm with two or more pairs of horses,

holdings, has its broad the furrows and even smaller be done in every case unlessclos cast or drill sowing - machine . Hand ely. are small and packed quite

When oats are sownby hand upon dry sowing is thus being replaced by the ground and dance about before deposit- with machines, whether broadcast or drill, ing themselves in the hollows, in rows, is similar to that in sowing wheat and

lea ground , the grains rebound from the machine. The practice in sowing oats

accommodating themselves between the barley. To enable the drill to make crests of the furrow -slices, and do not so good work in sowing on ploughed lea, the readily show bad sowing as upon a smooth surface must be well broken up with the surface. Were the ground harrowed along harrow . Where the surface is rough,and

the ridges, so as not to disturb the seed the furrows tough, the broadcast machine in the furrow -slices, the crop would come would be preferable. up as if sown by drill ; but as the land

Improvements in Oat -culture.

is cross-harrowed, the braird comes up Until a comparatively recent period the cultivation of oats was much neglected.

broadcast.

Quantity of Seed .— The quantity of The prevailing idea amongst farmers common oats usually sown is from

to 5 seemed to be that any kind of culture, no matter how slovenly, was good enough

bushels to the acre . In deep friable land

in good heart, and in early districts, from

for this crop. Even yet, amongst the

3 to 4 bushels of improved varieties is less advanced districts, no great improve considered sufficient seed.

ment has been effected in this respect.

A man does a good day's work if he It remained for the enlightened Scotch

SOWING OATS.

213

farmer to lead the way towards placing depth, and not laid over close. To de

thecultivation of this crop in its proper termine which opinion is the more cor position, as being one of the most im- rect, it should be taken into account that portant operations of the farm . the roots of oats are fibrous, and permeate One old writer informs us that “ of all through the soil to a greater depth than

the plants commonly cultivated in the the roots of barley. This being their field , oats seem to have the greatest character, a good depth of furrow will be power of drawing nourishment from the best for oats. Much of course will de soil, and hence, are justly considered as pend upon the depth and the character

greatly exhausting the land ; " and, by of the soil and of the subsoil ; but as a way of proof, he tells us that “ oats are rule, it is considered undesirable to plough generally the last crop which would re- lea shallower than 7 inches, to afford a turn any increase of the seed." considerable amount of pabulum to the The principal reason is, we suspect, roots of the plants. that oats are a deep-rooted plant, and

Thick and Thin Sowing. — An un

can search for food over a greater area certainty still exists in the minds of than the other corn crops.

farmers whether thick or thin , drill or

Ploughing for Oats. — Difference of broadcast, sowing of oats is the better opinion exists as to the depth to which mode. Experiments have been madeon lea ground should be ploughed for oats. both thesepoints. Mr A. Bowie, Mains

One opinion is that a depth of4 inches of Kelly, Forfarshire, sowed, in 1856, oats is sufficient, with the furrow -slices laid at 5 bushels and 272 bushels the Scotch down close ; others contend that the acre, on two farms, and the results were land should be ploughed 9 inches in as follows : At West Scryne Farm .

to 18 Increase of corn after 2y bushels per acre over 5 bushels = 6 bushels at 255. per quarter, 1 straw 7 = 95 stones imperial at 34 d. , Saving of seed o 7 = 24 bushels at 258. per quarter, 11

11

Total saving, At Mains of Kelly Farm .

9

£2 14

2

Increase of corn after 2 bushels per acre over 5 bushels = 674 bushels at 28s. per quarter, &I0 103 straw = 30 stones imperial at 4d. per st. o 8 = 212 bushels at 28s. per quarter, Saving of seed

9

II

Total saving,

£2 2

7 o

4

Gross produce at Scryne after 24 bushels per acre seed = Ji quarters 2 %, bushels. 11

Kelly

11

!!

= IO

Total,

21

11

O

22

Gross produce at Scryne after 5 bushels per acre seed = 10 quarters 4 % bushels. 11

Kelly

=

11

Total,

9

1%

19

574

11

The land in both cases was pressed with duced i dr. 15/, bushel per acre more. the presser-roller. Experiments in drill- The experimenters recommend from 372 sowing with oats in Nairnshire gave these to 4 bushels of oats, and 3 bushels of results :

barley, of seed per acre. Sowing Mixed Varieties. — Experi

After 6 bushels per Scotch acre, 5 qrs. 24 lb. weight of grain 40 % Ib. per bushel.

ments have shown that a mixture of

After 45 bushels per acre, 6 qrs. weight of grain 39 % lb. per bushel. 11

varieties of oats sown together may pro duce a heavier crop than when sown singly. For example : J. Finnie of

In another experiment, where 472 bushels Swanston obtained, when sown singly, of oats per Scotch acre were sown with from potato oats 74 bushels, Hopetoun the drill, and 6 % bushels with the broad- 65, early Angus 63, sandy 56 to 61 ; cast machine, the broadcast looked best whereas, when mixed, these results were

throughout the season, but the drill pro- obtained : Hopetoun 5 parts, and Kil

SEED-TIME.

214

drummie i part, produced 85 bushels; soda applied as a top -dressing give good Hopetoun and sandy, 80 ; Hopetoun and results when the land requires manuring. early Angus, 76 ; potato and early Angus, The nitrate is specially useful when a

66 ; and potato and sandy, 66 bushels. bulky crop of straw is desired. Common It thus appears that potato oats alone dressings consist of from 12 to i cwt. of produced 8 bushels more than when sown nitrate of soda, and from 1 to 2 cwt. of with either early Angus or sandy oats ; superphosphate. On light land a little

that Hopetoun, with Kildrummie, pro- potash is sometimes applied with advan duced 20 bushels more than when alone, tage. Guano is also a capital dressing with sandy 15 more, and with early for oats. Angus 11 more. But the practice of top -dressing oats is Thus an average of 13 bushels more not general. The oat crop, indeed , re per acre was obtained by mixing seeds ceives less manure in direct applications of oats of different varieties than when than any of the other ordinary farm sown singly, and that from a space of crops- that is, when the oats follow ground which took 6 bushels of seed .

either grass or roots.

Of course when

It must be borne in mind that, in mix- the oats follow another corn crop some ing varieties of oats, the varieties to be dressing is considered necessary. mixed should come to maturity at the

same time. It would be interesting to hear this physiological differencebetween

ROLLING LAND.

potato and Hopetoun oats explained

the potato yielding the larger produce by The common land -roller is an imple itself, while the Hopetoun required other ment of simple construction, the acting varieties to stimulate it to a larger pro- part of it being a cylinder of wood, of duction. stone, or of metal. Simple, however, Oats and Barley Mixed . — Another

as this implement appears, there is

practice prevalent in the north of Scot- hardly an article of the farm in which land is to sow a mixture of barley and the farmer is more liable to fall into oats in the proportion of 4 bushels of error in its selection. oats to i bushel of barley. Good results

From the nature of its action, and its

ensue, especially on land where oats, after brairding, become thin or die out. The gross produce is greatly increased, and an excellent food for horses and

intended effects on the soil, there are two elements that should be particularly kept in view — weight and diameter of the cylinder. By the weight alone can the cattle is obtained. desired effects be produced in the high It is more than probable that the est degree, but these will be always greater produce which is thus obtained modified by the diameter. Thus, a cy

from a mixture of oats and barley than linder of any given weight will produce from either alone, is that oats and barley a greater pulverising effect if its diameter search for their food in different layers is 1 foot, than the same weight would

of the soil - oats penetrating to a consid- produce if the diameter were 2feet;but erable depth, whilst barley confines its then the one of lesser diameter will be search mainly to the upper portion of the much heavier to draw ; hence it becomes necessary to choose a mean of those

soil.

Manuring for Oats . - In its manurial opposing principles. In doing this, the requirements oats are not much different material of the cylinder comes to be from barley.

They abstract a little more considered .

nitrogen and potash, and about the same Wood , which is frequently employed quantity of phosphoric acid. Oats re- for the making of land -rollers, may be quire more moisture than either wheat considered as least adapted of all ma

or barley , and delight in soils enriched terials for the purpose. Its deficiency of by decayed vegetable matter. Thus oats weight and liability to decay render it give large yields on land newly reclaimed , objectionable. Stone, though not defi

or on land whierch hassbeen for a consider- cient in weight, possesses the one marked und able time

gras .

disadvantage of liability to fracture.

Superphosphate of lime and nitrate of This of itself is sufficient to place stone

ROLLING LAND.

215

rollers in a doubtful position as to fit- cwt. But some think it better that the

ness. Iron and steel are undoubtedly roller itself should be rather under these the most appropriate of all materials weights, and that the carriage be fitted for this purpose . up with a box, in which a loading of Diameter and Weight of Rollers. stones can be stowed , to bring the ma

- There has been much discussion from chine up to any desired weight. Such a time to time as to the most advantage- box is, besides, useful in affording the ous diameter for a land - roller.

The

means of carrying off from the surface of

preponderance of practical evidence is the ground any large stones that may to the effect that a diameter of 2 to have been brought to the surface by the 22 feet is, under every circumstance, previous operations. the one that will produce the best effects Divided Roller. - In a large and with a minimum of labour from the ani- heavy roller, in one entire cylinder, the --

mals ofdraught. In many cases, however, rollers of less as well as of greater diameter are in use. The weight is, of course, proportioned to the force usually

inconvenience ofturning at the headlands is very considerable, and has given riseto the improvement of having the cylinder in two lengths. This, with a properly

applied , generally 1 but often 2 horses. constructed carriage, produces a very The weight of roller, including the frame convenient form of land-roller. Fig. 275

corresponding to this, is from 10 to 15 is a perspective of the land -roller con

a a Carriage- frame.

Fig. 275. - Cast- iron land - roller. b Horse-shafts. c Cylinder.

dd Iron stays.

Water -ballast Roller. — A very con structed on the foregoing principles, with the carriage-frame crossed by the horse- venient form of roller, made by Barford

shafts. The cylinder is in 2 lengths of 3 & Perkins, Peterborough, is represented feet to 3 feet 3 inches each, and 2 feet in diameter ; the thickness of the metal is according to the weight required: The axle, in consequence of the cylinder being in two lengths, requires to be of considerable strength, and of malleable iron ; upon this the two sections of the

in fig. 276. It is made in two enclosed cylinders of wrought iron, formed so that by filling or partially filling the cylinders with water, the weight of the roller may be varied as desired . These water-ballast rollers are made of many sizes for field and garden work, and are exceedingly

cylinder revolve freely, and the extremi- convenient to work and move about. A

ties of the axle are supported in bushes water-baMast roller, 2 feet in diameter, in the semicircular end - frames. Two weighs about 11 cwt. when empty, and iron stay -rods pass from the end -frames 22 cwt. when quite full of water . to the shafts as an additional support to

Process of Rolling. — The rolling is

the shafts.

always effected across the line of ridges. Excellent rollers are now made of steel Otherwise the open furrows would not

sheets fixed on wrought or cast - iron receive any benefit from it. Although ends.

the dividing of the cylinder into two

SEED-TIME.

216

parts facilitates the turning of the implement, it is not advisable to attempt to turn the roller sharply round, as part of the ground turned upon may be rubbed hard by the cylinders, with the result

land as to moisture must be considered .

The young braird on strong land is much retarded when the earth becomes en crusted by rain after rolling, so that such land in wet districts is in rainy seasons

that young plants may be injured or not rolled until the end of spring, when the plant has made some progress, and killed. The rolling is sometimes executed in the weather continues dry. Light friable feers of 30 yards in width, hieing the dry land should be rolled immediately

horses one-half of the feering, and hup- after the seed is sown and harrowed, if ping them in the other half. This, how- there is time to do it. But the rolling of ever, is unnecessary with care at the

one field should not be allowed to cause

delay in the sowing of others in dry weather. There will be plenty of time to roll the ground after the oat seed and other urgent operations at this season are finished.

On the other hand, the rolling is most effective in securing smoothness in the surfaceimmediately after har

rowing has been completed. Fig. 276. — Water-ballast roller.

And for the sake of the reap

ing-machine a smooth surface turning. When the ploughman becomes is of much importance. fatigued with walking, itmay be allowIn preparing land for grass and clover

able for him to sit on the front of the seeds the roller is not, as a rule, used so framing, where a space is either boarded much as it should be.

An even firm

or wrought with hard -twined straw -rope, seed -bed is of the utmost importance for as a seat from whence to drive the horses these tiny seeds. with double reins and whip. With this

indulgence, an old ploughman , employed GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CORN CULTURE. only in ploughing, could take the rolling when urgent work was employing the stronger horses in the cart.

The sowing of the chief cereal crops has thus been dealt with very briefly.

Speed in Rolling.– Were a 6 -feet Much more might have been said on the

roller to proceed uninterruptedly for subject, but there seems to be little ne ten hours, at the rate of 272 miles

cessity for describing at great length

per hour, it would roll about 18 operations which are so simple as the acres ; but what with the time spent in cultivation of corn . Of all important

the turnings and the markings- off of work upon the farm this is, perhaps, the feerings, 10 to 12 acres a - day may be most simple and the most uniform in considered a good day's work. When the methods of procedure. The simplicity and the universality of the weather is favourable, and a large

extent of ground has to be rolled, it the general principles of corn cultivation is a good plan to work the roller from are well shown by Professor Wrightson dawn to nightfall, each horse or pair, as in the following admirable epitome: “ No business pursuit is easier than the case may be, working 4 hours at a time. In this way, 16 hours' constant corn cultivation, and this is why we have rolling, from 4 in the morning till 8 such millions of bushels of corn thrown at night, may be obtained in the course in upon us. It is a cheap cultivation. of 24 hours, and from 25 to 30 acres All we have to do is to plough the land, rolled with one roller.

Time for Rolling. — The usual time

throw on the seed, and scratch it in. Of

course we must do this at the right time

for rolling is immediately after the seed of the year, and in the proper manner. has been sown. But the condition of the When we take wheat or barley, or oats

ROLLING LAND.

217

(to be sown in the autumn or winter), the sheep left it, their manure would not after a root cropped on the land, a very be sufficiently intermixed with the soil, general method of cultivation is as fol- and inconsequencethe barley would grow lows : We first plough about 4 inches irregularly in small rows, corresponding deep, then broadcast the seed upon the to the drills that had been manured for

newly turned up fallow, and put the har- the turnip crop . rows on and give it a really good har-

Preparing Turnip - land.— During

rowing , so as to break the compact fur- the time the land is gradually being pre row and cover the seed thoroughly — that pared for barley seed , as the sheep clear is all. Protect it from the ravages of the the ground of turnips, the stubble-land,

birds, and in the spring of theyear roll which had been ploughed in autumn and and harrow it, and that is pretty much in winter, and is to bear green crops the cultivation of corn after roots. A great deal of corn is taken after grass and clover crops ; and the cultivation of either oats or wheat, or barley after lea,

in the ensuing season, should be cross ploughed, andcultivated, as opportunity offers —— that is, if the sowing of the oat seed is also finished.

is much the same thing. We plough and

Harrowing before Cross - plough press, and often sow the seed upon the ing. — The portion of the stubble-land pressed furrow and harrow it in. first to be cross-ploughed is for beans.

“ Again, in other cases we plough, Every winter - ploughed field for cross press, or heavily roll, harrow repeatedly, ploughing in spring is freed from large and drill. That again is the whole of clods by harrowing . The winter's frost the cultivation.

Corn crops sometimes may have reduced the clods of the most

follow peas or beans, in which case the obdurate clay soil, and the mould -board plan would be to dung the surface, and of the plough may thus be able to pul then proceed as before, ploughing in the verise them fine enough, while the lighter

dung , and either broadcasting or else soils may have no clods upon them . producing a proper seed -bed with the use

In

this case it would seem loss of time to

of the harrow, and drilling in the corn . " 1 harrow the ground before cross-plough Insect attacks upon corn and other ing, and some farmers do not then use

crops are dealt with in a special chapter. the harrow ; yet, in the majority of cases, the harrowing will be found beneficial. CROSS -PLOUGHING LAND.

One cannot be sure that, in the strongest soil, all the clods have been reduced to

The first preparation for barley seed the heart by frost ; and should any be after turnips is ploughing the land across buried by the cross - furrow while still

at right angles to the existing ridges. hard, they will not afterwards be so easily The surface of the ground where sheep pulverised amongst the soft soil as when consume turnips is left in a smooth state, exposed upon the harder surface of the trampled firm by the sheep, presenting winter-furrow . Then in the lightest soils, no clods of earth but perhaps numbers of the harrows not only make a smoother small round stones, which should be re- surface, but intermix the surface dry

moved with carts before the cross-plough- frost - pulverised soil with the moister ing is begun. The small stones are use- and firmer soil below, as far as the tines ful for drains, or to repair farm roads, of the harrows can reach. and the large stones for dykes.

There is not much time lost in harrow

A plough then feers the ground for ing before cross-ploughing ; and although cross- ploughing. The reason that land

it should require a double tine to pulver

is cross-ploughed for barley, and not for ise the clods, or equalise the texture of spring wheat, after turnips eaten off by the ground, it should be across instead

sheep, is, that wheat thrives best when the of along the ridges, to fill up the open soil is firm and not too much pulverised furrows with soil,whether the land had —whereas the land cannot be in too fine been previously ploughed with gore-fur a condition for barley.

Moreover, if the

rows or not.

turnip -land were not cross-ploughed after

If time presses, the feerings for cross ploughing may be commenced by one

1 Prin . of Ag. Practice, 136.

plough almost immediately after the har

SEED - TIME.

218

rows have started ; and if the harrows then return and finish the harrowing be cannot get away before the plough, the tween the feerings. Thus, in fig. 277, after the first feering first feering till the harrows have reached e f across the ridges has been ploughed, the second feering; or, still better, the the plough can either take a bout or two plough can takea bout or two round the

harrows can go along each feering, pre- round ef , till the harrows have passed paring the ground for the plough, and the next feering g h, or the harrows can aneste хотырезерттеу

a poza

P

6

r

h

k

m

t

с

Fig. 277. - Field feered for cross -ploughing .

go along the line of each feering, at 30 prosecuting every kind of field -work ; for yards' distance, first e f,then g h, then besides avoiding damage tofinished work,

i k , and so along l m and no in succes- it is gratifying to the mind that, as work sion, and prepare the ground for feer- proceeds, the approach is nearer home ;

ing, and then return and harrow out the while it conveys the idea of a well-laid and I and n. In this way the harrowing commenced at the farthest end and and feerings, and ploughing the feerings, finished at the gate, where all the im ground between e and 9, 9 and i, i and l, plan to have the operations of a field may go on at the same time.

plements meet, ready to be conveyed to

System of Cross - ploughing. – But if another field. The gate is like home, and time is not urgent, the systematic way is in most cases it is placed on the side or to feer the field across, at 30 yards' dis- corner of a field nearest the steading. Ploughing Irregular Fields.- Pecu tance, from e to n, across the whole field,

and the ploughs take up the feerings in liar forms of fields involve considerations

succession. To illustrate this more fully, in field operations of more importance suppose that all or as much of the field than mere convenience — as loss of time.

to be cross-ploughed has been harrowed It is always desirable to commence a feer

as will giveroom to a single plough to ingat a straight side of a field,whence in make the feerings without interruption. striking off the feerings parallelspaces of In choosing the side of the field atwhich groundare included. Where this precau

the feerings should commence, it is a good rule to begin at the side farthest from the gate and approach gradually towards it, because then the ends of the finished feeringswill not be passed, and

tion is neglected, much time is needlessly spent in ploughing anumber of irregular pieces of ground. It is better to leave all irregularities of ploughing to the last; and as an irregularity mustoccur along

the tramplingof the ploughed land be the side of a crookedfence, it is a saving avoided. The convenience of this rule is of time to throw the irregular ploughing felt not in cross-ploughing only, but in to that side.

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

219

In applying this rule to fig. 277, it so happens that the straighterside of the field is nearest the gate b, and the crooked fence, c to d, farthest from it. The feering, therefore, should begin along the side of the straightest fence a b, and terminate in anirregular spacealong the crooked fence

Ploughing the feerings is plain work ; but a hindrance occurs at the last and irregular feering aton — notthat any in tricacy is involved in ploughing irregular

ed.

pieces of ground, but theloss of time is

A straight feering could, no doubt

have been finished before the ploughs

entered the field, the ploughs all com mence at once.

be made at first near cd, leaving irreg- considerable. This feering is ploughed ularities between it and the fence ; but the setting off that feering exactly parallel with the straighter fence a b, to avoid making another irregularity at a b, would impose considerable trouble, and take up

like the rest, till the open furrow of the head -ridge is reached ; and if the head ridges are included in the feerings, the ploughing goes on till the ditch -lip or fence is reached ; but if the head-ridge is

more time than the advantage would to be ploughed with the side-ridges, the compensate for avoiding passing the ends last feering should be made at the open

of the ploughed ground along the side- furrow of the head -ridge at on, and the ridge, d to b, or of working from the gate bent head -ridge will beploughed with the b instead of to it. Let the first feering, side-ridges and upper head -ridge round then, be made about 7 or 8 yards from the field without leaving any unploughed the fence a b, or from the ditch-lip of the space at s. Had the field been a true rec fence where there is a ditch .

Ploughing Ridges and Feerings.-

tangle, like the space included within the

dotted lines an tb, the feering might have

Some farmers neglect the head -ridge in been struck from either fence, and there the cross-ploughing, and measure the would have been no loss of time in plough feering from the open furrow which di- ing alternate long and short furrows. Depth of Cross -furrow . — The depth vides the head -ridge and the ends of the ridges. The head - ridges ought to be of the cross-furrow varies with the char ploughed at this time along with the rest acter of the soil.

It is often , in good

of the field , for, if neglected now , the soil, deeper than the winter-furrow . The

busy seasons of spring and early summer deepness is easily effected by the plough will draw away attention from them, till, passing under the winter-furrow and rais what with trampling in working the green ing a portion of the fresh soil below it. crop and the drought of the weather, they

If the under soil is suitable, the 2 inches

will become too hard to plough, and will of fresh subsoil mix well with the thicker lose the ameliorating effects of sun and winter - furrow . air in the best part of the year. Cross - ploughing the first furrow in

In cross-ploughing the ridges of the spring is unsteady work for the plough

field,the head-ridges mustbe ploughed men , the open furrows presenting little in length, for they can never be cross- resistance to the plough compared with ploughed . But if it be desired to plough the crown of the ridge. the head -ridges with the side-ridges,which The depth of the cross-furrow may form the head -ridges in cross-ploughing, vary from 8 to 12 inches, 10 inches being and the side-ridges must be ploughed be- quite common . Sometimes 3 horses are fore the crop can be sown upon them , the yoked in the plough, as in fig. 26, p. 97, first feering should be struck at 7 or 8 vol. i., for cross- ploughing. Grubbers or cultivators are now exten yards down the ridges from the side of

the head -ridge, in the line of f e ; and sively employed in spring tillage. To feering is executed by throwing the fur- these operations fuller reference will be

row-slices right and left along the same found in the chapter dealing with sowing furrow , as already described in feering turnips .. ridges in fig. 33, p. 108, vol. i. The next feering is h g, at 30 yards' distance from

fe, and so on, feering at every 30 yards' SOWING GRASS SEEDS . distance, to the last feering on. As each feering is made , the ploughmen take it Any time after the middle of February up in succession ; and should the feerings until the middle of May, when the

SEED -TIME.

220

weather is dry, grass seeds may be sown. affording herbage early in spring and They are generally sown in company late in autumn , before and after other

with another crop ; and the crops they grasses have commenced or left off grow accompany are cereals.

ing. Its long fibrous roots and creeping habit are naturally adapted for moist situations.

VARIETIES OF GRASSES .

The grasses all belong to the natural

order Gramineæ. The following varieties

are those principally used in agriculture,

Alopecurus pratensis. (Meadow Foxtail.) Fr. Vulpin de prés.

Ger. Wiesen Fuchsschwanz.

and for the descriptions of these we are Roots fibrous, rootstock perennial. Stems i to indebted to Mr Martin H. Sutton, the author of ' Permanent Pastures,' as revised and greatly enlarged by his son, Mr Mar tin J. Sutton :

3 feet, erect and smooth. Leaves flat and scabrid ; sheath smooth and longer than its leaf ; ligule large and truncate. Panicle spike-like, cylindrical, and obtuse. Spike

Agrostis alba - var. stolonifera . (Fiorin , or Creeping Bent Grass.) Fr. Agrostide blanche stolonifere. Ger. Fioringras.

Roots creeping, rootstock perennial and stolon iferous.

Stems 6 inches to 3 feet.

Leaves

numerous, narrow , flat, short, and usually scabrid ; sheath smooth ; ligule long and acute. Panicle spreading, with whorled bran ches. Spikelets small, one-flowered. Empty glumes larger than flowering glumes, un equal, smooth, and awnless. Flowering

glumes slightly hairy at the base, with occasionally a minute awn .

Palea minute

and cloven at the point. Flowers from July to September . Grows in pastures and damp

places throughout Europe, Siberia, North Africa, and North America ( fig. 278).

Although none of the creeping bent grasses are considered particularly nu Fig. 279. - Meadow foxtail

( Alopecurus pratensis).

lets one - flowered, and laterally compressed. Empty glumes larger than flowering glumes,

awnless, but hairy on the keel. Flowering glumes with straight awn inserted at the middle of the back.

Palea none.

Flowers

from the middle of April to June. Grows

in meadows andpastures throughout Europe, North Africa, Siberia, and North -western India ( fig. 279).

Meadow foxtail is one of the earliest and best grasses for permanent meadows and pastures, and may also with advan

tage be included in mixtures for 3 or 4 Fig. 278.- Fiorin , or creeping bent grass

years' lea. It furnishes a large quantity

of nutritive herbage, produces an abund ant aftermath, and is eagerly eaten by tritious for cattle, yet this variety is all kinds of stock. The leaves are broad sometimes desirable in permanent mix- and of dark -green colour. The habit is ( Agrostis alba, var. stolonifera ).

tures, in consequence of its value in somewhat coarse, hence it is unfit for

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

221

lawns or bowling - greens, but its very fresh than in a dried state, but its very early growth recommends it as eminently pleasant taste, somewhat resembling suitable for ornamental park purposes. highly flavoured tea, is discernible at all

It succeeds best on well-drained, rich, stages of its growth. In point of pro loamy, and clay soils, makes excellent ductiveness, this grass is inferior to fox

hay, and should be included in a larger tail, cocksfoot, and other strong-growing or smaller proportion in most mixtures varieties ; but the quality is excellent,

for permanent pasture. Meadow foxtail the growth very early, and the plant is admirably adapted for irrigation. It continues to throw up flowering stalks also flourishes under trees, and should be till quite late in the autumn. On ac

sown plentifully in orchards and shaded count of the broad foliage, this grass is ill adapted for grounds where short grass is indispensable ; but for parks and plea Anthoxanthum odoratum . sure -grounds it is especially suitable, on

pastures.

(Sweet-scented Vernal.) Fr. Flouve odorante.

Ger . Gemeines Ruchgras.

account of its bright green colour. Pas tures in which this grass abounds natu

Roots fibrous, rootstock perennial. Stems rally ( such, for instance, as the extensive

1 to 2 feet,glabrous, and with sheep -grazing districts in Kent), produce tufted,erect, joints. Leaves hairy , fiat, and pointed ; the finest mutton ; and, both in a young few sheath ribbed and slightly hairy ; ligule state and when mixed with other varie at sum pointedlanceolate, spike-like, Paniclebelow hairy. Spikelets . , uneven mit

ţies, it is much relished bycattle and horses.

It is valuable in hay, as its

flavour enhances the price, and it also yields a good quantity offeed after the hay crop is cut. It constitutes a part of

the herbage on almost every kind of soil, particularly on such as are deep and moist. Avena flavescens.

( Yellow Oat-grass.) Ger. Goldhafer.

Fr. Avoine jaune.

Rootstock perennial, creeping, and somewhat stoloniferous.

Stems 1 to 2 feet, erect,

Fig. 280. - Sweet-scented vernal

(Anthoxanthum odoratum ).

one- flowered. Empty glumes in two pairs ; outer two much larger than the flowering glumes, unequal, hairy at the keels and pointed at the ends, but awnless ; second pair shorter and narrower than first pair, equal ; also hairy and both awned , one with

short straight awn insertedat the back near the summit, the other with long bent_awn inserted at the centre of the back . Palea adherent to the seed . Flowering glumes small, glabrous, and awnless. Stamens two. Anthers large. Flowers April and May.

Grows in fields, woods, and on banks throughout Europe, Siberia, and North Africa ( fig. 280 ).

To thepresence of this grass our sum mer hay-fields owe so much of their fra grance that it should be included in all

mixtures for permanent meadow or hay. The scent is less distinguishable in a

Fig. 281. - Yellow oat-grass

(Avena flavescens).

glabrous, and striated. Leaves flat, sheath slightly hairy ; ligule truncate and ciliated .

SEED-TIME.

222

Panicle spreading, with

many branches,

on drained clays and rich soils generally

broad at the base and pointed at the sum

mit. Spikelets small, three or four-flowered , it grows luxuriantly. The plant is a shining, and of a bright yellow colour. gross feeder, and must be liberally

Empty glumes unequal, keeled, and rough . treated to bring it to perfection. The

Flowering glumes hairy at the base and toothed at summit, with slender twisted awn springing from below the middle of the back .

seed needs to be buried more deeply than is safe with other grasses.

Palea narrow , short, and blunt.

Flowers June, July, and August.

Cynosurus cristatus. ( Crested Dogstail.)

Grows

in dry pastures throughout Europe, North Africa, and Asia ( fig. 281 ).

Fr. Cynosure cretelle.

This grass may easily be discerned in July by its bright golden cluster of flowers , and is among the latest varieties in coming to maturity. The leaves are of a pale - green colour, hairy, and al though they are not produced in great abundance, are much relished by cattle. It affords sweet hay, and yields a con-

siderable bulk of fine herbage. After the crop is cut for hay, a large aftermath is produced . This grass thrives on cal

Ger. Kammgras.

Rootstock perennial, stoloniferous. Stems tufted , height 1 to 2 feet, erect, smooth, and wiry. Leaves very narrow , ribbed, slightly hairy ; sheath smooth ; ligule short and bifid . Panicle spike -like, secund. Spike lets many - flowered, ovate, flat, with a barren spikelet consisting of empty glumes arranged in a pectinate manner at the base. Empty glumes sharply pointed , shorter than flower

ing glumes, unequal, with prominent rough Palea very thin, slightly ciliated .

keels.

Flowering glumes lanceolate, with short awn Flowers July and August.

at summit.

careous land, but is useless in moist low -lying pastures.

Grows in dry hilly pastures throughout Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa ( fig. 282 ).

Avena elatior.

Crested dogstail is a fine short grass,

and constitutes a considerable portion of (Holcus avenaceus, Arrhenatherum avenaceum .) the herbage of sheep -walks and deer (Tall Oat-grass.) Fr. Arrhénathère élevée.

parks.

It is found in most meadows,

Ger. Hoher Wiesenhafer.

Rootstock perennial, widely creeping. Stems 2 to 4 feet, erect and smooth ; leaves scabrid and flat ; sheath smooth ; ligule short and truncate.

Panicle erect

and

sometimes

slightly nodding at the apex, widely spread ing during flowering, closed before and after.

Spikelets two-flowered. Empty glumes un

equal and pointed. Flowering glumes two, the lower with long twisted awn, the upper with short straight awn. Flowers June and July. Grows in meadows and pastures throughout Europe, Africa, Asia, and America.

A strong - growing and rather coarse grass of good feeding quality. The flavour is slightly bitter, and on this account cattle do not at first manifest a

liking for it, but when mingled with other grasses the objectionable character

istic is imperceptible. Although this plant is classed among perennials, it can

Fig. 282. - Crested dogstail (Cynosurus cristatus).

not be relied on as strictly permanent, and therefore we do not advise its em

ployment for a longer period than three whether used for hay or grazing. Sin or four years. For alternate husbandry, clair describes it as forming “ a close

however, it may be freely sown among dense turf of grateful nutritive herbage, other grasses, and its presence will aug- and is little affected by extremes of ment the weight of the crop. On poor

weather.”

From our own experience

thin land tall oat-grass is useless, but and observation, we can fully indorse

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

the opinion of this eminent authority,

and recommend its being included in all best permanent mixtures.

We have

223

Europe, North Africa, North India, and This well -known grass grows luxuri

Siberia ( fig. 283 ).

especially noticed the beneficial results antly in deep rich soils and low -lying obtained by its use with other grasses in meadows. For the enormous quantity sheep -pastures; and it is generally be- of produce it yields, the rapidity with lieved that sheep fed on pastures con-

which it shoots forth again after having

taining dogstail are less liable to foot- been eaten or cut, andalso for the im relished rot than when fed on pastures composed portant fact of its being so much of the more soft -leaved varieties, On by horses and cattle, it is eminently acc