The Book of the Farm: Detailing the Labours of the Farmer, Farm-steward, Ploughman, Shepherd, Hedger, Farm-labourer, Field-worker, and Cattle-man [2, 4 ed.]

Table of contents :
Front Cover
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME
ANIMAL PORTRAITS PLATE DEVON BULL 14
RED POLLED BULL 15 16
SUSSEX
POLLED ABERDEEN-ANGUS BULL 17
GALLOWAY BULL
AYRSHIRE COW 19
WEST HIGHLAND COW AND CALF 20
KERRY AND DEXTER COWS 21
JERSEY COW 22
GUERNSEY COW 23
LEICESTER
COTSWOLD RAM 24 25
26
SHROPSHIRE RAM 27
GENERAL ILLUSTRATIONS SPRING
188
FIG PAGE FIG PAGE 135 12 22 240 Head of timothy with numerous ergots
Bullock-holder
Milking cows
Milk-pail 243 Milking-stool
Milking-tubes
Calf-rearing
Calf's-crib wicket
Calf-rearing in pure-bred herds
Lambing period-Details of man-
Shepherd's house on wheels 247 Shepherd's crook
Shropshire flocks
Hill flocks
Mode of holding a lamb for castra- tion
248
Abortion among ewes
Ewe and lamb house
Mountain turn-wrist snow-plough
Produce of lambs
Mountain snow-harrow
A word for dung
Phosphatic manures
Potassic manures
Application of manures
Rothamsted experiments
Frying-pan or lime shovel 253 Steel graip 254 Broadcast manure-distributor
Aberdeen and Sussex experiments
Fowler's double-furrow plough with single lever 25 256 Cooke's double-furrow plough 26
Apparatus for pickling wheat
Sowing-sheet and hand-sowing corn
English sowing-basket
Broadcast sower ready for work 60 261 Broadcast sower in transit 262 Horse-hoe
Broadcast hand-sower 84 264 Corn and seed drill 85 | 265 “Excelsior" seed-drill
Hand seed-drill 127 267 English iron harrows 128 268 Scotch iron harrows
Presser-roller
Saddle drill-harrow
Cast-iron land-roller
Sweet-scented vernal
Italian rye-grass
Common yellow clover or trefoil 233 329 Vertical section of style and stigma
Swine in spring
Soil with water and without air 240 334 Common spade
The weather
SUMMER
Summer farm-work
Hay-knife
189
Hemp
Sowing turnips
Square mode of planting hops 329 367 Organs of fructification in wheat
Drill-plough
196
Manuring turnips
Scotch drill-scuffler or horse-hoe 366 | 379 Wheat-midge
Horse-hoe and harrow
Sowing mangels
Kohl-rabi, carrots, and parsnips
Cross-fertilisation of grain
eelworm
Hop-jumper
Turnip saw-fly
Insect pests
Section through a fragment of
Anbury or club-root-early stage
Live stock in summer
Salt-roller
Sheep-washing
Washing-pool and sheep-washing
Clipping with the left hand
Third stage of clipping a sheep
Weaning lambs
Punching-nippers for sheep
Treatment of bulls
Opened bull's ring
Sandringham dairy herd recoriler 476 455 Wooden chesset or cheese mould

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NYPL RESEARCH LIBRARIES

3 3433 00763000 1

L

slephens

THE

BOOK

OF

THE

FARM

çtci VPC

Wherefore come on , O young husbandman ! Learn the culture proper to each kind . VIRGIL.

THE

BOOK OF THE FARM DETAILING THE

LABOURS OF THE

FARMER , FARM-STEWARD, PLOUGHMAY, SHEPHERD, HEDGER,

FARM -LABOURER, FIELD -WORKER , AND CATTLE -MAN

BY

HENRY STEPHENS , F.R.S.E. OORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL AND CENTRAL SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURE OF FRANCE ; OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF GALICIA ; OF THE AQRICI'LTURAL INSTITI'TE OF GOREGORETZK IN RI'SSIA : OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SWEDEN ; OF THE ROYAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY OF NORWAY

FOURTH

EDITION

REVISED, AND IN GREAT PART REWRITTEN, BY

JAMES OF THE AUTHOR OF

6

MACDONALD FARMING WORLD ';

FOOD FROM THE FAR WEST ' ; JOINT AUTHOR OF

" POLLED CATTLE, ' ' HEREFORD CATTLE ,' ETC. , ETC.

IN

THREE

VOLUMES

VOLUME

II .

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND EDINBURGH

AND

MDCCCXCI

LONDON

Vi

SONS

TO R AS

AR

BR

แ16731

Y JUN 2

NE 1893 W ORK Y

CONTENTS

OF VOLUME II .

PRACTICE- SPRING. PAGE

Field operations and spring weather Cattle in spring

I

9 9

The calving season Abortion . Calving Milking cows Calf - rearing

12

14 24

PAGE

Highland and Agricultural Society's experiments Seed- time Wheat Beans Peas

175 185 188 201

205 207

30 Barley

Details of calf-rearing

32

Oats

211

Calf-rearing in pure-bred herds

42

Rolling land, &c.

Sheep in spring

46

Grass seeds

214 219

The lambing season . Lambing period - Details of man agement

47

Varieties of grasses

Early market lambs :

61 62

Hampshire customs.

Varieties of clovers 60

Suffolk flocks .

65

Shropshire flocks

66 68 72

Scotch flocks Hill flocks

.

Varieties of grasses sown Seeds for rotation grasses

220

231 234 234

Grasses and clovers for permanent pasture Grasses for different soils

235

Standard seed mixtures Germination of seeds

235 239

235

After lambing

75

Different methods of sowing and

Abortion among ewes

Forage crops

Lambing table

80 86 87

Manures and manuring

89

Vetches Lucerne

Farmyard manure

94

Sainfoin

257

Rye . Cabbages Rape

258

Produce of lambs

A word for dung

IOI 102

Artificial manures

Nitrification Characteristics of nitrogenous man ures

Phosphatic manures

105

258 259 260 261 261 261

106

Planting potatoes

109

Tillage for potatoes .

119

Manuring potatoes

I 20

Details of planting .

265

Varieties of potatoes

271

Gypsum Gas- lime .

I 20 120 I21

121 .

242 254 255

256

Mustard

Potassic manures

Compound manures Economical purchasing of manures Analysis explained . Mixtures and mixing Application of manures

germination .

123 126

The boxing system of preparing

potato sets

274

Raising new varieties of potatoes Horses in spring The foaling season

Application of dung

126 Reviving weak foals .

Application of artificial manures Rothamsted experiments . Aberdeen and Sussex experiments

130

135

Rearing foals Weaning foals . .

169 | The mating season

276 281 281

283 283 288

289

CONTENTS.

vi

Swine in spring

290 | Hatching geese

Farrowing of sows Poultry in spring Hatching

290 292

Hatching ducks Hatching pea-fowls

292 Hatching pigeons 295 Paring and burning .

Hatching and rearing turkeys .

297 299 300 300

304

PRACTICE - SUMMER . Horses in summer

The weather

309

Summer farm -work .

314 Horses injured by green food :

Hay-stack for horses

316 318

Dairy work Dairy utensils .

Hemp

327

Power for the dairy .

Hop culture Sowing turnips

328 Milk

474

336

Cream -raising

479

Manuring turnips Sowing mangels

353

Similar other methods

375 Centrifugal separator

485

Kohl-rabi, carrots, and parsnips

383

Selling cream and skim -milk .

Summer culture of corn crops . Cross - fertilisation of grain

387

Butter -making .

486 487

Insect pests Fungoid attacks on crops

395 Churning 414 Butter-working

Flax culture

.

Important features in a churn

469 470 471 473 473

485

493 494 495 499

Live stock in summer

430

Butter extractor

Sheep in summer Sheep -washing Shearing of sheep

434 438 441 445 |

Cheese-making Cheddar cheese Quantity of rennet The curd .

Weaning lambs

452

Stilton cheese .

Dipping lambs Marking sheep Drafting sheep

454 454 456

Cheshire cheese Cream cheese Skim -milk cheese

500 505 507 507 511 512 513 513

Foreign cheeses suitable for Britain

514

Clipping with the left hand

Cattle in summer

458

Treatment of bulls

465 Associated butter and cheese making

Soiling

468

519

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II.

ANIMAL PORTRAITS. PLATE

DEVON

14

BULL

RED POLLED BULL

15

SUSSEX COW

16

POLLED ABERDEEN -ANGUS BULL

17

GALLOWAY BULL .

18

AYRSHIRE COW

19

WEST HIGHLAND COW AND CALF

20

KERRY AND DEXTER COWS

21

JERSEY

.

22

COW

GUERNSEY COW

LEICESTER RAM

23

24

.

COTSWOLD RAM SOUTHDOWN RAM

25 26

SHROPSHIRE RAM

27

GENERAL ILLUSTRATIONS. SPRING. FIG .

PAGE

240. Head of timothy with numerous 12

PAGE

FIG .

254. Broadcast manure-distributor 255. Fowler's double-furrow plough with

135

ergots 241. Bullock -holder

22

242. Milk -pail

25

256. Cooke's double-furrow plough

243. 244. 245. 246. 247.

26

257. Apparatus for pickling wheat

190

28

258. Sowing-sheet and hand -sowing corn 259. English sowing -basket

192 193

260. Broadcast sower ready for work

194 194

Milking-stool Milking-tubes Calf's -crib wicket Shepherd's house on wheels Shepherd's crook

33 51 60

248. Mode of holding a lamb for castra tion

.

single lever

.

261. Broadcast sower in transit 262. Horse -hoe

76 263. Broadcast hand -sower

249. Ewe and lamb house

84

250. Mountain turn-wrist snow -plough

85 | 265. “ Excelsior " seed -drill

251. Mountain snow-harrow .

252. Frying -pan or lime shovel 253. Steel graip .

86

189 189

264. Corn and seed drill 266. Hand seed -drill

127

267. English iron harrows

128

268. Scotch iron harrows

194 195 195 195

196 196 196

ILLUSTRATIONS .

viii 269. Presser-roller

199 | 307. Wheat plant in the state of germina

270. Action of theedge of presser-wheels 200 271. 272. 273. 274. 275. 276.

Clay's cultivator Broadshare cultivator Saddle drill- harrow Acme harrow Cast -iron land -roller Water -ballast roller

203 203 205

Meadow foxtail Sweet -scented vernal Yellow oat -grass Crested dogstail

242

309. Positions of seeds on regular furrows 243 310. Irregular braird upon regular fur. rows .

208

277. Field feered for cross -ploughing 278. Fiorin, or creeping bent grass 279. 280. 281. 282.

tion

308. Well-ploughed regular furrow -slices 242

215

311. 111-ploughed irregular furrow-slices

243 243

216

218

312. Irregular positions of seed on ill ploughed furrows

243

220

313. Irregular braird on ill- ploughed fur

220 221

row

243

222

314. Regular depth of seed by drill-sow : ing 315. Regular braird from drill-sown seed

283. Rough cocksfoot

223

316. Newberry's one-rowed dibbling .

284. Meadow fescue 285. Tall fescue

223

286. Sheep's fescue

225 225

221

224

.

287. Hard fescue 288. Perennial rye-grass

226

289. Italian rye-grass 290. Timothy

228 229

291. Smooth -stalked meadow -grass

229 230

.

292. Rough -stalked meadow -grass . 293. Evergreen meadow -grass 294. 295. 296. 297.

230

Perennial red clover Red or broad clover Perennial white clover Alsike clover ,

298. Common yellow clover or trefoil 299. Grass- seed iron harrows, with wings and swing-trees . 300. Chain harrows

302. Cloddy and stony soil

248

317. Newington's 6 -rowed dibbling-ma chine . 318. Double roots of deep-sown wheat 319. Roots of shallow -sown wheat . 320. Scotch drill- plough 321. Potato hand -basket

322. Triple drill-plough

249

250 250

267 269

.

.

323. Section of a flower 324. Horizontal section .

270

277 277

231 232

325. Vertical section of a potato -blossom 277

326. 232327. 233 328. 233 329.

277 Stamen discharging pollen 277 Pistil with pollen -grains on top Pollen -grain magnified . 278 Vertical section of style and stigma

237

330. 331. 332. 333.

278 Potato -plum . 278 Plum cut, showing seeds inside Potato -seed magnified 278 Sties for brood -sows under one roof 292

278

magnified

238

301. Carriage for conveying harrows, &c. 238 .

machine

243 244

240

303. Soil with water and without air

240

334. Common spade

304. Soil with air and without water 305. Soil with water and with air .

241 241

335. Flauchter-spade at work

306. Component parts of a grain of wheat

242

305

.

306 306

336. Paring-plough 337. Paring -sock

306

SUMMER.

338. Hay -knife 339. Lightning hay- knife

317

340. Crosskill's clod - crusher

318 | 363. Turnip hand -hoe . 364. Weed -hook

317

341. Side view of one wheel of the clod crusher

.

319

319 366. Organs of fructification in wheat

343. Square mode of planting hops 344. Quincunx mode of planting hops

329

345. Barclay and Sellar's patent digger or cultivator

346. Digging and pulverisingplough 347. Drill-plough 348. Farm tip-cart

349. Tip-cart going down hill 350. Cart tipped 351. Dung- spreading machine .

352. Turnip drill-sower . 353. Seed and water drill 354. Scotch drill-scuffler or horse - hoe

342 343

368 368 388

389 392

365. Steerage horse- hoe

342. Norwegian harrow .

329

368

361. Wardlaw's turnip -thinner 362. Improved hand -hoe

367. Organs of fructification in wheat 368. Bean aphis 369. Beet -fly

393 395 397 397 397 398 398

376. Large white cabbage butterfly

371. 346 372. 349 373. 350 374. 350 375. 351 | 376. 351 377.

Small white cabbage buttertly Grain aphis . Daddy longlegs Ribbon -footed corn -fly Corn saw -fly . Hessian fly Hessian fly attack on barley

399

399 399 400 400 401 402 402

352 378. Chlorops 366 | 379. Wheat-midge

355. English horse -hoe or turnip -scutler

366

356. Horse -hoe and harrow 357. Turnip horse-hoe .

366 381. False wire -worms 367 | 382. Ear cockles

358. M‘Kidd's drill-scarifier 359. Dickson's turnip -cleaner 360. Briggs's turuip -thinner .

367 367

380. Wire -worms .

403

383. Tulip -rooted oat plant infested by eelworm

367 | 384. Hop aphis

.

403 404

ILLUSTRATIONS . 405 405

385. Hop-jumper . 386. Red spider 387. Onion fly

406

388. Pea and bean weevils

406 407

389. Colorado beetle

407 408 409

390. Death's -head moth

391. Turnip -fly 392. The strawsoniser at work 393. Turnip aphis . 394. Dart moth

410

ix

421. Scalder and cooler .

478

422. White Wedgewood -ware milk -dish . 480 480 481 481

423. Enamelled iron milk -pan 424. Iron milk-pan 425. 426. 427. 428. 429.

Milk -sieve Cream -skimmer Cream -jar Movable milk -stand Swartz system

481 481 482 482

430. Cooley system 411 431. Devonshire cream stove . 411 395. Turnip saw -fly 412 432. Jersey creamer 396. Turnip saw -fly grub at work . 433. Speedwell cream-raiser 397. Section through a fragment of a potato -leaf 419 | 434. Speedwell method of skimming 398. Section through a fragment of old 435. De Laval separator 436. “ Baby ” separator . 421 potato -leaf 399. Anbury or club -root - early stage . 427 437. Speedwell cream -cooler . 400. Secure mode of fixing the hanging 438. The “ ladies' " plunge -churn

483

.

.

.

post of a field - gate 401. Salt - roller

432

402. Washing-pool and sheep -washing

439 442

433

403. Wool-shears .

439. Barrel churn . 440. End -over -end churn

.

.

churn and

.

492

443 444

443. Box churn

445

444. Speedwell crystal churn

407. New -clipped sheep.

446

445. Butter -worker

408. Rolling a fleece of wool

448 446. “ Délaiteuse ” centrifugal butter:

409. Fleece of wool rolled up

449 449

411. 412. 413. 414. 415. 416. 417. 418.

Weighing and packing wool Punching- nippers for sheep Buisting-iron for sheep . Branding-iron for sheep and cattle . Opened bull's ring . Closed bull's ring . Swivelled spring-hook Sandringham dairy herd recoriler

419. Temperature can

420. Lawrence's refrigerator .

.

.

455

451. Single cheese -press

465

452. Double cheese-press

466 453. Curd - knives . 467 454. Metal chesset or cheese mould 476 455. Wooden chesset or cheese mould 476 456. Curd -breaker

493 493

.

494

.

496

drier .

448. Butter -boxes . 449. Milk -vat 450. Curd -mill

477

.

447. Butter- beaters or boards,

455 455

450

486 491 491 491

butter

worker

404. First stage of clipping a sheep 405. Second stage of clipping a sheep 406. Third stage of clipping a sheep

410. White -shouldered wool-moth .

484 485 485 486

441. The “ Index Diapılıragm ” churn 442. Charlemont

483 484

.

.

.

497 497 498 500 501 501 502 507 508 508 509

66 DEVON BULI ,

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OLSELEY JY ."LORD

PLATE 14

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PLATE 20

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PLATE 23

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PLATE 24

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PLATE 27

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A CERAM

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NY

THE

BOOK OF

THE

FARM .

SPRING , FIELD OPERATIONS AND SPRING WEATHER .

of the newly risen sun are nearly level with the surface of the earth ; and this is

the time when the morning birds are in

In the vegetable world winter is the their finest song, when the earth and the season of repose, of passive existence, of air are in their greatest freshness, and dormancy, though not of death. Spring, when all nature mingles in one common

on the contrary,is the season of returning morning hymn of gratitude. There is life, of passing into active exertion, of something peculiarly arousing and streng hope, and of joy; of hope, as the world thening, both to the body and the mind, of life springs into view immediately in the early time of the morning ; and were we always wise enough to avail our the seed upon the ground — and of joy, in selves of it, it is almost incredible with contemplating with confidence therepro- what ease and pleasure the labours of the after the industrious hand has scattered

ductions of the herds and flocks.

It most diligent life might be performed.

would be vain to attempt to describe the When we take the dayby the beginning, emotions to which this delightful season we can regulate the length of it according

gives birth.

It is better that the pupil to our necessities; and whatever may be

of agriculture should enjoy the pleasure for himself; for “ the chosen draught, of which every lover of nature may drink, can be had, in its freshness and purity, only at the living fountain of nature ; and if we attempt to fetch it away in the

our professional avocations, we have time to perform them, to cultivate our minds, and to worship our Maker, without the one duty interfering with the other.”. The Morning of Life.— “ The day

spring of the morning leads us, by an

clay pitchers of human description, it easy and very natural transition, to the loses all its spirit, becomes insipid, and acquires an earthy taste from the clay." Early Rising and the Joys of Spring. To enjoy the beauties of spring

dayspring of human life, the morning of our sojourn upon earth ; and the parallels

between the commencement of life itself, and of those successive days by whichit

in perfection, “ it is necessary to take ad- is numbered , is a parallel the most strik life

vantage of the morning, when the beams ing. There is a freshness in VOL. II .

young А

SPRING.

2

which no experience can acquire for us at herd, too, has his painful watchings,day any future time ; and there is a newness and night, on the lambing ewes ; and his in every object, which is not felt after care of the tender lambs, until they are

years have passed over our heads. Our bodies are light, flexible, easily moved, and not liable to be injured. Our minds, too, never become wearied or listless ; and although the occupation and the thought

able to gambol upon the new grass, is a task of peculiar interest, and naturally leads to higher thoughts—“ we cannot refrain from thinking of the unspeakable condescension and kindness of Him who

are necessarily different from those of ' feeds His flock like a shepherd, gathers persons of mature age, they are far more the lambs into His arms, and carries them

energetic, and what is learned or done in His bosom, and gently leads those that takes a more permanent hold of the are with young.' Field -work in Spring. – The condi “There are many circumstances which tion of the fields demands attention as render the morning of life of far more well as the reproduction of the stock.

memory .

importance than the morning of an indi- The day now affords as many hours for vidual day. It is a morning to which labour as are usually bestowed at any no tomorrow morning can follow ; and season in the field. The ploughmen, therefore, if it is neglected , all is inevit- therefore, know no rest for at least ten

ably and utterly lost. We cannot exactly hours every day, from the time the har the loss of even one morning, rows are yoked for the spring wheat until

make up

though we can repair it a little by our the turnips are sown. The turnip land,

diligence in future mornings. We must bared as the turnips are consumed by bear in mind, however, that the means of sheep, or removed to the steading, is now

doing this are a mercy to us, and not a privilege that we can command as our own . We never know what a day may bring forth ; ' and as there daily occur around us instances in which the young and the strong are at once levelled to the

ploughed and prepared for spring wheat, barley, or oats that is, should the weather be mild and the soil dry enough . The first sowing is the spring wheat; then the beans, the oats, and the barley. The fields intended for the root crops then

dust, we never can be certain that the receive a cross-furrow, in the order of the demand shall not be made on ourselves— fallow crops—the potatoes first, thentur “ this night is thy soul required of thee. ' nips, and lastly the bare fallow , if there But if it is thus perilous to neglect one should be any, which is now very ex

morning out of many, how much more ceptional. perilous to neglect the one morning of a This is the course followed with the

life - a life granted by a beneficent God, root-land inmany cases, but where the in a world full of the wonders of His stubbles are ploughed with a strong loose power, capable of enjoyment, and deny furrow in early winter, the soil is so

Him service while it lasts, and in the ful- pulverised by the influences of winter, ness of time entering,through the atone- that spring ploughing may be unneces

ment of the eternal Son ,a life of bliss sary, grubbing and harrowing being suffi which shall have no end ! ” Cares of Stock -owners in Spring.-

cient to bring it into the required con

dition .

This will, of course , much de

Spring is the busiest of all seasons on the pend upon the nature and condition of farm . The cattle-man, besides continu- the land.

Stiff, dirty land will most

ing his attendance onthefeeding cattle , likely have tobe cross-ploughed in has nowthemore delicate task of waiting spring, andgrubbed once oreven twice on the cows at calving, and providing as well. comfortable lairs for new -dropped calves. Grass seeds are then sown amongst the

Thedairymaid commences her labours, not in thepeculiar avocations ofthe dairy, inrearing calves — the support of" but future herd . The farrows of pigs also claim a share of attention. The shep1 Mudie's Spring , 12-15 .

young autumnalwheat, as wellas amongst the spring wheat andthe barley or oats. d -workers devote their busy hours Thefielryi to car ng seed to the sower,turning dunghills in preparation the continu manure the potato for and turnip of crops, ing the barn-work to supply litter for the

FIELD OPERATIONS AND SPRING WEATHER .

3

stock yet confined in the steading, and arctic spring, in which the snow melts to prepare the seed -corn for the fields. without rain, and the meads are covered The hedger resumes his work of water- with vernal flowers ere the last traces of tabling and scouring ditches, cutting winter have disappeared. Possessing

down and breasting old hedges, and this variability in its atmospherical phe taking care to fence with paling the young quicks upon the hedge-bank, which he may have planted at the commencement and during fresh weather in winter, as also to make gaw -cuts in the sowed

nomena, spring presents few having pecu liarities of their own , unless we except

fields.

occur in February. East Wind.So invariable is the

The steward is now on the alert, urges

the cold unwholesome east wind which

prevails from March to May, and the very heavy falls of snow which occasionally

the progress of every operation, and in- phenomenon of the east wind in spring, trusts the sowing of the crops to none that every person who dwells on the east but himself, or atried hand, as the skil- coast of Great Britain is quite familiar

ful hedger , or ploughman experienced in the management of an approved cornsowing machine. Thus every class of labourers have their work appropriated

with it, having felt its keenness and known its aptitude to produce catarrhal, pulmonary, and rheumatic affections. In its dread, many migrate to a milder

for them at this busy season ; and as climate until summer shall have set in.

the work of every one is individually An explanation of this remarkable phe defined, it is scarcely possible for so nomenon has been given by Mr Samuel great a mistake to be committed as Marshall. “ In Sweden and Norway," that any piece of work should be ne- he observes, “ the face of the country is covered with snow to the middle of May glected by all. The Farmer's Duties in Spring.-

The farmer himself now feels that he

or longer.

This frozen covering, which

has been formed during winter, grows

must be “ up and doing.” His mind be- gradually shallower to the 15th or 16th of comes stored with plans forfuture execu- May, oruntil the sun has acquired 17 ° or tion ; and in order to see them executed

18° N. declination ; while, on the other

at the proper time and in the best man- hand, the valleys and mountains of ner, he must now forego all visits, and England have received an accession of 24° or 25º. On this account, when the tem perature of Sweden and Narway is cooled hasty and occasional an most undertake

remain at home for the season ; or at

down by snow to 32°, that of Britain is 24° or 25° higher than that of the preced ing countries. Because, while the ground is covered with snow , the rays of the sun aswell as body becomes fatigued, and, are incapable of heating the air above 32°,

journey to the market town to dispose of other pressing transact and work surplus cornThe business. of the fields now requiring constant attendance, his mind

on taking the fireside after the labours of the freezing-point.

For this reason the

the day are over, the farmer seeks for air of England is 24° or 25° more heated rest and relaxation rather than mental

than that of the before -mentioned coun

of Sweden and Norway toil. He should at this season pay par- tries. Theofaircourse , by the law of com ticular attention to the state of the wea- will then, ther, by observing the barometric, and parative specific gravity, displace that of thermometric changes, and make it a England, and, from the relative situation

point to observe every external pheno- of those countries with this country, will menon that has a bearing upon the produce a N.E. wind. The current is in

changes of the atmosphere, and be guided common stronger by day than by night, accordingly people. in giving his instructions to because the variation of temperature is at his that time the greatest, being frequently Weather in Spring . — The weather in from 50° to 60° about noon , and sinking spring, in the zone we inhabit, is exceed- to 32° in the night.”" 1 ingly variable, alternating, at short inSpring Winds. — All the seasons have

tervals, from frost to thaw, from rain to their peculiar influence on the winds. snow, from sunshine to cloud - very dif ferent from the steady character of the

1 Brewster's Jour. Sci., viii. 39.

SPRING .

4

" In spring,” says Schouw, " E. winds we need corresponding observations, em are common ; at certain places in March, bracing a great number of localities," 1 at others in April. They diminish the an advantage now very efficiently pro

force of the W. current, which in many vided by the Royal Meteorological countries is at that time weaker than Society and the Scottish Meteorological during the rest of the year. The relation Society. The character of the winds in spring of N. to S. winds is not constant, and varies according to the localities. In is, that they are very sharp when coming

some the direction is more N., in others from the N. or N.E. direction ; and they more S., than the mean direction of the are also frequent, blowing strongly some year.”

“ When winds come from distant

times from

the E. and sometimes from

countries, they possess a part of the pro- the W. In the E. they are piercing, perties by which those countries are char- even though not inclining to frost ; in

acterised ,” is an observation of Kaemtz. the W. they are strong, boisterous, “ Thus the W. winds, that blow from the squally, and rising at times into tre sea, are much more moist than the E., mendous hurricanes, in which trees es which traverse continents. The latter, cape being uprooted only in consequence

particularly when they are N.E.,are very of their leafless state, but by which cold , especially in spring ; and they give many a hapless mariner is overtaken rise to a great number of rheumatic affec- and consigned to a watery grave, or tions. The very opposite sensations, pro- dashed without mercy on a rocky shore. duced by violent S. or N. winds, aremuch Snow in Spring.- Very frequently more marked in countries whose inhabit snow covers the ground for a time in spring The severest snow storms and Kaemtz further explains the cause of falls usually occur in February. Truly

ants live in the open air.”

the very variable nature of the wind in awful is a storm of snow in spring our countries. After having mentioned amongst the hills. that the two great leading currents of

It is a serious affliction to the sheep

wind on the globe are the N.E. and farmer when a severe and protracted S.W., he observes that " meteorological snowstorm occurs in spring. The losses registers present to us the indication of caused by the storm are often very great, a great number of winds which blow especially in breeding flocks, where lambs from all parts of the horizon. When we are sometimes lost in hundreds daily.

compare corresponding observations made Then by providing extra food for sheep in many localities in Europe, we are not in spring storms, the sheep -farmer's out slow in recognising that thosewinds in- lays are frequently increased to a serious volve no other causes than difference of extent. Clouds in Spring. — The prevailing temperature. Suppose, for instance, that a general S.W. wind occupies the upper clouds in spring are the same as in win

regions, but that the W. part of Europe ter —— namely, the cirro-stratus, which is very hot, whilst the E. regions remain more frequently gathers itself into the

very cold, with a clouded sky, thediffer- cumulo - stratus, and hovers about the ence of temperature will immediately horizon, and either subsides entirely be

give rise to an E. wind ; and when this low it on the approach of frost at night, wind meets that from the S.W. there

or veils the zenith in the daytime in the

will be a S.E. wind, which may be trans- form of cirro-stratus ; but the cumulo formed into a true S. wind. stratus of spring presents a very different “ These differences of temperature ex- aspect to what it does in summer, having

plain the existence of almost all winds. generally a well-defined though ragged heated, and that there is no prevailing rency or clearness, which is preserved

Now, suppose that a region is unusually margin, and a peculiar look of transpa wind, then the cold air will flow in on all

even when the clouds become purple or

sides ; and according as the observer is nearly black . in the N., the E., the S. , or the W., he Rain in Spring. The character of will feel a different wind blowing from rain in spring is sudden, violent, and the corresponding points of the horizon. However, to put the fact beyond doubt,

1 Kaemtz's Cour. Metcoro., 50-54.

FIELD OPERATIONS AND SPRING WEATHER.

cold, not unfrequently attended with

February.

hail.

Evaporation in Spring. — Evapora-

5

February fill dyke, be it black or be it white :

:

tion is quick in spring, especially with But if itbe white, it's the better to like. E. wind, the surface of the ground Thehindhas as leif see his wife on the bier, an being as easily dried as wetted. Thus As that Candlemas day should be pleasant and clear.

two or three days of drought will raise the dust in March, and hence the cold

If Candlemas day be fair and clear,

felt on such occasions.

The half o' winter is to gang and mair ; But if Candlemas day be foul,

Prognostics of Spring . – The weather The half o' winter is gane at Yule.

in spring may be regarded as the key stone to that of the ensuing seasons.

Its

March.

indications are analogous to those of cirri, which make the first movement in March hack ham , comes in like a lion, goes out like a lamb. the upper regions of the sky when a of March dust is worth a king's ran change is about to take place in the A bushel som . tics of spring are therefore worthy of March grass never did good. March, and a showery April, make a attention , and the enumeration of a few A windy beautiful May. of them may point to that class of

state of the atmosphere. The prognos

windand Marchclothes May sun phenomena which deserves the greatest Make white and maids dun.

attention at this season .

Dalton says that the barometer is at So many frosts in March, so many in May. the lowest of all during a thaw following March many weathers. a long frost, and is often brought down March birds are best. by a S.W. wind. When the barometer is near the high extreme for the season

April.

of the year, there is very little probabil ity of immediate rain ; when the bar- April showers bring forth May flowers. ometer is low for the season , there is When that Aprilis with her showery soote

seldom a great weight of rain, though a The droughte of March had pierced to the roote.

fair day in such a case is rare ; the

general tenor of the weather at such When April blowshis horn, times is short, heavy, and sudden It's good both for hay and corn. showers , with squalls of wind from the A cold April the barn will fill.

S.W., W., or NW. When the appear. The borrowing days—the last days of ance of the sky is very promising for March and the first days of April— are fair weather, and the barometer at the proverbially stormy. This well-known sametimelow,it may be depended upon rhyme is regarding them :

that the appearances will not long con tinue so ; the face of the sky changes

March said to Averil,

very suddenly on such occasions. Very

Do you see thae hoggs on yonder hill ? If ye lend me days three,

dark and dense clouds pass over without

rain when the barometer is high ; whereas, when the barometer is low , it sometimes rains almost without any appear ance of clouds.

A sudden and extreme

I'll do my best to gaur them dee. The first day was wind and weet, The second day was snaw and sleet,

The third day was sic a freeze As festen'd the birdies to the trees ;

But when the three days war come and gane,

change in temperature, either from heat A’ the wee hoggies gaed hirplin' hame. to cold, or from cold to heat, is generally Birds in Spring Storms. — During a followed by rain within 24 hours. Weather Proverbs.- Many prognos- snowstorm in spring, wild birds, becom tics of the weather have been received as ing almost famished, resort to the haunts

proverbs by the country people ; and as ture experience, we may rely on their

of man .

The robin is a constant visitor,

these have become current only after ma- and helps himself with confidence to the

crumbs placed for his use.

The male

accuracy. These are a few relating to partridge calls in the evening within spring :

sight of the house, in hopes of obtaining

SPRING.

6

some support before collecting his covey to be at all aware how strong the tie is together for the night to rest upon the which binds man even to a little spot of snow. his native earth , if so be that he can Hares have been known to come to the consider it as his own, and that he him

door in the evening, and through the self, and those on whom he loves to be night in the moonlight, to receive the stow it, are to enjoy the fruit. food set down for them.

Rooks now

“ This is the very strongest natural hold which binds a poor manto his coun try, and to all those institutions estab lished for the wellbeing of society. Show

make desperate attacks upon the stacks, and will soon make their way through the thatch. Beginning their attacks at the top, they seem to be aware of the exact place where the corn can be most easily reached. Sparrows burrow in the

suckles on which are neatly trimmed and trained, and the garden behind is well

thatch ; and even the diminutive tomtit,

stocked with culinary herbs and a few

me the cottage, the roses and the honey

with a strength and perseverance one choice flowers, and I will speedily find who never wastes his time should suppose beyondits ability, pulls you a cottager or debases his mind, and learns

out whole straws from the side of the

ormoney,

stacks, to procure the grain in the ear.

' the broad road which leadeth to destruc

Further on in spring, the insect world tion,' in the contamination of an alehouse. come into active life in myriads, to serve If the garden is neat, one may rest as as food for the feathered tribes. Rooks, sured that the cottage, however humble

with sturdy walk and independent gait, it is, is the abode of contentinent and

diligently search the ground for them , in happiness; and that, however simple the thewake of the plough, and feed their fare may be, it is wealth and luxury in young therewith . Tomtits clamber round full store to the inmates, because they every branch of trees which indicate an are satisfied with it, and grateful for the

opening of their floret buds. A stream of migration to the north, of wild geese and other water-fowl, betokens the approach of genial weather.

possession of it.” 1 The contentment of the married ploughmen - in districts where comfortable cottages and little garden - plots are provided—and the at

Cottage Gardening.- " By the time tachment to the farm upon which they the season is fairly confirmed, the leisure

serve, may be traced to the feelings ex

hours of the cottagers," and of the plough- pressed in these remarks. The Farmer's Garden . Farmers, men, who are cottagers of the best description, are spent, in the evening, " in as a rule, are bad gardeners. Not un the pleasing labour, not unaccompanied frequently the garden, or where the gar

with amusement, of trimming their little den should be, isone of the most thor gardens, and getting in their early crops. oughly neglected spots on the farm .

There is no sort of village occupation This is much to be regretted, for the which men, women , and children set value of a good, well-stocked kitchen about with greater glee and animation garden to a household is very great.

than this; for, independently of the There should be a garden on every farm , hope of the produce, there is a pleasure

and it may be kept in good order at

to the simple and unsophisticated heart trifling expense.

The hedger, stable

in ‘ seeing things grow, which, perhaps, man , or some other of the farm -servants, they who feel the most are least able to should know as much of the art of gar dening as to be able to keep the farmer's “ Certain it is, however, that it would garden in decent order in the absence of be highly desirable that not only every a gardener, whose assistance may with country labourer, but every artisan in advantage be called in to crop the ground explain .

towns, where these are not so large as to

in the respective seasons. A field -worker

prevent the possibility of it, should have now and then could keep the weeds in a little bit of garden, and should fulfil subjection, and allow both sun and air the duty which devolved on man in a free access to the growing plants. Be

state of innocence, ' to keep it and to sides carelessness about the garden , the dress it.' It is impossible forany one who has not carefully attended to the subject,

i Mudie's Spring, 274-275.

FIELD OPERATIONS AND SPRING WEATHER .

7

same feeling is evinced by too many far- are about to occupy all hands for several mers in the slovenly state in which the months to come, the injunction of old shrubbery and little avenue attached to Tusser to undertake them in time, so their dwelling are kept.

that each may be finished in its proper

Fat Cattle. — In spring the farmer season, should be regarded as sound ad thinks of disposing of the remainder of vice. When field -labour is advanced ever his fat cattle. Should he not be offered so little at every opportunity of weather the price he considers them worth, he and leisure, no premature approach of the ensuing season can come unawares ; them perhaps for a month or two on and no delay beyond the usual period

may keep them on for a time- a few of

grass — for beef is usually plentiful and will find the farmer unprepared to pro cheap in spring, and scarce and dear ceed with the work. When work pro early in summer.

ceeds by degrees, there is time to do it

Grass Parks. — Spring is the season effectually. If it is not so done, the for letting grass parks. In the majority farmer has himself to blame for not

of cases the parks are held by landed looking after it. proprietors. The ready demand for old grass induces the retention of pleasuregrounds in permanent pasture, and removes temptation from a landlord to speculate in cattle. It is not customary

When work is advanc

ing by degrees, it should not be allowed to be done in a careless manner, but with due care and method, so as to im

press the work -people with the import ance of what they are doing. The ad

for farmers to let grass parks, except in vantage of doing even a little effectually the neighbourhood oflarge towns, where is not to have it to do over again after cowfeeders and butchers find them so wards; and a small piece of work may

convenient as to induce them to tempt farmers with high prices. Facility of obtaining grass parks in the country is useful to the mer who raises grazing stock , when he can give them a better

be done as well, and in as short a time, in proportion, as a greater operation. Keep the Plough going. - Even if

only one man is kept constantly at the plough, he would turn over, in the course

bite or warmer shelter than he can offer of a time considered short when looked

them himself, on thedivision of the farm back upon, an extent of ground almost which happens to be in grass at the incredible. Hewill turn over an imperial time. acre a -day — that is, 6 acres a -week, 24

Selling Wood. — The landed proprie- acres in a month, and 72 acres in the tor has also to seek a market in spring course of the dark and short days of the

for his timber, which he annually fells in winter quarter. All this he will accom thinning his plantations. Such sales afford convenient supplies to farmers in want of paling for fencing new hedges, wood for sheep-flakes or stobs, or timber for the erection of shedding for animals, or for implements. They are also serviceable to country joiners and imple-

plish onthe supposition that he has been enabled to go at the plough every work ing day ; but as that cannot probably happen in the winter quarter, suppose he turns over 50 acres in that time,these will still comprehend the whole extent

of ground allotted to be worked by every

ment-makers,in affording them necessary pair of horses in the year. Thus a large materials nigh at hand . The timber is proportion of a whole year's work is done felled by the owner, and assorted into in a single, and that the shortest, quarter lots of sizes and kinds best suited to the of the year. Now, a week or two may

local demand. Prunings and thinnings quicklypass, in winter, in doing things are sold as firewood .

which, in fact amount to time being thrown away,

ADVANTAGES OF HAVING FIELD -WORK WELL ADVANCED .

Instancesof misdirected labour are too apt to be regarded as trifles in winter ;

but they occupy as much time as the

The season— early spring — having most important work — and at a season, arrived when the labouring and sowing too, when every operation of the field is

of the land for the various crops culti- directly preparatory to others to be exe vated on a farm of mixed husbandry cuted ina more busy season .

SPRING.

8

Neglected Work ineficiently done. should be ploughed first, and the land - The state of the work should be a kept dry ; so that the worst weather in

subject for the farmer's frequent con- spring may not find the land in an un sideration, whether or not it is as far prepared state. The land intended for advanced as it should be ; and should he

potatoes, for turnips, or tares, or bare

find the work to be backward, he consoles his unsatisfied mind that when the season for active work really arrives, the people will make up for the lost time.

fallow, should be prepared in their re spective order ; and when every one of all these objects has been prepared for, and little to do till the burst of spring

Mere delusion — for if work can be made work arrives, both horses and men may up, so can time, the two being insepar- enjoy a day's rest now andthen, without able ; and yet, how can lost time be any risk of throwing work back. made up, when it requires every moment Spring Preliminaries . — But besides of the year to fulfil its duties, and which field operations, other matters require is usually found too short in which to do attention ere spring work come. The

everything as it ought to be done ? The implements required for spring work, result will always be that the neglected great and small, have to be repaired work is done in an inefficient manner.

the plough -irons new laid ; the harrow

tines new laid, sharpened, and firmly Field -labour should be perseveringly ad- fastened ; the harness tight and strong; vanced in winter, whenever practicable ; the sacks patched and darned, that no and some consider it a good plan, for seed -corn be spilt upon the road ; the Subdivision

of

Farm - work .

this purpose, to apportion certain plough- seed - corn threshed, measured up, and mento different departments of labour— some to work constantly on the farm , some constantly at the plough, others frequently at the cart. When the elder

sacked, and what may be last wanted put into the granary ; the horses new shod, that no casting or breaking of a single shoe may throw a pair of horses

men and old horses, or mares in foal, out of work for even a singlehour ;-in are appointed especially to plough, that short, to have everything ready to start most important of all operations will be for the work whenever the first notice of

well and perseveringly executed, while spring shall be heralded in the sky. the young men and horses are best suited

Evils of Procrastination . — But sup

for carting when not at the plough. Thus pose all these things have been neglected the benefits of the subdivision of labour until they are wanted — that the plough may be extended to farm operations. irons and harrow -tines have to be laid Advancing Field -work . — It is right and sharpened, when perhaps to-morrow

to give familiar examples of what is they may be wanted in the field — a stack meant by the advantage of having field- to be threshed for seed -corn or for horse's labour advanced whenever practicable.

corn when the sowing of a field should

The chief work in spring is to sow the be proceeded with ; suppose that only a ensuing crops. It should therefore be week's work has been lost, in winter, of the study of the farmer in winter to ad- a single pair of horses, 6 acres of land

vance the work for spring sowing. When will have to be ploughed when they the weather is favourable for sowing should have been sown , —that instead of

spring wheat, a portion of the land, having turnips in store for the cattle cleared of turnips by the sheep, may perhaps be ploughed for wheat instead of barley. If beans are cultivated, let the ploughing suited to their growth be executed; and in whatever mode beans

when the oat-seed is begun, the farmer is obliged to send part of the draughts to fetch turnips — which cannot then be

are cultivated, care should be taken in winter to have the land particularly dry,

all the busy season .

stored — and the cattle will have to be supplied with them from the field during

In short, suppose that the season of by a few additional gaw -cuts where incessant labour arrives and finds every necessary, or clearing out those already one unprepared to go along with it, what

existing. Where common oats are to be must be the consequences ? Every crea sown, they being sown earlier than the ture, man , woman , and beast, will then

other sorts, the lea intended for them be toiled beyond endurance every day,

THE CALVING SEASON .

9

not to keep up work , which is a light- time”—and after all, the toil will be some task , but to make up work, which bestowed in vain, as it will be impossible is a toilsome burden . Time was lost and to sow the crop in due season .

Those

idled away at a season considered of little implicated in procrastination may fancy value ; thus exemplifying the maxim,

this to be a highly coloured picture ; but

that " procrastination is the thief of it is drawn from life.

CATTLE

IN

SPRING.

To the stock -owner the spring months should not be too deep, as over -exertion are full of hopes and anxieties. At the in wading through soft litter may cause

opening of the season calving will most such an excited action of the cow's probably be in full swing ; and in breed- system as to make her slip calf. The

ing stocks this is themost critical period litter in a court constantlytrampled by in the whole year. Naturally, therefore, cattle at freedom becomes firm , and the treatment of cows and their young affords a good footing, and the cattle produce demands our first consideration man should spread every barrowful at this time.

thinly. Cows, as they calve, and after it is safe for them to go into the air, should not go into the court at the same time with

THE CALVING SEASON .

those yet to calve ; as calved cows soon The calving of cows is one of the chief come into season — that is, desire the bull events of the spring upon stock farms. —and when in this state, the other cows

Not that calving does not occur until ride upon them, and this propensity is spring — for most breeders of farm -stock strongest in those cows yet uncalved.

are anxious to have calves early, particu- Such violent action, upon soft litter, is larly bull-calves, and for that purpose likely to prove injurious to uncalved calves are born as early as the month of cows. The time of day in which cows in December. Besides, those in the new- different states may go out, should be

milk trade require to have the animals dropping their young at intervals during the whole year. Still by far the largest proportion of cows do not calve until January, February, and March, and the season of calving continues good till the middle of April. After that date the

left to the discretion of the cattle-man , who knows that cows, after calving, be come more tender in their habit than before, and should have the best part of the day — from 12 to 2 o'clock.

calves are accounted late.

the fifth and sixth months of their gesta

Symptoms of Pregnancy.- Cows

may be ascertained to be in calf between

An early calfpossesses the advantage of tion. The calf quickens at between four having passed through its period of milk and five months. The calf may be felt

drinking in time to be supported upon by thrusting the points of the fingers grass, as soon as it affords sufficiency of against the right flank of the cow , when food . A late calf somehow seems never a hard lump will bound against the

to fully regain the lost time.

abdomen , and be felt by the fingers. Or Risks of the Calving Season.— when a pailful of cold water is drunk From eight to ten weeks at this season by the cow, the calf kicks, when a con

is a period of great anxiety for the state vulsive sort of motion may be observed of the cows. Every care, therefore, that can conduce to her passing in

safety over this critical period ought to be cheerfully bestowed . When the cow first shows heavy in calf, which is after the sixth month, the litter in the court

in the flank , by looking at it from be

hind, and if the open hand is then laid upon the space between the flank and udder, this motion may be most distinctly felt. It is not in every case that the calf can be felt at so early a period of

ΙΟ

CATTLE IN SPRING.

its existence ; for lying then in its na- delayed my examination until the fætus tural position in the interior of the was three months old , I should have womb, it cannot be felt at all ; and when assurance that it was there by its now

it lies near the left side of the cow, it is increased bulk, while the pulsation of not so easily felt as on the opposite one. its heart would tell me that it was So that, although the calf cannot be felt living."

at that early stage, it is no proof that

hen still older, the pulsation of the heart may be distinctly heard on apply When a resinous - looking substance ing the ear closely to the flank here and

the cow is not in calf.

can be drawn from the teats by stripping there, and upwards and downwards,

them firmly, the cow is sure to be preg- while the cow is held quietly and nant. After five or six months, the flank steadily. in the right side fills up, and the general Cow's Womb. — The womb of the

enlargement of the under part of the cow is a bag of irregular form , having abdomen affords an unequivocal symp

a chamber or division attached to each

tom of pregnancy .

side, called the horns of the womb ; and But there is seldom any necessity for so called, perhaps, because of the horn -like

thus trying whether a cow is in calf, for form they present in an unimpregnated if she has not sought the bull for some state . The womb consists almost en months, it is almost certain to be because tirely of muscular fibres, with a large proportion of blood vessels and of vascular she is pregnant. Youatt's Method of Testing Preg- matter, which admits of contraction and nancy . — These are the common modes extension. Its ordinary size in a large

of ascertaining the pregnant state of the cow is about 2/2 feet in length, but, when containing a full-grown fætus, it is scientific means of ascertaining the fact. 7 feet in length. This is an extraordin He says he would not give, nor suffer ary adaptation to circumstances which

cow ; but Youаtt has afforded us more

any one else to give, those terriblepunches the womb possesses, to bear an expan on the right flank, which he had no sion of 7 feet, from about a third of that

doubt were the cause of much unsus- length , and yet be capable of performing pected injury, and occasionally, at least, all its functions. were connected with, or were the origin The Fætus.- " The fætus of the cow

of, difficult or fatal parturition. At a is huddled up in the right side of the very early stage of the gestation, he belly ," says Youatt.

says, by introducing the hand gently and

* There its mo

tions are best seen , and the beatings of

cautiously into the vagina, the state of its heart best heard.

The enormous

the womb may be ascertained. If it is paunch, lying principally in the left

in its natural state, the mouth of the side, presses every other viscus,and the womb or os uteri will be closed, though uterus among the rest, into the right not tightly so ; but if it is impregnated, flank . the entrance of the uterus will be more

Indication of Twins.— " This also ex

firmly closed, and the protrusion will be towards the vagina . He adds a caution, however, in using this mode of exploration : “ When half, or more than half, of the period of pregnancy is passed , it is

plains a circumstance familiar to every breeder. If the cow should happen to carry twins they are crowded together in the right flank, and one seems abso lutely tolie upon the other. Whenever

not at all unlikely that so much irrita- the farmer notices the kicking of the tion of the parts will ensue as to cause fætus high up in the flank, he at once

the expulsion of the fætus.” He would calculates on twins.” 1 rather introduce his hand into the recReckoning Time of Calving. — The

tum , and as the fætus of two months exact time of a cow's calving should be is still in the pelvic cavity, he would known by the cattle-man as well as by feel the little substance under his the farmer himself, for the time when hand. He adds : “ I am certain that I she was served by the bull should be

am pressing upon the uterus and its registered. Although this last circum I cannot, perhaps, detect the pulsation of the embryo; but if I had

contents.

1 Jour. Agric. Soc. Eng ., i. 172.

THE CALVING SEASON .

II

stance is not a certain proof that the cow period of calving, between the eighth and is in calf, yet if she has passed the period ninth months, and, from whatever cause when she should have taken the bull it may originate, the position of the cow, again without showing symptoms of sea- as she lies in her stall, should be amended son , it may safely be inferred that she by raising her hind quarters as high as

became in calf atthe last serving, from thefore by meansof the litter. The im

which date should be calculated the mediate cause of the protrusion of a part period of gestation, or of reckoning, as of the womb is, the pressure of the calf's it is called .

fore feet and head against that part of it

A cow is reckoned to go just over 9 which is opposite to the vaginal passage, months with calf, although the calving is and the protrusion mostly occurs when not certainto a day. The experiments the calf is in its natural position ; so that, of the late Earl Spencer afford useful in- although no great danger need be appre

formation on this point. After keeping the record of the calving of 764 cows, he came to this conclusion : “ It will be seen that the shortest period of gestation,

hended from the protrusion, it is better to use means to prevent its recurrence than to incur bad consequences by indif ference or neglect.

when a live calf was produced, was 220

Feeding In - calf Cows. — Much more

days, and the longest 313 days ; but I care should be bestowed in administering have not been able to rear any calf at an

food to cows near the time of their reck

earlier period than 242 days. Any calf oning than is generally done. The care produced at an earlier period than 260 should be proportioned to the state of days must be considered decidedly pre- the animals condition. When in high

mature; and any period of gestation ex- condition, there is great risk of inflam ceeding 300 days must also be considered irregular: but in this latter case the health of the produce is not affected . It will also be seen that 314 cows calved before the 284th day, and 310 calved after the 285th ; so that the probable period of

matory action at thetime of parturition. It is therefore the farmer's interest to check every tendency to obesity in time. This may partly be effected by giving fewer turnips and more fodder than the usual quantity; but some cows when in

gestation ought to be considered 284 or calf, and have been long dry, will fatten

285 days, and not 270, as generally be- on a very small quantity of turnips; and lieved ." there is a tendency in dry food to aggra Indication of Bull - calves. — It is vate inflammatory action .

also a popular belief that when a cow ex-

Medical Treatment of In -calf Cows.

ceeds the calculated period of gestation,

-Other means should therefore be used, along with a limited allowance of food . In as far as medical treatment can be applied to the case, there is perhaps no thing safer than bleeding and laxatives.

she will give birth to a bull-calf. The belief accords so far with experience. Lord Spencer observes, “ In order fairly to try this, the cows that calved before the 260th day, and those that calved after “Every domestic animal like the cow , " the 300th, ought to beomitted as being observes Skellett, " is to be considered as anomalous cases, as well as the cases in by no means living in a state of nature.

which twins are produced ; and it will Like man himself, she partakes of civilised then appear that from the cows whose life, and of course is subjected to similar period of gestation did not exceed 286 infirmities with the human race.

The

days, the number of cow -calves produced time of gestation is with her a state of

was 233, and the number of bull-calves 234 ; while of those whose period exceeded 286 days, the number of cow -calves was only go, while the number of bullcalves was 152.” 1

indisposition, and every manager of cattle should be aware of this, and treat her with every attention and care during this time. The actual diseases of gestation are not indeed numerous, but they are

Calf-bed coming Down. - Cows are frequently very severe, and they occasion

most liable to the complaint of the com- always a tendency to slinking, or the cow ing down of the calf-bed, when near the slipping her calf. As the weight of the calf begins to increase, it will then be necessary to take some precautions — and 1 Jour. Agric. Soc. Eng., i. 167, 168.

CATTLE IN SPRING .

12

these precautions will consist in an at- loss to the breeder of stock. It is not only a loss of perhaps a valuable calf, tention to her diet, air, and exercise.”" 1 Critical Period in Pregnancy.- but its want makes a blank in the

The eighth and ninth months constitute number of the lot to be brought up in the most critical period of a cow in calf. the season, which can be filled only The bulk and weight of the fætus cause by purchase, perhaps not even in that disagreeable sensations in the cow , and way. Another vexation is that the cow

frequently produce feverish symptoms, can never again be fully dependedupon the consequence of which is costiveness. to bear a living calf, as there will be The treatment is laxative medicine and considerable danger of her slipping in emollient drinks, such as a dose of 1 lb. after - years. Why this result should of Epsom salts with some cordial admix- ensue has never been satisfactorily ex

ture of ginger and caraway - seed and plained . The only safe remedy for the treacle, in a quart each of warm gruel farmer is to take the milk from the cow

and sound ale. Turnips may be given as long as she gives it, and then fatten in moderate quantities, as they have a her for the butcher. laxative tendency, especially the white Causes of Abortion . — The direct varieties. Potatoes are inadmissible, causes of this troublesome complaint are various, chiefly violent because of their great tendency to pro exercise, frights, bruises, duce hoven. If hoven were to overtake knocks, bad attendance, a cow far advanced in pregnancy, the calf diseased bulls, bad food would either be killed in the womb, or -particularly musty fod it would likely cause the cow to abort.

Oilcake for Calving Cows. — Oil

der — impure water, bad

cake as a laxative along with swedes is very satisfactory. The cake is given to

smells, sympathy, and hay affected with ergot.

the cows for two months, one month

Ergot and Abortion . -There has from time to

before and one after calving, and its

valuable property of keeping them in a fine laxative state, and at the same

time in good health , will be amply de monstrated. The quantity given toeach

time been much discussion as to whether or not abor tion in cows is due in any

large measure to their eat

cow daily is usually 2 to 4 lb. at any

ing grasses affected with

intermediate time between the feeds of

ergot. Ergot is a fungus

turnips. When a little oilcake is given

which attacks the ear or

to cows before and after their calving,

panicle of grasses and cere

less apprehension need be entertained of

als, rye particularly, takes the place of the seed, and

their safety as far as regards their calv ing, in whatever condition they may happen to be, as it proves a laxative to the fat, and nourishing food to the lean , COW .

Over -leanness to be avoided . — But

the state of over-leanness is also to be avoided in cows in calf. The cow should

is recognised there as a black spur. See fig. 240,

which represents a head of timothy grass with numerous ergotised ears. Ergot is a strong irritant, and the idea is , that the irritation which ergot con

have nourishing food, such as mashes of sumed in the food by cows boiled barley, turnips, and oilcake, not Fig. 240:-Headof with nu sets up in the womb re given in large quantities at a time, but timothy merous ergots. frequently, with a view to laying on flesh sults in the premature ex in agradualmanner, and at the sametime pulsion of the foetus. It is in ergotised of avoiding the fatal tendency to plethora. hay that the greatest danger exists, for in hay ergot is sometimes present in Abortion . considerable quantities.

But there is good reason to doubt the Slinking, abortion, or slipping of the calf, is a vexatious occurrence, and a great contention that ergot is one of the chief causes of abortion amongst cows. i Skellett's Partur. Cow , 41 .

It is

rarely present in farm crops in such large

THE CALVING SEASON .

13

quantities as to be likely to cause abor- if the symptoms make their appearance Farmers should certainly regard suddenly, and go through their course

tion.

ergot as a dangerous enemy, and should rapidly . burn any portions of hay in which it is

Mr C. Stephenson on Preventive

seen to exist extensively. We suspect, Means.

Mr

Clement

Stephenson ,

however, that the great majority of the M.R.C.V.S., Newcastle-on-Tyne, in a many cases of abortion which occur every suggestive paper in the Royal Agricul

yearamongst cows must be attributed to tural Society ofEngland's Journal (1885 ), says: “ All breeding animals should be other causes. Bad Smells and Abortion .- Skellett kept in as natural a condition as possible. observes : “The cow is remarked to pos- The food should be good in quality, and sess a very nice and delicate sense of apportioned according to the breeding smelling, to that degree, that the slinking state they are in ; remember that the of one cow is apt, from this circumstance, fætus as well as the cow is to be kept in

to be communicated to a great number a growing healthy condition. Avoid the of the same herd ; it has been often

practice of giving inferior and refuse

known to spread like an infectious food to in -calf cows.

Be very particular

disease, and great losses have been suf- respecting the purity of the water-sup fered by the cowfeeders from the same.” 1 ply ; neglect of this is a fruitful cause There is unquestionably much truth in of abortion . See to general sanitary

these remarks, and it is therefore desir- arrangements, ventilation, pure air, and able that everything in a byre occupied good drainage; use disinfectants freely. by breeding cows should be kept in a In the fields keep a sharp look -out for

clean and wholesome state. Every par- decomposing putrid matter, which event ticle of filth should be removed daily ually destroy. Exercise is most import from the feeding-troughs in front, and ant; even in winter cows should be let the urine-gutters behind the cows, and out for a short time every day. Before the byre should be thoroughly ventilated service be sure that the generative organs when the cows go out to the courts.

of both animals are healthy. Where pos

These circumstances also show the pro- sible, split up the herd into small lots, priety of preventing pigs being slaugh- cows with bull-calves, cows with heifer tered in the court in which cows walk,

calves, cows and heifers to serve, cows

and any animal being bled near the and heifers settled in calf, and doubtful byre. breeders by themselves, which do not Symptoms of Abortion . — The first serve with a valuable bull, or unless they symptomsof abortion are a sudden filling are regular.” of the udder before the time of reckoning Hemp-seed as aPreventive. — Many would warrant, a looseness, flabbiness, American breeders have strong belief in and redness of, and a yellow glairy dis- hemp-seed as a safe preventive of repeat charge from , the vagina, and a giving ed abortion in cows that had previously way of the ligaments on both sides of aborted — common hemp-seed , half a pint morning and night about the time of the rump. Preventing Abortion . — Whenever a

pregnancy at which the cow formerly

cow shows symptoms of slinking, which aborted. Fluid extract of Indian hemp may be observed in the byre, but not is also commended a table - spoonful easily in the grass field, she should be every second day in wet bran, from the .

immediately removed from her compan- time corresponding to former abortion ions. She should be narrowly watched, and means of preventing slinking instantly adopted . These consist in keeping her perfectly quiet, giving laxative food, such as oilcake and mashes, and

up to within a month of calving. This fluid in excess would itself cause abor tion, but in small doses it has a benefi cial effect by allaying irritation. After -risks from Abortion .

The

if there is straining, frequent doses of risk which the cow runs, after slinking, opium , belladonna, or antispasmodics. is in not getting quit of the cleansing,

But these means will prove ineffectual afterbirth,or placenta , it not being in a state to separate from the womb. Should 1 Skellett's Partur, Cow , 62.

it remain, it will soon corrupt, and send

14

CATTLE IN SPRING .

forth a very nauseous smell, to the detri- should be reduced in condition ; if in ment of the other cows.

If it does not very low , she ought to get nourishing

come away in the course of a few hours, food and strengthening medicines; and or at most a day, the assistance of the if she is much annoyed by nauseous veterinary surgeon should be obtained. smells, these should either be counter But in ordinary cases a dose of laxative acted, or the cow withdrawn from them.

medicine-such as 1 lb. Epsom salts, i Disinfecting powders and fluids must oz. powdered ginger, and i oz. caraway- be sprinkled about the byres — such as seeds — will be quite sufficient. Jeyes's fluid, or some preparation of car The cow should have plenty of warm bolic acid -- while washing the backs of drinks, such as warm water, thin gruel, the animals themselves with a weak and mashes made of malt, with bran, so solution of sheep dip or “ smear ” will as to keep the body gently open — which tend to counteract any smell or con should be attended to at alltimes. Should tagion about the animals themselves. the regimen not be sufficient to keep the

Coarse Pasture causing Abortion.

body open, and feverish symptoms ap –It is understood that cows which are pear, recourse must be had to stronger fed in the neighbourhood of, and in remedies, such as Epsom salts, 1 lb.; woods, and that live on coarse rank pas nitre, 2 oz .; anise-seed in powder, 1 oz. ; ture in autumn, are most liable to this

cumin -seed in powder, 1 oz.; ginger, 1/2 complaint. In Switzerland the complaint oz. ;—mixed together for one dose,which increases after the cows are put on rank is to be given in 2 quarts of water-gruel pastures in autumn. Similar experience with 12 lb. of treacle. This dose may be has been had in this country, where in

repeated,if the first dose has not had the calf cows have grazed pastures on which desired effect, in ten or twelve hours. Preventing recurrence of Abortion . -In regard to preventing the recurrence of this vexatious complaint, though the best thing for the farmer is not to

.

there was a rank growth of coarse her bage, especially after wet sunless years such as 1879. We know of some cases

where good has been done by having

coarse herbage of this kind cut by a attempt any, but milk and fatten the mower in the autumn and gathered into cow , yet a natural desire may be felt to the dung-pit or burned. retain a valuable and favourite cow, so

Is Abortion Infectious ? -- Although

that means may be used to enable her slinking is spoken of as an infectious again to bear a living calf. Skellett complaint, it has no property in common

mentions as preventive measures, that with any contagious disease; and sym “ when a cow has slipped her calf, in the pathetic influence being a main cause of next gestation she should be early bled,

it, the result is as fatal as if direct con

her body should be kept open by cooling tagion had occasioned it. physic ; she should not be forced to take any more exercise than what is absolute

Calving.

ly necessary for her health, and her inter Symptoms of Calving. — About a fering with other cattle guarded against fortnight before the time of reckoning, by keeping her very much by herself. symptoms of calving indicate themselves At the same time," he adds, “ it must

in the cow .

The loose skinny space

be observed, that though it is necessary between the vagina and udder becomes to preserve a free state of the bowels, a florid ; the vagina becomes loose and

laxity of them will often produce this flabby ; the lower part of the abdomen accident; cows fed very much upon pota- rather contracts; the udder becomes lar toes, and such other watery food, are very ger, firmer, more florid, hotter to the feel, apt to slink, from their laxative effects.

and more tender-looking ; the milk -veins

In the food of the cow, at this time, a along the lower part of the abdomen be proper medium should be observed, and

come larger, and the coupling on each

it should consist of a due proportion of other vegetable matter mixed with the fodder, so as the bowels may be kept regularly open, and no more . " If the cow is in high condition, she

side of the rump-bones looser; and when the couplings feel as if a separation had taken place of the parts there, the cow should be watched day and night, for at any hour afterwards the painsof calving

THE CALVING SEASON .

15

may come upon her. From this period even to have block and tackle to hoist up the animal becomes easily excited, and the hind-legs in order to adjust the calf on that account should not be allowed to in the womb.

These last articles should

go out, or be disturbed in the house. In be ready at hand if wanted. Straw should

some cases these premonitory symptoms be spread thickly on the floor of the byre, succeed each other rapidly, in others they to place the new -dropped calf upon . All

follow slowly. With heifers in first calf being prepared, and the byre-door closed these symptoms are slow . Attendance at Calving . – Different

for quietness, the cow should be attended every moment.

sisted sometimes by the shepherd, and other men if required. In some parts of the northern counties, as also in the south -western counties of Scotland, the

Progress of Calving. — The proximate described by Skellettas they occur in an ordinary case. “ When the operation of calving actually begins," he says, “ then signs of uneasiness and pain appear : a little elevation of the tail is the first

calving is left to women to manage. This difference in practice may have arisen from the degree of assistance required at the operation. The large and

mark ; the animal shifts about from place to place, frequently getting up and lying down, not knowing what to do with her self. She continues some time in this

practices exist in attending on cows at

calving.

In the southern counties the symptoms of calving are thus exactly

cattle -man attends on the occasion, as-

valuable breeds of cows almost always state, till the natural throes or pains come

require assistance in calving, the neglect on ; and as these succeed each other in of which might cause the cow to sink from regular progress, the neck of the womb, exhaustion, and the calf to be strangled or os uteri, gives way to the action of its or drowned at its birth . Powerful as- bottom and of its other parts. By this sistance is sometimes required, and can action the contents of the womb are

be afforded only by men, the strength of women being unequal to the task . The cows of the smaller varieties more frequently calve without assistance, and

pushed forward at every throe; the water bladder begins to show itself beyond the shape, and to extend itself till itbecomes the size of a large bladder, containing

with these women may manage the calv- several gallons ; it then bursts, and its

contents are discharged, consisting of the ing without difficulty . On large farms there should be a liquor amnii, in which, during gestation, skilled cattle -man to take the charge, the the calf floats, and which now serves to

farmer himself in all cases giving his lubricate the parts, and renders the pas sanction to the means about to be em- sage of the calf easier. After the dis

ployed — it being but fair that he himself charge of the water, the body of the should bear the heaviest part of the re- womb contracts rapidly upon the calf ;

sponsibility connected with the process of in a few succeeding throes or pains the calving.

head and feet of it, the presenting parts,

Preparation for Calving . - A few preparatory requisites should be at hand when a cow is about to calve. Flat soft ropes should be provided on purpose to

are protruded externally beyond the shape. The body next descends, and in a few pains the delivery of the calf is complete." 1

Assistance in Calving - The easy The cattle-man should have the calf's crib well littered, and calving here described is usually over in

tie to the calf.

2 hours, though sometimes it is protracted to 5 or 6, and even to 12 hours, particu larly when the water-bladder has broken before being protrudedbeyond the vagina, with which to smear his hands and arm , and then the calf is in danger of being

pare the nails of his hands close , in case he should have occasion to introduce his arm into the cow to adjust the calf; and he should have goose-fat or hog's lard

although the glairy discharge from the drowned in the passage. But although vagina will usuallybe sufficient for this the calf may present itself in the natural purpose.

Goose - fat makes the skin position, with both itsfore-feet projecting,

smoothest. It may be necessary to have its chin lying on both the fore-legs, and a sackful or two of straw to put under

the cow to elevate her hind -quarters, and

i Skellett's Partur. Cow , 105.

CATTLE IN SPRING .

16

the point of the tongue appearing out of presentation, only thetail should be put the side of the mouth, it may not be straight, and not folded up, before the calved without assistance.

To render legs are pulled out. The first obstruct

this, the feetof the calf being too slip- ing point in this presentation is the rump, pery to be held firmly by the bare hands, and then the thickest part of the shoulder.

the soft flat rope, with a folding loop at On drawing out thehead, which comes the double, is placed above each fetlock last, it should be pulled away quickly, in joint, and the double rope from each leg case the calf should give a gasp for air at is held by the assistants. A pull of the the moment of leaving thecow, when it ropes should only be given at each time might inhale water instead of air, and the cow strains to get quit of the calf. run the risk of drowning. The mouth

It should be a steady and firm pull, and nose should , in this case, be wiped

in a direction rather downwardsfrom the immediately on the calf being laid down back of the cow, and sufficiently strong upon the straw on the floor. to retain whatever advance the calf may

Restless Cows in Calving. – All as

have made. The assistance given is rather to ease the cow in her exertions in the throes, than to extract the calf from her by force. Meantime the cowman endea-

yet has been easily managed, and so will be as long as the cow lies still on her side in the stall, with plenty of straw around and behind her hind -quarter. But

vours to relax the skin of the vagina some cows have a restless disposition, and, round the calf's head by manipulation , as whenever the pains of labour come on,

well as by anointing with goose-fat, his start to their feet, and will only lie down

object being to slip the skin over the again when the pain ceases.

It is thus

crown of the calf's head ; and when this scarcely possible to ascertain the true posi is accomplished, the whole body may be tion of the calf, especially when not pre

gently drawn out. In obstinate cases of sented in a natural position. It is now this simple kind, a looped rope passed necessary to extract the calf energetically, across in the mouth round the under jaw and remove the uneasiness of the cow

of the calf, and pulled steadily, will help quickly; for until she gets quit of the calf, she will not settle in any one posi

the passage of the head ; buttothis expedient should not be resorted until the cowman cannot effect it with his hands, the cord being apt to injure the tender

tion.

When the calf is so near the ex

ternal air as toenable the operator to get the ropes round its legs, whether fore or

hind, they should be fastened on imme The Calf. — On the extrusion of the diately after the discharge of the water,

mouth of the calf.

calf, it should be laid on its side upon and, on gently pulling them ,her attention

the clean straw on the floor. The first will be occupied, and she will strain with symptom of life is a few gasps which set great vigour, the standing position giving the lungs in play, and then it opens its her additional power, so that the extrac its tion of the calf is expeditious. eyes, shakes its head, and sniffs with As the calf will fall a considerable nose. The breathing is assisted if the viscid fluid is removed by the hand from height, the ground should be well littered, the mouth and nostrils. The calf is then so as to receive the body of the calf upon carried by two men, suspended by the it.

Active means should be used after

legs, with the back downwards, and the the symptoms of actual calving have be head held up between the fore-legs, to gun. If such are neglected , the calf its comfortably littered crib, where we may be found killed, or injured for life. shall leave it for the present.

Reviving

Calves .

-

Some

calves,

Reverse Presentation . — The presen- though extracted with apparent ease, ap tation is sometimes made with the hind- pear as if dead when laid upon the straw. feet foremost.

At first the hind-feet are

Besides removing the viscid fluid from

not easily distinguished from the fore; the mouth and nose, the hand should be

but if a hind presentation is made in the placed against the side of the breast, to natural position of the body, with the ascertain if the heart beats. If it does back uppermost, the hind -feet will be in so, all that is wanted is to inflate the an inverted position, with the soles up- lungs. To do this the mouth should be

permost. There is no difficulty in a hind opened, and if no breathing is yet felt,

THE CALVING SEASON .

17

some one should blow steadily into the the calf will most likely be dead.

The

mouth, a device which seems to answer legs should be pushed back, retaining the purpose; and also a hearty slap of the hold of them by ropes, and the head open hand upon the buttock of the calf brought forward between the legs if will cause it to start, as it were, into possible. It may be beyond the strength

being. Perhaps bellows might be use of the operator to bring forward the fully employed in inflating the lungs. head ; if so, he should put a loop into Should no beating of the heart be felt, the calf's mouth, and his assistants pull and yet consciousness of life seem to forward the head by it. Still more difficult cases may occur,

exist, the calf should be carried without

delay to its crib , and covered up with the such as a presentation of the shoulder, litter, leaving the mouth free to breathe, with the head lying into the side ; a

and it may survive. But even after a few gasps it may die - most probably the cause of death arising from injury received in calving, such as too long detention in

presentation of the buttock, with both the hind -legs stretched inwards; or the calf may beon its back , with one of the worst presentations now enumerated,

the vaginal passage, or a too severe squeeze

In whichever of these positions the

of the womb on the thorax, or by the calf may present itself, no extraction can rashness of the operator. safely take place until the head, and one Dead Calf.— When a calf is thus lost, of the legs at least, are secured, or both its body should be skinned while warm , the hind - legs, with the back turned

cut in pieces, and buried in a compost for uppermost, are presented. In no case manure, and the skin sold or made into should a fore or hind leg be so ne “ wechts " or baskets for the corn - barn. Difficult Presentations. The diffi-

glected, as to either obstruct the body

on passing through, or tear the womb cult cases of presentation which usually of the cow. The safest practice is, to occur are with one foot and the head,

.

secure both legs as well as the head.

and the other foot drawn back, either This may cause the operator considerable with the leg folded back altogether, or trouble, but by retaining hold of what

the knee doubled and projecting for- parts he can with the cords, and dexter ward. In all these states the missing ously handling the part amissing, so as

leg should be brought forward. To effect to bring it forward to the passage whilst this, it is necessary to put round the presented foot a cord to retain it within the power of the operator, and the head is then pushed back into the womb to

the assistants pull as he desires, his ob ject will in most cases be attained . But it should be borne in mind that none of these objects will be attained without the

make room to get at the missing foot, to powerful assistance of the throes of the search for which the greased arm of the cow herself.

If this precaution is not

operator should be introduced, and the attended to and watched for by the foot gently brought beside the other. operator, the muscular grasp of the womb The rope which was attached to the first will render his arm powerless. foot now serves to pull the entire body One circumstance should here be con

into the passage, when the throes may sidered by the operator. When the hind-quarters of the cow have an inclina The presentation may be of the head tion downwards, she has the power to alone without the feet, which may be strain the stronger, and to counteract his

again be expected to be renewed.

knuckled forward at the knees, or folded efforts the more easily.

On finding her

back along both sides. In the knuckled position so, he should raise the hind case both legs should be brought for- quarters of the cow with sackfuls of ward by first pushing the head back, straw higher than the fore-quarters, and, in case of losing hold of the calf, a until he has got the calf in the position loop of rope should be put in the calf's he desires, and then, on letting the cow mouth : in the folded case, both should down again, and watching her strain be brought forward . ings, assist her at that time and only at A worse case than either is, when one that time, and the extraction may be or both legs are presented and the head successful. folded back upon the side. In this case But the power of the womb may VOL . II.

B

CATTLE IN SPRING .

18

have been exhausted . When it can no should be made in the best manner. longer render assistance by its strainings, If this is not likelyto succeed, it will be the operator must continue his exertion better to destroy the calf by cutting it with the greater force until the calf is away than lose the cow. Should the brought away.

When the head only of

cow die, the live calf can easily be ex

the calf is presented, and cannot protrude tracted by the Cæsarean operation. itself through the vagina, an inspection Veterinary Advice in Calving. - A should be made of the position of the skilful cowman may be able to manage

calf, by thrusting the head back with a

all these difficult cases within a reason

loop in the mouth, and on finding the able time; but unless he is particularly fore-legs bent backward, to bring them dexterous at cases of calving, it is much forward. When this inspection has been safer to work under the advice of a vet

too long delayed, and the head kept erinary surgeon, who may or may not confined in the passage, the violent operate himself. In the case of extract throes of the cow will most likely strangle ing monstrosities, his actual assistance is

the calf, and the head will swell to an indispensable. inordinate degree. The swelling will Isolation in Difficult Cases. — Calv prevent the calf's head from being pushed ing in a byre does not seem to produce

back to get at the legs, then the head any disagreeable sensations in the other

must be cut off, the legs brought forward, cows, asthey express no surprise or un and the body extracted . easiness in regard to what is going on One of the most difficult cases is, when beside them. When the cow gives vent

the fore-feet are presented naturally, and to painful cries, which rarelyhappens, the head is thrust down upon the brisket the others express a sympathetic sound ; between the legs. The feet must first and when the calf is carried away, they be pushed back, and the head brought exhibit some restlessness, but the emotion up and forward, when the extraction will arising therefrom soon subsides. But if become natural. difficult and protracted labour is appre Extracting a Dead Calf. — When the hended, it is better for the other cows,

symptoms of calving have continued for and also for the particular cow herself, a time, and no appearance of a presenta- that she be removed to another well tion by the calf,the operator should in- littered apartment, where the operator troduce his arm ascertain the to

cause,

and his assistants can have free action

and the probability will be that the calf around her. has been dead in the womb some time.

Mistaken Idea . - A notion exists in

A dead calf is easily recognised by the some parts of England that a cow, when hand of an experienced cowman . It seized with the pains of labour, should should be extracted in the easiest man-

be made to move about, and notallowed

ner ; but should the body be in a state to lie still, although inclined to be quiet. of decay, it will not bear being pulled “ This proceeds from an erroneous idea ,'

out whole, and must be taken away Skellett well remarks, piecemeal. Twin Calves. - As regards the ex-

" that she will

calve much easier, and with less danger ;

but so far from this being the case, the

traction of twin calves, before rendering author has known a great many in the cow any assistance it is necessary to stances where the driving has proved

ascertain whether there are twins, and the death of the animal by overheating that the calves have made a proper pre- her, and thus producing inflammation sentation ; that they are free of each

and all its bad consequences.

Every

other ; that one member of the one is rational man will agree in opinion with not interlaced, or presented at the same the author, that the above practice is time with any member of the other.

both cruel and inconsistent in the ex

When quite sepagrated, each calf may be treme ; and this is confirmed by what

treatedaccordin to its own case.

Desperate Cases.- The block and

he has noticed , that the animal herself, as soon as the pains of calving come on,

tackle should never be resorted to but immediately leaves the rest of the herd, If this might and retires to some corner of the field, be done by turning the calf, the attempt or under a hedge, in order to prevent to save the life of the cow .

THE CALVING SEASON .

19

the other cows, or anything else, coming with a handful of salt. This she will near, that may disturb her in bringing drink up greedily. A pailful is enough forward her young."" 1 at a time, and it may be renewed when Quietness for Cows at Calving.-

she expresses a desire for more.

This

In short, too much gentleness cannot be drink should be given to her for two or shown to cows when calving, and they three days after calving in lieu of cold cannot be too strictly guarded against water, and mashes of boiled barley and every species of disturbance. gruel in lieu of cold turnips ; but the oil

Afterbirth.— The afterbirth, or pla- cake should never be forgotten, as it acts centa, does not come away with the calf, at this critical period as an excellent a portion of it being suspended from the laxative and febrifuge. cow . It is got quit of by the cow on Barley for newly Calved Cows. — A straining, and when the calving has been common practice with some is to give the natural and easy , it seldom remains cow barley in the sheaf to eat, and even longer than from one to seven hours. raw barley, when there is no barley in In bad cases of labour it may remain the straw. Sometimes a few sheaves

longer, and may only come away in are kept for the purpose ; and barley -chaff pieces ; but when it remains too long is given where people grudge to part with

and is sound, its separation will be as good barley in this way. The practice, sisted by attaching a small weight to it, however, is objectionable, for nothing say of 2 lb., with the occasional straining causes indigestion more readily than raw of the cow . barley or barley-chaff at the time of calv

A draught in gruel, containing Epsom ing, when the tone of the stomach is im

salts 8 ounces, powdered ergot 1 ounce, paired by excitement or fever. Boiled and carbonate of ammonia 4 drachms, barley, with a mucilaginous drink, is given daily, will facilitate the cleansing quite safe. Nothing should be given at this time If the afterbirth should remain till decomposition actually commences, the hand of an astringent nature. The food should should be introduced and the placenta rather have a laxative tendency. Immediate Milking. It is desirable removed as gently as possible. The common custom is to throw the

to milk the new-calved cow as soon as

afterbirth upon the dunghill, or to cover convenient for her, the withdrawal of

it up with the litter ; but it should not be milk affording relief. It frequently hap put there to be accessible to every dog pens that an uneasiness is felt in the and pig that may choose to dig it up , udder before calving; and should it in pigs have been known almostto choke crease while the symptoms of calving are themselves with it. Let the substance yet delayed, the cow will experience much

be buried in a compost-heap; and if there inconvenience, especially if the flush of be none such, in the earth . The umbili- milk has come suddenly. The Udder.—The cause of cal cord or navel-string of the calf breaks in the act of calving.

uneasiness

is unequal hardness of the udder, accom

Refreshing the Cow.- When a cow panied with heat, floridness, andtender ness

seems exhausted in a protracted case of

.

Fomentation with warm water

calving, she should be supported with a twice or thrice a -day, continued for half warm drink of gruel, containing a bottle an hour at a time, followed by gentle of sound ale. Should she be too sick rubbing with a soft hand and anointing to drink it herself, it should be given her with goose-fat, will tend to allay irrita tion. In the case of heifers with the first with the drinking-horn. After the byre has been cleansed of calf, the uneasiness is sometimes so great the impurities of calving, and fresh litter during the protracted symptoms of calv strewed, the cow naturally feels thirstying, as to warrant the withdrawal of milk after the exertion, and should receive a before calving. Should the above remedial measures warm drink . There is nothing better than warm water, with a few handfuls of oat- fail to give relief, the great heat may meal stirred in it for a time, and seasoned cause direct inflammationand consequent

suppuration in the udder. To avertsuch i Skellett's Partur. Cow , 113.

an issue, the uneasiness should be attend

20

CATTLE IN SPRING .

ed to the first moment it is observed, neglect permitting the complaint to proceed so far as to injure the structure of the udder. Prevention of the congestion of the udder may be secured by refrain-

veterinary surgeon should witness the process, and afterwards administer the requisite medicines and prescribe the proper treatment and regimen . Uterine

Discharge.

-

About nine

ing to give rich food until after the ninth days after calving, should no uterine dis day, when the womb has discharged its charge come from the cow, means should contents attendant on calving.

be used to promote it, otherwise severe

costiveness and puerperal fever may Attention to the Cow . In ordinary ensue .

Oilcake for a fortnight before cases of calving, little apprehension need be felt for the safety of the cow ; but she and after calving has been found an

must be carefully attended to for at least excellent expedient for promoting the a fortnight aftercalving. No cold drinks, discharge — which discharge has the effect no cold turnips, should be given her, and of thoroughly cleansing the womb. no cold draughts of air allowed to blow

Coming in “ Season .” — A cow will

upon her. The hind -quarters, raised up desire the bull in four or five weeks after by litter for a few days, will recover the calving. The symptomsof a cow being tone of the relaxed parts.

in season

are thus well described by

Flooding.- In cases of severe and pro- Skellett : "She will suddenly abate of tracted labour the cow may be overtaken her milk, and be very restless; when in by several casualties, such as flooding or the field with other cows she will be

loss of blood, which is caused by the ves- frequently riding on them , and ifin the sels of the womb being prevented col. cow -house she will be constantly shifting lapsing as they should do ; but it is not often a fatal complaint, and may be removed by the application of a lotion, consisting of a quart of strong vinegar

about the stall ; her tail will be in con stant motion ; she will be frequently dunging, staling, and blaring ; will lose her appetite ; her external parts will

mixed in one gallon of spring -water,in appear red and inflamed, and a transpar which cloths should be dipped, and ap- ent liquor will be discharged from the

plied frequently to the loins, rump, and vagina. In old cows these symptoms are vagina. A drink of two quarts ofcold known to continue 4 or 5 days, but in water and a pint of ale will much relieve general not more than 24 hours, and at her and assist the efforts of nature. other times not more than 5 or 6 hours.

Should the Therefore, if a cow is intended for pro Protruding Womb. womb protrude when the placenta re- creation, the earliest opportunity should mains too long after delivery, in conse- be taken to let her have the bull ; for if

quence of long and severe straining of it be neglected then, it will often be 2 the cow, the womb should be washed per- or 3 weeks before the above symptoms fectly clean with a mixture of milk and will return . These instructions,” adds warm water, and replaced with care, Skellett, “ are necessary to be given only

taking hold of it only by the upper side. to the proprietor of a small number of The hind -quarter of the cow should be cows, where a bull is not always kept well elevated with straw , and a saline with them.

If a cow , after

dose of laxative medicine administered, calving, shows symptoms of season with some opium , to allay pain and pre- sooner than 4 or 5 weeks, which is some vent straining times the case, she should not be per Inflammation in the Womb . - Aftermitted to have the bull sooner than 4 or

severe calving, draughts of cold air may 5 weeks from that period — for the womb cause inflammation in the womb. Large before that time is, in general, in so re

drinks of cold water will produce the laxed a state, as not to be capable of same effect, as well as the irritation aris- retaining the seed, consequently she ing from retention of the cleansing. A seldom proves with calf if she is suffered 1 purge is the safest remedy, consisting of to take him sooner.” i lb. of Epsom salts, 8 drachms powdered

Too Early Bulling Unwise.

This

aloes, and 2 ounce ginger in a quart last remark is of great value,for there is of warm water or gruel. But in all casesof severe calving the

1 Skellett's Partur. Cow , 11• 13.

THE CALVING SEASON .

21

good reason to believe that many cases quires some hours to arrive at the same of cows not holding in calf with the first point, and the season continues for a serving aftercalvingarises from the want time in a languid state : a third runs

of consideration on the part ofbreeders as through the course of season in a few to whether the cow is in that recovered hours, while a fourth is only prepared to state from the effects of calving which may

receive the bull at the last period of her

be expected to afford a reasonable hope season ; a fifth may exhibit great fire in that she shall conceive. And this is a her desire, which induces her keeper to

point more to be considered than the have her served at once, when too soon ; mere lapse of time after calving ; for a whilst a sixth shows comparative indiffer cow , after a severe labour, maybe in a ence, and, in waiting foran exhibition of much worse state for conception, even at increased desire, theseason is allowed to

double the length of time, than another pass away ; and in this last case, cattle which has calved with ease, although she men, conscious of neglect, and afraid of may have come as regularly into season detection, will persist in the bull serving

as her more fortunate neighbour. The her, though she may be very much dis state of the body, as well as the length inclined, and does everything in her of time, should be taken into considera- power to avoid him. tion in determining whether or not the Attention in Serving.There is no cow should receive the bull.

way so natural for a bull to serve a cow ,

Fatigue affecting Pregnation . - A common practice in places where there is no bull, is to take the cow to the bull at a convenient time for the cattle-man to take her ; and should she have passed the

as when both are in the field together. The most proper time is chosen by both, and failure of conception then rarely happens. But it is possible that the bull cannot serve the cow in the field by

bloom of the season before her arrival at disparity of height. The cow should then be taken to a part of the ground which

the bull, the issue will be doubtful. The cow may have travelled a long distance and become weary, and no rest has been allowed her, although she hasto undergo the still farther fatigue of walking home. Fatigue renders impregnation doubtful. Many are not satisfiedwith the service

will favour his purpose. One thorough skip is quite sufficient for securing con ception,but two or three skipsare mostly insisted upon. The cow should be kept quiet in the byre after being served until the desire leave her, and she should have

of their cows until both bull and cow are no food or water for some hours after, as

wearied out. Others force cow or bull, any encouragement of discharges from holding her by the nose, and goading him the body, by food and drink, isinimical with a stick against the inclination of to the retention of the semen. Conception Cor eted . « When either. Such treatment renders impregnation doubtful . There is, beside, the nature is satisfied ,” says Skellett, “ or chance that the bull

worn out for the the symptoms of season disappear inthe

day.

animal, conception has taken place. The

None of these mischances can happen neck of the womb becomes then com

when a bull is at home. Even then a pletely closed by a glutinous substance discretion is requisite to serve the cow at which nature has provided for that pur the proper time, and this can only be pose, being perfectly transparent, and known by observing her state. with difficulty separated from the parts. Cow's Record of Character . - It is This matter is for the purpose of exclud

desirable that the farmer should keeping all external air from the mouth of or have kept a record of the character the womb during gestation, which, if of each cow, in regard to her state of admitted to the fætus, would corrupt the season, and of her reckoning to calve — a membranes and the pellucid liquor in

desirability all the greater because ofthe which the fætus floats, and would un great difference of character evinced by For example, one arrives soon at mature season after the symptoms are exhibited, and as soon it disappears ; a second re-

cows under the same treatment.

doubtedly cause the cow to slink . This glutinous substance also prevents the lips of the mouth of the womb from growing together ; and when the cow comes into season it becomes fluid - the

22

CATTLE IN SPRING .

act of copulation serving to lubricate the parts and prevent inflammation.” 1 In -CalfHeifers. — The heifers in calf that are to be transferred to the cowstock should be taken from their ham-

in the short period between each fort night can easily be calculated the par ticular reckoning of each cow:

mels, in which they have been all winter, into the byre, into the stalls they are to

A RECKONING TABLE FOR THE CALVING

occupy, about three weeks or a fortnight

OF COWS.

before their reckoning. If they had been accustomed to be tied by the neck when calves, they will not feel much

It is unnecessary to fill up the table with marking down every day of the year, as

When will When Bulled .

Calve ,

reluctance in going into a stall ; but if not, they will require some coaxing to do

Jan.

I.

Oct. 13

11

15. 29.

Nov. 1o.

When taking them to the byre at

Feb.

12 .

it.

26.

11

first, it should be remembered that a

fright received at this juncture may not be forgotten by them for a long time to come. To avoid every chance of that ,

let them go in quietly of their own ac cord ; let them snuff and look at every thing they wish ; and having assistants

11

10

Dec.

March 12. 26 .

April 9. 11

May 11

June 11

July

10

24. 8.

11

Nov.

March 2. 11 16.

11

16.

00

30 .

When will Calve,

April 27.

30 . 13.

May

27.

June

11

Sept. 10 . Oct.

21 .

2 .

HI

2.

Feb.

18.

Aug.

5. 19.

23. 7. 4.

July 16.

27.

22 .

Jan.

When Bulled .

Dec.

1

24. 8.

July

22 .

Aug.

5. 19. 3. 17 . 31 .

11 . 25. 8. 22.

6. 20 . 3.

17. 31 .

Sept. 14 28.

Oct.

12 .

April 13 .

to prevent their breaking away, let the Leading Cow8. — A cow is generally cattle-man allow them to move step by step , until they arrive at the stalls. easily led to the bull at a distance by a Here may be some difficulty : some halter round the head . If she is known favourite food should be put in the to have a fractious temper, it is better to put a holder in her nose than to allow her to run on the road and have to stop or turn her every short distance. A simple form of holder is in fig. 241 , which has the stake, from which it should be a joint that allows the two parts of the quietly taken down, without clanking holder to meet , and to open sofar asunder

manger to entice them to go up. Another difficulty will be putting the seal, fig. 104, round the neck . It should be hung, when not in use, upon a nail on

the chain ; and while the heifer is eat ing, let the cattle -man slip one hand

as to embrace the nostril of the animal. A screw

below the neck with the chain, while

nut brings the two knobbed points as close as to em

the other is passed over it, to bring the loose end of the seal round the neck,

brace firmly the septum of the nose. In using this nut it should not be so

and hook it into whatever link he first

finds. The moment the heifer feels she is bound , she will hang back, or attempt

tightly screwed as to squeeze the septum. The

to turn round in the stall to get away, which she should be prevented doing by

leading -rein is fastened to

the under ring. In Africa “ an unruly cow is never tied by the

gentle means; and after remaining in that state for some time, and feeling herself well used and kindly spoken to,

head : a man walks be

she will yield ; but although she may ap pear to submit, she must not be left alone

Fig . 241. Bullock -holder.

hind it, having hold of a

rope tied tightly round its ed hock ; this plan seems to points, not attempt to turn in the stall is certain . 0 Knobb meeting. Reckoning Table. – The following c Screw Rareyfy the animal most -nut. for rein. completely .”" 2 table, containing the dates at which cows e Ring rope. for some time- till the assurance she will

should calve from those at which they

a Joint .

Detecting Pregnancy.

were bulled,is founded upon the data – Theusual mode of determiningwhether afforded by Lord Spencer - namely, 285 a cow is in calf is deceptive. She may days as the average period of gestation. not have held when bulled ; she may i Skellett's Partur. Cow , 17.

? Grant's IValk across Africa, 52.

THE CALVING SEASON .

23

have taken the bull again in a few days, afterwards comatose ; the pulse becomes and she may not show evident symptoms irregular, and death ensues. of calving until only a few days before The promptest remedy to be used, after she actually calves. The application of the first symptom has been observed , is the ear to the flank of the cow is a to bleed to the extent of 3 or 4 quarts, simpler and more certain mode of ascer- but not after the earliest stages. The

taining the pulsation of the calf, and the next is to open the bowels, which will be unerring stethoscope renders the mode found to have a strong tendency to con truly philosophical. The existence of stipation. From i lb. to 1/2 lb. of

pregnancy may be detected by it at as Epsom salts, according to the strength early a stage as six or eight weeks, by of the cow, with a little ginger and car

which time the beating of the heart of away, shouldbe given as a purge. The the calf may be distinctly heard, and its spine should be stimulated by the appli

singular double beating cannot be mis- cation of ammonia liniment, and the taken .

head kept cool by cloths wet with cold Milk - fever.— " Although parturition water. The animal should be bolstered

is a natural process," as is well observed up into the natural position with bundles by Youatt, “ it is accompanied by a great of straw, and hoven prevented by the use deal of febrile excitement. The sudden of the trocar and canula. Perspiration transferring of powerful and accumulated must be induced by covering with cloths,

action from one organ to another — from the womb to the udder -- must cause a great deal of constitutional disturbance, as well as liability to local inflammation ." 1 One consequence of this constitutional disturbance of the system is milk -fever or puerperal fever. Cows in high condition are more subject than others to this complaint, and especially

and the animal must be prevented from injuring herself when she begins to throw her head wildly about. It must be con fessed, however,that the disease is nearly always fatal. Treatment rarely effects a cure, and practical experience has shown that, in the majority of cases, it is much better to kill the animal at once, as she is sure to die at any rate.

if they have been kept up for some weeks

Prevention of Milk - fever.- But it

before calving. The complaint may seize the cow onlya few hours after calving, or it may be days. Its first attack is probably not observed by those who have

is a preventable disease. It is due to overfeeding and having the body in a too plethoric state from the use of con

centrated foods. Regular physicking and

the charge of the cows, or even by the moderate feeding for a month or so be farmer himself, who is rather chary in fore calving, so as to reduce any " fulness " looking after the condition of cows, in of body, will almost always ensure safety. case he should offend his female friends, Red -water . — The ninth day after a to whose special care that portion of his cow has calved , a uterine discharge stock is consigned. should take place, and continue for a day The symptoms are first known by or two, afterwhich the cow will have all the cow shifting about in the stall, or the symptoms of good health. It has from place to place if loose, lifting one been observed that when this discharge leg and then another, being easily startled , does not take place, the cow will soon

and looking wildly about her as if she after show symptoms of red -water. She had lost her calf, and lowing for it. Then will evacuate urine with difficulty, which the flanks begin to heave, the mouth to will come away in small streams, and be

open and issue clear water, she staggers highly tinged with blood, and at length

in her walk, and at lengthloses the use appear like dark grounds of coffee. "The of her limbs, lies down and places her nature and cause of the disease are here head upon her side. The body then evident enough," as Youatt well observes. swells, the extremities feel cold and “ During the period of pregnancy there clammy. Shivering and cold sweats fol- had been considerable determination of low, the animal is at first wild and ex- blood to the womb. A degree of sus cited , throwing her head about, and ceptibility, a tendency to inflammatory 1 Youatt's Cattle, 546.

action had been set up, and this had been increased as the period of parturi

CATTLE IN SPRING .

24

tion approached, and was aggravated by The teats should be at equal distances the state and general fulness of blood to every way, neither too long nor too short, which she had incautiously been raised. but of moderate size, and equal thickness The neighbouring organs necessarily par- from the udder to the point,which should

ticipated in this, and the kidneys, to be smaller. They should not betoo large which so much blood is sent for the proper discharge of their function, either quickly shared in the inflammation of the womb, or first took an inflammation,

at the udder, to permit the milk to flow down too freely from the bag and lodge in them ; nor too small at that place,to allow the coagulation of the milk to cord

and suffered most by means of it.” 1

up or fill the orifice; nor too broad at the

The prevention of this disease is re- point, to have the orifice so large that commended in using purgative medicine the cow cannot retain her milk after the after calving ; but as purging never fails bag becomes full and heavy. They should to lessen the quantity of milk given by

be smooth, and feel like velvet, firm and

the cow for some time after, a better plan soft to handle, not hard and leathery. is to give such food as will also operate They should yield the milk freely, and as a laxative for some time before as well not require to be forcibly pulled. as after calving. One substance which When the milk is first to be taken from possesses these properties is oilcake. the cow after calving, the points of the teats will be found plugged up with a

resinous substance, which, in some in stances, requires some force to be exerted on them before it will yield.

MILKING COWS.

Structure of the Udder . — The struc-

ture of a cow's udder is remarkable.

It

First Milk . — The milk that is ob

tained for the first four days has a thick

consists of two glands, disconnected with consistence, and is of a yellow colour. each other, but contained within one It is known as the “ colostrum ," and has

bag or cellular membrane ; these glands obtained the name of biestingsin Scotland. being uniform in structure. Each con- It possesses the coagulable properties of sists of three parts, the glandular or the white of an egg , and will boil into a secreting, the tubular or conducting, and thick substance called biesting cheese.

the teats or receptacle or receiving part. But it is seldom used for such a purpose, The division is longitudinal, and each and is given to the calf, because in many half is provided with three teats, one of parts the people have a notion that it is

which, however, is abortive, so that milk not wholesome to use the biestings. is only yielded by four altogether, and

Theory of Milking.- " Thus, then,

thus each teat with its adjacent portion says a writer, " we perceive that the milk 9)

of the udder is called a “ quarter.”

The is abstracted from the blood in the glan

glandular forms much the largest portion dular part of the udder ; the tubes receive of the udder. It appears to the naked eye and deposit it in the reservoir or recep

composed of a mass of yellowish grains, tacle ; and the contractile tissue at the but under the microscope these are found end ofthe teat retains it there till it is to consist entirely of minute blood vessels wanted for use.

But we must not be

forming a compact plexus, which secrete understood to mean, that all the milk the milk from the blood.

drawn from the udder at one milking, or

The udder should be capacious, though meal, asit is termed , is contained inthe not too large for the size of the cow. It receptacle. The milk, as it is secreted, is should be nearly spherical in form , though conveyed to the receptacle, and when this rather fuller in front, and dependent be- is full, the larger tubes begin to be filled,

hind. The skin should be thin, loose, and next the smaller ones,untilthe whole and free from lumps, filled up in the fore- become gorged. When this takes place, but hanging in folds the secretion of the milk ceases, and ab part of the udder, part

in the hind

.

Each quarter should sorption of the thinner or more watery

contain about equal quantities of milk , part commences. Now, as this absorption though sometimes the hind ones yield takes place more readily in the smaller or the most. 1 Youatt's Cattle, 504.

more distant tubes, we invariably find that the milk from these, which comes

MILKING COWS.

25

the last into the receptacle, is much called a large milk-vein below the belly . thicker and richer than what was first This vein is the subcutaneous vein, and

drawn off. This milk has been significantly styled afterings ; and should this gorged state of the tubes be permitted to continue beyond a certain time, serious

drains a part of the udder of its blood, and when large, certainly indicates a strongly developed vascularsystem, which is favourable to secretion generally, and

mischief will sometimes occur : the milk no doubt that of milk in particular.

becomes too thick to flow through the tubes, and soon produces, first irritation, then inflammation, and lastly suppuration, and the function of the gland is materially impaired or altogether destroyed. Hence the great importance of emptying the smaller tubes regularly and thoroughly, not merely to prevent the occurrence of disease, but actually to increase the quantity of milk ; for so long as the smaller tubes are kept free, milk

Milk -pails . — The vessel used for re

ceiving the milk from the cow is sim ple, as in fig. 242, which is one of the most convenient form . The size may be made to suit the dairymaid's taste. It ismade of thin oak staves bound together with three thin gal

is constantly forming ; but whenever, as vanised hoops.

we have already mentioned, they become Pails similar in gorged , the secretion of milk ceases until shape are now they are emptied . The cow herself has made of tinned no power over the tissues at the end of iron , and

are

the teat, so as to open and relieve the preferable

for

overcharged udder : neither has she any cleanliness and power of retaining the milk collected in lightnes s. the reservoirs when the spasm of these is Pitchers of tin are mostly used overcome.” 1

Fig. 242. - Milk -pail.

Thus the necessity of drawing away for milking in the dairies of towns. the last drop of milk at every milking ; In Holland the milking -pails are made and the greater milker the cow is, thisis ofbrass, and must be kept quite bright, the more necessary . otherwise they would injure the milk. Hefting.Thus also the impropriety The Dutch dairymaids have a great deal of hefting or holding the milk in cows of trouble in keeping these vessels in

until the udder is distended much be- proper order. A pail, as fig. 242, is of yond its ordinary size, for the sake of a convenient size when 9 inches in dia

showing its utmost capacity for holding meter at the bottom, ui inches at the milk, a device which all cow -dealers, top, and 10 inches deep, with a handle and indeed every one who has a cow for 5 inches high ; which dimensions will

sale in a market, scrupulously adopts. give a mouth capacious enough to re It is remarkable that so hackneyed a ceive the milk as it descends, and of a practice should deceive any one into its sufficient height to rest on the edge of

being a measure of the milking power its bottom when held firmly between the of the cow ; for every farmer is surely knees of the milker, as he or she sits upon

aware that, when he purchases a hefted the three-legged stool. The pail should not be milked quite full for fear of spill

cow , he gains nothing by the device.

Why, then, encourage so cruel and in- ing, and should be large enough to con jurious a practice in dealers ? Were tain all the milk that a cow will give at purchasers to insist on a reduction in a milking, as it is undesirable to annoy

price of the cow that is hefted, the the cow by rising from her before the dealers would be obliged to relinquish milking is finished, or by exchanging one the bad practice.

pail for another.

The milking -stool, as in fig. 243, is -The milking properties of a cow are made of ash, to stand 9 inchesin height, to a certain extent indicated by what is or any other height to suit the conveni ence of the milker, with the top 9 inches 1 Blurton's Prac. Ess. Milk ., 6, 7. in diameter, and the legs a little spread Indications of Milking Properties.

CATTLE IN SPRING.

26

out below to give the stool stability. ently employed in milking the hinder Some milkers do not care to have a stool, teats of the cow , which are most difficult and prefer sitting on their haunches ; but to reach, because of the position of the a stool keeps the body steady, and the hind part of the udder between the hind legs. The near side is most common in Scotland, while in England the other

side is preferred. It is rare to see a cow milked in Scotland by any other than a woman, though men commonly do it in England.

LA Fig. 243. — Milking-stool.

The Operation of Milking:-Milking is performed in two ways, stripping and nievling. Stripping consists of seizing the teat firmlynear the root between the front of the thumb and the side of the

forefinger, the length of the teat lying

along the other fingers, and of pressing arms have more freedom to act, and the finger and thumb while passing them

ready to prevent accidents to the milk down the entire length of the teat, and in case of disturbance by the cow. causing the milk to flow out of its point Cows holding back Milk . — The cow, in a forcible stream . The action is re

being a sensitive and capricious crea- newed by again quickly elevating the ture, is so easily offended that, if the hand to the root of the teat. Both milker rise from her before the milk is hands are employed at the operation, all withdrawn, the chances are she will each having hold of a different teat, and

not again stand quietly at that milking ; moving alternately. The two nearest or if the vessel used in milking is taken teats, the fore and hind, are first milked , away before the milking is finished, and and then the two farthest. another substituted in its place, the proNievling is done by grasping the teat

bability is that she will hold backher with the whole hand, or fist, making the milk - that is, not allow it to flow . This sides of the forefinger and thumb press is a curious property which cows possess, upon the teat more strongly than the and how it is effected is not very well

other fingers, when the milk flows by the

understood ; butthere is nodoubtof the pressure. Both hands are employed, and fact occurring when a cow becomes irri- are made to press alternately ,but so tated or frightened by any cause . All cows are not affected to the same

quickly in succession that the alternate streams of milk sound on the ear like

degree; but, as a proof of their extreme one forcibly continued stream ; and al sensitiveness in this respect, it may be though stripping also causes a continued

mentioned that very few can be milked flow , thenievling, not requiring the hands so freely by a stranger the first time to change their position, as stripping as by one to whom they have been does, draws away the larger quantity of accustomed .

milk in the same time.

Stripping is thus performed by press near side of the cow is taken for milk- ing and passing certain fingers along the The Milking Side. — Usually, the

ing, and it is called the milking side ; teat ; nievling by the doubled fist press but whichever side is adopted, that ing the teat steadily at one place. should always be used with the same Of the two modes we prefer the COW. The near or left side of the cow nievling, because it is more like the may have been adopted for two reasons ; sucking of a calf. When a calf takes

because we are accustomed to approach a teatinto its mouth, it seizes it with

all the larger domesticated animals by the tongue against the palate, causing the near side—the animal's left side them to play upon the teat by alternate

as being the most convenient for our pressures or pulsations, while retaining selves ; and because most people are it in the same position. Nievling does

right-handed, and thereby the right hand this; but the action of stripping is quite being the stronger, it is most conveni- different.

MILKING COWS.

27

It is said that stripping is good for Cows are often troublesome on being agitating the udder, and agitation is conducive to the withdrawal of a large quantity of milk ; but there is nothing to prevent the milker agitating the udder while holding the teats in nievling -indeed, a more constant agitation is really kept up by the vibrations of the

milked ; and the kicks and knocks which

they receive for their restlessness only render them the more fretful. If they cannot be overcome by kindness, thumps

will never make them better. But the fact is, restless habits were engendered in them by the treatment they received

arms, than by pulling the teat constantly when first taken into the byre, when, down as in stripping.

most probably, they were dragooned into Stripping, by using a strong pressure submission. Udders and teats are very upon two sides of the teat, is more likely tender immediately after calving, and

to press it unequally than by grasping especially after the first calving; and the whole teat in the palm of the hand; when unfeeling horny hands tug the while the friction occasioned by passing teats in stripping, as if they had been the finger and thumb firmly over the accustomed to the operation for years , skin of the teat, is also more likely to no wonder that the young and inexperi excite heat and irritation in it than a

enced cow should wince under the inflic

grasp of the hand: This friction causes tion, and attempt by kicking to get quit an unpleasant feeling even to the milker, of her tormentor. Can the creature who is obliged to lubricate the teat be otherwise than uneasy ! and how frequently with milk , and to wet it at can she escape the pain but by strik

first with water, whereas nievling requires no such expedients; and as it gives pain to the cow, it cannot be employed when the teats are chapped, or

ing out a heel ? The hobbles are then placed on the hind -legs, to keep the heels down. The tail is next employed by her as an instrument of annoyance, which is

affected with cow -pox, while nievling can then held by some one while the milking be used with impunity. is going on , or is tied to the creature's

Milking should be done fast, to draw leg by the hair of the tuft. Add to

away the milk as quickly as possible; these the many threats and scolds uttered and it should be continued as long as by the milker, and a faint idea of how there is a drop of milk to bring away. a young heifer is broken in into milking This is an issue which the dairymaid may be conceived. Some cows are nat

cannot too particularly attend to herself, urally unaccommodating and provoking ; and see it in her assistants. Old milk but, nevertheless, nothing butgentleness left in the receptacle of the teat soon towards them will ever render them less changes into a curdy state ; and the SO . Some cows are only troublesome to

caseous matter, not being at once broken milk for a few times after calving, and and removed by the next milking, is apt soon become quiet ; others kick perti to irritate the lining membraneof the naciously at the first milking. In the

teat during the operation,especiallywhen lastcase, the surest plan is for the milker, the teat isforcibly rubbed down between while standing on his or her feet, to place the finger and thumb in stripping. The the head against the flank of the cow, consequence of this irritation being re- stretch the hands forward, get hold of

peated is a thickening of a part of the the teats the best way possible, and let lining membrane, which at length be- the milk fall to the ground. In this posi comes so hardened as to constitute a tion it is out of the power of the cow

stricture which at length closes up the orifice of the teat. The stricture may easily be felt from the outside of the teat, and the teat is then said to be corded .

to hurt the milker. Such ebullitions of feeling, at the first milking after calving, arise either from feeling pain in a tender state of the teat — most probably from

After this the teat becomes inflammation in the lining membrane of

“ deaf” or “ blind,” and no more milk the receptacle ; or simply from titillation

can afterwards be drawn from the quarter of the skin of the udder and teat, which of the udder with which the corded teat becomes the more sensitive as the heat communicates.

increases ; or the udder, being still hard,

Cows troublesome at Milking.– gives pain when first touched.

Should

28

CATTLE IN SPRING .

the udder be difficult to soften, the ad- as the cow does not possess the power of

vice of Youatt may be tried, by allowing retaining her milk in any one quarter of the udder while it flows freely from the

the calf to suck at least three times a-

day until the udder becomes soft. This will doubtless cure the udder, but

others.”

These tubes, containing a small and

may cause another species of restlessness larger end, beyond which they cannot in thecow when the calf is taken from pass into the teat, may be made of ivory , her. Still, rather let the milker suffer bone , or metal . They should be thrown inconvenience than the udder of the cow into the pail and milked on before being be injured . Be the cause of irritation used , and when taken out of the teat, let what it may, one thing is certain, that fall into the can. On being used they

gentle and persevering discipline will overcome the most turbulent temper in a Milking affords different degrees of pleasure to different cows. One yields its milk with a copious flow , with the gentlest handling ; another requires great

should be dipped in boiling water and blown through. They do not seem to possess any advantage over the hand ; on the contrary, the hand must be em

ployed to complete what they cannot accomplish, in drawing off the last drop exertion to draw the milk in streams no of milk , and must be in use when they larger than threads. The udder of the are employed. gentle one has a soft skin, and short Milking -tubes . - Milking -tubes have been invented by teats like velvet ; that of the hardened Cooper & Co. , Shef one, a thick skin, and the teats long and field . They consist of tough like tanned leather. 4india -rubber smooth Artificial Means of Milking . – A

plan of drawing milk from the cow

tubes about the thick

was recommended by Mr Blurton, Field Hall, Staffordshire, by introducing tubes

ness of a goose-quill,

into two teats, and milking the other

in fig. 244.

teats at the same time.

6 inches in length, as

opinion that a tube in each teat would draw away all the available milk from the udder; but, finding his mistake in

To one

end of them is at tached an electro

He was once of Fig . 244 : -

Milking -tubes.

plated tube, 2 inches

in length, closed at

this, he adopted the following method of the upper end, and perforated there with 3 opposite holes in each side, and at the other end is inserted a short open simi lar metal tube of about 34 inch in length ; the 4 tubes being held to gether with an indiarubber band. In using these tubes they are thrown into knees : he then takes hold of the near- the milking-pail, and a small quantity of hand teat with a slight pressure of his milk is milked upon them by the hand

milking. The tubes are called siphons, though they have none of the properties of the true siphons. His improved plan of milking is this : “ The milker sits down as in the common method, fixing the siphon can (pail) firmly between his

right hand, and with his left introduces from each teat. Each tube is then in the small tube of the siphon an inch or serted into the hole of the teat with the

more into the teat, putting the thumb right hand, while drawing down the teat on the large tube, to prevent the milk with the left hand, until the milk flows from running out till completely intro- freely through it. The pail is placed on duced — and so on with the near fore-teat, the ground under the combined orifices reserving the two furthest teats to be of the tubes, and remains there until the hod three milk ceases to flow , when the tubes are milked by hand. By this

teats can be milked with the right hand, removed. About 1862 an apparatus for milking assisted by the siphons, in the time one can be milked with the left, and this

cows was presented to public notice,

with ease and comfort. It may be here in which the air-pump was used to ex observed that the action of milking one tract the air out of tubes which were

or two teats by hand, is quite sufficient connected by finger-pieces to the teats

to induce the cow to give her milk down of the cows, and the pressure of freely from those milked by the siphons ; the atmosphere on the udder expelled

MILKING COWS.

the milk out of it. It was not easy to fit the finger-pieces air -tight upon the teats ; a restive cow could easily throw the whole apparatus out of gear ; and

29

and get rid of a portion of the hardened scabbiness about them , the continuance of which is the greatest pain in the act of milking ; and, afterthe milking, the

the apparatus did not milk clean. This teats should be dressed with the follow invention made a sort of sensation at ing ointment: Take i oz. of yellow wax the time, which soon subsided .

and 3 oz. of lard, and melt them to

In 1864 Barland's “ pocket self-milk- gether, and when they begin to get cool, ing apparatus was brought out. It rub well in 14 oz. of sugar-of-lead and 1 simply consists of the insertion of a drachm of alum finely powdered.” 2

tube, with a flange upon it, into each teat, and the milk flows through it from the udder. Mr Blurton very properly advocates clean milking, and describes a good plan of drawing away all the milk from an

Milking Period . — Cows differ much in

the time they continue to milk , some not continuing to yield it more than 9 months, others for years. The usual time for cows that bear calves to give milk is 10 months. Many remarkable instances

No implement can draw away of cows giving milk for a long time are the milk clean from the udder ; the hand on record. “The immense length of time alone can do that. “ In aftering,” he for which some cows will continue to give udder.

says, “ I have adopted the plan of using milk ,” says a veterinary writer, “if fa the left hand to press down the thick milk vourably treated, is truly astonishing ; so into the receptacle and teat, at the same much so as to appear absolutely incred time milking with the right hand ; then,

ible. My own observation on this subject

in a similar manner, discharging the extends to four most remarkable cases : whole from the remaining quarters of the

1. A cow purchased by Mr Ball, who re

udder.” He adds what is very true, that “ it must not be supposed that this method is distressing to the animal ; on the contrary, her quietness during the

sided near Hampstead, that continued to give milk for 7 years subsequently to having her first and only calf. 2. A large dun Suffolk cow, shownto me as a curios

process is a satisfactory indication that it ity by a Yorkshire farmer. This animal, occasions no pain, but rather an agreeable when I saw her, had been giving milk sensation .' for the preceding 5 years, duringwhich Sore Udder .— The udder, in cases of period she had not any calf. The 5 years' heifers, becomes not only uneasy before milking was the result of her second calv calving, but is subject to inflammation ing. During that period attempts had afterwards.

“ The new or increased func- been made to breed from her, but ineffec

tion which is now set up,” says Youatt, "and the sudden distension of the bag with milk, produce tenderness and irritability of the udder, and particularly of the teats. This in some cases shows itself in

tually. 3. A small aged cow, belonging to a fermier near Paris, that gave milk for 3 years subsequent to her last calf. 4. A cow in the possession of Mr Nichols, postmaster, Lower Merrion Street, Dub

the form of excoriations or sores, or small lin.

cracks or chaps on the teats ; and very troublesome they are . The discharge, likewise, from these cracks, mingles with the milk. The cow suffers much pain in

This animal was in Mr Nichols's

possession 4 years, during the entire of which time she continued to give an un interrupted supply of milk, which did not diminish in quantity more than 3 pints

the act of milking, and is often unman- per diem, and that only in the winter He disposed of her for ageable. Many a cow has been ruined, months. .

both as a quiet and a plentiful milker, butchers' meat, she being in excellent by bad management when her teats have condition. The morning of the day on been sore.

. She will also form a which she was killed, she gave

her usual

habit of retaining her milk, which very quantity of milk.” speedily and very materially reduces its

Spaying Cows . The same writer

quantity. The teats should be fomented proves fully the possibility of securing with warm water in order to clean them, permanency of milk in the cow . This is 1 Blurton's Pract. Ess. Milk ., 10-12.

2 Youatt's Cattle, 552.

CATTLE IN SPRING .

30

effected by simply spaying the cow at a teat may lose the power of retaining the proper time after calving. The operation milk in it. To prevent the running out consists in cutting into the flank of the cow, and, by the introduction of the hand, destroying the ovaries of the womb. The cow must have acquired her full stature, so that it may be performed at any age after 4 years. She should be at the flush

of the milk from the cow's udder, this expedient may be adopted with a chance of success : Place an india -rubber band round the teats of the cow, and, in case the band should insert itself too deeply into the teat to be easily removed at

of her milk, as the future quantity yielded

milking, wrap the teat round with a piece

depends on that which is affordedby her of linen or thin soft leather under the at the time of the operation. The opera band, so that the under part of the linen

tion may be performed in ten days after may be easily taken hold of in removing calving,butthe most proper time appears the band. to be 3 or 4 weeks after. The cow should be in high health, otherwise the operation

may kill her or dry up the milk . The only preparation required for safety in the operation is, that the cow should fast

CALF -REARING .

Importance of Calf-rearing. – Calf

12 or 14 hours, and the milk be taken away rearing, the root and the rise of the

immediately before the operation. The cattle-breeding industry, has not received wound heals in a fortnight or three weeks.

from the general body of farmers such

For two or three daysafter the operation full and careful attention as it deserves, the milk may diminish in quantity ; but or as it is capable of repaying. It is it regains its measure in about a week, undeniable that the live -stock resources and continues at that mark for the re- of the United Kingdom might advan

mainder of the animal's life, or as long tageously be developedto a much greater as the age of the animal permits the extent. The growing importance of live secretion of the fluid ; unless, from some stock interests in British agriculture is

accidental circumstance — such as attack manifest to all. In this expansion calf of a severe disease — it is stopped. But rearing must play a leading part. Breed even then the animal may easily be fat- ing is of course the starting-point, and tened. the rearing of the calf is thefirst great Advantages of Spaying . — The ad step in the progress of the industry. vantages of spaying are : “ 1. Rendering Aversion of Farmers to Calf-rear permanent the secretion of milk, and hav- ing. - With many farmers calf -rearing ing a much greater quantity within the finds little favour ; often, we venture to

given time of every year. 2.Thequality say, for no better reason than that it is of the milk being improved. 3. The uncertainty of, and the dangers incidental to, breeding, being to a great extent avoided. 4. The increased disposition to fatten , even when giving milk, or when ,

a troublesome business, demanding con

stant and careful attention. With skil ful and careful management, calf-rearing, where circumstances are at all favour able, is almost invariably remunerative.

from excess of age, or from accidental This much, however, it must have, and it

circumstances, the secretion of milk is rarely succeeds where not well conducted. checked ; also the very short time re- The young animals must be fed with

quired for the attainment of marketable skilland regularity, and their health and condition. 5. The meat of spayed cattle comfort carefully attended to in every being of a quality superior to that of ordi- way. When this responsible work is nary cattle .” 1

With these advantages breeders of stock can have nothing to do; but since the operation is said to be quite safe in its results, it may attract the

left entirely to hired servants, it may be imperfectly or irregularly performed, with the result that the calves make unsatis factory progress, or perhaps become im

notice of cowfeeders in town .

paired in health. The farmer thus loses

Preventing Udders from Running. faith in the benefits of calf-rearing. He - From some cause, the tissues of the has, perhaps, at last learned that the 1 Ferguson's Distem . among Cat., 29-36.

cause of the mischief is improper treat ment ; but personal supervision, or super

he

CALF -REARING .

vision by some member of his family or employees in whom confidence could be placed, may be found irksome or inconvenient, and thus again the industry of calf -rearing loses in favour. Calf -rearing on Large Farms.-

extent.

31

We are far short of that limit

yet ; and we would fain hope that until it is reached the best efforts of our leaders of agriculture may be directed to the encouragement of home-breeding rather than to the devising or providing of

This demand which calf-rearing makes means of increasing the embarrassments upon the careful personal supervisionof of home-breeders by importing foreign the farmer or some member of his family, bred lean stock. Rear more Calves.-- In any scheme is undeniably the main reason why upon

many large farms well suited for breed- for increasing the supply of home-bred ing, so few calves are brought up. We store cattle, calf-rearing must play an laya little of the blame for thisat the important part. We must not only door of modern social fashion. Upon a breed more calves, but we must also rear large farm the farmer himself has many more. We should rear all we breed, or other duties which draw him away from nearly so, and rear them well, too ; for let

superintending the feeding and treatment it ever be kept in view that what an ani of calves ; and it is not the fashion for mal loses with bad treatment as a calf, it sons and daughters of large farmers to

can hardly ever fully recover. But we

give their attention to such matters. do not mean by rearing well , any sort of This conception of social life upon the extravagant treatment. In fact, we be farm may easily be carried too far. It lieve there is room for much greater is not suggested that the sons and economy in the rearing of calves. In

daughters of men of capital should be connection with calf - rearing on dairy expected to put their hands to the farms, or wherever milk can be turned manual work of calf-rearing.

There is to good account , this point is of special

a difference between this, however, and importance. Breed longer from Cows . the superintending of work done by hired

We

should breed longer from cows. A cus tom by no means uncommon is to buy a gentlemen if they should make them- cow for a temporary supply of milk, and selves acquainted with certain details of fatten her off when she gets dry. Now their father's business, and assist him in this is a serious loss. Breed from all seeing that these details are carried out suitable cows as long as practicable.

The daughters and sons of servants. farmers will be none the less ladies and

Breeding from Heifers . - From all . regulari Cattle. witDeficiency h due care and -The heifers that are suitable, whether in of Store ty growth in the breeding of cattle has not tended for cows or not, take one, two, or

Řept pace with the increase in the con- perhaps even a third calf. Keep them sumption of beef. The supply of home- well all the while , letting the calves bred store cattle has not been equal to suckle ; and if the heifer is not to be Farmers kept for a cow , she may be fattened off the demands of the feeders. have been complaining of unsatisfactory and sold as heifer-beef. The calf or two financial results from fattening cattle, will have done her little or no harm in and the main difficulty has been the fact the butcher's eye, if only she does not that, on account of deficient supply, store show the udder of a cow. This will not cattle have been dearer than fat animals

often arise when the calves suckle.

This

-that feeders have had to pay more for question we lately put to an extensive the lean cattle than the price of beef salesman in the north of England, who would warrant. replied that his experience was that Home - breeding , not Importation , two calves or so in no way spoiled the the Remedy. The proper remedy for sale of the young heifer, if only there this state of matters is the extension of

were no display of udder, and if she were

home-breeding - assuredly not the im- plump, level, and well ' fattened. Let that be resorted to only when our own resources in cattle-breeding have been developed to the fullest advantageous

portation of foreign lean cattle.

He

added that a lot of young heifers never came before him for sale but he regretted

that so much valuable material was being wasted . Premature fatting of heifers

32

CATTLE IN SPRING .

is really killing the goose that lays the old. If the calves are of a good class

golden egg. In these times farmers they will sell readily at handsome prices. cannot afford such waste as that. Are Calves Nuisances --Unfortu-

While it may suit some to breed calves

and sell them young, it will undoubtedly

nately not a few dairy farmers look upon pay others to adapt their arrangements

calves as little else than nuisances — as specially for rearing. Instead ofkeeping necessary evils --- something which they large stocks of cows, they may buy in would never wish to have if only they young calves, and rearthem partly on milk could without them get cows in milk.

and other suitable food . In certain cases

This is a great misfortune, and shows these bought-in stock may be carried on clearly that while the cry is for more

and fattened when from two to three

store stock, there must be something years old. In others they may be simply radically wrong somewhere. The fact is, reared , and sold as lean stock when from calf - rearing is very imperfectly under- ten to eighteen months old. stood .

We are convinced that dairy farmers, as well as other farmers in all parts

Details of Calf-rearing.

There is, of course, much variety in

suited for breeding, would find, in well- the systems of calf-rearing pursued conducted calf - rearing, returns which throughout the country. And in this as would amply repay careful treatment in most other farming matters, it would

and judicious and liberal feeding. The be unwise to lay down hard - and -fast dairy farmer may dislike the calf because rules as the best for all circumstances.

he has found it à greedy and bad -paying Various approved methods will be de customer for its' mother's milk. But if scribed, and with these in view the in he has done so, he has had himself to telligent farmer will arrange his practice

blame. A good calf will well repay a to suit his own peculiar conditions and moderate allowance of its mother's milk objects. for a short time ; and we would emphasise Housing Calves.

The comfortable

this point, that it is only for a very short and economical housing of calves is time at the outset that there is any neces-

a matter that demands careful attention.

sity to give milk — at any rate, new milk

Calves are either suckled by their mo thers, or brought up by the hand on

—to calves.

Milk Substitutes. - Scientific research milk and other substances. When they

and commercial enterprise have placed are suckled, if the byre be roomy enough us in possession of many advantages un- —that is, 18 feet in width - stalls may

known to our forefathers. In the simple matter of calf-rearing we have gained much in this way. Why, the market is teeming with cheap milk substitutes ;

be erected for them against the wall behind the cows, in which they are tied up ; or, what is a less restrictive plan, they may be put together in large loose

and, without going the length of affirm- boxes at the ends of the byre, or in ad

ing that these foods are worthy of all joining apartment, and let out at stated their energetic vendors say of them , yet times to be suckled. When brought up by the hand, they we unhesitatingly say that, with substantial advantage to themselves and the are put into a suitable apartment, pref

general public, farmers might draw upon erably each in a crib to itself, where the them much more largely than they have milk is given to them. The advantage of

Undoubtedly the use having calves separate is, that it pre and we think that, by a judicious use of ance of milk, sucking one another, by done heretofore.

of these prepared foods is on the increase ; vents them , after having had their allow

them and other simple natural foods, calf-rearing might be increased to a very great extent, both on dairy and mixed husbandry farms. Rearing or Selling Calves. — We do

the ears, teats, scrotum , or navel, by which malpractice ugly blemishes are at times produced. When a number of calves are kept together, they should all be muzzled to prevent this sucking.

not say that all farmers should rear their

Calf - crib.— The crib for each calf

calves. It may suit some better to sell should be 4 feet square and 4 feet in

the calves when one, two, or three weeks height, sparred with slips of tile-lath,

CALF -REARING .

33

to prevent the door being thrown off the afford access to the calf. The floor of hinges by any accident. Cross-tailed iron hinges, of the light the cribs, and the passages between

and have a small wooden wicket to

them, should be paved with stone, or ness suited to such doors, would soon be laid with asphalt or concrete. Abund- broken.

ance of light should be admitted , either by windows in the walls, or skylights in the roof ; and fresh air is essential to the health of calves, so that ventilation should

a

1

be carefully attended to . So also should the cleaning of the calf -cribs. The cribs should be regularly cleaned out; and it

is a good plan to sprinkle the floors daily with some disinfectant, such as diluted

and

carbolic acid — one part of acid to twenty of water. This will keep the atmosphere

pure and wholesome, which is very de sirable for the young animals. If the calf compartment be separate from the cow -house, it should communicate with the latter by a close door, having upper and lower divisions, into a court with a shed , which the calves

may occupy till turned out to grass.

Fig. 245.-- Calf's -crib wicket. a Wicket to give access to the crib. b b Its hinges of wood. © Thumb -catch for fastening wicket. d Billet to prevent wicket being thrown off.

More frequently the spars forming the

The crib should be fitted up with a crib are placed upright, and are of greater

manger to contain cut turnips or carrots, strength than indicated in the illustration. and a high rack for hay, the top of Care in letting out Calves.- When

which should be as much elevated above the calves are fit to be put out in the the litter as to preclude the possibility open air, after it becomes mild, they of the calf getting its feet over it. should be put into a shed for some nights The general fault in the construc- before being turned out to grass, and

tion of calves' houses is the want of also for some nights when at grass. light and air — both great essentials ; The shed should be fitted up with light being cheerful toanimals in con- mangers for turnips, and racks for hay, finement, and air essential to the good and a trough of water. Navel - string. - The state of the health of calves. When desired , both may be excluded .

The walls of the

navel-string is the first thing that should

calves' house should be plastered, to be be examined in a new-dropped calf, that neat and clean, and should be white- no blood be dropping from it, and that washed at least once every year.

it is not in too raw a state.

The bleed

In some cases the cribs are so con- ing can be stayed by a ligature on the structed

that the calf has access, either string, but not close to the belly.

In

at will or when the door of the crib is attention to the navel-string may over

opened, to a larger enclosure in which look the cause of the navel-ill; and, in theyoung animal can exercise its limbs. significant as this complaint is usually The front and wicket of a calf's crib regarded, it carries off more calves than which we have seen in use, is shown in

fig. 245, in which a wicket-door gives access to the crib. The hinge is of wood, simple and economical. It consists of the rails of the wicket being elongated and rounded off, and theirlower face end shaped into a round pin, which fills and rotates in a round hole in a billet of wood securely screwed to the upright

most breeders are aware off. Youatt remarks : “ Possibly the spot

at which the division of the cord took place may be more than usually sore. A pledget of tow , wetted with friar's balsam, should be placed over it, con fined with a bandage, and changed every morning and night; but the caustic ap plications that are so frequently resorted

door-post of the crib. Another billet is to should be avoided. Sometimes, when screwed on immediately above the hinge, there has been previous bleeding, and VOL . II.

с

CATTLE IN SPRING.

34

especially if the caustic has been used

Some are afraid to give a calf as much

to arrest the hemorrhage, and at other times when all other things seemed to have been going on well, inflammation suddenly appears about the navel between the third and eighth or tenth day. There is a little swelling of the part, but

biestings at first as it can take, because it is said to produce the navel-ill. Let it take as much as it pleases. As to the navel-ill, it proceeds from neglect of the proper inspection and precaution after the calf is born .

with more redness and tenderness than

Teaching Calves to Drink .

The

such a degree of enlargement could in- process of feeding a new -dropped calf dicate. Although there may be nothing by hand is here minutely described, in the first appearance of this to excite because absurd modes are practised in

alarm , the navel- ill is a far more serious doing it.

It is common to plunge the

business than some imagine. Fomentation in the part, in order to disperse the tumour, the opening of it with a lancet if it evidently points, and the adminis-

calf's mouth into the entire quantity of biestings, and because the liquid bubbles around its mouth with the breath from the nose, and it will not drink, its head

tration of 2 or 3 oz. doses of castor-oil,

is the more forcibly kept down into the

made into an emulsion by means of an

vessel.

How can it drink with its nose

egg, will constitute the first treatment ; immersed amongst the liquid ? and why but if, when the inflammation abates, extreme weakness should come on , as is

should a calf be expected at first to drink with its head down, when its natural

too often the case, gentian and laudanum, instinct would lead it to suck with its with perhaps a small quantity of port head up ? wine, should be administered. It should be borne in mind that feed

Inflammation of the navel is often ing calves by the hand is an unnatural caused by one calf sucking another.

process ; nevertheless it is convenient,

Calf'sFirst Food. --Thefirst food the practicable, and easy, provided it is done calf receives is the biestings—the first in a careful manner.

The young calf

milk taken from the cow after calving: must be taught to drink, and a good Being of the consistence of the yolk of mode of teaching it is the one here the egg, it seems an appropriate food given. In this way it is fed as often for a young calf. By the time it gets as the cow is milked, three times a -day. Another Method of Teaching to its first feed, the calf may have risen to its feet.

If not, let it remain lying, and Drink.—After the first two or three

let the dairymaid take a little biestings days, another plan should be adopted , in a small dish-a vessel formed like a

for the calf should not be accustomed to

miniature milk- pail, fig. 242, and of suck the fingers, and it may refuse to similar materials, is a convenient one drink without their assistance.

The

--and let her put her left arm round plan is to put a finger or two of the the neck of the calf, support its lower right hand into its mouth, and holding jaw with the palm of the hand, keeping the pail of milk with the left under its

its mouth a little elevated , and then head, bring the mouth gradually down open the mouth by introducing the thumb of the same hand into the side of it. Then let her fill the hollow of her right hand with biestings, and pour it into the calf's mouth, introducing a

into the pail, with the nostrils free, where the fingers induce it to take a few gluts of the milk ; and while it is doing this, the fingers should be with drawn, while the mouth is gently held

finger or two with it for the calf to down in the milk, when it will drink a

suck , when it will swallow the liquid. little of itself. In a few days more the

Let it get handful after handful, as fingers will not be required, the head When only being put down to the milk, and in it refuses to take more, its mouth should a few more still, the calf will drink of

much as it is inclined to take.

be cleaned of the biesting that may have its own accord . run over.

Sometimes, when a calf is

Reform in Calf - feeding. - In the

begun to be fed lying, it attempts to get method of feeding calves during the upon its feet ; and, if able, let it do so, first few months of their existence, there and rather assist than prevent it.

has been almost as great a revolution as

CALF -REARING .

35

in any other branch of farm practice. sometimes averse to a strange calf, but The old notion that at least three months with a little care at the outset she will

of feeding upon whole milk as it comes gradually lose this, and will fondly wel. from the cow was necessary for success-

come its attentions when her udder is

ful calf -rearing, has been exploded. In in want of relief. many cases, almost entirely in herds of

Suckling two or more Calves.-- An

pure -bred cattle, the calves still suckle average milker will yield more milk than But beyond these herds

one calf requires. A second calf may

comparatively little new milk is now employed in rearing calves, reliance being more largely placed upon skim -milk and milk substitutes. Excellent results are obtained by the new method, and the

therefore be admitted, and a good, well fed cow will easily raise two strong calves. In many cases, indeed, one cow

their dams.

fresh milk and cream thus saved from

rears two sets of calves, sometimes four

in a -year, but more frequently three. After the first two calves have been

the calves are advantageously used for weaned, a good cow should have enough other purposes, sold to milk retailers, or milk remaining to rear at least a third calf, and if she had calved early in the

made into butter and cheese .

The season, be naturally a heavy and endur biestings or first milk after calving ing milker, she may, with liberal feeding, Composition of Biestings.

differsconsiderably in composition from be quite able to rear a second couple of ordinary milk. It contains an excep- youngsters. A cow that is capable of

tionally large proportion of casein or doing this will give a good account of her cheesy matter, as the following analysis year's feeding. of ordinary milk and biestings will Ordinary Biestings. Milk . 15. I 4.48 3.13 2.6 4.77 0.60

Casein ( cheese) Butter

Milk -sugar Saline matter . Mucus Water

Suckling and Milking combined. When these additional calves cannot be

show :

2.0

:

87.02

80.3

100.00

100.00

advantageously obtained, or when fresh milk is desired for some other purpose

than calf -rearing, the cow may be left with the one calf and her surplus milk drawn from her once, twice, or thrice a -day, according to her supply and the requirements of the calf. This method has other advantages apart from the supply of milk it provides for household

The prevailing methods of feeding or other purposes.

It accustoms the

calves may be briefly described as fol- cow to milking as well as to sucking, and by the operation of milking, syste lows :

Suckling. This is " nature'smethod .” matically and efficiently performed , the It is the surest and simplest means of attaining the highest development in the calf. When maximum growth in frame, flesh, and fat is the main object, and “ cost of production ” of little moment,

capacity of her milk -vessels is developed, and her flow of milk stimulated ; while the risk of the calf gorging itself with too much milk at any one time is ob viated. Of course this supplementary

suckling is the most reliable system . It process of milkingthe nurse-cow may be is therefore pursued largely in herds of carried too far. The calf must not be

pure-bred cattle, especially by breeders robbed of its due amount of food. One who enter the showyard lists. The usual objection to partial suckling is, that a plan is to allow the calf to run with its cow suckling a calf does not allow milk

dam , and to suck the cow at pleasure, or ing afterwards with the hand in a kindly allow it access to her at regular intervals.

manner.

Unless, therefore, cows

are

The formeris preferable,and will make kept for the purpose of suckling through the best calf. If the dam has not suffi- out the season, they often become trouble cient milk to raise the calf, or if her milk some to milk with the hand after the

is desired for other purposes, the calf calves are weaned. Decrease in Suckling. – Suckling is may be put to a nurse-cow , which the youngster will suck as readily as it would not pursued nearly so extensively asfor A nurse -cow is merly. Increased facilities for utilising suck its own mother.

CATTLE IN SPRING .

36

surplus milk and cream , and the better

est or most economical, as well as the

understanding of calf-rearing by other most perfect, food for calves. The in means, have tended to curtail the practice of suckling calves. Even in purebred herds it has lost ground. It is a comparatively costly system , and is

creased and still increasing demand for milk and its products for household pur poses has withdrawn vast quantities of milk formerly employed in calf-rearing.

therefore not to be commended in ordi-

This dive

on

still going on, and it is

nary farm practice. Suckling saves the to the farmer's advantage that it should trouble of milking the cows and giving be stimulated, for it practically adds an the milk to the calves; but a saving of other string to his bow . If he can

trouble may be a loss of money in the rearing of calves. An objection to suckling exists when one cow brings up two calves at a time, that the quantity of

advantageously sell or utilise his milk otherwise, he should use as little as pos sible of it in rearing calves. For these youngsters he has the choice of an ample

milk received by each calf is unknown,

assortment of other foods, the economical

and the faster sucker will take the larger worth and efficiency of which have been share. True, they are both brought up ; well established . In the selection, mix but are they brought up as well as when ing, preparation, and feeding of these

the quantity of milk consumed isknown foods lies the art of modern calf-rearing: to be sufficient for the support of each ? It is an important item in the routine of The milk becomes scarcer, too, as the the stock -owner's duties, and demands calves get older, instead of becoming studious and careful attention . more plentiful, as should be the case to Prevalent Methods. Perhaps the satisfy the growing wants of the young most widely prevalent method of rearing animal.

calves is to feed them entirely on new

Suckling with Heifers.- Reference has already been made to the plan of taking at least one crop of calves from heifers that are not intended to be added

milk for a short period at the outset that period varying from two to six weeks, -- and afterwards partly on new milk, skim -milk, and artificial food ; or

to the regular stock of cows.

This is a upon skim -milk and artificial food, with

species of " catch crop " which may often be taken with advantage. It is the usual practice to allow these calves to suck their youthful mothers. This does not as milking would — develop the udder so as to spoil the sale of the young cow in the fat - stock market, and by liberal feeding she may be fattened while she is rearing her calf . Hand-rearing.– Although this is an artificial, it is nevertheless the most gen-

out any of the rich milk as it comes from It is, nodoubt, a good plan to let the calf have all the new milk it can readily consume for at least two or three weeks at the outset. By degrees skim milk may be substituted for new milk, and when the new milk is wholly, or almost wholly, withdrawn, the skim -milk

the cow .

must be supplemented by some other richer food . Skim -milk for Calveg . — Skim -milk

eral, as well as the most economical, sys- alone is not a well - balanced food for tem of rearing calves. It enables the calves. The butter -fat has been almost farmer to use for his calves as much or wholly removed from it, and what re

as little as is thought desirable of his supply of milk, and it permits him also to avail himself of those cheaper milk substitutes which are now within his reach. He has thus, in the hand -rearing

mains is not sufficiently provided with all the elements necessary for the healthy development of the young animal. Skim milk, left by an efficient system of cream ing, will, on an average, contain the

methods, much freer choice and greater following per 100 lb. : scope for economical and skilful man agement than in the simple system of

Casein

suckling.

Albumen

.7

Fat

.5 "

It may be admitted that no perfect substitute for milk has as yet been dis covered or devised.

Sugar Ash

3.5 lb. 11

4.0 8

It by no means

follows, however, that milk is the cheap

9.5 lb.

CALF -REARING .

The skim -milk thus retains almost all calves every day.

37

The supply of this

the casein and sugar in the new milk ; milk often lasts the whole week.

If the

but so effective are some of the modern Sunday's milk falls short, the calves get processes of separating the cream from two quarts of new milk , with one quart the milk, that only the merest traces of of water added.

butter-fat may remain in the skim -milk . Artificial Food for Calves.- The About one-sixth of the casein and albu- other substances most largely used either men consists of nitrogen, and as far as it

in supplement of or as substitutes for

goes, skim -milk is undoubtedly a valuable milk in rearing calves, are linseed, lin food, and may be used with great advan- seed - cake, oatmeal, Indian -corn meal,

tage in conjunction with other feeding palm -nut meal, malt, pea-meal, barley material.

meal, or some specially prepared food. Skim -milk should not be fed largely The characteristics and composition of by itself to calves, for calves so fed are these articles are described in the chap liable to scour, indigestion, and other ter on 66 Foods," which should be referred

bowel - complaints.

It is a dangerous to and consulted carefully in arranging

practice to abruptly substitute skim -milk the dietary of animals. for new milk as the main food of calves.

Preparing Foods for Calves . - All

The withdrawal of the new milk should these articles of food are given to calves take place gradually, and other substances in the form of gruel, and they can hardly

should be introduced in corresponding be too well steeped or boiled. It is de ratio to make up for the deficiencies of sirable to have the linseed and linseed cake ground into meal before boiling.

the skim -milk .

Professor Stewart on Skim -milk. Gruelfromlinseed -cake is often prepared - “ Skim -milk is much more valuable as by adding four parts of boiling water to a food than is generally supposed. It one part of the meal derived by grinding contains all the qualities of the milk ex- the cake, and allowing the mass to remain cept the cream .

The casein , the most covered up for twelve hours.

Palm -nut

valuable food - constituent of the milk, meal maybe prepared ina similar man ner.

and the milk -sugar, or whey, are still in In making linseed - gruel, water it. If you feed only skim -milk to a should be added so as to give almost a healthy calf, it will require on an aver- gallon and a half of gruel for every pound

age from 15 to 20 lb. of milk to make of linseed. If the gruel is found to purge

1 lb. of live - weight during the first the calf, add a little more water, and for ninety days, if the calf is given all it a day or two give rather less of the gruel

wants; and a good eater will gain 22 and more of the skim -milk .

A little

Ib . per day.” Professor Stewart has a wheat-flour, mixed with gruel, is also a

high opinionof boiled linseed as food useful and simple remedy in cases of for calves. He points out particularly purging. Mixtures of these meals are that, given along with skim -milk , the often made into gruel for calves, and the oil of the linseed “will make good the selection of the particular articles to be loss of the cream in the milk .” 1

used will be regulated mainly by their

Scalding Skim -milk . - It is well to market prices atthe time. have the skim -milk scalded as soon as the

Quantities of Milk for Calves . - In

cream has been taken from it, because it the majority of cases where calves are

will thus longer remain sweet. A simple raised by hand -feeding, they get about way of scalding is to insert a vessel full two quarts of new milk twice or three of the skim -milk into a larger vessel con- times a -day - four to five or six quarts

taining hot water. Some even boil the in all - during the first two, three, four, skim -milk, and are thus able to keep it or six weeks of their existence. At these sweet a whole week . various periods, according to custom or Weknow of one large farmer who sells to the supply of new milk and the other milk on the six week -days,keeps at demands for it at the time, a beginning his home his Sunday's milk, has it boiled on is made with the substitution of skim Monday, and gives a portion of it to his milk for new milk. A very small pro portion of the latter is given at first, by degrees it is increased , and soon the new Peeding Animals, 235-237. 1

TLE

CAT

38

ING

IN SPR

.

milk is wholly withdrawn. Some indeed seed supplied with 1 lb. each per day of lin -cake all through the year.

give new milk only for about two weeks,

and others continue it for six weeks or

A Common Plan with whole Milk .

two months, perhaps even longer. The --Mr Wilson, late of Edington Mains, new milk and skim -milk are given to- Berwickshire,describes the following sys gether. Some feed calves three times tem of feeding , which is common where a -day in the first few weeks, and others whole milk and no skim -milk is used : only twice. Whole milk, warm from the cow , is given Allowances of other Foods. — Sup- three times a-day for the first fortnight,

plementary foods should be begun soon, as soon perhaps as the curtailing of the new milk has commenced. Theartificial food, made into gruel, is given along with the milk, and at the outset the gruel should be given in very small quantities.

and the calf is allowed to have as much

of it as it will take. It may then be tempted to suck (and at length to eat) small bits of oilcake and sweet hay, and the mid -day meal of milk may be grad ually reduced and ultimately discontin

Sudden changes of food may inflict serious ued ; and when the calf at length takes injury upon the health of the tender slices of turnips and mangels freely, the young animal. Some begin to give gruel milk may be brought down to five or six

to calves before they are a month old, quarts per day, water being added to others delay till the animal is in its sixth make up the necessary quantity. At or seventh week.

The daily allowance seven or eight weeks the milk may be

of gruel will of course vary with the age gradually reduced, and soon altogether of the calf, and the quantity of milk it is discontinued. A Gloucestershire Practice. Mr receiving. No fixed “ bill of fare" can

be prescribed with safety. The appetite Ruck, Cirencester, has reared his calves of the young animals must be watched successfully upon the following food, closely, and special care taken to keep the bowels in good order.

with whole milk for the first few days,

Feed calves and then a little skim -milk : 7 lb. of

liberally, but never overdo them. Let finely ground linseed -cake dissolved in them have just as much as they can 2 gallons of hot water, to which is added

readily consume at the time ; keeping 2 gallons of hay -tea, made by pouring on the scrimp rather than the abundant hot water on good hay in a tub;and to this again is added 7 lb. of mixed meal,

side.

Perhaps the best guide to the young of wheat, barley, oats, and beans, in farmer will be a description of methods equal parts, steeped in 2 gallons of hot which have been pursued with success by water. Of this mixture the calves get 2 quarts in the morning, further diluted

various breeders.

Mr W. T. Carrington's System.— The late Mr T. Carrington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire, who kept a dairy herd of over 100 cows, reared about 40 of his

with two quarts of warm water ; and 2 quarts at night, also diluted with 2 quarts of warm water. Upon this gruel the calves thrive well, and are weaned when

earliest heifer calves as follows : “ They about 12 weeks old. are not allowed to suck their dams ; they Mr Bowick's Plan have from four to eight quarts of new paper on “ Calf-rearing,”

In his useful

Mr Thomas

milk per diem , according to age, for three Bowick gives this account of his mode or four weeks. They are then fed with of rearing calves : “ We manage to turn

skim -milk , thickened with boiled linseed out from 25 to 30 calves annually or oatmeal, and are taught as soon as such as will pass muster anywhere

and possible to eat hay and a small quantity never use at any time more than 6 gal of linseed -cake. They are allowed to run lons of new milk daily. For this pur on a grass field in May and June, and are

pose, as well as to obtain a regular

generally left out altogether, supply of milk for other purposes, the after then with shed to run into in very wet wea- calves are allowed to come at different a

ther, or to avoid the heat of the sun and periods extending from October to May. the teasing of the flies. The milk -feed ing is altogether discontinued when they

are aboutfour months old.

They are

1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng ., sec. ser. , xiv. 401 .

CALF - REARING .

39

We begin with new milk from Spare Dietary for Calves . — The late the pail, which is continued for a fort- Mr J. Chalmers Morton described the

night after leaving the cow. Then skim- system of feeding in a case in which “ 5 milk , boiled and allowed to cool to the cows reared 50 calves, their milk having

natural warmth, is substituted to the been also to some extent skimmed for extent of one -third the allowance.

In

butter for the household .

The cows

were brought to the pail one after an to half, and at the same time, not before, other from February until May ; and boiled linseed is added to the mess : 5 the calves, brought as they could be got,

another week the new milk is reduced

Ib. of linseed will make about 7 gallons received each a share of the partly

of gruel, and suffice for 5 good -sized skimmed milk , more and better milk calves. As soon as they take freely to being given to the very youngest, until

this food, the new milk may be replaced they began to nibble shred swedes and with that from the dairy, and the calf is hay.

encouraged to indulge in a few sliced carrots, green hay, or linseed - meal, or finely crushed oilcake. Amongst the multitudes of substitutes for milk that have at different times been recommended, we have found nothing better than those previously referred to ; or linseed, 2 parts, and wheat i part, ground to meal, and boiled to gruel ofmoderate thickness, and then mixed with an equal quantity of skimmed milk.

The sole addition to this food was

oatmeal gruel; half a pint of finely ground best oatmeal for each calf being put

morning and evening into about 2 quarts of scalding water, which was cool enough and cooked enough, by staying there all day or night, for use at the evening or morning meal respectively, after having thus stood 12 hours. This, with care always to give food which is perfectly sweet and not too cold, with attention

It is true wehave omit- also to the warmth and dryness of the

ted any allusion to ' Irish moss,' which calves seem to relish well, though it does not prove of a fattening nature. For the lot of calves named (25 to 30), 2 cwt. of this article is found a desirable addition, " 1 and lasts throughout the season .

accommodation that is given to the calf, has reared them in health, without a single loss, during the season .” 3 Liberal Treatment desirable.- Re

marking upon the scrimp character of this dietary, Mr Morton adds : “ It is

more and more coming to be generally writes thus : “ It is very difficult to lay acknowledged, that for the production of General Rules.- Major M'Clintoch

down an exact rule for feeding calves, as the best and most profitable animals,

far as quantity is concerned ; nor can a whether for the dairy or the feeding-stall, time be fixed for weaning, the appear- the more liberal management of the calf ance of forwardness in the animals being is in the end the better way. To stint the best rule to go by. However, a the young beast is to diminish its quality

a general mode, supposing a calf tobe as a good doer from the very beginning. Whether for beef or for milk, it is well pure mother milk ' should be given for that good calf-flesh should be established

dropped in March, I would suggest that

à fortnight, then by degrees an admixture of oilcake gruel ( 1 quart of cake, ground fine, to 4 quarts of boiling water) introduced, and a sufficient drinkallowed at each meal, so as to remove all hollow-

at the outset , and that by no stinginess or severity of after-treatment should it

be lost.” 4 Mr E. Bowly's

System .

In his

prize essay “ On the Management of

ness from the flank . In a few weeks 6 Breeding Cattle," the late Mr Edward gallons will be taken by the calf, and Bowly, a noted English breeder of short when the weather is favourable it should

horns, thus describes his system of rear

be allowed to run in some well-sheltered ing calves : “ My early calves — those

place where the pasture is sweet. In 3 which drop from December till the end of months calves have an appetite for grass, February - I allow to suck the cows for and it is then that the process of wean- a fortnight, then take them off, and give them as much as they will drink of skim ing should begin ." 2 milk and thick gruel made from boiled 1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng ., xxii, 140, 152. xi 40 2 Ibid .

3 Ibid ., sec. ser .,

v.

3.

+ Ibid .

40

CATTLE IN SPRING .

linseed, in equal proportions, twice a -day. As soon as they are inclined to eat, I

A Perthshire Example. — On a well

conducted farm in Perthshire the follow

supply them with oilcake, carrots, and ing system is pursued : “ For the first

hay. When three months old I reduce the milk and linseed to once a -day, and in three weeks afterwards discontinue it altogether, continuing the food till they

fortnight we give nothing save new milk ; the third week the quantity of new milk is lessened, and skim-milk supplies the deficiency, a little linseed and oatmeal

Then I give porridge being added to it. The oatmeal them 2 lb. of oilcake daily, which I con- is well boiled, the linseed (cake ground

are turned out to grass.

water tinue, in addition to other food, for down very fine) steeped in boiling As to

twelve months — that is, till they go to an hour or two previous to use.

grass the following year.” Late Calves.- Mr Bowly states that those calves which drop late in March and during the summer months he allows

the quantity that should be given, ex perience will prove the best guide; a supply sufficient for one animal is fre quently too much or too little for its

to run with cows, after purchasing nurses neighbour. The great secret of success ' for the purpose. He considered it de- in calf-rearing lies in being careful not to sirable to remove the calves from their overload the stomach ; the appetite should

own dams, as those cows which are being never be quite satiated. When eight or sucked by calves will not always take the nine weeks old, a little clover-hay and

bull so soon as those milked by the hand. finely cut swedish turnips are given ,along Devonshire Custom.- A custom with a small allowance of dry linseed long prevalent, although not universal,in cake. Some difficulty is occasionally ex Devon, was to allow the calf to suck its perienced in getting them to take to the

dam for the first eight or ten days, then latter substance; but by putting a small take it away and give it five pints of bit into the youngster's mouth just after new milk per day for the first week, after it has finished its gruel or porridge, at

which the new milk is gradually with

which time it will suck greedily at any

drawn, and skim-milk added, until, at thing within its reach, it soon acquires the end of three or four weeks, the skim- a taste for it. The allowance of porridge milk is entirely substituted for the new should be continued until the animals milk, and then a little other food is by are five or six months old, after which

degrees introduced, such as turnips, cut it may be gradually discontinued . We into finger-pieces, as for sheep, and oat- have tried various of the calf meals, or meal or other gruel. In this way the milk substitutes, in the market, but

youngsters are carried on till the grazing found none fit to beat the oatmeal and season begins. linseed, either as regards moderation of

Daily Allowance. — The quantities of first cost or the satisfactory after - re food given to calves at each meal vary sults. ” 2 according to the size, breed, and condi-

A Useful Dietary . - Mr G. H. C.

tion of the animals. For a healthy calf Wright gives the following as a useful of any of the larger breeds the following table of rations for a calf : quantities are generally allowed : in the first week, 3 pints (new milk) at once, Ist week — 4 quarts of new milk at three meals . quarts of new milk and 2 quarts three times a day, making 472 quarts per 2d week—4 boiled ekim - milk at three meals . the in till, increased day ; gradually 3d week—2 quarts of new milk and 4 quarts fourth week, the quantity is 5 pints at once, and three meals, making up 772 quarts per day. At one month old,

boiled skim -milk at two meals, and 2 Ib. boiled linseed.

4th week - 6 quarts boiled skim -milk and 23 lb. boiled linseed at two meals .

when the calves eat hay, finely sliced 5th week - 6 quarts boiled skim -milk and 1 lb. roots and cake, two meals a -day may boiled linseed at two meals . suffice ; the quantity at two months old i lb. of crushed linseed ( flax -seeds, not cake) being 4 quarts at a meal, or 2 gallons willmakerather more than I gallon of gruel.3 daily. ? American Example.

Professor E.

Farming World , 1889, 23.

3 Ibid., 1889.

1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng. , sec. ser. , xiv. 495 .

2

CALF -REARING .

W. Stewart says : “ We have often had

41

sary. Fat-forming matter must be added

calves seventy days old fed with 72 lb. to make up for that removed in the flax -seed and 1/2 lb. of oatmeal each cream ; and nitrogenous matter, phos

with 20 lb. of skim -milk per day, that phate of lime, magnesia, sulphur, soda, have gained in weight 30 to 37 lb. in ten

&c., taken away in the casein , must like

days—an average of over 3/4 lb. each wise be replaced. These elements, added per day.

The flax -seed and oatmeal are in due proportion to the easily digested

boiled , and then mixed with the milk. milk -sugar in the whey, make a very

The average weight of these calves when wholesome food for calves. These sup weight at seventy days was 230 lb. ;—they by linseed and linseed -cake- say 1/2 lb. had consequently gained 2.42 lb. per day. of each well boiled and added to 2 gal They were fed on new milk for one week. lons dropped was about 60 lb. ; their average plements to whey would be well supplied of whey for a young calf.

Some

then half-and -half skim -milk for another might prefer oatmeal, barley -meal, or week, then upon skim-milk and 4 oz. of boiled flax -seed each per day; at thirty-

wheat-bran .

Care in use of Whey . - In utilising

four days old, flax -seed increased to 12 whey as food for stock, certain precau Ib., and 1/2 lb. oatmeal added ; the latter tions are necessary. It should be used was increased to 1 lb. in a few weeks, while fresh and sweet, as, if allowed to " 1 and afterwards another 1/2 lb. added .” Whey for Calves. - Whey - what remains of milk after the cream and casein or cheese are taken away - is much more

become sour, it may seriously derange the system of the animal. Then whey should not be fed alone, on account of its being so unevenly balanced — too much

useful as food than is generally supposed. water and too little dry matter. To en Often this refuse of the dairy is thrown able the animal to obtain the necessary away as of little value ; but some con- amount of dry matter, it would have thus sideration will show that in this there is to swallow too much water. Therefore, great waste .

Whey consists of about 93 give the whey in conjunction with other

per cent of water and 7 per cent of solids drier and more concentrated food. -nearly the same proportions as in comHay - tea for Calves.—There is con mon turnips. The solid matter consists siderable feeding value in hay-tea. In of about 70 per cent of the sugar of milk ,

fact, well -made hay -tea is almost a per

14 per cent albuminous compounds - con- fect food as far as it goes. Professor E. taining about 3.75 per cent of nitrogen, T. Stewart says: “The soluble nutritive 11 per cent of ash, and nearly 5 per cent constituents of the hay are extracted by of butter or pure fat. It is probable boiling, and this extract contains all the

that at least one - half of the mineral food elements required to grow the ani matter or ash is made up of common salt, mal, besides being as digestible as milk. derived from the salt used in the cheese. If the hay is cut early, when it has most

making. The albuminous matter makes soluble matter, and is of good quality, up very nearly 1 per cent of the whole of the tea will grow good calves ; but this

the whey, and this, with 1/3 per cent of extract frequently has too small a pro butter-fat and 5 per cent of milk -sugar, portion of albuminous and fatty matter. proves whey to be an article of food Yet if the hay -tea boiled downforsothe as not to contain too ismuch water worthy of careful utilisation. Supplementing Whey .-- But while dry substance, calves will usually thrive " 2 the food constituents in whey are con upon it.”

siderable, and may be turned to good

Experiment with

Hay -tea.

Pro

purpose in feeding calves, these must be fessor Stewart describes an experiment largely supplemented by other richer which he made with hay-tea and other commodities in order to sufficiently nour- foods in calf-rearing: To each of five ish the young animal. For the success- calves, thirty days old, he gave daily 2

ful and economical selection and propor- gallons of hay -tea, in which 14 lb. of tioning of these supplementary foods linseed and / lb. wheat middlings had great care and no little skill are neces- been boiled . The experiment was con ? Peeding Animals, 237 .

. Ibid. , 246 .

CATTLE IN SPRING.

42

tinued for sixty days, with a gradual Where the suckling method is followed , increase during the last thirty days of the calf is allowed to remain with the the middlings to i lb.

The calves did

cow or have regular access to her till it

remarkably well, gaining an average of is weaned at six or seven months old . a little over 2 lb. per head per day in A Gloucestershire Shorthorn Herd . weight. He also states that a similar -In Lord Fitzhardinge's herd of short experiment was tried by a dairyman who horns at Berkley Castle, Gloucestershire,

sold his milk for city consumption , yet the custom is to let the cows suckle their desired to raise a number of calves. Here calves, the calves running with their the results were even more satisfactory- dams and sucking at will for three weeks.

the average daily gain in weight for sixty The cows being milked between five and days being 24 ib.1

six in the morning, and at four o'clock

Making Hay-tea. - There is a knack in the afternoon, to take from them what in making all kinds of tea . There is a ever the calves may have left. At the good deal in the manner in which this end of three weeks the calves are taken

wholesome beverage for the calf is pre- away and brought up by hand, the finger

pared. Some make it by merely pouring being given them for a day or two, if boiling water over long hay in a tub. A necessary, to teach them to drink out of better plan is to cut the hay, as with a the bucket. They are fed twice a day,

getting about a gallon of new milk each time, the quantity being slightly lessened if there is a tendency to scour. Care is taken never to gorge a calf with too much milk ; the appetite and constitution of an hour, and then the short hay was each youngster being carefully observed. raised upon a wire-cloth sieve over the Sometimes a calf three weeks old can kettle and drained, whilst the flax -seed not beneficially take more than two

chaff-cutter, and boil it in the ordinary way for at least half an hour. Professor Stewart states that in his experiment mentioned above, he boiled hay cut 58 of an inch long, 3 lb. for each calf, half

and middlings were put into the kettle quarts of new milk at each end of the day. Milk is continued till the calf is and boiled to a jelly.

It is important for tea -making that the six or seven months old ; but when it hay should be cut young, when in full has been five or six weeks in this wicked bloom, so that it may be nutritious and world, it is allowed access to a little crushed oats, Indian meal, and barley easily digested. Wheremilk is scarce, the use of hay-tea meal, given very sparingly at the outset, in calf-rearing is to be commended. and not too finely ground, as calves do not so readily chew the cud when fed Calf-rearing in Pure-bred Herds. on finely ground meal.2

The methods of rearing calves in purebred herds does not vary quite so much as in ordinarystocks. In pure-bred herds the successful rearing of the calf is the first and main object. The utilisation of the cow's milk , apart from the upbringing

A Norfolk System .

In Mr Hugh

Aylmer's large herd of shorthorns at West Dereham Abbey, Norfolk, Mr Housman tells us, “ the calf at birth is allowed to remain with the dam , at least in the same box ; but there is in the

of the calf, is as a rule a matter of second- corner a little pen for the calf, in which ary importance. The pure -bred calf, it is kept, having the mother's com

therefore, usually gets all the milk that panionship, though not unrestricted ac is good for it. In the majority of cases, cess to her, for the first fortnight. From perhaps, it draws this directly from its that time the calf has a pen in some

dam, but the system of hand-feeding other house, sometimes in a box to itself pedigree calves is also extensively pur- but oftener in a compartment in a house sued. In most cases the calf sucks its with other calves, and is taken to the dam at the outset, and where hand -rear- mother twice a -day, morning and even ing is pursued it is taken away from the ing. If the mother is a deep milker, cow in ten days or two weeks—in some the herdsman takes from her as much

cases as early as its second or third day. 2 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., sec. ser ., xvi. 1

Feeding Animals, 246.

409.

CALF -REARING .

43

milk as he finds she can spare, leaving cow cannot retain her milk. When the plenty for the calf, which then comes in calf can manage all the milk , it is al and clears the udder, so that the calf lowed to go loose about at will, one

gets the richer strippings,' but does not stall being left for the use of cow and satiate itself by taking too much after a day's (or a night's) fasting. . . . There is no inflexible rule, but usually the calf, if a heifer, is suckled about six months ; if a bull, sometimes rather longer. As

calf.

When the cows go out to the

grass, the milk generally increases, and sometimes it is again necessary to resort to hand-milking to take away the sur plus. After the calf is weaned, the cow soon as the calf can be enticed to eat a is regularly milked three times a -day. little dry food, it has in its manger a Indeed, at all times, care is taken to mixture of crushed oats, oilcake, and relieve the cow of all her milk . The

ground maize (these ingredients varied in calves are trained to eat oilcake and proportion, and one or more omitted so sliced turnips as soon as possible, and are

as to tempt the appetite), andsometimes weaned at from seven to eight months a little cut cabbage or tares with the dry old .” 3 food ; but it does not do much more than Systems in Irish Herds. — There is flirt with the manger until it reaches the no part of the country where calf-rearing

age of six or seven weeks, when it be- is better understood than in Ireland. gins to eat in earnest, and by the time it The prevailing system in Irish pure-bred should be weaned , it is pretty well past herds is to let the cow suckle the calf.

the necessity of having milk, so that In Mr T. W. Talbot -Crosbie's herd of there is no checking of growth or loss of shorthorns at Ardfert Abbey, County

flesh after weaning. The quantity of Kerry, all the calves are suckled, and run milk, too, canbe regulated bythe quantity with cows while these are on pasture. taken from the cow before the calf is

The bull calves are taken in as soon as

turned in with her ; and the calf is thus, they begin to be troublesome, and put by easy transition, relieved of dependence into boxes in pairs, the same two being upon its mother.' A

Northumberland

Shorthorn

kept together until they are sold. The cows are brought in twice a -day to suckle

Herd . — In almost every instance, the the calves till weaning-time. The heifer cows in the Duke of Northumberland's calves are usually left with their mothers shorthorn herd at Alnwick Park are

till the cows are housed in the autumn,

allowed to suckle their calves. This plan, but no calf is ever allowed to be with the Mr Housman says, is found to be a safe cow after she is six months in calf. Food one for both cow and calf, and since it is given to the bull calves as soon as they was fullyadopted, the loss of a calf at are put into the boxes, but the heifers Alnwick Park has been very rare, and no get no extra feeding until they are shorthorn cow has died of milk -fever for weaned. The first food, other than milk,

The calves remain with given to calves, generally consists of their dams for six or seven months, when pulped turnips, sweet-hay, and a mixture they are weaned, in order to rest the of linseed -cake, decorticated cotton -cake, many years.

oats, and bran, in the following propor The tions, divided into four equal parts : most general plan in Scotch herds of Two of linseed -cake, one of cotton -cake, shorthorns is to allow the cows to suckle and one of crushed oats and bran . There

cow before she has another calf.2 Scotch

Shorthorn

their offspring.

Herds.

Describing the practice is no fixed rule as to quantity, except

in Aberdeenshire with the Sittyton short- that the bulls are fed pretty liberally horn herd specially in view, Mr Housman according to size, and the heifer calves says : “When the cow calves, the calf is sparingly.* tied up beside her ; and for some time, until it is well able to take all her milk,

In Mr Richard Welsted's old - estab

lished herd of shorthorns at Ballywalter,

the cow is regularly milked, the calf County Cork, the rule is to let the cow sucking at the same time, so that the suckle the calf for one day only,and to bring up the calves by hand -feeding, 1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng ., sec. ser. , xvi. 2' Ibid. , 395 .

415 .

3 lbid. , 388.

4 Ibid ., 422.

44

CATTLE IN SPRING.

Some give raw fresh eggs to veal calves, which are generally allowed to

mainly with new milk, until they are meal.

well able to consume and live upon cut

roots, hay, or grass, and roughly ground suck the cowat will, or at least three oats. To bring forward late calves, the times a -day. The usual period of fatten

suckling system is sometimes resorted to. ing for veal is from six to ten weeks, and Hereford Herds. - In herds of Here with the view of improving the colour of ford cattle the almost universal practice the flesh the calves are frequently bled. is to let the calves suck their dams. The In fattening veal calves, most careful at youngsters generally run with the cows tention must be given to cleanliness, ven

on the pastures in the grazing season, tilation, and regularity of feeding. and in the house they are either kept in Rearing Bull Calves.— As a rule, a compartment with the cow, or in an bull calves intended for sale for breeding

enclosure by themselves, and brought to purposes are fed more liberally than the cow two or three times a day, most heifer calves.

generally twice. If any cow gives more milk than is thought desirable for the calf, the cattle-man milks her at regular intervals. In Mr John Hill's herd at Felhampton Court, the calves, before the be-

They are reared more

largely upon new milk to begin with, the most general custom being to let them suck their dams for six, seven, or eight months. Then when other food is provided for them, it is usually of a

ginning of the grazing season, "are fed richer and more forcing kind than is us soon as they can eat (they begin when allowed to heifer calves. Gruel made a fortnight old to pick up a little), with from linseed or linseed -cake, oatmeal or hay, pulped swedes, or a few cut into barley -meal, is extensively used, and so

finger- lengths, with a little cake and is linseed -cake by itself or mixed with crushed oats. The allowance of cake and meal is increased as they get older, to half a pound each per day, and before the summer is over up to 2 lb. per day," I the calves sucking their dams at the same

bruised grain. Malt is a favourite food with some experienced breeders in push ing on bull calves. Some breeders sweeten the food -mixture for young bull calves with a little dissolved or diluted

treacle.

time.

This should be used sparingly,

Polled Herds.--In the herds of polled however, if used at all— as food which, Aberdeen -Angus cattle, suckling is the like treacle, is rich in sugar, is delete prevailing custom . The calves are train- rious to the procreating properties of ed, before being weaned , to eat other animals— that is if given in considerable food, such as linseed -cake, hay, cut roots, quantities. bruised grain ; and at the time of weanIt is specially important that bull ing they are fed and tended with the calves should have plenty of exercise and greatest care, so that there may be no fresh air. If long shut up and highly retrogression. In some herds the calves fed on forcing food, they are liable to go

are taken from the cows when about six wrong in the legs and feet. weeks old, and thereafter brought up on Danger of gorging Calves. - Great new and skim milk, and gruel made care should be exercised in the feeding chiefly from linseed -cake or oatmeal, or of calves in their tender days, especially during the first three weeks.

a mixture of these and other foods.?

At this

time they should be fed sparingly rather General Notes. than liberally. Many calves are lost by Feeding Calves for Veal. - Large sucking or drinking more milk when

numbers of calves are slaughtered for they are quite young than their weak veal, and these are of course forced with digestive system can readily dispose of. rich food from the very outset.

New Whether the calf is fed by the hand or

milk is the best of all foods for this pur- suckled by its dam , take care that it does pose , although it may be to some extent not over -feed itself. Never let it suck supplemented by rich gruel, made per- or drink till it is quite satisfied — at any haps from barley -meal or Indian - corn rate during its first three weeks. If the i Hist. IIereford Cattle, Macdonald & Sinclair, 274. · Polled Cattle.

Macdonald & Sinclair.

cow has too much milk for the calf, take

away a little by the hand. Referring to this point in his admi

CALF-REARING.

45

rable paper on “ The Management of a assumption that certain districts are Shorthorn Herd ,” Mr William Housman, more favourable than others to the one of our most reliable authorities on breeding propensity and reproductive live -stock matters, says : “ The theory is ness of cattle. In some herds it has

-and I believe it to be perfectly true

been found that cows rarely return to

that many of the frequent and discourag- the bull until after their calves are weaned. ing losses among young calves are caused In others the sucked cows come round as by the allowance of too much milk at a early and as regularly as those milked tender age. The calves should be kept by the hand. hungry — that is, never allowed to satisfy Licking and Rubbing beneficial. themselves

forthe first three weeks of Many skilled breeders systematically let

their lives. Scouring and indigestion, the newly dropped calf be licked by the with consequent formation of hair-balls COW . And there is more in this ap in the stomach, arise from too liberal or parently small matter than is generally irregular feeding.” 1 supposed. “ The bloomy appearance of

Irregular feeding - long fasts followed suckled calves is partly due to this by heavy meals of milk or other foodis quite as hurtful as, and of more frequent occurrence than, excessive feeding Many calves are killed by gorging with

motherly attention ; and the licking along the calf's spine, which the cow, withher rasp of a tongue, gives her calf immediately after birth , has evidently

milk after a long fast - perhaps after a an important meaning.

All careful

journey. When a purchased calf is taken managers, when the calves

are

not

to its new home it should be fed very reared by the cow, take care to imitate sparingly for at least two days. this process, rubbing well over the spine Does Suckling hinder Breeding ? with a wisp of straw. This not only

-By many experienced breeders it is dries the calf and prevents its taking contended that when the calf is allowed

cold, but evidently strengthens it ; and

to remain with and suck the cow , there the calf, if a healthy one, responds to

is a danger of the cow being longer in the rubbing by vigorous efforts, soon suc returning to the bull than if she were milked by the hand and the calf kept away from her. The subject has long been debated, and still opinion amongst leading breeders is sharply divided. The preponderance of opinion would seem to

cessful, to gain its feet.” 2 Weaning Calves. — Weaning is usu ally a critical event in calf -life. In dairy and ordinary stocks, where only a small portion of the milk is given to the calves, the youngsters are weaned when very be that the danger, if such exist at all, young. The process may be said to is not serious ; and this is confirmed by begin in some cases at the end of the

the fact that in pure-bred herds the second week, when some skim -milk or suckling system is the one which pre- gruel is substituted for so much of the vails the most extensively. Some con new milk . In pure - bred herds, and tend that it is the companionship of the wherever calves are reared largely on

calf, rather than the mere act of suck- milk , weaning is generally completed in ling, which retards the cow in breeding the sixth, seventh, or eighth month, after again ; hence some who practise the suck- which the calves are fed similarly to the ling, systematically keep the cows and other animals. the calves separate from each other Now in the weaning of calves there is except at feeding-times.

scope for the exercise of the utmost skill Mr Housman made a special point of and care. If success is to be attained,

investigating experience and observation both skill and care are essential. Pre upon this subject amongst breeders of pare the young animal for the weaning shorthorns throughout the kingdom , and

—the complete withdrawalof its mother's

he was quite unable to account for the milk - by feeding it partially for some divergence except by differences in local

time before with such food as will form

conditions of soil and climate, by the its main support after it has beenweaned . Let the milk be lessened , and the other 1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., sec . ser ., xi. 388.

? Ibid., 428.

P

SHEE

46

G IN SPRIN .

food gradually increased in quantity, so thriving as well as could be desired is that the transition may be effected almost a raw egg beaten up and added to the

imperceptibly . The more carefully and milk. Some beat up the egg shell and intelligently this is done, the more sat- all, others think it preferable to with isfactory will be the result in the calf. The amount of milk allowed to a suckled

hold the shell.

Setoning .-- A seton is a piece of string

calf may be regulated by drawing away or tape passed through a certain part of as much of the cow's milk by hand as the body, with the object of either draw

may be desired, and at last, just before ing an abscess, acting as a counter -irritant, final weaning, the calf may have access to or for the purpose of inoculation. As a prevention against black-leg, or quarter the cow only once a -day.

There is perhaps no better food for calves at weaning -time than good linseedcake — from 1 to 2 lb. per day, and a few sliced turnips or mangels, and fresh wellmade hay. If accustomed to this fare before being entirely deprived of their

ill, it is a useful custom to insert a seton in the calf's brisket in the spring. It is considered desirable to soakthe seton in some irritant such as the following em

brocation — viz., hartshorn, 1 ounce; tur pentine, 2 ounces ; spirit of camphor, 2

mother's milk, they will be found to pass ounces ; laudanum , j ounce ; olive-oil, through the ordeal of weaning without

any loss in condition or delay in pro-

6 ounces. Castrating. – The male calves can be

most easily castrated when a few weeks

gress. Diseases

Scouring of Calves. sometimes called white skit or white scour — is the most prevalent ailment among calves. It is generally caused by feeding, and may as a rule be improper cured by giving 2 ounces of castor-oil, or an egg beaten up shell and all, followed

old. They can then be cut standing, by twisting the tail around one hind leg. Stand behind the calf, cut through the bag, twist the stone several times, and

with scrape the cord closelya through blunt knife.

your finger - nails or

When the calves are several months

by tablespoonful doses of calf-cordial, old they must be cast. This may be prepared of the following : prepared done by tying the hind - legs together chalk , 2 ounces ; powdered catechu, i with a rope, placing a halter round the ounce ; ginger, 12 ounce ; opium , 2 neck, taking the shank end of the halter drachms ; peppermint - water, I pint. and running it through the rope that Oatmeal or linseed gruel should be the unites the hind -legs, tying it back, pass main food for a few days .

ing it through the portion that is around

Calves also suffer frequently from the neck, and drawing the legs tight, constipation. This will be relieved by then fastening the rope. The fore-legs giving 1 ounce of castor-oil beaten up in can be held by a man . The stones may the yolk of an egg, with a very little then be removed by the clams and hot

ginger, about 1 scruple, repeating the iron, as in the case of the horse - place dose if necessary .

the stone in the clams, and with a red

saw the cord slowly through Eggs for Calves. - An effective “ pick- hot iron to the clams.

me-up " for a calf that is not eating or

close

SHEEP IN SPRING.

The anxieties of the spring - the occasionally stretch into March, causing hopes and the fears

-

are as great to much anxiety, and it may be serious

the flock -owner as to the cattle-breeder. losses, to flock -owners,by deaths and by It very often happens that the heaviest outlay for extra feeding and manage part of the winter weather has to be ment. gone through in spring.

Severe snow

Sheep in Spring Storms. — As to

storms frequently occur in February, and the treatment of sheep in stormy weather

THE LAMBING SEASON .

47

in spring, the information given under the beauty of the dewy eve and rising the heading of“ Sheep in Winter" should moon, or listening as the amorous thrush be consulted. The particular kind of extra concludes his song ; or only to think of food to be given to the sheep in a spring the price of mutton and of wool, or of snowstorm will depend mainly upon lambs as fore and hind quarters. the supply on the farm and the sort of haunt o' Spring's the primrose brae, food cheapest and most easily obtained " The The Summer's joys the flocks to follow ;

at the time.

This one word of caution

we would repeat, Do not too long delay

How cheerie through the shortening day

Is Autumn in her weeds o' yallow ! '

hand-feeding if such should be necessary - do not postpone extra feeding till “ The sweetness of pastoral life is starvation has done its work of mischief. going. It is disappearing under the At such a crisis timely rather than liberal influence of commercial enterprise, the feeding is the essential point. spread of science, and the difficulties of

competition. We also ourselves are vic tims to utilitarianism , and must plead THE LAMBING SEASON.

guilty to sharing in the universal want of sentiment even when birds rejoice in

At this season of the year lambing is leafy bowers and bees hum round the the all-absorbing topic of interest with the sheep -farmer and the shepherd. No one who has not lived on a sheep-farm can conceive what the advent of the lambing-time brings to the chief actors in flock management . It arouses a depth of interest and a ceaseless anxiety not experienced at any other period of

breathing flowers; or when within yon milk -white hawthorn bush, among her nestlings sits the thrush. One is some times inclined to wonder if steam -power

and chemical manure, pedigree stock and iron fencing, weigh - bridges and milk

registers, will ever compensate us for the loss of the fresh and simple country life

the year. It is the time in which, above of our forefathers. It is useless to re all others, good or bad management tells pine, and perhaps the best thing we can -when every hour of carelessness may do is to cherish those pleasurable feel

rob the flock of the lives of valuable ings with which we may still view the flock spread o'er the down, or listen to

animals .

And the seriousness of the lambing the varied tones of the sheep-bell; and season is nearly allied to sentimentality ; to cultivate more of personal interest .

for while the faithful shepherd is toiling and affection for our domesticated crea day and night in the lambing -pens, he is tures. There is no doubt that the even then cheered by a foretaste of the humble dairyman, the carter, or the

unspeakable joys which come alike to shepherd, obtain more enjoyment from the owner and the tender of the flock watching and tending their charges than

from the sight of thriving "lambs at do their masters; and the pleasures of play.” It may be — we fear it is, al- farming might be greatly enhanced by though one is loath to believe it—that devoting more personal attention to our the hard utilitarianism of the present live stock, and studying their habits. age is depriving pastoral life of much of Love of animals may be cultivated, and the sentiment and poetry which gilded with it comes an interest in the wild creatures which surround us.” 1 it in the past. Poetry of Pastoral Life. We are

Assuredly the kindly interest here in

heart and soul in sympathy with Pro- culcated has a practical bearing upon fessor Wrightson when he says : “ There

the material wellbeing of the flock -owner,

is genuine poetry in pastoral life which who may do much to encourage his it is sad to lose entirely. Nevertheless, shepherd by sympathetic countenance agricultural science and literature are and intercourse by the side of the flocks. between them rapidly taking the ro- And a good shepherd is well worthy of

mance out of it. Perhaps we should all the encouragement that can be given add, hard times, and the vital import- to him. ance of making things pay. Still, it is i Live Stock Jour., Jan. 1889, 42 . a pity to lose the faculty of discerning

G SHEEP IN SPRIN .

48

A Good Shepherd. - A shepherd will prove mortal to sheep at lambing, whose unwearied attention and consum-

which even the most skilled veterinarian

mate skill become conspicuous at this cannot prevent. His acuteness will per critical period of the flock's existence, is ceive a sheep affected long before any

one else can detect it ; but it is not to His services, in fact, may be worth far be expected of any shepherd to treat more than the amount of wages he many of the diseases of sheep success receives. Such a man will save the fully when a veterinarian is not to be an invaluable servant to a stock - farmer.

amount of his wages every year, when found. compared with the losses sustained by Preparations for Lambing.– The the neglect of an unskilful shepherd, es- cautious shepherd will have several pre

pecially in a precarious season, when, by parations attended to before lambing be treating the ewes and lambs in the most gins. He will see that sufficient shelter proper manner under the circumstances, is provided - on arable land — either in the lives of many are preserved that permanent or temporary lambing pens, would otherwise have been lost.

will have conveniently at hand supplies

The Modern Shepherd . — As a class of extra food, such as turnips, cabbages,

of men the shepherds of the presentday hay, &c., also of straw for litter, and will are surpassed by none of their fellows on the farm for intelligence, efficiency, They are undoubtedor faithfulness. ly, as a rule, better informed , if not

see that his medicine-box isreplenished to meet emergencies. He will have a good lantern, such as shown in fig. 117, in readiness to guide him through the pens

more trustworthy, than the shepherds of at night, and likewise a piece of blanket many In many instances we in which to wrap a weak lamb. In have known, their success in treating cases the shepherd will have to spend the

former times.

their flocks at lambing-time has been night beside the lambing -pens, and he Yet the best of them need

remarkable.

must therefore have his own bed in

all their wits about them in the height order, either in his separate hut, or in of lambing, and in bad weather may a corner of the lambing-shed. There sustain numerous losses in spite of their should be a fire in the shepherd's com utmost efforts.

Skilful and Attentive Shepherds.

partment, and some coffee or tea will be useful.

All these essentials should be in

-Some shepherds are as attentive as readiness, and not have to be sought for could be wished, but lacking in skill.

when the active and critical work si of

They may have their ewes in too high lambing begins.

n

condition for lambing, and may be overClassifying Ewes for Lambingh. anxious and over -ready to assist in diffi- Ewes are drafted into the lambing efold cult cases of lambing — thus, through want or ground in lots as they are expected i to

of skill, causing the loss of both ewes lamb. The tups are usually left among and lambs.

Other shepherds, again, are the ewes for six weeks. After two weeks'

sufficiently skilful, but are wanting in attentiveness. Of these two sorts of shepherds — the attentive and the skilful —the skilful is the safer, as it will usually be easier for the master to enforce attentiveness than to inculcate

service the tups are marked with, say, red paint on the breast, and this, at the end of two weeks, is changed to blue paint. The marks of paint on the breast of the tup mark the served ewes on the rump, and thus their time of lambing is

skill — that is, if the skilful shepherd is ascertained. The in-lamb ewes unmarked not a positively careless fellow, in which are first taken in for lambing, then those case he should not be in this position with red marks, and lastly those with at all.

blue marks.

It is well to have the ewes

A Perfect Shepherd. It is only on the lambing -ground quite a week by the union of both qualities that a before their lambs are due, as early par

perfect shepherdis constituted - prevent- turition is frequent. ing evils by skilful attention, and curing them by attentive skill. Even with such

In many cases the order of marking service is the reverse of the above, the

a perfect shepherd losses will happen, unmarked ewes being the last to lamb. but they will be no fault of his : disease Lambing Folds or Pens . — Custom

THE LAMBING SEASON .

varies greatly in the providing of shelter for lambing. On many farms there are elaborate and costly lambing sheds and pens built of stone and lime. On others the lambing-pens are merely temporary erections, formed , perhaps, of hurdles and straw ; while in many cases no lamb-

49

have been fixed during the previous summer, and have determined the situa

tion of certain hay and corn ricks. As threshing proceeds, the corn - ricks yield straw - ricks, which are made long , and placed so as to secure the greatest amount of shelter from the wind. A

ing-pens ofany kind are provided . Costly gentle slope towards the south is the erections are not necessary, and therefore best site, and in close proximity to a undesirable , as all unnecessary outlays field of swedes or of late turnips. Lambing-pens of one kind or other,

The enclosure consists of a double row

however, should be provided upon all of hurdles, stuffed between with straw , farms carrying breeding- sheep, and for and kept firm by means of a few posts all kinds of sheep, whether the hardy and rails. About 2 feet from the out mountain breeds or the more tender side wall, and on the inside, are driven

southern varieties. Let the character of 6-feet posts carrying a head rail or plate, the shelter be suited to the farm , the and, resting on this plate and upon the locality, and the breed of sheep. Little outside hurdles, with a sufficient run or

roofed spacemay suffice, but there should slope, thatched hurdles are fixed ; thus bea dry bed and shelter from the pre- forming a continuous narrow shed, which The weather may be so is again divided by hurdles into coops or favourable as to make it unnecessary to cells. These coops are best open to the put any of the ewes and lambs under south and east, and backed to the north roof, yet the means of doing so should and west ; and in such a position ewes vailing winds.

exist.

The sudden occurrence of a storm

and lambs lie warm even in the severest

without proper shelter being at hand for weather.

Outside these cells, and in

ewes with very young or tender lambs, side the enclosure, the space is divided might result in serious losses. by hurdles into four or five good -sized The Old - fashioned Shed . — Professor yards, and a straw -rick ought to occupy

Wrightson, in the paper already quoted, a central position with reference to the says that shelter must be provided for entire space. The shepherd's portable the ewes at lambing -time. He mentions house is drawn up at a convenient dis two descriptions of enclosures for lamb- tance, and with such a fold we may look

ing -ewes. One is the old -fashioned per- forward to the throes of lambing with a manent shed, for which the rick -yard feeling of confidence and security . has often been employed. The advanFold for 300 Ewes. - In his paper on tages of this system are, that the flock is the treatment of Border Leicester ewes

near home, and that the rick -yard is a and lambs, Mr A. S. Alexander gives protected enclosure, which , when well the following description of a lambing littered down and fenced with thatched fold for about 300 half-bred ewes : “ A hurdles, forms a very suitable place for small field of half an acre is chosen be the purpose.

In some cases there are

hind the homestead .

At the north side

seen special walled enclosures, furnished there is a high stone wall, and on the east

with accommodation for the shepherd a thorn hedge, which effectually breaks and shedding for the ewes. The shed- the effect of the east winds.

Along the ding is most conveniently divided into north wall are erected a row of twenty coops by means of hurdles, and in such houses, ' parricks'or pens, the roofing of a shed ewes will lamb safely and com- which is made by fixing timber from the fortably. On large sheep - farms this top of the wall to the posts which form system is objectionable on account of the the doors and fronts of the pens.

One

distance between the flock and their door serves for two pens, there being in the interior a middle division which does

food .

The Modern Fold. — The more gen- not quite come to the same line as the eral plan now is to construct a pen near walls in front.

The door is closed by

to where the ewes and lambs are to turn means of a small hurdle or ' flake,' which

out after lambing. The position of the pen , says Professor Wrightson, should VOL . II.

1 Live Stock Jour ., 1889, 65. D

SHEEP IN SPRING.

50

moves between the partition and the anot should he not require the third lamb for her ewe.

inside of the walls.

There are fifty -four pens,

“The roof is thickly thatched with rye and the reason for such a large number is or wheat straw , tied in bundles, and on that, should severe weather - as a snow the outside or front, bunches of straw re- storm - come on during the season , the

sembling sheaves are set on end, so that ewes may be penned instead of lying out. their tops meet the thatch ; and when

28

“ By having a number of doors in the

fixed in this position by means of ' tarry' lambing -shed instead of a few, the lamber string or old sheep-netting, a most effec- is enabled to house the ewe at the point

tual covering is made, the straw materi- nearest the place where she lambed. ally adding to the warmth during the To make it all the easier for him, the cold nights so commonly prevalent in March .

pens are constructed round three sides of

This row of pens forms the the square court, so that at whatever

north side of a rectilineal figure. On the part of the court a ewe lambs he has east is the hedge ; and to form the other shelter at hand. A covered court en

two sides west and south, a fence of larch closed is also in connection with these posts, with three spruce rails, is erected lambing - pens, into which on stormy of the same height as a common fence. nights ewes and gimmers having single To make this enclosure as comfortable as

lambs are placed. There is also a store

possible , bunches of straw are fixed all house for food under the same roof.” 2 Lambing Shelter on Hill Farms. along the inside of the fence and hedge, and when fixed in position, form as it As a rule hill farms are deficient in lamb On these the lambing is

were a solid wall of straw, which is quite ing shelter.

impervious to the strongest wind.

delayed till so late a period in the season

56 The enclosure which is called the —from the middle of April till the end

court is provided with two gates — one of May — and the mountain breeds of for driving the ewes in at the evening, sheep are so hardy, that farmers are apt at the west end, and one at the east end, where ewes and lambs are turned into a

to trust too much to the clemency of the weather and the hardiness of the sheep.

seed ' field after a day or two. There is The more careful farmers have numerous also a little gate formed of two bundles small pens or

keb-houses

erected on

of straw, at which the shepherd enters at the lambing - ground, so that there may night.” 1 be plenty of protection for both ewes and Permanent Lambing -shed . — A sub- lambs from severe storms.

On many

stantial permanent lambing -shed erected farms, however, little attention is given on the farm of Crookhouse, Lanton, Nor- to this, and as the result the losses of

thumberland, is also described by Mr younglambs, and even of ewes, are often Alexander : “ All the pens are erected exceedingly heavy. This neglect is all under one roof of larch, timber, and slate, the more reprehensible from the fact that and enclosed in front and behind by sub- comfortable lambing pens or huts might stantial walls of stone.

The partitions be formed at nominal expense and very

between the pens themselves are con- little trouble. With some hurdles, or a structed of larch hurdles, fixed at each few boards, cuttings of turf, and perhaps end to larch uprights, which at the same a little straw , temporary shelter may be

time support the roof. Each set of pens provided by which the lives of many is divided by a passage communicating lambsmight be saved. And itis equally with the outside court, where the un- important that the shepherd should pro vide himself with some extra food , such lambed ewes lie at night. “ On entering a passage we have three as hay, roots, and corn , with which to

pens on each side, provided with gates nourish weakly ewes confined for a time hung on hinges, and fastening by means in these lambing-huts. Lambing Hospital. — A few pens in of an eye and draw -bolt. A few pens are made six feet square, so that should the a corner of the lambing - fold by them

shepherd have ewes with twins, he may selves should always be set apart for have ample accommodation for them , hospital purposes. In these, weakly ewes 1 Trans. High. and Agric. Soc ., 1882, 146.

? Ibid ., 1882, 148.

2

THE LAMBING SEASON .

51

and lambs may be made specially com- food , and the medicine-case or bottles fortable, the ewes receiving palatable, for the sheep, and of course a fireplace.

nourishing food, or such remedial treat- Fig. 246 represents a convenient portable ment as best suits their peculiar ailments. shepherd's

Many careful farmers have such hospitals house made formed at some convenient and well-shel- of corrugated

tered spot in a field quite independent of iron by the an ordinary lambing-fold. They may be Redcliffe formed of hurdles and straw at very little Crown Gal

trouble and expense, and would be of vanised Iron great benefit wherever a breeding flock Co., Bristol. is kept. Accessories to the Fold .

It is often

Shepherd's Medicine .

Fig. 246. - Shepherd's house on wheels.

difficult to keep the floor of the lambing- chest. — In many cases shepherds are fold dry .

It is a good plan to have the now provided with medicine -chests fur

floors of the roofed pens raised by a layer of gravel or burnt clay ; and the whole should be comfortably littered with straw . The stacks of straw and hay in the centre will add greatly to the comfort of the fold . A store of

nished with a considerable variety of medicines and stimulants, comprising laudanum , linseed -oil, castor-oil, spirits of nitre, Epsom salts, powdered ginger, powdered chalk , tincture of aconite, car bolic acid, Gallipoli oil, and whisky or

roots should be at hand, and so also brandy, & c., &c. Excessive physicking, should be a well-filled corn -bin , with a however, is not to be commended . number of small feeding -boxes which can Drugs should be used with caution be placed here and there for the ewes. only when necessary, and then as

Care should be exercised in placing the promptly as possible. In the lambing shepherd's hut, root-store, and hay and pen carbolic acid and Gallipoli oil are straw stacks, so as to provide the greatest most valuable agents, for they are re possible amount of shelter.

liable preventives of inflammation after

Supplementary Shelter.—In addi- lambing. tion to the regular lambing-fold it would Symptoms of Lambing . — These are, be well to provide additional shelter in enlargement and reddening of the parts

the form of small covered pens or huts at convenient well-sheltered parts of the farm , where weakly ewes and lambs might find comfort during a storm

under the tail, drooping of the flanks, patting the ground with the feet, and desire for separation from their com panions, stretching frequently, exhib

without having to be brought into the iting restlessness by not remaining in fold . These might be very cheap and one place for any length of time, lying temporary erections, constructed by the down and rising up again as if dissatis shepherd ; and they would be specially fied with every place , bleating as if in useful on hilly farms, or wherever the quest of a lamb, and appearing fond of ewes are not systematically brought into the lambs of other ewes. In a few hours, a fold for lambing. With several of or shorter time, the immediate symptom

these supplementary pens placed conveniently over the farm , odd ewes and lambs would be more easily provided with protection from sudden storms than if they had all to be driven to one cen-

of lambing is the expulsion of the bag of water from the vagina, when the pains of labour may be expected to come upon the ewe immediately. When the pains are felt, she lies down and presseswith

tral fold. The importance of even one earnestness, changing one place or posi night's shelter to a young lamb may be tion for another, as if desirous of relief. very great, often saving it from death, and setting it on its legs.

Assistance in Lambing. — Up to this time not a hand should be put

Shepherd's Hut. This should rest upon her, nor, as a rule, until the yellow

on wheels, and may be made of iron hoofs of the fore-feet of the lamb, and or wood. It should be large enough to its mouth lying upon them , are distinctly hold a bed for one man , a small table seen to present themselves in the passage. and chair, a cupboard for the shepherd's When time has been given, and the ewe

SHEEP IN SPRING.

52

is not able to expel the lamb by her own exertions, the shepherd renders assistance before her strength fails by unavailing straining. Before giving assistance to a ewe while lambing, the shepherd should smear his hands as well as the vagina of

and keep good what is obtained at each

strain , and not to tear the lamb from her prematurely by force. Whenever the lamb's head is clear, the shepherd

seizes the upper part of the neck behind the head with his left hand, the right the ewe with “ carbolic oil ”—that is, a hand still holding the legs, and pulls out mixture of i part of carbolic acid to 10 the body with ease . The lamb is then placed at the ewe's head, for her to lick parts of pure olive-oil.

The exact moment for rendering assist- and recognise, which she will instantly if her labour has not been severe. ance can be known only by experience. do,the labour has been very severe, she It is necessary to watch and wait, for a If hasty parturition often superinduces in- will likely become sick, and be careless flammation , if not of the womb, of the of the lamb as long as the sickness con external parts of the ewe.

If the labour tinues, which is evinced by quick, op

is unusually protracted, the ewe should pressed breathing. be examined , and if the lamb is found

If the pains have been sharp , and this

to be in its natural position — with its head resting onits two fore-legs - a little more time may begiven. Tedious labour often terminates in an easy birth. In nine cases out of every ten of natural presentation the ewe will lamb without

her first lamb, and she is not overcome by sickness, the ewe may probably start to her feet, and run away from the lamb. The attempt at escape must be prevented, and the end of the tail of the lamb put into her mouth, to make her notice it.

But the ewe should not be

The extraction of a lamb, as thus

assistance.

allowed to thoroughly exhaust herself related, is done by a shepherd who has before receiving assistance.

no assistant.

When he has, he adopts

When assistancemust be rendered, the another and more easy mode for the ewe ewe is taken hold of as she lies, and and himself. The assistant holds the laid gently over upon the ground on her ewe upon her side, in any way the most

far or right side, with her head up the easy for her and himself, to prevent its hill, where the ground has an inclination. To save her being dragged on the ground when the lamb is being extracted , the shepherd places the heel of his left foot pressing against the rump of the ewe, and kneels on his right knee on the ground, pressing against the lower part

body being dragged along the ground while the shepherd is extracting the lamb. In doing this, the shepherd places himself behind the ewe, and, on ascer taining the position of the lamb, pulls its legs towards him, whilst the assistant endeavours, by the pressure of the side

of her belly, having the body of the ewe of his hand below the tail, to make the

below his own body, between the heel vaginal membrane pass over the lamb's

and knee. Having his face towards the head, which when accomplished, the tail of the ewe, and both his hands free, he first proceeds to push out from him, with both hands, one leg of the lamb and then the other, as far as they will stretch ; then seizing both legs firmly

shepherd seizes the back of the neck by his right hand , and, holding the legs still in his left, takes away the lamb as quickly as he can , and places it before the ewe.

above the fetlock - joints between the

There is great difference in the dis

fingers of his right hand, he pushes the position of the ewes themselves to assist

legs from him rather downwards from in the lambing. Some, when they find the ewe's tail, with considerable force, they are assisted, give themselves little

whilst by pressing upon the space be- trouble ; others strain with vigour from tween the tail of the ewe and the head first to last ; and some only strain at

of the lamb towards him, with the lower long intervals. A ewe that strains edge of his left hand, he endeavours to strongly and continuously will become slip the vulva of the ewe over the cantle

sooner exhausted than one that takes

of the lamb. The action of both hands the matter more leisurely. In the case must be made simultaneously with the of the straining ewe there is greater strainings of the ewe, only to assist her, danger in neglecting to make examina

1

THE LAMBING SEASON .

53

tion of the presentation in time, before tions, is that given as follows by Pro fessor Wrightson, whose sound advice A Second Lamb. - If she continues should be considered carefully by flock to lie on her side, her abdomen should owners and their shepherds : the ewe has become exhausted .

be felt, to ascertain if there is another “ 1. One fore-leg only presented with lamb to come. If there is, the pains ac- the head lying upon it. In this case it is

companying the passage may have been difficult for a ewe to lamb without help. the cause of her carelessness for the first The operator will endeavour to get hold

lamb.

If the second lamb is in a natural of the missing limb, and, bringing it for

position, it will most probably, by this ward into its proper position, deliver the time, be showing itself in the passage. ewe. The best manner of doing this we If so it be, it should be taken away shall consider after passing in review the at once in the same manner as the first principal abnormalpresentations. and the ewe, feeling the attempt, will at " 2. Both fore-legs lying back, the once assist on her part by straining. head alone being presented. In this The existence of a second lamb is worth position the ewe must have assistance, attending to immediately on another ac- as birth without it is impossible. The count — some ewes become so engrossed head must be pushed back, the legs with the first lamb, that the pains at- brought forward, and the lamb ex tending the second are neglected for a tracted. " 3. The head slipped down between, or her, she must be watched, that whenever on one side of, the fore-legs. This must

time. When a second lamb is found in

it comes into the passage itmay be taken be set right by bringing the head into its away ; but unless it actually makes its natural position above the fore-legs, and appearance there , it should not be at- extracting the lamb. tempted to be taken away.

“ 4. A broadsidepresentation , in which

Should the second lamb not make its

case the broad side of the lamb is found

appearance in a reasonable time, it may be suspected that the lamb is either dead or not in a natural position, and examination should be made by the fingers into the state of the case. In cases of suspected twins, some make an

within the uterus, and of course no pro gress can be made until the hand and forearm of the operator are introduced and the fætus is turned and brought into position. “ 5. The fætus on its back, in which

examination to ascertain if they are case a similar manipulation must be em presenting themselves separately. If a ployed as in the last case.

complication is probable, the hand will have to be introduced to effect a separation of the twins by bringing one forward to the passage. A dead lamb is easily known by the feel, and should be extracted immediately ; but should the lamb be alive, and make no appearance, it may be necessary to introduce the hand toascertain its position. Before

" 6. A breech presentation. If the hocks are doubled, the breech of the lamb must be pushed forward, and the hind feet brought up. The lamb is then pulled away backwards without turning. 7. The fætus too large, or the pass age too small. This is a troublesome case, sometimes involving the loss of the lamb, and occasionally of the ewe. 66

the hand is introduced, it should be Shepherds sometimes are obliged to smeared with the mixture of carbolic carefully introduce a knife and cut off acid and oil. the shoulders, and remove the fætus

False Presentations. — Cases of diffi- piecemeal. More commonly by patience cult lambing generally arise from the and by exerting a good deal of strength presentation of the lamb in some false or the lamb is safely born. abnormal form . The natural position of " 8. Monstrosities are not

uncommon ,

the lamb in the passage is upon its belly, most seasons providing examples of with its head resting upon its two fore- lambs with five legs, headless lambs, legs. The false or abnormal presenta- fusion of two lambs into one, &c. These tions are of course variations from this cases are puzzling, and require special position. Themost recent, and one of the treatment, and when such malforma fullest definitions of abnormal presenta- tions are presented there need be no

SHEEP IN SPRING .

54

hesitation in employing the knife for of hard labour, by " bearing " or " strain their removal.

ing ” —after pains — and inflammation.

Assisting in Lambing. — “ Having Formerly the rate of mortality from in given all the possible unnatural presen- flammation after lambing was very high, tations likely to be met with, I shall next but it has been abundantly proved that explain how assistance ought to be ren- by timely treatment the danger may be dered to a ewe in distress. In all cases effectually averted .

It has already been

great care and gentleness are requisite, pointed out that in all cases the shepherd, and all roughness or hurry should be before assisting a ewe, should smear his avoided .

The hand should be anointed

hand in a mixture of carbolic acid and

with fresh lard or oil, and the finger-nails olive or Gallipoli oil — about i part must be short ( shepherds' nails always of the former to 10 parts of the latter.

are). The hand must be compressed into Then, after the removal of the lamb, as narrow a space as possible and gently about two tablespoonfuls of the carbolic introduced .

In giving assistance the acid and oil should be poured into the

operator should draw the lamb in ac- womb, while any of the external parts cordance with the natural pains of the which seem inflamed should be smeared

ewe, and wait for her to pain. Assist ance given at that moment is useful; but if force is used during the intervals of the labour-pains, the muscles of the uterus are excited, and the result is the early exhaustion of the mother. Again, in

with the same mixture. This treatment should be repeated every three or four hours, as may be found necessary. The strength of the carbolic mixture should be regulated — from 5 to 20 parts of Gallipoli oil to i of carbolic acid –

using force the fætus should be drawn according to the symptoms of the case. downwards towards the hocks of the Where the symptoms of inflammation are ewe, and the operator need not be afraid serious, a strong mixture should be ap

of using his strength when the fætus is plied promptly and frequently. The effi once brought into a proper position .” ] cacy of this simple and inexpensive treat One Fore -leg Presentation . - In re- mentin preventing after-birth inflamma

gard to the difficulty of one fore- leg presentation, Mr George Brown, Watten Mains, Caithness, says: “ If the lamb is well forward in thepassage, it is much

tion is remarkable — so much so indeed, that if it is applied in time, immediately after birth in hard cases of labour, and in all cases upon the faintest indication of

easier, and often safer, to bring the lamb after straining or inflammation, complete away as presented,than to attempt press- prevention may be expected in ninety

ing back the head to get forward the nine cases out of every hundred . It should be mentioned that the credit of

other foot. "

Cæsarean Operation . — The lamb is discovering this invaluable preventive sometimes in the Fallopian tube, from belongs to Mr Charles Scott, author of some cause or other not coming into • ThePractice of Sheep Farming .' the womb after conception.

Cases of

Rotten Turnips causing Inflam

this nature can only be managed by the mation . - Referring to the occurrence of Cæsarean operation — taking the lamb inflammation among ewes after lambing, out of the ewe's side. In cases of this Mr James A. Gordon, of Arabella, states kind, while the lamb may be saved , the that he had found the tendency to

ewe, unless a good deal of care and skill inflammation and mortification much greater when ewes were fed on turnips are used , is very liable to be lost.

The hardier the breed the rarer the of which a good manywere in a half-rot necessity for assistance in lambing. In ten condition. The best corrective in this flocks of Blackfaced and Cheviot sheep, case, he says, is to remove the ewes to a thousands of ewes lamb every season field where they can get plenty of young without the slightest assistance. clover, and will receive only a few roots,

Inflammation after Lambing . – Un- nothing being so suitable for ewes and less the utmost care is exercised there is their young lambs as fresh young grass. great risk of losing the ewe after a case Inflammation Infectious . - Referring to the infectious character of inflammation 1 Live Stock Jour ., 1889.

in ewes after lambing, Mr George Brown,

THE LAMBING SEASON .

55

Watten Mains, Caithness, says : “When with it — and what is still more tantalis a case of inflammation does occur, it is ing, the intense fondness of its mother absolutely necessary to separate the ewe urges her to turn herself round to it, in from the flock , and have the place she order to lick it with her tongue, mutter

lambed at thoroughly disinfected. The disease is most infectious, and will attack all ewes which lamb after the first case if they come into contact with the contagion. The shepherd, if he has touched

ing affectionate regards, while her wheel ing about removes the teat, the sole ob ject of the young creature's solicitude. When at length a hold of it is obtained, it does not easily let it go until satisfied

the affected ewe, must be very careful to with a good drink, which is indicated by wash his hands in either turpentine or its full flanks. When a fond ewe has carbolic oil, and even change his twin lambs, one can easily obtain the teat

clothes before touching another ewe ; while she is taken up in caressing the while ewes which die of inflammation other. This is the usual behaviour of should be skinned by some one else, strong lambs; and on once being filled not by the shepherd. with warm milk, they increase in strength

“ Oats are a fruitful cause of inflamma- rapidly, and are soon able to bear very tion in ewes, as ewes fed largely on them rough weather. become full and hot-blooded at a critical Assisting Lambs to Suck.- But time. Feeding on oats should therefore after a protracted labour, the lambs be discontinued a few weeks before lamb- may be so weakly at first as to be unable

ing, and cake or bran, or extra turnips, to reach the teat by their own strength. given instead .”

They must then be assisted, and the After Lambing. – When lambing has assistance is given in this way : turn taken place in the day, in fair weather, ing the ewe over upon her rump, the

the ewe with her lambs are best at liberty shepherd kneels upon the ground on his

within the enclosed area of the lambing- right knee, and reclines her back against ground ; but in rain or snow, and at his left leg, which is bent.

night, she should be taken into the shed , and kept there for some time until the weather proves better, or she has recovered from the effects of the lambing. In the day -time, it matters little

Removing

any wool from the udder by the finger and thumb if necessary, he first squeezes the wax out of the teats, and, taking a lamb in each hand by the neck, if twins, opens the mouth of each with a finger,

for lambs how cold the air is, provided it and applies the mouth to a teat, whenthe be dry.

It is considered a good sign sucking proceeds with vigour. A young ewe or gimmer is apt to be shy to her

of health when a lamb trembles after birth .

first lamb, but after being suckled, either

Cleansing.— The cleansings or pla- in this or the natural way, she will rarely centa generally drops from the ewe in forsake her offspring. the course of a very short time, in many

When lambs do not succeed at once

cases within a fewminutes after lambing. in finding the teat, the shepherd should It should be carried away, and not allowed soon give the lamb its first suck in this way, which not only saves it much trouble, to lie upon the lambing- ground.

The Lamb.— The lamb is fondly licked by the ewe at first, and during this process the youngster makes many fruitless attempts to gain its feet, and it is truly

and gives it strength, but affords himself a favourable opportunity of examining the state of the udder. The first good and early suck to a lamb imparts a

surprising how very soon after an easy strength to it beyond expectation. Gimmers often have scanty supply

birth it will stand.

so

The moment it does

a

so, its first effort is to find out the teat, of milk, that it is expedient for the shep expressing its desire for it by imitating herd to support their lambs partially on the act of sucking with its lips and cow's milk until the requisite supply ap tongue, then uttering a plaintive cry, and pears, which will be partly induced by wagging its still wet long tail. There are suckling, and partly by nourishment of

variousobstacles to its finding the teat at first — the long wool on the ewe's flank

succulent food .

Hand - feeding Lambs. — When the

hides it -- that on the udder interferes shepherd has lambs to support for a

56

SHEEP IN SPRING .

short time, he should supply them with and that quietly, and with plenty of time cow's milk at regular hours, in the morn- given them.

ing and evening, immediately after the Mothering Lambs. — When ewes and cows have been milked, and should see lambs are turned out to pasture, or out the lambs suckled by their mothers dur- of the lambing -fold, the shepherd ought ing the day, as also that the ewes have for the first ten days to see, at least

a sufficiency of milk. The dairymaid twice a -day, that every lamb is with its should put the cow's milk for the shep- own mother, and especially in the case herd in bottles, when the cows are milked of twins, to see that they are both hav

in the morning and evening, and he ing regular access to the right ewe. should feed the young lambs while the Distinctive marks with paint on ewes milk is warm from the cow . The feeding and lambs are helpful in this work of is done in this way : Sitting down, the mothering. shepherd takes a mouthful of milk from Risk of Over -forcing Lambs.-- In

a bottle, and, holding up the mouth of putting ewes and very young lambs on to

the lamb open, he lets the warm milk luxuriant grass, care is necessary to see drop into it in a small stream from his that the lambs are not too hard forced

mouth, which the lamb drinks as fast as with milk . Mr George Brown, Watten it comes ; and thus mouthful after mouth- Mains, Caithness, says: “ If the pasture ful until the lamb is filled. The auxiliary is rich and the ewes very full of milk, supply of milk should be withheld when ever the ewe can support her lambs.

there will be danger of lambs dying from

inflammation and apoplexy. Change of Removing Ewes and Lambs. - Ewes diet may stop this fell epidemic, for

are kept on the lambing -ground until such it may become, especially if there they have recovered from the effects of

is an east wind at the time. Scores of

lambing, the lambs have become strong, the strongest lambs have been lost in a and the ewes and lambs are well ac-

quainted with each other.

few days in this way.

Careful change

The time and moderation in feeding are the best

required for all this depends on the preventive treatment.” nature of the lambing and the state of Protecting Lambs from Foxes. the weather : the more severe the lamb- Foxes are apt to snatch away young

ing, and the more broken the weather, lambs at night, even close to a lamb

they are kept the longer in ward . When ing -house.

An effectual preventive to

quite recovered, the ewes, with their their depredations has been found in set lambs, are put into a field of new grass, ting a sheep-net (fig . 75, vol. i. p. 172) where the milk will flush upon the ewes, in front of the lambing-houses, leaving much to the advantage of the lambs. sufficient space for a few ewes with their

It is generally a troublesome matter to lambs making their lair within the net. drive ewes with young lambs to any dis- When thus guarded, with a lantern tance to a field, the ewes turning round burning outside, the foxes become appre upon and bewildering the lambs. The hensive of a snare, while the lantern dog irritates the ewes more than assists serves the useful part of affording ample

the shepherd in this task. A plan often light to the shepherd to see his valuable adopted is to leadthe flock, when small, charge. The expedient of net and lan instead of driving it, by carrying a single tern was tried after several lambs had lamb, belonging to an old ewe, by the been destroyed in successive years by fore-legs, with its head between the legs foxes, and a lamb was never afterwards —which is the safest way of carrying a lost in this way . A fox will seldom

lamb — and walking slowly with itbefore meddle with a lamb above a month old. the ewe ; she will follow bleating close at the shepherd's heels, while the rest of the ewes will follow her. If the distance to the field is considerable, the decoy lamb should be set down to suck and rest, and another taken for the purpose. When the number of ewes and lambs is

It is easy to distinguish between an attack by a fox and by a dog . The fox seizes the lamb by the neck behind the head, to throw it over his shoulder, and, if he is scared at the moment, distinct bite holes of the teeth will be found on each side of the neck ; whereas a dog seizes

considerable, they will have to be driven, any part of the body, and worries by

1

THE LAMBING SEASON.

57

The fostering is easily accom The lambs. fox, if not disturbed, carries off his prey plished while the lambs are stillwet, and bodily – he does not take time to eat it the two are placed before the ewe at the on the spot ; whilst the dog leaves behind same time. But in the case of a ewe

tearing the under part of the neck.

Some ewes

that does not die till two or three days

will fight off either dog or fox, and stoutly protect a single lamb ; whilst others are so afraid, that they know not whither to flee for refuge. After an attack , the bleating of the ewe in search

after she has lambed, it will be difficult to make another ewe that lambs a single lamb, at the time of the death of the

him what he does not eat.

ewe, take the older lamb along with her own ,

The usual plan is, to rub the body of night — will acquaint the shepherd of the the older lamb with the new -dropped one

of her lamb - an unusual occurrence at disaster that has happened.

before the ewe had recognised her own

both before her at the and to place lamb, Unkindly Mothers. — Much trouble sam e time. She may then take both

is imposed upon shepherds when ewes will not take their own lambs. In every case of a ewe refusing to let her own lamb suck, the shepherd should particularly examine the state of the udder, and as-

without scruple ; but the probability is, she will reject the older one. If so, she may be put into a dark corner of the shed, and confined by a board placed

If it be across the corner, giving her room only to inflammation , or simply hardness, reme- rise up and lie down, and to eat, but not

certain the cause of uneasiness.

dial measures must be used to restore the to turn round upon the stranger lamb to udder to its natural state. If the udder box it. Meanwhile, being strong, and be well, the ewe must be put under dis- rubbing itself against her wool, and suck cipline.

ing her againsther inclination, the lamb

The discipline consists of putting her into the shed, and confining her to a spot by a short string tied above the fetlock of one of her fore-legs, and fastened to anything. As she endeavours to avoid

will acquire the odour of her own lamb, and ingratiate itself in her favour. If she persist in refusing the lamb for some days, the discipline of tying the leg must be resorted to in the confined cell until

her lamb, the string pulls her foot off the ground, and while her attention is taken

she yield. Another troublesome case is, when the

up struggling with the string, the lamb lambdies at birth and the ewehas plenty seizes the teat and sucks in the mean- of milk, while another ewe with twins is

time ; the stratagem , often repeated, unable to support them . The expedient makes her take with the lamb.

It is is, to let the ewe smell her own new -born

surprising how soon the lamb learns to steal a suck from its mother; if itcannot approach her by the flank, it will seize the teat from between the hind -legs.

dead lamb, and then to strip the skin off it while wet, and sew it upon the bodyof one of the twin lambs, and present the foster-lamb to her, which she may accept

When a ewe will allow but one of her when she has been sucked by it. But it twins to suck her, she should be held till is possible that the dark corner will have both do it, and in a short time she will to be used before she gives a cordial re

yield to both.

ception to the foster-lamb. Should all

Introducing a Strange Lamb to a these expedients fail to mother the lambs Ewe. It is not surprising that a ewe upon the ewes — and they may all fail,

should refuse to take the lamb of an- though with a skilful shepherd they

other ; and yet, when a lamb is left an rarely do -- the lambs should be taken orphan, or happens to be a supernumer- away and brought up as pets on cow's ary, it is necessary to mother it upon an-

milk.

“ Stocks ” for Refractory Ewes. other ewe, or to bring it up byhand as a pet ; the former if at all possible. When Of the various forms of discipline ad à gimmer that has little milk has twins ministered to ewes that are unwilling at a time when a ewe that has plenty of to admit foster -lambs, placing in “the milk produces a single lamb, it is for the stocks” is perhaps the most irksome. In benefit of the gimmer and one of her bad cases it is usually the most speedily lambs that the ewe should bring up two effective. The stocks are formed in this

SHEEP IN SPRING .

58

way : Two small posts, such as hurdle after the lamb is born, says Professor

stakes, are driven firmly into the ground Wrightson, is to clear its mouth of about six inches apart.

The head of mucus, and see it draw its first breath.

the ewe is passed through between Previous to birth the fætus receives oxy

these posts, and a thong or shackle is gen through the mother. It is her lungs passed over their tops, so as to keep the which vivify its blood, and her digestive posts sufficiently close to hold the ewe by system which prepares its nourishment. the neck . A third stake is passed hori- But with the breaking of the umbilical zontally under the ewe's belly, and sup- cord comes the necessity for air,and after ported at the two ends on the bottom a convulsive movementof the diaphragm

bars of two hurdles placed on either side and intercostal muscles the young crea of the ewe, but far enough from her to ture gasps, and generally utters its first enable the lamb to approach its foster- cry. Whether the almost universal prac

mother. In this manner the ewe is most tice of shepherds, of blowing into the

effectually brought into subjection, for lamb's mouth, facilitates this action, is she can neither run away nor lie down, not certain ; but it is probable that this which many foster-mothers would do at simple expedient excites the slumbering first in order to prevent a strange lamb vitality, and causes the necessary mus

from sucking. A very short experience cular contraction. A slap with the flat of this form of discipline will usually be of the hand across the buttocks will also sufficient to induce the ewe to freely often cause a lamb to draw its first accept the lamb. breath, when animation appears to be

Changing Ewes and Lambs. — Mr suspended for a few seconds after birth ." George Brown, Watten Mains, Caithness, Reviving Weak Lambs.— Various considers that there need really be little devices are resorted to in order to revive difficulty in making a ewe take to any weakly lambs. “ Those naturally puny lamb. “ When a ewe becomes careless of one of her lambs,” he says, “ a good plan is to lift them both away from her, and place them in a box or barrel by the side

need to be kept in good shelter for some days, and if their dams have plenty of milk they will soon get strong.. The usual trouble with young lambs is cold

of the fence, and suckle them three or and hunger.

A lamb so chilled that the

four times a day. They thus soon be- thumb and finger held on opposite sides come so identical in smell that the ewe of the chest can scarcely detect the heart

is willing to admit them both. Another beats, can be restored by an immediate

plan is to rub both lambs with salt and plunge into blood -warm water. But this water, so as to make them alike in smell.

should be resorted to only in desperate

" When gimmers (or shearlings) and cases, for the water is likely to obliterate older ewes are lambing at the same time, the scent, by which alone the ewe recog . we often change lambs, always putting a nises heroffspring. For the same reason

single lamb with the gimmer. The best it is equally dangerous to wrap the lamb plan, when a gimmer lambs twins and an in malodorous cloths, and allow it to lie older ewe a single, is to lift the twins before a fire. It will probably be a long

from the former to the head of the latter, time in recovering, and the chances are and give the gimmer the single lamb. If that the natural scent will be lost ; then neither be allowed to smell her own lambs, there will be trouble in establishing rela

she will readily enough adopt the other. tions again between it and the mother. I have seen a hundred lambs so changed Then, too, the lamb will most likely have in one season without any great trouble."

to be fed on cow's milk, which is the greatest evil that could happen. derful how quickly the newly -born lamb “ If at all possible .the lamb should attains vitality and vigour enough to never be removed from its mother. Carry The Newly -born Lamb . - It is won-

move about and seek for its mother's out soft woollen wraps, well warmed, and udder.

As a rule, the lamb needs little wrap it up, letting the head remain out

attention after birth ; but it is of course where the ewe can smell and lick it when desirable that the shepherd should be at disposed ; she will thus keep up her ac hand to see that matters progress satis factorily. The first duty of the shepherd 1 Live Stock Jour. , 1889, 114 .

THE LAMBING SEASON.

59

quaintance with it. The sooner some is not so good for lambs as their mothers' warm milk is given it the better. The milk, though they thrive upon it. creature may be so chilled that it cannot

In the intervals of meals, in bad wea

suck, yet it may not be advisable to carry it to the fire. Catch the ewe gently with the crook ; lay her on her left side, yourself being squatted at her back ; lay the lamb on its right side ; with the thumb and fingerof the left hand hold the jaws apart, and milk a few drops into the mouth. Still holding the jaws apart, rub

ther, pet lambs are kept under cover, but in good weather they are put into a grass paddock during the day, and under shel ter at night until the nights become warm . They are fed by hand with as much milk as each can drink. They are first taught to drink with the finger, and as soon as they can hold the finger steady in the

the throat with a downward stroke, and

mouth, an india-rubber teat, about 3

it will swallow. If it cannot swallow , it inches in length, is used as a substitute, will probably have to be carried to the through which they will easily drink their kitchen. But try every expedient before allowance of milk . The lambs soon be carrying a lamb away from the sight and come attached to persons who feed them. touch of its mother. Never give a young The ancient Greeks had a notion that if lamb more than a tablespoonful of milk lambs were fed on ivy-leaves for 7 days, at a time, and a teaspoonful every ten they would ever continue healthy. minutes will be more effective still, when Stimulants

for Weak

Cow's Milk for Lambs . — Caution is

required in beginning a young lamb

life is but a spark .” 1 Lambs.

upon cow's milk .

Much difference of

When a lamb has become so prostrate as opinion would seem to have long ex to necessitate removal from the mother,

isted as to the influence of cow's milk

it should not only be placed upon a upon young lambs some contending woollen cloth near a moderate fire, but that it is dangerous, and others affirming have a little stimulant administered as well. Some experienced shepherds re-

that it may be used with safety. The milk of a newly calved cow is said by

commend from a half to a whole tea- some high authorities to be especially spoonful of gin or whisky in a little warm risky, but others equally well entitled to water, sweetened with moist sugar ; a confidence assert exactly the reverse .

very little of its mother's milk — or the Be all this as it may, the fact is, that milk of another newly lambed ewe, if its every year large numbers of lambs are own mother is not alive - should also be

reared upon the milk of cows newly

given without delay. The ewe should be calved and long calved ; and it is well milked into a small jug or cup, and the known that the pretty high rate of

milk at once conveyed to the lamb, which mortality amongst these " pet " lambs is may be fed by a teaspoon. If the milk due to irregular and excessive feeding.

gets cold before being given to the lamb, With intelligent care at the outset, giv it should be heated to the normal tem- ing small allowances and often, and tak perature by the addition of a few drops ing care to have the milk at the natural of hot water, or, better still, by a clean temperature, and afterwards feeding in hot piece of iron inserted into it.

moderation and at regular intervals, the

Pet Lambs.- Pet lambs consist of youngster will be found to thrive well

orphans or supernumeraries, and in either upon the cow's milk. condition are deserted creatures which

Heating Milk for Lambs.

It is

would die were they not reared by hand . not considered a good plan to heat milk

When ewes die, it may be difficult to for lambs by the addition of any appreci probability of ewes lambing single lambs be given immediately it is drawn from

avoidhaving pets, on account of the im- able quantity ofwater. The milk should just in time to receive those which have the cow. But if it has been allowed to become orphans. Pet lambs are brought cool it may be raised to its natural heat

up on cow's milk, which they receive by being placed in a cup upon the kitchen warm from the cow at each milking, and range for a moment, or by a clean hot as much as they can drink. Cow'smilk iron being inserted in the milk. 1 Prac. of Sheep Parm ., 82.

Scour in Lambs . — Cow's milk, given too freely, is liable to cause scour or diar

SHEEP IN SPRING.

60

rhoea in lambs. Especially when very until the shepherd has caught hold of the lambs are subject tovarious forms sheep, and allows its foot to slip through of diarrhoea, arising from various causes, the loop. Some caution is required in

young,

“ Scout ”

some of which are not easily removed . a fatal form of diarrhæa

using the crook, for should the sheep give a sudden

amongst lambs about two or three days

start forward to get away the moment it feels the

old. As soon as symptoms of this ail

crook touch its leg, it may forcibly draw the leg

ment are seen, the ewes and lambs

should be removed to a fresh lair or shed ,

CC

through the narrow part, and strike the fore edge

and, as a rule, this change of scene will A teaspoonful of castor-oil is often given with good effect check the disease.

of the bone with such vio

lence against the bend of the loop as to cause the

to lambs suffering from diarrhoea. Carrying

Lambs.

Young lambs

should be handled as little as possible.

animal considerable pain,

When they have to be carried, this should

and even occasion lame

be done by the two fore-legs. Never

ness for some days. On

seize or carry a lamb by the body. Cleaning Ewes’ Udders. — Any loose wool should always be removed from the udders of ewes at lambing, so as to pre vent the lamb from swallowing pieces of wool, and forming hair -balls in the stomach . These balls often prove fatal to the lambs, and they are sometimes

quietly hooking the leg from behind the ewe, the

crook should be quickly drawn towards you, so as

to bring the bend of the Fig. 247.

loop against the leg as Shepherd's Crook. t a Narrowes part high up as the hock,and of crook . lift the foot off the ground, formed by lambs on bare and dirty pas before the sheep is almost ture where pieces of wool are lying aware of the movement; and being

about.

Catching Ewes. — Great care should

thus secured at once, her struggles will cease the moment the hand seizes the

be exercised in catching ewes at all leg. The crook is placed in the figure times, more especially, of course, when to catch the off hind -leg. they are near the lambing-time. It is a common practice with shepherds when they wish to catch a ewe to give a weakly twin lamb a suck, or to examine the state of her udder, to stoop down and

LAMBING PERIOD - DETAILS OF MANAGEMENT.

It may at first thought seem curious run in upon her from behind and seize that within the narrrow limits of the her by a hind-leg. This is a safe mode British Isles there should be such a

of catching a ewe when dexterously length of time as there is between the done ; but when he fails, she will start dates of lambing in the earliest and and run off, and alarm the other ewes the latest districts. The lambing period beside her — and every alarm to a ewe, in this country now actually extends whether lambed or about to lamb, is over six months, beginning with Dorset injurious, and at any rate cannot do any sheep in the extreme south of England in November, and ending with mountain

good.

Shepherd's Crook . — A crook catches sheep in thenorth of Scotland in the the leg quietly and securely. It consists month of May. Lambing, therefore, of a round rod of iron, bent in the form stretches into three seasons of the year,

shown in fig. 247, terminating at one yet it is in a special sense associated end in a knob, and at the otherend in a with spring, and is conveniently dealt socket, which receives and is fixed to a with in this part of The Book of the

wooden helve, 5 or 6 feet long, according Farm . In detailing the different systems of to fancy. The hind -leg is seized from

behind the sheep ; and as its small bone management, the prevailing dates for just fills the narrowest part of thecrook, lambing in the various districts will be the leg cannot get loose backwards, and noted . Climate is, of course, the chief

remains in the roomy loop of the crook element in determining the time of lamb

THE LAMBING SEASON.

ing, as it is desirable that there should fully.

61

Castration is delayed till the

be a plentiful supply of green food for lambs are about a month old, it being the ewes while nourishing their young considered that lambs left entire for a In certain cases a more month are more fleshy when matured highly artificial system of rearing or than lambs castrated when ten days' old, forcing is pursued, with the object of which latter plan is pursued by many. providing early lambs for the meat Fattening Ewe and Lamb together.

with milk .

market.

-About the end of the first month the ewes and lambs are put upon roots, and liberal fare is provided, as the intention

Early Market Lambs.

Dorset Flocks.— The fattening of is most likely to fatten both the ewes lambs for slaughter when a few months and the lambs at the same time.

The

old is now pursued extensively in various system of feeding now pursued is thus parts of the country. This practice has described by Mr John A. Clark : been so skilfully carried on with Dorset

“ The roots are cut and given in troughs,

sheep in the extreme south of England, and the lambs feed in advance of, and that in some cases two crops of lambs separate from , the ewes — a lamb - gate are obtained in one year from the same being provided for the purpose, having The ewes of this breed are very a space between the bars to allow lambs ewes .

prolific, and have come to possess the to pass, without being wide enough for characteristic of turning very early to the ewes. As soon as it is light in the ram . For early market lambs the the morning, the shepherd gives hay to

Dorset ewes are usually crossed with a both lambs and ewes, and then fills

Down or cross-bred ram , and by feeding the troughs with cut roots, passing the the ewes freely upon trifolium and lambs' portion twice throughthe cutter, cut swedes or mangels — with a run on reducing the slices into bits the size of fresh dry pasture, and perhaps half a dice.

Next he gives oilcake and peas

pint each ofbeans daily — theyare brought in covered troughs, the allowance being to take the ram as early as May and as much as they will eat. To prevent June. When the rams are withdrawn, waste the oilcake is broken fine --- the

the ewes are changed to a dry pasture size of horse-beans—so that the lambs do with a fold of tares or other similar for- not take up large pieces and drop them age crop, and are kept in moderate con- beside the troughs. To induce the young dition. The ewes walk a good deal animals to eat cake and peas, it issome daily, and this healthy exercise has a times necessary to mix a portion of com

favourable influence on the crop of mon salt.

The ewes next receive their

lambs.

portion of oilcake, without peas, begin These ewes lamb in November and ning with 4 lb. per day - half in the December. In average seasons only the morning, half before the bait of roots at weakest of the lambs need to be taken

night. After two or three weeks of this

into the shed, the climate being so mild food, the cake is gradually increased up to that even in the middle of winter the 1 lb. each per day ; and towards the end young lambs thrive admirably by the of the fattening process half a pint of side of their mothers in the open fields. beans is added . This renders the flesh When the weather is wet and stormy, more firm ; the great objection to the the ewes and lambs have to be housed ewes being fattened while suckling being

or brought into some exceptional shelter that they are mostly deficient in firm till the worst of the storm is past, but no ness and quality of meat. "Hay or hay-chaff also is given to the unnecessary pampering is practised .

Preparation is made for the ewes with lambs twice a day ; but after eight or the early lambs by serving rye-grass on nine weeks old they have it three times a portions of the wheat stubble.

This day—the last feeding being not later than

fresh young grass is peculiarly suitable three o'clock, as the hay not eaten will

for newly lambed ewes, and upon this be spoiled in case of rain.

The portions

and the run of the stubble at night, and of hay, after having been picked over by

a “ bite ” of young clover by day, they the lambs, go to their mothers. The

are able to nourish their lambs bounti- lambs are ready for the butcher at ten

SHEEP IN SPRING.

62

or eleven weeks old — that is, in February cannot be formed, great store is placed upon the forage crops.

and March .” 1 Lamb for

Christmas

Dinner.

It is undesirable to force ewes into

In some instances in Dorset and the high condition before lambing; but it is Isle of Wight lambs are dropped in an essential feature in the management

September, and fattened for sale by of early lambing flocks that as soon as

Christmas. With this practice the sys- the lambs are dropped the ewes should tem of management has to be still more

be fed liberally with succulent milk -pro

artificial and forcing. This highly arti- ducing food. Liberal feeding has more ficial system is no doubt remunerative to do with the progress of young lambs to the enterprising farmers who pursue than the mildness of the weather. It is,

it. It is not to be assumed , however, indeed, wonderful how even very young that the rearing of fat lambs for Christ- lambs will withstand cold and wet wea mas, or even for Easter, would be either ther if only their mothers have plenty of

practicable or profitable in other parts of good milk for them. They are, of course, the country.

“ In Devon and Wilts all the better of shelter, and ought to

there are numerous sunny glades and have it ; but above everything else, see

warm sheltered vales, where, assisted by that they are well nourished with milk. the hot vapours of the Gulf Stream And the surest way of providing this is wafted across the Atlantic by the south- to feed the ewes liberally after lambing. western breezes, the grass is ever green .' Lambing on the Arable Farms. Thus the flock -owners in these favoured For this early lambing on the arable

parts have advantages not enjoyed to the farms of the south -west of England, mild same extent in other districts.

as the climate is, it is desirable to have

a well-arranged and ample lambing yard

Hampshire Customs.

or pen .

The practice of rearing and fattening

“ The forward ewes," says Professor

early lambs has been more extensively and successfully developed with flocks of Hampshire Downs than with any other variety of sheep outside the domain of

Wrightson , “ should be brought into the pen every night and lie upon the straw . A good -sized heap of swedes should also have been provided, and hay racks or

The

cribs should be placed around, so that

Hampshire Down has been skilfully cultivated with this end in view , and the whole system of farming in Hampshire has, to a large extent, been arranged to promote the rapid production of mutton. Lambing begins with the new year in Hampshire flocks, and at this season great care has to be exercised in protect-

the animals may receive a foddering when they come into shelter at about four o'clock in the afternoon . During the height of the lambing , the shepherd remains night and day with his flock, and provided with a good lantern, he makes periodical visits, carefully looking at every ewe. As soon as a lamb is born,

these wonderful Dorset flocks.

ing the young lambs from stormy weather it and its dam should be removed into when itoccurs, as it of course often does.

one of the coops or cells, as already men

The water-meadows in the chalk districts tioned, there to remain for three or four of the south -west of England are turned days, until the lamb is able to follow its

to good purpose in furnishing an early mother without difficulty, and until the supply of fresh grass for ewes, and in addition to these, a great deal of other succulent green food , such as roots, cabbage, thousand - headed kale, rape, rye,

two thoroughly know each other. When this is judged to be accomplished, the cell is vacated for other occupants, and the ewe and her lamb or lambs are transferred to

vetches, trifolium , &c., has to be provided

one of the larger divisions of the pen. “ As lambing proceeds, the various lots

for the ewes and lambs in winter and

spring. Where there is a considerable of ewes are classified and separated, as stretch of good water-meadows, there is follows : less necessity for other succulent food ; but in dry lands where water -meadows

1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng ., 1878, 520.

1. A yard of ewes heavy in lamb. 2.

11

with single lambs.

3.

with twins.

4.

and very young lambs.

THE LAMBING SEASON.

63

The plan of having one lambing-yard “ The older lambs, with their dams, are, when from four to seven days old, near the homestead , once general, is now

allowed to go out upon the turnips, and in most cases supplanted by temporary it is interesting to watch these young lambing -pens formed at some convenient creatures learning to fend for themselves, spot on the fields, near the supplies of

and imitating their mothers in their eat- green food, and where the manure is ing, choosing the softer parts of the tur- most required. Treatment of Ewes and Lambs. nips, nibbling at the rape or turnip greens, or sorting out the choicer portions As a rule, in fine weather the ewes go of the hay.

out from the pens on to the turnip-break

The Lambs' Corner.— " Lambs ought to be provided with a corner for themselves at an early age. A few hurdles should be placed around so as to include

when the lambs are two or three days old, but in some exceptional cases they are kept in shelter with their young lambs for two or three weeks. The ewes

some small troughs in which is placed a and lambs are usually kept on turnips mixture of split peas, bruised oats, and and hay till the water -meadows are

finely ground cake. Admittance is given ready to receive them , perhaps about the to this enclosure by means of lamb-hur- first of April, and then they go on to the dles, which , while allowing of the ingress water -meadows by day, and are folded

of the lambs, is a bar to the larger-sized overnight on Italian rye-grass, rye, win ewes.” 1 Lord Northbrook's Flock . - The fine

ter barley, winter oats, or trifolium , sown for the purpose — the tup and wether

flock of Hampshires kept at Stratton, lambs intended to be forced being ad Micheldever, by Lord Northbrook, is mitted in front of the hurdles to receive Where there are

managed similarly to the other leading a little cake or corn . Hampshire flocks.

His lordship's agent,

no water -meadows there is usually a

Mr T. Stirton, says : “ Lambing takes preserved portion of clover, which forms place, as a rule, from the middle of a most useful adjunct to the turnips and

January to middle of February. Ram forage crops. breeders commence on the ist of January.

Frequent changes of ground and food

Generally speaking, the ewes get plenty are a leading principle in Hampshire of hay or sainfoin with a limited supply flock management, and no doubt this

of turnips before lambing, and plenty of contributes largely to the success of the roots and hay afterwards. Ram breeders system .

use artificial food, such as malt-dust, cake,

Forcing Young Lambs . - For the

The ewes are always folded on first two, three, or four weeks the lambs arable land, and the roots are not cut for subsist upon their mothers' milk, but even

&c.

them . After the roots are finished , rye before they are a fortnight old they will and winter barley follow. As a rule, the be seen to nibble at the finer portions of lambs are weaned about the first week in

the food being consumed by the ewes.

May, when the lambs have field -grass, The forcing of lambs may be begun in followed by vetches during the summer the third week, and if the object is to rear

-usually a fold of each a -day - or sain- precocious ram lambs or fatten wether If not sold at the summer fairs,

lambs at as early an age as possible,

or sold fat at the auction sales, they then

a separate enclosure of hurdles in ad

foin .

get sainfoin, rape, and turnips, till the vance of the ewe-fold should be formed autumn fairs, with or without cake, ac- for the lambs. The lambs get access to cording to the views of the owner. The this enclosure through an opening in the

ewes live behind the lambs, for the latter ordinary hurdles — an opening not large have large folds. Ram breeders give their lambs at least two to three folds of different kinds of food each day, with various mixtures of artificial food. The green foods are vetches, early rape, and sainfoin ." 1 Live Stock Jour., 1888, 65.

enough to admit ewes or by what is called a lamb-hurdle. In this lamb-fold

the young lambs will pick at the fresh food before it has been spoiled by the

ewes running over it, and in troughs they should receive cut roots - put twice through the cutter, so as to reduce them to small pieces — and just as much of the

64

SHEEP IN SPRING .

bruised cake and grain as they will Wherever the ewes are timed to lamb readily consume, with a very small quan- before the middle of March, ample shel tity of fresh hay.

The mixtures and

ter and green food must be furnished ;

quantities givenAs totolambs vary on differ- for without comfort and plenty of nourish ent farms. quantity, the rule ment for the young lambs, early lambing should be -- if the lambs are to be forced cannot possibly result in success. -to give them as much in two or three

The systems of management in some

mealsper day as theywill eatup at the time. A mixture of linseed-oil and peas gives excellentresults. Another very good mixture may be made of equal portions of finely ground linseed and decorticated

typical English flocks are described in Division I., pages 194 to 201 . Summersbury Southdowns.

Mr

Edwin Ellis, Summersbury, Guildford, Surrey, whose fine flock ofSouthdowns

cotton - cake, bean-meal, and palm - nut has taken a high position in the show meal, given perhaps with fine hay -chaff. yard, writes : It is not likely the lambs will eat much

“ For several years I have been de

more than about two ounces per day of sirous that my lambs (Southdown)should this mixture till they are weaned, after fall in January and February, instead which the quantity may be doubled. of from the middle of February till the Lamb - hurdles. --The lamb - hurdle beginning of April, but I have as yet or lamb-creep, contrived to let the lambs been unable to obtain this result. It is

run forward and hold back the ewes, is true that by forcing treatment and very an important institution where breeding high feeding a few ewes would come into flocks are kept on arable land . “ The season in August, possibly even at the

lamb-hurdle," says Professor Wrightson, latter end of July ; but this would be “ is in constant requisition throughout very expensive work at a period when the spring, and by its means the lambs we expect the flock to be kept at the are able to run forward and crop the smallest possible outlay. In the present

choicest herbage before it is soiled or year (1888), although the rams were put trampled by the older sheep.

The best out on the 16th August, the first ewe was served on the 27th, and it was not

creeps are adjustable to the size of the

lambs, and the upright bars through till several weeks after this that any which the young animals pass are round considerable numbers were tupped. and smooth, and revolve easily upon a

“ Lambing, therefore, begins with us

central axis of iron. They are also fur- about the beginning of February, and nished with a similar roller, which forms we generally get half- through by the

the top of the creep, so that the lamb end of the month ; and by the end of passes through withoutrubbing the wool. March the season may be said to have The opening is hinged inwards, but is finished, although a few ewes will be

rigid when pushed outwards, and this is still later than this. done to allow of lambs running quickly Feeding of Ewes .— “ When the ewes back into the fold if frightened, but at have gone half their time, we take care the same time to prevent the ewes from that they shall be well fed, having a passing outside the fold .” 1 little hay, and sometimes a few oats, but Various English Methods.

The

no roots if we can avoid it.

After lamb

foregoing details, which relate chieflying we feed very liberally — good hay, to Hampshire flocks, embrace the out-

swedes and swede-tops, if there are any,

standing features of the systems of and sometimes a few mangels as well.

management which prevail wherever I consider mangels better even than early lambing is pursued — that is, lamb- swedes for milk . The ewes are driven

ing in January, February, and the be- into a fold if the weather is bad , other ginning of March. The amount and wise they do better in the open field. character of shelter and green food proTreatment of the Lambs.—“ Directly

vided for the ewes and lambs vary with the lambs begin to feed, they have a pen

the locality, climate, class of sheep, pur- into which they can run, and sliced poses in view, and date of lambing. swedes, corn, and cake are at their dis posal. If we get a large proportion of 1 Live Stock Jour., 1888, 114.

twins, a separate flock is made, and the

3

THE LAMBING SEASON .

65

mothers have some corn in addition to as the ewes did, and were drawn from

their other food. I have generally weaned the ewes the last week in December. when the lambs are about 12 or 14 weeks

Lambs Dropped.— “ The ewes began

old, but I think it might be done earlier to lamb on 6th March, and ended 21st with advantage. of May. As for the number of lambs “When the lambs are taken away, dropped, I do not keep strict account careful attention should be given to the until I tail them , which is done when

ewes' udders for the next few days, other- they are about a fortnight or three weeks

wise great pain , and possibly inflamma- old; and I have tailed this season 454. tion, may be caused by the milk. My I have about 170 twins, 25 triplets, and lambs are kept on tares, trifolium , thou- the rest singles, with 3 barren ewes.

I

sand -headed kale, and clover, each in had 443 lambs living on May 29th. One their turn ; and if we find it practicable lamb has died since I tailed them , with to give a change of food to the ram a ball of wool in itsstomach , and another lambs, it is beneficial. Indeed the with sand ; the others died from what greater variety the better. we call scoley, caused by the cold severe “ As for the ewes, directly the wool is weather, such as I never before experi

off they run the commons around us,and enced. We had snowstorm , and hail come on to the meadows when the crop storm , and frost at night all through of hay has been harvested . March and part of April, and that is the “ Flushing ” Ewes.— “ I have always cause of the lambs being scoley and stiff had a good number of twin lambs, con- jointed. They then linger and die. I

sequent, as I believe , on “ flushing' the should think I have lost from 40 to 50 ewes with plenty of green food just in that way, though I had plenty of before they come into season . The young shelter. ewes have generally one lamb, but the Lambing -yard .— “ My sheep -yard was

old ewe flock with me generally bring made on the open common with hur three lambs to two ewes, and sometimes dles first, then whin fagots, then straw hurdle-pens round inside and outside to the number of about 70 pens, and then

even more than this."

Suffolk Flocks. thatched with straw. I keep them in With the leading flocks of Suffolk the pens two or three days, then turn

sheep, which have been greatly improved them on the field under the bank and in recent years, the ewes and lambs are battens made with whin fagots on

managed with much care and intelli- purpose. gence .

In his Prize Report to the

Feeding of Ewes.

“ The general

Farming World in 1888, George Last, feeding of the ewes consists of maiden shepherd to Mr S. R. Sherwood, Hazel- leys, marshes, and coleworts for the tup wood, Suffolk , says :

ping season .

Then follow on with white

“ The farm consists of marshes and turnips and a good bait of malt-combs rough pasture and arable land, and is and chaff every morning, and a run on about two miles and a half from the sea the whin common every day ; and about

-a cold, bleak place, but most of it good a month before lambing a bushel of best light land, withabout three or four fields oilcake to two bushels a -day mixed with black and poor land even for breeding the chaff and malt-combs, and from half a load to a load of mangels per day. “ My flock consists of 300 Suffolk When the ewes refuse the chaff, increase

ewes .

ewes, bought from the best breed of the the cake to three or four bushels, and Suffolks. Six ram lambs were used of the mangels to two and three loads per the same breed as the ewes on October day. One ram was put to 50 of the best

Feeding of Lambs. – " About the

ewes, and five to the other 250, which is fifty each for a ram . The 50 ewes and one ram are put on the marshes night and day for three weeks, and the 250 on the marshes during the day, and folded on coleworts at night. The rams lived

middle of April we begin to bait the lambs. I shut them from the ewes about an hourevery morning for the bait, then

11 .

VOL. II.

let the lambs run forward on the clover

leys for a time ; the ewes then clean out what bait the lambs leave, and which is E

SHEEP IN SPRING .

66

a good deal at first, but the lambs soon

is difficult for even a good judge to select

get hold of it and leave the ewes very a good lamb, or, in fact, anyimmature little. Losses of Lambs.2 " I have lost nine

animal.

The ram selected for use should be as

ewes from the following causes : One large as possible, combined with mascu in January from scour and inflammation ; line character, perfect type, and high two in February from ulcer-sores ; four quality ; and as a rule the size should be

in March—two broken down from weight, looked for on the side of the dam , as it one from dead lamb's putrefaction, one is next to impossible to procure a male

wasted by ulcers ; and two in April — one perfect in all the essential points, and casted or awal'd, and one choked with yet with sufficient size. Rams generally mangels. There are now 4431 lambs alive, will serve from thirty to fifty ewes satis reared from the 300 ewes. factorily, and in many cases this number is greatly exceeded . But a ram should Shropshire Flocks. seldom be used largely until his second

For the following description of the year as a sire, whenthe breeder has had prevailing system pursued during the à chance of seeing his produce and of entire year in Shropshire flocks, we are judging what they are likely to grow indebted to Mr Alfred Mansell, College Hill , Shrewsbury -- the round of the year

into. After the ewes have all been served

being commenced when the rams are ad- they run together, and for another month mitted amongst the ewes : or so should be kept in as thriving a The ewes are put to the ram early in state as possible. They then go to old September, so as to drop their lambs seeds or pasture and get a daily allow early in February or March ; but in high ance (not too large) of roots and hay; the cold districts the lambs, as a rule, are all latter loose on the fields is best, as the dropped in March and early in April. ewes are apt to get crushed if crowded Flushing the ewes is considered advis- at racks. able at the tupping period, as the ewes Preparation for Lambing. — Some

go faster to the ram , and are generally breeders, a short time before lambing, more prolific. If so treated and for this give the ewes boiled linseed, crushed

purpose, they are put on a fresh pasture, oats, andbran mixed with pulp and cut say second year's seeds, or a permanent stuff. This is a practice much to be pasture which has been purposely saved. commended, as it strengthens the ewes To ease the rams sometimes a teaser is and greatly assists a safe and easy par used, and the ewes as they come on are turition. taken to the ram . sary in the case

This is quite neces

As soon

as the lambing season ap

a very fat ram , or proaches ( end of January or early in

where it is wished to serve a larger num- February ) the ewes are folded at night.

ber of ewes with a certain ram than is When the lambs are a few days old usually the case.

they go on to the seeds which have been

If any show ewes have been added to the flock, they should be treated precisely in the same way, but perhaps may be put to the ram a little earlier, as they

kept up during the winter, and if the season has been moderately favourable these are usually very fresh, and a good pasture for promoting the secretion of

are apt to turn several times before hold- milk. Only the ewes with twin lambs ing to the rams. Still, with care and should get any assistance, as the ewes patience, they can generally be got to with single lambs if corn -fed are apt to breed .

get too fat and doubtful breeders. A

Ram Lambs. Atthe latter end of the mixture of beans, malt-dust, linseed -cake, season,should any of the ewes have turned and bran, is a capital food to sustain the several times, and this will probably be ewe and increase the flow of milk. the case with a few of the older ewes, a

The shepherd should, as far as possible,

ram lamb should be tried ; but, as a rule, be encouraged to keep up the returns I should not commend this practice, as it from the sheep by means of a bounty on each lamb alive at weaning-time (June), 1 Parming World , 1888, 526.

and also by giving him a further interest

I

THE LAMBING SEASON .

67

in another way in the wellbeing of the carelessness on this point, annually spoil flock .

several of their best ewes.

Castration in ram breeders' flocks is

The average number of lambs is 150 to not a general practice, and the process of 175 per cent. In smallflocks it has often selection is left until the winter, when been much more, but, speaking generally, the inferior rams are fed and sold to the

a lamb and half to three -quarters for each

butcher. In the case of ordinary flocks ewe is about the average. they are castrated as lambs and sold fat Dipping the lambs once or even twice the following spring. is very desirable, and for this purpose a

Shearing the lambs, which takes place non -poisonous dip is best. about the last week in June, is considered

To prevent husk or hoose in lambs, a

to have a good effect in securing greater most fatal complaint in the autumn, it is immunity from the fly in summer; also an excellent plan to drench the lambs in preventing the clinging of the soil to either with one of the well-known patent the belly of the sheep when on turnips. remedies, or with the following, which

Weaning the lambs takes place in May costs less, and is to all intents and or early in June. For this a good pasture is selected, as with good treatment they do not feel the change so much. Nostrong artificial food should be given

purposes as good : 18 oz. asafetida, 18 oz. turpentine, 38 oz. linseed oil, given in half a gill of milk or thin gruel, two days consecutively. at first, but a few common turnips may As a preventive against foot -rot it is be thrown about on the ground to teach a good plan to periodically, say two or

them to eat turnips. Following this, three times a -year, carefully pare all the rape or cabbages are given, and as the sheep's feet, and walk them through a

harvest-fields are cleared theyoung seeds trough containing a disinfecting solution are made use of. This would carry the composed as described on page 198, vol. lamb till the end of September or so, i.), after which they should be folded when they are folded on common turnips on a hard road or dry yard for a few till aboutChristmas, and then on swedes. hours. Mr Carrington on the Care of Ewes Linseed -cakes, oats, and bran, commenc-

ing at 4 lb. each per day, and gradually and Lambs. — The late Mr W. T. Car increasing, is the artificial food at this rington, in describing the general man agement of sheep on light-land arable

period .

As January and February come in, the farms in England, said : “ The time of cull rams are ready for the knife, and by putting the ram with the ewes varies the end of the latter month most of these have been despatched . The rams intended for show and sale and the shearling ewes are kept on the

with the locality, and the prospect of early spring food. In the south of Eng land, August and September are usual months. In the midlands, October; and

turnips a little longer, or until the land in the north, November. On those farms is wanted for barley -sowing. The rams where rams are bred for annual sale, they intended for show are housed early in are usually dropped early, so as to give

April and shorn, but the majority are not them a good start. housed until May. The rams then get Condition of Ewes at Mating -time. mangels, hay, and a small allowanceof _ “ It is better that ewes going to the ram

corn ,and as much green food as possible. should be, though not fat, inan improv

This latter is a most necessary food. ingcondition , a supply of succulent food Mellowing the mangels by exposure to at this period having also a favourable the sun is a good practice, as it renders influence on the number of lambs dropped ; them less liable to develop the water therefore many farmers put their ewes on rape. complaint amongst the rams. The ewes after the lambs are taken

Ewes in Winter.— " In the autumn

from them are kept on the barest pas- and early winter the ewes are run on the

stubbles, receiving an occasional tures, as they are apt to get gross and cloveroforrape or early turnips, or mangel fat and non -breedersif they areallowed a fold and a little cotton-cake. chaff with tops, months. summer good pasture during the Indeed many breeders, through a little They often follow the feeding sheep,

68

SHEEP IN SPRING.

clearing up all their leavings on the fold. clover orgrass produced by sheep-manure

The practice formerly pursued of giving being unhealthy food for lambs, and caus in-lamb ewes a full allowance of turnips,

is generally discontinued, it being found

ing scour. Dipping Lambs.- " The lambs, after

that they are much better without such weaning, are all dipped in some prepara watery food before lambing.

tion to destroy parasites, and to prevent

Lambing-time.— “ When about lamb- for a time the attacks of the maggot-fly, ing, the ewes are brought in at nights, which in some districts, especially where into a covered shed or yard ; or a move- much timber exists, is very troublesome,

able lambing-shed is taken into the open blowing up on the wool, and unless field , and protection against wind and quickly eradicated, spoiling the wool, rain is provided by means of hurdles and even sometimes killing the launb.” l wattled with straw , or one or two old waggons, part - loaded with straw , the

Scotch Flocks.

shepherds giving them unremitting atIn Scotland the lambing period comes on later than in England. In some ex tention both day and night. After Lambing. - " The ewes, after ceptional cases a few lambs are dropped lambing, are well fed, having straw, chaff, in February, but the general time is from

or hay, and 12lb. to i lb. of cake or meal, the middle of March till the third week in with roots. Whatever be the destination of the lamb, the ewe should at this time be liberally fed. “ When the lambs are two or three weeks old, they begin to eat food with

May. In the lower -lying and better fa voured districts — especially with Border, Leicester, and half-bred flocks — the ma jority of the lambs may be dropped in March ; but in exposed hill-farmslambing

their dams, and lamb-hurdles are often does not begin till about the middle or

provided, allowing them to run before 20th of April, and frequently extends till the fold and eat a little dust, linseed -cake, the closing days of May. Early Lambing risky. — The cli A change of food for

or bruised oats.

the ewes is desirable, as soon as it can mate, probable supply of early spring well be given. Early rye or Italian rye- food , and amount of shelter, are the few mangels, and 1/2 lb. each daily of the time of lambing. In cold late dis tricts early lambing is very undesirable, cotton -cake, proves an excellent diet. Castration.— " Castration of all male and can hardly lead to satisfactory re lambs not required for stock purposes is sults. The flock-owner is truly in a piti often done by drawing at ten to twenty able condition when struggling with a

grass, or the second year's clover, with a considerations which mainly determine

days' old,or is done by searing at three big flock of ewes and newly born lambs months old.

with a deficiency of shelter and little Weaning.– “ Weaning takes place at food for them, except what may be given

from three to four months old ; where by the hand. Heavy outlays may be in curred, and yet theresults may be very disappointing. There are few points more essential in the successful management of a breeding -flock than this—that, as soon age, they remain with the ewes until as the lambs are dropped, the ewes should the lambs are early taught to eat artificial food, it is not desirable to delay it too long. On those farms where fat lambs are sold to the butcher at an early

sold .

be liberally fed and protected from ex “ The lambs, when weaned, are either cessive storms. In order, therefore, to taken a distance away out of the sound ensure this as far as possible, it is desir of their dams bleating, or a double row able that lambing should be delayed till

of hurdles at a little distance keeps them the rigours of the winter are past and apart, when they before long become paci- moderately genial spring weather and a

fied. The lambs are provided with a suc- speedy growth on the pastures may be cession of green food, much importance reasonably calculated upon. The period being attached to a frequent change of of lambing will thus vary with the local diet. It is not well for them to graze on land which has been folded with older

1

1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., xiv., 1878,

sheep, the rank luxuriant herbage of 713.

THE LAMBING SEASON.

ity and the system of tillage farming-

69

Inflammation .

“ Four deaths oc

which latter has, of course, much to do curred amongst the ewes during lamb with the supplies of such extra food as ing. Five dropped dead lambs, and roots, grain , and hay. South of Scotland Flocks.

three of these ewes rank amongst the above deaths.

The other death was

that of a gimmer which exhibited signs In the Border Leicester flocks in the of lambing in the morning, but which south of Scotland many lambs are dropped went about all day without ever mak

early in March — some even in February. ing any effort to lamb. I lambed her As a rule, in these flocks ample provision all right at night, and both ewe and is made for the lambing -time both in the lamb looked as well and comfortable

way of food and shelter. Comfortable in the morning as wishes could desire. lambing-pens are provided ; and with tur- The lamb was full, and the mother nips, hay, cake, and grain, and a run eating her food and tending her little upon young grass, the ewes are kept so as to ensure a full supplyof milk . Keeping up the supply of milk is the chief object to have in view , for without this the crop of lambs will be disappointing. Orchard Mains Flock . — In his Prize Report on the management of the ewes

offspring with motherly anxiety and care. But before mid -day the lamb was sick and grievously swollen in the belly, and died shortly. The gimmer, just as I was about to give her another lamb,

gave signs of inflammation. I applied carbolic to her of the i to 5 strength, but

and lambs under his care in the winter to no purpose . Doses were repeated at of 1887-88 and following spring, Alex- intervals of about from two to three ander Burns, shepherd to LordsArthur hours, without abating in any way the and Lionel Cecil, Orchard Mains, Inner- virulent nature of the inflammation. In leithen, Peebles, says : the morning she was ready for skinning. “The sheep under my care are Cheviot The other three were similar in every

ewes — part with half-bred lambs and part respect, except that they dropped dead with Cheviot lambs.

lambs.

After similar treatment, they Whether

Park Sheep.- “ The Leicester rams were ready for skinning also.

were admitted amongst the park sheep the case presents itself as hopeless or on the 22d October, and were withdrawn not, I always like to apply carbolic, for on the 24th November, when two Cheviot the simple reason that it invariably

tups were admitted in their stead. The proves itself an efficient factor in keep park sheep, which numbered 205, com- ing down infection. menced to get a run of the turnip -break

Lambing in a Storm .

“ Turnips,

a week previous to the time of admitting with a little rye-grass hay, was the feed the rams. The latter were five in num- ing the park ewes got during the season, ber, and consequently had each an allot- and as each ewe lambed, she was housed In addition for a time— the weather being so cold to the regular fare of turnips and grass that young lambs could not do to be which the ewes were getting, the rams exposed to its severity. In fact, the 28th

ment of two scores of ewes.

were fed with corn and bran, while I of March was almost too much for the keeled them to indicate the proceedings. old sheep. Both old and young, lambed Lambing.– " Dividing them into two or not, I made thorough against that

lots, the first commenced lambing on the notorious night. The sheep lambed very

18th March. The weather was very cold slowly atthe beginning,which was greatly -in fact too severe for old sheep, not to in their favour in such weather, as it not speak of young lambs. The ewes were, only allowed space to accommodate, but perhaps, a little to the thin side in con- gave time for the bestowal of special

dition.

Though they did not drop a care upon each individual ewe as she

great quantity of lambs, they lambed

lambed .

fairly well throughout, but always grew

“ The percentage requiring assistance Harcer of milk, which no doubt might be was on the whole very small - perhaps attributable to the inclement state of the something like 10 or 15 per cent.” 1 weather and the wretched state of the turnips, which were simply slush.

1 Farming World , 1888, 526.

70

SHEEP IN SPRING .

1 lb, each of linseed -cake and oats — this A Perthshire Flock .

brings them rapidly into condition, and

The first of three prizes offered by the is also likely to lead to an increase in the

proprietor of the Farming World for crop of lambs. reports “ On the Management of Ewes

« When the rams are admitted the

and Lambs,” was won by Mr W. Sutherland, Peel Farm , Tibbermuir, Perth,who thus describes his practice in the winter 1887-88 and following spring :

hand - feeding is discontinued . During the period the rams are with the ewes eachof the breeds are kept separate, and previous to the rams being turned loose

“Our flock (in addition to a lot of the breast of each is rubbed with keel, blackfaced , into the treatment of which and this is repeated daily, so that the I shall not enter) numbered 138 — com- ewes that have been tupped are readily prising 45 Leicester, 14 Shropshire Down, recognised . After the rams have been and 79 half-bred and other ewes. On out for a week all the ewes served during the 17th September 1 Shropshire and i that period are marked with a little paint Oxford Down ram were turned in amongst

on the shoulder ; at the end of the second

the half-breds; and on the 8th October, and third weeks those served since the 2 Leicester rams amongst the Leicesters, previous markings have other distinctive marks put on them ; and any that may come in season afterwards are left un

and 1 Shropshire Down among the ewes of that breed. For about five weeks previously the rams got a daily allowance of about 2 lb. each of linseed -cake and oats ; but once they were admitted to the ewes they had no extra feeding what-

marked. By attention to this matter a deal of trouble is saved when the lambing

ever given them. The rams were with

longer than is customary , and find by

drawn from the three lots on the 20th December . The first of the ewes lambed on the 17th February, and, with one or two exceptions, the whole had lambed by the 15th April. Total, 245 lambs. “ The Leicesters dropped 77 lambs14 singles, 27 pairs, and 3 triplets — one

doing so we have seldom any eild ewes, and I have frequently seen a May ” lamb as far forward by the end of the season as those dropped two months

ewe being eild. The Shropshire Downs,

28 — each having a pair. The half-breeds,

season arrives.

“ I keep the rams with the ewes rather 66

earlier.

“ About the beginning of November

the whole of the sheep are dipped for the winter. “When the grass begins to get scarce

140—21 singles, 52 pairs, and 5 triplets. a daily supply of turnips are given - a “ Two of the ewes died from inflam- cart-load to a hundred sheep—and as mation, after very severe cases of lamb- much hay as they can consume without ing, and another was suffocated by a

waste.

A week before the first are ex

piece of turnip sticking in her throat. pected to lamb the first-marked lot are

Seven deaths occurred amongst the lambs. drawn out and kept on pasture adjoining Three weakly ones only survived for a the steading, and in addition to turnips few hours. Another lingered for ten and hay are allowed a little linseed and days. Two died from diarrhoea, and another from some undefinable cause . General Management.- - “ In order to

cotton -cake mixed with oats.

When the

other lots get within a week of lambing they are also separated and the same

explain the management thoroughly, it feeding supplied .

It is a mistake to

will be advisable to start with the treat- have the ewes too fat at this time; but ment given a month previous to the time a much greater one to allow them to be

I intend letting the rams along with the in poor condition - and the latter will be ewes. If the season has been a favour- found to be the most frequent error. able one, the latter will, on examination, Abortion .— “ With the exception of be found in good condition, and, conse- one season we have never had any cases

quently, no hand -feeding need be resorted of abortion. When this disease appears, to ; but if, owing to a deficiency of pas- inquiry into the circumstances connected ture, any of them are in rather poor con- with the outbreak usually reveals some

dition, I separate these from the others mismanagement in the feeding. The use

and give them a daily allowance of about of frosted turnips is a fertile source of

THE LAMBING SEASON .

71

the trouble, and the outbreak we had then remove them to one of the pens and

some years since I attributed wholly to keep them there for a day or two till the

this cause. On discontinuing the turnips lambs gain a little strength ; after which, and substituting an allowance of cake if the weather is not suitable for letting and corn for a time, no further cases oc- them outside, I divide one of the other Since then I have been careful sheds into spaces large enough to contain

curred .

to give only as many turnips during six or eight of the ewes with their lambs, frosty weather as will be at once con- giving sufficient room to afford the latter sumed without any being left lying over space for exercise . exposed to the frost; and in the event of “ I find gimmers and young ewes some

the turnips getting frozen in the pits, as times careless in looking after their lambs, they occasionally do in very severe wea- but by confining them in one of the pens ther, I discontinue using them altogether, for a few days they soon take to them and give other feeding until fresh weather without much trouble. In the event of ensues . two ewes lambing about one time, the one Rupture .— “ I have had a few cases having a single lamb and the other trip of rupture among the ewes, caused by lets, I take one of the lambs from the the weight of thelambs when near lamb- ewe having three and put it along with ing. By getting a piece of strong sheet- the one having the single. By haltering iron curved tothe shape of the ewe's her to a corner of the pen she takes to back, and having a few holes pierced the stranger in a very short time. along both sides, and then passing a “ Occasionally it is necessary tobring piece of sacking beneath the belly and up some of the lambs on cow's milk . I

tying it up to the plate, great relief is have often heard it said that the “ bother and expense of doing so exceeded the

given.

Shelter.— “ It is very important to have profit ; but in most cases I have found

proper shelter available during the lamb- both bother and expense amply repaid. More deaths occur among Once the lambs are a few weeks oldthey lambs from want of this during bad will readily eat a little cake and corn,

ing season .

weather than from all other causes put together. I have two large open sheds, and another divided into pens about five feet square. I commence taking the ewes into the sheds a few nights before the first are likely to lamb, and after dark take a turn among them by lamplight.

and if a piece of early well-shelteredgrass is obtainable, the milk can soon be in great measure dispensed with. “As soon as the weather is suitable, I

keep the ewes and lambs out on the pas ture during the daytime, but never care about leaving them outside at night until

By doing so they soon get accus- the beginning of April, when the weather

tomed to their new surroundings, and is more to be depended on. Before allow

are not so apt to hurt each other through ing many of them outside together I put fright as they might be if this practice a distinctive mark on each pair of twins, were deferred until lambing had actually so that in the event of anything going commenced . Lambing.

wrong, the ewe and both lambs belonging “ Once they commence to her can be recognised without trouble.

lambing I take a look amongst them

Inflammation of the Udder.- “ I

every two hours during the night. Should find inflammation of the udder somewhat any of them require assistance I rub my common. In such cases I give 2 oz. hands with linseed -oil before handling Epsom salts in gruel, bathe the udder them, and in any case where there has with hot water, and then rub with oint

been much difficulty in lambing I injectment composed of 2 oz. fresh butter, 1 a little carbolic oil into the womb to pre- drachm camphor, and one spoonful spirits vent inflammation, and give five or six of wine. In severe cases poulticing is drops tincture of aconite in a spoonful of necessary, so that the lambs must be water, repeating the dose in two hours removed from the ewe altogether . after if any uneasiness is shown.

Sore Teats.— “ This season, owing to

“ After the ewe lambs I examine the the cold unseasonable weather experi udder and clip away any wool that might enced for some weeks after lambing interfere with the lambs sucking, and commenced, sore teats have been more

SHEEP IN SPRING.

72

than usually prevalent among the ewes. hearing of the lambs, which I keep con I have found frequent applications of fined in the fold for ten or twelve hours glycerine and olive - oil a very good afterwards. By doing so they get hungry, and when allowed out at once commence

remedy.

Castrating.- " When the lambs are eating in place of breaking away in about ten days old their tails are cut,

search of their mothers, as they would

and as soon as the weather suits, the otherwise be apt to do. By keeping the youngest of the cross -bred tup lambs are ewes on bare pasture for a few days, the

castrated, a little turpentine being applied milk rapidly dries off them ; but I gener to the edge of the wound. The first- ally find it necessary to milk the most dropped lambs are usually too far for- of them once or twice to relieve them . ward in size and condition to risk castrat- A week after weaning, I examine them ing by the time the weather is mild all, and any found broken -mouthed or

enough for the operation, but as they are faulty in udders are drawn out andput early sold off fat it is a matter of little on good pasture, getting also an allow ance of other feeding, so as to have them consequence.

Fat Lambs.— " As soon as the grass has got a fair start, the Leicester and Shropshire ewes, with their lambs, are separated from the half-breeds— the lambs of the latter being intended for the fat market. I prefer to push them on as

early fattened. Those intended to be kept on are put on ordinary pasture. “ As soon as the lambs have got over the separation from the ewes, the ram lambs are separated from the ewe ones, and each lot put on the best grass avail

rapidly as possible, and therefore confine able, a small daily ration of cake and crease the quantity of hand -feeding, as are usually retained and sold as 'shear them to the young grass fields, and in- oats being also given. The ram lambs

the lambs will be taking a share of it. lings ' ; the best of the ewe lambs are Lambs for Breeding .— " The Leices- kept to fill the vacancies caused by the ter and Shrops are kept on the older drafting of the old and defective ewes ; pastures ; their lambs being intended for and the others are either sold in the end

breedingpurposes, there is not the same of the year, or kept on and disposed of necessity for forcing , and the hand -feed- the following season as ' gimmers.' ing is therefore discontinued. “ To keep the sheep in healthy thriv

ing condition frequent change of pastur-

Hill Flocks.

Early Lambing Undesirable .

The

lambing season, begun in the well-shel Diarrhea . “ A few of the lambs are tered vales of the south -west of England, d hill-farms of sometimes attacked bys diarrhæa. If it is wound up on the expose d. higher

age is necessary.

rise from the richnes

of the grass, a

the north of Scotlan

On the

little castor -oil, sugar, and ginger (the sheep -ranges of Scotland, and the north quantity varying with the size of the of England and Ireland, vegetation is lamb) will usually cure it ; but should it late in moving in spring, while severe

proceed from coagulation of milk in the snowstorms in the months of March and stomach, it is more dangerous, and fre- April are by no means rare occurrences. quently proves fatal. Occasionally a It is thus desirable that lambing should little hartshorn and magnesia given in not take place in these parts till the water will effect a cure. spring season is well through — desirable Clipping .- " The ewes are clipped in order that the young lambs may escape

about the beginning of June, and about the rigours of a severe snowstorm , and the end of that month the whole of the that, after lambing, the ewes may not

ewes and lambs are dipped to prevent have long to wait for a bite of fresh

the attacks of maggot-fly, which is very young grass, which is so effectual in bringing on

prevalent on our land. Weaning.—“ On weaning the pure-

a full supply of milk. From about the middle of April to the

bred lambs aboutthe istof August (the end of May is the most general period crosses are all sold off fat long before for lambing on hill-farms. then), I put the ewes to the furthest off pasture on the farm , out of sight and

1 Farming World , 1888, 525.

THE LAMBING SEASON.

Hardiness of Hill Sheep.- Mountain sheep are notbrought into lambing pens as is done with lowland breeds. They produce their young on the hillsides, and in average seasons the death-rate amongst hill lambs is wonderfully small. The vitality of these creatures when newly dropped is quite marvellous. A healthy blackfaced lamb will be on its feet and searching for the udder three or four

73

of straw , and small supplies of roots and hay to convenient places on the farm for the formation of shelter to ewes and lambs. Forethought and carefulness in matters of this kind play a large part in the successful management of breeding focks. The necessity for these huts will much

depend upon the amount of natural shel ter on the farm . If the farm abounds

It seems to in hills and hollows, with patches of rank care little for cold, and if the weather heather, there will be little need for be dry and the ewe have plenty of milk huts. The ewe will find a cosy bed the youngster will thrive rapidly, even for herself and her young by the side

minutes after it is born .

although there should be snow and frost. of a dry hillock or bush of heather. Rain is more hurtful to lambs than cold

But when such natural shelter is defi

with a dry temperature.

cient, artificial protection should be pro

Shelter on Hill Farms.It is there-

vided.

Typical Hill Flocks. — Describing hill sheep, some provision should be the general system of management in the fore desirable that, even for the hardy

made whereby the more weakly lambs lambing season on average hill-farms in may have shelter in excessively wet cold the north of Scotland, MrGeorge Brown, weather. It may not be practicable to provide shed accommodation for the

Watten Mains, Caithness, says : « On all hill farms there is more or

whole flock ; but in heavy rains it would less natural shelter, most of the ground

be well to have the weaker lambs drawn being interspersed with knolls and val out with their mothers and put under a roof, where they should be left over night while the ground is wet and cold. For this purpose, it will be found useful to have some artificial shelter provided at suitable points throughout the farms.

leys, and the high ground covered with heather, which forms excellent shelter for ewes and lambs. During the summer,

autumn, and winter, the ewes are kept out on the hilly ground, and the straths and glens are preserved until within a

ewe hirsels Little huts constructed perhaps of turf, fortnight of lambing. toThethese reserve

hurdles, and bundles of straw or rushes,

are then allowed access

d

will entail little outlay or trouble in for- pastures during the day, and are turned mation, and during inclement weather out again to the mossing or higher ground will be found of great benefit to the during the night. This fortnight of good ewes and lambs.

Ewes with weakly feeding brings on a flush of milk as soon

lambs can be accommodated comfort- as lambing takes place.

ably in these scattered huts for a few

“ Large hirsels are divided, 500 being

days and nights, the shepherd carrying the usual number in each, andthis num or having conveyed to them some hay and roots. It is desirable to have these huts at different points on the farm , so as to lessen the distance which ewes

ber are in charge of two shepherds who work together. Before lambing begins,

and weakly lambs have to be driven .

land to be lambed, or taken home to a

all the weak ewes, or those in low condi tion , are selected and either sent to arable

Before lambing begins the shepherd park which is usually found in connection should see that the means of shelter , with a pastoral farm, and there lambed, keb -houses, sheds, huts, or whatever name and fortified with extra feeding, being

and form they may take — are in good returned to their respective hirsels when

order, and sufficient for the probable they have regained sufficient strength. wants of the flock. If necessary, the This park, when lambing is concluded, is shepherd should receive assistance in pro- preserved, so that a cutting of hay is ob viding and repairing lambing shelter. A tained from it. On some farms there are lay or two of a man with a horse and three or four of these enclosures. • All weakly lambs are also taken from cart may be well bestowed upon this work, to convey hurdles, posts, bundles the hill ground to be treated specially in

74

SHEEP IN SPRING .

these home enclosures. After lambing, sheep - farmer will watch carefully the daily condition of affairs, and will not low ground on to the hill ground over hesitate to call in the aid of such ex night, where, amongst the heather and traneous food as roots and hay when the undulations, the ewes find comfortable time for its use has really arrived. A beds for themselves and their young. high death -rate, both of ewes and lambs, “ Late in the season when, through an occurs on many farms owing to the re

the ewes and lambs are driven from the

abundance of grass, the lambs become luctance and delay in resorting to hand

very big and strong before lambing, there feeding. This inhuman system cannot are often serious losses both of ewes and be commended. It cannot be profitable. To allow ewes to perish or to fall off

lambs.”

Hand -feeding for Ewes.— There is seriously in condition and in supply of much difference of opinion, and as great milk for the want of a handful of hay

variety of practice, amongst sheep-far- and a few roots, simply because the mers as to the feeding of ewes during animals may look for similar treatment stormy weather. It is contended, on the in after years, is short-sighted in the one hand, that hand -feeding should al- extreme.. Keep up the condition and

most, at all hazards, be avoided , for the vigour of the Hock at all hazards. If alleged reasons that, once indulged by liberal feeding does not pay, assuredly such treatment, the sheep will not again a starvation system will not. forage so well for themselves on the hill It is well to remember that if the pasture ; that hill pasture is not sufficient ewes are brought to the lambing in good ,

in quantity and quality to afterwards fresh, vigorous condition, there will be maintain in a thriving condition sheep the less likelihood of extensive hand

that have been once artificially fed, and feeding being then necessary. Ewes in that on this account when artificial food lamb should therefore be well wintered , is oncegiven it has to be continued every and never allowed to get low in con year. In former times this was no doubt dition or weakly. the prevailing idea ; but while it is still Just before lambing begins, it would both preached and practised by many ex- be well to draft out any ewes which perienced and successful farmers, yet it seem to be exceptionally thin in con

is certain that a more liberal and a more dition, and take these for lambing to artificial system of management is com- some low, well-sheltered field , where they ing into favour. may have good pasture or artificial food .

Assuredly the point is one which de-

For whatever extra or hand feeding

mands the most careful consideration.

may be necessary, hay and turnips are

No elaborate or universal system can be most suitable. Cake and corn may be laid down. Each season, and each set more speedily effectual in bringing round

of circumstances, must be considered

very weakly animals, but in their pamper

separately ; and the farmer must watch carefully the condition and progress of his flock, and his existing and probable supply of food, and decide for himself to what extent, if any, his ewes should be hand -fed. In itself the hand -feeding

ing influence on hill sheep these concen trated foods are more injurious than hay

and roots. Shepherds' Duties time.

at Lambing

The lambing season on hill

farms is a time of hard work and much

of hill sheep is unquestionably undesir- anxiety . As soon as lambing begins, the able. It should therefore be resorted to shepherd requires to see his flock three only in cases of necessity - when the times a -day. “ His first round is made at early

available supply of other food is mani-

festly inadequate, and with such ewes as dawn, before the sheep have left their to furnish their moorings ,' when any requiring attention are too thin and weakly cy lambs with a sufficien

of milk . can be readily noticed. Someshepherds With this consideration in view — that make this trip before breakfast, but this hand-feeding is to be resorted to only is not a good plan to adopt. When a

where it is necessary in order to ensure shepherd leaves his house he never knows as far as possible the full and uninter- how long he may be detained ; and going rupted progress of the young lambs — the out hungry may cause him to leave his

THE LAMBING SEASON .

work when he ought not to do so , especially in bad weather.

75

“ Lambs are, however, never taken from

On returning their dams if it can possibly be avoided.

from his rounds he brings home any Having keb -houses at various parts of the hill is of immense advantage at this time, and saves not only the shepherd a lot of un-

There is often some difficulty in getting the ewes to own them again , the natural odour by which they are recognised by

necessary work, but is much better for

tact with others of a different smell.

ewe that has lost her lamb.

the sheep every way.

the mother having been dissipated by the heat of the fire, or from coming in con A

Then there will better method of reviving chilled lambs

be a number of such stock in the hospital than warming them by the fire is to dip

individually requiring careful treatment, them in a tub of warm water, then, after all of which he needs to see before re- wiping dry, wrap in a woollen cloth, and turning to the house for a meal.

There

is no time for rest during the day, and

leave them beside the ewes in the keb house.

no sooner is one journey finished than “ On recovery , care must be taken to he starts on another, repeatingthe same accustom the lambs gradually to out morning, noon, and evening. Much de- door life. A sunny noon is a favourable pends on the weather, and the worse it time to set them out, but if the weather is the more need there is for exertion

continues cold they should be housed for

and daily perseverance, which the shep- a few nights, until they are strong enough herds, as a rule, never grudge in behalf to withstand the elements to which they of their flocks. are exposed ." "

2

“ In order to induce a ewe to take a

stranger lamb under her charge, the skin of her own dead lamb is flayed and put

After Lambing. Lambing is usually completed in four

on another lamb, when the smell of the

The after-treatment of or five weeks. the flock varies in accordance with the

old skin is usually enough to deceive and

induce her to take kindly to the new- class of sheep , and the objects in view .

comer. Instead of adopting this method, In pure-bred flocks, where ram -breeding which involves more or less labour, some- is carried on to some extent, the lambs to

times the ewe is milked, and the milk is be kept on as rams are early selected, rubbed over the skin of the lamb that and may be taken with their mothers to is to be transferred to her care ; and it is reserved pasture, where, from the out found that the smell of her own milk has set, the ewe and lamb receive liberal the same deceptive effect as the smell of treatment. Castration . — The male lambs not to the old skin .” 1

Reviving Hill Lambs. — Hill lambs be kept as rams are castrated when from are remarkably hardy, and when the ten days to five weeks old. In some ewes have plenty of milk, the young cases, indeed , castration is performed creatures make rapid progress .

when the lambs are only two or three

“ Their first andmost fatal enemy is days old, but the more general plan is cold or hunger. For reviving chilled to delay from two to four weeks. lambs the shepherd carries constantly in In hill stocks castration is not usually his bosom a bottle of warm milk, and performed until the lambs are fully a sometimes another containing gin or month old ; in other words, the ewes com

whisky, of which he supplies a mouthful mence to lamb in the third week in April, in extreme cases of weakness. Lambs and the “ marking " takes place about that are really prostrate with cold have end of May, varying a little according to be carried to some place of shelter. to circumstances and personal tastes.

Very often the shepherd's kitchen is Some farmers have a decided objection turned into a hospital for subjects of against too early castration, as it tends In a stormy day it is not to give a feminine appearance to the

this kind .

unusual to see 20 or 30 shivering lambs wedders, stunting the growth of horn, by his fireside, which his wife or children and weakening the neck too much . attend to while he is away on his rounds. Blackfaced Sheep, Scott, 118.

Great caution is required in castrating Ibid., 122 .

SHEEP IN SPRING.

76

lambs. It should not be done in rainy, cold, or frosty weather ; nor should the lambs be heated by being driven before the operation. It is best performed early in the morning, in fresh weather, with a westerly breeze. The ewes and lambs

the scrotum smooth ; and cutting through the integuments of the scrotum, with a sharp penknife in the right hand, first to one testicle and then the other, he pro trudes both testicles forward with both hands, and seizes first one testicle with

should be driven gently into the sorting- his teeth, drawing out the spermatic folds, the ewes being run out and the cord until it breaks, and then treating

lambs held back. One assistant should the other testicle in the same manner ; catch the lambs, and another hold them and, on adjusting the wounded scrotum , while the shepherd operates. It is not the operation is finished. Describing the system in the north , easy to catch the leg of a lamb with a

sheep's crook , their small active limbs Mr George Brown, Watten Mains, Caith easily escaping through the loop ; but it ness, says: " The pen is provided with may be effectually used in hooking the a half -door, outside of which stand front of the neck, when the captor rushes the cutter and holder. The catcher in upon the lamb and secures it. But enters the pen and catches the lambs

the historic crook is now seldom used for anyway or anyhow : no man who knows will hurt a lamb, and a novice this purpose,as the lambs when confined hiswork will soon learn by looking on. The

may be easily caught without it. On arable land, where there is no permanent catcher hands the lamb over the half fold , a few hurdles may be set up in the door to the holder, who waits until the

corner of the field and the lambs enclosed cutter completes operations, —the latter using one knife for castrating and another

there, and let out as castrated .

Castration may be performed in this for docking, and then lets it down out way : Let the assistant hold up the side the fold, where it quickly joins its back of the body of the lamb against his mother.”

Another mode of castrating lambs is to cut off the point of the scrotum , and extract both testicles through the large opening.

The amputated wound takes

a considerable time to heal, whereas the two simple incisions heal by the first

intention. It is argued , however, by those who prefer the latter plan, that there is an advantage in the larger open

ing, as all discharges are more readily got rid of. Whereas when the smaller wounds heal with the first intention there would be no outlet for pus re sulting from suppuration , and inflamma

tion would therefore be likely to ensue. Both methods are largely pursued. The penknife should be clean and sharp, and Fig. 248.--Mode of holding a lambfor castration . a Scrotum .

c Tail.

the whole operation should be quickly performed

Docking.- Advantage is taken of the

left breast and shoulder, and with each opportunity afforded at castration to dock hand raise a hind -leg towards the body, the tail, which in Scotland is left as long securing them by the shank ; while, to as to reach the meeting of the hams. In prevent farther struggling, a fore-leg is docking, the division should be made held firmly in connection with a hind one with a large sharp knife in a joint, when of the same side. The effect of this the wound will soon heal. The lamb, arrangement is to exhibit the scrotum to after being docked, is let down to the full view, as well represented in fig. 248. ground by the tail, which has the effect The shepherd with his left hand then of adjusting the parts in connection causes the testicles to make the point of with the castration. Ewe lambs are

THE LAMBING SEASON.

77

also docked at this time, but they are factory. This practice is pooh-poohed by not held up, being merely caught and some veterinary surgeons; but when a held by the shepherd between his legs farmer who uses such a simple and until the amputation is done. inexpensive mixture very rarely has a

In England, docking is performed at death amongst his lambs, whilst his the third joint, which gives a stumpy neighbour, who does not use anything, appearance to the tail. The object of loses 5 to 10 per cent, we think he is docking is to keep the sheep clean behind justified in pursuing his own course. from filth and vermin ; but as the tail is

Perhaps a still better preventive of in

a protection against cold in winter, it flammation would be a few drops of a should not be docked so short in Scotland

solution of carbolic acid and oil poured

as is done in England. Tup lambs, in into the scrotum . order to strengthen the back -bone, are

Rig or Chaser . — Sometimes one of

allowed to retain their full tails until the testicles does not descend into the one year old. Risks from Castration and Dock-

scrotum, when the lamb ultimately be comes what is called a rig or chaser - one

ing. — The scrotum does not bleed in which constantly follows and torments castration, but the tail often bleeds in the females of the flock, when near him , docking for some time in two minute from insatiable desire. It is not, as and forcible streams, though usually the a rule, safe to rely upon such a ram for bleeding soon stems. Should it continue breeding, although we have known of as long as to sicken the lamb, a small his becoming a successful and prolific cord should be tied firmly round the end sire. His career should be soon put an of the tail, but not allowed to remain

end to.

If one testicle comes into the

on above twenty -four hours, as the liga- scrotum and is taken away, or if neither

tured point would die by stoppage of the comes en down, the ram may be regarded circulation of the blood, and slough off.

In some instances inflammation ensues ,

as barr

.

Lambing Risks . — Ewes and lambs

and the scrotum swells, and even sup- are subject to several risks during the purates, when the wound should be care- first four or five weeks. When they

fully examined, the matter discharged , and have passed through them in safety, the shepherd may calculate on his results , The advantage of performing the oper- whether he has increased the breeding

the wound soon heals .

ation in the morning is, that the several part of his flock in the proportion it cases may be observed during the day ; should have increased . He is not satis and should the weather have changed for fied with his exertions if he has lost a

the worse towards the afternoon, the single ewe in lambing. What number of ewes, with the lambs that have just been lambs he should have to every hundred cut, should be brought under shelter over ewes will vary greatly with the breed and

night.

Besides the state of the weather, other circumstances.

one cause of inflammation is the scratch-

The death of single lambs is a vexa

ing of the wounds in the scrotum by the points of the stubble amongst the new grass ; and this irritation is most likely to be aggravated when castration has been performed by cutting off the point

tious matter to a shepherd, as not only breaking pairs, but imposing considerable trouble on himself in mothering lambs of stranger ewes. Yet the trouble must be undertaken, so as to retain the ewes in

of the scrotum .

milk that have lost their lambs, and thus To avoid this source of irritation, the maintain them in the breeding state for new -cut lambs should be put on new future years. Hence the shepherd's an

grass, where the stubble has been shorn xiety to save the lives of single lambs, by a reaping-machine, or on old grass, and hence, also, his pride in preserving for a few days. A Preventive.

Some farmers use a

pairs. Bad Weather and Lambing.—In

mixture of pure olive oil and spirit of turpentine for dropping into the scrotum after extracting the testicles, and the results, to themselves at least, are satis-

fine steady weather the shepherd's labour is comparatively easy ; but when stormy or wet weather prevails, or comes at un expected intervals, the number of lamb

78

SHEEP IN SPRING.

ings are not only accelerated , but every afterwards in fine growing weather, will ewe creates more trouble, even in the yield a heavier crop of hay than if it had day-time. Daylight has many eyes,” not been pastured in spring at all. Al

and permits him to observe casualties in though the whole of the young grass on time to evade their effects ; but at night, a farm , pastured lightly with ewes and in bad weather, with glimmering light, lambs inthe spring, were to grow , as the season advances, more rapidly than the convinced that every owner of a large ewes could keep it down, it will never difficulties increase tenfold ; and we are

flock would find it repay him at the end produce the fine sweet fresh pasture of the lambing season, by preserving the which field after field will yield that has number of lambs and ewes, to afford the been eaten down in succession, and then

shepherd assistance in the busiest period left to grow for a time. Caution in Changing Ewes on of the lambing, and especially in bad weather. Pasture. — But in removing ewes and Look to the Pastures. The state of lambs from a short to a full bite of grass , the new grass -fields occupied by ewes and caution is required in choosing the proper lambs requires consideration. Ewes bite time for the removal. It should be done very close to the ground, and eat con- in dry weather, and in the afternoon ;

stantly as long as the lambs are with because continued damp or rainy or cold them ; and as they are put on the new wet weather renders new grass so succu grass in spring, before vegetation is much lent and fermentable that it is almost

advanced , they soon render the pasture and especially so when the weather is unfavourable to vegetation . In cold weather, in spring, bitten grass soon becomes brown . Whenever the pasture is seen bare in the most favourable circumstances,

certain to produce the green skit in the lambs, although that sort of weather in creases the milk of the ewes.

In the af

ter part of the day the ewes have not time

to eat too much grass before nightfall. No Lambing on Carse Farms. to fail, the ewes should be removed to Carse farms have, as a rule, neither a

another field ; for if the plants are allowed to be bitten into the heart in the early part of the year, the greater part of sum mer will pass ere they will attain any vigour. In steady growing weather there need be little apprehension of failure in the pasture. At the same time, over-

standing nor a flying stock of ewes, and consequently have no lambing season ; neither have farms in the neighbourhood

of large towns, nor dairy farms, nor pas toral farms for the breeding of cattle alone. Ewes and lambs are thus found chiefly on pastoral farms devoted to the

stockinggrass should be avoided at all breeding of lambs, and on farms of mixed times. It not only incurs the risk of the husbandry. clover plants being bitten into the heart, but the pasture soon becomes foul with

Shepherding on Arable Farms.

On low country or arable farms with the the dung of the sheep . Of the sown softer breeds of sheep, from 200 to 300 pastures, consisting chiefly of red clover ewes are about as many as one shep

and rye- grass, the clover is always accept- herd can superintend during the day, to able to sheep ; and in the early part of render them the assistance they may the season young shoots of rye -grass are stand in need of ; to place the new much relished by ewes.

lambed ewes and lambs in shelter until

Rest beneficial to Pasture . — On re- they have both gained strength, and are

moving the ewes from the first to the able to take to the pasture; and, in case second field, it is better to eat the first down as low as it safely can be for the plants, and then leave it unstocked for at least a fortnight, to allow the young plants to spring again, which they will do with

of bad weather, to supply them with tur nips and hay, to enable them to support their lambs until the weather improves. If one shepherd fulfils these duties in the day, he does quite enough ; so that it

vigour, and with a much closer bottom ,

will be necessary to have an assistant for

than to pasture every field for a longer him in the night, to gather the ewes into time with fewer stock. Such a field, shelter at nightfall, and to take a weakly

eaten down to the end of May or begin- lamb, or all the lambs that have dropped ning of June, and then allowed to spring during the night, into sheds erected on

THE LAMBING SEASON.

79

purpose, or into sheltered stells,as a pro- It is not by walking much, and doing a tection against bad weather. To ascer- great deal, that a shepherd is a good tain the state of his flock, he should go one ; but it is knowing where to walk , through them with a lantern at least so as to disturb the sheep the least, and

everytwo hours, and oftener if necessary. by doing at the time whatever is neces Shepherding Hill Sheep . — The hardy

sary to be done. There is not an expe

breeds of hill sheep need less attention, rienced shepherd, who has been any especially during the night. Indeed, the length of time on one farm , who does general plan is to leave the flock undis- not, as soon as he rises in the morning, and observing the state of the weather, know almost to a certainty where to find the dry lair over night, and there the every sheep on the hill, and will ac turbed during the dead of the night

The ewes and lambs are turned out to

shepherd looks over them carefully, per- cordingly take his course to the places haps as late as eleven o'clock, while he where he knows his presence is most or his substitute returns to them as early wanted. “ The object in looking over a hill as 3 or 4 A.M., when daylight is making its appearance. If the lair is dry and every evening and morning, is to ascer free from holes, into which young lambs tainif there be no trespassers nor disease

the sheep which require looking might fall and get drowned, mishaps among after. If

rarely occur amongsthill sheep in lamb-

any of

your own or neighbour's

ing,anda prudenthill shepherd disturbs sheep have trespassed, it is very foolish his breeding flock as little as possible. to dog or abuse them, for the more Hill Shepherds.—The observations gently you can turn them back the of Little on the qualifications of a hill better. If the boundary should be on

shepherd are valuable, as containing the of aheight, to draw apt top is better to turn at night,to it whichsheepare

much good practical sense. “ Much , he says, “ of the success in sheep-

your own a littlecloser to the boundary

farming depends on the skill and ap- in the afternoon than to turn back your neighbour's, and it will answer the same purpose ; and if the two flocks are gently situation of a shepherd is one of con- divided in the morning, without dogs,

plication of shepherds, as well as on

the judgment of farmers.

As

the

siderable trust, he ought to be honest, they will become so well acquainted with active , useful , and of a calm temper ; for theirown side, that at thevery sight of if at any time a shepherd gets into a the shepherd they will take to it without passion with his sheep, it is attended further trouble.. with great disadvantage in herding, or “Those shepherds who dog, force, and in working among them . I have known shed much about a march , I consider a hasty, passionate man, with a rash them as bad herds for their masters as

dog, give himself double the trouble in for the neighbouring farmer. If the managing a hirsel of sheep, besides abus- boundary be a brook or low ground, ing the sheep, that a calm good -tempered where the sheep graze in the middle of man, with a sagacious close-mouthed dog, the day, and if trespasses are likely to would have had in the same circumstances .

be considerable, the same plan of turning the sheep should be taken as on the

“The qualification required in taking height, except that they are to be turned care of a hirsel of sheep , is, not in run- down in themorning, and set out in the

ning, hounding, and training dogs, nor afternoon. “When a sheep dies on the hill, or kind, but in directing them according to any disease appears among them, the

in performing a day's work of any other

the soil, climate, and situation of the dead or diseasedsheep should be removed farm , in such a manner as they shall immediately, but particularly so if the obtain the greatest quantity of food at all disease is of an infectious nature. seasons of the year.

Their health and

Look

ing regularly over a hill is of great con

comfort should be carefully looked after sequence, also, in case of any sheep fall by the shepherd ; and if his exertions ing into a ditch, or lamb losing its mother,

are made with judgment, they are of or when they are annoyed by flies or very great consequence to the farmer.

maggots, or by foxes or dogs worrying

80

SHEEP IN SPRING.

them, or when they fall on their back and cannot get up again .

“ All these incidents an active shepherd

Abortion among Ewes. Ewes in lamb are liable to abortion,

with a good eye will soon discover , how- or slipping of the lamb, as it is termed, ever much a flock may be scattered over as well as the cow, but not to so great a farm . an extent, nor is the complaint consid

“ In good weather the shepherd may ered epidemical in the sheep. Various the ewes in the lambing season ; but in in winter, having to endure much fatigue bad weather it is the farmer's interest to in snow , leaping ditches, being frightened afford every necessary assistance, for the by dogs, over-driving, feeding on unripe possibly do all that can be done among causes produce it, such as severe weather

want of which, serious losses have often watery turnips, &c. been incurred . . .

Great Outbreak in Lincolnshire.

Knowing sheep by head -mark often In the winter and spring of 1883, a saves a shepherd much trouble, particu- serious outbreak of abortion and pre larly in the lambing season , and at all mature birth occurred in the flocks of

sortings of the sheep ; yet there are many Lincolnshire ; and an investigation , car good shepherds who do not know sheep by head-marks, and there are some very ordinary ones who have a talent in that way. Every individual may be known

ried out on behalf of the Royal Agri cultural Society by Professor J. Wortley Axe, brought out information and con clusions of considerable value.? The by the stock mark. inquiry extended to 106 flocks, number “ To possess the knack of counting ing 51,475 ewes. Of these, 6234, or sheep readily is of no small service to a about 12 per cent, aborted, and 1494 shepherd, for he ought always to be able died. to count his flock when he makes his

Causes of the Outbreak.-Professor

rounds on the hill. There are few shepherds, who accustom themselves to count sheep , who cannot, wherever they meet with them on a hill, count 100 going at

Axe arrived at the conclusion that the outbreak of abortion was not produced by any special and particular cause, but by the concurrent operation of several

large, or even 200 ; and it seldom happens hurtful influences of a common character. that a greater number than 200 will be found together in an open hirsel. To

These he enumerates as follows : “ First and foremost stands the mis

know the number in the different lots is chievous and fatal practice of feeding

of great use in case of a hasty blast, as pregnant ewes exclusively on unripe wateryroots, and especially on unwhole

you can, in that event, know almost to a certainty whether or not any sheep are wanting, and from what part of the farm . “ A shepherd ought likewise to be able to do any kind of work about a sheep -farm , such as cutting lambs, smear-

by 66protracted foot-rot. Thirdly, exposure to cold winds and heavy continuous rains.

ing, slaughtering, dressing for the market,

“ Fourthly, fatigue arising out of the

some filth -laden shells. CG

‘Secondly, pain and suffering caused

repairing stone-dykes, cleaning out drains, deep and sticky state of theground. ” Unripe Roots and Abortion . The mowing grass, making hay, casting and winning peat-turf for fuel, &c.; but he clearest evidence as to the evil influence

at no time to neglect the sheep of exclusive feeding of in-lamb ewes upon ought for such work. unripe watery roots was obtained by “ Shepherds are generally accounted Professor Axe. The turnip crop in that lazy ; but those who really care for their season was unusually abundant, and, sheep will not be so.

Much walking owing to the mild winter of 1882-1883,

unfits a man for hard labour, as much continued to grow , and remained through as hard labour unfits a man for much out the season in an unripe and excep

walking ; but labourers will generally be tionally watery condition.

Of the total

found more lazy on a hill, or among number of ewes (about 7800) fed exclus sheep, than shepherds at field -work.” i 1 Little's Prac. Obser. Mount. Sheep, 79-86 .

2 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc . Eng ., vol. xxi. ( 1885 ), 199.

1

THE LAMBING SEASON .

81

ively on roots, no fewer than 19 per cent fresh break should be given every day aborted ; while, where theroots were sup- after the hoar-frost has disappeared, and plemented by frequent changes to grass, in the early spring the tops should be the rate of abortion fell to 3 per cent

and to 174 per cent where the roots were

removed . “ 3. Change from the fold to the open

supplemented by corn and cake, or some pasture twice or thrice a-week, or for a other substantial aliment.

Significant few hours each day, if convenient, is

enough , surely ! desirable, and especially when the lair In reference to the high -pressure sys- is bad . tem of forcing the growth of roots by the “ 4. Protection from cold winds and

free application of artificial manures, and driving rains should be provided in the growing practice of sowing roots late, stormy weather. and beginning their consumption early, “ 5. Plenty of trough -room should be

Professor Axe remarks that these are provided, and ample space allowed for the inconsistent with full maturation and

ewes to fall back .

ripening of roots, and that on this ac" 6. All troughs should be shifted count " the desirability of a guarded daily, and set well apart. and judicious employment of this de“ 7. Dry food should be given at the scription of food in the management of same time as the fresh breakof roots, to

breeding stock cannot be too forcibly prevent crowding at the troughs. insisted upon

“ 8. Rock - salt should be at all times .” He also very strongly objects to the accessible. “too common system which condemns “ 9. Animals suffering from foot-rot,

pregnant ewes to live exclusively on

or other forms of lameness, should be re

filth -laden shells ” behind other sheep, moved from the fold, and placed on dry which get the best of the fresh roots. litter, and receive such other attention as >

Foot - rot and

Abortion .

It was

shown clearly that foot -rot contributed

the nature of the case may indicate ." Mr Henry Woods on Abortion.

largely to the cases of abortion. In flocks Sheep-farmers have derived much benefit where it prevailed to any extent the rate from the investigations regarding abor of abortion was 472 per cent greater than tion in ewes which havebeen conducted in those in which there was no foot-rot. by Mr Henry Woods of Merton, Thetford, Twins and Abortion . — The cases of Norfolk , agent to Lord Walsingham . He

abortion were much more numerous with collected and published a mass of valu twin than with single lambs. Indeed, able information on the management of for every abortion with a single there breeding-flocks and the causes of the pre were six abortions with twin-lambs- valent and excessive loss of ewes from

pointing, as Professor Axe says, “ to the abortion — the facts having been gathered

existence of some debilitating cause un- from four hundred flock -masters in all fitting the ewes with twins to meet the parts of the kingdom . In fifty cases of greater demands on their nutritive re- sheep management, where the feeding

sources, while influencing in a less degree and results were satisfactory, there were those with singles.” Preventive Measures . -As the re-

25,281 ewes ; in that number the cases of abortion amounted to 126, and the

sults of his investigations into this Lin- deaths from all causes during the breed

colnshire outbreak of abortion, Professor ing season were 222. In fifty unsatisfac Axe submitted the following recommen- tory cases, there were 21,682 ewes ; and dations, with the view of avoiding similar in these returns, twenty-two farmers had occurrences :

very heavy losses, while twenty - eight

“ 1. That from the time ewes are

stated a total of abortions amounting to placed on turnips to the time when they 1884. In forty of the reports there were lamb down, they should receive a liberal totalled 1255 deaths.

Thus, fifty satis

amount of dry food, to be regulated ac- factory cases showed i abortion and not cording to the nature of the season and quite 1/2 deaths for every 200 ewes ; the condition of the roots. whereas the other cases showed 17772

“ 2. The quantity of roots should at all abortions and 11 % deaths for every 200 times be limited, and besides shells, a ewes, though nearly one-half the abor VOL . II.

F

SHEEP IN SPRING .

82

tions and one-fifth of the deaths were not my returns to be greatest where short woolled ewes have been put to long Mr Woods on Preventing Abortion . woolled rams. The evidence, I say, is

recorded.

-In his general conclusions, Mr Woods unquestionable that greater mortality remarks:

attends lambing where short - woolled

“ A most careful analysis of the returns --- in making which I have had some able assistance—shows that sheep fed on turnips now are not so healthy as sheep were when fed on turnips some years ago. As

ewes are put to large-boned, long -woolled rams, than where the ewes breed after their own kind. Where cross-bred ewes are served by Oxford Down rams, the loss of ewes has been less than in the case

you will have imagined, and as it needs of the short-woolled ewes served by long no philosopher to tell you, ewes fed on woolled rams ; and I presume the reason grass are much more healthy than when is that the half -bred ewes, having their fed on turnips. parts more fully developed from the cross, “ It is very evident that sheep are not are the better adapted to perform the so healthy as they used to be. One functions required of them .” reason is, I think, the land being farmed Youаtt on Abortion . It is stated

more highly for turnips; and I have ' by Youatt, that too liberal use of salt repeatedly remarked that we lose more will produce abortion . It is scarcely sheep after a heavy crop of turnips. I possible to predicate abortion in sheep, do not think the artificial manure of itself on account of their woolly covering, but is the cause, beyond forcing a turnip into its immediate effects of dulness on the a bad quality, which frequently causes us ewe, and of a redness under the tail, will

great loss just at lambing -time. I think it must be clear to any personwho has followed my remarks in giving details of cases, that swedes are proved to be unhealthy food for breeding-ewes. I might have adduced many other cases from my returns confirmatory of this. In the few

be symptoms noticed by an observant shepherd. “ The treatment after abor tion,” observes Youatt, “ will depend en tirely on the circumstances of the case. If the fætus had been long dead, proved by the fetid smell of it, and of the vagi naldischarge, the parts should be washed

instances where the ewes have done well with a weak solution in water ( 1 to 16)

when feeding onswedes, the daily supply of the chloride of lime, some of which has been limited, and there has almost may also be injected into the uterus. If invariably been an allowance of other fever should supervene, a dose of Epsom food - as hay-chaff, with a liberal admix- salts, timeously administered , will remove the symptoms. If debility and want of

ture of bran.

“ I believe that the verdict of a large appetite should remain, a little gentian

majority of the thinking and practi- and ginger, with small doses of Epsom cal farmers and experienced shepherds salts, will speedily restore the animal. throughout the country will be this, — Care should be taken that the food shall that if we make it a rule to flush our

ewes by stimulating food during the tupping season, to avoid feeding on swedes

not be too nutritive or too great in quan tity.” Ailments among Lambs. — Young

as much as possible, to limit the supply lambs, as long as they are dependent on of other roots as far as circumstances will their mother for food, are subject to few permit, to give a fairly liberal allowance diseases.

A change to new luxuriant

of digestible, nutritious, and health -pre- grass in damp weather may bring on the serving dry food, and to run theewes out skit or diarrhea, and exposure to cold on grass as much as possible ( taking care may produce the same effect. As long never to over-fatigue them ) before lamb- as the lamb feeds and plays, there is little

ing, there will in future be far fewer danger ; but should it appear dull, its cases of abortion and death amongst ewes eyes watery and heavy, and its joints

than we have now to deplore, and many somewhat stiff, remedial means should more strong and healthy lambs will be immediately be used . “ A gentle aperi reare than prese d

at

nt.

ent is first indicated in order to carry off

“ One other point is this. The ewes any offensive matter that may have accu lost during lambing would appear from mulated in and disturbed the bowels ;

THE LAMBING SEASON .

83

half an ounce of Epsom salts, with half panied with fever that may be dangerous. a drachm of ginger, will constitute the Half-ounce doses of Epsom salts should best aperient that can be administered. be administered every 6 hours until the

To that must be added 1 table-spoonful bowels are evacuated, after which both of sheep's cordial, consisting of equal ewe and lamb should be turned into more parts of brandy and sweet spirits of nitre, succulent pasture, as the cause of the complaint is to be found in bare pasture housing and nursing .” Butthere is a species of apparent purg- in dry weather. In cases of fever, which

ing, which is a more dangerous disease may be observed from the dulness of the “ In the natural and lamb and its quick breathing, the admin

than the skit,

healthy state of the milk and stomach, istration of tolerable doses ofEpsom salts curd produced by the gastric juice gra- will generally avert the malady at its dually dissolves and is converted into commencement. " chyme; but when the one takes on a Inflammation

in Ewe's Udder.

morbid hardness, and the other may have After recovery from lambing, the com lost a portion of its energy, the stomach is literally filled with curd , and all its functions suspended . The animal labours under seeming purging, from the quan-

plaint the ewe is most subject to is in flammation in the udder, or udder-clap or garget. Of this complaint Youatt gives a good idea of its origin and of

tity of whey discharged, but the actual its treatment : “ The shepherd , and disease is constipation . It is apt tooccur especially in the early period of suckling, about the timewhen the lamb begins to should observe whether any of the ewes graze, and when the function of the are restless and exhibit symptoms of

stomach is naturally somewhat deranged. Chemistry teaches us, that while a free acid produces coagulation of the milk , an alkali will dissolve that coagulum . Mag-

pain when the lambs are sucking, or will not permit them to suck at all. The

nesia, therefore, should be administered,

udder during the time of suckling, caused

ewe, like the cow , or oftener than that

animal, is subject to inflammation of the

suspended in thin gruel, or ammonia either by the hardness or dryness of the largely diluted with water, and with them soil on which she lies ; or, on the other

should be combined Epsom salts to hurry hand, by its too great moisture and filth, the dissolved mass along, and ginger to or by some tendency to general inflam excite the stomach to more powerful con- mation and determination to the udder

traction . Read's stomach-pump will be by the bumps and bruises, sometimes not found a most valuable auxiliary here. A alittle severe, from the head of the lamb. perseverance in the use of these means If there is any refusal on the part of the will sometimes be attended with success ; ewe, or even disinclination, to permit the and the little patient being somewhat re- young one to suck, she must be

ght

lieved, the lamb and the mother should and examined. There will generally be be moved to somewhat better pasture."

found redness and enlargement and ten Watery food in the lambing season derness of one or both of the teats, or

lays the foundation of a bad quality of sometimes the whole of the udder, and blood, and probably causes a number of several small distinct kernels or tumours deaths in the flock .

on different parts of the bag. “ Besides looseness, lambs are at times “ The udder should be cleared of the subject to costiveness in the bowels. In wood which surrounds it, and should be

the first few days of its existence the fæces they void has a very viscid consistence, which, when it falls on the tail, has the effect of gluing it to the vent and of stopping up that passage. On the removal of the obstruction by scraping with a knife, the symptom will also be removed. A worse species of costiveness

well fomented with warm water, a dose of Epsom salts administered , and then, if there are no large distinct knots or kernels, she should be returned to her lamb, whose sucking and knocking about of the udder will contribute, more than any other means, to the dispersion of the tumour and the regular flow of milk.

is, when a few drops of liquid fæces fall It may occasionally be necessary to con occasionally to the ground accompanied fine her in a pen with her little one, in by straining, as it is generally accom- order that it may have a fair chance to

84

SHEE

P IN SPRING .

A day, however, having passed, labour, or has a weakly lamb, or has and she not permitting it to suck, the twins which are apt to stray from her lamb must be taken away, the fomenta- or she from them , or has been overtaken

suck .

tion renewed ,and an ointment, composed by a rude blast immediately after lamb of 1 drachm of camphor rubbed down with ing, a contrivance to afford such a ewe a few drops of spirit of wine, I

drachm of mercurial ointment, and

d

I oz. of elder ointment, well incor

porated together, must be rubbed into the affected part, or the whole

of the udder, 2 or 3 times a -day. She must also be bled, and the phy

sic repeated.

If the udder should

continue to enlarge, and the heat and tenderness should increase, and the knots and kernels become more nume

rous and of greater size, and some of them should begin to soften or evi dently to contain a fluid , no time mustbe lost, for this disease is abun dantly more rapid in its progress in

the sheep than in the cow . A deep incision must be made into that part of the udder where the swellings are ripest, the pus or other matter squeezed out, and the part well fomented gain . To this should suc-

Fig. 249. - Ewe and lamb house. a Movable front of box, with hooks.

b Manger within .

c Rack for hay . d Broad lid with hinges. e Fork to assist in abing.

ceed a weak solution of the chloride

of lime, with which the ulcer should be temporary shelter, used byNicholas Bur

well bathed 2 or 3 times in the day. nett, Blaik Hedley, near Gateshead, and When all fetid smell ceases, and the illustrated in fig. 249, seems to deserve wound looks healthy, the friar's balsam notice. It consists of an enclosure of may be substituted for the chloride of boards, or a box, whereof the front re moves by hooks at the sides to admit the

lime.

“ The progress of disorganisation and ewe and her lamb within, and where she

the processof healing are almost in- is provided with a manger to contain credibly rapid in these cases, and the sliced turnips or oilcake, and a rack for lamb may sometimes be returned to the hay, to fill both of which access is ob mother in the course of a few days. tained by a broad lid movable on its

There are particular seasons, especially hinges. The box is light, and can be damp and warm ones, when there is à easily carried to any spot, and it might peculiarly frequent and fatal. Without ewes warning, the udder swells universally perish from exposure.

means of saving the lives bothof superfluity of grass, in which garget is be theand lambs which would otherwise with hardened teats, which sometimes

The size of this ewe-house, as it is

bring on great inflammation ; and if that called , may be made to suit that of the is not stopped in the course of 24 hours, sheep bred on the farm ; and as it is not

part, if not the whole, of the udder costly, any number can be made to be mortifies, and the mortification rapidly used at a time. A useful size will be spreads, and the sheep dies.” 1 Ewe and Lamb Box.—In case of an

found to be the following : Length, 5 feet 6 inches ; breadth , 3 feet ; height,

individual ewe, of a large flock of a pastor- 3 feet ; breadth of the covered part, 2 al farm , which has strayed a considerable feet 7 inches ; and rise of its slope, 7 distance from the shed erected to afford inches. The fork leaning against the shelter to ewes, or has suffered in hard side of the ewe-house may be used to grasp a ewe's neck, while lying on the 1 Youatt's Sheep, 497-515 .

ground, and to fasten it down while the

THE LAMBING SEASON .

85

shepherd is lambing her without other feet in length, the depth of the sides assistance ; but holding a ewe down be- being 15 inches a shifting head with tween the heel and knee renders such an unequal sides, one being 18 inches, the implement of little use. other 30 inches long, fixed by iron pins

Preparing Ewes for Railway Tran passing through 2 pairs of eyes attached velling. - Ewes with lambs at foot, un-

to the head and to the sides of the plough

accustomed to oilcake or hay, will get respectively, so as to bring the point of dry of milk on being sent on a long the attached head of the plough nearly journey by steam or rail. But if accus- into the line of its upper side, or next tomed with oilcake before, they will eat the hill. A stilt at the same time was made movable by a hinge - joint at its it readily on board ship or truck.

Snow in Lambing. — One of the anterior extremity, fixed to the bottom greatest sources of loss among lambs on

of the head from the post, so as to be

hill farms is a fall of snow at the lambing capable of being fixed to a cross-bar or season, and a continuance of it after that stretcher, either in the line bisecting the

period.

Ground rendered wet by the angle, which is the position for level

melting of new -fallen snow is in a worse ground, or in the line, alternately, of state for lambs than when wetted by

either of the sides, when to be used on

rain, as rain falls at a higher tempera- a declivity.

A draught-chain is fixed,

ture. Wet ground of any kind, however, not to the shifting head, but to the is inimical to the safety of new -dropped upright frame-post, in the nose of the lambs.

plough, which rises 10 or 12 inches above The driest part of the farm , combined the mould -boards. “When the plough so constructed is with shelter, should be chosen for the

lambing-ground, though it may be incon- to be worked along a declivity, with the venient in other respects. But should left hand towards the hill, the shorter the best lambing-groundbe covered with limb of the shifting head is fixed on the old snow , and in a sheltered spot, and left side of the plough, near the point, the temperature of the air above the and the longer limb on the right side, freezing-point, the snow might be re- towards the middle ; and the stilt being fixed in the left extremity of the cross

moved .

Snow -plough . — A snow -plough would bar, nearly in a line with the temporary prove useful in its removal. The snow- point, the plough is necessarily drawn plough, fig. 250, is thus described by Mr in the direction of its left side, so as to throw the snow wholly to the right down the hill.

“ When the plough is to return across the declivity, with its right side to the hill, the movable head is detached by drawing out the linch -pins, is turned upside down, and fixed in the reverse position ; the shorter limb being at tached to the rightside, and the longer Fig . 250.- Mountain turn -wrist snow.plough . ſ Post for stilt, with a a Theplough. hinge -joint, and for bed Shifting-head . draught-chain. be Head , 18 inches long. e Stretcher or cross -bar. bd Head , 30 inches long. dh Mould -board in this g Stilt, movable. arrangement.

to the left side of the plough, while the stilt is brought to the right extremity of the cross-bar. The plough is then drawn in the direction of the right side, and the snow is thrown wholly to the left, nes

the lower side.

Should the

Hepburn of Culquhailzie: "To enable lower side of the plough show a tend the plough to clear tracks for the sheep ency to rise, it mayeither be held down along the hillsides, it is necessary it by a second movable stilt, fixed to the should be made to throw the snow

wholly to the lower side.

middle of the cross-bar, or a block of

To effect this, wood or other ballast weight may be

I caused to be fitted to the plough — the placed on that side of the plough. The body of which forms an isoceles triangle, plough will be found to remove con whose sides are 772 feet and its base 6 siderably more than its own depth of

SHEEP IN SPRING .

86

When a plough of 1 foot high net 1 /2 -inch mesh upon a double row snow . passes through snow 18 inches or 2 feet of ordinary net-stakes, care being taken deep, very little of the snow falls back to have the bag of the net low enough into the track, and what does so fall to prevent the sheep from passing under

is easily cleared out by the plough in it.

A hay-rack which will last for years,

and of any desired length, may thus be

returning." Snow- harrow . — The snow - harrow ,

fig. 251 , consists of a single bull, 42

made at a moderate cost.

But many think the best way of giving

inches square, and 6 feet long ; and in hay to ewes during a snowstorm is to the middle of which , on the under side, lay it out in lines on the snow. Hill a piece of 1 /4 -inch plank, 3 feet long, is sheep will not, as a rule, eat hay unless they are confined, or the ground is d

covered with snow.

Sheep on Turnips. — The manage ment of sheep on turnips in spring differs very little from that in winter, which has been fully discussed.

Produce of Lambs. Single and Twin Lambs. - As to the probable produce of lambs, the fol lowing remarks by Professor Wrightson will be read with interest : “ The num plank. to attached d Stilt . ee 7 Long cutters

Fig . 251. - Mountain snow -harrow . a b Bull. c Plank , on which is

the draught-hook.

56 Short cutters.

sunk flush transversely, for the attachment of a draught-hook and a stilt to steady the motion of the implement. In the bull are fixed, by screw -nuts atintervals of 10 inches, 7 cutters, & c., 9 inches

ber of twins or of single lambs is an im portant matter affecting the profits of sheep -farming. An abundance of twins is a matter for congratulation, but is not an unmixed advantage. They will not attainthe size of single lambs for salein the following autumn; the ewes require

long and 138 inch broad , sabre-shaped, more food, and are often more reduced in with their points turned backwards, so condition through suckling, and the strain as to be less liable to be arrested by upon the mother is heavy, especially in obstacles on the surface of the ground. the case of two - tooths. Still, a good Between these cutters are fixed six many twins are required in order to keep

shorter ones, 3 inches long, having their up the number of lambs,which is liable points turned forwards. This implement, to drawbacks from death , barrenness,and dragged by one horse ridden by a boy, slipping. Twins give the opportunity to and the stilt held by a man, cuts the the shepherd of dividing them , and thus frozen snow into stripes of 5 or 6 inches supplying lambs to ewes which have lost broad, which are easily pulverised by the their own offspring, and which, otherwise, feet of the sheep, or divided by the snow- would go as barreners. Crop of Lambs.— “ Without a fair plough. In lowland farms the snow remains proportion of twins we should unques

around the fences long after the middle tionably suffer from a short supply of of the fields are clear. A speedy means lambs, even upon the assumption of a of getting rid of the snow is to cut it with lamb to a ewe throughout the flock. the common plough repeatedly. Hay -rack for Storm . - A cheap and

This apparently modest estimate is by no means always realised, in spite of twins,

most portable sheep hay -rack or heck for as barren and aborted ewes may easily

a storm , is the cart-horse hay -net, which constitute 5 per cent of a flock, and can be fixed in spite of wind and drift, often double that proportion. Deaths also fre and will save hundreds of sheep where among very young lambs are statement there is hay. Seven or eight sheep can quent, so that the general

get round one net, which will serve for that for every ewe put to the ram there years with care.

should be a lamb at weaning-time, is not

An excellent plan is to hang a wire far from correct.

MANURES AND MANURING.

87

How to obtain a Big Crop of been recorded. A ewe, the property of

Lambs.— " Someflocks, and some farms, J. Amall, of Thrussington, Leicestershire, seem naturally adapted for producing á had the immense number of 22 lambs in large number of lambs. It may be rea- six years. She had 3 lambs three times, sonably expected that twins will in turn 4 lambs twice, and 5 lambs once.—T.

produce twins, and hence rams and ewes Stephens, of East Deanes, St Neot, had which have been twins might properly be selected to propagate theirspecies. Fer-

12 ewes, which in one season produced 30 lambs — viz., i ewe, 4 lambs; 4 ewes,

tility is as likely to be inherited as any other property, and with it the natural accompaniments of good nursing and abundant milk -supply. I am inclined

12 lambs ; and 7 ewes, 14 lambs. Lambing Table. The duration of pregnancy in the ewe

to think that ewes are naturally dis- is generally reckoned at twenty -one weeks,

posed to produce a pair of lambs, and butmay vary from 136 to 160 days. that single lambs are to be regarded as a From the following table, which shows degree less normal than twins. Thus, when twenty -one weeks expire from the when ewes are in good order and keep ist and 14th of any month, the date for is abundant — both of which conditions the lambing of ewes may be easily ascer

must be regarded as strictly natural— tained : the number of twins is immediately in creased, and sometimes almost the whole flock produces doubly. This indicates the best method of obtaining a big crop of lambs, namely - keeping the ewes well throughout summer. Extreme fatness or extreme poverty both militate against fertility, but a judicious mean and plenty

From

January 11

February 41

March .

April May

1. 14 .

June

14 .

July

14.

Ewes. — Some remarkable

instances of the prolificacy of ewes have

12,

26.

August

14 .

14. 1.

September

8 22 .

October November

December 11

January 11

February 11

March

November 1 .

December

8.

26.

I.

--is known to have a wonderful effect in Prolific

July

I.

September 1 .

increasing the proportion of twin lambs.

28.

I.

generally produce a lot of lambs.” 1 Flushing — that is, forcing the ewes with rich and abundant food for a week or two before tupping, and during tupping

October

IO ,

11

I.

14.

August

June

I.

14 .

sale ewes which have been caked will

27.

May

I.

14 .

will often conceive early and produce two strong lambs the succeeding spring, and

14.

14 .

of good food during the period of concep tion produces an opposite effect. Ewes which have been barren during one season

To I.

8. 25. 8. 25. 9.

26. 8. 26. 9. 25. 10.

26.

14.

April

1. 14.

May

MANURES AND MANURING .

In the advanced agriculture of the the maintenance, utilisation, and recupera present day the question of manuring tion of fertility ; the discovery and devel possesses far more importance and in- opment of new sources of manurial com volves greater difficulties than were asso-

modities ; and the vastly increased and

ciated with it in the elementary farming still growing consumption of farm pro of olden times.

The extension and ac- duce of all descriptions, have with their

cumulation of knowledge, in regard to combined influence contributed largely to the great revolution which, since 1840, i Live Stock Jour ., p. 114, 1889. has taken place in British farm practice .

MANURES AND MANURING .

88

The farmer can no longer wait for the of the elements of plant-food withdrawn recuperating powerof nature to restore by the crop. reduced fertility.

He is not content to

It is not to be said here that this

merely “ turn over," as it were, the nat- system of selling crops and buying ar

ural store of plant-food which the soil tificial manures is preferable to the older possesses. Before the advent of “ arti- and still more general method of con manures and feeding - stuffs the

suming a large portion of the crops on

prevailing system of farming was little else thana " turning over " of the inherent fertility of the soil — the abstraction of fertility from one field in certain crops, and the returningof it, or a great partof

the farm , and so restoring fertility by farmyard dung. The pointis mentioned merely for the purpose of indicating the vastly extended scope which the develop ment of the manure-trade has imparted

ficial

it, to another field in the shape of farm- to the practice of farming. yard manure. This, however, was a slow It is thus seen that the subject of process, quite unequal to the wants, the manures and manuring is now one of sur

aspirations, and resources of the progres- passing importance. It has, indeed, be sive age in which we live. come the very keystone of British agri A speedier, more intense, more arti- culture. We have therefore deemed it

ficial system of farming has arisen, and to make provision for the greater demands which are now made upon the productive powers of the soil, active and persistent attention has for years been

right that in this edition of The Book of the Farm the subject should receive somewhat exceptional attention. It is dealt with more fully than has before been attempted ; and while dogmatism

devoted by scientists, capitalists, and as to the precise composition and quan practical farmers to the all - important tities of specific manurial doses has been question of manuring. Indeed the de- avoided , an effort is made to submit in velopment of the manure-trade is to some convenient form such information as will

extent the cause rather than the result safely guide the intelligent farmer in the of the increased activity and progress of economical and efficient manuring of his agriculture. They have grown up, as it land. were, hand in hand, the one fostering There is probably no process connected and encouraging the other. with agriculture as to which there is By the discovery of vast natural de- more difference of opinion, or in which

posits of manurial elements, and by the greater diversity of practice prevails, than

inanufacture of useful fertilisers from the manuring of land. This remark, too, waste products and other material, great is quite as applicable to professional possibilities, hitherto undreamt of, have been placed in the hands of the farmer. By the means of these agencies it is possible for him to vastly increase and

chemists as to practical farmers. To attempt to reconcile all these contradic tory views and customs would be hope less ; yet in the majority of cases the con

hasten the production of his farm - not only by adding to the supply of plantfood already in the soil, but also by so stimulating, equalising, and prepar-

tradiction is more apparent than real. The more intimately one becomes ac quainted with the routine of farm man agement in the various parts of the

ing that supply, as to render it far more British Isles, the less is one inclined to serviceable and nutritious to the growing dogmatise and to assert that a certain system is right and all others wrong. crops. The farmer is not now dependent The system which gives the best results

upon the residue of his crops for the in the cold regions and light friable well restoration of fertility to the soil. So far drained lands in the north of Scotland, as concerns the question of the fertility may be utterly unsuited to the stiff of the soil, the farmer may now grow clayey lands of England, or the moist what he pleases and sell what he pleases. soil and mild climate of the Emerald The abstracted fertility may be replaced Isle. One may be assured that the by purchased fertilisers, so prepared and marked divergences in farm practice are proportioned as to return to the soil in

not mere accidents.

As a rule, they

themost useful form the exact quantities will be found to be fully justified by

MANURES AND MANURING .

89

variations in local conditions, differences Prior to the introduction of artificial in soil, climate, and objects and possi- manures, farmers relied almost entirely bilities of the farmer. Then, as to the upon farmyard dung to replace the ab differences amongst men of science, it stracted fertility. This, however, was not

should be borne in mind that the great sufficient, for much of the ingredients of field of agricultural chemistry is only in process of exploration, and that while our knowledge regarding its wonderful truths has, in recent years, grown with gratifying rapidity, it is still far from

the soil were sold off in the form of grain, meat, milk , cheese, &c. It is thus ob vious that, if no other means of restoring fertility had been found, the soil would have, in course of time, become exhausted .

being perfect and entire. Deferring Exhaustion . — The agents In dealing with the subject of man- which were most effective in deferring

ures and manuring, the Editor has been this exhaustion were careful and season deeply impressed with these considera- able tillage, drainage, subsoiling, the tions , and, keeping them in view, he has decay of the roots of crops, rotation of

sought the counsel of many recognised crops, and bare fallow. authorities.

The combined

The writings of our most influence of these agents is certainly by

eminent chemists and practical agri- no means insignificant. It has been well culturists have been carefully consulted shown in the Rothamsted experiments

and freely drawn upon, notably those of that tillage and the decay of the roots Johnstone, Cameron, Voelcker, Anderson, of crops have a very important bearing Lawes, Gilbert, Wilson, Sibson, Mor- upon the duration of fertility in soil. ton, Ville, Liebig, Hellriegel, WrightIt is a curious and important fact that son , Warington, Aitken, Jamieson, Fal- the growth of crops in itself, while rob

coner -King, Aikman, MacAdam , Ber- bing the soil of certain ingredients, tends nard -Dyer, Lloyd, Cooke, Fream , Curtis, to enrich it in other elements of fertility. Brown, & c. And from several experi- The plants absorb nitrogen from the at

enced practical farmers, who have made mosphere, and draw nutritious ingre a special study of the subject, and who dients from the subsoil. By the decay reside in and farm different parts of of their roots they thus leave the surface the kingdom , the Editor has received soil richer in certain elements than it was

most valuable help and advice in his before. And the larger the crop the more effort to present the readers of this does it enrich the soil in these elements, work with useful information as to the for the greater is the residue of plant food in the roots which remain in the economical manuring of land. soil. See pp. 60 and 61 , Div. I. EXHAUSTION AND RESTORATION OF FERTILITY .

In the section on “Fertility of Soils ”

Restoring Fertility-But it is clear

that something more is necessary to re store to the soil the particular elements removed in the produce exported from

( p. 56, Div. I.), the principles relating it. For this restoration we have now to the existence, exhaustion, and restor- at hand an exhaustless store of artificial ation of fertility in soils are fully ex

manures.

plained. The reader should be familiar

Ingredients Removed by Crops.

with what is said there before perusing

The important question now arises : What are the ingredients which are re

what follows here.

Abstraction of Fertility . — It has moved in crops, and what are the quan

been seen that the fertility of the soil tities of each ? As to the elements of becomes reduced by the removal of in- plant-food and the sources of their ele gredients in crops and animals raised ments, see p. 57, Div. I. upon it, and by soluble matters being

On p. 63, Div. I., will be found an ex

carried away in drainage-water. It is also haustive table, showing the weight and

farm more than probable, as will be explained average composition of ordinary in connection with the Rothamsted ex- crops in pounds per acre. From that periments in this chapter, that loss of table it is easy to calculate the quantity plant- food occurs through evaporation of of each ingredient of plant-food removed in any rotation of the ordinary farm crops.

volatile ammonia.

MANURES AND MANURING .

90

And from the full explanations which accompany the table, useful deductions

Exhaustion in a Norfolk Rotation .

-Itmay be interesting to show here in

may bedrawn as to the manurial treat- tabular form the quantities of thechief ele ment which should be pursued under the ments of plant-food which would be with various systems of cropping, stocking, drawn from the soil in the course of the and disposal of crops and stock.

Norfolk rotation of wheat, turnips, bar

The subject is so fully and clearly dealt ley, and clover ; and with this total is with by Mr Warington, in the pages re- contrasted the amount of these ingre ferred to, that any further discussion here dients which would be returned in an

of the general principles relating to the ordinary dressing of farmyard manure exhaustion and restoration of fertility 8 tons or 16 yards of dung : would be needless repetition. Dry Matter.

Crop .

Wheat, 30 bushels per acre . Turnips, 17 tons Barley, 40 bushels 11 11

Clover, 2 tons

11

Nitrogen.

Potash .

Magnesia.

Phosphoric Acid.

Ib . per acre. Ib. per acre. ib . per acre. ib . per acre . lb. fer acre . 28.8 21.1 4183 48 7.1 I12 4657 9.5 33.1 148.8 48 35.7 6.9 20.7 3827 102 28.2 83.4 3763 24.9

Totals

310

Rotten farmyard dung, 8 tons per acre

296.7

51.7

99.8

96.8

95.2

18.94

48.0

213.2

201.5

32.76

51.8

It is thus seen at a glance that an ordi- more plant-food than would be exported nary dressing of farmyard manure, say 8 from the farm ; and thus, without the tons or 16 yards per acre, applied once aid of any of the artificial fertilisers, there in the above four-course rotation, would would be an accumulation rather than restore barely one-third of the elements an exhaustion of fertility. But extreme of fertility removed by the crops. Such cases of this kind are very rare . a large dressing as 24 or 25 tons of dung The extreme on the other hand is where per acre is impracticable ; hence the econ- the growing and selling of crops are the omy and advantage of having at com- main features in the system of manage mand the various artificial fertilisers in ment, and where few or no stock are kept

which, in a highly concentrated and beyond what is necessary for the working readily available form , the deficient ele- of the farm. Between these two extremes there are ments may be supplied.

Removal and Return of Plant-food

many gradations — an endless variety of

in Different Systems. This supple- systems, in which there is an ever-chang

mental work is indeed the chief functioning relation between three great factors Upon all farms, in successful agriculture – viz. ( 1 ), the

of artificial manures.

less or more farmyard dung is made; amount of plant - food withdrawn from

and as a means of restoring fertility, it the soil; ( 2) the amount returned in is first reckoned upon and employed. farmyard manure ; and ( 3) the quantity Under certain systems of farming, where of purchasedfertilisers necessary to make not only the great bulk of the produce of up the deficiency in the latter, as com

the farm, but also large quantities of pared with the first, or to furnish any purchased foods, are consumed on the increased fertility which the farmer may farm by stock, the quantity of dung may desire to impart to the land. be almost sufficient for all the manurial

requirements of the holding.

Sum and Substance of Successful

Indeed , Manuring. - Here, then -- in securing

under such a system , the manurial resi- the proper relations of these factors - we

due of the purchased foods might supply havethesumandsubstance of successful

91

MANURES AND MANURING.

manuring . It is by no means a simple the chemist fails in this particular point. matter. It is beset with many problems

By the aid of his powerful acids, alkalies,

requiring the most careful and intelligent and other decomposing agents, he can study, as well as technical knowledge. tell us the entire quantity of any element The farmer has to consider not only what in the soil and subsoil ; but he has not quantities of the various elements of as yet succeeded in determining definitely

plant-food he would have to purchase to make up the deficiency in his supply of farmyard manure. Hemust also see that he procures these elements from the best and cheapest sources at the time, and that they are in the forms most suitable to his

how much of that element exists in a form available to the plant, and how much of it is locked up in combinations which the weaker acids at the command of the plant are unable to break up. True, by diluting and weakening his objects. acids and alkalies, so as to bring them And it has to be kept in view that the as near as possible to the strength of ascertaining of the amount of purchased the dissolving agents at the command manure necessary to supplement the farm- of the plant,the chemist endeavours to yard dung is not the simple matter the estimate the amount of available plant uninitiated might at first sight regard it. food in a soil. In this way he is able

It is not sufficient to merely subtract the to obtain information of undoubted supply of plant-food in the stock of dung value. Yet it is merely an estimate, from that contained in the crops removed and in practice has to be followed from the soil. For instance, we have with caution. seen from the table on page go, that Evidence of the Crops. - Recognis

during the four - course rotation there mentioned the quantities of plant - food removed in the crops would exceed those returned in 8 tons of dung by 213 lb. of

ing the difficulty of accurately estimating the fertility of soil by analysis, Georges Ville, the eminent French chemist, recom mended the more elaborate and more re

nitrogen, 201.5 lb. of potash, 32.76 lb. of liable plan of testing the soil by the magnesia,and 31.8 lb. of phosphoricacid, “ evidence of the plants themselves.” per acre. Resources of the Soil to be Reck-

oned . — Now it is not enough for the

He says :

“ I laid down the principle that by means of four substances — phosphoric

farmer to have ascertained this. If he acid, potash, lime, and nitrogenous mat were to supply the full quantity of each

ter - it was possible to bring the most

ingredient here represented as deficient, barren soil to the highest degree of fer he would most likely be pursuing a waste- tility. We have learnt more than this

ful system of manuring.

The natural viz ., that these four substances, however efficacious they may be, only remain so

resources of the soil must be reckoned with . In many soils there is a great

as long as they are associated and united

natural store of certain elements of plant- one with the other ; for by suppressing

food, which will be capable of furnishing one, the remaining three are often ren the wants of crops for several years to come. For instance, if it is aclayeysoil, there will most likely be such an abundance of potash in it as that any direct application of this element would , for the

dered inert, and frequently lose the greater

partof their activity. 6 We have further said that these four

substances are not of the same degree of

utility to all descriptions of plants, but that each has a preponderant or subor dinate action by turns; that for cereals, The farmer has therefore a fourth fac- colza , and beetroot, nitrogenous matter tor to reckon with — namely, the reserve was the preponderant constituent; phos

time being, be entire waste of money, perhaps even hurtful to the crop. of plant-food in the soil.

phoric acid fulfils a similar functionwith

Chemical Analysis Unreliable.-

respect to maize, cane -sugar, and swedes ;

The accurate ascertaining of the quantity and condition of this “ reserve ” of plant-food in the soil is perhaps, of all, the most “ knotty ” point in the whole

whereas potash preponderates in the case of potatoes and leguminous plants . If you thoroughly understand these three fundamentalpropositions,you will readily

question of manuring. The acumen of see by what natural deductions we shall

MANURES AND MANURING .

92

Crop per acre of be able to found upon them a practical Potatoes. tons. cwt. method of analysis that will be accessible II Normal manure to all. 3 “ Suppose, for instance , that we ex8 Manure without lime 4 phosphate 6 periment upon the same soil with five 18 5 nitrogen re res rent manu 2 : first of all, a manu diffe 2 potash 14 2 Soil without manure composed of the four substances of which we have been speaking, and to which we have given the name of normal manure ; The potato, then, tells us that the soil of and next with four manures composed of Vincennes does not contain sufficient pro 11

!!

11

11

11

.

three ingredients only, excluding in rota- portions of potash and of nitrogen ; and tion nitrogenous matter, phosphoric acid , if it shows a preference for soil that is potash, and lime, and with these produce rich in potash, it is because that sub a parallel series of crops

stance is its dominant constituent — that

is to say, it is the ingredient in manure With the normal manure.

that acts most beneficially upon that

Manure without nitrogenous matter. phosphates.

special crop.

!!

potash. lime. The soil without any manure . 11

“ The evidence of these two plants is not contradictory but confirmatory, and

you will observe how the preponderance of certain constituents gives an additional The result will be that the complete value to the same facts. In order to

manure produces 43 bushels of wheat per gather an exact idea of the richness of acre ; manure without nitrogenous matter the under layer or subsoil at Vincennes, produces 14 bushels ; manure without it is necessary to consider the result which

phosphates, 2612 ; manure without po- was obtained at the same time with wheat tash , 31 ; manure without lime, 41 ; and and potatoes. A series of crops of wheat the soil without any manure, only 12 shows plainly that nitrogenous matter bushels per acre. and potash are present in restricted pro “ The conclusion is evident and con- portions, and a series of potato crops

clusive. The soil requires, above all, ni- confirms and ratifies this testimony ; only trogenous matter ; it is provided with with manure without potash, the crop lime, but insufficiently supplied with potash and calcic phosphate. What analysis, I ask, be it as delicate as it is possible to conceive, will ever be able to

of potatoes is feebler and comparative ly smaller than that of wheat, because potash is a dominant constituent in potatoes, and only a subordinate con

furnish us with a series of results like stituent in wheat.

“ Here, then, is a perfectly accurate this ? According as the crops obtained with the incomplete manures differ from system of experiments, and the informa or resemble those resulting from the use tion gained may at once be applied to of the normal manures, the conclusion practical use. With an experimental we arrive at is, that the soil lacks the field we always determine the nature of ingredient excluded from these manures, the substances useful to plants contained or vice versa .

in the soil, and also determine in what

“ But this is not all. In every soil constituents the soil is deficient, and with there are two portions to be considered this knowledge we can decide what sort —the surface soil and the subsoil, the of manure it will be advisable to em

upper and under layers — and it is most ploy. Method of Test Experiments.— " I ideas upon this subject. We may gain will briefly show you how we should pro the necessary knowledge very easily by ceed in the formation of such fields, ac substituting for wheat some tap-rooted cording to the purpose for which they are plant; beetroot, for instance, which buries to be used. If the results of our experi important that we should have definite

itself in the ground to a much greater ments are somewhat important, we must depth . choose a piece of land representing the

“With potatoes, the information gained mean fertility of the whole estate, and is no less instructive and precise :

divide it into ten plots, each containing,

MANURES AND MANURING.

93

say , a quarter of an acre, to be fertilised, touchstone, and in a certain measure completes and rectifies their signification.

as shown beneath : No.

I is to receive 24 tons of farmyard man . 2

12

#1

very rich normal manure . ordinary manure without nitrogen .

5 11

6

7 8

11

10 11

10

11

IO

ture becomes a source of information con

11

3 4

When you are once familiarised with this

mode of investigation, every kind of cul

ure , 11

ous matter. without

manure

calcic

phosphate. manure without potash .

cerning the state of the soil—its richness or its exhaustion.

Here, for instance, is

an example :

“ On two contiguous portions of land, say of a few square yards, sow peas and wheat without any kind of manure. This

manure without lime.

little experiment will amply suffice to

manure without mineral matter.

ascertain if the soil contains nitrogenous and mineral matter. We have already seen that nitrogenous matter was the

soil without any manure.

Here is a system equal to all the exigen- dominant constituent in wheat, and that cies of every kind of culture.

Thanks it was only of very secondary importance

to this method of growing crops side by to peas, if indeed its action could be side, we are able to follow methodically regarded as of any use at all to them ; the exhaustion of the soil; that advanced- whilst the dominant constituent in peas guard of the field of experiments indicates was potash. You see now , by the light with certainty the precise moment when of these simple facts, with how much im the soil is ready to receive nitrogenous portance the experiment just quoted can matter, potash , or calcic phosphate, as be invested. If the two squares of wheat the case may be. and peas are equally fine, it proves that

“ But it will be said that on every the soil contains a sufficiency both of farm it may happen, as it nearly always nitrogenous and mineral matter. does, that there are soils of verydifferent

Now , if the wheat becomes small,

nature. The experimental field, of which yellow, and rather soft, whilst the peas we have just been speaking, does not flourish well, it proves that the soil is suffice for an extended inquiry, and in lacking in the dominant constituent of order to arrive at useful results, it is wheat, which is nitrogenous matter,

necessary to set aside an additional quar- whilst it contains, on the contrary, a ter of an acre, divided into four parts, sufficiency of mineral matter, and above on which to experiment with these differ- all of potash. “We will extend the range of our manure , and nitrogenous matter, the observations. Lucerne has roots which

ent manures : normal manure, mineral

fourth part receiving no manure at all.? penetrate deeply into the subsoil.

It is

With these four combinations of manure, from these under layers that it principally under the condition that if necessary the obtains the mineral matter, of which it

trial may be repeated, we can acquire requires a large quantity. Suppose that with certainty all information of which, lucerne prospers whilst peas are weakly.

practically speaking, we have need . The What are we to conclude from this ? That the superficial layers of soil are and the more numerous and varied com- lacking in potash and phosphates, whilst bination of manure that it receives,is, as the deep layers are provided with them ; it were, a centre towards which all the but if the two plants progress equally first field , by reason of its greater extent,

others must gravitate. The results given

well, we know that the superficial and

by the smaller plots are tested by those deep layers of soil are well provided with of the first field , which acts as a sort of mineral matter.” 2 Farmers' Experiments.— Mr F. J.

1 The best arrangement as to experimental Cooke, Flitcham Abbey, Norfolk, in a plots in fields is to select so many drills if the

paper read before the London Farmers'

crop is roots, or so many ridges or yards wide Club, on March 25 , 1889, urged farmers if corn or pasture, so that each plot may run from end to end of the field, and thus, as far

to make trials upon their own land as to

as possible, embrace all the variations in the character and condition of the soil.

? Artificial Manures.

G. Ville, 176-183.

MANURES AND MANURING .

94

the kinds and quantities of manures best and present in an available form, but suited to their farms. He stated that he

likewise contain in due proportion all

had been doing so himself annually for the essential elements of plant nutrition. some twenty years, and he was not aware

Law of Minimum . — This due pro

of any other separate practice which had portioning or balancing of the elements been so useful to him . The information of fertility is a point of the utmost im

he thus obtained had saved him much portance. It is illustrated by what is unprofitable outlay on manures which known as Liebig's law of minimum.

had formerly been unnecessarily or im- Every soil contains a maximum of one or prudently applied.

more, and a minimum of one or more,

Mr Cooke's method of testing the wants of the soil and the crops is quite simple, and similar to that recommended by Ville, -namely, the use of the four necessary elements of plant-food - nitro-

of the ingredients necessary for plant growth. Now the growth or produce of the plants on this soil is governed not by the combined quantity of all the ingredients presentin the soil,but by the

gen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime— producing power of the essential ingredi separately and together, and as far as ent present in the smallest proportion, possible in the most economical forms,- no matter how small a part this deficient one plot remaining unmanured , another element may play in the economy of the

having all the ingredients, whilst upon particular crop. Again, let it be remem the other plots each ingredient is in turn bered that the strength of the chain is governed by the weakest link .

omitted .

An interesting example of the value

The object of manuring is to provide

of experiments in discovering the man- against deficiencies of this kind, and at urial wants of separate farms, and of the lowest possible cost to furnish the

the unreliability of chemical analyses of crops with a full supply of readily avail soils for this purpose, is given by Mr able well-balanced wholesome plant-food. Cooke. A dressing of 3 cwt. of nitrate

of soda and 3 cwt. of superphosphate was applied to a plot of barley at Flitcham, upon which the crop failed. An

VARIETIES OF MANURE - FARM YARD DUNG.

adjoining plot got these manures, and in addition 2cwt. of muriate of potash, and In a description of the various commo produced 54 bushels of barley per acre. dities employed as manure, the first place

Yet the soil of both the plots was found naturally falls to farmyard dung . At by chemical analysis to contain as much one time the only kind of manure avail

potash in the top foot of it as would be able, it is still in this connection, the found in 3 tons per acre of muriate of mainstay of the farmer. Its pre-emin potash .

There was an abundance of

ence is gradually lessening, yet it will

potash in the soil, but it was not avail- always be an important agent in main able to the barley. Hence, on this soil taining the fertility of the farm . There an application of potash was essential for are now many farmers who depend more

profitable cropping, and no amount of largely upon artificial manures than upon other manures would succeed without it.

dung . Upon the whole, however, “ muck "

All this tends to show not only the is still the staple manure, and artificial importance of, but also the difficulties in- fertilisers merely supplementary to it. volved in, the question of manures and

Variety in the Quality of Dung.

manuring. In arranging the dressings Farmyard manure consists of the solid of manure to be applied, the farmer and liquid excrements of farm live-stock,

must consider the probablecontents and and of the litter provided to them. Ex condition of the soil, as well as the wants cept when made and kept wholly under of the particular crop. He will endeav- roof, it also contains a considerable our, as fully as possible, to utilise the quantity of rain - water. Its manurial “ reserve fund ” of fertility in the soil, value depends upon the class of animals

and aim in particular at having the crop by which it is made, the age of these provided with a supply of plant - food, animals, the kinds and quantities of food which will not only be ample in quality, supplied to them , the kind and quantity

VARIETIES OF MANURE - FARMYARD DUNG.

95

of litter employed , and the manner in tice, this fact does not always have due which the manure is made and managed consideration. generally — whether well trodden, evenly What is said on pages 226-232, Div. mixed, the fermentation kept duly in I., as to manure in covered and open courts, should also be consulted here. check, and waste prevented. Manurial Value of Straw.— The In the chapter on the “ Treatment of

Farmyard Manure ” (p. 501 , Div. II.), information is given, not only as to the “ making ” of good and bad dung, but also as to the characteristics of the differ-

straw ofthe cereal crops does not possess such high manurial value as is by many accorded to it. The constituents of fresh straw are for the most part insol

ent kinds of dung. In this connection uble, so that straw is of little use in the Liquid soil unless it is well rotted . Indeed , the the succeeding chapter on 66

Manure ” (pp. 514-529, Div. II. ) should principal value of straw in the making also be consulted. of manure is that it, in the first place, The system of feeding is mainly re- forms comfortable litter for the animals,

sponsible for the original quality of the and thereafter becomes a suitable vehicle

dung.

The feeding of draught -horses for absorbing and holding in a manage

varies but slightly, so that farm -horse able condition the solid and liquid ex

dung is comparatively even in character. creta. From this it is apparent that the With cattle - by which the great bulk of excessive use of straw as litter is impru farmyard manure is made — the case is dent and wasteful ; for, while the bulk very different. All sorts of dietary are of the dung may be thereby greatly in given to them ; from very poor and reased, there may be little more fertilis scanty — such as will barely sustain the ing value than if one -third less litter had existing " condition ” of the animal- been supplied. Composition of Dung. — From the to very rich and abundant, far beyond it is of course obvious that the foregoing to assimilate. animal of the the power Then in one case the supply of litter, chemical composition of farmyard dung

generally cereal straw , which has little is liable to great variation. The follow manurial value ( see tables on pp. 285-287, ing detailed analyses of samples of farm Div. II. ), may form a much larger pro- yard dung were made by Dr A. Voelcker. Composition of fresh dung, composed portion of the bulk of the dung than in of horse, cow, and pig dung,about four another.

Obviously, therefore, there must be teen days old : many degrees of quality in farmyard

66.17 2.48

Water

dung, -a fact which farmers should * Soluble organic matter

1.54 25.76 4.05

keep carefully in view in considering Soluble inorganic matter how many tons of dung, and what sup + Insoluble organic matter plementary manure , should be given to Insoluble inorganic matter . this field or that. Moreover, as we have

100.00

seen , in pp. 501-513 , Div. II., the ori * Containing nitrogen . ginal character of the dung may be Equal to ammonia greatly altered - improved or --by the manner in which it and treated generally. These ations should never be lost

.149

damaged Containing nitrogen . is made, Equal to ammonia Total percentage of nitrogen . consider Equal to ammonia sight of. Ammonia in a free state

One ton from a certain dung-heap may

Do.

, 181 .494

.599

.643

.780 .034

.088

in form of salts

The information given on pp. 283-289, Div. II., as to the “ manurial value ” of

foods, indicates how, and to what extent, fected by the food supplied to the animal. It has long been recognised that dung made by fattening stock is much more valuable than that made by store cattle, which are sparingly fed ; yet, in prac-

the manurial value of dung may be af-

Soluble water ,in . cent per 27.55

be worth two tons from another .

Composition of the whole ash : Soluble silica

.

4.25 5.35

Phosphate of lime Lime

I.IO 0.20

Magnesia Potash Soda

10.26 0.92

Chloride of sodium Sulphuric acid . Carbonic acid and loss

0.54 0.22 .

4.71

MANURES AND MANURING. Soluble silica 17.34 Insoluble silicious matter . 10.04 Phosphate of lime Oxide of iron and alumina, 8.47 with phosphates

small proportion organic, and mineral substancesofinsoluble, fresh dung accounts

2

for its slow action compared with rotten

dung. Insoluble matters are very large

phosphoric containing acid equal to bone-earth Lime

(3.18)

—of organic matters, ten times as great as soluble ; and of mineral matters, three

(6.88) times as great as soluble. Fresh dung

20,21

contains a mere trace of free or volatile

Magnesia

2.56

Potash Soda

1.78

ammonia, and but a trifling quantity of

0.38

ammoniacal salts.

Chloride of sodium Sulphuric acid . The

The amount of ni.

trogen in fresh dung is inconsiderable. 1.27 10.40

Carbonic acid and loss

It is gradually liberated as the dung progresses in putrefaction, and is con

composition of rotten dung, mixed tained in the portion insoluble in water.

horse, cow , and pig dung, six months old.

Hence little nitrogen exists in fresh

dark brown, almost black in colour, well dụng in a state to be assimilated by plants. The principal constituent of soluble ash in quantity is potash 37.26

fermented and short, is as follows : Water

75.42 parts, equal to 54.7 parts of pure

*Soluble organic matter

3.71 1.47

Soluble inorganic matter +Insoluble organic matter Insoluble inorganic matter .

12.82

carbon

ate of potash, also silicate of potash ; and in the insoluble ash, lime, and in the

6.58 soluble, phosphate of lime, 1972 per cent. Chemically, farmyard dung is a universal 100.00

* Containing nitrogen . Equal to ammonia

Total amount of nitrogen

stituents are in that state of combina .606 .735

Equal to ammonia Ammonia in a free state Do. in form of salts

manure, because it contains all the con

stituents of our cultivated crops ; and it is a perfect manure, because its con

.297 .360 • 309 .375

Equal to ammonia +Containing nitrogen .

.046

tion favourable for the luxuriant growth of our crops.

Fresh and Rotten Dung.- Fresh

.057 dung contains considerably more potash

cent per .18.27

Soluble in ,water

than rotten, as also more phosphate of Composition of the whole ash :Soluble silica

Phosphate of lime

.

3.16 4.75 1.44

.

5.58

Lime

Magnesia , Potash Soda

Insol uble in water , per 81.73 .cent

Chloride of sodium Sulphuric acid . Carbonic acid and loss ( Soluble silica Insoluble silica .

lime. There is more nitrogen in rotten

than in fresh dung ; rotten dung has less insoluble organic matter, and contains more insoluble inorganic matters than fresh . On the whole, weight for weight, rotten dung is richer in soluble fertilising

0.59 0.29

0.46

constituents than fresh, and contains more

0.72 1.28

readily available nitrogen, and therefore produces a more immediate and powerful effect in vegetation. The preference evinced by farmers for rotten over fresh dung is thus sanctioned by chemistry.

17.69 12.54

Phosphate of lime Oxides of iron , alumina, with phosphates 11.76 containing phosphoric acid .

.

equal to bone-earth Lime

Magnesia . Potash Soda

Chloride of sodium Sulphuric acid . Carbonic acid and loss

Open and Covered Court Dung.

Farmyard dung, kept under roof for (3.40)

three months, was found to have suf

0.56

(7.36) fered little change in organic and min eral constituents in comparison with fresh dung, and the soluble and insoluble

0.47

portion of the ashes was almost iden

20.70 1.17

tical.

Rotten dung exposed to the air

16.05

in cold weather loses little substance, but in warm weather the loss may be

100,00

considerable ---principally in the soluble constituents, nitrogen and ammoniacal

0.79

1

Fresh Dung. — The comparatively salts rapidly becoming exhausted. Fresh

.... INI

Insolubl e water in , .cent per 72.45

96

VARIETIES OF MANURE - FARMYARD DUNG.

97

dung undergoes putrefaction rather than that any appreciablequantity of ammonia fermentation , the nature of which pro- volatilises. It is different, however, with

cess consists in the gradual alteration of the original organic matters, and in the formation of new chemical compounds. Putrefaction is accompanied with evolu-

the action of rain, which soon removes by solution a considerable quantity of nitro gen contained in farmyard manure; and the deterioration must necessarily be

tion of heat; air and water are both conspicuous in rotten dung, which some requisite for putrefaction. If kept per- times contains nearly half of its nitrogen fectly dry, organic substances remain un- in a soluble condition.

altered for anindefinite period. Fixing Ammonia.--Ammonia is generated in large quantities during the putrefaction of thenitrogenised constituents of dung. It is this free ammonia

Well

made and well - preserved farmyard manure will generally be found to differ comparatively little in value ; and when bought at the ordinary price, the purchaser is pretty sure to get full

which is liable to be lost. Fortunately value for his money, and the specialties some natural provision is made for its of its management are of comparatively conservation .

The straw in course of

little moment to him .

But the case is

putrefaction is, to a great extent, con- very different when the person who uses verted into humic and ulmic acids,which the manure has also to manufacture it.

have a powerful affinity for ammonia, and which, therefore, to a certain extent, fix the ammonia as it is generated. These acids form , with potash, soda, and ammonia, a dark - coloured, very soluble compound. Hence the dark colour of

Though the manure made in the ordinary manner may, weight for weight, be as valuable as at first, the loss during the period of preservation is usually very large, and it becomes extremely import ant to determine the mode in which it

the drainage of dung -heaps.

may be reduced to the minimum . In

Dr Anderson on Dung. — The che- the production of farmyard manure of mical remarks of Anderson on the an- the highest quality, the object to be alyses of Voelcker are worthy of atten- held in view is to retain, as effectually as tion by the farmer : “ On comparing and possible, all the valuable constituents of examining these analyses, it appears that the dung and urine. In the management the differences are by no means great, of the dung-heap there are three things although on the whole they tend to to be kept in view : first, to obtain a show , weight for weight, well -rotted manure containing the largest amount dung is superior to fresh, provided it of nitrogen ; secondly, to convert that has been properly treated. Not only is nitrogen more or less completely into the quantity of valuable matters exist- ammonia ; and, thirdly, to retain it ing in the soluble state materially in- effectually.” 1 Other analyses of dung show from 65 to creased, whereby the dung is enabled to act with greater rapidity , but, owing to 80 per cent of water, from 0.40 to 0.65

evaporation and escape of carbonic acid, per cent of nitrogen, and ash (exclusive of produced by the decomposition of organic earth and sand ) from 2.50 to 3.00 ; the substances, the proportion of those con- ash containing from 0.4 to 0.7 potash and

stituents which are most important to from 0.2 to 0.4 phosphoric acid per cent. This is partic Fertility in a Ton of Dung.-- Even ularly to be noticed in regard to the greater variations than these are to be the plant is increased.

nitrogen, which has distinctly increased met with in the analyses of farmyard in all cases in which the dung has been dung. The manurial value of dung is

kept for some time; and the practical governed by the amount it contains of importance of this observation is very nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid . great, because it hasbeen commonly sup- The quantity of these in one ton may posed that, during the process of putre- range as follows : lb. faction, ammoniais liable to escape into

the air. It would appear, however,

that

there is but little riskof loss in this way,

so long as the dung -heap is left undis turbed ; and it is only when it is turned VOL. II .

Nitrogen

8 8

Potash

Phosphoric acid

.

to 16 to 17

21/2 to 9

1 Anderson's Agric. Chem ., 176-179. G

RES

MANU

98

RING

AND MANU

.

A ton of first-class well -made farmyard about one-half of its most valuable con dung, all kinds mixed, should contain the following, or thereby : ib .

12 to 14 II to 15

Nitrogen Potash

to soluble phosphate of super

Insoluble phosphates (as in bones)

" According to other experiments, the loss on the weight of fresh, common , mixed farmyard manure, at different

periods, approximately, is as follows :

Soluble salts of phosphoric acid (equal phosphate)

stituents.

8 to 9 10 to 13

Produce of Dung per head of Stock .

-The quantity of dung produced by a

“ 10 cwt.of dry food and strawcwt.yield Of recent dung

23 to 25

At the end of six weeks .

21

After eight weeks

.

20

When half rotten

.

When fully rotten .

.

15 to 17 10 to 13."

given number of stock will vary with the

class of stock, the amount of food con Character and Uses of Farmyard Dung. sumed, the quantity of litter supplied, A Complete Manure.- Farmyard

and the amount of rain -water admitted

manure contains all the elements neces

Each farm - horse will make about 12 tons of dung in a year - producing about three-fourths of its food in manure. In stalls or covered courts, full-grown feeding cattle will each

sary for plant-growth , and is therefore a complete manure. If applied in sufficient quantity, it will, without any extraneous aid, maintain fertility even under an in tense system of cropping.

produce from 10 to 12 tons of dung in

Mechanical Uses of Dung. — As a

amongst the dung.

the year, allowing, say, from 10 to 20 lb. manure, dung is valuable, not only for of litter to each per day. In open yards its chemical but also for its mechanical the weight might be about 2 tons per properties. Referring to this point, Sir head more.

The solid excreta of an ox

John Bennet Lawes says that by reason

has been estimated at from 50 to 65 lb. of its bulk and the quantity of organic daily, and liquid from 65 to 95 lb. daily matter it contains, it serves to render the The above quantities of manure made by soil more open and porous, and so enable it stock would thus be still greater if the not only to retain more water in a favour

wholeof the urine were incorporated with able condition, but also to absorb and re tain more of the valuable constituents of

the solid excreta and litter.

Fresh and Rotten Dung. - In refer- the manure, and so arrest the passage of

ence to the effects produced by the rot- them in solution into the drains. Further, ting of farmyard dung, Dr A. Voelcker by the gradual decomposition of the or ganic matter of the dung, the pores of says : “ Direct experiments have shown that the soil become filled with carbonic acid , 100 cwt. of fresh farmyard manure are which probably serves to retard the oxi reduced to 80 cwt. if allowed to lie till

dation of the ammonia into the more sol

the straw is half -rotten ; 100 cwt. of uble form of nitric acid, in which it would fresh farmyard manure are reduced to 6o be more liable to be washed out and lost cwt. if allowed to ferment until it be- by drainage. From these facts, Sir John

comes ' fat or cheesy '; 100 cwt. of fresh considers it will be readily understood farmyard manure are reduced to 40-50 how it is that dung is more lasting in its effects than the more active artificial cwt. if completely decomposed. “ This loss not only affects the water manures. It is well known that, by repeated ap

and other less valuable constituents of

farmyard manure, but also its most fer- plications of farmyard dung, stiff clays tilising ingredient, nitrogen.

Chemical have been rendered more friable. And its

analysis has shown that 100 cwt. of mechanical influence on such soils is more common farmyard manure contain about effective when the dung is applied in a

40 lb. of nitrogen ; and that during fer- rank state,—that is, before the straw it mentation in the first period 5 lb. of contains - or rather,the straw which con nitrogen are dissipated in the form of the tains the manure, -has become thorough volatile ammonia ; in the second, 10 lb .; ly rotten. in the third, 20 lb. Completely decom posed common manure has thus lost

1 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. Eng., ii. 8, 1875.

VARIETIES OF MANURE - FARMYARD DUNG.

99

Dung Heating Soil. — Then it is about 14 or 15 per cent had been re equally certain, though not so generally covered in the increase of crop. From

recognised, that a heavy dressing of this it was calculated that if all the re rank dung benefits the soil by raising maining 3400 lb. of nitrogen had been its temperature. "The temperature of stored up in the soil, in a form as avail the soil is affected by other causes than able as that which had already been used

the sun's rays. Decaying vegetable mat- in the crop, this plot should have been ter is a source of heat, as evidenced by able for 150 years to produce an average the high temperature arising from the of 48 bushels of barley per acre per an fermentation of dung. Farmyard man- num .. Yet with the stopping of the ure thus supplies heat to the soil from annual dressing of dung, the crop showed two different sources, while it helps to a very marked decline. How is this decline to be accounted retain much valuable manurial ingredi? There had, no doubt, been some loss for mineral ents, which, in a more purely " 1

soil, would be washed away .' Lasting Influence of Dung . - The

of nitrogen in drainage , and some may

have been volatilised.

But, upon analy

great lasting influence or " staying power” sis, the soil was found to contain a great of farmyard manure is an important fac- accumulation ofnitrogen, as wellasother tor in practical agriculture. For the full

constituents. This great accumulation of

understanding of the extent, advantages, nitrogen and other constituents of the and risks of this enduring power and dung, if it had remained in the soil in a slow -acting characteristic of farmyard sufficiently available form , would have

dung, it is necessary to refer the reader to supplied the crop with all the food it the results of the Rothamsted investi- could absorb for many years. Why, then,

gations, as described by Mr Warington, does this abundant residue give such a under the heading of “ Rothamsted Ex- poor account of itself ? In reference to

periments ” (pp. 135-169, Div. III.) See this important question, Dr Gilbert re particularly what is said there as to the marks “ that it is only the comparatively accumulation of fertility in soil heavily small proportion of the nitrogen of farm

dressed with dung(pp. 153-167); as to the yard manure which is due to the liquid lower immediate efficiency of the nitrogen dejections of the animals that is in a in dung, as compared with a correspond- readily and rapidly available condition ;

ing amount of nitrogen supplied in am- whilst that due to more or less digested monia salts or nitrate of soda (pp. matter passing in the fæces is more slow 139-146 ) ; as to the loss of the nitrogen ly available, and that in the litter re of dung in nitrates formed during autumn mains a very long time inactive.” The potato experiments at Rothamsted and winter, and washed away in drainagewater (pp. 154-168) ; and as to the loss afforded equally striking evidence of the of surplus nitrogen - that is, of available slow recovery of the nitrogen supplied in nitrogen not immediately assimilated by dung. Fourteen tons of farmyard man a growing crop_by evaporation in the ure, applied every year for six years, form of nitrogen gas (pp. 166-168). yielded in potatoes only 6.4 per cent of

Similar resultsare shown in the Roth- its nitrogen ; while in the next six years, amsted barley experiments. For twenty the same crop every year, without any For twenty years up to 1871, 14 tons of dung were further dressing of manure, recovered

applied every year to one plot for barley, from the residue only 5.2 per cent more and the average produce was 4874 bush- that is, only 11.6 per cent in the course kind was els.

No further manure of

any

of the twelve years.

In other words, at

applied to this plot, upon which barley the end of the twelve years there was was continued, with the result that the still about 88 per cent of nitrogen sup

average yield for the next twelve years plied in the dung unrecovered by the fell off by about one-third. It was esti- crop. mated that of the 4000 lb. of nitrogen An Old Custom Questioned . - All

per acre supplied to the soil in the 14 these are considerations which — although tons of dung for twenty years, only subject to modifications under ordinary farm practice — should have studious at i Mark Lane Express, 1889, p. 412.

tention from farmers. They unquestion

MANURES AND MANURING.

100

ably suggest that in the past farmers might say that the best plan would thus have placed rather too much faith in farmyard manure-—that the old custom of manuring only once in a rotation - of applying with the root-crop a heavy dressing of dung, in the belief that what

be to apply nitrogen in a readily avail able form , just when it is required by the crop , and only in such quantity as may supply the wants of that particular crop. This is, no doubt, sound enough theoreti

of the manure the roots do not appro- cally, and may often be carried into prac priate will remain in the soil and be tice with the best possible results. available for the use of the succeeding But such a course will not, as a rule,

crops— may, in certain circumstances, be be practicable. It would practically ex found to be seriously mistaken . Loss of Residual Manure . — The un-

clude the use of farmyard manure ; and while it would be unwise to overlook

used portions of the manure unfortu- or disregard the important results ob natelydo not, in their entirety or nearly so , remain in the soil available for future crops. Much of this residue — of the most valuable portion of it too — is now

tained under certain conditions at Roth amsted, it would be a still more serious

error now to hastily jump to the other extreme, and unreasonably depreciate or

found, under certain circumstances, to discredit the great value of the fertil escape through channels which were for- ising materials in the solid and liquid merly unsuspected as means of loss. The excreta of farm animals. Practical Conclusions. The prac discovery of the great loss of excess or -

residual nitrogenby the washing away tical points to be kept in view are ,that of nitrates in drainage-water, and by from the investigations as to the behav evaporation as nitrogen gas, throws new iour of nitrogen in the soil, it is seen that

light upon the theory and practice of the enduring character of farmyard man manuring, which farmers cannot afford to ure is not an unmixed advantage to the rent-paying farmer ; that the excess ni

disregard .

Soil an Unreliable Custodian of trogen accumulated in the soil by heavy

Manure.- In times past we have placed dressings of farmyard manureis, in cer too much faith in the soil as the custo- tain circumstances, liable to serious losses While nourish- by drainage and evaporation, and cannot,

dian of costly manure.

ing a growing crop, the soil is commend- therefore,in all cases be to thefull extent ably faithful to its trust, and does not then readily part with its available plantfood, except to the crop itself. But the moment the crop is removed , the soil

depended upon for the nourishment of future crops; that, therefore,the practice of so entirely or mainly trusting to heavy dressings of dung at long intervals for

loses retentive power, and if the condi- the production of profitable crops is volatilising of nitrogen are present, loss the loss of nitrates from land which is of residual nitrogen is liable to set in. rich in residual nitrogen, may be re Moreover, results obtained at Rothamsted duced to a minimum by having the soil tions favourable to the washing away or neither reliable nor economical ; and that

seem to suggest the question whether covered with vegetation throughout the some portion of the nitrogen which ac- entire year, or in cold northern districts

cumulates in the soil may not, in certain by having it bare only in the winter circumstances, undergo some sort of re- months when the temperature is usually version by which it is rendered more too low for the formation of nitrates to

slowly instead of more readily available proceed in the soil. to the crops. Superiority of Dung Questioned.-

Vegetation Preventing the Loss of Nitrates.- For the last-named object

Now nitrogen is the most costly of all the many farmers, especially in England, sow elements of manure .

It is therefore ob-

some forage crop, perhaps rye, soon after

viously desirable that it should not only the removal of a cereal crop. This not be drawn from the cheapest sources, but only engages the attention of unused should also be supplied to the soil so as nitrogen , thus preventing the washing to guard as far as possible against any away ofnitrates, but most likely affords portions of it being lost in the manner a useful feed to sheep in the course just described.

At first thought, one of the winter, and likewise further en

VARIETIES OF MANURE-FARMYARD DUNG.

IOI

riches the soil when ploughed down in unquestionable, therefore, that dung, as spring.

a source of plant-food, has been depre

Cold Weather and Loss of Nitro . ciated in its relative intrinsic worth, factor gen . — The above safeguard , to be sure, and in its importance as

cannot be provided in the cold regions of in agriculture ; and that it should not the north, but then there is, fortunately, count for so much on the credit side of much less necessity for it there. It is the feeding account as it has often done in the form of nitrates in which nitrogen in times gone by. is washed away in drains. Nitrogen is Dung not likely to Diminish in transformed into nitrates by the opera- Production . — But farmyard manure is tions of myriads of living atoms, com- a necessary accompaniment of the rearing In very cold and feeding of stock , and there is little weather, with the temperature at or likelihood that, with the growing import near to freezing-point, these wonderful ance of the live-stock industry,there will little atoms of life seem, with com- be any falling off in the production of mendable beneficence, to relapse into farmyard manure . In all probability it

monly called bacteria.

idleness ; so that at this cold season of will be of a more concentrated character the year the northern farmers may with than in former times. Straw is now being tolerable, if not complete, immunity turned to better purpose as food for stock, from loss of nitrogen, till their land and or in other ways than as litter for cattle.

leave it exposed to the action of frost, The animals may therefore be littered as has been their wont from time im- with smaller quantities of straw , or with memorial.

other substances less bulky, such as peat Making Dung or Selling Crops.— moss litter. But while the dung may We are not to discuss fully the question thus be more concentrated, and less bulky as to whether farmers should endeavour per head of stock than it would be with to make as much dung as possible, or freer use of straw as litter, it is not likely

should sell produce and purchase artifi- that the amount of fertilisers annually cial manures. Local circumstances vary available in the form of farmyard manure

so much that the conditions which deter- for application to the soil will be less in mine the best systemin one case may not

apply equally to another. Much will de-

the future than it has been in the past. A Word for Dung . — Although farm

pend on the locality and character of the yard manure is not likely to loseits hold holding, and the tastes of the tenant- upon the affections of British farmers, it whether favourable to the breeding and

nevertheless seems desirable to remind

feeding of stock, or the growing and sell- the reader that in considering the practi ing of crops ; also upon the fluctuations cal lessons to be drawn from the Rotham

of market prices — especially as to the sted experiments with dung and other relative prices of beef, feeding -stuffs,and manures, it should be kept in view that litter, on the one hand, and of artificial these experiments were not framed as a manures on the other. guide to farmers in pursuing the ordinary Farmers now less Dependent on routine of farm practice. The scientific Dung. – With the abundance of excellent conclusions arrived at are undeniably of

artificial manure in the market, and with the great advance that has been made in the investigation and elucidation of the principles which govern economical and

great value to farmers, but it would be imprudent to attach to them a signifi cance which they were not intended to

and do not possess. If the course of

successful manuring, farmers are now cropping andsystems of tillage pursued much less dependent upon farmyard at Rothamsted had been similar to those manure than in former times. They observed in the rotations followed have no need any longer to consume their throughout the country, the dung would,

crops on the farm for the sake of provid- in all probability, have given a much ing manure with which to restore fertility better account of itself. In particular, to the soil. This may now be accom- it is probable that the accumulation of plished cheaply and efficiently by the use inert nitrogen would have been roused to of other manurial substances, of which greater activity and usefulness, so that exhaustless supplies are at hand. It is under a rotation of crops, with the

MANURES AND MANURING.

102

thorough tillage necessary for roots, the months, when vegetation is most luxu influence of the residue of the dung riant. would have been more

marked than

“ Hence farmyard manure subjected to

it has been upon the continuous growth gradual decay yields up its materials, of the same crops on the same respective especially nitrogen oxidised into nitrates, plots. at that period of the year when they are Professor Wrightson on Dung.- wanted. It is worth notice that the same

Professor Wrightson is a strong advocate forces which liberate nitrogen must also of the superiority of farmyard dung over liberate the mineral and other constitu artificial manures. As to the reasons ents of farmyard dung, gradually and why he thinks farmyard dung should

as required.” 1

hold a strong position in the estimation of the British farmer he says :

“ The first reason, no doubt, is what has been already advanced — the general com position of dung. A great many science students stop here. When they are asked why farmyard manure is a more potent and more valuable manure than many artificial fertilisers, they say it is because of its general composition. But there

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

In addition to farmyard manure there are the various artificial or special man

ures, which supply one or more of the ingredients necessary for the growth of plants. Classification .

These are classified

are a good many other reasons beside, in accordance with the proportion of the one of which is, no doubt, its effect upon more valuable or abundant constituents the mechanical condition of the soil — a present in them , and they are accordingly subject which we have already had before divided into the following groups : nitro us, and which it is therefore not neces- genous, phosphatic, potassic, calcareous sary to further enlarge upon. Then, in manures. The liming of land will be

the third place, there is the reaction of dealt with in a subsequent division of the carbonic acid gas which is evolved the work.

from farmyard dung, upon the mineral matter in the soil.

I do not doubt in

the least that it digests the soil. " I do not doubt that Jethro Tull was

Peruvian Guano. The chief of the nitrogenous manures is guano in its various forms.

In the year 1839, some twenty barrels perfectly right when he said farmyard manure prepared plant-food. No doubt of a red or light-brown substance were it does ; it is the source of carbonic acid imported into Liverpool from one of the

lie adjacent to the Peruvian gas, and we know that that gas in watery islands whichsubstance had been in use

solution reacts on the mineral matter in

the soil with great effect.

coast. The as a manure amongst the natives of Peru

“ Now take another reason . Farmyard for many centuries. It became known dung is rich in nitrogen ; that alone places as guano, a term which takes its origin it on a superior basis to most artificial from the Peruvian word “ huana," dung manures .

It is rich in nitrogen in a state

or manure, which consists of the accumu

of organic combination, from which it is lated droppings of sea - fowls during long liberated slowly by the process of decay, periods of time. that liberation of nitrogen being known As the temperature stands very high as nitrification. Performed under favour- in those regions (lying between 13°

able temperatures,with access of air, and and 21° south latitude), these bird no doubt also assisted by the agency of certain bacteria which work in the soil and produce the peculiar fermentation necessary, this nitrification of farmyard manure in the soil is arrested at freezingpoint. It proceeds very slowly at low

droppings soon dry ; and as the cli mate isalmost a rainless one, much of the soluble ingredients are preserved. The resulting manure is a complex one, possessing a composition similar to farmyard manure. After experiment,

temperatures, and with accelerated speed and when the merits of the guano were

at higher temperatures. Especially does it take place freely during the summer

Principles of Agric. Prac., 152.

j

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

103

brought home to the mind of the farmer, analysis. This arrangement is still in the demand for it rose very quickly. We can form some idea of the estima-

tion in which this manure was held by

existence ; and as a consequence, it is customary for sellers to attempt to sell cargoes upon

“ official analysis."

the Peruvians from the proverb, “Huano,

From the year 1850 to 1870 there was though no saint, works many miracles ; a large increase in the demand for guano, and from the fact that, under the govern- as many as 200,000 tons having been ment of the Incas, the killing of birds imported in a single season . The quality

which frequented the islets in which of the Peruvian deposits was yearly de a capital offence. were explored, resulting in the discovery When the exportation attained con- of deposits in the African coast which siderable proportions, the Peruvian Gov- lies between these latitudes. Ichaboe ernment, by exercising its lordship of was the richest, and Mejillones the These two guanos are fair the soil, created a monopoly of the sale poorest. of guano, which was sold at so much per representatives of what is known in the ton irrespective of quality. The first trade as high -class and low -class guanos.

guano deposits were formed , was made teriorating, and accordingly other coasts

contract made by British merchants was The one contains a large percentage of in 1840 or 1841. They made it a con- ammonia and a low percentage of phos

dition of the contract that for a period phates; the other a high percentage of of four years they would have the ex- phosphates and a low percentage of am clusive right to export from the island monia or none at all. of “ Chincha ” 20,000 tons of guano

Composition of Guanos . — The fol

lowing may be considered as an average The increasing demand and the mono- analysis oftheseguanos, to which is added poly, which raised the price of guano the analysis of “ Pabellon ,” which is now above its real value, together with the offered in the market, and which will yearly.

fact of the richer deposits becoming be seen to be very much lower than the

exhausted , led to guano being sold on others in quality : Phosphates Potash

Ammonia

Peruvian .

Ichaboe.

Mejillones.

" Pabellon . "

24.00

10.86

71.16

32.38

2.00

2.00

2.00

2.IO

17.00

13.00

.75

9.39

These analyses show Peruvian, Ichaboe, made to utilise this offal, which, besides and Pabellon to be rich in nitrogen, and

the heads and entrails of all the larger

are therefore called nitrogenousor high- fish, and the cleanings of the herring class guano . To these may be added curing stations, often included large

“ Punta de Lobos,” ” Huanillos,” which quantities of entire herring which the are somewhat richer in phosphates and curers were unable to manipulate. Neigh poorer in ammonia .

bouring farmers bought large portions of

Mejillones is purely phosphatic, and is this offal; but frequently they could not a low -class guano. The latter term , use up the supplies, so that many boat however, embraces guanos which contain loads of fish were emptied into the sea anything under 4 per cent ammonia and as being the only means of getting rid of over 40 per cent phosphates. The ab- the material. Such excessive waste could not long sence of ammonia is due to these guanos

being deposited in climates where fre- continue in the light of the nineteenth

These century. At length, at the various fish heavy rains supply the moisture neces- ing - stations, factories were erected in

quent and heavy rains occur.

sary to set up fermentation in the guano, which the offal is submitted to the and they wash away the soluble salts action of steam at a high pressure, and

and ammonia which are the products of afterwards it passes through the hydrau this fermentation .

lic press, by which means the greater portion of the oil is extracted .

Fish Guano.

The

whole mass is next passed through the Formerly there was great loss of fish- disintegrator, and thus is produced the offal.

In many cases no attempt was article known as fish guano.

MANURES AND MANURING.

104

Composition of Fish Guano. — The per cent of ammonia, but no other fertil composition of fish guano varies from 8 to 12 per cent of ammonia, and from 15 to 30 per cent of phosphates. The fish guano in the market seldom contains more than about 9 or 10 per cent of ammonia and 16 to 20 per cent of phos phates. But there is also present from 3 to 6 or 8 per cent of oil, which detracts

ising matter of much importance. They are used principally in the manufacture

of dissolved and compound manures, and contribute to the percentage of ammonia in these. Nitrate of Soda. Nitrate of soda, otherwise known as

from the value of this manure, as the Chili saltpetre or cubic nitre, is the

oil retards the dissolving of the elements most abundant and best known of these of plant nutrition which the fish guano salts. contains. This salt is a natural product of the soil in tropical climates, and as to its Frey Bentos Guano. formation, several theories, less or more In the manufacture of Liebig's extract different, are entertained. A fulldescrip of meat there is a large residue of flesh, tionor discussion of these theories need bone, and muscle.

These substances are

not be attempted here.

mixed together, dried, and ground, the product being a flesh guano, if we may so term it. In other instances a large supply is obtained from diseased meat

it is made from the action of water, im pregnated with soda salts upon guano. Others attribute its formation to sea weeds, which, by their decay, have given

and animal refuse of all kinds.

rise to nitrate of lime, which reacted

canic action . The sea -water on its evap oration would leave a large salt deposit,

The unequal character of natural thus furnishing the source of the large treated (some would say spoiled ) with nitrate beds. The lime would, according

guano in recent years has led to its being quantity of soda salts found in these

sulphuric acid, and its composition being to this sea -weed theory, be supplied by otherwise altered by the introduction of sea-shells, &c. ammonia from sulphate of ammonia , dried blood , or other organic source.

The chief sources of supply are Chili, Peru, and Bolivia, where it occurs in

This process dissolves the phosphates beds varying from 10 inches to 16 feet and organic matter, making these more in depth, sometimes quite near the sur soluble, and the nitrogenous matter face, but generally covered by several

as “ Costra." The raises the percentage of ammonia, so that feet of a layer known nitrate of soda is found

This regions in which commodity is known as Dissolved Peru- are quite destitute of vegetation, and vian Guano. there is often a period of several years Composition . — Dissolved Peruvian without rain . These beds lie in the an active manure is the result.

guano is usually in good mechanical Pampas known as “ Los Salinas, " which It seldom contains more is over 40 leagues in extent, and literally

condition .

than 8 per cent ammonia, and perhaps covered with beds of nitrate of soda. from 20 to 23 per cent soluble phosThe supply may be looked upon as phates, and 3 or 4 per cent insoluble almost inexhaustible. In its native state

phosphates.

it is mixed with impurities, notably chloride of sodium (common salt ) and Dried Blood, dc.

sulphate of potash, soda, lime, &c. ' But Dried blood, horn -dust, shoddy, and before exportation it undergoes a pro other waste products from the shambles cess of refining which renders it com

or factory, mayall be treated as insoluble paratively pure, 5 per cent being about nitrogenous substances, coming into ac- theamount of impurities remainingin it. tion slowly.

They contain from 5 to 16

Nitrate of soda, when first introduced

.

Composition. — The composition of upon sulphate of soda,the products being flesh guano varies from about 8 to 13 nitrate of soda and sulphate of lime. It per cent ammonia, and from about 10 is supposed that these beds were at one time isolated lagoons - isolated by vol to 20 per cent phosphates. Dissolved Guanos.

!

Some hold that

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

105

as an artificial manure, came into great every farmer, as he is in many instances, repute amongst farmers as a fertiliser. perhaps unknown to himself, producing Its high price, however, and the lack of this salt in the soil of his farm . correct views as to its action and un-

Forming Nitre - beds . — A brief de

sound mode of application, brought it scription of how nitre-beds are formed into such ill favour that on some estates will place the matter clearly before our its use as a manure was in certain cir- readers. A quantity of fertile loam is cumstances prohibited . procured, and with it is incorporated

In recent years, however, with more highly nitrogenous organic matter - such enlightened views as to its character and as blood, flesh, liquid manure, stable action, a steady increase in the demand manure, &c.

To this is added chalk or

has arisen. Indeed this salt is to a large old mortar - lime, and the whole mass extent, as a source of nitrogen, taking the turned over once or twice, after which place of that now more variable commo- the soil is washed and the water evap

dity Peruvian guano. We find that in orated, when the residue is found to be the year 1880, 50,000 tons of nitrate of crystals of nitrate of potash . soda were imported, while in 1887 the

The chemical changeswhich here take

imports of it exceeded 110,000 tons. It is likely, indeed , that the output of nitrate of soda will soon reach a million tons annually. At the present time

place are as follows : The decay of or ganic matter is hastened by the lime, and produces nitric acid. Ammonia is produced, and becoming oxidised it is

nitrate of soda is the cheapest source converted into nitric acid, which com

of nitrogen in the market, and has become the most important of the artificial manures . It usually consists of 95 per cent pure nitrate of soda, which is equal to about 19 per cent of am

bines with the lime in the first instance, and afterwards with the liberated pot ash, and thus is evolved the nitrate of potash. Nitrification.

monia .

Theory of Nitrification . — The latest Nitrate of Potash .

theory in connection with nitrification is

This salt is much more valuable than that organic matter, when it is allowed

nitrate of soda, both commercially and free contact with the air from an agricultural standpoint. Nitrate within certain ranges of of soda supplies only one of the ingredi- undergoes changes which ents of plant-food, whilst nitrate of pot- into simple bodies. This

and moisture temperature,

break it up result is pro

ash provides two - nitrogen and potash, duced by the presence of myriads of

- and is a valuable manure where ap- minute organisms termed " bacteria " plied to soils poor in clay and where no farmyard manure has been applied.

the Micrococcus nitrificans of Van Teighern, and other forms of bacteria .

Nitrate of potash has been imported These living bodies feed upon the nitro from India for many years, it being the genous matter, and increase in numbers nitre or saltpetre of commerce. The at a rate of which we can have but little

source of this Indian nitrate of potash conception. Every fertile soil, therefore, is believed to be human urine which had becomes the home of countless millions at some time been poured upon the soil, of these living organisms which carry on

these nitre-beds being found near the the work of nitrification, so that, as Pro sites of ancient cities. Until lately its fessor Cohn tersely puts it, “ Putrefac high price prevented farmers from using tion is the concomitant not of death but it as a manure.

of life.”

Conditions which favour Nitrifi It is, however, produced by artificial means, which is of interest to farmers, cation . — The conditions necessary for

as seen in the nitre-beds or saltpetre the life and development of the nitrifi

plantations which originated in France cation ferment are,-a) temperature during the last century so as to obtain a above 40° Fahrenheit and under 130° supply of nitre for the manufacture of Fahrenheit most favourable tempera

gunpowder. The manner in which this ture, 100° Fahrenheit, development at nitre is produced ought to be studied by that temperature being as great in a

MANURES AND MANURING .

106

few days as in months at a lower ; of ammonia. Another source of supply, (6) a certain amount of moisture ; which appears to be almost without limit,

(c) presence of organic matter, mine- is obtained in the manufacture of pig ral constituents of plant-food, carbonate iron into steel, but perhaps the largest of lime, and a plentiful supply of oxygen.

source of sulphate of ammonia is that

Any excess of putrefying organic matter obtained by the conversion of shale into in a soil is against nitrification. It is paraffin -oil. The production has been found to be most active near the surface largely increased by, if it has not been of the soil ; it is not found much below altogether due to, the introduction of 18 inches. Strong sunlight is not so the retort, invented by Young and Beilby, favourable as darkness. The bacteria by the oil companies into their works.

are easily killed by poisons, such as

The process by which the sulphate is

ferrous sulphate of iron, coal - tar, and produced is similar to that carried out sulphuretted hydrogen. at the gas -works. The preceding are the chief nitrogen Hellriegel's Theory . - A still further development in the theory of the forma- ous manures which are at present market

tion of nitric acid has been recently announced by a Continental savant named Hellriegel, who by careful observation, and a series of experiments on the manner of growth of legumes

3

able commodities. Other substances might be mentioned, but they are either too expensive for use as manures ,or con tain their organic matter in such insol uble compounds as to be practically

or pod-plants, has arrived at the con- worthless . clusion that the excrescences or warts

found on the roots of these are large Characteristics of Nitrogenous Manures. ly composed of bacteria, or fungoid There are a few points in connection matter, which have the power of with manures which should be carefully

changing the inert nitrogen of the at- considered by farmers, so that they may mosphere into the active form , as seen be guided to a wise selection of manures in nitrates or ammonia .

to suit their varied circumstances as to

There appears to be a wide difference soil, climate, and crop. Essential Points. - It should in par between the organisms of this orderand those present where organic matter is in ticular be borne in mind , ( 1 ) that the

process of decay, as the latter can work solubility of a manure depends on the only upon organic nitrogen , and break minute division of its parts; (2) that it up into simpler forms. It would be the greater the solubility, the quicker its unsafe as yet to draw definite conclu- action ; (3) that the shorter the time a sions ; but if this discovery is confirmed crop occupies the ground, the more abun by further research, there can be no

dant and the more soluble must be the

doubt it will lead to a considerable

manure ; and (4) that the rate of the

ib

1

change in the system of cropping and growth of a crop ought to indicate the The preceding will, at all kind of manure, and the best state in events, serve to suggest the reason why which to apply it.

manuring.

If these points are kept in view , the a big crop of wheat generally follows a classification of manures in relation to heavy crop of clover. their activity, and their action on thecrop Sulphate of Ammonia . and in the soil, will be comparatively Until recently, the chief source from easy. which sulphate of ammonia was obtained Slow and Active Manures. - A man was a by -product from the distillation of ure may, however, be perfectly soluble coal in the manufacture of gas. The am monia set free is absorbed in water at a

and yet not be available to the plant. It depends on the form in which its

low temperature, which, on being heated elements are combined whether the plant acid.

These enter into combination,and phate of ammonia are equally soluble

sulphate of ammonia is the result. Pure salts, but both are not alike available samples contain from 22 to 25 per cent for plant - food. Nitrate being a com

1.27 det --?-

by steam , gives off the ammonia, which will absorb it or not. For instance, nitrate of soda and sul is received in vessels containing sulphuric

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

107

pound of nitric acid and an alkaline base, applied to grass, nitrate of soda checks is readily absorbed and elaborated into the growth of clover, which , it would

the tissues of the plant; whilst, at any seem , dislikes the presence of an acid, rate to most plants , sulphate of ammonia although the acid is of great benefit to is not available until the ammonia ab- plants of a different order. sorbs oxygen , and is converted into nitric acid .

Action of sulphate of Ammonia.

The latter, therefore, does not Sulphate of ammonia being slower in its

come into action so quickly, and ought to action- -see above - gives more time es be applied to the land before the plant pecially for roots to grow , and on this

is ready to absorb it. Nitrate of soda, account the roots grown on land to on the other hand, is most economically which sulphate of ammonia is applied applied after the plant has developed its are oftendenser and heavier, and of leaf-surface to a greater or less extent.

better feeding qualities than where ni

Ammonia by trate of soda has been applied. This is Plants. — It is considered by some to true, although the direct action of the be too sweeping an assertion to say two is identical, and chiefly confined to Assimilation

of

that ammonia is not in any case avail- the shaws, the roots being injured in

able to plants until it is converted into keeping and feeding qualities by an ex nitric acid.

It is admitted that most

cessive dressing of either.

It has been shown by experiment that plants assimilate their nitrogen in the form of nitrates ; but that someplants, sulphate of ammonia improves grass both more especially at certain periods of in quantity and quality . Nitrate of Soda and Sulphate of growth, have the power of assimilating their nitrogen in the form of am- Ammonia Compared . — We have seen

monia would seem to be indicated by that sulphate of ammonia contains con

certain experiments by Lehmann. It is siderably more nitrogen than nitrate of pretty generally admitted that the leaves soda, the most general proportion being

of plants have the power of absorbing about 13 in the former to 10 in the latter. Experience, however, has shown Action of Nitrate of Soda . — Nitrate that the nitrogen in the nitrate of soda of soda, as will be seen further on, is is the more effective, producing at feebly retained by the soil, and should Rothamsted and Woburn about 14 per carbonate of ammonia from the air.

therefore be applied only to supply the cent more barley, and from about 5 to

wants of the crop then growing. The surplus will find its way to the subsoil, and may escape in the drainage -water. It exhausts the soil more quickly than any other manure, if the soil is unaided by the application of other manures. The

25 per cent more wheat, than sulphate of ammonia ; while, when applied with potash salts and phosphates to grass-hay and potatoes, similar results were ob tained. When applied alone, the nitrate

of soda was far superior to the sulphate reason of this is, that its action in the of ammonia . With mangels the evi first instance tends to increase the leaf- dence in favour of nitrate of soda has

surface of crops, which therefore make been still more striking. It may thus larger demands upon the soluble constit- be taken as fully established, that al uents of the soil, resulting in a heavier yield per acre. But if care is taken to · have the soil sufficiently furnished with the other elements of plant-food, this exhausting influence of the nitrate may

though sulphate of ammonia may con tain nearly one-third more nitrogen than nitrate of soda, it is not, as a rule, worth to the farmer more than from one- tenth

to one-eighth more money per ton . Guano, when of fairly good quality, The turnips and other roots produced gives better results than either nitrate of from nitrate of soda are light in weight, soda or sulphate of ammonia . porous and inferior in feeding qualities, Excessive Nitrogenous Applications and are apt to decay when touched by Injurious. — The excessive application of frost. In a dry season, nitrate of soda nitrogenous manure tends to increase

be effectually counteracted .

gives better results than sulphate of the percentage of nitrogen and diminish ammonia, and increases the produce of that of phosphoric acid in the composi straw , but produces light grain. When

tion of plants.

This fact leads to wide

MANURES AND MANURING .

108

issues ; for the relation between the soil

manures, one should not overlook the

and plant is in no way closer than that fact that some soils have a greater power between plants and animals. From this of retaining manures than others, and we have weed and diabetes in that some manures part with one or more horses, and, where phosphates are defi- of their elements more readily than others.

cause

cient, rickets, rotten teeth, and late dentition, & c., &c. Nitrogenous Salts are not suited for grain crops when applied alone, as the tendency is to produce straw at the expense of the grain. But when these are mixed with phosphates, excellent results are obtained .

The power of a soil to retain manure was at one time thought to be a mere physical

property pertaining to it, but later re search has modified that opinion. Mr Way, in the Journal of the Royal Agri cultural Society of England,clearly proves by experiment, that when solutionsof the various salts are filtered through a layer

Slow Manures for Slow Crops.— of earth, and the solution, after filtration, The period of time during which the is analysed, it is found to have lost all or crop occupies the ground has a consider- nearly all the substances which it held in able influence upon the economical use solution - it being the base rather than of soluble manures .

Wheat takes often the acid which the soil had the power of

seven to nine months to mature, and dur- retaining.

This affinity is greater in ing that period will have plenty of time some soils than in others, the following touse up the soil constituents which are being the order : arable soil— clay, peaty, Barley, on the other calcareous, sandy. It has also been slowly soluble.

hand, is often harvested in four months found that the soil has a greater power or less; so that this cereal, being a of retaining some manures than others, shallow -rooted plant, will require readily the following being the order, those

soluble manure in greater abundance. having the greater affinity being placed For this reason , top - dressing once or first : ammonia, potash, magnesia, lime, twice with any of the more soluble nitro- soda. In explanation of this, Mr Way ad genous manures, mixed with superphosphates, would give the best results; for it vances the following theory : In soils

must be kept in view that crops can take there are double silicates of lime and up nitratesonly when solublephosphates alumina. If potash be brought into and potash are present.

contact with this double silicate, it re

Action of Guano. — Guano is both a places the lime ; sulphate of lime and the quick and a slow acting manure . The ammonia present in guano is to the extent of one-third or more in the form of salts which are readily soluble ; the other portion is in the form of compounds

double silicate of potash and alumina are produced. Silicate of alumina com bines readily with ammonia, and least so with soda, &c.

Others, again, maintain that the oxide

Its phosphates of iron, which is abundantly present in are of secondary consideration ; but most soils, absorbs the ammonia. Mr

more or less soluble.

when guano of good quality can be Warington also finds that this oxide acts obtained, it is undoubtedly the best upon superphosphates. The soluble phos phoric acid may also be retained by re that is, next to farmyard manure. Its combining with lime and forming a slowly

manure in the hands of the farmer-

use has now become limited by its high soluble salt. price and very variable composition. Conserving Manures in Soils .Horn, Dried Blood, Shoddy, Wool- All agree, however, that the soil has little waste, &c., are very slowly acting man- or no power of retaining nitrates in any ures, and are, in consequence, more fitted combination. We must therefore look

for pasture-land than for quick-growing to some other means to preserve this crops.

But in a dry season they may valuable manure. The growth of catch

prove as effective on the root crops as the more soluble forms. They are used chiefly to fortify dissolved manures. Power of Soils to retain Manures. -In connection with the more soluble

crops has been recommended for this purpose. But this is impracticable in many instances, such as in ploughed land preparatory to the turnip crop. The work of the farm must go on in a regu

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

109

lar manner, and the leaving of the fallow of the latter county would seem to have unploughed until spring would throw the fully appreciated the beneficial action of work into confusion.

Where the land bones. Their active system of grazing

can be kept under crop of any kind this should certainly be done, for the nitrates will be preserved by being absorbed by the roots and elaborated into the tissues of the plants as albumen. It seems, however, that in this as well as in many operations connected with

with dairy cattle had greatly exhausted the phosphates of the soil, and the effect which followed a liberal dressing with bones was simply marvellous. Indeed the pastures to which they had been

applied very soon increased in value by 30s. per acre.

agriculture ,where the farmer fails nature

Fame of Bone -manure . — As would

steps in and provides a remedy. This may be understood when we are aware that nitrification proceeds in exact proportion to the rise or fall of temperature,

be expected, the story of this wonderful result rapidly attained notoriety, and led to an extended use of bones as manure in these districts. The small home-supply

being at a minimum during winter, and of bones soon became exhausted, and the ceasing entirely aboutfreezing -point. We importation of bones from Germany and thus see that, during the season of least

Northern Europe speedily developed into

growth, nitrates are not produced, or a regular trade, of which Hull was the produced only in small quantity ; but as chief centre. the temperature rises, and growth begins,

The bone-trade of Hull now became a

then the bacteria resume operations, in- leading factor in the agricultural world,

creasing in their productive powers until and the benefits which arose to all classes they reach the maximum during summer in the community may be summed up in

when the heat is greatest, and at the the proverb, “One ton of German bone period of the greatest growth, and when dust saves theimportation of ten tons of nitrogen is most largely required for the German corn . Benefits from the use of Bone further developmentofthe plants. >

Action of Nitrogen greatest on

manures .

- But a direct increase in

Young Plants.- We learn from experi- production was not the only benefit re

ments conducted by Arendt that the sulting from the use of bones as manure.

presence of albuminoids, which are largely The use of bone-manure played a leading composed of nitrogen, is greatest during part in the extension of turnip -culture, the first period of the growth of plants, and in the consequent change of the

and becomes a gradually diminishing whole system of farming formerly prac quantity until it nearly reaches maturity. tised - changes which have led not only The beneficial action of a soluble form

to a large increase in the production of

of nitrogen, such as in nitrate of soda,

food, but gave rise to that spirit of in

may be understood from this, especially quiry which has evolved and placed when applied to young grass or corn within our reach the mass of valuable crops when they come into braird . Phosphatic Manures.

information embraced in the term “ Agri cultural Chemistry." Forms of Bone -manure . — Bones have

Bones . — The use of bones as a source

been applied to the soil in many forms of phosphoric acid and nitrogen for the and conditions - raw or green, boiled, growth of crops, began longbefore the burned , broken, bruised , ground, fer

underlying principles of manuring were mented, and dissolved. understood . The reason why an increase of crops should follow an application of

Raw , Broken , and Bruised Bones.

-Raw bones, when dried so as to lose bones was consequently the subject of no more weight, are found to be made many unsound theories. up on an average of 28 per cent organic Early use of Bone - manure.— The matter and 72 per cent of inorganic first authentic account we have of the matter or bone -earths. The presence of

use of bones in this country tells of their these is determined as to quantity by

application in many parts of Yorkshire. the kind of animal, its age, and the state Soon after they were applied to the ex- of preservation of the bone. Organic Matter in Bones . — The or hausted pastures of Cheshire, the farmers

MANURES AND MANURING.

IIO

ganic matter is almost entirely composed lost part of their organic matter would of ossein or cartilage. This substance is also largely enter into the composition of very rich in nitrogen, which yields on an this dust. Hence their inferior quality. It is

Fineness of Division appreciated.

not, however, present in all bones in the

— The requirements of the turnip crop,

same proportion . In young growing animals the cartilage is present ingreater proportion than in an aged one, as the bones of the latter are composed largely of bone-earth , and are in consequence

however, increased the demand for

much more brittle, and when broken in

ever since remained the favourite form

average 22 per cent of ammonia .

quickly acting manure, so that farmers began to find out that the smaller the division the more soluble the manure. Thus bone-meal came into use, and has

a live animal take a much longer time in which to apply insoluble phosphates to mend,

Bones, again, are often col- to the soil.

lected from the plains of Russia and

Fermented Bones. — Before Liebig's

various parts of America, where they discovery of dissolving bones with acid, have been so long lying exposed to at various methods were tried to increase mospheric influences, that it is found the solubility of bones, fermentation being much if not all of the cartilage has dis- one of many.

It consists of mixing the

appeared. It has also to be considered bones with earth and saturating the that the manufactures of soap , glue, and mass with liquid manure, and allowing gelatine often abstract a part of this the heap to remain for a week or two substance along with fatty matter which before using. Some farmers in the adheres to fresh bones. Itmay therefore present dayferment their bone-meal by be accepted as a rule applicable to this throwing it into a heap after mixing it as well as to all phosphaticmanures which with water. In about a week the heat have not been adulterated, that the higher of the fermentation is at its greatest

the percentage of ammonia, the lower the height, after which the heap will de percentage of phosphates; and conversely, crease in bulk and change in colour, a high rate of phosphates means a low the latter being due to the presence of rate of ammonia. Preparing Bone -manure.

insects and germ -life, which attack the

When organic portion of the bone and de bones were first used, they were simply compose it. There can be no doubt

chopped into pieces or broken by ham- this process hastens the solubility of mers.

The advantage of their being bones. Bone -ash soon apparent, and mills

broken was

and Bone - flour. - In the

were erected at nearly all the ports at manufacture of glue and gelatine, and which cargoes of foreign bones arrived . as a source of ammonia , bones have Steam -power was first employed in break- been long used. The residue was found ing bones by Mr Anderson of Dundee to be an excellent manure in a much in 1829, his machinery preparing the more soluble form than could be attained bones in the form of 12-inch, 14 -inch, by any process of grinding. bones were thus brought under the notice For some time farmers seemed to be of farmers. But before this, bones were satisfied with these sizes, as they con- boiled to extract the fatty matter and and dust.

sidered that grinding the bones smaller part of their gelatine, by soap -boilers for detracted from theirbeneficial and last- the manufacture of soap. The residue ing effect. The more observant, how- was found to be more active than ordi

ever, by watching the progress of their nary crushed bones. We are now aware crops, noticed that the bone-dust came that in the manufacture of dissolved more quickly into action, and that it was bones this fatty matter carbonises and

mainly due to impurities that dust was forms an impervious layer over each

not in favour. The dust being the small fragment of bone, preventing the acid particles which passed through the riddles from acting upon it. of the mills, would contain all the sand Fat in Manure disadvantageous. and earthy matter which would find a The same process occurs in the soil. An

lodgment in the hollow parts of the bone; impervious envelope is formed around and much of the old bones which had the bone-fragments by the fat, and the

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

III

action of acids which are generated is terbalances this fact to a certain extent.

prevented , thereby retarding solution. Fat is of no manurial value. We would therefore infer that bone-

Burned Bones. — The burning of

meals of all descriptions would be en- bones is a wasteful process to effect the hanced as fertilisers if these fats were same object. In this form they are removed before grinding. largely imported from South America for Steamed bone- flour undergoes a more the manufacture of superphosphates. In

searching process, as the bones are intro- this process the nitrogen is entirely dis duced into a Papin's digester, and sub- sipated. No doubt it is a concentrated mitted to the action of steam at a high form in which to obtain phosphates, but pressure, which removes a portion of, and the plan is not commendable . Its only

in some instances nearly all, the organic redeeming point is that the charcoal

matter, thereby disintegrating thesub- resultingfromthe burning of bones can stance of the bone, which is afterwards be used for other purposes, sugar-refin reduced to an impalpable powder. The ing, &c., before it comes to the farmer abstracting of the gelatine decreases the as a manurial substance. manurial value, as it

the only source

Analyses of Bone - manure . - The

of nitrogen ; but the percentage of phos- following are analyses of average sam phates is largely increased, which coun- ples : Crushed

Moisture .

Organic matter 1 Phosphate of lime Carbonate of lime Insoluble matter

Yielding ammonia

Steamed

Russian Bones

Bones .

(steamed). 6.80

Bones .

Bone. meal.

7.13

7.45

36.61 48.32

41.85 46.36

67.53

7. II

9.31

.83

3.66 .68

100.00

100.00

100.00

4.56

5.27

1.94

5.20 17.50

16.70 59.31

.46

1.80

Analyses similar to the above are very weight of sulphuric acid diluted with general in trade circulars. It may be three or four parts of water, and after

explained, however, that bone-meal, made they have been digested for some time, by crushing pure bones from cattle, horses, to add about 100 parts of water, and to

or sheep, would not contain quite so sprinkle this acid -mixture (phosphate of much as 5.27 per cent of ammonia. In líme) before the plough," it was thought a bone- meal with the above analyses a solution to the problem had been

there would likely be a good deal of found. The plan could hardly be said to have be made partly of the bone of fish. come into use, as it was open to much skinny matter crushed up, or it might

The Russian bones of commerce are steamed .

objection on account of the form in which

the bones were to be applied to the soil. Dissolved Bones . — About the year A dressing of i cwt. of the dissolved

1840 a new departure was made in the mixture, entailing the application of manufacture of bones as manure.

The nearly aton of water, was simply imprac

development of this trade was rapid and ticable in most cases of ordinary farm

extensive, but farmers became at last ing. A remedy was found in putting less acid in the mixture, and thereby produc bones could not be carried to such a ing a nearly dry product whichcould be point as to suit the requirements of the sown by hand or machine. This sub turnip crop. Mechanical means had been stance came quickly into favour with all alive to the fact that the division of

tried , and had not, to the full extent, classes of farmers, as they found the fulfilled the purpose.

manure to be easy of application, rapid

But when Liebig announced that in its action, and in most climates and soils never failed to produce an increase of effecting their division is to pour over of crops. the bones, in a fine powder, half their Dissolving of doubtful Advantage.

“ the most easy and practical method

MANURES AND MANURING.

II2

-From the accounts to which we have had access, there would seem to have

been, until recently, a good deal too much manuring with dissolved bones. There can be no doubt of their efficacy, but we cannot help agreeing with Dr

7 cwt. bone-meal 14

11

15

11

3

11

I

11

coprolites acid sulphuric water Сурвит

40

Aitken when he says, “ Considering the

enormous quantity of mineral superphosphates now available, I am strongly of opinion that it is a mistake to dissolve bones, and that they are put to a much

This will give about 22 to 25 per cent soluble phosphate, from 8 to 12 insoluble, and about i per cent ammonia. It is specially important to notice that the

better use by applying them in their material from which the manure derives natural state in as finely ground a con- its name is present only to the extent of

being made dition as they can possibly be got. The nearly 1-6th part, the balance ls. Now let a germ-life in the soil and in the bones will up of cheaper materia

very rapidly convert the whole into a mixture of bone-meal and ordinary super

form available for the nourishment of phosphates be made up to give the fore plants ; but to dissolve bones in sulphuric going percentages, and our point is made. acid is to kill out the germ-life within it,

But there is another view . The farmer

for and retard the decayof any nucleus of is paying the dissolved - bone price super

bone it may contain .”

materials which he can buy at a

Bones and Mineral Phosphates.- phosphate rate.

That is, for 2 tons of a

Bones contain nitrogen and phosphates. substance which is made up to the extent Mineral phosphate contains only phosphates, but when dissolved this phosphate is probably as efficient a plantfood as phosphate obtained from bones. Some chemists still maintain that the origin influences the manurial value of the phosphates ; but the idea is gaining

of 33 cwt. of superphosphate materials, he is paying a dissolved -bone price. Further elucidation of this, and the

chemical changes which are involved in dissolving bones, are given under Super phosphates, p . 116.

The dissolving of bones and other ground that the only difference which manures has developed now into a great exists between the forms bone and industry, and, as a consequence, all

from mineral phosphates — is the presence of qualities are offered in themarket, This nitrogen, high -class dissolved bone down to adul

nitrogen in the bones.

however, can be readily introduced in terated rubbish entirely unworthy of the some other form ; and thus would result name of manure. Analyses of Dissolved Bones. — The a manure about equal to bones. To put

are average analyses of three following it another way, ordinary dissolved bones classes of dissolved bones :

are made up as follows :

Dissolved Bones .

No. 2 . Dissolved Bones .

10.68 7.12

9.92 5.32

78.36 3.84

78.30 6.46

3.28 80.92 6.40

Equal to tricalcic phosphate, rendered " soluble ” 23. 32

21.68 7.76

20.56

15.56 3.03

2.00

No. 1.

Phosphoric acid in a soluble state 1

Phosphoric acid in an insoluble state2 Lime, sulphuric acid, & c. . Insoluble matter

2 Equal to insoluble phosphate of lime a Ammoni

No. 3.

Dissolved Bones.

9.40

7.20 1.38

Coprolites.

appreciated, increased attention was given to the question of manuring, and active

Origin of the Manure - trade.

research was made for other fertilisers .

Fresh substances were found, and in the agriculture of this country with the proved to be successful and economical introduction of bones as a manure . As as fertilisers. A large increase in the the results obtained became known and demand for these manures rapidly arose, It hasbeen shown that a new era began

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

113

and with this movement began the man- are of various qualities. Those found in ure - trade of this country, which has the Suffolk Crag, in Buckingham, &c., developed from small beginnings to the were at one time known as false or

immense volume of about 600,000 tons pseudo-coprolites, from their containing a considerable quantity of alumina and Cambridge Road - scrapings. - In oxide of iron . It has been suggested

per annum .

the rise and progress of this trade the by Dr Buckland that the coprolite of effect of any substance when used as a this description was at one time chalk,

manure was closely observed, and thus which , after absorbing phosphoric acid we can therefore understand how the from the decay of organic matter, was

road -scrapings of Cambridge came into ultimately altered by natural forces into notice.

These scrapings, on being ex- a mineral phosphate.

Another theory as to the origin of amined , were found to be in part composed of phosphate of lime, obtained from these and other mineral phosphates has phosphatic nodules, which were dug up also had support. It was supposed

out of the underlying " greensand," that they were at one time nearly the and used for repairing roads. Dr Buck- same as many of the phosphatic guano land , their discoverer, found these nod- deposits, and had been altered by rains ules to be a mineral phosphate, and con- and afterwards by changes in the earth's sequently nearly insoluble. They are crust, so as to be converted into the now known under the name of coprolites. nodules or phosphatic rocks, now so A considerable period elapsed after the largely employed in the manufacture of discovery of these nodules before they superphosphates. came to be used as manure. The writDissolving or Grinding.– Until re

ings of Henslow and Hérapath , who min- cently, chemists were of opinion that utely described the extent and composi- mineral phosphates, unless treated with tion of this manurial wealth, effectedthis acids, were practically useless as a man object by bringing these resources under

ure.

Modern research, however, has

the notice of the Royal Agricultural shown that, if ground to an impalpable powder, they are of considerable value Origin of Coprolite. — Coprolites, or as fertilisers. dungstones, are the excrements and reWe shall not here attempt to deter

Society of England.

mains of saurians or lizards, Ammonites, mine or pronounce upon their precise Belemnites, &c.

relative value in a dissolved or undis

Sources of Coprolite. — The digging solved state. As yet, indeed, this ques of coprolites was at first confined to the tion occupies a debatable position in

midland counties, where they were found chemical investigation. All, however, in the greensands of Cambridge, the agree that coprolites, when dissolved , green marls, the gault, the bone-beds become a safe and valuable source of of the Lias, Ludlow bone-beds, Suffolk phosphoric acid for plant-growth. Crag, & c. After a time immense deComposition of Coprolites.

The

posits were found in various parts of following are average analyses of copro

Europe and America. These deposits lites by Sibson : Cambridge.

Moisture . Phosphoric acid Lime Carbonic acid

Other matters Sand

1 Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime

. .

1.24 26.80

Bedford . 2.06

Suffolk ,

Carolina .

French .

1.03 25.50 37.24

1.04 25.70

20.80

1.90

43.26

23.52 33.46

7.10 12.70

16.54 24.42

20.50 12.13

16.76

8.90

19.12

31.94 3.80 15.03 26.53

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

58.50

51.34

55.67

56.10

45.41

37.38

3.60

The preceding are very similar in com-

But there are many other sources of

position, and may be taken as fair repre- insoluble phosphates. We shall men tion briefly a few of those best known . sentatives of the phosphatic nodules. VOL . II .

н

MANURES AND MANURING .

114

and masses. It exists in lesser quantities

Apatite, Phosphorite, and Phosphatic Layers.

in other parts of the world . Phosphatic layers are generally poor in

These substances occur in varied proportions in nearly all rocks,but are more abundantly present in the Metamorphic. They are much alike in character and composition. The existence of these layers, veins, and pockets seems to be

quality, and aremet with in the Silurian rocks, notably in Wales. Phosphorite is very abundant in some parts of Portu gal, but these sources have not as yet been fully developed in consequence of bad roads. It is more sparsely present

due to the decay of organic matter; the in Spain and Germany. The Canadian residue being mixed up with shells of phosphorite beds have not been fully various kinds in which phosphate of lime explored. The specimens which have is present in considerable abundance- been sent to the market are extremely

these being deposited during long periods hard and brittle, very difficult to grind ; of time, and compressed amongst the the powder obtained being minute glassy other rock -material. Granite and syenite particles of a crystalline form . This seem to be more largely interspersed with

renders it more insoluble than most other

these substances than other rocks, and phosphatic materials. we have, in consequence, the best corn-

These substances are for the most part

growing lands on soils which overlie these manufactured into superphosphates. Composition of Phosphorite. - Un

rocks.

dernoted are aralyses of average speci Apatite is found largely in Canada mens :

and Norway, where it ispresent in veins

Canadian

Moisture

Phosphoric acid 1 Lime

Phosphorite. Traces . 35.30 47.22

Other constituents Sand, &c.

1 Equal to phosphate of lime

11.98

German .

Spanish.

1.30 28.02 37.11 15.44

Traces. 33.60 42.02 8.11

5.50

18.13

16.27

100.00

100.00

100.00

77.06

61.17

73.35

bination with lime as a base . Sombrero or Rock Guano. This substance is found in the West

In Re

donda phosphate we have instead of lime a base composed of alumina and iron.

be applied to the soil Indian island of Sombrero, hence its This substance can There can be little doubt that in its natural state only in a finely

name .

the greater part of the islands in the divided condition, as the absence of lime Caribbean Sea were at one time covered in its composition prevents the treatment

with guano deposits in the same manner of it with acid . as those found on the islands of the

There would seem to be a consider

South American and African coasts. able amount of conflicting opinion as this substance as a These deposits, by natural agencies, have to the efficacy ofhold it to be utterly been converted into the phosphatic rock manure . Many which coversthe greater part of this and useless. Fromits composition we would the other islands of the West Indies.

infer that it should become more readi

This rock has become known in the ly available than many other mineral manure-tradeas Sombrero guano, and is phosphates, for it not only depends largely used in the manufacture of com- on the fineness of division, but also pounds and other soluble phosphatic on the composition whether a substance becomes more or less dissolved in the

manures .

soil.

“ Redonda ” and “ Alta Vela ”

Phosphates.

The hard, brittle, and crystalline char

acter of some of the phosphorites, with

The preceding are all phosphates in little or no carbonate of lime or iron in which the phosphoric acid is in com- their composition, must necessarily be

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

115

less soluble than those phosphatic mate- render them more liable to disintegra rials in which these substances are pres- tion . ent to the extent of about 11 per cent Composition ofSombrero , Redonda,

carbonate of lime, and 7 per cent oxide and Alta Vela . — The following is aver of iron. These substances being dis- age analyses of a few of these materials solved out of the minute particles, must by Sibson Sombrero.

Redonda .

Alta Vela.

27.20

6.50

Moisture

16.50

Phosphoric acid i

31.60

Lime

44.67

21.13 30.24 3.16

Other constituents

15.99 1.24

24.84 20.63

26.23 21.14

100.00

100.00

100.00

Sand

1 Equal to phosphate of lime Alta Vela contains 11 Redonda

8.93

66.01 68.98 59.38 7.20 oxide of iron and 14. 16 alumina . 15.72 3.64

Thomas Slag.

such as manganese, silicon , phosphorus, and carbon, combine with the oxygen

We have in this substance not only present in a stream of air which is forced the most recently discovered, but also through the molten mass, and either the cheapest and most abundant source burns off or forms oxides with these sub

of phosphoric acid . It has been in the stances. But on an increase of the al

market only since 1886. The results ob- ready high temperature the phosphorus tained from carefully conducted experi- is converted into phosphoric acid , which ments in Germany and this country combines with the lime,and the resultant clearly indicate that this substance is an product is the Thomas slag, or phos excellent source of phosphorus to plants. phate of lime. It is, indeed, more quickly available to Solubility of Slag. — This substance plants than any previously known form can be readily ground into a very fine

of insoluble phosphate. As it is now powder ; and after being passed over produced in Europe to the extent of powerful magnets, which abstract a part about 600,000 tons per annum , the dis- of the iron, it is presented to the farmer covery of its manurial value is of great in the best form for application. importance to agriculture.

In this

state it is quickly rendered available to

Source of Thomas Slag.— Thomas the plant by

the carbonic acid and water slag is a by - product obtained in the present in every arable soil. This solu conversion of pig -iron into steel. Before bility arises from its peculiar composi the discovery of this new process, all the tion. slag resulting from the Bessemer method In bones and mineral phosphates we was treated as a waste product, and it have three atoms of lime as a base com

often became a serious difficulty with bining with one atom of phosphoric acid manufacturers how to get rid of this to form the salt termed phosphate of supposed rubbish. It was therefore lime. The combination may be stated allowed to accumulate in those unsightly thus, it being remembered that the heaps which are always seen in con- atomic weight of calcium is 40, oxygen nection with iron factories. Manufacture of Thomas Slag .

16, and phosphorus 31 : Chemical formula .

The new process was patented in 1879

by the inventors, Messrs Thomas & Gil- Lime christ, but the waste product was not utilised until some six or seven years later. The method consists of mixing the molten iron with about 20 per cent

Lime Lime

Cao

Phosphoric acid

Ca0 } Сао

Weight.

56 Q, = 3 s6 I42 56

Now, Thomas slag has four molecules

of lime. The converter, which is a large of lime in its composition, in combina pear-shaped vessel, is also lined with limetion with one molecule of phosphoric acid, instead of brick . The various impurities, thus

MANURES AND MANURING .

116

Lime Lime Lime Lime

Formula . Cao

Weight.

56

Phosphoric Cao acid

CaO Cao

P205

56 42 561 56

sulphuric acid, and the ammonia escapes in à volatile state into the atmosphere. Further information on this point will be found under mixtures and mix

ing.

In other words, 168 parts of lime are combined with 142 parts of phosphoric acid in the one instance, and 224 parts of

Soluble Phosphates or Superphosphates. When Sir John Bennet Lawes, about

lime with 142 parts of phosphoric acid the year 1840, announced that he could in the other.

That is to say, in Thomas obtain soluble phosphate of lime from

slag the acid is combined with too great the mineral phosphatic nodules as repre a proportion of lime to enable it to cohere sented by coprolites, it is not to be firmly.

To put it in still another way,

supposed that he then realised that from

its chemical affinity is weakened from this discovery a special industry would being over-saturated with lime, so that develop, which would go on increasing the compound is more readily broken up. in volume until it reached, as it had done Hence the solubility of Thomas slag. by 1888, the placing upon the markets Oxide of Iron in Slag . – There seems of Great Britain of over half a million to be one drawback which, in the opinion tons of superphosphates yearly. The of many farmers, detracts from the value great value of this discovery to the agri of slag as a manure. This is the great cultural world becomes apparent by a

quantity of oxide of iron in its composi- consideration of the large and increas tion, many samples containing from 10 ing quantities of superphosphate which to 20 per cent and over. From experi- farmers require under the changes which ments conducted by Sir John B. Lawes, the application of artificial manures

and in Germany, it seems that the has effected in the rotation of crops, presence of this material has little or

and the ever-diminishing supply of phos

no effect on the growth of crops. The phates. farmer, therefore, just loses the value of

Composition of Phosphate of Lime.

the fertilising ingredients in proportion to Phosphoric acid and lime in combina the quantity of this substance which may tion are the principal ingredients in the be present in the slag bought by him . salt, phosphate of lime. These substances Composition of slag. — Slag also are present always in the same propor contains, beside phosphate and silicate tion whether the phosphate is derived

of lime,a considerable quantity ofcaustic from bones or mineral phosphaticmate or free lime and magnesia . The following

is an average analysis of Thomas slag :-

rials—with the one exception of slag. This combination is known as insoluble,

tribasic, or tricalcic phosphate, which Phosphoric acid

18 per cent

consists of three atoms of lime and one

Lime

50

Oxides of iron, &c.

22

atom of phosphoric acid, thus

Silica

Magnesia

7 3

The quantity of phosphoric acid in a sample depends on the amount of phos phorus present in the iron, and the

Lime Lime

Formula . Cao

Phosphoric acid

Lime

Weight.

56 Cao } , 0 = 3 s6 143

CaO

15

56

Solubility of Phosphate of Lime.

quantity of lime which is added to the In thisform phosphate of lime is very molten liquid . If an excessive quantity

slowly soluble.

Were it not that this

of lime be added , then the residue must substance when applied to the soil comes

be poor The in caustic phosphoriclime,acid,althou and ghvice into contact with water impregnated versâ. a with carbonic and other acids, the phos good manure, prevents slag forming an all round ingredient in mixing manure , as in this form it is a strong alkaline base, which will readily drive out a

phate would remain unaltered for years. considerable dissolving power, and when insoluble phosphate is acted upon by

But the carbonic acid and water possess

volatile one, as ammonia . If these be carbonic acid, a molecule of lime is taken mixed , the lime combines with the away, and water takes its place, so that

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

117

the phosphate is now changed into a phoric acid combination, and abstracts more soluble form , known as biphosphate of lime or dicalcic phosphate. Precipitated , Reverted , or Reduced Phosphates . — This form is also effected

two atoms of lime from it, the vacancy being made up with water. After a short time the bottom of the mixer is opened , and the whole mass drops into

by mixing dissolved phosphates with an enclosure known as the den. In a day or two the mixture dries quickly, it is then passed through a disinte grator, bagged up, and sold under the name of " superphosphate ." This product, on examination, is found which may be present in a fertile soil. to have undergone a change different from bones, slag , or caustic lime, before applying it to the soil. These phosphates also assume this form after being applied, as the phosphoric acid rendered soluble will then combine with any free base The combination may be stated thusFormula .

Lime Lime Water

Weight.

the other forms, as the compound now retains only one atom of lime in com bination with the phosphoric acid, and

Phosphoric H2O Cao P,0;= 456 142 may be stated thus

Formula . Сао

Lime

The preceding form may be looked

Water

upon as the natural process by which

Water

Phosphoric acid

Weight.

H , 0 P-P,0 ,02 18 H20

142

phosphate of lime is rendered soluble, In chemical parlance this substance is and consequently available for plant-food. Dissolving of Phosphate of Lime. designated monocalcic phosphate, but it -We have next to consider the artificial is usual in analysis not to state the quan

method of rendering insoluble phosphates tity of this substance, but the quantity soluble.

The raw material is first ground of tricalcic phosphate from which it was

into a fine powder, after which it is placed in a vessel termed a mixer, and treated with sulphuric acid. It depends upon the composition of the raw material and

made — that is, the tribasic or tricalcic phosphate of lime rendered soluble by an acid .

In this form it is in its most

soluble condition, as it can be held in

the strength of the acid as to the exact solution by water. proportions in which these substances are Biphosphate . But some chemists

mixed, more acid or less being employed consider that in this state the phosphoric in proportion to the carbonate of lime acid is not available for plant-food - that

present. The general rule is to give as before becoming so, ithas to pass into the much acid as the material will take up quickly and dry readily after. In practice the quantity of acid varies from one-third to the full weight of the phosphatic material. The value of a superphosphate depends on the amount of soluble phosphates present. It is therefore questionable

biphosphate form . When this change is effected, it becomes a precipitate, and is then in the most finely divided condi tion a substance can assume. Many farmers consider the biphosphate the

best form in which to apply phosphate of lime, holding that it is more quickly effective upon crops, and that the super

policy to stint acid -- at least from a phosphate form is over-soluble, and liable manufacturer's point of view as the to escape into the subsoil or drains if unit value of soluble is much greater a base is not present. than that of insoluble phosphates. For But there are advantages which arise

reason, in low-class superphosphates from the use of phosphates, as in super the material is saturated with acid to phosphate - viz., the greater power of

this

prevent reversion, with old mortar, chalk , diffusion a substance has when it is held and other inferior substances which some- in solution by water ; because, wherever

times forma considerable portion of such this water, which is impregnated with mixtures. When the acid is put into phosphoric acid, comes into contact with the mixer, chemical action at once be- the soil in which lime or other base is

gins by the sulphuric acid, which is present, there a portion of the phosphor strong, driving out the weaker car- ic acid is precipitated , and in this man bonic acid . It then attacks the phos- ner the phosphoric acid is interspersed

118

MANURES AND MANURING.

throughout the soil in a way which could

The percentage of soluble phosphates

never be attained by any mechanical which average samples should contain is shown below :

means.

Bone or Mineral Phosphate . - It is

High -class Medium Low -class Superphos. Superphos. Superphos phate. phate. phate.

held by eminent chemists that the solu ble phosphates obtained from mineral Soluble phos phate (per phosphates are equally as good as those from bones, and that there is no special cent) .

}

35

28 to 30

23 to 26

virtue in one form over the other. It is

therefore of little importance to the far mer from which source his soluble phos-

Characteristics of Phosphatic Manures. In the selection of the form in which

phates are made, provided the material to apply phosphate to his crop, the far is fully dissolved, and in a dry, powdery mer has to consider the character of the condition .

soil, climate,and crops to be grown. The

But from this we do not infer that remarks made uponnitrogenous manures superphosphates are as good a manure apply with equal force to all kinds of asdissolved bones.

We merely conclude phosphates.

that the soluble phosphates present in Activity of Phosphatic Manures. each are equal in value as fertilisers. We have already tried to impress on the The dissolved bone owes its greater minds of our readers that the solubility

efficacy to the nitrogen ; but then this of a manure depends on the minuteness nitrogen can be supplied to the super- of its division : we can have therefore

phosphate either as bone -meal or sul- little difficulty in placing them in the phate of ammonia, by which means we order of their activity, beginning with can secure a cheaper manure, with an those which come into action slowly

equal if not a greater amount of fertil. crushed bones, finely powdered mineral phosphate, fine bone meal,steamed bones, An additional benefit which bone pos- precipitated phosphates, Thomas slag, dis sesses over mineral phosphate is due to solved phosphates. ising matter.

its containing a certain percentage of

Bones are the slowest in their action,

organic matter, which, in the process ofdecay, gives rise to carbonic acid and other organic acids, which have a dissolving action on the phosphate of lime,

and become available as plant-food only after being mixed with the soil for some time. It is therefore a safe rule to apply them early. In some soils they come

-an advantage of considerable import- more quickly into action than in others. ance, especially when no dung is being This is especially the case in porous soils applied.

where organic matter is present.

In

Composition of Superphosphates. clays, and soils of like texture, they may -Superphosphates are of three kinds remain unchanged for years. Bones are,

- low , medium , and high -class. As a however, good " stayers " —that is, being rule, amongst the superphosphates which slowly soluble, they last long, and raise abound in the market the medium is the the fertility of the soil. Therefore all best form , as the first too often contains mixtures of manure intended to last a

a considerablequantity of coarsely ground phosphate, which, in that rough condition, is comparatively worthless as a manure; whilst high -class is not unfrequently in

rotation should contain a proportion of bones. In a wet climate bones are also rendered more quickly soluble than in drier parts. Indeed, in wet seasons bones

bad condition , being wet and lumpy, and decompose rapidly. difficult to handle . But it should be The softer or less compact forms of understood that these defects in the so- mineral phosphates when ground into a

called low - class and high - class super- very fine powder, have been found to be

phosphates are not always present. Bet- moderately quick -acting manures, about ter attention is now given than formerly equal, some consider, to very finely

to fineness of grinding, and with skilful ground bone-meal or bone-ash. dissolving the high -class superphosphates

Finely ground steamed bone-flour is the should be dry, powdery, and quite free most active form of bones prepared by from lumps.

mechanical means, and gives a high -class

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

119

superphosphate when treated with an such as starch, dextrine, &c. , and is ulti acid.

The fineness of division of this mately deposited in the seed. We are

substance counterbalances the want of also aware that a deficient supply of

organic matter with relation to solubility. phosphates produces light grain and But this preparation is coarse when com- diminished yield. Phosphates produce pared to precipitated or reverted phos- dense roots, of excellent feeding quality

phates, which possess the highest degree and high keeping properties. of solubility of any ofthe forms of phos phates except slag. Slag comes next to superphosphate, and hasa great future before it, being, as we have seen , the

POTASSIC MANURES.

The use of potash manures is of recent

cheapest source of phosphoric acid in the date. Even yet many farmers do not market at present, while the supply is consider the application of potash to the soil necessary . Dissolved manures are the most active. Sources of Potash . — The only avail

abundant.

The chief advantage of this solubility is able sources of potash, before 1860, were their certainty of action, the rapid manner in which they become available in any soil or climate. The young plant is in consequence supplied with this essential ingredient at a period of growth when it is liable to sustain damage from

wood -ashes, sea-weed, and farmyard man ure .

In 1859 , vast deposits of potash

salts were found by the Prussian Gov ernment when sinking a shaft at Stass furt in the hope of discovering rock -salt. Overlying large deposits of rock -name salt,

untoward influences which may infest its they found layers of kainit, a surroundings. An abundant supply of given to carnallite or muriate of potash ;

manure or food at this critical period to and magnesia , polykalite or sulphate of reased ld l ed of magnesia. Similar deposits were also grain and early maturity being the foundat Leopoldshall, in Anhalt.

a great extent determines the future potash ; gypsum and kieserite, or sulphate crop, an inc yie of wel - fill results.

The discovery of these deposits put

Large crops require doses of the use of potash as a manure within manure, and short-livedlarge crops require the reach of the farmer. It can now be

quick -acting manures. A crop such as bought at about 358. per ton, containing wheat, which occupies the ground for a on an average 23 per cent of potash. long period, will not be benefited to the Use of Potash . — But notwithstanding

same degree by a ready supply of phos- its low price, potash has not come into phates as a short- lived crop like bar- general use. As a rule, it can be applied

ley. Wheat abstracts the ingredients at with advantage only to certain crops, leisure, and can search for them over a and on land much larger area of the soil.

deficient in clay, such as And as sandy or peaty soils.

phosphates are present in some propor-

When farmyard manure is applied, a

tion in all soils, this crop can , as a rule,

separate dose of potash is unnecessary.

acquire all its wants during the period Indeed it would be liable to lessen the of growth. Barley, on the other hand, produce, and also lower its quality, as grows rapidly, building up its tissue in with the potash in the dung there would a comparatively shorttime, and, owing be more available potash inthe soil than to itsroot-surface, has not the area nor would be beneficial for the crop. On the time to search for its supply of most soils containing a fair proportion of phosphates. clay, and where a good deal of farmyard In the well-known work, 'How Crops manure is used, there is, as a rule, a

Grow ,' we are told that the phosphorised sufficiency of potash. But where it is oils require phosphates for their elaboration ; that phosphates increase the diffusive rate of albumen , and thus help its transference to the different parts of the plant ; and that phosphates co-operate with the other ash ingredients in

deficient, thegain in produce obtained by a small application of potash, at a cost of a few shillings per acre, is often remark able. By observation and experiment with light doses on plots, farmers may ascertain if their soil needs potash, and

building up the proximate constituents, if so, its application in moderate quantity

120

MANURES AND MANURING.

will be sure to be profitable. Potash has these are gas-liquor, from which sulphate been found of some benefit when applied of ammonia is obtained, and gas - lime,

to mangels, and appears to be of consider- which is produced by spreading quick able benefit when mixed with other man-

or caustic lime over plates in a close

ures and applied as a top -dressing for chamber, through which the gas con hay and grass seeds. It also may be taining sulphuretted hydrogen is forced. applied with advantage to leguminous This latter substance combines with the crops, beans in particular. lime, forming in the purifying chamber

Wherever applied it ought to be sown sulphide of lime. In this form it is early, and care should be taken not to destructive to vegetable life ; but after

apply it in conjunction with farmyard exposure to the atmosphere it absorbs manure . It is positively injurious to oxygen, and is thereby changed into green crops when given in excess.

sulphate of lime or gypsum .

The caustic

lime which may be present is also changed GYPSUM .

into carbonate.

Use of Gas-lime. — Gas-lime ought to Sources of Gypsum . - Gypsum , or be applied in autumn, or allowed to lie sulphate of lime, occurs as rocks in the some months before using, so as to allow

form of beds, generally in conjunction with rock -salt. In the compact form it is commonly known as alabaster and selenite. Many of the deposits owe their origin to the evaporation of salt water, which contains gypsum in solution . At one period, where rock -salt is now found, there must have been in land lakes or seas, and by changes of

time for the changes just explained to take place. It is unsafe to apply it to any growing crop.

the earth's surface the outlets have been

Many Berwickshire and Roxburgh farmers mix gas-lime and salt, and apply the mixture to their leas which are tobe broken up for oats . They consider this application to be of service to the corn crops, and a preventive of anbury or finger-and -toe in the green crop. Gas

gradually cut off from the sea ; so that

lime is also much used as an insecticide.

all the saline matter brought down by

the drainage has been accumulating, the

COMPOUND MANURES.

water becoming more and more impreg nated with these salts, and thus, when In addition to the various manures evaporation has gone on for a certain already enumerated , there are in the period, the salts cannot be longer held in market many compound manures or

solution, and, becoming crystallised, they special crop mixtures bearing different are deposited in the form of beds, which names, such as cereal, turnip, potato, by compression assume the compact form . bean, and grass manures. Use of Gypsum . From an agricul-

Disadvantage of Compound Man .

tural point of view, gypsum is valuable chiefly as an absorber of ammonia (see p. 527, vol. i. ) It is of benefit to clover and other leguminous crops.

ures. Many of these mixtures are skil fully made up, and, when manufactured by respectable firms, analyse well, and

give good results on soils for which they The value of gypsum as a manure was are adapted. But there is one great

the subject of much discussion about drawback to this system of preparing 1850 to 1860 ; but since the introduc- manures, and it is this, that with such

tion of dissolved phosphates it has been variation in soil, climate, and customs of

unnecessary for the farmer to trouble farming, it is impossible to compound himself about it, as the application of 5

one manure equally suitable for all farms,

tons of superphosphate involves an ap- even in one district. Moreover, the trade plication of 2 tons of gypsum .

in compound manures opens a wide field for the unscrupulous dealer who would

sell inferior stuff as good material. Upon the whole, therefore, it is safer for In the manufacture of gas, many im- the intelligent farmer to avoid mixed GAS-LIME.

purities have to be got rid ofbefore the manures and select fertilisers from gas is ready for combustion. Amongst sources as to which there can be no

ECONOMICAL PURCHASING OF MANURES.

I21

suspicion , and blend these in mixtures dissolve in water, like sugar or salt; but suitable for the soil and climate where they are to be applied. Still there are many farmers who are sufficiently acquainted with the

to assist practical men to arrive at con clusions more correctly as to the value

of the manures, the percentage of dis solved phosphate of lime is also given characteristics of the various manures that is , the amount of tribasic phosphate to enable them to ensure perfect mixing, of lime or bone - earth required to give and in these cases it will be advantage- that quantity of phosphoric acid in a ous to have the mixtures prepared by a soluble state . thoroughly respectable firm , by whom Organic Matter. Chemists apply the composition of the mixture will be this term to every substance that will guaranteed . rot or decompose by “ heating " or burn ECONOMICAL PURCHASING OF MANURES .

by fire — no matter whether it belong to the animal or vegetable kingdom . The value of the organic matter in a manure

depends mainly upon the amount of nitrogen in its composition, and whether

In the purchasing of manures there or not that nitrogen becomes readily are a few points which farmers should available for the use of plants. For in always keep in view . From simple ex- stance, straw , wool, blood, or sawdust amination of any article sold as manure, are all organic matters, but the amount

the purchaser can have little or no idea of nitrogen present in each is very differ of its quality or value as a fertiliser.

ent.

For this reason the farmer ought-

may almost be looked upon as non

Straw and sawdust in themselves

blood and percen wool show substances, tage of ( 1. ) To buy only from respectable nitrogenous a very largewhile firms.

nitrogen.

( 2.) Never buy without obtaining a guaranteed analysis.

Again, we have to consider how soon the nitrogen shall become available for

(3.) Always buy the valuable ingredi- food to plants. This must necessarily

ents from the cheapest sources depend upon whether those substances in the market. are subject to rapid decomposition or The first point is so self-evident as to otherwise. Blood decomposes quickly, while wool may lie in the soil for years require no further remarks. unchanged, and its effects upon vegeta Analysis explained . tion cannot therefore be the same, be

It may be useful to explain some of cause all substances before they become the terms used by chemists in an analy- available as a manure must be broken up sis of manure . into the elements of which they are made Insoluble and soluble Phosphates. up, or in other words, decompose or rot. -As to the meaning of the terms insol-

It should also be noted here, as already

uble phosphate and soluble phosphate some explanation has already been given in the notes upon superphosphate, p . 117. It was there seen that soluble phosphates always mean tribasic phosphate of lime

indicated, that organic matter is of value as an indirect improver of the textureand mechanical properties of a soil as well as the generator of carbonic and otheracids, whose action on the dormant fertilising

made soluble by an acid. It is no mat- constituents of a soil is most beneficial. ter whether they are termed monobasic Nitrogen and Ammonia . — It may

phosphate, monocalcic phosphate, biphos- be here explained that when nitrogen phate, phosphoric acid in a soluble state, or superphosphate, the term superphosphate is generally applied to all dissolved phosphates in which

is liberated from a substance, it may go into combination with hydrogen and form ammonia, or it may be evolved as free nitrogen and pass off in the atmos ammonia is not present. phere, or it may be converted into nitric In analyses ofmanures, the term phos- acid, which, combining with lime, potash, phoric acid in a soluble state is often met or soda, forms nitrates of these bases. with. This means the acid will melt or But in most cases where organic nitrogen

MANURES AND MANURING .

I22

to know the cheapest sources from which

occurs in a manure it becomes converted

into ammonia - hence the term , nitrogen to obtain phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and equal to ammonia. potash . In order to enable him to form Alkaline Salts. — These may be acci- an approximate opinion of relative values, dentally present or may be added in the we shall try to explain the theory of

drying agents employed. They consist valuation by units, preluding it with chiefly of sulphate of soda or potash the remark that the value of a manure to salts. The latter is of considerable value, the farmer depends on the amount of

of much importance. valuable ingredients which may be pre former is not the foregoing butThe are the more valuable sent in its composition, but that its constituents in the analysis.

market price, like that of all other com

Lime and Sulphuric Acid . - Lime modities, is regulated by the law of and suphuric acid are present in pretty supply and demand. large quantities in the form of sulphate Valuable Ingredients of Manure. of lime or gypsum , this being a result of The valuable constituents in manure are :

the sulphuric acid applied to render sol- ( 1 ) nitrogen, equal to ammonia, quickly uble the insoluble phosphates. The acid , available, as in nitrate of soda and sul as before explained, acting on the phos- phate of ammonia ; ( 2) nitrogen slowly

phate of lime, abstracts from the phos- available, as in bones, blood, & c.; (3) phoric acid two equivalents of lime ; phosphoric acid quickly available, as

while, where carbonate of lime is present, in superphosphate ; ( 4) phosphoric acid it drives off the carbonic acid and com- slowly available, as in bones, guano,

bines with the lime to form the foregoing & c.; and (5 ) potash, as in kainit. salt. Gypsum is also employed as a Nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are available from many other sources, drying agent. Moisture.— Moisture is present in a but the foregoing will give an average.

to carefully con manure as the water of combination, and What the farmer has in which these are sider is the form

also as the water which is mixed with

the materials to enable the acids employed present, whether quickly or slowly avail able, and then judge which will be most to act with the greatest advantage. The amount of moisture present in a suitable for his purpose . manure is of considerable importance to Unit Value . — Let us now see how the the purchaser, as when a quantity of unit value is arrived at. Taking the manure dries, the water lost by evapora- prices per ton stated below as the selling tion is a direct loss of weight. price of the manures, and dividing the cost price by the percentage of units of The Cheapest Source. the various useful ingredients, we find

The greatest difficulty the farmer has the value per unit of these ingredients to encounter when purchasing manure is would be as follows : Per unit.

Per ton .

Sulphate ammonia = 24 per cent ammonia, at Nitrate of soda

Phosphatic guano Slag

Superphosphate

= 19

= 27 = 23.5

at

11

11

at

11

11

soluble phosphates, at at

11

£o 10 3 O II

3

2 12

6

O

I

2

I

o 0

o

09

IO 12

phosphates, at

46 = 40

£ 125

.

10

2 15 2 7

6

6

=

o

2

O

2

Muriate of potash = 50

11

potash, at

7

7

6

o

Sulphate of potash

11

at

4

2

6

O

3 3

O

I

5 15

o

Bones

26

ſ 50 { 4.5

phosphates 11

ammonia

at

O 10

0

0 2

3

The only difficulty is in regard to a seen, contains 472 per cent of ammonia. In This multiplied by 1os. 3d. (the cost of such a case the unit value of the con- ammonia per unit in sulphate of am stituents of a similar substance is taken . monia ), gives £2, 68. 2d. as the propor compound manure such as bones.

Sulphate ofThe ammonia is adopted in this tion of the cost ofthe represented bone - manure, we have by the 472 per cent ofbones ammonia.

instance.

This

3

MIXTURES AND MIXING .

123

deducted from the cost price of £5, 158. origin of the phosphate, be worth per per ton, leaves £3, 8s. rod. for the 50 perhaps 3d. to 4d. per unit more . The cent of phosphates.

foregoing figures will, however, give a

The foregoing, of course, cannot be useful idea of the approximate value, taken as hard- and - fast rules. The and indicate how, from the cost price chemist generally exercises a good deal and analysis, the value per unit is of discretion, and often raises the unit arrived at. í

value above what it will actually work

Estimating the value of a Manure.

+

out upon paper, much depending on the source of the material and its condition.

-Now, let us reverse the process, and from these values per unit and the an

For instance, the phosphates in bones, alysis of a manure, find what the cost although showing à net unit value of price per ton should be. Take, say, is. 4d., may, on account of the first -class dissolved bones, showing analysis of — 22 per cent soluble phosphate, worth 28. 2d. per unit. insoluble

I2

worth Is. 2d.

Ios. 3d. ammonia , worth 234 The total cost per ton should be £ 4, 98. iod.

Dissolved bones with this analysis can

Guide to Analysis. — The following

just now be bought at £4, 1os. per ton, table, compiled by Dr Aitken, will be and are therefore fair value in comparison found very useful in reading and under standing an analysis of manures : with other fertilising substances. multiplied by 1.214 gives amount of ammonia.

Amount of nitrogen ,

AS 11

ammonia, 11

11 11

11

11

11

11

potash ,

11

11

6.3 3.882

albuminoids.

11

sulphate of ammonia. muriate of

3. 147 3.706

5.0 1.85

nitric acid . nitrate of soda.

It

sulphate of potash.

1.585

muriate of

2.183

phosphate of lime. biphosphate.

phosphoric acid,

11

11

11

1.4

11

1.648

11

11

soluble or 11

soluble phosphate,

11

biphosphate, lime,

11

11

1.566 1.845 1.786 Manures.

MIXTURES AND MIXING.

mono

calcic phosphate. phosphate of lime.

1.325 11

11

11

carbonate of lime.

11

The

chemical

processes

which take place in this decomposition need not be fully described here.

For

Dangers of Careless Mixing. - In all practical purposes, the substances mixing manures, a knowledge of their which result may be regarded as acids character and composition is indispens- in chemical combination with alkalies able if loss is to be averted .

Indiscrim- as bases.

In chemical action, a strong

inate or careless mixing is almost certain or free acid will drive out a weak one,

to end in loss of fertilising material, and and a strong alkali will usurp the place may even, by generation of poisonous of one possessing a less degree of affinity gases in a close compartment, incur for acids. If we examine lists, we find that in danger to human life.

our manure

It should therefore be kept in view

( 1.) Highly soluble phosphates, to

that while the substances used as man-

which, as is sometimes the case, an

ure are more or less in the form of salts,

excess of acid has been applied , there is present free sulphuric acid ; in

which are harmless in themselves, yet if their complex forms are broken up, the products of the decomposition assume a very different character. Chemical

Processes

in

Mixing

(2. ) Nitrate of soda- an alkali having a strong affinity for sulphuric acid ; in

(3. ) Slag - a strong alkali in the form of caustic lime ; and in

MANURES AND MANURING.

124

(4) Sulphate of ammonia — a weak or volatile alkali, ammonia .

in the centre.

A man is now placed at

each heap, and alternate shovelfuls, less

When soluble phosphates are mixed or more - the quantity being determined with nitrate of soda, a portion of the by the relative proportion of materials de phosphoric acid rendered soluble ab- sired — are throwninto the centre, where stracts a portion of the soda from the a new heap is formed containing the

nitrate of soda, the products of the de- three materials. After this mixture is composition being lime and soda and an made, it is turned over, care being taken orange - coloured gas, better known as to always shovel the material from the

nitric acid vapour - a deadly poison. If bottom of the heap. The top portions 1/3 of nitrate of soda and 2/3 of super- of the material slip down, and thus by phosphates are mixed, and allowed to shovelling from the bottom , a thorough lie for six weeks or so, it may be found mixing is brought about. that nearly 1/3 of the nitric acid has been In a day or two the sulphate of am lost from this cause alone.

monia or nitrate of soda, when such is to

Again, if superphosphate and bones or be applied, may be added . The mixture slag are mixed, and allowed to remain is then driven to the field in carts, the

for some time, the soluble phosphoric mixing process being completed by the acid will combine with another molecule material being shovelled from the bottom of lime, and more or less precipitates, re- of the heap into the cart. When the verted or reduced phosphates, will be manure is to be sown by hand, equal produced . quantities should be placed in each cart,

Then if we mix sulphate of ammonia in order to facilitate even application. with slag, the caustic lime of the slag

By mixing in this manner, the risk of

will driveout the ammonia, which, being lossthroughany excess of sulphuric acid volatile, will become dissipated in the having been added to the superphos atmosphere, and the resulting product phate will be averted, as any free acid becomes sulphate of lime or gypsum .

will combine with the free lime of the

Comparatively few realise theloss and disappointments which have occurred to the great body of farmers by haphazard mixing of manure. The fact is, there are very few manurial substances which

slag, or with the bones if there is no slag in the mixture. A neutral salt is thereby formed and loss prevented. As already indicated, it would be unwise to allow a mixture of fine steamed bone-flour or

can be mixed at random , and allowed to slag and superphosphate to lie long, as lie, without some important change oc- the phosphates in the superphosphates

curring in their composition .

would be precipitated by the carbonate

Safe Mixtures. — The following man- of lime in the bone-flour, or by the

ures may be mixed with impunity : ( 1 ) caustic lime in the slag. bones with nitrate of soda or sulphate of

Another Method of Mixing. — Mr

ammonia ; (2 ) superphosphate and sul- William Grant, Wester Alves, Moray

phate of ammonia ; (3) bones and slag; shire, writing in the Farming World (p. and (4) slag and nitrate of soda. These mixtures will not, however, suit the requirements of farm practice. Organic nitrogen, such as fish guano or Frey Bentos guano (or meat-meal), may be

206, 1889) thus describes his method of mixing manures for turnips: “ The mix ing is done in a turnip-shed, about 16 ft. square, as follows: A layer of bone manure is laid down over the whole

mixed with any other manure without area, next a layer of superphosphate, incurring loss.

next another of bone meal or dust, on

Method of Mixing. The following which is put a layer of fish guano ; then plan of mixing has been adopted with another of the bone-meal, on which is As short a laid a layer of kainit, and the same sys

a fair amount of success.

time as possible before application, the tem gone over a second time till a quan superphosphates are emptied, and the lumps are broken by striking the lump a smart blow with the back ofthe shovel. Next, a heap of bones, and another of slag, are putdown, leaving a clear space

tity sufficient for 20 acres is laid down. A layer of the bone-manure is always put between each of the other kinds used, and, as a rule,only a day or two before being required for use. The heap has

MIXTURES AND MIXING.

125

sometimes lain two weeks without, as far per cent of ammonia, 18 to 30 per cent phos as I could see , sustaining any injury ; but phates, and not more than 3 per cent oil. These substances are present in insoluble I am always careful to have a layer of compounds, therefore this manure is slowly the bone-meal between the other layers, available. The oil retards decomposition. and do not stir up the heap till we begin Frey Bentos Guano. - Contains 6 to 12 per cent to use it.”

ammonia , and from 16 to 30 per cent phos

Mixtures injured by lying long.

phates, both in an insoluble form , consequent

If a long time is allowed to elapse before application, then reversion of phosphates will set in ; nitric acid and ammonia will be evolved, although in less degree ; and the mixture will become damp and

ly slow in their action as manures . Bone -meal. — Contains on an average 50 per

lumpy, and form into cake, which will prevent its even distribution. Early application after mixing is there fore a matter of great importance .

cent phosphates, and 4 % 2 per cent ofammonia. These are insoluble and slow acting. Their solubility depends on the fineness of their division . Steamed Bone Flour . - Contains on an average

60 per cent phosphates and 172 per cent am monia. This material can be ground into very fine powder, and is quicker in its action than bones, ground or fermented.

Guano, dissolved bones, superphos- Pure Dissolved Bones. — These ought to contain about 20 per cent soluble and 10 per cent in

phate, and sulphate of ammonia ought all to be riddled, and lumps broken be fore mixing Compounding Mixtures and Char .

soluble phosphates, with 292 to 372 per cent of ammonia . When pure, this substance is the most soluble and best form of phos

phates. It is, perhaps , also the dearest .

acter of Manures.In order to enable Dissolved Bones. —Differ from the preceding by being largely composed of mineral phosphates the farmer to make an approximate cal and nitrogen obtained from cheap sources culation of the quantities of the several dissolved together so as to generally contain; manures, he will require to make up 15 to 30 per cent soluble phosphates, and i a mixture containing certain propor- to 3 per cent of ammonia-to be purchased tions of phosphoric acid, soluble ; phos

with caution .

phates, insoluble ; nitrogen, and potash, Superpho sphates of a highclass are madea from mineral phosphates, which contain high we append a very useful table compiled

by Dr Aitken , slightly condensed : Vitrate of Soda . — The most available source of nitrogen ; contains 95 per cent pure nitrate,

equal to 19 per cent ammonia . Sulphate of Ammonia . — Not so quickly avail able ; contains 95 per cent pure sulphate of

ammonia , equal to 25 per cent ammonia . 5 parts nitrate equals 4 parts sulphate of ammonia .

5 parts nitrate equals i per cent of am-

percentage of phosphate of lime. They con tain between 30 and 40 per cent of soluble

phosphates. Medium -class Superphosphates contain from 26 to 28 per cent soluble phosphate. Low - class Superphosphates are dear at com paratively low prices, and it is a safe rule to avoid them .

Mineral Phosphates, Coprolites, &c. , ought to contain on an average between 50 and 60 per

cent of phosphate of lime, and be ground into an impalpable powder.

monia .

Dried Blood . - A slowly available source of nitrogen ; contains 12 to 16 per cent am monia .

Horn, Shoddy, Wool-waste. — Insoluble nitrog enous materials — therefore slowly available; containing about 17 per cent, 5 to 10 per cent

Slag ought to contain from 36 to 41 per cent

phosphate of lime, and the material, as also mineral phosphates, be so ground that 85 per

cent of it will pass through ascreen contain ing 10,000 holes to square inch . Uncertain Character of Compound

respectively.

of ammonia Perurian Guano. - A nitrogenous manure con Manures. — Compound manures are so numerous and varied in their composi taining soluble and insoluble nitrogen therefore in part available when applied, and tion that it is impossible to indicate balance slowly available ; contains from 8 to those most suitable for any crop or soil.

10 percent ammonia, and from 30 to 40 per They usually contain phosphate ,nitrogen, and potash in various proportions. But more phosphates, 3 to 5 per cent of ammonia, the purchaser must not only ascertain and 40 to 50 per cent phosphates. the percentage of these ingredients which

cent phosphate of lime, slowly available.

Low -class Guano . - Contains less ammonia and

Standard Guano. - Being similar to improved, may be present, but also the sources equalised, fortified, & c., these are mixtures from which they are derived, and the oflow -class guano and sulphate of ammonia, form in which these are present. and are generally guaranteed to contain 8 to 10 per cent ammonia. Fish Guano . - Should contain from 10 to 12

Home Mixing preferable. — It is

therefore considered more prudent for

126

MANURES AND MANURING .

a farmer to buy a suitable combination

On the other hand, many farmers and

of materials derived from known sources,

chemists regard the turning process as

such as bones, superphosphate, nitrate both unnecessary and injurious. Mr of soda, guano, & c., and make up the Milne, Mains of Laithers, Aberdeenshire,

desired mixture for himself — that is, if he looks upon the turning of ordinary dung has taken the very necessary precaution heaps as waste both of time and of am of acquiring a knowledge of the charac- moniacal matter. The more dung rots teristics of the different manures.

the denser it becomes, and therefore the

more difficult to spread evenly on the land, while the unbroken lumps will the APPLICATION OF MANURES .

longer lie on the land in a useless condi tion . This, Mr Milne says , any one can

The application of manures is a subject which should receive careful consideration and timely attention from the farmer. Upon the manner in which this part of the work is done will, to

verify after a dry summer. If the drills into which the dung had been put are split up, little or none of the fresh dung will be seen, while the rotten dung will turn up almost as solid as when applied.

a large extent, depend the success or

In his part of the country, Mr Milne has

not seen a dung-heap turned for twenty Amongst the points to be considered years ; and if artificial manure is to be the failure of the manurial treatment.

are the character and composition of used along with the dung, he considers the soil, the nature and requirements turning quite unnecessary. In so far as concerns the dung itself, of the crops, the rotation of crops pursued, the climate of the district in which there will, as a rule, be little necessity

the farm is situated, and the character for turning, provided it has been properly and condition of the manure itself.

made and taken care of in the cattle

court — that is, if the litter has been Application of Dung. evenly distributed (or, better still, cut In the application of farmyard manure, into short lengths), and well and regu simple as the matter may seem, there is larly saturated with urine, so that the great divergence of practice.

dung may come out moderately short

Turning Dung - heap8 . — Differences of opinion exist as to whether or not it is necessary or desirable to “ turn ” dungheaps before applying the manure to the land. This depends mainly upon the

and of uniform texture and quality. In deed, with dung so made and treated , there are strong considerations in support of the contention of many farmers, that it is better to cart such dung right from

manner in which the manure has been its original position in the court to the

made and treated generally during the land for distribution. time it has been accumulating. A cerCarting out Dung. - In many parts tain amount of fermentation is necessary

of the country the dung is turned, not

to prepare or “ ripen ” the dung: Turn- because the turning itself is considered ing promotes fermentation . It is desirablethat the dung should be as uniform in texture and character as possible. This may be ensured by turning . Rank,

necessary, but because it is deemed ad visable, in order to facilitate work in the busy season of laying down roots, to have thedung carted into heaps on the field

fresh, unevenly made dung, will there- some time during the winter, when in fore be improved by being turned over these parts there is little other work

and well mixed two or three weeks before which can be done by either the men or application. horses. In reference to this point, Mr Mr Gilbert Murray says that “ in no George Brown, Watten Mains, Caithness, case is the dung in a fit state for use remarks that it would be impossible for

until the manure in the yards has been farmers in many parts of the north to

turned over and allowed a little time put in the turnip crop seasonably without to ferment ; " and he adds, that “ when another pair — in some instances perhaps treated in this way the liquid manure two pairs — of horses, if the dung had remaining in the pond should be pumped all to be carted from the steading at this busy time of the year. He also points

over the heap."

APPLICATION OF MANURES.

127

out that if rank fresh dung is once turned unequally to the graip when thrown into before application , it is easier to spread the cart . Besides, trampling the centre it on the land. This is unquestionably when the dung was thrown to the ends, true, provided it is not allowed to become causes it to become harder than the rest

sorotten as to get into the dense lumps referred to by Mr Milne. Thus, while a certain amount of turning and fermentation facilitates the even spreading and speedy action of dung in the soil, excessive rotting may to some extent operate against both. It is certainly very im-

of the heap, and so to undergo a different degree of putrefaction. In fact, the whole job is bungled. Dung, properly speaking, does not fer ment, but putrefies. Intermixing . — The outside and drier

portions of the dung are put into the

portant, in carting out or turning dung, inside of the dunghill, and, where dif that great care should be taken not to al- ferent sorts of dung are met with, they

low fermentation to go too far, as in that are intermingled intimately. Each dace case a considerable portion of thevaluable plant-food in the manure might be lost. Fermentation may be regulated by compressing the dung when it is too

is cut off, and turned over from the top to the bottom . When the bottom is reached , the earth damped by

rapid , and by opening up the dung when

the exudation from the dung - heap is shovelled

it is too slow.

Process of Turning. — If a dung-heap up by the men with the

in the field is to be turned, a beginning square-mouthed shovel, should be made at the end farthest from or the frying-pan shovel, the head -ridge. The unturned dung-heap fig. 252, and thrown slopes a little at both ends, but the upon the breast of the turned dunghill should be made of the turned dung. When straw ropes are same height throughout. A dunghill is turned over in a succession of breadths met with, they should of 3 feet, which affords sufficient room be cut into small pieces

for people to work in ; but the first few and scattered amongst breadths should be narrower than 3 feet, the dampest parts of the

until the desired height of the turned dung-heap. Though the dunghill is attained atthat end. At the dung- heap is cut into centre, the height is lowered to that of parallel trenches, the the first end, and the last end is height- dung from the top of the new trench is not ened to the general level. There is more of good management in thrown down upon the attending to these particulars of turning bottom of the former Fig . 252: – Frying

a dunghill than isat first apparent. Å one, like trenchingland, pan orlime shovci. turned dunghill will not putrefy equally but upon the breast of

when of different heights — the greatest the turned dung, which slopes upwards heat will be at the highest part, where away from the workers. The advantage thedung will become short and compact, of this arrangement is not only that the

whilst at the shallowest it will continue dung is thereby intimately intermixed such different states of the manure will but that when the dung is carting away, comparatively crude and unprepared ; and and not in separate independent trenches,

have different effects upon the crop. In it rises freely with the graip. ordinary practice, the uniform height Fig. 253 represents an excellent steel of the dunghill is often miscalculated, graip, such as is used in filling dung, and thus the ends still continue lower made by Spear & Jackson, Sheffield. than the centre.

The endeavour to

In finishing the dunghill, the men

equalise the height by throwing dung shovel up all loose dung and earth from the middle to the ends does mis- along its sides and ends to the top,

chief, inasmuch as no complete union and a dung-heap thus turned over forms takes place between the turned dung and a parallelopipedon, and is a good -look that thrown upon it, the two portions ing piece of work . remaining in different states, and rising Lime-shovel. – Fig. 252 is a frying

128

MANURES AND MANURING .

pan shovel, which is so named from its similarity to that culinary utensil. It is also called the lime-shovel, as being well adapted for the spread-

greatest heat may be expected at the side opposite from whence the wind comes. The actual degrees of heat may be ascer tained by the dung-thermometer.

ing of lime upon the

The substance of the dunghill consoli

land, the raised back dates uniformly, and a black -coloured protecting the hand liquid oozes out at the ground. If the

from thelime, while the soil upon which the dunghill stands is sharp point passes easily soft, the oozing is absorbed by it ; but if under it and makes its firm , the moisture remains on the surface, way along the bottom and forms small pools in the ruts of the of the cart. This shovel

cart -wheels or open furrows. The leakage

is chiefly confined to the is trifling ; and much moisture cannot Border counties. It exude from dung derived from courts in makes clean work at which the cattle are supplied with as

everything, and is easily much litter as keeps themdry and warm . handled.

In some cases dung intended for tur

Turningand Putre- nips is twice turned , but the losses by faction . — Unless much

excessive fermentation are now better

rain has fallen from the understood than formerly, and farmers time the dung was led are therefore more careful in the treat out of the court until ment of their dung. the heap is turned, the

Turning Court Dung . – For potatoes,

dung will not be very moist, and not at all wet, but in a good workable state, with a slight

particularly well-made court dung, which has perhaps been made under roof, and is concentrated rather than rank, is con sidered by many to give the best results

degree of heat in it.

when taken direct from the court without

Any evaporation as yet previous turning and applied to the soil.

will contain no valuable Turning is by most farmers regarded as material, merely moist- more necessary for turnips than for pota

ure, as decomposition of toes. The riper the dung — that is, if the the dung has not begun. rotten dung is thoroughly broken and Very little moisture will evenly spread on the land — the earlier does it begin to afford nourishment to the have come from the heap. After this turning over, shaking up, plant, which, with the young turnips, is a Fig. 253.-- Steel graip.

and mixing together, which should be matter of specialimportance. Less Necessity for Turning. — The in the course of a few days. The first object of turning, we have seen, is to pro

quickly done, aheat will manifest itself

putrefaction produces no great degree mote the rotting of the dung. One of of heat, as the air is still cool at night, and the largest proportion of the heap consists of cattle -dung, which is slow of putrefaction . Symptoms of Putrefaction . — The

the main objects of having thedung well ripened or rotted is to ensure its speedy action after application to the soil. For merly, before the introduction of more

quickly acting manures, there was great

first external symptom of general putre- necessity for this, as otherwise, on ac faction is subsidence in the bulk of the count of the slow decomposition of fresh heap, which, in the course of 2 weeks, dung, the crops would be liable to suffer may contract 1 foot of height. A per- from scarcity of available food in their

ceptible smell will then arise from the earlier stages. Now , however, the crops dung, accompanied with a flickering of can be efficientlynourishedintheir youth the air over it, which is occasioned by the by highly soluble artificial manures, which escape of vapour and of gases. By in- are fit for assimilation by the crop as soon serting a few sticks into the heap here as they are applied. Thus more time and there, a heat considerably above that can be afforded to the dung for decom of the hand will be felt, and the relative position in the soil, so that there is less heat of different parts ascertained ; and the necessity for its prior ripening - less neces

APPLICATION OF MANURES.

129

sity for turning, thereby saving labour the manure covered in at the earliest and lessening the risk of loss by excessive fermentation. See pp. 501-530, vol. i. Time of Application.— The best time for applying farmyard manure will depend upon a variety of circumstances. Chief amongst these are the character of the soil, the climate of the district, and the crop to be grown.

opportunity. The land remains in this state until the season for sowing arrives.

Advantage must then be taken of the first favourable state of the land, when a chain harrow is passed lengthways over the ridges. This has the effect of further pulverising the surface, already reduced by the action of the atmosphere.

Supplemental Manure . If artificial On very strong land in preparation for a root crop, the autumn may be the best manures are used along with the dung, time. The dung will thus have more now is the time to apply them, sown time to exercise its beneficial mechanical broadcast over the surface. A double influence upon the soil, while summer mould -board plough is then passed be tillage, which would be detrimental to tween the ridges, and the fine soil set up such land, is avoided. But there is one and the seeds sown . Great care must

great obstacle to this practice. Dung be taken not to bring any of the solid cannot be applied until it is made, and

soil to the surface. Here the

young seeds

the main portion of dung is made during find a congenial soil in which to vegetate, the winter months. Thus autumn man- and a supply of moisture within avail. uring is impracticable, except where stock able distance. Dunging Light Soils. — The once po

are fed in the house in summer, or where

there is on hand a reserve supply of pular system of autumn manuring on manure.

light soils is now discontinued by the Southern Practice without Drills. best and more intelligent class of farmers.

-In many parts, especially in England, The very process of deeply stirring such the system is as follows: Assuming that soils in the autumn in warm climates is the stubble is clean, such manure as a source of much waste. Tillage stimu exists is carted from the yards after lates nitrification , and the rain - water

harvest, spread on the land, and turned passing through the soil washes out in with a moderately deep furrow . The nitrates, whether in the soil or in the land remains without further disturbance manure, or both.

In the south, where

throughout the winter. As the root - sow- the winter is so mild that there may ing season approaches, the land is scuffled not be sufficient cold to check nitrifica

and harrowed, care being taken not to tion, such soils are usually more fertile bring any of the crude soil to the surface. when broken up in spring. The chief desideratum on such soils, and

Northern Practice .

In the northern

the great secret of success, is to maintain and colder counties different systems of a finely pulverised seed -bed . The mangel

tillage and manuring are pursued .

Here

or turnip seeds are in this case sown in the winter tillage of land for roots is rows on the flat surface. In this way universally pursued, so that the full the moisture is retained , which is an im- benefit of the pulverising influence of the portant consideration under the more

winter frosts may be secured .

And this

arid climate of the south. By careful is done in these northern parts without attention to these details, a braird is incurring any serious loss of nitrates in drainage -water, as the winters are too almost invariably secured . With Drills or Ridges. If the land cold to permit nitrification to proceed. is to be ridged for the roots, then a some- Thus the general plan in the north is to what different course must necessarily be plough land for roots with a deep furrow pursued. The stubble is broken up by a in the autumn or early in winter, let it deep furrow early in autumn. As soon lie bare till spring, then cross-plough it, as the land has become mellowed by the and apply the dung in summer just before

rains and frost, the soil is ridged up in the seed is sown, the dung being usually the rough. Then when the land becomes spread in drills. This is the usual prac sufficiently dry, or should a frost set in, tice in Ireland also. the farmyard manure is carried and

Dung for Wheat. — For wheat, the

and spread in the ridges which are split, and dung is either spread in the autumn, I VOL . II.

130

MANURES AND MANURING .

at once ploughed in, or it is spread over certain cases the allowance of dung would the young plant during dry or frosty be less, and in other instances more. Dunging Often and Lightly .- As a weather. Mr Gilbert Murray says the best results are obtained by the latter rule it is the best plan to dung often, and method of application. in moderate quantity at each time. As to Dung for Grass Lands. - In top- this point, Mr Gilbert Murray says : “If dressing grass or meadow land with dung, the land is worked on the six course, I

the general practice is to apply the dung

should divide the farmyard manure into

Little or no loss arises three portions. One I should apply to through its exposure on the surface. the root break, supplemented by artifi Surface -manuring. - It is a mistake cials - phosphates and nitrogen - a sec to bury dung deeply in the soil. Indeed ond would be spread on the young seeds in the autumn.

it is now well known that nitrification immediately after the separation of the proceeds in inverse ratio to the depth at crop, and the third I should apply to the which the manure is buried ; hence the wheat stubble on the separation of that best results are obtained from farmyard crop and in preparation for the next cereal. “ I have long been convinced of the nanure when kept near the surface. This system of surface-manuring also benefits folly of applying the whole of the fold the layers of grasses and clovers as well yard manure to the root crop. Repeated as the young wheat. The alleged waste doses at short intervals is the most effec by exposure to atmospheric influences is tive system of applying dung.” Unsatisfactory Results from Ex now regarded as a popular error. Mr Gilbert Murray states that he has cessive Dressings.- Mr Murray adds:

farmed side by side with men occupying “ For the last twenty years I have good turnip land, whose practice was to carefully watched the effects of stable draw out and spread the manure on the manure on a kitchen -garden devoted to prepared land, and turn it in with a the production of ordinary garden pro shallow furrow. The roller closely fol- duce . The extent is under 4 acres. To

3

11

lowedwas the the Theirinusual plough. The June.sowing time last week land, having lain three or four weeks, was scuffled , harrowed, and rolled, and the seeddrilled 20 inches wide on the flat. A

manure is drawn fresh from the stables,

considerable portion of the manure was

is carted on to the land and covered in

the horses. this hasmanure summer The been applied and of thirty winter placed in heaps, watered , and turned several times until well rotted, when it

brought to the surface, yet he says he with a deep spit. I can scarcely con had considerable difficulty in growing a ceive a more convincing proof of the heavier weight of roots per acre on his unsatisfactory results to be obtained by 27 -inch ridges with the manure carefully heavy dressings of farmyard manure alone. The crops are not better than, Quantities of Dung per Acre . — The if so good as, those gathered from the old practice of applying excessive quan- same land twenty years ago. It is true covered .

tities of dung at one time has been shown the potatoes grow more tops, and the to be wasteful. On an average of years cabbage and cauliflower are more open better results will be obtained by a mo- than formerly. Light dressings often

derate quantity of farmyard manure, applied are the most efficient. supplemented by a good selection of

" Cabbages and mangels as field crops are gross feeders, and pay for extra So much depends upon soil, system dressings." of cropping, and quality of the dung, Economical Use of Dung. - It seems that toattempt to give definite directions to be well established that dung may be, as as to what quantities should be applied a rule, most economically used in moderate artificial manures .

for each crop might be more misleading dressings, along with judicious mixtures From 8 to 12 tons per of more quickly acting chemical manures.

than useful.

acre for roots, and from 15 to 20 tons for potatoes, are general dressings, along

Application of Artificial Manures.

with artificial manures, which may cost

In the application of artificial manures

from 255. to 6os. per acre additional. In there is ample scope for good or bad

N

APPLICATION OF MANURES .

131

management. By the use of these man- proportion in which its proximate con ures all the elements of plant-food may stituents, sand, clay, lime, or humus, be supplied either together or separately, may be present. If either of these pre

or asmany of them given and as many ponderate, then the product is known as withheld as may be considered desirable.

a clay , sandy, calcareous, or loam soil.

The subject is therefore one of vast im- These have all different textures, and portance, placing in the hands of the consequently vary in their capability of skilful farmer far greater possibilities retaining the more soluble manures. than were within his reach when farm- Sandy and open porous loams have less yard dung was the only available manure. power of holding manure than clays or

It is especially necessary in the use of heavy loams. Then the relative fertility artificial manures, that the farmer should of all soils is regulated by the character

most carefully consider the character and and composition of the materials of which

composition of the soil, the nature and the soil is made up, whether this material requirements of the crops, the rota- owes its origin to the disintegration of

tion pursued, the climate of the district the rock it overlies or is transported. in which the farm is situated, and the

A Knowledge of Geology useful.

There are few studies that would give Elements Absorbed by Crops. — In better paying results to the farmer than the first place, it would be well to have that of geology, as a knowledge of the

character of the manure itself.

in view the amounts of the various in- characterof the soils on the various rock

gredients abstracted from the soil and formations would correct many a blunder atmosphere for building up the sub- which occurs when a farmer changes to stance of the crops.

These have already a new locality.

Farm practice must al

been shown — see p. 62, vol. i., and p. 90, ways be modified by the relation of the vol. ii.

soil to the underlying strata , and not

These substances are present in soils only this, but the system of manuring in various proportions, the quantity of must also in so far be regulated by the each being dependent on the origin of same considerations. the soil in the first instance ; and second-

Manures for Different Soils . — The

ly, on the prior growth of plants on its surface — the residue left by the decay of these having a considerable influence on the natural fertility of every soil. The

surface-soil and the general practice as to the application of manures may now be considered. On clay soils the best results are usually obtained from nitrog majority of these constituents exist in enous and phosphatic manures — the for all soils in excess of the quantities re- mer having the greater influence ; on

quired to build up the substance of loams, from phosphatic and nitrogenous crops, no matter what system of cropping may be pursued ; and therefore the farmer, in order to render his soil fertile, has to supply only those few elements

manures —— the former exercisingthe great er power ; while on sandy soils a com bination of nitrogenous, phosphatic, and potassic manures generally gives the best

which are deficient in the soil.

return .

Soils intermediate

between

Elements to be supplied in Man- either of these groups will give results

ures. — The subject of manuring is thus in proportion to the modification of the reduced to the supply of an uncertain mixture of manures. Form of Application for Different deficiency of one or more of the follow-

ing substances — viz., nitrogen, phos- Soils . — Then, again, the form in which the manure is applied must depend on phoric acid, lime, and potash.

The form , manner, time, and quantity the composition of the soil. A sandy in which these substances are to be ap-

soil cannot retain a soluble manure : for

plied will manifestly depend on the pre- it, therefore, it is safest to give nitrogen ceding considerations enumerated in the in the form of fish guano, guano, or other

first paragraph under the above head- organic matter; phosphates, as bone-meal ing - considerations which we shall now or slag ; and potash, as kainit. Loamy examine in detail. soil will usually give the most satisfac

Character of Soil and Manuring.- tory results from nitrogen in the form The character of a soil depends on the of sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of

132

MANURES AND MANURING.

soda mixed , and one of bones to two of farmers that no soil responds more freely superphosphate ; whilst clay will respond to the application of artificial manure most freely to nitrate of soda,and super- than one which had been previously ne

phosphate, three parts - one of bones and glected and partially exhausted. The two of slag.

cause of this is obvious.

By the repeat

Evidence of the soil. — But the only ed cropping without receiving an ade

return in the shape of manure, evidence which is absolutely reliable as quatesoil becomes exhausted of certain to the immediate manurial wants of a this

soil is that of the soil itself, as expressed, not in chemical analysis, but invarious the crops carefully arranged so asto test eleavailable supplies of the different ments of plant - food contained in the land. As to how this evidence may be procured, refer to Ville's remarks on pp.

of the elements of fertility, while by the decay of the roots of the crops other elements of plant- food are stored up in increasing quantity. Then, when the neglected land is well tilled and the deficient elements supplied in a suitable manure, the store of fertility is called

91-93, and to “Farmers' Experiments,"

into action, and the result is a bountiful

on p. 93, in this Division .

crop.

1

(

Caution in Applying Bones. In the Manures for Different Crops. — The application of bones, care must be taken form and quantity of manure must be that carbonate of lime is not present in carefully adapted to the requirements of too great a proportion, as, if it is so, the the crop. carbonic acid present in the water, instead Limited Guidance of Experiments.

of attacking the tribasic phosphate of

— Many experiments have been car

lime, will combine with the carbonate ried out for the purpose of determin

of lime, and form a bicarbonate; also,

ing the best form , kind, and quantity of

if the carbonate of lime is deficient, the soluble phosphate will not precipitate, and will escape into the subsoil, or it will combine with iron and form phos-

various fertilisers for the different farm crops ; but, as has already been stated, the local circumstances of soil and climate and the customs of farming vary so great

phate of iron, which does not readily ly that the results and lessons of these yield up its phosphoric acid to the plant. experiments are not, as a rule, to be re Tillage and Manuring. - In applying lied on as guides beyond the respective artificial manures, it should be borne in districts and conditions in which they mind that the natural source of plant- have been conducted.

The results at

food is the soil, and that manure is tained at Rothamsted have most certainly merely supplemental. The farmer should been of great benefit to the agriculture therefore , by careful cultivation , endeav- of this country, yet it is well to bear in our to prepare these soil ingredients so mind tha the circumstances under which as to render them available to the plant. these have been carried out differ sub

The quantity of manure required may thus stantially from the conditions surround be, to a considerable extent, influenced by ing ordinary rotation farming such as the care bestowed on the tillage operations. prevails throughout the country. It is With efficient and timely cultivation, a thus obvious that farmers cannot with

certain amount of manure will produce safety resort to these experiments for better crops than would be obtained from specific directions as to the manuring of twice as much manure with bad, ill-timed

their land.

tillage. One of the most noteworthy Value and Uses of Experiments. facts demonstrated in the Rothamsted With a full knowledge and intelligent experiments is the great influence which conception of his own local surround

perfect tillage and the keeping down of ings-of the character and condition of weeds exercise on the productive power the soil, the requirements of the crops to of a soil. Indeed, the application of man- be grown, and the climate of the district ures cannot possiblybe profitable to the the farmer may unquestionably derive farmer unless thesoil bemoderately well valuable aid in his practice of manuring, cultivated, as well as efficiently drained. by careful study of such experiments as Return of Manure on Exhausted have been carried on at Rothamsted and

Land . - It is often remarked by practical elsewhere. We have taken care to pro

1

APPLICATION OF MANURES. vide him with convenient means of study-

133

nomical results, to at least 5 cwt. per acre,

ing the results of several of the more im- besides, perhaps, some bones and nitrog portant sets of experiments conducted in

this country ; and here we would speci-

enous manure .

Rainfall and Artificial Manures.

ally commend the farmer to peruse And the climate, particularly the rain the contributions to this volume by Mr Warington, on the Rothamsted experiments ; by Mr Jamieson, on the experiments in Sussex and Aberdeenshire ; and

fall, should also influence the form in which a manure is to be applied. Every farmer must have noticed that in a dry season the effect produced by artificial

by Dr Aitken, on the Highland and Agri- manures is very slight indeed, the more cultural Society's experiments. Manures for Slow and Fast Grow-

soluble showing better results than in soluble manures.

From this it may be

ing Crops.— It is important in the prac- concluded that soluble manures are most tice of manuring that the habit of growth suitable for a dry climate, whilst the of the different crops should be carefully less readily available kinds will give

considered. A slow -growing crop, for in- better results over a rotation of crops stance, should receive different manurial treatment from that which is best adapted

in a moist one. These remarks are fully borne out by

to fast-growing crops. A slow -growing the practice pursued in different locali crop requires a mixed manure, partly ties. In the north and east, where the soluble, and the balance coming slowly climate is moderately moist, the applica into action.

Wheat, which occupies the tion of artificial manure ranges from 5

ground for a comparatively long period, will, as a rule, be able to obtain from the soil all its mineral ingredients , and therefore a supply of readily available nitrogen seems to be all that is required . Barley, on the other hand, is a plant of

usual quantities in the dry climate of the south of England.

more rapid growth, and being shallow-

Manures for Different Rotations.

to 6 cwt. per acre ; while in the west and south -west, where the climate is wet, 7 to 9 cwt. per acre would be nearer the average ; 3 to 4 cwt. being

rooted, must have its food ready, and The length of the rotation must also be near the surface, to ensure a large pro- considered in determining the form of duce. Then, the leaf-surface is also im-

manure to be applied .

For instance,

portant , for a plant is dependent on the three years' grass will necessitate a larger soil or the atmosphere for its increase, in application of phosphates in the formof proportion to the extent of its foliage. bone-meal or slag. For long rotations Soil, Climate, and Manuring. But the slow -acting manures are employed. a still more important consideration is

More Frequent Manuring. — But

the bearing of soil and climate upon many farmers now consider that it is a the weight of the crop. For example, mistake to apply to the turnip or other in a dry climate 12 to 15 tons is a

green crop the entire quantity of manure

very general yield of roots ; while in required for a rotation of crops. When a moist climate and favourable soil the one considers the solubility of most of produce per acre will be nearly 30 the artificial manures now in use, one tons, often indeed as much as 40 tons.

can readily understand that the spread

Now it would be manifestly absurd to ing of the manure over the crops of the

apply the same quantity of manure in rotation would result in less loss of fer To the consideration tilising matter, and lead to a more reli involved here is due the diversity and able increase of crops on an average of

these two cases.

misunderstanding which frequently arises years.' Again, the insoluble manures, by as to the practice of manuring. ' About their greater specific gravity, must speed 3 cwt. of superphosphate per acre is usu- ily find their way to the subsoil, where

ally found a suitable quantity to allow they are beyond the reach ofthe plant for roots in the south of England, where the yield is generally under 20 tons per acre ; but in the north of Scotland, where much heavier crops of roots are grown, this quantity may be increased , with eco-

at its first period of growth. These con siderations would lead the farmer to in fer that a moderate dose of soluble phos phates, applied along with the seed, would be most suitable for green crops;

134

MANURES AND MANURING .

and if nitrogenous manure were con-

better results than nitrate of soda.

In

sidered necessary, then sulphate of am- dry seasons, and on dry soils, exactly

monia or nitrate of soda could be given with the seed or after singling, or guano might be applied at the time of sowing. Grass seeds then might receive an application of soluble and insoluble phosthe mixture being varied according to the intended duration of the grass, whether two, three, four, or more years. Then, again, the corn crops after lea would require another top - dressing of phosphates and nitrate of soda. This

the reverse is usually the case. But sulphate of ammonia is not nearly so well suited for top -dressing as nitrate of soda. A safe method of applying sul phate of ammonia is to mix it with dry fine soil (not ashes, as these might cause loss of ammonia ), sow broadcast, and plough in immediately, Mr Warington remarks that top -dress ing with nitrogenous manures is especi ally to be avoided when the soil con tains any considerable amount of lime, as

method would be specially suitable in

loss of ammonia might then occur.

phates, along with nitrogenous manure-

a climate subject to heavy rainfall, while Phosphates may be sown any time as a rule it would be safe and economical during winter or early spring. The usual practice of sowing in the drill, for average conditions in this country. Ratio of Different Ingredients.- when applied to green crops, has until On account of the diversity of conditions lately been considered satisfactory; but and influences which have been noticed, new ideas have sprung up, and the action it is considered unsafe to attempt to pre- of soluble phosphates has become better scribe definite doses of manure .

But it

understood.

Yet until further informa

may be stated approximately that the tion is obtained as to the benefits de ratio of the manurial elements for green rived from a change of practice, farmers crops should be about 4 of phosphoric would do well not to rashly abandon a acid to i of nitrogen ; for oats and

custom which has long been pursued

barley, 2 of phosphoric acid to i of nitrogen ; for wheat, 2 of nitrogen to I of phosphoric acid ; and for grass, i of nitrogen to 2 of phosphates and i

with fairly satisfactory results. Farmers might advantageously experiment for themselves on this point. They might make trials of different times of applica

of potash.

tion, and the result would guide them as

to the best method to adopt. cently , artificial manures were generally Sowing Manure in Drills . - In sow applied along with the seed . Slow- ing artificial manures in the drills the fol Time of Application .

- Until re-

acting nitrogenous manures may be thus lowing plan is found to work well , the

applied , but nitrate of soda, as a rule, manure, as we have already seen, being gives the best results when not sown till conveyed to the land in carts : The When a heavy loads ought each to contain 20 bushels ,

after the braird appears .

dressing of nitrate of soda is to be given , and thus in, say, a 20 -acre field 8 loads one-half the quantity should be sown are to be applied. The width of the then , and the balance held over for later field is, say, 240 yards, and we divide application .

it into breadths of 60 yards. Two carts

Nitrate of Soda is the most quickly full of manure are unloosed in each acting of all nitrogenous manures, and is breadth ; and the sowers, one to each

therefore the best adapted for a late drill-plough, are started with a weighed dressing to push on a dragging crop. quantity to sow along the drill so many

But in a late wet climate, or rainy yards. If the drills are 27 inches wide, season, it may not be advisable to apply then to sow 6 cwt. per acre, 21 lb. nitrate of soda, for it has a tendency to will sow one drill 200 yards. After the force up a rank growth of straw , thus

sower ascertains the quantity to take in

perhaps making the harvest too late, and the hand to effect this, he will have no so endangeringthe yield of grain. difficulty in applying the quantity cor Sulphate of Ammonia would be more rectly, and he will always have a check

suitable in these circumstances. Indeed, when each pair of carts are emptied . as a rule, in wet districts, or very rainy

The reason for having the carts in

seasons, sulphate of ammonia gives pairs is to save the carrying of manure

1

APPLICATION OF MANURES.

135

long distances. The sower can load -up farmers seem inclined to regard it. Un himself, as the space he will thus have less the manure is evenly distributed, its to travel will not be too great. In a full benefit cannot be obtained, and to field , say, 20 chains long, the carts will secure this, the cost of an efficient manure

be placed, one 5 chains from the top, distributor would be a good investment.

the other 5 chains from the bottom, There is still scope foringenuity in the about 20 yards away from the face on devising of machines for this purpose, although there are already some very the prepared land , not in the drills. Another Method. - Another method, good distributors in existence. One of

still more precise, is conducted as fol- the best is that made by Ben. Reid & Co., lows: The manure is sown with a machine, which does three drills at once, and is riddled just before being used, so that there may not be any lumps to interfere with even distribution in sowing. The length of the drills is measured to ascertain the number required for an acre . The quantity for each drill is

Aberdeen, represented in fig. 254. The hand-sower “ Little Wonder," fig.

263 (p. 195), is also well adapted for sow ing dry manures,and so also is Strawson's very ingenious air-power distributor. Farmers to Judge for themselves.

-It might perhaps have been expected that more precise prescriptions would

calculated, and the quantity necessary have been given as to the doses of to sow three drills put into one of the manure to apply for the various crops.

artificial manure bags and weighed on a Practical farmers, however, know only weighing -machine. A bag for each three too well that any attempt to lay down drills is laid down at each end of the hard -and-fast rules in manuring would

field, making it very convenient to put be liable to do more harm than good. into the machine without loss of time,

Doses which give good results on one

and each three drills in this way get farm may be quite unsuitable for another. their own exact quantity of manure.

It has therefore been considered advis

The weighing of the bags takes up very able rather to present in a convenient little time. They are filled to sight as form such information as will enable near the quantity as can be guessed, farmers to become acquainted with the then lifted on to the machine and ad- character, purchase, preparation, and ap

justed to the required quantity according lication of the various manures, and thus, with a careful study of this information, to the rate per acre . This system may be considered un- be qualified to judge for themselves, necessarily precise, but the result on the and adjust their practice to suit their crops has proved that it is worth more own peculiar plans, circumstances, and than the additional labour, which indeed environments. is very little, when properly conducted. Sowing Manures by Machines.

The practice of sowing artificial manures by machine is much preferable to sowing by hand, and it is fast coming into

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS. Rothamsted has become a household

word wherever science is applied to agri culture. In 1834 Sir (then Mr) John Bennet Lawes succeeded to the estate

of Rothamsted, Hertfordshire, and soon after began to conduct experiments with different manuring substances, first with Fig . 254. - Broadcast manure-distributor.

plants in pots, and afterwards in the field. In 1840 and 1841 somewhat ex tensive field trials were carried out, and

in 1843 the experiments were begun favour.

By an efficient machine a more upon the comprehensive and systematic

even distribution can be secured,and the form which they have ever since main importance of this is not easily over- tained . The foundation of the Rotham estimated .

Careful consideration cer-

sted Experimental Station is therefore

tainly shows it to be greater than most usually dated from 1843.

MANURES AND MANURING .

136

The experiments, the most elaborate for turnips. No sheep are kept on the and comprehensive of the kind ever at- farm . Dairy cows and bullocks are kept tempted in any country, have from the on the permanent pasture. The arable first been maintained entirely by Sir John land is largely devoted to corn crops. Scope of the Manurial Experi Bennet Lawes, Bart., LL.D .; and with

munificent liberality and public spirit he ments. — Different fields on the farm has set apart the handsome sum of have been set apart for the study of in £100,000, besides certain areas of land, dividual crops ; thus one has been de

to ensure to British agriculture the benefits and guidance derivable from the perpetual continuation of the Rothamsted experiments. The unique and splendid

voted to wheat, one to barley, one to roots, &c. In each of these fields the crop has, as a rule, been grown con tinuously for many years without the

inheritance which the country is thus to intervention of fallow or any other crop. receive from a private citizen is of price-

In the early years of the experiments

less value.

trials were made with various miscellane

Since 1843, Dr J. H. Gilbert has been associated with Sir John Lawes in the conduct of the experiments, and has had the direction of the laboratory. Since 1850, one, two, and sometimes three

ous manures, and the same plot of land did not each year receive the same man ure, but after a little while the present systematic treatment was adopted. In nearly every case farmyard manure has

chemists have been employed in the been annually applied to one portion laboratory ; and, as indicating the vast of the experimental field, while an amount of chemical work undertaken, other portion has been left entirely it may

be mentioned that in 1887 there without manure. The other plots have

were more than 40,000 bottles of samples received the various chemical constitu of experimentally grown vegetable pro- ents of manure, either singly, or in duce, of animal products, of ashes, or mixture with each other. The sub of soils, stored in the laboratory. stances applied have been generally Besides the experiments upon crops ammonia, salts, nitrate of soda, super and manures, many interesting points phosphate of lime, sulphate of potash, connected with the feeding of farm live- sulphate of magnesia, and sulphate of stock have been experimentally investi- soda.

The object has been to supply

gated, and much of the valuable infor- the various constituents of plant - food

mation thereby acquired has been incor- (see p. 57 ) in their most soluble and porated in different parts of this work .

active form , and thus obtain their great

For the following sketch of the general scope of the investigations with manures, of the detailed experiments with wheat under different manurial treatment, of

est effect. By employing substances of known composition, it is also possible to

the soil, and of the loss of plant-food in drainage-water, we are indebted to Mr R. Warington, who has long been engaged

calculate how much of each constituent has been applied to the land. Each plot of land has, during the later systematic portion of the experiments, received each year, as a rule, the same manure. The system pursued has in

in chemical work at Rothamsted.

fact been to grow the same

the behaviour of manurial substances in

crop

-Rothamsted adjoins the for many years on the same land with village of Harpenden. The land lies the same manure. By this plan trust mostly about 400 feet above the sea. worthy averages of the amount of pro The average rainfall is about 28 inches. duce yielded under each condition of The surface-soil is a heavy loam , con- manuring are obtained, and also ample taining many flint stones ; the subsoil information as to the influence upon the The Soil.

is a pretty stiff clay, resting on chalk . produce of seasons of different character. The chalk is usually about 9 feet from The permanent or temporary effect of the

the surface, and affords a good natural manures is also shown. drainage. The land does not bear a high By long -continued treatment of this rent. The soil is a fair one for wheat, kind the soil of the experimental field , but would not be considered as specially which was at first practically the same

suited for barley ; it is still less suited throughout, has been altered , so that the

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

137

different plots now represent extremely is necessary for an appreciation of the different conditions of food -supply.

On

certain plots the crop now grows in soil

results.

The mode of investigation adopted is,

specially exhausted of nitrogen, or phos- however, one which must add largely to phates, or alkalies, to an extent which our true knowledge of crops, manures, and 7

can very rarely occur in farm practice; soil. This knowledge will be turned to while in the soil of other plots abund- practical account in a number of ways ance of these constituents has accumu- by a skilful farmer ; but to provide him lated. with practical rules has not been the ob The work has not been confined to a ject of the investigation. To have made

be

obtained from each manure ; the crops would have cramped the whole inquiry,

determination of the amount of produce the practical result the chief object, have themselves been analysed at the and defeated its highest purpose.

Rothamstedlaboratory. Information has thus been obtained as to the proportion EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONTINUOUS

of the manure that is recovered in the GROWTH OF

EAT.

increase of the crop ; and also respect ing the alteration in the composition of

The experiments on wheat are among

1

the crop brought about by the differ- the oldestofthose at Rothamsted. Broad ences in the composition of the soil, and balk field has been under arable culture the character of the season .

for at least two or three centuries.

It

Soil and Drainage-water Investi- grew its last turnip crop in 1839 : this gations . — The investigation has further was followed by barley, peas, wheat, and extended to the soil. After applying the oats. The last four crops were without same manure to the same land for many manure . years, it becomes possible to learn by soil The continuous growth of wheat com

analysis what accumulation or exhaustion menced in 1844, and has since proceeded

has taken place, and the depth to which without interruption, so that the present manure has penetrated. In one of the fields the drainage-waters are collected and examined : the nature and amount of the soluble matters lost by drainage, under various conditions of manuring,

crop ( 1889) is the 46th. The cultivation of the land has been that usual in the district ; there has been no deep plough ing. The seed used in the first 5 seasons was old Red Lammas ; then followed Red

are thus indicated. The investigations Cluster (4 seasons ), Red Rostock (29 sea relating to the soil are, from the difficulty sons), Square Head (8 seasons). The area of the subject, in a less advanced stage of the full-sized plots (a and 6) is 6-10ths than those relating to the effect of of an acre ; there are some half plots. manures on crops.

All the artificial manures are sown broad

Scientific Character of the Trials . cast, screens being carried on each side

the manure fall -It will be seen from the above sketch of the sowers to prevent The wheat is drilled that the object of the investigations has been purely scientific. It has not

ing on other plots. in October, 2 bushels of seed being used.

been the aim to discover the most econo-

In the spring and early summer great

mical manuring for each crop. None of care is taken to remove weeds. The the experiments have been designed with luxuriance of weeds, in the absence of

1

a view to a money profit ; on very few of them would there be any profit if conducted on a large scale. The whole in vestigation, therefore, stands condemned by the so -called “ practical” man as a mere scientific amusement, from which he has nothing to learn . He, indeed,

fallow crops, will always prove a practical objection to the continuous growth of corn, and especially of winter corn. Without Manure.

In Table I. is shown the average pro

duce per acre on Plot 3, without manure,

may learn little, but it will be because in four succeeding periods of ten years, he lacks the elementary knowledge which and during the last five years. [ TABLE I.

MANURES AND MANURING .

138

Table I. -PRODUCE OF WHEAT WITHOUT MANURE, FORTY - FIVE YEARS, 1844-88 . Dressed Corn .

Total Produce .

Quantity.

Weight per Bushel.

bush .

Ib .

lb.

Ten years, 1844-53 1854-63

1524

58.3

2711

16 °/2

Five years, 1884-88

1234 104 1222

57.6 59.0

2728

1864-73 1874-83

Mean of forty -five years

1378

11

58.3

1924 1614

59.7

1648

58.5

2178

If all the seasons had been perfectly is interesting to note that this amount alike, the produce of the unmanured land is quite equal to the average yield of would doubtless have fallen steadily the principal wheat - producing countries throughout the experiment more rap- of the world . Thus, the average yield idly at first, and very slowly afterwards. of the United States is 12 bushels, The very variable character of the sea- of Australia ir bushels, and of India sons in our climate prevents any such 10 bushels.

regularity in the produce. The course

With Farmyard Manure.

of change is best seen by looking at the

Ordinary yard manure, at the rate of amounts of “total produce.” The average produce of forty -five years 14 tons per acre, has been annually

of continuous wheat -growing without ploughed in in October on Plot 2 ; the manure is seen to be 1358 bushels. It produce is shown in Table II. Table II. -PRODUCE OF WHEAT with Farmyard MANURE, FORTY- FIVE YEARS, 1844-88. Dressed Corn . Total Produce .

Quantity . bush.

Weight per Bushel.

lb.

1b .

27

59.8

4828

60.3 60.8 60. I

Five years , 1884-88

3734 35 % 2958 364

62.0

5797 5086 5778

Mean of forty - five years

3238

60.4

5546

Ten years, 1844-53 1854-63 11 11

1864-73 1874.83

6355

Plant-food in Dung.–The amount large amount of silica, which is at present

of plant-food supplied is much larger supplied to no other plot in the field . In than on any other plot in the field . The consequence of this large supply there fourteen tons of farmyard manure are has been a great accumulation of man

estimated to contain 201 lb.nitrogen, urialmatter in thesoil,which is now far 235 lb.potash, 35 lb. magnesia, 31 lb. richer than that of any other plot in the lime, and 78 lb. phosphoric acid, with a field . Limits to High Manuring. — The number of other substances, including a

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

139

table shows a considerable rise in the

With Ash Constituents. When water has been removed , the

produce during the earlier years of the experiment, owing to the accumulation

of food in the soil. This rise afterwards constituents of a plant may be classed Everything, indeed, in nature

under two heads — the combustible and

tends to come to an equilibrium . On

the incombustible. The incombustible portion is very small;

ceases.

the unmanured land the crop falls, till

its demands equal the annual supply in wheat grain it is about 1.7 per cent, in from soil and atmosphere.

On the wheat straw about 4.6 per cent. It con

dunged plot the produce rises, till sists of the phosphates, potash, lime, mag here, too, the crop equals the annual nesia, silica, &c., derived from the soil. supply of assimilable food. With very The combustible part is made up of the high manuring we meet with another carbon, oxygen , and hydrogen derived limit, that of season .

A larger crop from the atmosphere and rain, and of the

cannot be produced by manure than nitrogen derived from the atmosphere the character of the season will admit and soil. The quantity of the principal of.

ash constituents, and of nitrogen , con

The average produce with farmyard tained in a wheat crop of 30 bushels, manure in forty-five years has been 325/8 has been already given on p. 63. bushels ; the highest produce was 44 Of the substances present in the ash , bushels in 1863. six - potash, lime, magnesia, iron, phos

Nitrogen in Dung . - Notwithstand- phoric and sulphuric acid — are quite ing the richness of thesoil, the farmyard indispensable for plant- growth. Mineral Theory. - At the time manure plot very seldom yields the highest produce in the field, both nitrate of when the Rothamsted wheat experi soda and ammonia salts proving more ments commenced, chemists had a effective.

The nitrogen in farmyard very exaggerated notion of the amount

manure is in fact principally combined with carbon , and exists as nitrogenous humic matter ; only a limited portion of this is each season oxidised, the nitrogen forming nitrates, and thus becoming available to the crop. Mechanical Influence of Dung.Not a few of the advantages attending the use of farmyard manure are due to its improvement of the physical condition of the soil.

of ammonia annually supplied by rain. Liebig , owing to this mistaken idea , taught in 1843 that the ashes of a man ure contained its true active ingredients ; that where the necessary ash constituents of a crop were supplied by manure, the

, crop would have no difficulty in obtain ing all the nitrogen it required from the atmosphere. This view was known as the “ mineral theory.” The state of

In the present case opinion at the time must be borne in

the soil, while becoming less heavy, has mind in considering the Rothamsted also become more retentive of moisture, field experiments, as they were planned and the crop thus suffers less in time to a considerable extent to test the

of drought ( Jour. Royal Agric. Soc., truth of the mineral theory.

1871, p. 91). The produce of this plot

In the first season of the wheat ex

is more even, and less affected for good periments (1843-1844 ), one plot received or evil by the vicissitudes of season than

14 tons of farmyard manure, and a

the other highly manured plots in the second plot the ashes from another lot field . of 14 tons, with the following result : Dressed Corn .

Total Corn .

Total Produce.

bush .

lh.

lb.

Farmyard manure, 14 tons

2012

1276

2752

Ashes of ditto

1472

888

1992

15

923

2043

Unmanured .

MANURES AND MANURING .

140

The plot receiving the ashes thus phere Insufficient. - As these manures yielded no more produce than the plot have supplied all the ash constituents of the wheat crop (excepting silica, which entirely without manure. Various systematic experiments have we shall presently see to benon -essential), since been made with the ash constitu- it is quite evident that the amount of the ents of wheat ; these have been supplied

other necessary elements of plant - food

in abundance, and the crop left to obtain supplied by the soil and atmosphere was its carbon and nitrogen from the natural

insufficient to produce a full crop of

resources of the soil and air.

wheat.

The crop grown with a full

One plot has received superphosphate supply of ash constituents on Plot 5 has of lime only ; one a mixture of the sul- contained, on an average, about 20 lb. of

phates of potash, soda, and magnesia ; nitrogen per acre per annum . This quan and one these sulphates together with tity represents the average amount fur superphosphate. The latter mixture is nished by the soil and atmosphere without termed by Lawes and Gilbert the “ mixed the aid of manure . mineral manure. It has generally conWe shall presently see that the growth

sisted of 372 cwt. superphosphate, 200 wheat onthese plots was really limited Ib. sulphate of potash, and 100 lb. each by the small quantity of nitrogen at the of sulphate of soda and magnesia, per disposal of the crop. When nitrogen is acre . supplied, phosphates and potash become

The mixed sulphates of potash, soda, important elements in producing growth .

and magnesia, applied for thirty-two years

Ammonia Salts with Ash Constituents. ( Plot 1 ), have not increased the produce at all. Superphosphate of lime applied The ammonia salts employed have been alone (Plot o) has, on an average, increased a mixture of equal parts sulphate and

the corn by 3 bushels, and the straw by 2 cwt. The mixture combining both manures (Plot 5 ) has given an increase of about 2 bushels of corn, and 134 cwt. of

chloride : 200 lb. of this mixture are esti mated to contain about43 lb. of nitrogen. The systematic experiments with am monia salts did not begin, in several

straw over the produce of the unmanured cases, till 1852. We shall therefore take

the average produce after this date as

land.

Nitrogen of the Soil and Atmos- the basis of our comparison : Table III.—PRODUCE OF WHEAT VARIOUSLY MANURED, AVERAGE OF THIRTY-SIX YEARS. Average Produce, 36 Years, 1852-87.

Average Total Produce.

Dressed Corn . Plot. Straw and

Corn to

per Bushel.

Chaff.

Straw .

Ib.

Weight Quantity. bush .

3 Nomanure 5 Mixed ash constituents

100

First

Second

Ib.

Ib .

2421

1669

1258

66.5 66.9

2786

1944

5956 5934 5958 574

2178 334 40/4 1834

61.6

4480

56.0

6295

2574

5778

24 %

3334

60 %

3158

13

58

cwt. II

1578

5878

24

324 362 2022

Second 18 Years,

18 Years, 18 Years, per 100 1870-87 . lof first 18. 1852-69 .

68.9 69.8

Do., and ammonia salt, 200 lb.

7 Do. 8 Do.

do. do.

400 lb. 600 lb.

10a Ammonia salts, 400 lb. 11 Superphosphate and am monia salts, 400 lb. .

51.5

7152

61.8

4018

3449 5300 6518 2788

60.1

4936

3758

76.1

60.4

6066

5299

87.4

77.0

84.2 91.1

69.4

2 Farmyard manure, 14 tons .

Table III. shows, that whereas the con- addition of 200 lb. of ammonia salts

tinued use ofash constituents alone in- gave a further increase of 876 bushels, creased the crop by only 278 bushels, the the addition of 400 lb. of ammonia salts

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

141

an increase of 175/8 bushels, and the half of several of the plots received for

addition of 600 lb. an increase of 2138 four years an application of soluble sili bushels. The produce with ash consti- cates, and in the succeeding twelve years tuents and 400 lb. ammonia salts (Plot the straw of the crop was returned to the

7 ) nearly equals in corn, and exceeds in land. The half plots thus treated have straw, the produce from the annual ap- not shown any increase of produce, save plication of 14 tons farmyard manure ; in those cases where the straw was help

while the produce with 600 lb.of ammonia ful by supplying potash ; nor has the salts ( Plot 8) considerably exceeds both wheat-straw any greater power of stand in corn and straw that yielded by the ing in rough weather than that grown dung. The far greater effect produced by the nitrogen of the ammonia than by

without silica in the manure. Artificial Supply of Nitrogen es

the nitrogen of the dung is very evident, sential for Wheat.— The evidence af 86 lb. ofnitrogen as ammonia being on a

forded by these experiments with am

long series of years nearly equal to 201 monia salts shows unmistakably the lb. applied as dung. great need of the wheat crop for an artificial supply of nitrogen, if full crops Organic Manures Unnecessary.These results throw a flood of light on are to be continuously obtained. The the conditions required for producing assimilable nitrogen furnished by the air good wheat crops. The manure applied and rain is quite insufficient for the pro to these ammonia plots has been purely duction of a full cereal crop. The annual inorganic, it has contained no carbon ; application of 86 lb. of nitrogen per acre, yet the produce has been large , and in in the form of ammonia, has raised the favourable seasons very large . In 1863 average produce from 1576 bushels to the yield of corn on Plot 7 amounted to 3234 bushels per acre. Manures best for Cereals . — The 5372 bushels per acre. About I ton of carbon is contained in the average manures which experience has proved to

crop of Plot 7 , and still more in that be most effective for wheat, barley, or of Plot 8. All the carbon assimilated by oats, are those which, like guano, nitrate

these crops has been derived from the atmosphere. The atmospheric supply of carbon is apparently sufficient for the largest cereal crops. Such crops may be obtained in favourable seasons by the use of purely inorganic manures.

of soda, and sulphate of ammonia, supply nitrogen in a form readily assimilatedby plants. The enrichment of the surface soil with nitrogen is also the main effect of a variety of agriculturalmethods com

Silica Unnecessary . — The results are

monly employed to render land fit to pro duce good crops of cereals.

equally conclusive as to the uselessness of

Excessive Dressings Unprofitable.

applying silica in manure. The com -It will be noticed that the application position of cereal crops given on page 63 of 200 lb. of ammonia salts per acre gave shows silica to be by far the largest con- an average increase of nearly 9, bushels stituent of the ash of straw , and to its of corn, and 974 cwt. of straw. The presence the stiffness of the straw has

addition of a second 200 lb. of ammonia

been too hastily attributed.

German experiments have shown that silica is not an indispensable constituent of cereal crops ; that fully developed plants can be obtained without it ; and that in these plants the straw does not show any want

salts gives a further increase of nearly 9 bushels of corn , and 1138 cwt. of straw. The 400 lb. of ammonia salts was thus not an excessive dressing. With a fur ther addition of 200 lb. ammonia salts, however, the return is greatly diminished,

of stiffness.

the increase only amounting to 374

At Rothamsted , wheat crops, above the bushels of corn, and 7 cwt. of straw. average produce of the country, have It is plain, therefore, that 600 lb. was been continuously obtained for forty years not an economical dressing. with manures supplying no silica. The For thirteen years, 1852-64, as much produce with these manures has indeed

as 800 lb. of ammonia salts were applied

been larger than that yielded by farm- to one of the plots. The average produce yard manure which supplies silica. To of different amounts of ammonia during make the test still more complete, one- these thirteen years was as follows :

MANURES AND MANURING .

142

TABLE IV . - PRODUCE OF Wheat with VARIOUS QUANTITIES OF AMMONIA Salts, AVERAGE OF THIRTEEN YEARS, 1852-64. Dressed Coru . Plot.

Straw and

Corn to

Chaff.

roo Straw .

Manuring.

Goovaer

Weight per

Mixed ash constituents

Quantity.

Bushel.

bush . 1814

lb.

cwt.

58 %8

1658 27 % 3878

Do. with ammonia salts, 200 lb.

2812

400 lb. 600 lb. 800 lb.

3778

11 11

11

11

11

11

11

3878 3972

4234

4658

62.6

58.8 54.6 51.2 47.8

We have here a successive increase of chlorine in the ammonia salts ).

This

1074, 85/8, 194, and 5/8 bushels of corn, treatment has dated from 1845.

The

and 10/2 , 11, 45, 378 cwts. of straw for average produce in thirty-six years has each additional 200 lb. of ammonia salts. been 2012 bushels and 1834 cwt. of High Manuring and Wet seasons. straw ; or 772 bushels and 734 cwt. of -It will be noticed that though the straw over that of the unmanured land.

crops are larger in this shorter experiment, the return for the second and third addition of ammonia is less than in the longer series of trials. We shall see presently that the nitrogen of the

gen.- While the crop on Plot 5 was en tirely dependent upon natural sources of nitrogen , the crop on Plot ioa has been wholly dependent upon natural sources

ammonia is liable to be removed as

for its ash constituents.

Natural Supplies of Ash and Nitro

The supply of

nitrates in the drainage - water in wet ash constituents from the soil has clearly seasons. When this happens, the plots been insufficient, for the same amount of

receiving an excessive manuring will ammonia salts, when aided by a manuring suffer least ; as, notwithstanding their of ash constituents (Plot 7), has produced loss, they may retain enough to carry a much larger crop than on Plot 1oa . the crop. The explanation of the differThe natural supply of ash constituents, ence in the two series is therefore appa- though insufficient, is, however, more ef rently to be found in the large number of fective than the natural supply of nitro

wet seasons during the latter part of the gen ; for while, on Plot 5, the natural last thirty-six years. supply of nitrogen only produces 1513 Corn and Straw from High Man- bushels, the natural supply of ash con

uring. — It will be observed that there is stituents is equal to the production of a much larger increase of straw than of 2012 bushels. corn with the heavier dressings of amSoils better supplied with Ash monia salts ; the proportion of corn to than with Nitrogen . — The fact just

straw diminishes, indeed, with each addi- stated is one that holds true in general agricultural experience. A purely nitro

tion of ammonia.

The quality of the corn is improved genous manure will, in a vast majority of by the use of 200 lb. and 400 lb. of cases, produce a greater effect on wheat ammonia salts, but with further addi- or other cereals than any manure supply

tions of ammonia the weight per busheling ash constituents; not because the begins to decline. Ammonia Salts alone.

latter are less necessary for the growth

of the crop, but because the soil is gener ally far better supplied with available

We come now to Plot 10a, which has ash constituents than it is with available received annually 400 lb. of ammonia nitrogen. salts, without any supply of phosphates, It must be recollected also, that the potash, magnesia, lime, or other ash con- average results obtained in these Roth

stituents (saving the sulphuric acid and amsted experiments with purely nitro

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

genous manures, are by no means' so

good as would be obtained in ordinary practice. The soil on Plot 1oa is now in fact exhausted of ash constituents by forty-four successive wheat crops, remov-

143

with superphosphate. The average pro duce is 2534 bushels, and 24/4 cwt. of straw ; or 574 bushels and 572 cwt. of straw more than that given by the am Thus, on a phos

monia salts alone.

ing, at least 900 lb. of potash and 500 phate - exhausted soil, superphosphate lb. of phosphoric acid per acre. In the becomes a paying manure for wheat if earlier years of the experiment the am- nitrogen is not deficient. monia salts applied alone gave a much better result than they do at present. Importance of Ash Constituents.-

The produce on this plot is, however, far below that on which all the neces

The

sary ash constituents are applied.

The importance of ash constituents when superphosphate has increased the pro nitrogen is supplied is strikingly shown duce of the ammonia by 574 bushels, by comparing the produce of the ex- but the mixture of ash constituents hausted soil on Plot roa with that of applied on Plot 7 increases the pro

the soil of Plot 7, which has annually duce by 1274 bushels.

The

mixed

received an abundance of ash constitu- ash constituents include potash, soda,

ents, with the same amount of ammonia. and magnesia. The average produce with ash constitu-

A series of experiments has been made

ents and ammonia is 12 4 bushels greater in which the sulphates of potash, soda, than with the same quantity of ammonia and magnesia have been used separately, applied alone. As nitrogenous manures each with ammonia salts and superphos

are by far the most costly that a farmer phate. Unfortunately, previously to the purchases, it is important to remember commencement of this trial in 1852, the that economy in their use depends a

whole three plots had received during

great deal on there being a sufficient five or six years heavy dressings of supply of available phosphates and pot- potash. It has therefore required a ash in the soil.

Ammonia with Individual Ash Constituents. On Plot in the 400 lb. of ammonia

considerable time for the want of potash to affect the amount of produce. Tak

ing, however, the average of the last five seasons, 1884-88, the effect of the special

manuring is tolerably apparent, as will be salts have been continuously applied seen from Table V. TABLE V.-PRODUCE OF WHEAT VARIOUSLY MANURED, AVERAGE OF FIVE YEARS, 1884-88. Straw and

Corn to 10o

Corn .

Chaft.

Straw .

1b .

Ib.

2019 2721 2810

Total

Plot.

Manured with Ammonia Salts and Superphosphate.

116 12b

Alone With soda

1323 1777

145

With magnesia With potash .

1848 1983

With soda, magnesia, and potash

2130

13b 76

.

3108 3322

65.5 65.3 65.8 63.8 64. I

The sulphate of potash tbus yields the nesia is a less important ash constituent

largest crop, and its excess over the soda of wheat, and is usually found in suffi and magnesiawill doubtless become more cient abundance in the soil. Soda is marked as exhaustion of potash proceeds found to a very small extent in the ma ture crop ; but soda salts have some effect on these plots. Relative Importance of the Ash as manure : they probably act by liberat Constituents.-

Phosphoric acid and ing potash in the soil. Lime scarcely occurs in wheat grain, and to only a small

potash are the ash constituents of the greatest importance to the wheat crop,

extent in the straw ; the natural supply

and indeed to every other crop. Mag- is quite sufficient.

MANURES AND MANURING. 144

salts as a top - dressing at the end of

Effect ofAutumn and SpringApplications March or beginning of April, while Plot of Ammonia Salts.

7 received the same amount when the

Up to the year 1872, the whole of the wheat was put in in October. For the manures, with the exception of nitrate autumn of 1877 the manuring was re of soda, were applied to the land in au- versed, Plot 15 now received the ammonia

tumn at the time of wheat-sowing, and salts in the autumn, and Plot 7 received them in the spring. Both plots had at With the season 1872-73, an experi- all times a complete autumn manuring

ploughed in.

ment commenced on the comparative with ash constituents. The comparative results in ten years effect of autumn and spring applications

of ammonia salts. For five years ( 1873- of autumn and spring manuring are 77 ) Plot 15 received 400 lb. of ammonia shown in Table VI. TABLE VI . - COMPARATIVE EFFECT OF AUTUMN AND SPRING SOWING OF AMMONIA SALTS. Rainfall,

Manuring

Spring Manuring

to Spring

to end of

Autumn

1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76 1876-77 1877-78

Mean

July. inches.

inches.

inches .

18.53

6.92

11.45

7.05 10.55

7.93 13.55 7.58

2.89

0.42 0.58

11.17 15.05

.

8.18 12.96

5.21 10.14 15.78

8.11

3.86 1.94 1.18 6.02

13.09 3.37 12.75

6.76 1.58

15.20 10.34

17.10 10.82 6.16 14.73

7.62

12.79

10.59

9.04

5.78

1880-81 1881-82

Spring Spring Manuring Autumn to end of Manuring . Manuring. Manuring. July , Autumn

inches.

22.01

Total Produce, Corn and Straw .

Manuring to Spring

Manuring.

12. 17

1878-79 1879-80

Drainage, 5.ft. Gauge.

Spring Sowing preferable. - It appears that, out of the ten seasons, there was one ( 1874) in which the autumn sowing of the ammonia salts gave de-

lb.

Ib .

3344 7094 5110 3793 3048 4486 1275

5031

+ 1687

4588

- 2506

4915 4795 7017

195 + 290 + 1747 +2531

4063

+2788

4.48

6309 3489 5948

2.71

4390

0.25

Spring + or Autumn .

4083

lb.

6155

154

3917

+ 428

7981

+ 2033

5255

+ 865

soil ; and the soil, having no power of re taining nitrates, they are liable to be washed into the subsoil by heavy rain , and to be carried in drainage-water be

cidedly the best result ;there were four yond the reach of the roots. This is what in which the difference between autumn happens during a wet winter. and spring sowing was very small ; there In the table, the quantity of rain ,

were five in which the spring sowing and the amount of drainage -water pass gave much the best result. The average ing through 5 feet of uncropped soil (60

result was thus decidedly in favour of inch drain -gauge), ineach season, is given. spring sowing:

It will be noticed that a wet winter,

Rainfall and Time of Sowing Man- in some cases ( 1880-81 ), does little harm : - When we turn to the other columns

ure . -

to the autumn-sown ammonia salts.

In

in the table, it is plainly seen that the these cases the wet winter is followed by advantage or disadvantage of autumn a dry summer, and the crop is able to sowing depends on the amount of the draw up from the soil the solution of rainfall. The autumn application of nitrates which had passed downwards. ammonia salts is advantageous only The worst results of autumn manuring when a dry winter follows their applica- are when a wet winter is followed by a tion. This is owing to the fact that am- wet summer ( 1877-78, 1878-79, 1881-82). monia is converted into nitrates in the In these cases the nitrates washed below

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

145

are kept down by the subsequent spring ject of the experiment was to compare and summer rainfall.

the effect of nitrogen in the two forms of

In consequence of these results, the ammonia and nitric acid , the quantity time for applying the ammonia salts to of nitrate of soda employed was arranged

the experimental plots in the wheat-field to supply the same weight of nitrogen has been altered. For 1878-83, the ammonia was ( save on Plot 15 ) applied entirely in the spring. Since then 100 lb. of ammonia salts have been applied in autumn and the remainder in spring.

( 86 lb.) as 400 lb. of ammonia salts. The quality of the ammonia salts em ployed has since improved, so that in later years the quantity of nitrogen sup plied as ammonia has probablyexceeded by 3 or 4 lb. that supplied as nitric acid .

With Nitrate of Soda.

The nitrate of soda has always been ap

The trials with nitrate of soda com- plied as a top - dressing at the end of menced in 1852, but the quantities of March or beginning of April. The am

manure used did not become constant monia salts on the comparative plots till 1855. We shall therefore quote the were applied in autumn, till the season results from the latter year.

1877-78.

As one ob-

Table VII. –PRODUCE OF WHEAT with NITRATE OF SODA AND AMMONIA SALTS, AVERAGE OF THIRTY YEARS, 1855-84. Average Produce, 30 Years, 1855-84.

Average Total Produce.

Dressed Corn .

Second

Manure.

Plot.

Straw and

Weight Quantity.

Chaff.

Corn to 100

First

Second

15 Years ,

15 Years , 15 Years, 1870-84. Straw . 1855-69.

per 100 of first 15

per

Bushel. Ib.

Ib .

lb.

1078 66.9

2390

1578

58/4 59 % 8

1238 68.5

2695

1670 1964

69.9 72.8

33

5978

33% | 56.6

6284

5350

85.1

372 2134 2372

59/4 5734 5678

43

49.3

7368

7026

95.3

1978 62.3 2438 53.7

4271 4971

2947

69.0

3489

70.2

bush .

3 5 7

No manure

13

Mixed ash constituents Do. , ammonia salts, 400 lb,

cwt.

92

Do., nitrate of soda, 550 lb.

Ioab

Ammonia salts, 400 lb.

ob

Nitrate of soda, 550 lb.

Nitrate of Soda excels Ammonia given both by autumn and spring dress Salts . — The nitrate of soda applied alone

ings of ammonia salts during ten years,

has given 134 bushels more corn and each manure supplying approximately

4/4 cwt. more straw than the correspond- the same quantity of nitrogen, and the ing plot receiving ammonia salts. Where land receiving in every case a full supply an abundance of ash constituents is sup- of ash constituents in the autumn. It plied, as on Plot ga, the advantage from will be seen that, on an average, the

the use of nitrate of soda is still more spring-sown ammonia was 478 bushels marked, the excess over the corresponding ammonia plot reaching 472 bushels and 974 cwt. of straw . As the nitrate of soda, from its well-

better than the autumn sown, and the nitrate of soda 478 bushels better than the spring -sown ammonia.

With the

straw , the spring -sown ammonia is 538

known solubility, has always been applied cwt. better thanthe autumn sown, and in the spring, and the ammonia salts been applied in the autumn, the comparison may be thought hardly fair to the ammonia . In Table VIII., the produce by nitrate of soda is compared with that

have, in most years of the experiment,

VOL. II.

the nitrate 10 cwt. better than the spring sown .

Influence of Rainfall. — Ammonia

salts and nitrate of soda compare, how ever, very differently in different seasons; there are seasons in which the nitrate is K

MANURES AND MANURING .

146

immensely superior, and there are some spring, the nitrate is subject to immediate

seasons in which the ammonia salts give loss by drainage, while the ammonia is an equal or better result. With a dry spring and summer the nitrate is generally much superior to a spring dressing of ammonia salts,the nitrate being immediately available to the plant, while the ammonia has to undergo the process of nitrification, which in dry weather is not speedy.

not lost till it is nitrified, and thus for a few weeks partially escapes the losses which the nitrate is undergoing. In Table VIII., the comparative effect of nitrate of soda and ammonia salts is given for the ten seasons of which the rainfall and drainage have been already given in

On the other hand, in a wet Table VI.

TABLE VIII.-PRODUCE OF NITRATE OF SODA, AND OF AUTUMN AND SPRING SOWN

AMMONIA SALTS, IN VARIOUS SEASONS. Nitrate of Soda,

Ammonia Salts , 400 lb.

Season .

Autumn Sown.

Corn .

550 lb.

Spring Sown .

Spring Sown.

Straw .

Corn .

Straw .

Corn .

bush .

cwt .

3534 38%

3578

bush .

1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76 1876-77 1877-78

1878-79 1879-80 1880-81 1881-82

Mean

22

18

3278

272

3972

412 302

29 % 8 2572 2572 3378 31

2434

2578 2372

1934

29

163/8 2738 878 36 1758 3672

247

2578

1978 2218 578 3674

25/4

It would require a detailed discussion of the character of each season, month by month, if we were to attempt to explain all the differences between the crops; we can only refer to the most

1674 34'2 265/8 3534

2872 2134 2478 444 2678

3072 334 4018

Straw .

4434 4238 32

354 1958 5198

3572 3178

3438 504 38 39) 32/2 56

3072

3378

4012

29

37% 22

34

season than in the latter. In two seasons,

1874 and 1880, the autumn - sown am monia salts beat the nitrate in yield of corn .

These two seasons have a very

dry winter, as well as a dry spring ; the

striking instances. In 1874, 1876, 1877,

rain from spring sowing to the end of

and 1881, the nitrate crop exceeds the spring-sown ammonia crop by 7 to 9 bushels, and 10 to 20 cwt. of straw ; these are all years in which the spring

June in those two years was but 5.12 and 5.56 inches respectively. The weather during spring was apparently too dry for the nitrate to attain a' proper diffusion in

and summer rainfall are on the whole

the soil.

conspicuously deficient.

The nitrates from the autumn

sown ammonia were better diffused , and spring- sown ammonia yields 4 bushels gave the larger produce. In 1882

the

more than the spring-sown nitrate. This Practical Conclusions. It is evident year is seen by Table VI. to have had the from the facts now mentioned that nitrate wettest spring and summer in the series, of soda will give a better return than

with the exception of 1879. In 1882, spring applications of ammonia salts in however, a large excess of rain occurred à dry climate. In a very dry climate in April; while in 1879 the great excess the nitrate should be applied very early,

did not commence till May ; the nitrate or ammonia salts should be employed in not yet taken up by the crop thus prob- the autumn instead. Where the spring ably suffered a greater loss in the former months are usually wet, the nitrate should

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS .

147

be applied in two dressings, or recourse 8, ga, are those which have suffered had to ammonia salts.

When a late least in the second period ; the diminu

dressing is needed, nitrate of soda should tion in their case varies from 5 to 16 per be preferred to ammonia salts, as its cent. The smallest diminution takes nitrogen is immediately available. Very place on Plot ga , receiving nitrate of late dressings produce straw rather than soda and ash constituents. In these corn . cases we may probably assume that the decline in produce is due to the inferi Proportion of Corn to Straw . ority of the seasons in later years. In Tables III. and VII. will be found

The produce of other plots, as 3, 5 , 10,

the proportion of corn to 100 straw and gb, shows a diminution of about 30 in the produce of the various manures per cent in the second period . We have

we have considered. The proportion of here, besides the effect of bad seasons, corn is highest in the produce of the un- the still greater effect of the gradually manured land, and on that receiving only progressing exhaustion of the soil. the ash constituents of the wheat crop. Influence of Season . The addition of any manure producing luxuriance of growth increases the proThe 45 successive wheat crops in portion of straw ; thus, by the continu- Broadbalk field at Rothamsted, grown

ous application of farmyard manure, the for the most part under the same con proportion of corn to 100 straw falls ditions as to manuring every year, afford from 66 to 6o. splendid material to the statistician for With increasing quantities of ammonia indicating the varying produce of the salts, applied with ash constituents, the country in different seasons. We cannot proportion of corn gradually falls, being in this place regard them in this wide 61.6, 56.0, and 51.5, with 200,Th400 , and aspect. The produce of each during plot, and

600 lb. of ammonia salts.

is

con

the character of each season,

40

siderable increase in the proportion of years, will be found in two papers by straw with the higher amounts of am- Messrs Lawes and Gilbert, in Jour. monia is not, however, entirely due to Royal Agric. Soc., 1864, 93 ; 1884, 391 . the ammonia, as on Plot ioa, with 400 To these papers, and to a paper, “ Our lb. of ammonia salts alone, the propor- Climate and our Wheat Crops," ibid ., tion of corn is 61.8 ; and on Plot 11, 1880, 173, we must refer for full details.

with the same quantity of ammonia with We have here to regard the influence of superphosphate, the proportion is 60.1 season as a condition affecting the fer to 100. The increase in straw is clearly tility of soil and the action of manures. Every farmer knows that the effect of due in great part to the potash supplied

on Plots 6, 7, and 8, which helps largely season is greater than the effect of man to form straw when the nitrogen neces- ure. A season may be so bad that the best soil and manure may yield a miser sary to nourish the crop is present. The proportion of straw is much able produce, and it may be so good that greater with nitrate of soda than with moderate manuring may nearly equal in ammonia salts ( Table VII. ) Here, too,

result a liberal treatment.

A suitable

the effect of the ash constituents is seen, manuring will, however, assert itself in for while the nitrate alone gives 53.7 of a large majority of cases, redeeming a com to 100 straw , the proportion when bad season from utter loss, and securing phosphates and potash are added is 49.3 from a good season the grand return to 100 . which it is capable of yielding. Diminution in Produce.

Influence of Light and Heat . - No

large crop can be obtained without a

In Tables III. and VII. we have given sufficient amount of light and heat, as the total produce of the various plots the assimilation of carbon from the at during the first and second half of the mosphere only occurs with suitable light

period of experiment. In every instance and temperature. The formation of seed there is a diminution of produce in the especially requires heat. A bulky crop more recent years. The plots receiving in June will produce abundance of corn the most abundant manuring, as 2, 7, in July, if this month is warm , and not

148

MANURES AND MANURING .

too wet ; but it will remain a crop of straw if July is cold and rainy. The corn produced in a cold wet summer is

These are the conditions favourable to large produce on every description of soil, manured or unmanured . The dry

also imperfectly developed ; it contains weather between autumn and spring less starch, and a larger proportion of retains in the soil all the nitrates be albuminoids and ash constituents, than longing to it ; dry mild weather dur

well-ripened grain, and has a low weight per bushel.

ing winter and spring also occasions

The same defect in the corn a maximum development of root ; the

may be brought about by premature plant is thus enabled to levy contribu ripening, occasioned by sudden heat and tions from a considerable depth of soil. drought; but this will seldom happen If moderately dry weather continue, the upon a clay soil like that at Rothamsted.

plant is afterwards fed with a concen

Autumn and Winter Weather.-

trated solution of plant-food. The mod

The popular view of the character of a erate warmth of the season allows full wheat season is confined to the meteoro-

time for the collection of food from the

logical conditions of spring and summer.

soil.

There is finally a somewhat late

Winter is taken into account only when harvest, and a most abundant produce. frost or floods have injured the plant. High Temperature.- A different class We have already seen, however, when of good seasons are those with high tem

considering the very different results of perature, and (generally ) an early har the autumn and spring application of vest ; such seasons were those of 1857,

ammonia salts, that the dryness or wet- 1868, and 1870. The produce in corn, ness of the autumn and winter is a most though very good, is not equal to that of important factor in determining the the longer and cooler seasons; and the character of the next summer's crop . produce in straw is much less. In a wet winter, the nitrates produced Bad Seasons. - The worst possible .

in the soil since the last cropping, or

season is that in which a wet winter

resulting from autumn applications of is followed by a cold, wet, cloudy sum nitrogenous manure, may be removed mer, as in 1879. Under these circum

almost entirely in the drainage-water, and the soil reduced to an impoverished condition by the time the growth of wheat commences in the spring. A dry

stances the soil is robbed of soluble food ; the whole plant, roots included, is scarcely developed, and, fed with a copious supply of rain - water, a miser

winter is thus essential if a full wheat able crop is the inevitable result.

The

crop is to be harvested throughout the most liberal manuring is the one that country. under these circumstances yields the best The farmer who applies nitrate of return . soda, ammonia salts, or guano as a The seasons 1853, 1860, 1867, 1871, spring dressing , may of course make 1873, 1875, 1876 , were bad seasons for

himself independent of the character of the production of wheat, but none were the winter ; but if the winter has been nearly so bad as 1879. wet, he must apply more of those expenAsh Constituents and

the Seasons.

sive manures to produce the wished -for —The beneficial effect of giving a good effect.

supply of ash constituentswith theam

Conditions Favourable to Large monia salts or nitrate is generally very Crops. — The years of greatest total conspicuous in a season of low vitality,

produce during the Rothamsted experi- or in one of premature ripening. The ments have been 1863 and 1854. These bulk of the produce is not affected so seasons had dry winters, and in the case adversely by the season , and the grain has of 1863 the winter was also mild. There a higher weight per bushel where the soil

was also during spring and summer a is well supplied with ash constituents. deficiency of rain, though enough fell at critical times to prevent any check to growth. The summers were not unusually hot, indeed that of 1854 was de-

Effect of Residues of Manures. As only a portion of every dressing of

manure is taken up by the crop in the

cidedly cool; there was thus no prema- season in which it is applied, it becomes an important practical question whether ture ripening of the produce.

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

149

the unused portion of the manure re- ceived in 1847, and again in 1849, a mains in the soil in such a condition as liberal manuring of ash constituents,

to yield a supply of food to subsequent containing in all about 300 lb. of potash crops. The subject has recently received and 130 lb. of phosphoric acid .

The

additional importance, as, under some other half of the plot, named 10a, did not

circumstances, a farmer has now a property in the unused residues of the manures which he has applied. The Rothamsted experiments supply

receive this manure. For the season 1851 , and since, both halves of the plot have received annually 400 lb. of am monia salts without ash constituents.

numerous illustrations of the influence

As manuring with ammonia salts alone

of the residues of previous manuring. We will, in this place, refer to a few of the most important experiments on this subject occurring in the wheat field. We will consider first the results showing

is the treatment which produces the most rapid exhaustion of the ash constituents of the soil, it is naturally an excellent means of bringing into view any store of ashconstituents which the soil contains. Table IX. shows the average produce

the effect of residues of ash constituents. Residues of Ash Constituents.-

per annum of the two half plots since

One half of Plot 10, designated 10b, re- 1852 . TABLE IX . - AVERAGE PRODUCE OF WHEAT ON Plots 100 AND 106 DURING THIRTY - TWO YEARS. Dressed Corn .

Plot rod .

Plot rob.

Excess on rob .

Excess on 10b .

bush ,

bush .

bush .

Ib.

lb.

Ib .

2234

434 314 178 134

4055 4076 3060 2618

4885 4563 3264 2935

830

234

3452

3912

1860-67

24

11

1868-75

19

1876-83

1638

2772 27% 2018 1878

20 %2

23 %

Thirty -two years, 1852-83

Plot rod .

Plot 10b .

01

Eight years, 1852-59

Total Produce.

487 204 317

460

Residue of Ash and Ammonia The figures show an average annual excess of 234 bushels on the plot which Salts . — Our next illustration will show received in early years the dressings of not only the effect of residues of ash ash constituents. The excess was most constituents, but also the effect pro considerable in the first years, but was duced by a previous manuring with still perceptible in 1888. ammonia salts . The manures on Plots

In thirty-six years the residue of ash constituents on rob has produced in all ninety -one bushels of corn ! This is a very striking fact. It must, how-

17 and 18 have alternated each year since 1852. In each year one plot re ceives the usual full dressing of ash constituents, and the other plot 400 lb.

ever, be recollected , that the effect of of ammonia salts. In the following this residue of potash and phosphoric year the manuring is reversed, the plot acid is made apparent only by follow that had received ash constituents now ing a treatment very exhaustive to receives ammonia, and the one which

the land, and that such an exhaustive had received ammonia now receives ash system is very wasteful, and one that constituents. There is thus each year a it would never pay a farmer to follow . crop by ammonia salts, plus a residue

Had ash constituents been regularly ap- of ash constituents, and a crop by ash plied to Plot rob during the thirty -six constituents, plus the residue from the years, the same quantity of ammonia ammonia. would have yielded 340 bushels more The average effect of these annual corn !

residues is shown in Table X.

MANURES AND MANURING.

150

TABLE X. - EFFECT OF ANNUAL RESIDUE OF Ash CONSTITUENTS, AVERAGE THIRTY- SIX YEARS. Dressed Corn .

Total Produce .

bush .

Ib.

Ammonia and residue of ash constituents

3072

5258

Ammonia alone, Plot ioa

2072

3403

Excess, due to residue of ash constituents

IO

1855

EFFECT OF ANNUAL RESIDUE FROM AMMONIA SALTS, AVERAGE THIRTY-SIX YEARS. Dressed Corn .

Total Produce.

bush .

Ib .

Ash constituents and residue of ammonia

154

2500

Ash constituents alone, Plot 5

15

2365 .

14

Excess, due to residue of ammonia .

135

The abundant residue of ash constitu- much evidence to show that the unused

ents remaining from the preceding year ammonia has been in great part lost as has proved its effectiveness, by raising the produce by 10 bushels per year. We turn now to the result produced by the residue of the ammonia . It has yielded, according to the table, an in-

nitrates in the drainage-water. of the effect of residues of ammonia. Plot 16 received for thirteen years (1852 1864) 800 lb. of ammonia salts per

crease of but 14 bushel per year !

annum , with ash constituents.

We have one more instance to give

This was

Of the 86 lb. of nitrogen contained in the largest amount of ammonia salts the ammonia salts, not more than 43 lb. applied to any plot in the field. The

would be contained in the crop obtained average produce during these thirteen by its use ; what then has become of the years was 3972 bushels of corn . From

remaining 43 lb. ? It is quite clear that 1865-1883 the plot was left unmanured. the missing ammonia is not present in the excess of produce in these nine the soil ready for use in the next season,

teen years over the produce of the per

for it produces no effect on the crop. manently unmanured land is shown in We shall see presently that there is Table XI. TABLE XI.—ExcESS OF PRODUCE ON Plot 16 OVER PLOT 3, IN NINETEEN YEARS. Total Produce .

Dressed Corn .

Plot 3. Plot 16 .

1865 1866

1867 1868

Average - four years, 1869-72 11

eleven

10

1873-83

Excess of 16 over 3.

Excess

Plot 3. Plot 16. of 16 over 3 .

bush .

bush .

bush.

Ib .

13% 12 %8 878 1658 124 1072

3278 1778

1978

1861

5%

2046

1458

534

1505

2512 | 1007

2234 15 % 1134

6/8 2027

3503 | 1476

3

1943

1b.

Ib.

5007 | 3146 3081 | 1035 2493

14 | 1613 | 1821

550 208

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

151

It will be noticed that in the first EXAMINATION OF THE SOILS.

year after the cessation of the ammon iacal manuring on Plot 16, there was on

It may be assumed that, at the com

this plot a considerable crop, exceeding mencement of the experiment, the soil by 1978 bushels that of the permanently of the various plots in Broadbalk field unmanured land.

This considerable ex- was of a fairly uniform composition,

cess must be attributed to a residue of though the subsoils would then,as now , the preceding abundant nitrogenous man- be more or less irregular in character. uring remaining in the soil. In the As on some plots of the field no manure second, third, and fourth years, the ex- has been applied, while on other plots cess of crop on the previously manured there have been long-repeated applica

soil is only 5 or 6 bushels. After this tions of particular manures, the com time the excess rapidly diminishes, aver- position of the soil is now of the most aging in the last eleven years only 1/4 varied description. On some of the bushel per annum . plots the land is now extremely rich in

It is probable that only the excess of phosphoric acid and potash, on others the first year was due to an unused residue of nitrogenous manure. The excess of the later years, we shall see presently, was probably rather due to a gradual oxidation of the accumulated organic matter in the soil. Practical Conclusion .

it is exhausted of these constituents to an extent which could hardly occur in

ordinary farm practice. On some plots nitrogen has accumulated, on others the soil is impoverished. 1. Contents in Cinereal Plant- food. Little has been done in the way of

We learn,

then, that residues of phosphoric acid or potash remain available for future crops, but that no effective residue remains in the soil, even from abundant applications of ammonia salts. The use of such salts is apparently attended with

mineral analysis of the soil. Hermann von Liebig examined the soils of some of the plots collected in 1865, and de

a considerable waste of nitrogen.

and in dilute acetic acid, and the amount of phosphoric acid soluble in nitric acid.

termined the amount of various constit

uents soluble in dilute hydrochloric His results for the unmanured soil are

given in Table XII. TABLE XII.-SOME CONSTITUENTS IN 100 PARTS OF UNMANURED SOIL (Plot 3) IN BROADBALK FIELD, 1865. Soluble in

Dilute Hydro

Soluble in Dilute Acetic Acid .

chloric Acid.

First 9

Lime . Magnesia

inches.

2. 298

First 9 inches. Second 9 inches. Third 9 inches.

.092

2.065 .028

.085

.015 .012

Sulphuric acid

.066 .015

.377 .013 .018 .013

trace

.002

Silica .

.434

.065

.080

.075

.075

.047

Potash Soda

not deter mined OII

014 .003

mot deter

Phosphoric acid, soluble in dilute nitric acid

mined

,043

The lime in the surface-soil at Roth- the commencement of the experiments, is amsted is principally due to ancient estimated by H. Liebig as .084 per cent. dressings of chalk. The phosphoric acid This he considers as below that neces originally present in the surface -soil, at sary for a good wheat soil. He con

MANURES AND MANURING .

152

cludes, from his analyses of the soils and soda applied in the manures, had appar subsoils of other plots, that the phos- ently not been retained by the soil. phoric acid which had been applied as 2. Contents in Total Nitrogen . manure, and not removed in the crops, was still present in the soil, chiefly in the first 9 inches, but some also in the

The soils and subsoils of the various plots have been on several occasions

second 9 inches. Of the potash applied, carefully sampled, and the nitrogen he found somein the first 9 inches; but which they contained determined. The a large quantity was not found .

He last and most complete examination was

thought it most probable that it had made on soils collected in October 1881 . really entered into some insoluble com- The amount of nitrogen found in some bination which was unattacked by his of the principal plots is given in Table weak acid . The sulphuric acid, and the XIII. TABLE XIII. - NITROGEN FOUND IN FIRST 9 INCHES OF SOILS FROM BROADBALK FIELD, 1881. Average Total Plot.

Nitrogen in Dry Soil.

Produce per Acre,

Manuring.

Per Cent.

Per Acre .

O. 1045

Ib. 2404

0.1012

2328

0.1153

2652 2908

1852-81.

3

5a ба

96 IOA

400 !

600 "

6778

Do. and ammonia salts, 200 lb. 11

7a

Sa ga

lb. 2108 2394 3954 5710

No manure . Ash constituents

and nitrate of soda, 550 Nitrate of soda, 550 Ammonia salts, 400 "

.

106

Ammonia salts,

Ila 2

Superphos. and ammonia salts, 400 lb. Farmyard manure , 14 tons

400 "

6903 4293

3450 3923

4387

5696

0.1264 0.1320 0.1253 0.1106 0.1074 0.1077

0.1164 0.1957

3036 2883

Excess over Plot 5 per Acre . Ib.

324

580 708

2543 2471

555 215 143

2476 2676

148 348

4502

2174

The slowness with which the nitrogen The first thing that strikes one in looking at the figures is the smallness of the ous matter in the soil is oxidised , and

alteration in the nitrogen of the soil pro- made soluble and available to the plant, duced either by exhaustive cropping or is a great natural safeguard against the

by very liberal treatment with artificial complete exhaustion and sterilisation of the soil which might else speedily occur Slow Exhaustion of Soil-nitrogen . under bad treatment. Small Increase of Soil-nitrogen by -On Plots 3 and 5 no nitrogen has been manures .

applied ; the crop has drawn its nitrogen Ammonia or Nitrates. On the other entirely from the soil and atmosphere. hand, the liberal manuring with ammonia

On Plot 5 productionhas been stimulated salts, or nitrate of soda,which many of as far as possible by liberal manuring with the plots have received, and which has the ash constituents of wheat. In this resulted in large crops, has not produced condition of nitrogen hunger, all the any considerable increase in the nitro nitrogen has been taken from the soil gen of the soil. We have already seen

that could be taken ; yet at the end of that these nitrogenous manures, though twenty -nine years the soil still contains very active in the season in which they 2300 to 2400 lb. of nitrogen in the first are applied, leave no residue in the soil

9 inches. The amount of nitrogen lost available for the next season ; they, in in twenty -nine years of continuous wheat- fact, feed the crop but not the soil. cropping without nitrogenous manure is Soils Enriched in Nitrogen by

probably not more than one-fifth of the Heavy Crops. — Though, however, am amount originally present in the soil.

monia and nitrates do not themselves

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

153

permanently enrich the soil, it will be ( save Plot 2 ) at that date. From 1864 seen, on comparing the average total the soil has been unmanured; the crop, as

produce of the plots during nine years we havealready seen ( Table XI.), speedily with the nitrogen found in the soils at fell to nearly that ofthe permanently un the end of this period, that there is a manured soil. In 1881 the soil was ana distinct relation between the two. The lysed again, and found to contain not nitrogen of the soil rises or falls as the more than 2557 lb. of nitrogen per acre. previous cropping has been abundant or The soil had thus lost at least 350 lb. of not. Thus the same amount of am- nitrogen in 16 years, or about 22 lb. per monia has been applied on Plots 7 and 10. annum . The former plot, having been well supResidue of Dung. - The soil of Plot plied with ash constituents, has yielded a 2 , receiving farmyard manure every year, good crop ; the latter, having no ash con- is in very different circumstances from

stituents, has given a much smaller pro- those manured with ammonia salts or duce.

The soils now reflect, not the nitrates. There is here a very large ac

quantity of ammonia applied to them, cumulation of nitrogen and carbon in the which has been alike, but the amount soil, due, not to crop residues, but to of produce grown upon them, the soil large residues of manure. The amount of Plot 7 containing considerably more

of nitrogen in the soil is shown by Table

nitrogen than the soil of Plot 10. The XIII. to be much larger than in any other soil has in fact been enriched, not by the plot in the field.

It is indeed nearly

manure, but by the residue of roots, double that found on Plot 5,receiving stubble, and weeds left in it at the end no nitrogenous manure. On Plot 2 the of each harvest. That this is the case crop for some time steadily increased

is further proved by the fact that the from year to year ( Table II.)

This in

proportion of carbon found in the vari- crease of crop has now ceased, and the

ous soils rises or falls with the propor- increase of the nitrogen in the soil has also ceased, or is at least proceeding but

tion of nitrogen .

The permanence of the percentages of slowly. The annual oxidation of organic nitrogen and carbon in the soil thus de- matter in the soil is now , apparently, pends on the permanence of the amount about equal to the annual receipt. of produce. We shall expect a further In the first 9 inches of soil, manured decline in nitrogen in the soils of Plots for 38 years with farmyard manure, the

3, 5, 96, 10, and 11, because the crops proportion of nitrogen to carbon was on these must still further diminish in found to be 1:11 . On the other plots in

consequence of their imperfect nutrition ; butwe do not expect any further decline in Plots 6, 7, 8, 9a (unless there should be a series of seasons below the average),

the field the proportion was about 1:10. By comparing these proportionswith those shown by the original materials supplied to the soil, we see in a striking manner

because the nutrition on these plots is the character of the oxidation which complete, and the amount of crop and takes place in the soil. In moderately crop residue should remain fairly constant. rotted farmyard manure the proportion Effect of Exhaustive Treatment.of nitrogen to carbon is about 1:19 ; and Plot 16, which is not mentioned in the in the roots and stubble of cereal crops table, affords a striking instance of the 1:43. The carbon is thus first oxidised , rapidity with which a soil falls out of and a residue of nitrogenous humus re condition when it passes from a liberal mains in the soil. to an exhaustive treatment.

As already

Nitrogen in the Subsoil.

The

stated (p. 142), this plot received up to second and third 9 inches of the various 1864 a larger amount of ammonia salts,

soils have been examined.

They are

with ash constituents, than any other fairly uniform in their percentage of plot in the field, and surpassed every nitrogen throughout the field, being ap other plot in the amount of its total parently little affected either by manure

produce. In 1865 the soil was sampled. It then contained in the first 9 inches 2907 lb. of nitrogen per acre, a quantity larger than that found in any other plot

or crop residue. They lie, indeed, to a great extent, out of the sphere of ac cumulation or oxidation . The percent age of nitrogen in the soil of the second

MANURES AND MANURING .

154

9 inches is usually 0.07, and the amount but the reader is advised to peruse the

per acre about 1900 lb. In the third next section, on drainage-waters, before 9 inches the percentage of nitrogen is considering these results, as the subject about 0.06, and the amount per acre will become clearer by so doing. 1600 lb. The proportion of carbon to The composition ofthe drainage-waters

nitrogen diminishes as we descend, being of Broadbalk field proves that nitrates about 1 : 9 in the second 9 inches, and

are absent, or nearly absent, during

1 : 8 in the third 9 inches.

summer time in the soils of those plots their manure. The same fact is shown by the analysis of various soils at Rothamsted, taken from wheat barley fields immediately after harvest.

Soil -nitrogen unsuitable for Wheat. which receive no excess of nitrogen in

-One fact plainly taught by the results given in this section is the uselessness of the ordinary nitrogen of the soil for the wheat crop. The unmanured land con-

tains, to a depth of 27 inches, about At this time, unless heavy rain has 5700 lb. of nitrogen per acre, yet the lately fallen, the soils are nearly desti wheat on this land can barely appro- tute ofnitrates. After harvest, nitrates

priate 20 lb. per annum , and suffers from generally appear in considerable quanti nitrogen hunger ! The form of nitrogen ties in the drainage-waters, the amount that practically acts as food for wheat is depending on the richness of the soil

nitric acid. The growth of the wheat nitrogenous matter, and the abundance crop is limited (ash constituents being of the rainfall, and is much increased by present) by the amount of nitrates pres- ploughing. In soils containing an excess ent in the soil.

of ammonia or nitrates beyond the power of the crop to assimilateeither from

3. Contents in Nitric Acid . the largeness of the application , as on Determinations of nitrogen present as Plot 8, or from the fact that the ash

nitrates in the various soils and subsoils of Broadbalk field were made in the samples collected October 10 to 18, 1881. The results are described here, as they

constituents necessary for the assimila tion of nitrogen are absent, as on Plots 96, 10 , and 11 - nitrates are found in the drainage-waters, when the drains run,

fall naturally under the head of soil; both in summer time and at harvest. TABLE XIV . - THE NITROGEN AS NITRATES IN THE DRAINAGE -WATERS OF THE PLOTS IN

BROADBALK FIELD, FROM MARCH 1881 to JANUARY 1882, IN PARTS PER MILLION . August 30 .

2

March 5, 6, 7, Mixed.

IO II

5. 1 3.4 3.6 3.9 3.9 5.3 5.2 5.9 5.4

12

4.8

13 14 15

4.5 5. I

3&4 5 7 8 9

16

17 18

19

Sept. 25. Oct. 14. Oct. 23. Nov. 25. Nov. 27. Dec. 7. A.M.

1.2

0.9

4.7

6.3

8.7

1.5

1.4

6.0

8.1

9.5

5.4 6.0

1.9 4. I

7.0

12.3

13.3

8.5

18.91

16. 1 6.8 2.3

20.6 10.7 7.2

2.4

21.0

12.6 9.3 9.0

0.3

9.8 17.1 12.3 11.2

14.5

19.6

12.6 10.5 9.8 9.7

14.9

14.0 13.7

11.6

10.2

III

15.2 14.5

8.8

7.4 9.6

13. I 8.6 10.7

3.9 12. I

14.9

19.63

1 Farmyard manure applied October 27.

10.9 16.8

12. I

6.8 9.0 19.2

4.1

5.0 6.2 7.3

10.2 10. O

9.3 9.4

9.4 9.3 9.4 7.6 6.8 6.8

34.8

26.4

22.4

4. I

3.4

5.6 7.1

4.1

2.9 3.7 4.9

10.0

15.6

5.6

2 Ammonium salts applied October 27.

3 Rape-cake applied October 28.

3.5 3.9 6.2 7.2

II.2

13.8

66.6 ? 40.5 6.3 5. I 5.4 7.5

0.4

5.8 5.1 6.3 7.8

23.0 21.8 16.2

11.6

1.0

7.1 7.0 7.3 8.8 11.7 18.2

18.5

15.0

11.6

3. I 3.9

Jan. 9 .

Mixed . 2.3.

20.3 9.0

Dec. 17, 18 , 20 , 21 ,

P.M.

6.30

:::

Plot.

9. I 9.4 7.4 6.5

6.7

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

155

Nitrates in the Drainage. — Table supply of ash constituents (6, 7 , 12, 13), XIV. shows the amount of nitrogen as contained 2.7 per million ; while that re

nitrates in the drainage-water from each ceiving ammonia with incomplete ash plot in Broadbalk field immediately constituents ( 11 ) gave 7.9 ; and that

before and after the sampling of the receiving ammonia with no ash constitu soil. A blank in the table signifies ents ( 10) 18.2 per million . In the first division of plots we may

that no water ran from the pipe : drain

age would, however, actually occur in safely conclude that no appreciable such cases .

The thick line indicates the

amount of nitric acid existed in the upper

interval at which soil-sampling occurred. soil at harvest. In the second division

The drain -pipes did not run from March the amount, if any, was verysmall. In 7 till afterharvest. The ammonia salts the third division a considerable amount and nitrate of soda were applied to their of nitric acid had remained unassimilated respective plots on March 12. The spring all through the summer. Of the plots and summer months were dry.

The

that did not afford drainage -water in

wheat was cut August 8-11. Immedi- August or September , we may class ga, ately after followed a deluge of rain , 14, 15, 18 in the second division , and 8 amounting during the whole month to and 96 in the third division . 5.82 inches.

It is clear that after the soil became

The land was scarified

early in September, and ploughed towards saturated with water active nitrification

The soil was commenced, as with each running of the 10 Oct sampled between ober and 18, the drains the proportion of nitrates in the operation being interrupted by heavy rain water is increased, the maximum being

the end of the month.

on the 14th. It will be seen that on the first run-

reached on October 23. Nitrates in the Soil and Subsoil.

ning of the pipes after harvest, the drain- - We now turn to the amount of age -waters from the plots receiving no nitrogen as nitrates found in the soil :

nitrogenous manure (3 & 4, 5, 16, 17) this was determined in the first, second, contained on an average 1.0 per million and third 9 inches. The results yield

of nitrogen as nitric acid ; those receiving ed by the principal plots is shown in ammonia salts, with a complete or fair Table XV. TABLE XV . - NITROGEN AS NITRATES IN Wheat Soils VARIOUSLY MANURED, OCTOBER 1881, IN POUNDS PER ACRE.

9 inches,

Third 9 inches .

Ib.

lb ,

lb.

9.7 9.2 10.6

5.3

2.8 1.8 2.3 4.6 3.4

First

Manuring.

Plot.

9

3

No manure, thirty -eight years

4

No manure, thirty years

16a 5a 17a ба 7a

Sa ga

9b Ioa

ita 19 2

No manure, seventeen years Ash constituents, thirty years one year do. , Do. Do. and ammonia salts, 200 lb. Do. Do.

do. , do. ,

400 lb. 600 lb.

Do, and nitrate of soda , 550 lb. Nitrate of soda, 550 lb. Ammonia salts, 400 lb. Superphos. and ammonia salts, 400 lb. Rape - cake, 1700 lb.

Farmyard manure, 14 tons

inches.

12.6 10.3

16.5 22.8

Second

4.0

5.0 7.1 7.5 7.5

21.1

11.3 13.9

19.7

10.0

16.3

20. I

14.2 17.9 14.1 30.0

11.9 9.3 13.0 15.4

Total 27

inches.

Ib .

Excess over Plots

3 and

lb.

17.8 15.0 17.9

4.7

28.7

5.7 7.8 8.2 17.7 7.3

39.8

3.6

30.8

1.5 7.9 4.8 12.3 23.4 26.4 21.5 37.7 17.0 14.4

7.1 6.8

34.2 52.2

17.8 35.8

24.3 21.2

42.8 37.9 54. I 33.4

It must be recollected in discussing to the impossibility of obtaining a sample these results, as in all other results of of soil that shall exactly represent the

soil analysis, that the figures can only whole of the plot. approximately represent the truth, owing The first point calling for attention is

MANURES AND MANURING .

156

the preponderance of the nitrates in the Before leaving this section we will surface soil. Taking the mean of all the recapitulate what has been already said

plots, save 9b, the proportion of nitrates in various places as to the sources of the in the first, second, and third 9 inches very considerable amounts of nitrates is as 100, 59, and 31. This is owing to found in these wheat soils.

The nitrates

the fact that nitrification takes place are in some cases (Plots 3, 4, 16, 5, 17, chiefly near the surface, where the soil is 6) entirely derived from the oxidation of richest in nitrogenous matter, and most the nitrogenous organic matters of the freely exposed to air. After a continu- soil, consisting primarily of crop and

ance of rainy weather, the nitrates would weed residues, and thedead bodies of be found much more evenly distributed . On Plot gb, manured with nitrate of soda only, the nitrates are most abundant in the subsoil. Here a considerable part

insects and other animals ; for it should not be forgotten that the soil of our fields is a burial-ground. On other more highly manured plots the nitrates are

of the nitrate applied in spring has not mainly derived from a similar source

been assimilated by the crop, owing to (which in many cases is much more con the poverty of the soil in ash constitu- siderable, as the growth on the land has ents: it has remained in the soil all the been much greater ), but there is, in ad summer, and reached by drainage and dition, more or less nitrate which has diffusion a lower depth than the nitrate resulted directly from the ammonia or newly formed after harvest. nitrate applied , and which has existed

Nitrates in Soil without Nitrog- as nitrateall through the summer. There enous Manure. — The three unman- is, farther, on Plots 19 and 2 , but espe ured plots yield an average of 16.9 lb.

cially on the latter, nitrate derived from

of nitrogen as nitric acid per acre in the oxidation of organic manure. The quantities of nitrates found in 27 inches of soil. With a liberal supply of ash constituents this is increased to

October in these Broadbalk soils must

22.8 lb.

It is now known that phos- be considered as decidedly above an phates favour nitrification ; their effect average, the large rainfall in August will only be perceived by comparison producing a specially early and vigorous with a soil exhausted of phosphates. Nitrates, where Ammonia Applied.

- With an annual dressing of 200 lb.

nitrification . Losses by Autumn and Winter

Drainage.

As an example of the

ammonia salts, with ash constituents, the serious losses which soil may suffer from

nitric nitrogen rises to 28.7 lb. When autumn and winter drainage, it

may be

the ammonia is doubled, or an equiva- mentioned that before the spring of 1882

lent quantity of nitrogen as nitrate of there had been removed in drainage from soda is employed, thenitric nitrogen be- these plots of Broadbalk field a quantity comes 39.8 and 37.9 lb.

of nitrates equal to from one- half to

With an excess of ammonia salts (600 three -quarters of that shown by the lb.) the nitric nitrogen reaches 42.8 lb. analyses in Table XV. With an excess of nitrate of soda it is

54.1 lb.

The plot receiving ammonia

without ash constituents shows a com

paratively small amount of nitrates in the surface - soil, the crop and weed residue here being relatively small .

DRAINAGE-WATERS AND THE NITRATES OF THE SOIL .

In order to understand fully the facts shown by the drainage -waters, we must

Nitrates from Farmyard Manure. say a word, in the first place, as to the -The largest amount of nitrification composition of the rain falling on the soil. in the surface-soil occurs on the plot re-

Rain - water . — The rain is collected at

ceiving farmyard manure. The first 9 Rothamsted in a gauge having an area inches contains 30 lb. of nitric nitrogen of 1-100oth of an acre. The nitrogen per acre ; in 27 inches the total is 52.2

as ammonia which it contains amounts the

Ib. The large amount of nitrogen in this to 2.4 lb. per acre per annum ;

soil has been already noticed in the pre- nitrogen as nitric acid to barely 1 lb. The chlorine is 14.4 lb., equal to 24 lb.

ceding section .

Sources of the Nitrates in the Soil. of common salt. The sulphuric acid is

11

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

equivalent to 17.3 lb. of sulphuric anhydride per acre per annum .

157

Evaporation and Drainage.—The

proportion of the rainfall which passes

The amount

of organic nitrogen has been determined through a soil depends, if there is no in some samples of Rothamsted rain surface drainage, entirely on the amount water by Dr E. Frankland. If we take of evaporation that takes place from the The amount of drainage is, in composition, the total combined nitrogen fact, the amount of rainfall minus the in the rain -water becomes a little over 4 amount of water evaporated. The evapo Ib. per acre per annum . The nitrogen in ration is of course much greater in sum

this amount as expressing the average surface.

rain is thus small in quantity, while the

mer than in winter.

It is also much

chlorides and sulphates are rather con- greater from a soil covered by a crop siderable, and equal or even exceed the than from bare soil. Periods of Drainage. — In an average season comparatively little drainage oc curs in the seven months March to Sep

amounts presentin most farm crops.

The Drain -gauges.

Since 1870, the amount of drainage tember. The period of active drainage nsted by has been determined at Ro means of three drain - gauges, of the respective depths of 20 , 40, and 60 inches, and of the area of 1-100oth of an acre . The soil which they contain is in its natural state of consolidation, the gauges having been constructed by cutting under the soil, and then isolating the block of soil by building round it with brick and cement. The soil has been kept free from weeds. No

is the five months October to February. With land bearing a crop the amount of

1877, the amount of chlorine, and the amount of nitrogen as nitrates, have been systematically determined in the mixed drainage of each month. Average results for 11 years are given in Table

manure has been applied .

XVI.

summer drainage will be still further

reduced, and the autumn drainage com mence somewhat later. Chlorides in Drainage. — Since May

TABLE XVI. —THE AMOUNT OF DRAINAGE, AND THE NITROGEN AS NITRATES IN THE DRAINAGE. WATER, FROM UNMANURED BARE Soil, 20 AND 60 Inches DEEP, AVERAGE OF ELEVEN YEARS. NITROGEN AS NITRATES. AMOUNT OF

DRAINAGE.

inches.

March

1.60 2.31 2.50 2.40

20 - Inch

60 - Inch

20 - Inch

60Inch

20 - Inch

60 - Inch

Gauge .

Gauge.

Gauge.

Gauge.

Gauge.

Gauge.

inches.

inches .

0.78

7.5

0.69 0.66 0.52

0.88 0.90 0.70 0.66 0.45

0.85

0.76

3.26 3.26 2.48

0.91 1.77

17.8

October November December January

1.07 1.97

9.0 8.9 10.3 9.7 13.3 14.0 13.5

14. I

12. I

2.48

11.3

11.4

1.82

February

2.31

1.99

9.4 7.3 7.6

10.6

2.14

2.36 1.96 1.98 1.87

March - June

8.81

2.95

3.14

8.5

2.12

16.6

9.94

10.2

10.9

10.6

April May June

July

2.50 2.67

August September

2.88

8.05

July - September

October - February Whole year

.

Per Acre.

Per Million of Water .

RAINFALL.

0.82

1.97

2.44

13.45

10.23

30.31

15.62

15.20

8.2

9.0 9.5 15.4 15.9

Ib .

Ib.

1.33 1.53 1.40

1.80

1.82

1.42 1.81

1.45 1.35

3.05 4.32

1.63 2.40

6.30 6.64

2.78 4.83 6.13

9.0

4.19 3.00 3.41

3.91 3.80

9.4

5.68

6.70

13.6

9.18

6.53

10.4

23.54

23.39

38.40

36 62

8.7

4.72

1 158

MANURES AND MANURING .

The amount of chlorides found in the maximum strength for the year, though

water from the drain -gauges, when calculated as pounds per acre,is found to be practically identical with that furnished by the rain. The soil in the

on an average the maximum is a little

later. The largest quantity of nitrates is not, however,discharged till the season of active drainage commences in October.

drain - gauges has thus apparently been After November the amount discharged thoroughly washed out, and all residues in the drainage-water diminishes, the soil being gradually washed out.

of soluble manure removed.

Nitrates in Drainage. — The quan-

Nitrification does indeed continue dur

tity of nitrates in the water from the ing winter time (probably not in actual

frost ), but with far less activity than in drain-gauges is very large, amounting summer .

From the 20-inch drain-gauge, in the drainage from 20 inches of soil to 38.4 lb. , and in the drainage from 61 per cent of the nitrates,annually dis 60 inches of soil to 36.6 lb. per acre charged are expelled in the drainage of per annum . Of this quantity only about five months - October to February. The

4 lb. could possibly be supplied by the proportion for the same period with the rain ; the remainder has come from the 60 -inch gauge is 64 per cent. oxidation of the nitrogenous organic matter of the soil.

Total Production of Nitrates in the

Soil. — The 36-38 lb. of nitric nitrogen

Nitrification and Bacteria. - Nitri- discharged on an average each year from fication in soil is now known to be the drain -gauges, may be regarded as rep accomplished by the agency of a bac- resenting the average annual production terium. This requires for its action the in the soil. The rate of production is

presence of water ; the ash constituents apparently diminishing, the easily oxi of plant-food ; a salifiable base, as car- dised nitrogenous matter contained in

bonate of lime, with which the nitric the soil becoming slowly exhausted . We acid may combine ; a suitable temperature ; and the presence of sufficient oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere. Ammonia is apparently the substance which is oxidised into nitric acid.

shall see, by-and -by, that the rate of pro duction in a manured soil, or in a bare fallow subject to tillage, is considerably greater. Loss per Acre . — The significance of

The first stage in the nitrification of these results is at once apparent, when we the nitrogenous humic matter of soil is recollect that the amount of nitrogen as

probably the production of ammonia. nitrates present in a soil represents the This production of ammonia is also amount of nitrogen available as plant apparently the work of bacteria, but food for most crops. These nitrates are

whether of the same species which pro- annually produced in the soil, and they are lost with great ease by drainage. Consistently with these conclusions, The money value of nitrogen in nitrate

duces nitrification is at present unknown.

based on laboratory experiments, it is of soda is, at the present price of this found that nitrates are produced most salt ( £ ui a ton ), 7 % d. a pound. The abundantly in moist soils, during warm 38 lb. annually lost by the uncropped weather, and that the production is soil of the drain -gauge are thus worth greatly increased by tillage, and that 245. an acre, and this sum would have ammonia salts, when mixed with a to be spent in manure to replace the fertile soil, are rapidly converted into waste by drainage, if the fertility of the nitrates.

soil is to be maintained.

Discharge of Nitrates in different The Nitrates in Fallow Soils.

Months. — On looking at the amounts As the soils of the drain -gauges rep of nitrogen as nitrate found in the monthly drainage from the soils of the resent a bare untilled fallow in an drain - gauges, it will be seen that the exhausted soil, it will be most conveni smallest amount is found in March .

ent to mention here the amounts of

After this month the strength of the nitrogen as nitrates found in ordinary drainage-water slowly rises. In July a farmed soils at Rothamsted at the end

great stride is made, and the drainage- of a

season of

bare fallow .

Three

water in this month has sometimes the analyses of soil, taken in September or

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

159

October, from different fields, in fair laid in 1849, at from 2 to 3 feet below agricultural condition, showed 56.5, the surface. Since 1866 the lower end

58.8, and 59.9 lb. of nitrogen as of each pipe has discharged into a small

9

nitrates per acre, in 27 inches from the pit, so that the drainage-water can be When the preceding summer collected from the end of the pipe. The

surface .

had been dry, the principal part of this series of pits are connected by a large

nitrogen (40 lb.) was found in the first cross-drain which keeps them free from 9 inches.

water. There is no means of gauging In bare fallows, on unmanured and the quantity of water discharged from exhausted land, 33.7 and 36.3 lb. of each plot, nor would any measurement nitrogen as nitrates were found .

give a correct idea of the amount of

All these amounts represent the quan- drainage, as much drainage must occur tity left in the soil at the end of fourteen through the soil itself. or fifteen months fallow .

If we estimate

Run of Water in different Months.

the probable amount lost by drainage -There is no continuous run of water during the seasons in question, it will from these pipes. The discharge ceases appear that about so to go lb. of nitric

soon after the cessation of rain .

The

nitrogen hadbeen produced per acre in the dates on which each pipe has run since 1866 have been recorded . As an ex better soils during the period of fallow . 1

ample of the distribution of the dis The Nitrates in Cropped Soils.

c

.

-1

charge throughout the year, we will take The determinations of nitric acid in the case of the pipe from the unmanured soils that have just grown a cereal crop

land, Plots

3 and 4.

This pipe has

show a very small amount existing in the discharged in July, August, and Sep

soil. On permanently unmanured wheat tember,only on nine, six,and eight days land there was found, after harvest in respectively during twenty years.

In

1878, only 2.6 lb. of nitrogen as nitric October active drainage commences, 35 acid in the first 9 inches, and no deter- daily runnings occurring in twenty years.

minable quantity in the second 9 inches. In November the runnings reach 59, and The same land was sampled again in in December and January 60 and 61 . March 1881 (it had been left unploughed In February there is a diminution, the

through the winter )-it then contained total being 42. In March the runnings in the first 27 inches 14.5 lb. of nitric are only 18, and the monthly total nitrogen.

still further diminishes as summer is

In September 1877, after a good crop approached. Heavy Crops and Drainage.- On of barley, grown with nitrate of soda, 15.7 lb. of nitric nitrogen were found in those plots which bear the heaviest crops the first 9 inches of soil, but in45 inches the runnings are less frequent in spring

below this depth only 6.2 lb. The nitrate and summer, and begin somewhat later at the surface had probably been formed in autumn. Farmyard Manure and Drainage. in great part since the active growth of the crop had ceased. - The drain -pipe from the plot receiving The nitrates found in the wheat plots farmyard manure runs less frequently

of Broadbalk field have been already than any other. This is apparently due noticed in detail; in this case the sam- (at least in part) to the greater power of

pling of the soil did not take place till retaining water possessed by the soil of the middle of October, after heavy rain, this plot. Determinations made in Jan and the ploughing of the land, had caused uary 1869, when the soil of the field was vigorous nitrification to take place. saturated with water, showed that in the first 3 dung feet, thecontained soil continuously manured The Drainage-waters of Broadbalk Field . with 214 tons more

The principal plots of Broadbalk field water per acre than the permanently consist of two “ lands," each 478 yards unmanured land . wide, and forming thetwo halves, a and 1. Ash Constituents lost in Drainage. b, of the plot. The length of the plots Several series of drainage -waters col is 352 yards. Under the furrow, in the middle of each plot, is a drain - pipe, lected in 1866-68 were analysed by Dr

MANURES AND MANURING .

160

Other series, collected in in Jour. Royal Agric. Soc., 1874, p. 132 ;

Voelcker.

1868-73, were analysed by Dr E. Frank- 1881 , p. 1 . land. Since 1876, determinations of the We will, in the first place, call atten nitrates and chlorides have been made tion to some facts shown by the an

at the Rothamsted laboratory, in nearly alyses of Voelcker and Frankland. The

every running, or in mixtures of the following table gives the mean of five runnings, of every pipe.

The subject analyses by Voelcker and five by Frank

is a large one. We can only here dwell land, of the drainage -waters from the on the points of greatest practical im- principal plots. portance ; further details will be found TABLE XVII. -MEAN OF TEN ANALYSES OF BROADBALK DRAINAGE-WATER BY VOELCKER

AND FRANKLAND, 1866-73, IN PARTS PER MILLION. Plots .

3 &4

Total Solid

Lime and

Matter.

Magnesia .

228 330 450 542

132 207

99 171

Nitrogen as Chlorine ,

10.4 10.7

23.5 33.9 44.8

615

222

9

406

IO

442

126 173

37. 1

II

490

197

38.6

2

367

123

19.4

12.4

Nitrates.

3.9 4.7 9.0 15.9 20.2

16.0 17.6 19.4 11.5

Unmanured Plot Drainage. - The stituents applied on Plot 5, the solid drainage from the permanently unman- contents of the drainage-waters rise in ured plots, 3 and 4, is seen to have con- proportion to the quantity of ammonia

tained 228 of solid matter per million of

salts added .

Thus in the drainage

water ; the principal constituents of this waters from Plots 6, 7, and 8, to which solid matter are lime salts, chiefly the 200, 400, and 600 lb. of ammonia salts carbonate . are applied, the proportion of total solid Ash Constituents Plot Drainage.-

matter is respectively 450, 542, and 615

The superphosphate, and the sulphates of potash, soda, and magnesia applied to Plot 5, considerably increase the contents of the drainage-water, the solid matter rising to 330 per million. The sulphate of lime in the superphosphate, and the sulphate of soda, are thechief constitu-

iments are composed of equal parts sul phate and chloride. The solid matter which they remove from the soil consists chiefly of the sulphate, chloride, and nitrate of lime.

ents of the manure which appear in the

Ammonia Salts robbing a Soil of

per million. The ammonia salts used in these exper

drainage-water. The sulphates of potash Lime. The whole of the sulphuric acid and magnesia do not

appear directly in and chlorine contained in the ammonia the drainage-water, but by acting on the salts probably combines with the lime of lime in the soil, they contribute a fur- the soil. The nitric acid produced by ther quantity of sulphate of lime to the the oxidation of the ammonia will also unite with lime, and if not appropriated drainage. Ammonia Salts and Drainage.by the roots of the crop, the nitrate of When ammonia salts are applied to the lime will also appear in the drainage

land, the quantity of matterremoved in water. This action of ammonia salts in the drainage - water is much increased. impoverishing a soil of lime must be Thus the application of 400 lb. of am- borne in mind whenever their application monia salts alone to Plot 10 raises the to a soil poor in lime is in question. Nitrate of soda and Lime. - The solid matter to 442 per million. When ammonia salts are added to the ash con- nitrate of soda applied on Plot 9 has ap

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

161

parently little or no influence in increas- The former proportion would , with the

ing theproportion oflime in the drainage- drainage previously assumed, correspond water. As only one-half the plot receives to a loss of 3.6 lb., and the latter to a

ash constituents, the amount of lime applied as manure is one-half that received by Plot 5. Although receiving some lime in the manure, the quantity present in the drainage-water is considerably less than in the water from Plot 10, receiving

loss of 9.5

lb. per acre per annum.

It must be recollected, however, that

both potash and phosphoric acid would, in the absence of drain -pipes, be retained in great part by the subsoil. Soda in Drainage . — Soda is shown

by Voelcker's analyses to be present in

ammonia salts without lime.

Lime and Magnesia lost in Drain- much larger quantity in the drainage

age. For the purpose of illustrating the water. The water from six plots receiv annual losses of lime and magnesia ? ing no soda as manure contained a mean which the soil suffers by drainage, we of 6.1 of soda per million. The water

will assume that the average annual from five plots receiving 100 lb. of sul drainage in Broadbalk field amounts to phate of soda, gave 11.6 per million. 10 inches (274 million lb. per acre), and Where 3667/2 lb. of sulphate of soda that it has the composition shown in are applied ( Plot 12 ), the amount became The lime and magnesia 24.6 per million. Where 550 lb. of Table XVII. annually lost by the unmanured Plots, nitrate of soda were used (Plot 9), the 3 and 4, will then be 223 lb. ; by Plot soda is increased to 56. I per million.

5, receiving only ash constituents, 297

These results illustrate the well- known

ib .; by Plot 9, receiving nitrate of soda fact that soil has a far less retentive and half a dressing of ash constituents, power for soda than for potash.

The

284 lb.; by Plot 10, receiving 400 lb. soda in the drainage fromthe unmanured of ammonia salts alone, 389 lb. ; by Plot land was probably derived from rain . Chlorine and Sulphuric Acid in 11, receiving 400 lb. of ammonia salts with superphosphate, 443 lb. ; and by Drainage. — The chlorine and the sul Plots 6, 7, 8, receiving, on an average, phuric acid in the manures are not re the same manure as Plot it, with the tained by the soil, but appear freely in

sulphates of potash, soda, and magnesia the drainage-waters.

in addition, 450 lb. per acre.

As the

Drainage from Dunged Plot. — The

quantity of lime and magnesia in the scanty drainage from the farmyard man annual dressing of ash constituents is ure plot ( 2), though much stronger than only 104 lb. , the amount lost is greatly that from the unmanured land, is by no in excess of that applied to the land .

means so concentrated as that from many It is,

These results are goodexamples of the plots receivingartificial manure.

losses of lime occurring both on unman- according to Voelcker, specially rich in ured and on manured land. The neces- sulphuric acid . sity of restoring lime to many soils after a number of years is well known. Phosphoric Acid in Drainage .

2. Nitrates Lost in Drainage. We turn now to the part of the subject

The amount of phosphoric acid found by which, in recent years, has been most Dr Voelcker in the drainage-waters was thoroughly investigated at Rothamsted very small ; the average of all the deter- namely, the loss of nitrates in the drain minations is 0.93 per million. With 10 age -waters. inches of annual drainage, this would Not only the nitrates, but also the amount to a loss of 2.1 lb. per acre. chlorides removed in the drainage have

Potash in Drainage. - The drainage- been determined.

From the results re

many valuable facts receiving no potash lating to chlorides water from six plotstained, average, have been learnt. Indeed, without the

on an in their manurecon 1.6 of potash per million ; the waters information which they afford, our inter from eight plots receiving potash con- pretation of the course of action which

tained an average of 4.2 per million. takes place would be uncertain or imper We asshall however, possible results ourselves to the confine far ashere, 1 The magnesiashown inVoelcker'sanalyses fect. is small in amount, generally 4 to 5 per cent of the lime. VOL . II .

relating to nitrates . L

MANURES AND MANURING .

162

Unmanured Plot. - We take first the XVIII. shows the average monthly pro case of the wheat land which is left portion of nitrogen as nitrates, and of permanently without manure. Table chlorine present in the drainage-waters. TABLE XVIII. - NITROGEN AS NITRATES AND CHLORINE IN THE DRAINAGE OF UNMANURED

Wheat LAND, AVERAGE OF EIGHT YEARS, 1878-86. Per Million of Water.

Runnings of Drain -pipes ( Days).

Nitrogen to 100 Chlorine. Nitrogen as

Nitrates.

March

April May

.

June

July August September October November December

January

February March -May June- August

September -November December - February . Whole year

Chlorine.

7

2.0

4.5

IO

1.9 0.8

4.3 3.3 2.9 1.7

6 8

43.5 0.1 0.0 0.2

5 20

25 26 14 34 23 18 50 74

165

3.9 4.9 3.2 5.0 3.2 4.1 1.6

12.7

5.2

2.4

9.0 9.3

50.8

6.7

61.1

6.8 4.8 6.1

4.1 2.4

67-3

4.0 4.3

8.0

39.3 4.5 49.8

6.1

69.6

3.4

6.0

55.8

O. I

Loss of Nitrates Checked by Crop. energy as the weather becomes colder, -The nitrates in the drainage - waters and the amount of nitrate in the water

from the uncropped soil of the drain- diminishes to some extent, but is fairly

gauges increased in proportion as the maintained till after February, when the spring advanced, and the waters attained their maximum strength between July on the land and September. Here, on bearing an unmanured wheat crop, the nitrates diminish as the spring advances, and soon entirely disappear. In fact, out of the 18 collections of drainagewaters made during eight years in June, July, and August ,there were only two

nitrate is once more taken up by the new crop. The course of change shown in the table is not regular, because in some of the seasons drainage did not commence till winter, and the maximum strength of the water was consequently post poned . The chlorine in the drainage-water is derived from rain . It is permanently which contained any nitrate. The nitrates are thus entirely re- assimilated by the crop to only a small moved from the upper 27/2 feet of soil extent. The relation of nitric nitrogen

(the depth above the drain -pipes) during to chlorine thus serves to indicate the the period of active growth of the crop. Loss Resumes when Crop is Re-

formation or removal of nitrates in the soil.

moved . — After the crop has been re-

Dung Plot. — The nitrates in the

moved from the land, the first drainage- drainage from the plot annually manured water collected is sure to contain nitrates

with farmyard dung show the same

The proportion rapidly increases, and, if course of change that we have just no the season is wet, à maximum is reached ticed. The average results of fifty run

in October. Nitrification diminishes in nings during eight years were as follows.

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS .

163

The farmyard manure is ploughed in in these salts become mixed with the soil October :

they are speedily decomposed, the chlo

rine and sulphuric acid combine with the lime of the soil, forming soluble salts YARD MANURE, AVERAGE OF Eight Years, which can be removed by rain, while the

TABLE XIX . - NITROGEN AS NITRATES IN THE DRAINAGE OF Wheat LAND RECEIVING FARM-

ammonia is retained near the surface in

1878-86 . Runnings of Drain

Nitrogen as

pipes ( Days).

per Million.

March -May June- August

Nitrates,

combination with the hydrous silicates, the humus, and the ferric oxide of the soil.

If, therefore, drainage occurs immedi ately after the application of the am

4 5

2.9

September -November

15

December- February

26

8.2 5.8

monia salts, much chlorine and sulphuric acid are found in the drainage -water,

1.2

with some ammonia, but there is no con siderable increase in the quantity of After a few days the nitric

nitric acid. Whole year

50

acid in the drainage is much increased,

5.8

while the chlorides have begun to diminish.

The drainage is seen to be considerably We may quote, as an illustration of richer in nitrates than that from the what we have been saying, some analyses unmanured land, but it is by no means of the drainage -water of Plot 15 made in

as rich as we should expect from the very the autumn and winter of 1880-81. 400 large amount of nitrogenous manure lb. of ammonia salts were applied to this

applied. We shall refer to this point plot on October 25, 1880, and then ploughed in.

again .

Heavy rain occurred on

Ammonia Salts. — We turn next to the night of the 26th, and the drain-pipe the behaviour of ammonia salts. These, was found running the next morning. as used at Rothamsted, are a mixture of The analyses ofthe drainage -waters are

equal parts chloride and sulphate. When given in Table XX. TABLE XX . - COMPOSITION OF THE DRAINAGE -WATER OF Plot 15 BEFORE AND AFTER THE

APPLICATION OF AMMONIA SALTS on Oct. 25, 1880, IN PARTS PER Million . Date of Collection .

1880, October 10

1880 , October 27, 6.30 A.M. I P.M.

28 11 P1

11 1

29

November 15, 16 11 19, 26 December 22, 29, 30

1881, February 2, 8, 10

Nitrogen as

Nitrogen as

Ammonia .

Nitrates.

none

8.4

9.0

6.5 2.5 1.5 none 11 11 11

13.5 12.9

16.7 16.9 50.8 34.6 21.7 22.9

Chlorine .

22.7

Nitrogen as Nitrates to 100 Chlorine.

37.0

146.4

9.2

116.6 95.3 80.8

III

54.2 47.6 23.2 19.4

17.5 20.9 93.7 72.7 93.5 118.0

The occurrence of ammonia in the hours after the application of the am

Rothamsted drainage-waters is unusual. monia salts, and in three weeks it reached

It is only present in any distinct quan- its maximum proportion.

After the

tity when, as in this instance, heavy rain middle of November the nitrates steadi follows immediately after applying the ly declined, but not so rapidly as the ammonia salts.

It will be observed that the nitric acid

chlorides. The proportion of nitrogen to chlorine thus continued to increase

began to rise in the drainage-water forty throughout the winter.

MANURES AND MANURING .

164

When ammonia salts are applied as a average composition of the drainage

top -dressing in spring, they are, from the waters in four seasons of the year. The drier character of the season, less liable first period is from the top -dressing of to the rapid removal of their constituents the ammonia salts and nitrate of soda in March till the end of May. The into the drainage-water.

Relation of Manure to Loss of second period is from the beginning of Nitrates. — The relation of the character June till harvest. The third is from of the manuring to the contents in ni- harvest to the autumn sowing of the

trates of the drainage-waters from the wheat, when farmyard manure and rape principal plots in Broadbalk field, is cake are ploughed in on their respective

shown in Table XXI., which gives the plots, and ammonia salts applied to Plot TABLE XXI. — NITROGEN AS NITRATES IN DRAINAGE -WATERS FROM VARIOUSLY MANURED WHEAT LAND, AVERAGE OF FIVE YEARS, 1878-83, IN PARTS PER MILLION. Spring Sowingto

June to

end of

Harvest.

Autumn

May.

3 & 4

Unmanured

0.1

5.6

0.2

5.6 14.7

28.6

0.7 1.4 4.0 9.1 11.4

19.5

5.8

5.7 4.7 2.7

2.9 0.5 1.4

1.7 1.7 8.1

Ash constituents

á

Do. , ammonia salts, 200 lb. 11

}

400 lb. 600 lb.

nitrate of soda, 550 lb.

gab IO

Ammonia salts, 400 lb.

IT

Superphosphates, ammonia salts,

15

Ash constituents, ammonia salts, 400 lb..

19

Rape -cake . Farmyard manure

400 lb.:

2

15 .

Harvest to Sowing to Autumn Spring Sowing. Sowing.

16.3 21.5 48.4

The fourth period embraces the

c N oiro woow

Plots.

Whole Year .

3.5 3.9 5.0

5.2

6.4

7.3

9.3 12.3 9.9

9.2

7.1

8.5

7.4 8.2 7.4

26.4 12.5

IO. I

7.3

5.6

14.3 11.5

19.4

Looking next at Plots 6, 7, and 8,

winter months, from autumn sowing to which receive rising quantities of am monia salts with ash constituents, we see the spring top -dressing.

Only fairly general runnings of the that they are all liable to suffer loss of drain -pipes are taken into account, so

nitrates in the spring period, after the

that the comparison between the plots may be as accurate or possible. The numbers given for Plots 2 and 19 are, however, the average of but 45 and 53

top -dressing of the ammonia salts in March, the loss being greatest on Plot 8, where most ammonia is applied. Not withstanding the very considerableamount

analyses respectively, in place of 78 to 87 of nitrate produced from the ammonia drain -pipes of the two plots first named appeared entirely from Plot 6, and to

in the case of the other plots, as the salts, it is usually found to have dis

ran but seldom .

have disappeared, or have been reduced The general change in the amount of to a very small quantity, from Plot 7,

nitrates with the season of the year has when the drains run in summer time. been already discussed in the case of the Plot 8 receives nitrogen in excess of drainage-water from the unmanured plot. what the crop can assimilate.

The ni

We may now confine ourselves to the trates here do not disappear in summer, influence of manure .

though the quantity is greatly dimin

With the application of ash constitu- ished . ents to the soil ( Plot 5 ) there is some in- In a very mild early spring, as that crease in the proportion of nitrates over of 1882, the nitrates may disappear from that produced without manure, but no Plot 6 , and be reduced to little more

change in the general character of the than a trace on Plot 7, by the first week drainage.

in May. In other seasons a similar di

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

minution may not occur till June or July.

165

nitrates, and their removal from the soil in the drainage-water, affords an ample

When the drains commence running explanation.

after harvest, Plot 8 shows signs of the existence of nitrate that has remained unused through the summer ; but the excess of Plots 6 and 7 over Plot 5 is but small. The winter drainage shows a sur prising equality, the amount of nitrates

Nitrate of Soda . — There is but one

plot (9) on which we have the results of the direct application of nitrates. The numbers given for the nitric nitrogen should be compared with the mean of Plots 7 and Ιο,, since

one half of Plot 9

receives ash constituents and compares

removed from Plots 5, 6, and 7 being with 7, and the other half receives none more equal than the total nitrogen and compares with 10. Thus viewed , contained in their surface -soils. the loss of nitric nitrogen on Plot 9 is Excess Nitrogen Lost in Drainage. seen to be much greater than that of

- The results afforded by Plots 10 and ammonia salts applied at the same time. 11 are most instructive. The same quan- It is evident, indeed, that the nitrate is tity of ammonia salts is applied here as ready for removal directly it is applied, on Plot 7, but on Plot 10 without ash while in the case of ammonia, time must constituents, and on Plot 11 with super- be allowed for nitrification. phosphate only. The result is that on For this reason nitrate of soda is al

these plots, and particularly on 10, the ways applied in spring to a growing crop, crop is unable to assimilate the nitrogen which can at once commence the assimi supplied. The nitrates consequently are lation of the manure. Notwithstanding,

found in considerable quantity all through after harvest. The winter drainage, however, generally removes all excess, and

summer, and a distinct residue remains

however, the larger loss to which nitrates are liable, so active is the manuring power of nitrate of soda, that, as we have already seen , it actually produces

the crop starts the next spring no richer more effect upon the crop than the

for the unused nitrate of the previous same quantity of nitrogen applied as year.

ammonia .

Winter Application of Ammonia

A part of the efficacy of nitrate of

Salts Ruinous . — On Plot 15 the am-

soda is doubtless due to the fact that it

monia salts which are applied on Plot 7 leaves an alkali in the soil, while am in the spring are here applied in October; monia salts leave an acid. the salts arenot top -dressed, but ploughed Nitrogenous Organic Manures. The winter drainage is here ex- The composition of the drainage-waters tremely rich in nitrates, and as no crop from Plots 2 and 19, to which organic in.

is then growing, the losses are often ex- nitrogenous manures ( farmyard manure tremely heavy. On an average of five years, the drainage-water has contained for the whole year 19.4 per million of nitric nitrogen , as compared with 6.4 in the case of Plot 7, where the ammonia is

and rape - cake) are applied, does not fairly compare with the results given by the other plots, as these drain -pipes run much less frequently. These organic manures, from their slower nitrification, applied in March. accumulate nitrogen in the soil during Practical Conclusions. These re- the earlier years of their application.

sults furnished by the drainage -waters

The soil thus enriched with nitrogen

explain in a striking manner the results ous matter produces nitrates more evenly already shown by the crops. We have throughout the year than soils to which now no difficulty in understanding why ammonia salts are applied once in the å spring dressing of ammonia salts is season . This, however, will scarcely

in most seasons superior to an autumn prove an advantage when land is cropped dressing. The reason why the unused with cereals, as nitrates will be freely

nitrogen of an abundant application of produced in autumn and winter when ammonia salts produces no effect on the there is no crop to appropriate them . crop of the following season is equally The rape-cake contains nearly the same manifest. In both cases the conversion amount of nitrogen as 400 lb. of am

of the nitrogen of the manure into soluble monia salts. According to the figures in

166

MANURES AND MANURING .

the table, the drainage-water contains for of nitrates undoubtedly takes place in the whole year an average of 10.1 of seasons in which the period of drainage nitrogen per million. This is much less has been short, and the depth to which than the autumn - sown ammonia salts,

the nitrates are carried is therefore not

1

1

which give 19.4, but more than the spring- considerable. On the other hand, the recovery, after sown ammonia salts, which show 6.4 or 9.9, according as ash constituents are long -continued rain, must be very small, applied or not.

the nitrates being carried below the

The farmyard manure plot shows a possible action of the roots. much smaller quantity of nitrates in the Thus in good seasons the drain -pipes drainage - water than we should expect may rob the crop to some extent, while from the large amount of nitrogen in the in very wet seasons they do not really

1

manure, and especially from the large diminish the supply of soluble food, amount of nitrate found in the soil in while they make the crop more vigorous autumn by direct analysis (Table XV.) by removing the excess of water. Nitrogen Evolved as Gas. - It seems Nitrates in Deep -well Waters. very probable that a considerable part of We can only here just refer to an the nitrates produced on the farmyard

manure plot are afterwards destroyed, investigation concerning the drainage and the nitrogen evolved as gas. This water which exists at great depths in action is now well known to agricultural

the soil-namely, in deep wells. The

chemists. It takes place in soils rich in chalk - well waters at Rothamsted and organic matter, and ill provided with air. Harpenden have been subjected to a Itwill thus chiefly occur when the soil monthly examination, extending over two or three years. The unpolluted is for some time saturated with water. 3. Do Drain -pipes Increase the Loss ? In concluding this survey of the losses suffered by drainage, it may fairly be asked : Would the losses have been as

well - water, at depths from 60 to 140

feet below the surface, is found to be of nearly uniform composition. It contains 4.4 of nitrogen as nitrates, and 10 to 11 of chlorine per million of water. This considerable if the field had not been is the final result of the drainage from a

provided with drain - pipes, especially large area of land under pasture and with pipes so near to the surface as 2/2 arable. Analyses of 109 pure well and feet ? The amount of water passing spring waters, from various geological downwards through the surface - soil formations, gave Dr E. Frankland a would, of course, be the same whether mean of 3.8 nitric nitrogen and 16.5 pipes were present or not. All that the of chlorine. pipes have done is to remove a portion of Taking the higher figure of 4.4, the

the drainage -water before it had passed loss of nitrogenwill be 1 lb. per acre below 2/2 feet of soil. If the nitrates for each inch of drainage. With the

that have passed below 2 2 feet of soil lower figure of 3.8, the loss will be may afterwards be of service to the crop, 0.86 lb. per inch. Assuming the aver then the action of the drain-pipes has age drainage for England, excluding the tended to diminish the food -supply, and extreme western counties, as 8 inches per increase the amount of waste. annum, we have 8 lb. of nitrogen as the

Influence of Subsoil Nitrates.- annual loss by drainage, according to The influence of subsoil nitrates on the the evidence of the chalk wells, and 6.9 crop must depend very much on the lb. as the loss calculated from Frank

character of the spring and summer. land's analyses. The loss from arable If these are warm and fairly dry, the land will be, of course, much greater

crop becomes vigorous, extends its roots, than this, while that of pasture will and evaporates through its leaves much be less, the figure given being clearly more water than is then supplied to it by a mean of all. rain . Under these circumstances a part The average loss of nitrogen by drain

of the nitrates that have passed into the age is thus distinctly greater than the subsoil in winter will move upwards, and amount supplied to the land by rain , but

be consumed by the crop. This recovery it is probably less than the whole atmo

1

167

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS .

spheric supply, including the amount unaccounted for loss of nitrogen. The simplest case is that of Plot 7. The absorbed by soil and crop. ammonia salts have supplied 86 lb. of

NITROGEN STATISTICS — THE SUPPLY, AND nitrogen. Assuming, as above, 10 lb. of nitrogen from seed, rain, and air, we have in all 96 lb. to account for. The average The nitrogen contained in the crops nitrogen in the crop has been 46 lb.;the removed from the Rothamsted wheat- estimated loss in drainage 31 lb.; the field is approximately known. The total is thus 77 lb., leaving about 19 lb. WHAT BECOMES OF IT.

quantity of nitrogen applied as man- not accounted for. This is a simple case, as there is no We have also in-

ure is also known.

formation as to the nitrogen in the evidence of any serious change in the in the drainage -waters.

soil, and as to the nitrogen removed Is it possible,

nitrogen of the soil during the experi ment. The quantity shown as unac

putting these facts together, to tell what has been the supply of nitrogen to the unmanured crops, and what has become of the nitrogen applied as manure ?

counted for is very probably below the truth, as with a larger crop we should expect an increased supply of nitrogen from the atmosphere.

The problem is one of the highest in-

On Plot 8 and on Plot 10, where the

terest, and Messrs Lawes and Gilbert ammonia is present in excess of the capa city of the crop to assimilate it, and the have attempted to answer it. Unfortunately the data at command quantity of nitrate passing downwards is

are in part insufficient. The gains and very considerable, the quantity of nitro losses of the soil are not exactly known. gen unaccounted for in crop and drainage The composition of the water from the is much larger than on Plot 7. drain -pipes does not certainly indicate

Wheat

Annually Dunged .

The

the general composition of thewater per- farmyard manure annually applied to colating through the soil. The amount Plot 2 is estimated to contain 201 lb. of drainage in Broadbalk field is also un- of nitrogen. The average crop during certain, save during the winter months. thirty-eight years would contain about The figures, therefore, that we have to 46 lb. of nitrogen. The amount lost by

give, must be taken only as probable drainage is very uncertain , but it is pro estimates, founded upon the facts at bably not more than 17 lb. There is command.

Wheat without Nitrogenous Man

further to be taken into account a large

gain in the nitrogen of the soil, amount

ure. — The unmanured wheat crop has ing to perhaps an average

of 42 lb. per

in thirty years contained an average of annum ; much more in the earlier years, 18.6 lb. of nitrogen ; the estimated loss and much less in the later ones.

We

of nitrogen by drainage is 10.3 lb. ; or have here an average of at most 105 lb. 28.9 lb. in all have been removed from of nitrogen accounted for out of 201 lb., the land each year. On Plot 5 , receiv- plus that contributed by seed, rain, and ing only ash constituents , the average air received . The average loss thus ap nitrogen in crop is 20.3 lb., and in drain- pears to be about 106 lb. per annum ; age 12 lb. ; total, 32.3 lb. On these much less in the early years of the appli

plots the nitrogen in the soil has con- cation, and much more in recent years. siderably diminished ; the estimated

Nitrogen Disappearing.

It will be

diminution in the case of Plot 5 is observed that where nitrogenous manure

about 20 lb. per annum . There is thus left about 10 lb. of nitrogen to be supplied annually by the seed, the rain, and by direct absorption from the atmosphere. If any reduction of nitrates to nitrogen gas has occurred, the supply

is applied, there is generally a consider able proportion of the nitrogen which is not accounted for, either in the crop, the soil, or the drainage-water. It is quite possible that the estimates of the loss by drainage are too low. It is difficult,

from the atmosphere would have to be Wheat with Ammonia . — The plots receiving ammonia salts all show an

however, to believe that there is not fact, which reachesits maximum on the plot annually receiving farmyard manure.

proportionately increased .

some other source of loss, an action, in

MANURES AND MANURING.

168

This action is most probably the reduction

That it is therefore found advantage ous, when there is any considerable re of nitrates to nitrogen gas. The serious losses of nitrogen which sidual nitrogen in the soil, to sow some attend the continued abundant use of forage crop, such as rye, in the autumn

farmyard manure is a fact of great prac- after the removal of a cereal crop, so that tical importance. the growth of the plants may absorb The waste of manure with high farm- the soluble nitrates ; this forage crop ing must always be proportionately being, perhaps, pastured by sheep, and

greater than when smaller crops are ploughed down in spring. aimed at.

That, for the above reasons, the sys tem of bare fallow facilitates the loss

In addition to the fruitful investiga- of nitrogen in drainage. That lime and magnesia are liable to tions thus reported upon by Mr Warington, many important experiments have be washed out of soils in drainage-water. That the action of ammonia salts tends been conducted at Rothamsted. Amongst the other subjects experimented upon are to impoverish a soil of lime. That neither phosphoric acid nor pot the manuring of other farm crops, the

feeding of stock, the manurial value of ash is liable to serious loss in drainage. That soils have a far stronger retentive foods, the practice of ensilage, and other matters of interest to the farmer. In vari- power for potash than for soda. That the chlorine and sulphuric acid ous parts of this work we have drawn freely upon the great stores of knowledge supplied in the manure are not retained which have been accumulated by Sir John in the soil, but freely pass away in the Lawes and Dr Gilbert, and which they drainage-water. have with characteristic public spirit That the continued application of

placed so fully at the service of their farmyard manure tends to lessen the discharge of water from drains by in fellow -agriculturists. The results of the experiments on bar- creasing the capacity of the soil to retain ley, roots, potatoes, and leguminous crops moisture. will be referred to when we come to treat That the loss of nitrates is prevented of these respective crops. Here it may by a growing crop. be useful to present the following sumThat immediately on the removal of a

crop, any surplus nitrates remaining in the soil, and the nitrates resulting from

fresh nitrification, begin to pass away in the drainage-water. That this washing away of nitrates

amsted as to the behaviour of various will go on till the soil is robbed to a nitrogen. loss in great extentof its available manures in the soil, and the That when ammonia salts are mixed and other

drainage - waters of nitrates elements of plant-food .

with the soil they are speedily decom

That when nitrates --which are formed posed, the chlorine and sulphuric acid, by the agency of a bacterium - exist in combining with the lime of the soil, an uncropped soil, they are very liable forming soluble salts, which can be

indeed in a wet season certain — tobe ammonia removed by drainage -water, whilethe is retained near the surface

washed away in drainage-water.

That nitrates are produced most abun- in combination with the hydrous sili dantly in moist soils, and during warm cates, the humus, and the ferric oxide weather, their production being greatly of the soil. increased by tillage. That, therefore, if drain -water begins

That nitrification — the production of to flow immediately after the applica

nitrates—continues, though lessactively, tion of ammoniasalts, much chlorine during winter, That loss of

mild weather in autumn and there is little danger of serious nitrates in drainage-water while ceasing in times of frost.

the soil is covered with vegetation.

and sulphuric acid and some ammonia are washed away, and that after a few

days the rate of loss of nitric acid on drainage becomes very serious. That when ammonia salts are applied

AOWEN mwi

mary of someof the Practical Conclusions which may be drawn from, or are further confirmed by, the investigations at Roth-

EXPERIMENTS ON PHOSPHATIC MANURING .

169

as a top -dressing in spring, they are, crop is ready to commence the assimi owing to the drier season, less liable to lation of it. That with excessive or abundant man the rapid removal of their constituents in the drainage-water. uring the waste of manure will always

That when more nitrogen is applied be proportionately greater than with than can be assimilated by the crop to moderate manuring. which it is given , the whole of the excess

nitrogen remaining in the soil in the form of nitrates, after the removal of the

EXPERIMENTS ON PHOSPHATIC

crop, is generally washed away in winter drainage, so that the next crop starts in

MANURING .

the following spring no richer for the Their History, Development, and Results. unused nitrates of the previous year. That, in wet seasons,it is ruinous to In 1875 there were at Rothamsted no apply ammonia salts in winter. experiments showing the relative effect

That ammoniacal manures should be of different forms of phosphates; and, applied in spring, so as to be speedily other subjects fully engaging attention, used by the crop. the question has not there been taken That nitrate of soda is even more

up, or at least not largely, to the present

liable to rapid loss by drainage than time. Yet the annual expenditure for ammonia salts, for the former is ready phosphatic manurial matter was then , for removal directly it is applied to as now , very great indeed, while the the soil.

many forms of phosphate available varied

That, therefore, nitrate of soda should greatly in price. It was a source of great always be applied in spring to a growing national and individual loss if the most

crop which can at once commence to effective and economical form was not assimilate the manure .

the one generally used, and unfortun That farmyard manure and rape-cake ately no distinct information existed as

enrich the soil with nitrogenous matter.

to the relative values of the different

That this, however, is not entirely ad- forms. vantageous, as from this store of nitrogen Unless, however, private enterprise

nitrates are freely produced, and washed took the matter in hand, it seemed that away in drains in autumn and winter,

nothing would be accomplished. private station at Rothamsted was fully That nitrates washed into the subsoil engaged with other matters. There

after the removal of the crop.

by rain -water, are only partially service- were, no doubt, two large and wealthy able to the crop. agricultural societies — the Royal Agri That the seed of grain, rain -water, and cultural Society of England, and the

the atmosphere, contribute to an unman- Highland and Agricultural Society of ured wheat crop about 10 lb. of nitrogen Scotland ; but they also were fully en gaged on other matters, more in sym That where nitrogenous manure is ap- pathy with the views of their members plied there is generally a considerable -such as competition in cattle-rearing,

per acre per annum.

proportion of the nitrogen which is not and in implements for mechanical culti accounted for either in the crop, the soil, vation — and these societies were not en or the drainage-water. couraged to enter upon elaborate experi That the missing nitrogen most prob- ments by the fact that the little which

ably passes away into theatmosphere in had been done in that direction had not the form of nitrogen gas. That there is from this cause a serious

fulfilled expectation.

That such experiments did not come

loss of nitrogen where farmyard manure up to expectation was due to a want of

is applied abundantly.

the development and continuance of the

That the risks of loss are reduced to experiments: they were too limited, and a minimum , by giving only as much too desultory to reach the profitable

nitrogen as will supply the wants of point. Work that had no outward show, the crop to which it is to be given , and in its first stages no tangible benefit, and by applying the manure when the could hardly be expected to appeal to

170

MANURES AND MANURING .

those with whom the whole subject was Barclay, M.P., who was familiar with the not only more or less a mystery, but manure trade and with farming, and had was indeed looked at rather with sus- given close attention to the scientific

picion. This suspicion was engendered aspect of the question ; by Mr John both by the feeling that artificial manure Milne, Mains of Laithers, farmer, man was a departure from the old -fashioned ure manufacturer, and holder of the

idea of substantial and solid manuring Highland Society's diploma ; by Mr Ran in the form of dung, and also by the ald Macdonald, factor on the Cluny es feeling that the result of artificial man- tates ; and by the chemist to the Associ

uring was evanescent, if not positively hurtful. This, in fact, farmers had probably actually experienced, not being all so well trained in agricultural science as

ation. The scheme of experiments, pro visionally made, was thus scanned from all aspects, and was then laid before the committee (presided over by the Marquis

to distinguish between suitable and un- of Huntly), fully discussed, and finally suitable manure, nor to perceive that adjusted. It will thus be seen that its perfect artificial manure is natural plant- scientific accuracy and direct practical food, and that while there were evanes- bearing were well assured. cent and hurtful forms, there might also The Experimental Stations. - Five be more reliable and economical forms.

different sites were fixed upon, at alti

It was not therefore surprising that tudes varying from 1 to 400 feet above all appeals made by advanced members sea - level ; at distances from the sea

of these societies that experiments should be performed, fell on unsympathetic ears ; while there was also a tendency to point to Rothamsted as already doing all that was necessary, although, as has been stated, the points were actually not

varying from 2 to 30 miles ; and repre senting soils of different characters and different degrees of fertility ; the depth of mould varying from 8 to 36 inches; while the subsoils represented crumbling granite, gravel, and sand, yellow clay,

touched there which the farmer really bluish clay, and stiff red clay. Size of Plot. Each site was

required to know.

about

two acres in size, and was enclosed by a substantial fence. ABERDEENSHIRE EXPERIMENTS .

This area gave space

for a large number of plots, of the size

that had been so highly recommended by It was under these circumstances that the late Professor Anderson, chemist to

an effort was made in Aberdeenshire to the Highland and Agricultural Society , deal with the question. The work was viz. , ilith part of an acre. taken up successfully and carried on conIt may be mentioned in passing, that tinuously for seven years, by the Aber. Professor Anderson arrived at this size

deenshire Agricultural Association, which after much experience with experiments in 1882 was developed by the addition of on a larger scale. It may also be men a farm , laboratory, museum, &c., under tioned that the same experience was got the name of the Agricultural Research in Aberdeenshire ; preliminary experi Association for the North -Eastern Coun- ments on ith and on th acre plots ties of Scotland.

having been made, while along with the

At the request of the Editor of this large number of nigth acre plots, a large edition of The Book of the Farm , Pro- field was divided into 14th acre plots. fessor Thomas Jamieson, F.I.C., chemist This experience gradually led to a clearer to the Association, who has all along discernment of the objectionable features had the active management of the ex- of large plots, and to a distrust in their

periments, has kindly furnished the fol- results; while Professor Anderson's opin lowing account of the progress and re- ion was abundantly confirmed, that the 19th acre plot is a most suitable size for sults of these historical experiments.

The experiments were commenced in field experiments, while it is also very

1875. They had been framed with great convenient for calculation, as every pound care , scrutinised and amended by several of manure applied, or of crop reaped, gentlemen familiar with the various as- represents the same number of cwts. per pects of the question, chiefly by Mr J. W. acre.

ABERDEENSHIRE EXPERIMENTS .

171

Discussion as to Size of Plot. — It is phosphate would give it undue advan only what is to be expected that this tage in a fair trial of the relative powers

subject of size of plot will crop up every of the two substances. Possibly this now and again ; familiarity with work on adjustment was unnecessary ; the pro

large areas engendering a leaning towards bable effect was to provide a larger large experimental plots, while greater quantity of phosphorus in the case of

familiarity with actual experimenting the insoluble form than was necessary, leads to the small plot, as ensuring uni-

formity of soil, as well as identical cultivation under the same climatic conditions, and hence fair comparison. The iłoth acre plot is indeed too large ; but it is probably as small as can be adopted, unless the soil is actually taken up, and thoroughly mixed, and returned in equal quantities to the former position. Under such arrangement the dooth acre plot will be found in the highest degree satisfactory.

In the later experiments, therefore, equal

quantities were adopted, with about the in the crop. In the first instance, also, the soluble phosphates were exactly a

same result as had previously been got half soluble ( i.e., in commercial terms about 20 to 26 per cent superphosphate). In the later experiments, however, the highest practicable degree of solubility was sought- viz., about 35 per cent soluble. On singling the plants (turnips) it was

It is interesting to noticehow steadily sought to have an equal number in each

opinion grows in favourof small plots, plot-namely,about200 ; but that num and how constantly the above experience ber, from various causes, which will be is repeated - namely, that every beginner, easily understood by those engaged in especially if associated or influenced, di- practice, was seldom maintained to the rectly or indirectly, with practice on the end of the season .

Attacks by insects,

large scale, begins with large plots, and weakly plants, frost, drought, & c., fre

gradually works towards the smaller ones. quently reduced the number. Duplicated Plots. — Especial care was None of the operations on the plots taken to have each experiment dupli- were allowed to go on, nor weighing of

cated , a feature too often neglected in the crop, except in the presence of the experiments. It is indeed desirable that chemist who directed the experiments. they should even be triplicated.

It may thus be seen that the most

In the experiments having reference scrupulous care and attention were given specially to phosphate applied with and to the whole work. without nitrogen, special care was taken that there should be no hindrance to the

First Year's Conclusions.

action of these essentials by the absence At the end of the year the numerous of other materials understood to be essen- and duplicated results of this large

tial. This was prevented by the applica- series of experiments were tabulated, and tion, all over the plots, of a mixture con- presented such a varied and confirmed sisting of 3 cwt. potassic chloride, 1 cwt. series of results as probably had not

magnesia sulphate, and 72 cwt. common previously been available. salt.

They were

Each plot was surrounded by a carefully considered by the individuals

deal-board nine inches deep, driven edge- above mentioned, and others taking part wise into the soil.

in the direction, and finally the following Adjusting the Manures. — The soils conclusions were adopted : were subjected both to chemical and me1. That phosphates of lime decidedly chanical analyses. The manures were increase the turnip crop, but that farmers

also analysed , and care taken that equal need not trouble themselves to know quantities of the ingredients were used. whether the phosphates are of animal In the earlier experiments, however, the or of mineral origin. 2 . That soluble phosphate is not su proportion of insoluble phosphate was

a half more than soluble phosphate, an perior to insoluble phosphate to the ex adjustment considered necessary in order tent that is generally supposed. that the two phosphates might be fairly 3. That nitrogenous manures have

compared, assuming that the finer divi- little effect on turnips used alone, but sion or greater distribution of the soluble when used along with insoluble phos

MANURES AND MANURING .

172

phates increase the crop ; that the addi- most economical phosphatic manure for

tion of nitrogen to soluble phosphates turnips is probably insoluble phosphate does not seem to increase the solids or of lime, from any source, ground down dry matter in crop ; that there is no ma- to an impalpable powder.

terial difference between the effects of

Condensed Results . - It would oc

equal quantities of nitrogen in nitrate of cupy too much space to give the results soda and in sulphate of ammonia. Note . — Pure sulphate of ammonia contains about 5 or 6 per cent more nitrogen than nitrate of soda. 4. That fineness of division seems

in detail. It may suffice to give a few condensed results - namely, a few results

from the station that responded best to the action of phosphate, and there fore showed

action of

the relative

nearly as effective in assisting the braird the different forms most clearly ; and and increasing the crop as the addition also the results of the five stations aver of nitrogenous manures. Hence the aged : ABOYNE .

AVERAGE OF 5 STATIONS.

GROUP

I.

GROUP II. GROUP III.

No phosphate given Insoluble phosphate (ground coprolite) Soluble phosphate (superphosphate)

Insolublephosphate and sulphateof ammonia Soluble phosphate and sulphate of ammonia ( Steamed bone-powder

Insoluble Phosphates as Plant

concerns

Turnips.

Tons per acre . 5

Tons per acre.

19

16 18

22

{ Soluble phosphate and nitrate of soda

GROUP IV. Raw bone -meal

Turnips.

IO

21

18

26

21

23

20

24 16

20

23

20

16

so large a body as the whole

food . — From the point of view of new agriculturists of a kingdom .

But no

information, the first and last groups are responsible person will now be found to by far the most important. Formerly cop- take up an opposite position . The bearing of the New Doctrine. rolite was deemed of no manurial value

until rendered soluble by sulphuric acid ; and in placing a money value on a dissolved manure , no value was attached to the insoluble portion it contained . The above results indicated that this position was untenable . They led the

Aberdeenshire Association to say decisively that insoluble phosphate in the form of ground coprolite was directly

effective on plants, and to add the statement that the superiority of the soluble

--At this stage there ought to be promi nently brought forward the real bearing of this new doctrine on agricultural practice. What is the actual effect of the know

ledge that the natural coprolite, merely ground, is able directly tofeed the plant with phosphate ? Being decidedly the cheapest form of phosphate, does it fol low that it should be employed to the exclusion of all other phosphates ? As

form is not so great as is generally sup- suredly not, when it is so clearly brought It was thought well to limit ex- out that although it produces 16 tons pression to the latter general and tenta- per acre, other forms produce 18 tons, tive statement, reserving a definite state- and others 20 tons per acre. Assuredly posed.

ment till further results were obtained .

not again , when it is stated that greater

The fourth group indicates the excel- assistance is given to the plant in the lent results got by using phosphate in early stage, by more finely divided phos

a fine state of division, and led to the phate, or by soluble phosphate. So long fourth conclusion stated above.

as the latter two phosphates are not

It may be remarked that these opinions charged a higher price, as compared with are now generally accepted. No doubt coprolite, than is compensated by the

there may constantly be heard dissen- larger crop, they shouldbeused. So tients from thesedoctrines. That isonly soon , however, as the price advances what may be expected, when the subject much beyond that point,the agriculturist

ABERDEENSHIRE EXPERIMENTS.

173

can fall back on coprolite, which is found forms seemed more or less to have a simi abundantly in many parts of the world, lar effect. As to a remedy, the disease and requires no more manufacture than seemed lessened by whatever ensured simple grinding healthy growth, or a condition of soil

It is thus wholly and solely a matter uncongenial to fungoid growth, as well of price. And herein lies the important as such lapse of time between the two practical bearing ofthe new doctrine. It turnip crops as would reduce the natural

is well to grasp fully the significance of food of the fungus, while a heavy dose of the knowledge that coprolite may be used lime markedly lessened the proportion of directly. Put in fewwords it is this disease. that it provides a check to the undue 4. The variation in weight on oat grain

raising of the price of manufactured by storing ; the solid nourishing matter phosphates.

in oats differently manured ; and the pro portion of husk to kernel. 5. Different methods of storing turnips

Experiments of Subsequent Years. It would go beyond the limits of this during winterwere tried, and the method article to explain the many points that of storing in pits of two or three loads, and

engaged the Aberdeenshire Association covered with three or four inchesof earth, during the following six years — viz., till was found to answer best ; while the re 1882 — during which the experiments of sult was not greatly different whether or the first year were continued and re- not the roots or leaves, or both, were

peated, providing altogether many hun- cut offprevious to storing. The proceedings of The first series of experiments was, as the Association, for that period of seven mentioned, on turnips, and turnips were years, form a large volume, replete with grown on the same ground successively dreds of results.

tables, diagrams, and photographs, which for five years. provide the critic with full details, while

But in the second year of the experi

at the same time the main points are ments, the original experiments were re clearly brought out for the general reader. peated on new ground at each station, It may suffice to say that the following and the effect of the various manures points were very fully entered into : ascertained over a rotation . 1. The specific gravity of turnips, which Relative Value of Phosphates and was found to give no reliable indication Nitrogen. of their quality. At the end of seven years it was con 2. The proportion of water in turnips, which was found to be increased both sidered that the subject that had been

by nitrogenous, and, to some extent, by carefully avoided up to that time might soluble phosphaticmanures. 3.

then be approached — viz., to fix the rela Finger and toe” disease was in- tive agricultural value of phosphates and

vestigated ; farmers' opinions regarding nitrogen. This was done, not by attach

it widely ascertained ; many experiments ing a money value, which might vary every year, but by fixing on some large ures in giving rise to the disease; and natural source of phosphate, and a simi other experiments with the view of find- lar source of nitrogen, and adopting these ing a remedy. Speaking generally, it each as a standard, to be referred to by conducted to ascertain the effect of man-

was found that whatever weakened the the figure 10. The standard adopted for

plant predisposed it to disease, and rendered it an easy prey to its natural fungoid enemy, which then produced the disease. But while many influences, both mechanical and climatic, caused weakness,

phosphate was ground coprolite of the usual commercial degree of fineness, which was called 10 ; while the standard chosen for nitrogen was nitrate of soda, the value of which was also called 10.

it was found, in a very remarkable and

It may be necessary later on to make

unmistakable manner, that soluble phos- these standards more definite, by specify state of ing more distinctly phate produced this effect in a very mechanical obviously division;the the andprecise striking degree. Nor was this effect stand the for chosen division the finer soluble rendered confined tophosphate by sulphuric acid, but sulphur in various ard, the less will be the difference be

MANURES AND MANURING .

174

tween it and the forms standing above give a visible increase of root crop, but it. But for the immediate purpose the this increase is due mostly, and often

commercial forms were deemed sufficient. entirely, to excess of water in the bulbs. The values thus carefully arrived at Nitrogenous manures greatly increase cereal crops, and the increase in this case for phosphate were : is not due to excess of water.

Tribasic phosphate of lime in bone

3

‫ة‬ ‫و‬ ‫ب‬

Phosphate of iron Phosphate of alumina (redonda)

Tribasic phosphate of lime in insoluble 10

mineral

Monobasic phosphate of lime in soluble phosphate

12

Bibasic or tribasic phosphate of lime in form .

precipitated Tribasic phosphate of lime in steamed bone flour

13 14

While the values for nitrogen were as follows :

As to the relative efficacy of different forms of nitrogen : the ultimate effect of nitrogen in sulphate of ammonia , in guano, and steamed bone flour, is nearly identical, whether used with soluble or

insoluble phosphate. Nitrate of soda, when used with soluble phosphate, is also identical with the above forms, but is of less efficacy when used with insol uble phosphate.

4. Fine division (or perfect disaggre gation ) of phosphates assists the braird

Nitrate of soda

10 nearly as much, and with more healthy

Sulphate of ammonia

IO

Guano

IO

with dried blood ) .

results, than applications of nitrogenous manures.

Nitrogen (only) in bones (supplemented 8

The most economical phosphatic man

ure is probably non -crystalline, floury, At the same time the conclusions orig- insoluble phosphate of lime ; the cheapest inally framed were more specifically form being mixed with an equal quantity drawn out as follows :

Final Conclusions.

1. Non -crystalline phosphate of lime, ground to a floury state, applied to soil

deficient in phosphate, greatly increases the turnip crop, and also, though to a

of the form in which the highest degree of disaggregation is reached.

(At present these two forms are re spectively, ground mineral phos phate (coprolite ), and steamed bone flour.)

Duplicate Trials in England. less extent, the cereal and grass crops, but always with equal effect, whether It remains only to say, that it having it be derived from animal or mineral been argued that while these results matter. might apply to soil in Scotland , poor in

2. Soluble phosphate is not superior lime, and not to soils in England, gener latter be in finely disaggregated form— sirable to ascertain whether or not the

in effect to insoluble phosphate if the ally richer in lime, it was considered de e.g., disaggregation effected by precipita- results had only this limited application. A station was therefore established in tion fromsolution, or by grinding bones after being steamed at high pressure. Huntingdon, and another in Kent, while

In such finely divided conditions, the later on a large number of experiments difference is in favour of the insoluble were established in Sussex, and carried form , in the proportion of about 12 for on by the Sussex Association for the Im

and 14 for the above provement of Agriculture, under the same the soluble to 13respectively. In less chemical direction as the Aberdeenshire insoluble forms finely divided form (such as mineral experiments. These experiments in Eng phosphate impalpable powder), insoluble land showed, that while in soil actually phosphate is inferior tosoluble phosphate on the chalk formation soluble phosphate showed to more advantage than on all

in the relation of about 10 to 12 .

3. Nitrogenous manures used alone the other soils tried, yet inthe other soils have little effect on root crops, unless the in Sussex and in Huntingdon, where the soil is exceptionally poor in nitrogen, and soil was not so purely chalky, but yet con rich in available phosphate. tained the ordinary quantities of lime, Nitrogenous manures used with phos- the results were practically the same as

phate on soils in fairly good condition those got in Aberdeenshire.

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS.

175

of different seeding, different manuring, Outside Confirmation . liming, draining, & c. The value of these experiments in

Aberdeenshire and Sussex would be un certain unless confirmed not only in other

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL

places, but by other and independent

SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS.

experimenters.

The importance of the

question, however, was widely recognised; and after some time, both the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, and the Royal Agricultural Society of England, established experiments on the same subject, as did also a number of private experimenters, all of whose results pointed more or less con-

In the year 1878, a series of field ex periments was inaugurated by the High land and Agricultural Society of Scot land. For the following account of these experiments we are indebted to Dr A. P. Aitken, chemist to the Society, under whose care they were conducted :

Object of the Experiments.- The clusively in the same direction. object of these experiments was to test Still the march has been slow, if we the accuracy of manyviews then prev

judge its progress by the amount of cop- alent regarding the efficacy of the vari rolite applied, or by the small effect on ous light manures in use amongfarmers, the superphosphate trade. But for this to discover what was the agricultural or

there are two obvious explanations ; first, crop -producing values of these substances, as already explained, that the effect is and to see how far these values corre not to be looked for in the direction of sponded with the prices at which the

the greater use of coprolite, but rather in substances were being sold in the market. the reduction of theprices of superphosIt was believed by many advanced phate and other phosphates-- and this farmers that large sums of money were

reduction has indeed taken place to a annually being spent in the purchase of very marked extent ; and, second, that manurial substances, whose efficacy as the interest of the trade is more than manures was entirely out of harmony able to cope with the agriculturist, who with their market prices, and that noth

at the present day is hardly so skilled in ing short of an extended series of experi the intricacies of manure as in a few years ments, performed upon an agricultural he is likely to become. Scope of the Sussex Erperiments.

scale over two rotations, would be cap

able of uprooting old prejudices, and of enlightening farmers regarding the true Allusion has been made to the experi- value of the substances in which so much

ments conducted in Sussex under the of their capital was being invested. It name of the Sussex Association for the was believed that such a series of experi

Improvement of Agriculture. As these ments would not only determine, in a experimentshave been going on for eight years, in eight different sites throughout the county, representing the chalk formation, the weald clay, Hastings-beds and greensand, it will be evident that the

practical and reliable manner, what was the real value of manures, but would also supply much -needed information regard ing the special utility of the various in gredients of manures , the forms in which

amount of work and number of results they could be most profitably employed , thus ascertained are too extensive to

and the most rational and economical

admit of satisfactory treatment here. It methods in which toapply them. may be mentioned however, that, begin-

The Stations . — For this purpose the

ning with experiments testing not only Society rented two fields -- one at Hare

phosphorus but also nitrogen and potas- law, in East Lothian, and one at Pum sium in different forms, on which a great pherston, in West Lothian. At each amount of both interesting and useful information has been obtained, attention has been directed latterly to the means of improving old pasture, and

station 10 acres were set apart and divid ed into forty plots of one rood each. The soil of the former, a rich deep loam

near the sea-level, in a dry early district; to the laying down of new pasture in and that of the latter a thin clayey loam, such a way as to ascertain the effect resting on the till or boulder clay, a

MANURES AND MANURING .

176

somewhat wet and late district, 400 feet

Manures for Cereals .

When the

crop was barley or oats, the manure con

above the level of the sea .

No dung was applied to the stations tained lb. per acre.

during the course of the experiments, nor for four years previous to their com

Phosphoric acid Nitrogen

80 40

mencement.

Potash

60

Manures tried . — The three classes of

manures under experiment were phos-

The plots on which the various phos

phates, nitrogenous matters, and potash phatic manures were tested , received, in addition, their proper quantity of potash salts of the following kinds : in the form of a mixture of muriate and

Phosphatic Manures. Carolina

land phog. sulphate, and their nitrogen in the form

phate. Canadian apatite. Curaçoa phosphate.

The plots on which the various nitrog enous manures were tested, received, in Arubaphosphate,& c. addition, their proper quantity of phos

Mineral phosphates

ſ Phosphatic guano.

Of remote animal origin Coprolites. Bones, in

Of recent animal origin

phoric acid in the form of superphos

various phate, and their potash as mixed sulphate and muriate.

forms. Bone -ash .

These were applied in a finely ground state,

The plots on which the two potash salts were tested, received their proper

and also after having been dissolved in sul quantity of phosphoric acid as superphos phate, and their nitrogen as nitrate of

phuric acid .

soda.

Nitrogenous Manures. | Nitrate of soda. Sulphate of ammonia.

Soluble

Meat-meal Dried blood Horn -dust

The great majority of the plots on the stations were thus fully manured ; and

in so far as the essential ingredients

of animal phosphoric acid, ammonia, and potash wereconcerned, they all fared alike. It

Keronikon

Insoluble

origin.

was only the outward and accidental form and fashion of these substances that Rape-cake dust of vegetable differed . Cotton -cake dust ) origin. In order to form a starting -point or

Shoddy or wool. waste

Peruvian guano . Guanos, & c.

Ichaboe guano. Fish- manure.

basis of comparison for the whole sta

Frey Bentos manure .

whatever.

tion, three plots received no manure In order to measure the specific effects

Potash Manures.

of each of the three essential ingredients, Sulphate of potash . Muriate of potash .

three plots received one of each and

nothing else, while from other three plots These manures were so applied that each of the three essential ingredients each plot received the same quantity of respectively was withheld. phosphoric acid, of nitrogen, and of pot-

In addition to the two series of ex

ash, whatever might be the form in periments on the stations, there were which these were applied, and irrespec- annually carried out a selected number tive of the gross weights of the sub- of experiments on farms in various parts stances, or of their market prices. of the country to test the accuracy of

Cropping .- The cropping consisted of the results obtained , and to acquire a four-course rotation of turnips, barley, additional information regarding the action of manures when applied to dif Manures for Turnips and Beans. ferent soils and under different climatic

beans, and oats.

-When the crop was turnips or beans,

the manures applied to these plots contained 1b. per acre.

160 40

Phosphoric acid Nitrogen Potash

.

.

I 20

conditions.

Full reports of the experiments were published annually in the Society's Trans actions, and the following is a general statement of the chief results obtained and observations made.

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS. 177 different degrees offineness to which they happened to be ground. The finer they Produce of Dry Matter from Pum- were ground, the more effective they

1. Results with Phosphatic Manures.

pherston .- During the eight years com were as manures . A series of experiments made in 1886, prised in the two rotations, the total amount of dry vegetable matter per acre, on four plots of Pumpherston and on four in the form of roots, grain, and straw , re- Lowland farms, with the same mineral

moved from the plots to which complete phosphate, in two slightly different de manures had been regularly applied on grees of fineness, showed uniformly a that section of the station at Pumpher- difference of about 11 per cent in favour

ston devoted to the study of phosphatic of the more finely ground phosphate. manures was as follows: Tons of Dry Matter, per acre .

Bone -ash

Ground coprolites Bone-meal .

Phosphatic guano

Undissolved . Dissolved. 12.69 12.66 13.22 11.80 13.80 11.32 14.II 12.47

Ground mineral phos 11.66 phates

14.16

Average

13.59

Conclusions.

11.99

The whole question of the efficacy of ground phosphates has been shown to turn on the point of the fineness to which they are ground. Phosphatic Guano . — The reason why phosphatic guano is so effective a form

of insoluble phosphate is presumably because it consists in great measure of very finely divided matter, and also because it contains from 5 to 10 per cent of precipitated or "reverted ” phos

The facts apparent phate which is in an infinitely fine state

from a mere glance at these figures are, of division. that

Bone - meal. — The reason why bone

Soluble phosphates have produced about meal is slowest in its action, is probably 13 per cent more actual fodder than because it consists in large measure of insoluble phosphates.

very coarse particles.

Bone-meal, which is one of the dearest Judged by the standard of fineness of the phosphates, has given the of division alone, bone-meal, which was smallest return . enormously coarser than the other phos

Dissolved mineral phosphate, which is phates, should not have produced nearly just ordinary superphosphate, and so much vegetable matter. Its efficacy made from the cheapest material, must therefore depend on other circum has given the largest return . stances — notably its power of rotting in

Among the insoluble phosphates,phos- the soil, and of accumulating a store of phatic guano and bone-ash are best. phosphate, in no very long time becoming Over a series ofeight years, the amount available as plant-food. of fodder raised by the application Soluble Phosphates. - Although the of different kinds of insoluble phos- eight years' record shows that the soluble phates are not very different. phosphates differ more widely in their The following facts ,although not ap- efficacy than the insoluble ones, they have parent from a mere scrutiny of these not varied up and down so much as the figures, were attested from year to year latter.

Their action was much more

during the course of the experiments :- steady and reliable. Nevertheless their Insoluble Phosphates.

These vary relative order of activity did alter on some

in their efficacy far more than soluble occasions. phosphates. They are more dependent Just as the undissolved phosphates on moisture for their activity, and dur- differed from year to year in their fine

mg dry seasons they are of very little ness of grinding, so the dissolved phos Even during wet seasons they phates differed from year to year in the

use .

were found to be very capricious in fineness of their manufacture, or in their their action.

The phosphate which was state of aggregation due to dampness, or the best one year might be the worst the time during which they were kept in the next year. bags before being applied. Dissolved Fineness of Grinding .– This uncer- manures are liable to cohere into lumps

taintyVOLwasII. found to be caused by the from various causes, and the mostM careful .

178

MANURES AND MANURING .

riddling cannot restore the fine condition An extended series of experiments car of a manure that has become lumpy. Fine Powdery Condition essential. -Attention was early drawn to this circumstance during the course of the

ried out on the stations, and on other farms, to test the relative manurial value of bone -meal of different degrees of fineness, showed that the finer ground

experiments, and observations made bone-meals gave the best results during showed clearly that the efficacy of dis- the season in which they were applied, solved manures depends very much upon and also during succeeding seasonswhere the more or less powdery condition in their after-effects were observed. which they are applied.

? ** . 1

1

It is to this

circumstance, more than to any other, that the variation in the amount of the

II. Nitrogenous Manures. Produce of Dry Matter at Pum

produce from the application of different pherston . - The following are the forms of soluble phosphate must be at- amounts of dry vegetable matter removed tributed , and from the results of these from the plots at Pumpherston that were experiments the following affirmation set apart to determine the relative effi may be made :

cacy of nitrogenous manures during the

Given two phosphates of somewhat two rotations.

The manures contained

similar composition, but of different de- in each case the same amount of nitrogen, grees of fineness, the superiority will and there was given along with it a lie with the finer one, whatever be its definite uniformamount of superphos origin or history, or by whatever name phate and potash salts.

it may be called. More Vigorous Growth from Solu-

ble Phosphates. — On the plotsto which

Nitrate of soda . Sulphate of ammonia .

soluble phosphates were applied the plants

Horn -dust, shoddy, &c.

brairded sooner, the turnips came sooner to the hoe, and met sooner in the drills,

Rape-cake dust

Dried blood

Tons per acre . I 2.22

11.62 9.28 10.38 10.96

and the cereals were ripe and ready for As in the case of phosphates, so also in

harvesting from a week to a fortnight the case of nitrogenous manures, the earlier than on those plots manured with most soluble substances produced the insoluble phosphates. These important largest return. advantages were especially noticeable Nitrate of soda.- This is the most active and efficient of all the nitrogenous during dry seasons. Owing to the more vigorous growth on manures, and its action has been studied

the plots manured with soluble phos- under a variety of conditions at the phates, their crops were less liable to stations, and on other soils of very differ disease, and the land was always cleaner ent character. than on the other plots. Its chief peculiarity is that it acts

Harelaw Results . — The results ob- almost immediately on the crop, and pro

tained at the Harelaw station were very duces a marked effect whether ploughed similar to those obtained at Pumpher- in with the seed or applied as a top ston, but owing to the high state of fer- dressing during the growth of the crop. When applied to land in good condi

tility of the soil the differences were not so well marked.

1

T

tion, or when it forms part of a complete

Insoluble Phosphates for Mossy manure, it causes the crop to braird

Land , & c. — A large number of experi- vigorously, and is sometimes the saving ments to determine the relative utility of a crop whose youth is precarious. of soluble and insoluble phosphates were It is especially valuable in seasons of made on farms differing widely in their drought,as it enables the young plant soil and climate, and it was found that to root rapidly and become less depend insoluble phosphates produced their best ent on surface-moisture. results upon mossy land, and soils rich When applied to cereals it causes a in organic matter in wet districts. In more abundant growth of straw than such circumstances they were a more any other manure. When applied with

economical manure than superphosphate. the seed or to the young braird, it not Bones and Fineness of Grinding : only increases the bulk of the crop, but

. 1

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS.

it hastens its development and causes it to ripen sooner.

179

Sulphate of ammonia has been found

If applied at a later to check the growth of clover more effec

period, it causes the plant to grow too tively than nitrate of soda if applied in much to stem and leaf, and it unduly excess, but in moderate quantity it is an

prolongs the period of growth. When excellent manure for old grass. It is not applied late as a top -dressing to cereals, suitable for application to leguminous it causes a disproportionate growth of crops, which are intolerant of strong straw , retards the period of ripening, and nitrogenous manures, especially after the favours the production of light grain . first period of their growth.

When applied to a thin sharpsoil dur ing a wet season its effect is transient, showing that much of it has been washed

Insoluble Nitrogenous Manures. Insoluble nitrogenous manures are sub

through the soil and out of reach stances containing albuminoid matter. down of the roots of the crop. They are very suitable for wet districts,

When applied too liberally on good but none of them can be considered a land, it causes a rapid growth of ill- manure until it is finely ground, or matured vegetable matter, and produces rotted, or dissolved . a crop which is too abundant, unable to Rape - cake Dust.-- Among the in

ripen , of poor feeding value, and liable soluble nitrogenous manures rape - cake to accidents.

dust has produced the greatest amount

When applied to plants grown for of vegetable matter . It is very proba their seed, nitrate of soda must be ble that this is due in some measure to

used more sparingly ; for increase of the large amount of carbonaceous organic stem or straw , if overdone, is secured at

matter contained in

it.

It was also

the expense of the seed, both .in quantity noticed that the plot to which this man and quality ure was applied was singularly free from It may therefore be used with greater disease, and that the texture of the soil

impunity to crops which are grown for improved under its application. Dried Blood, Horn - dust, &c. and notably to grass of one or two years' Dried blood was found to be a good

the sake of their stem and leaf - chiefly

manure for roots, especially when ap

duration .

When applied liberally to grass, it in- plied early, but too slow in its action creases the growth of the grasses proper, for cereals. but diminishes the amount of clover and The same remark applies to horn -dust

other leguminous plants ; therefore, when and keronikon, which should be applied a good crop of clover is desired , nitrate long before sowing. Shoddy was tried should be used very sparingly . on only one occasion, and was found Sulphate of Ammonia . - Sulphate of quite inoperative. All these insoluble nitrogenous matters ammonia is slower in its action than nitrate of soda. It is therefore to be become, when dissolved in sulphuric acid,

preferred as a nitrogenous manure for good quickly acting manures. crops which have a prolonged period of

growth. When applied as a top -dressing to cereals, it retards the time of ripening.

III. Potash Manures.

Potash salts are chiefly important on

A similar effect is produced when applied land that has not been dunged. On with the seed in dry districts or during dunged land they frequently fail to pro seasons of drought.

It does not fail to

duce any marked effect.

benefit the cropeven upon thin soils and Sulphate and muriate of potash are during wet seasons. It is therefore nearly equal in their action. They are more appropriate than nitrate of soda for most effective when applied some months before sowing. The crops to which they application in these circumstances.

Sulphate of ammonia can do little for are most beneficially applied are beans, the germinating seed in dry weather, as clover, and leguminous crops generally. it is not in an immediately available form .

When applied to cereals, they increase Even after rain comes, it is some the amount of grain to some extent, and

time before the sulphate of ammonia they make the straw more elastic and comes into action .

less liable to lodge.

MANURES AND MANURING .

180

the amount of turnip-tops, but retard the Manuring Turnips. of the bulbs. manures decreases The manurial constituents of greatest ripening An excess of potash

importance in raising a crop of turnips very materiallythe quantity of roots, and are phosphoric acid and nitrogen. may greatly injure the crop. The relative importance to the turnip It is scarcelyphosphates crop at Pumpherston of these two ingre- application of possible toto overdo turnipsthe

, so dients of potash , is seen by comparing far as the health and feeding quality of plots manured as under during four the roots are concerned ; but too liberal years : anapplication of nitrogenous manure un Roots per acre. No. of Plot.

12. Phosphate (bone ash) Nitrate 18.

tons. cwt. 6 14 2 9 13 8

11. Potash and nitrate 21. Phosphate and nitrate

14

22. Potash .

10

1. Phosphate, nitrate, and potash

2

duly increases the tops and retards the ripening of the bulbs, and also increases their liability to disease. General Observations on Turnips.

Turnips contain a smaller percentage 16

of solids than swedes.

The turnips at

the stations contained from 7 to 9 per

Effects of Manures on Turnips.— cent solids, and the swedes from 10 to

The chief effect of manuring on turnips 12 per cent. The solid matter of the swedes con is to increase the quantity per acre, but the quality of the turnip is also much tained 15 per cent more albuminoids than that of the turnip, and there was as much affected by the nature of the manure . Turnips manured with dissolved phos- nourishment in 10 tons of swedes as in phate contain a higher percentage of ash 13 tons of turnips. than those manured with ground phosTurnips contained in their dry matter phates. nearly 8 per cent of ash, and swedes only contain somewhat

smaller about 572 per cent. The latter were They also a proportion of albumen, and upon the therefore less exhausting to the land. whole they have a wider ratio of albu-

Large turnips are not so economical as

men to carbohydrates, which means that medium -sized ones in any way. They they have not quite so high a feeding contain more water, and produce less value. solid matter per acre. The larger they The diminished percentage of albumen are, the smaller is the proportion of true produced by the use of dissolved phos- albumen in their solid matter ; they are phate was counterbalanced by the 'in- the less mature, and the less nutritious.

crease in the total crop, so that the total They contain a higher percentage of ash, andaretherefore more exhausting to the

amount of albumen per acre was some-

what in favour of the crop grown with soil. They have a low specific gravity, soluble phosphate. usuallyliable spongy heart. in and the do Dissolved phosphates when applied in and They are are more to rot, not April produced a better crop of turnips keep so well when pitted . Turnips at than when applied with the seed in June. their best are too watery a diet, but the The earlier manured turnips were denser, larger they are the poorer the diet. and produced more solid food per acre

Small turnips, on the other hand, are not so profitable as medium turnips, be Turnips manured early had more ash cause they do not produce so much solid

than the others.

than those manured with the seed .

acre, and although they contain per percentage When the nitrogenous manure of tur- afood higher of solids and a smaller nips is given entirely in the form of percentage of ash, yet their solid matter nitrate of soda or of sulphate of ammo- consists largely of indigestible woody nia , the latter has been found to produce fibre, and is therefore less nutritious. a denser, sounder turnip. The nitrogenous matter in turnips is The best way of applying potash to partly of a nutritive and partly of a non turnips is to apply it several months nutritive kind. before sowing.

The former consists of

albuminoid matter .

The ratio of nutri

Potash manures cause an increase in tive to non - nutritive nitrogenous matter

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS.

181

varies extraordinarily in different turnips, ond place, and to a much less extent, they affect the quality of both grain and straw , and they materially affect the time of weather and manuring. and under different circumstances of

Forced Turnips of Bad Quality .

Bulbs grown very rapidly, whether from excessof moisture or too liberal applica-

ripening Nitrogenous Manure for Barley .

- The most important constituent of a tion of soluble nitrogenous manure, have manure for the barley crop is nitrogen.

a smaller proportion of their nitrogenous In ordinary circumstances, it is the quan matter in the form of albumen .

tity of nitrogen in the manure or in the

Manures which unduly force the growth

soil which determines the bulk of the

of turnips may increase the quantity of crop. the crop ; but the increase of quantity is

In an ordinary rotation of cropping, in

got at the expenseof quality , and the de- which barley succeeds turnips, the phos terioration of quality is mainly expressed phate and potash required by the crop in the large percentage of water and the are relatively abundant in the soil, and a good crop can be obtained if only some Manures for Rich Crops of Tur- nitrogenous manure is applied in suffi nips. — In order to grow a large and at cient quantity to enable the plant to take

small percentage of albumen in the bulbs.

the same time a healthy and nutritious up its mineral food. crop of turnips, such a systemof manurThe kinds of nitrogenous manure most ing or treatment of the soil, by feeding suitable for barley are those which are

or otherwise, should be practised as will soluble and rapid in their action, such as result in the general enriching and rais- sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda.

ing of the condition of theland, so that Sulphate of ammonia, if applied as a the crop may grow naturally and gradu- top-dressing, and nitrate of soda, if so applied, much later than three weeks

ally to maturity.

For that purpose a larger application after the date of sowing, may increase of slowly acting manures, of which bone- the quantity of the crop both in grain meal may be taken as the type, is much and straw, but the quality of the grain, better suited than smaller applications of as indicated by the weight per bushel, will be lowered, and the timeof ripening the more quickly acting kind.

A certain amount of quickly acting manure is very beneficial to the crop,

will be retarded .

A difference of three weeks in the

especially in its youth ; but the great time of ripening occurred among the bulk of the nourishment which thecrop experimental crops. The earliest were requires should be of the slowly rotting those which were manured with soluble

or dissolving kind, as uniformly distrib- phosphate, and whose nitrogenous man ure wasnitrate of soda applied with the

uted through the soil as possible.

seed .

Manures for the Barley Crop.

The latest were those which re

ceived no nitrogenous manure, an over

The relative importance to the barley dose of it, or too late a top-dressing. crop of the three manurial ingredients Slowly acting nitrogenous manures are may be seen from a comparison of the of no use to the barley crop, unless ap

on the plots manured as plied some months before the time of resultsobtained under for five years : No. of Plot.

Grain per acre.

sowing A deficiency in the amount of nitrog

lb.

22. Potash

12. Phosphate (bone-ash ) . 17. Phosphate and potash 18. Nitrate

21. Nitrate and phosphate

875 1175 1256

1287 1706 1814

11 , Nitrate and potash 13. Nitrate, potash, and phos. phate 2596

enous manure applied to barley not only diminished the total amount of the crop, but it also diminished the percentage of albuminoid matter contained in the

grain.

Barley, top -dressed with nitrate of soda, contained somewhat more albu minoid matter than that which had the

Manures applied to the barley crop nitrate applied with the seed. affect, in the first place, the quantity per The amount of albuminoid matter acre both in grain and straw ; in the sec- varied from 8 %2 to 11 % per cent. The

182

MANURES AND MANURING .

former amount was contained in barley, beans cannot be successfully grown with from whose manure all nitrogenous mat- out dung. But the experimentsat Pum ter was withheld, and the latter from pherston station show that a full crop of barley top -dressed with nitrate. Phosphatic Manures for Barley.-

beans may be

grown with artificial man

ures upon land that has not been dunged

Phosphatic manures are next in order of for ten years. importance for barley. The more speedy The relative importance to the bean

their action the better; therefore super- crop of the three chief constituents of a manure may be seen by comparing the produce of eight plots manuredas follows phosphate. The plots to which soluble phosphates for six years :

phosphate is the most reliable form of

were applied came to maturity ten days

before those with insoluble phosphates. Potash for Barley .-- Potash manures somewhat increased the quantity of grain

Bushels Dressed

No. of Plot.

Kind of Manure. Grain per acre .

27. No manure . 12. Phosphate (bone-ash ) .

212 5%

18. Nitrate

6%

on the station where no dung was ap

21. Phosphate and nitrate'

plied, and they strengthened the straw . But it was noticed that the grain was

573

22. Potash

somewhat darker in colour than that to

which no potash was appplied.

2672 17. Potash and phosphate . 4273 10. Potash, phosphate, and nitrate 4572 38. Potash,gy phosphate, nitrate, and

Manures for Oats.

psum

51

The manures required for oats are The characteristic ingredient of a bean quick -acting manures, to enable the crop manure is potash . to geta good hold of the soil before the

Without potash in the manure, the

nourishment contained in the seed is ex-

other two ingredients are of very little use , unless, indeed, the land be very rich

hausted .

For this purpose superphosphate and in potash. nitrate of soda are peculiarly applicable. Potash salts alone may be a sufficient Sulphate of ammonia, although a sol- manure on land in good condition, and

uble manure,did not come into operation may even produce a fair crop on land in time for the wants of the young plant that is in poor condition. during the dry season of 1885, and the Phosphate, when applied along with crop which received that manure was a potash salts, or when applied to land rich signal failure at both stations. in potash, has a marked effect upon the Potash manures, especially muriate of crop. potash, had a very beneficial effect upon Nitrogenous manures, even when of the oat crop, and considerably increased the most favourable kind, have very little the yield of grain, and in a less degree influence in increasing the bean crop. the amount of straw . Lime, in the form of gypsum (or sul The general conclusions to be drawn phate of lime), has a beneficial effect upon from the experiments with the oat crop thecrop. are, that the treatment of the land should Dissolved phosphate acts far more

be such as to accumulate organic matter powerfully onthebean crop than ordi in it, to prevent too great a lossof mois- nary ground phosphate. ture, and to provide the young plant with Phosphatic guano was more effective

manures that come rapidly into operation . than ground mineral phosphate, presum When the young plant has safely passed ably for the reason that a small propor the critical period of its growthitroots tionof it was in an easily dissolved form. deeply, and lays hold of the moisture

The nitrogenous manures that are most

and nourishment contained in the sub- beneficial to the bean crop are those soil.

whose action is rapid and soon over. In

this respect nitrates are preferable to all

Manures for the Bean Crop. other nitrogenous manures. Nitrogenous manures should either be The usual practice in bean - growing districts is to apply dung to the bean applied in very small quantity, or alto break, and the opinion prevails that gether withheld from the bean crop.

TI

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS. 183 Nitrogenous manures that come into From these figures it is evident that the operation after the crop has made some manurial constituent most required for growth have an injurious effect. Even the production of the crops grown was

sulphate of ammonia is too slow in its nitrogenous matter, in the next place action , and retards the growth of the phosphates, and in the next potash. Potash alone. — The plot to which

crop .

Nitrogenous manures should not be potash salts alone were applied gave applied as a top -dressing to the bean

scarcely as much produce as the un manured plot. Peruvian and other nitrogenous guanos This plot went steadily from bad to

crop..

are among the worst manures for the They contain too much nitrogen and too little potash. The muriate of potash has proved a

of potash was hurtful to most of the

more effective manure than the sulphate.

There was one exceptional year, 1884, when the crop was beans, and then for

bean crop ..

The beneficial effect of gypsum is to be ascribed, not to the sulphuric acid it contains, but to the lime, which, in combination with sulphuric acid , is a soluble manure, and has the power of liberating potash in the soil.

worse, and was latterly the worst on the station, showing that the accumulation crops grown there.

the first time it threw up a crop five

times as abundant as the neighbouring plot, to which no potash had been ap plied. An Experiment for Farmers. — An

The general results of the experiments with different manures on the bean crop inform us that the bases potash and lime are the substances most required by the егор. The acids, phosphoric acid and

experiment of the above kind—in which, along with a completely manured plot, there are arranged side by side a series of plots from which in turn one of the essential ingredients of a complete man

nitric acid, are of secondary importance, ure is withheld—forms a most instruc tive lesson for farmers, and should be and sulphuric acid is of no importance. For land dunged in autumn- or for applied by them to all the fields on land in good condition — it would seem their farm . It serves to show what is

from the experiments at Pumpherston the ingredient in the soil or in the

that the application of superphosphate, manure that is most deficient for the muriate of potash, and sulphate of lime, in equal parts, would be a very appropriate manure for the bean crop . The composition of beans is very uni-

production of a crop, and thus guides the farmer in the selection of the light manures that are most appropriate for his purposes.

form whatever be the nature of the

manures applied.

It is the quantity

of the crop, and not the quality of it,

Manures for different Crops. A review of the manurial requirements

that is affected by the application of of a rotation of crops, consisting of tur nips, barley, beans, and oats, shows that while the three great constituents of a

manures .

Lessons from Incomplete Manure Experiments.

manure — nitrogen, phosphoric acid , and potash — are allrequired in order to raise

The following are the amounts of dry full crops and to maintain the fertility of vegetable matter yielded during eight the soil, the predominance which should years by those plots at Pumpherston be given to one or other of these constit from whose manures one or more of the uents varies with the crop. The pre

three constituents - nitrogen, phosphoric dominant constituent is — for acid, and potash — were withheld : Tons per acre .

Nitrate and potash (no phosphate) 9.78 Nitrate and phosphate (no potash) 8.97 Potash and phosphate (no nitrogen ) 7.65 Nitrate of soda alone Bone -ash alone Potash salts alone Unmanured

.

.

Turnips — Phosphoric acid. Barley and oats — Nitrogen . Beans - Potash .

Relative Importance ofthe Constit

uents. The relative importance of the

8.68

6.50 5.35 5.40

three constituents for these three classes

of crops must be arranged in the follow ing manner :

1 MANURES AND MANURING .

184

Cereals.

Beans .

1. Phosphoric acid , Nitrogen ,

Potash .

Turnips.

account of the large amount of sulphate lime contained manure of in that ; but if

2. Nitrogen ,

Phosphoric acid, Phosphoric sulphate oflime is applied to the crop,

3. ( Potash ),

Potash,

!

(Nitrogen). any other good phosphatic manure may form part of the mixture. The only kind

The constituents enclosed in brackets of nitrogenous manure that is to be re should not be applied to the crops to commended for this crop is a soluble one,

which they refer unless it has been learned and that in small quantity, applied with by experiment or observation that the the seed. land is deficient in them, and that the

Dung for Turnips, Cereals , and

crops are benefited by them, for it may Beans. — When farmyard manure is used happen that they have an injurious in- for the turnip crop, potash salts should stead of a beneficial effect. not be applied to it, and any nitrogenous Regarding the forms in which the threeconstituents should be applied, ref-

manure added should be soluble.

The need which cereal crops have of erence must bemade to the information nitrogen points strongly to the con

given under each heading in theprevious clusion that a part ofthe dung should But it may be shortly noted be withheld from the root crop and applied to the white crop ; and this is Forms of Manures for Turnips.— all the more to be recommended, as it is For turnips the phosphates should be ap- evident that a considerable loss of the plied either in a soluble form or in a state nitrogen of the dung is inevitable when of very fine division-in the case of a heavy dunging is applied to the fallow

pages. that

ground phosphates, they should be at break. If dung is to be used for beans, it least so finely ground as to pass through

a sieve of 120 wires to the linear inch , - should be applied to the stubble, rather or they should be of a kind that rapidly than put in with the seed. rot in the soil (such as bone-meal), and Organic Matter. at the same time so finely ground as to permit of their being rotted in great While it has been stated that on ordi measure during the period of the crop's nary soils the three constituents — phos

growth. The nitrogenous manure should phoric acid, nitrogen, and potash - are be partly of a quick-acting and partly of sufficient to formwhat is known as a a slow -acting kind, so as to be of service complete manure, and that a manure con to the crop during the whole period of its taining two of these substances, or, it may happen, only one of them, is a sufficient

growth.

Forms of Manure for Cereals . — For

manure to apply to certain crops in cer

cereals the nitrogenous manure should be tain circumstances, it is of the utmost

very rapid in its action, so as not to retard the ripening of the crop. If applied as a top -dressing, it should consist of nitrate. The phosphate cannot be too rapid, and on that account superphos-

importance here to observe that, never theless, it must not be supposed that, in the manipulation of these three constit uents, in reference to the crops they are producing, lies the whole question of

phate is to be preferred to any other manuring. Consider Soil as well as Manure form of phosphate. The importance of potash in a cereal and Crop .-- The rapidity with which

manure will depend on whether grass and light manures act upon the crops to which er seeds are sown with the crop. If they are applied has tended to restrict clov that is the case, potash salts take the our view too much to the two factors second place, as the presence of potash manure and crop -- and has caused us to in the manure is of importance for the think less of the soil than our forefathers nourishment of clover. Forms of Manure for Beans. - For

did.

Before the days of light manures

the bean crop , the form of potash salt time comparatively recent — when the that is most suitable is the muriate of wants of a crop for phosphates, nitrates, potash . Superphosphate is preferable to and potash were unknown, farmers fixed other forms of phosphate, probably on their attention upon the soil, and used

11

SEED-TIME.

185

every means to raise its general fertility tility of the land, and the health and —to put it into what is called high “ con- safety of the crop, are concerned in the dition ” —and this they did by the use of accumulation of organic .matter in the

heavy manures containing a large amount soil. of organic matter. Quick - acting Manures and Or. Function of Organic Matter. — It ganic Matter. — However much, there has since been discovered that plants can fore, we may commend the application of

grow to perfection without organic mat- quick -acting light manures - phosphates, ter, but the circumstances in which that nitrates, and potash salts — for the assist

is possible for crops are not those which ance of crops,it is quite evident that their prevail in ordinary farming and in this proper position on most kinds of land is subordinate to that of the heavier manures

climate.

It is to the organic matter in the soil and to the slowly acting manures rich in that are due many of the changes going organic matter, which perform the im on there that are beneficial to the roots portant work of building up the fabric of

of plants. The warmth and moisture of the soil, and accumulating therein a re the soilare increased by the organic mat- serve of fertility which is commonly ter in it, and the acids formed by its known under the name of " condition ,

decay have an important part to play in and which is also called “ backbone " by dissolving the mineral matter, which those who are able to appreciate its im forms the food of plants. It is indeed portance. the key to the treasures of the soil. But in theordinary operations of agriculture

Numerous other experiments of im

—in the constantdisturbing and working portance have been conducted through of the ground - organic matter is rapidly out the country, both by societies and destroyed, so that if farmyard manure individuals, all of which have contrib and organic composts or other substances uted to the fund of knowledge relating

rich in organic matter are not put into to the great subject ofmanuring. The land under cultivation, or fed on it, it Royal Agricultural Society of England, soon becomes unduly deprived of organic and the Bath and West of England, have

matter. And the soil is thus deteriorated been, and still are, specially prominent as a medium for the growth of roots and in this good work . In different sections for the retention of moisture, and as a of The Book of the Farm , notably in store of fertility gradually becoming avail- those relating to foods, and to the feed able for the nourishment of crops.

ing of stock, reference has been made to

During very dry or cold seasons, and the Woburn feeding experiments of the

even during very wet ones, the want of former society ; and the manuring experi organic matter in the soil is

source of ments there, although not as yet

con

danger to the crop. The fate of many clusive as could be desired upon the

plots at the stations during the recent main points under special investigation, drought showed how intimately the fer- are likewise interesting and important.

SEED - TIME. Seasonable Working of Land. The “ seed -time” is a season of con tinual stir and bustle on the farm . The Field -work will now be pushed on with

prognostics and variations of the weather all possible speed. Yet there are more are watched with the keenest interest

points to be considered than the mere and anxiety, for not only the progress of progress of the work. In particular, the spring work, but also the returns of care must be exercised as to the condition

the harvest are greatly influenced by the in which the different kinds of soils are character of the weather during the seed tilled and prepared for the crops. To time.

stir stiff clay when it is soaked with wet

SEED-TIME.

186

would be ruinous. Better delay a little gress of modern agriculture, has been

than commit the seed to a cold, unkindly, greater by far than is generally recog ill-prepared seed -bed. Better let the men and horses stand idle for a few days than run the risk of destroying the year's produce by working the land in an unseason-

nised.

It has, of course, been a matter

of business, not of philanthropy with them ; all the same, it is right to ac knowledge the great power which the

able condition. On the other hand, when development of the seed trade has ex the weather is favourable, and the land in ercised in the advancement of agriculture. good condition for tillage operations, let An Extensive Seed Firm . — The fact all hands do their very best, so that full that the work which the leading “ special

advantage may be taken of every favour- ist " seedsmen have been engaged in is of able spell of weather. Selecting Seeds.

advantage to the farmer, is indicated by

the vast proportions which the business of a few of these firms has attained .

Farmers cannot be too careful in the The business premises occupied by Messrs selection of seeds.

It matters not what

Sutton & Sons, Reading, cover no less

the crop may be, the best possible seed than six acres of ground. This firm , should be secured. To ensure thoroughly established in 1806, is now the largest reliable seeds of a high character, an of its kind in the world. At its experi

extra outlay of a few shillings per acre mental grounds at Reading thousands of shillings may add pounds to the value of made every year, and anything of special the crop

may be entailed, but then these fero trials with farm and garden seeds are .

promise is chosen for stock, and is in due

Improvement in Seeds. In this time, when by further culture the “ type ”

matter of seeds, the farmers of the pres- becomes sufficiently fixed , propagated ent day are well situated compared with extensively for sale. In this way, by The their brethren in former times. development of the Seed industry is indeed one of the most notable - one of the most beneficial - features in the progress of modern agriculture. The improvement of the animals of the farm has been accomplished on the farms by the stock -owners themselves. Equally important and equally great in its way has

this and other firms, many valuable varie ties of grain, roots, vegetables, and other plants have been placed in the hands of the farmer. During the busy seed sea son , from January 1 till end of April, the number of letters reaching Messrs Sutton & Sons' establishment average from 1200 to 1600 per day ; while the letters despatched range from 1800 to

been the improvement of the plants of 2000 daily.

From 700 to 800 seed

the farm . And this latter work has been orders have to be executed every day in carried out in the most thorough and the height of the season . The accounts

energetic manner by a number of exten- opened to customers approach 70,000 in sive and influential seed firms, who have number, and it is curious to note that for many years devoted great attention amongst these are no fewer than 800 not only to the improvement of the old with the name of Smith ! varieties of the farm crops, but also to With the excellent facilities that are the propagation and development of new thus provided by the leading seed firms

varieties of increased producing power. for procuring high -class seeds of proved There are many eminent firms who have in this way rendered good services to the country. Amongst the names most prominently associated with this great work

purity and germination, farmers now run little risk of loss by weak or im

pure seed. They should in all cases see that they obtain seeds which have been

of plant improvement are those of Sut- tested for their vitality, and which are ton, Carter, Webb, Drummond, and Dick- well cleaned and true to their kind. son ; but there are several other firms These remarks apply equally to all kinds which have also been active in similar of seeds; and once again we would re well-doing mind the farmer that a few shillings for

The part which these enterprising first-class seed may add pounds to the firms, who give us the improved, selected, value of the produce. and tested seeds, have played in the proSowing is sometimes delayed by dila

SEED-TIME.

187

toriness on the part of the farmer in try the change on a small scale in the providing the necessary supplies of seeds.

first year, and if the results are satisfac

Have these on the farm before they are tory , use the variety more extensively in required, so that they may be at hand subsequent years. Farmers should be when a suitable time arrives for sowing.

experimenting in this way very fre

Change of Seed . — It is well known quently, for by introducing fresh va amongst practical farmers that great ad- rieties well suited to their land, the vantage may be derived by judicious produce of their crops may be substan change of seed. As a rule with roots, tially increased . A change of seed from fresh seed is introduced every year, for a clayey to a light loamy or sandy soil

it is only in exceptional caseswherethe is generally beneficial. farmer grows his own turnip-seed. With

New Varieties of Farm Plants.

grain, however, the rule is reversed. The Farmers also derive much benefit by home-grown seed is used for the most taking advantage of the many new and part ; but it has been clearly shown that improved varieties of grain and roots

by an occasional change fromone climate, which are brought out by experimenting one soil, and one system of farming to seedsmen.

Our leading seedsmen are

another, the vitalityand producing power continually engaged in propagating fresh of a particular kind or " stock o " f grain and improved varieties of farm crops, are substantially increased . When one more particularly of grain, mangels, considers the artificial influences by which swedes, turnips, and potatoes, and by our improved varieties of grain have been availing themselves of these new and brought to their highly developed con- vigorous sorts of proved excellence, dition, one cannot be in the least sur- farmers may to a marked extent en prised that such changes of scene and hance their produce. surroundings should often exercise a beneficial effect upon the crop.

At the same time, it is well to say that caution should be exercised in in

But all changes are not successful. troducing new varieties. Let them be Neither are the conditions essential to tried on a small scale at the outset, and success very fully known. In almost adopted extensively only after their suit

every change of seed, as in every change ability and high qualities have been un

of asire, there is something of the nature mistakably established. of an experiment. As a rule, a change Testing Seed . - Farmers should care of seed from an early to a late districtis fully avoid using weak or unreliable seed. followed by a marked benefit, notablyin Seeds of all kinds may now be procured

the earlier ripening of the crop, but also pure, and of certain germination. This to some extent in the quantity and should always be insisted upon , and quality of the produce. The influence farmers should themselves test the seeds on the date of the harvest is most

when they take them home.

Even

marked. For instance, by the habitual home-grown seed, however well it may introduction of seed -oats from the south

look, should never be sown without

of Scotland every second or third year, having been first carefully tested . This the ripening of the crop on certain farms may be done very easily with grain or in the later districtsof the north -east has grass seeds, by placing say a hundred

been hastened by from six to ten days ; seeds between two foldsof damp blotting and practical farmers acquainted with a paper laid on a meat or soup plate, with late climate know that acceleration to another similar plate placed face down that extent in harvest is a very import- wards over that plate. No artificial heat ant advantage — perhaps all the differ- need be used , and the plates may sit on ence between a crop secured and a crop an open shelf in the farmer's parlour. partially lost. The weight of the grain The blotting- paper should be damped will also most likely be increased 2, 3, or every day by sprinkling a little water on

more pounds per bushel. Then in taking it by the hand. The object of having seed from a late to an early district there the two plates placed face to face is to

may sometimes be an advantage — notably cause a current of air to pass over the an increase in the bulk of the produce.

seeds.

In this way cereal seeds will

A good plan in changing seed is to germinate in about a week, and grass

SEED - TIME.

188

An efficient

Date of Sowing . - In former times,

testing apparatus may be purchased at

even under the most favourable circum

a moderate cost. Grain -seeds are often tested under a

stances, wheat was seldom sown after the

seeds in about three weeks.

first week of March, but later varieties

very thin damp turf in a well - exposed have been introduced which may be sown spot in the farmer's garden , We have as late as April On farms possessing the advantages of also seen it done on damp turfs, placed

on the rafters over the heads of cattle, where, of course, the temperature is considerably higher than outside early in spring, when testing is usually carried out.

favourable soil and climate, and on which it is customary to sow spring wheat every year, the root-land is usually ploughed with that view up to the beginning of March ; and even where spring wheat is

Clover, turnip, or any other legumin- sown only when a favourable field comes ous seeds may be tested in a more simple in the course of rotation , or the weather and expeditious manner. Count out say proves tempting, the land should still be 100 seeds, roll them into a piece of so ploughed that advantage may be taken

flannel, and dip into boiling water for to sow wheat. Should the weather take four or five minutes, and on opening an unfavourable turn after the ploughing, the piece of flannel all the reliable seeds the soil can afterwards be easily worked

will be found much swollen, and actually germinated, with the elementary root shooting out. The seeds which do not present this swollen appearance cannot safely be reckoned upon , and the quantity of seed to be given per acre should be

for barley. Tillage for Wheat. - The land should

receive only one furrow — the seed -furrow —for spring wheat, because if ploughed oftener, it would be deprived of that firmness so essential to the growth of regulated by the percentage of the re- wheat. The mode of ploughing this liable germinating seeds.

seed -furrow depends upon circumstances. a visible form of ridge,

If the land

and easily becomes wet, it should be gathered up ( fig. 34, p. 110, vol. i), and then it will have the appearance of being A large extent of wheat is sown in twice gathered up, as in fig. 40, p. 115, spring after a crop of roots of one kind vol. i. If the land is flat, and the sub SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

or another.

Good Land for Wheat. - To ensure

soil somewhat moist, gathering up from the flat will answer best, as in fig. 34.

a good crop of spring wheat, the land If the soil has a dry subsoil, though of

should be for some time in good heart, itself a pretty strong clay, it may be

otherwise the attempt will inevitably end cast with gore-furrows (figs. 36 and 37). in disappointment.

Wheat cannot be And should the land be fine loam , rest

sown in spring in every weather and ing on an open bottom , the ridges may upon every soil. Unless the soil has a be cast together without

gore- furrows, as

certain degree of firmness from clay, it is in fig. 36. not well adapted for the growth of wheat It is probable

that a whole field may

-it is more profitable to sow barley upon not be obtained at once to be ploughed,

it ; and unless theweather is dry, to allow and this often happens for spring wheat; strong soil to be ploughed in early spring, but when it is determined to sow wheat, it is also more profitable to defer wheat, a few ridges should be ploughed as con and sow barley in the proper season. venience offers, and then a number of

The climate of a place affectsthe sowing acres may be sown at one time. In this of wheat in spring; and it seems a curi- way a large field may be sown by de ous problem in climate why

wheat sown grees, whereas to wait till a whole field in autumn should ripen satisfactorily at a can be sown at once, may prevent the place where spring wheat will not. Ex- sowing of spring wheat that season. Bad

perience makes the northern farmers weather may set in, prevent sowing, and chary of sowing wheat in spring, unless consolidate the land too much after it had the soil is in excellent condition, and the been ploughed ; still a favourable week weather very favourable for the purpose. may come, and, even at the latter end of

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

189

the season, the consolidated land can be form is represented in fig. 255 (made by ribbed with the small plough, which will Fowler & Co. on Pirie's Patent), and

move as much of the soil sufficiently as another in fig. 256, made by J. Cooke & Sons, Lincoln . to bury the seed. Double - furrow Plough . — To exAdvantages of the Double -furrow

pedite the ploughing of the seed -furrow Plough . — The double -furrow plough is at a favourable moment, the double-fur- usually worked with 3 horses, and as to

row plough is used by some, though not the question whether it effects a saving so largely now as a few years ago.

One of draught as compared with two single

h

Fig. 255.- Fowler's double-furrow plough with single lever. a to Frame of wrought-iron flat bar. e Hind plough, movable, with like i Handle and screw -rod . a to c Frame of angleiron. d Front plough fixed , with mould . board, coulter, and share.

mounting. fg Inclined wheels with angular rims. h Vertical wheel with angular rim .

k Lever for adjusting wheel g. b c Cross or front baracting as the bridle.

furrow.ploughs, there has been much dis- furrow plough saves

I

man

and

1

cussion . Experiments with the dynam- horse. Turning over 2 furrows, and pre ometer have shown that there is little suming the plough to be drawn by 3

saving in this respect, and that the 3 horses have to exert about as much force as 4 horses, with 2 common ploughs doing the same amount of work,with a slight difference in favour of the double-furrow plough. In a trial with the double -fur-

horses (it is too fatiguing for 2 horses), it undoubtedly saves I horse and its keep, but it does not save a man . Two double ploughs might, indeed, be man aged by6 horsesand 2 men, and thus a saving be effected of i man and 2 horses —that is, if farmers can get plough men to undertake the grooming of 3 horses. Most of them think they

have enough to do with 2 horses, and it can hardly be expected that they will add a third to their labours Fig . 256. — Cooke's double -furrow plough.

without something like a correspond ing addition to theirwages. At the best, therefore, it will be seen that

row plough and others in 1870, the common plough, with a furrow of from 672 to 772 inches deep, gave a draught from 4 to 5 cwt.; while 9 double-furrow ploughs, with an average depth of furrow of 572

the new ploughs can save only i man out of 3, and of horses 2 out of 8, in turn ing over 4 furrows. But men at certain seasons of the year are needed on the

farm for other work than ploughing, and

inches, gave an average draught of 7 cwt. it is perhaps doubtful whetherthedouble In regard to saving either men or ploughs will effect more than the saving horses in employing the double-furrow of horses. This alone is a great matter . " I plough, a writer says : “ It is a mistake to suppose, as many do, that the double 1 The Farmer, January 26, 1870.

190

SEED - TIME.

In recent years double-furrow ploughs pickling the seed prevents the smut in have been losing favour in many parts of the crop, is a question more easily asked the country where they obtaineda footing. The modern Anglo -American plough is now preferred by many for speedy ploughing. Still, in some circumstances,

than answered; and it is, perhaps, from the want of a satisfactory answer that pickling is disregarded by incredulous farmers. Objection against the practice

the double - furrow plough may be em- is as difficult to be stated as any reason for it, but the palpable fact stands un ployed with advantage. Several improvements have lately been contradicted, that one field sown with

effected in the double - furrow ploughs, pickled wheat, andotherwise managed and now they are, as a rule, lighter in in the usual way, will most likely escape draught, and more easily manipulated the smut ; while the adjoining field ,man than in former times. aged in exactly the same way, but sown Sowing. — The land, having been with wheat without pickle, will most ploughed, should be sown at once. To likely be affected more or less with the economise time, the seed -wheat should disease. have been measured up in the sacks, or Various methods and materials for

ready to be measured up in the corn- pickling are employed . A solution of blue

barn or granary, and, if pickling is to be vitriol is now most generally used, and done, the means of doing it provided.

the process, as described in former edi

Quantity of Seed . — Wheat should be

tions of this work, is seen in fig. 257.

sown thick in spring, as there is no time for the plant to stool or tiller —that is, to throw up a number of young shoots from one root, as is the case with autumnal-sown wheat.

About 3 bushels per imperial acre will

CS

suffice of seed for spring wheat, but many farmers Sow a little more.

1222

There is always a controversy about thick and thin sowing. Since spring wheat does not tiller, it stands to reason that it should be sown thick

9

and buried regularly under the sur

face, which is most efficiently done by a drill-machine. Pickling Wheat. — There is much

to be said in favour of the pickling of seed -wheat — that is, subjecting it to a preparation in a certain kind of

liquor — before it is sown, in order

Apparatus for pickling wheat. Fig. 257.a Sackful of wheat. 6 Basket to receive the wheat from the sack .

c Tub of pickle. d Basket of pickled wheat. e Drainer for basket.

f Tub to receive draining of pickle from the basket.

g Heap of pickled wheat.

i Sacks for the pickled wheat.

to ensure it against the attack of a

fungoid disease in the ensuing sum- The pickling may be done on a part of mer, called smut, which renders the grain comparatively worthless. Some farmers affect to despise this precaution, as originating in an unfounded reliance on an imaginary specific. But the existence of smut, and its baneful

the corn-barn floor. Two upright bas kets are provided, each capable of hold ing easily about half a bushel of wheat, having upright handles above the rims. Pour the wheat into one basket from the sack , and dip the basketful of wheat

effect upon the wheat crop, are no im- into the tub of vitriol completely to cover

aginary evils ; and when experience has the wheat, the upright handles protect proved, in numberless instances, that ing the hands from the vitriol. After steeped seed protects the crop from this it remains in the liquid for a few seconds,

serious disease, the small trouble and lift up the basket, so asto let the surplus expense which pickling imposes may liquid run from it into the tub again,

the basket upon the surely be incurred, even although it and then place How drainer on the empty tub, to drip still

should fail to secure the crop .

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

191

more liquid, until the other basket is special preparations are Down’s “ Far filled with wheat and dipped in the mers' Friend ” and Clarke's and King's vitriol tub. Then empty the dripped basket of its wheat on the floor, and as

specifics. Placing Sacks in the Field .

There

every basketful is emptied, let a person is some art in setting down sacks of seed spread, by riddling it through a wheat- corn on the field. The plan of placing

riddle, a little slaked caustic lime upon the wet wheat to dry it. Thus all the wheat wanted at the time is pickled and emptied on the floor in a heap. Turning Pickled Wheat. — The pickled and limed heap of wheat is turned

the sacks of course depends on whether the seed is to be sown by the hand or by a machine. The sacks are set down across the field from the side at which the sowing commences. One row of sacks is sufficient, when the ridges are

over and mixed in this way : Let two just long enough for the sower to carry men be each provided with a square- as much seed as will bring him back

mouthed shovel ( fig. 114, p. 234, vol. i. ), one on each side of the heap, one having the helve of his shovel in his right hand, and the other in his left ; and let both make their shovels meet upon the floor,

again to the sack, and the sacks are then set in the centre of the ridge. When the ridges are short, the sacks are set upon a head -ridge ; and when of such length as the sower cannot return to the

under one end of the heap of wheat,

sack by a considerable distance, two rows

turning each shovelful from the heap behind them , till the other end of the heap is reached. Let them return in a similar manner in the opposite direction, and continue, until the wheat is thoroughly mixed and dried with the lime. The pickled wheat is then sacked up, and

of sacks are set, dividing the length of the ridges equally between them , setting the two sacks on the same ridge. The sacks are placed upon the furrow -brow of the ridge, that the hollow of the open furrow may give advantage to the carrier of the seed to take it out easily as the sack

carried to the field in carts,

becomes empty. In thus setting down

Seed - dressing to Ward off Birds. the sacks of seed, it is intended to give -A Surrey farmer says : “ We are much the supply of seed more easily to the troubled with crows and other birds eat- man who sows the seed by hand. When a machine is employed to sow ing the seed of wheat and other grain, but wheat more especially. The crows the seed, the sacks are set upon one of

do most damage justwhen the plant begins to come through the soil. I have tried various dressings for the seed, but found the following by far the most

the head -ridges connected with the gate of the field , unless the field is so long that a row of sacks must be placed in the middle.

effectual in warding off the crows : For

Where to begin Sowing . - If the

one quarter of wheat take a two-gallon surface is level, itmatters notwhich side pail, into which put quarter full of fresh of the field is chosen for commencing the lime, mixing and stirring with hot water, sowing ; but if inclined , the side which

just enoughwater to get it into a thick lies to the left on looking down the in paste ; then put in one pint of tar; stir all cline should be the starting point. The up together, and fill up the pail with reason for this preference is, that the first water, and keep stirring. Pour this over stroke of the harrows along the ridge is

the heap of seed, and keep stirring till most difficult for the horses to draw ; and all the seed is equally stained with the it is easiest for them to give the first mixture. This is also effectual for bar- stroke downhill. This first action of the ley, but no use for oats, as the birds can harrows is called breaking-in the land. pick out the kernel.” 1 It is the same to the sower at which side

There are several most useful prepara- he commences the sowing, but ease of tions for pickling wheat, not only for work for the horses ought to be studied. preventingsmut, but also for preventing Seed Carrier . - In Scotland the car insects and crows and other birds from rier of the seed is usually a woman, eating the seed . 1

Chief among these and the instant the first sack of seed is set down, she unties and rolls down its

Parming World, p. 471.

1887.

mouth, and fills the rusky, basket, pail,

SEED - TIME.

192

or whatever she uses in conveying the upon the ground where they are emptied, seed, and carries it to the sower, who to be flung aside as the harrows come to awaits her on the head -ridge from which he makes his start.

Her endeavour

them .

One - hand Sowing.

In former times

should be to supply him with such a the sower by hand in Scotland was habit quantity of seed at a time as will bring ed in a peculiar manner. He sowed by him in a line with the sack where he

one hand only, and had a sowing-sheet

gets a fresh supply ; and as the sacks wound round him , as shown in fig. 258.

are placed half - way down the ridges The most convenient sheet is of linen. when only one row is set down, this is It is made to have an opening large easily managed ; but with two rows of enough to admit the head and right arm sacks, she must go from row to row and of the sower through it, and a portion of supply the sower ,it being her special

duty to attend to his wants, and not to consider her own convenience.

Nothing can be more annoying to a sower than to have his sheet or

sowing-basket served too full at one time, and too stinted at another ; as also to lose time in waiting the

arrival of the seed -carrier, whereas she should be awaiting his arrival. When two rows are at a consider

able distance, on long ridges, two carriers are required to serve one sower .

Better that the carriers

have less to do than that the sower

lose time and delay the harrows, which will likely occur when the carriers are overtaxed . Seed -basket. — The basket or ves

sel in which the carrier conveys the seed is of various patterns— a deep or shallow basket, or ordinary pail, sometimes carried on the head, and in other cases in the hand or on the arm and haunches. The seed is

Fig. 258. – Sowing-sheet and hand -sowing corn .

most easily poured into the sowing

basket from the seed -basket on thehead. the sheet to rest upon his left shoulder. It should be filled each time with just On distending the mouth of the doubled the quantity of seed the sower requires part with both hands, and receiving the at a time.

seed into it, the loose part of the sheet

The Seed -sacks. — The mouth of the is wound tight over the left hand, by sack should be kept rolled down, that which it is firmly held, while the load

the seed may be quickly taken out, for of corn is supported by the part of the little time is usually at the disposal of sheet which crosses the breast and passes the carrier. The carrier should be very under the right arm behind the back to careful not to spill any seed upon the the left shoulder. A basket of wicker

ground on taking it out of the sack , work, such as fig. 259, was very common otherwise a thick tuft of corn will un- in England for sowing with one hand.

profitably grow upon the spot. As one sack becomes empty, the carrier should take it to the nearest sack ; and as the sacks accumulate, they should be put into one, and carried forward out of the

It was suspended by a girth fastened to two loops on the rim of the basket, and passing round the back of the neck ; the left hand holding the basket steady by the wooden stud on the other side of the

way of the harrows.

rim.

It is a careless

habit which permits the sacks to lie

Two-hand Sowing.But the system

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

193

of sowing with both hands is now more the form of a figure corresponding to the general than one-hand sowing. It should sweep made by the hand. The forward indeed be the universal method wherever motion of the hand is accompanied by a

hand -sowing is pursued. It is the most corresponding forward advance of the expeditious; and many people consider right foot, which is planted on the that the sowing can be done more evenly ground the moment the hand casts for with two hands than with one.

ward the bulk of the seed .

For two-hand sowing a simple form of

The action is well represented in fig.

sowing -sheet is a linen semi-spheroidal 258, except that some would consider the sower should give his hand a higher

sweep, especially on a calm day. The curve which the seed describes on fall ing upon the ground, is like the area

of a portion of a very eccentric el lipse, one angle resting on the open furrow , and the other stretching 2 or 3 feet beyond the crown of the ridge,

the broadest part of the area being on the left hand of the sower . The moment the seed leaves it the

hand is brought back to the sowing sheet to be replenished, while the left foot is advanced and the right hand is stretched back for a fresh cast, and

Fig. 259. - English sowing -basket.

thrown forward again with the ad bag, attached to a hoop of wood or of vance of the right foot. The seed ought to be cast equally over iron rod, formed to fit the sower's body, buckled round it, and suspended in front the ground. If the hand and one foot in the manner just described. Both alternately do not move simultaneously, hands are thus at liberty to cast the the ground will not be equally covered, seed, one handful after the other. and a strip left between the casts. When

Art of Sowing . — The following de- the braird — that is, the young plants tailed description of the art of sowing comes up, these strips show themselves. by one hand is also so far applicable to This error is most apt to be committed

sowing by both hands. Taking as much by a sower with a stiff elbow, who casts seed as he can grasp in his right hand, the grain too high above the ground. the sower stretches his arm out and a

The arm should be thrown well back

little back with the clenched fingers and stretched out, though, in continuing looking forward, and the left foot making the action, with the turning up the back an advance of a moderate step.

When

of the hand, the inside of the elbow

the arm has attained its most backward joint becomes pained. position, the seed is begun to be cast, If the hand is opened too soon , too with a quick and forcible thrust of the much of the seed falls upon the furrow

hand forward. At the first instant of brow , and the crown receives less than the forward motion the fore-finger and its proportion. This fault young sowers thumb are a little relaxed, by which some are very apt to commit, from the appre of the seeds drop upon the furrow -brow hension that they may retain the seed and in the open furrow ; and while still too long in the hand. If the hand is

further relaxing the fingers gradually, brought too high in front, the seed isapt the back of the hand is turned upwards to be caught by the wind and carried in until the arm becomes stretched before

a different direction from that intended.

When the wind becomes strong, the the sower, by which time the fingers are all thrown open, with the back of the sower is obliged to walk on the adjoining spread hand uppermost. The motion of

ridge to the windward to sow the one he

the arm being always in full swing, the wishes; and the sower should cast low in grain, as it leaves the hand, receivessuch windy weather. Some sowers take long steps, and make an impetus as to be projected forward in VOL .

II.

N

SEED - TIME.

194

long casts, causing some of the seed to well, but is so constructed that its long reach across the ridge from furrow to sowing -chest is divided into sections, the furrow . Such a sower spills the seed be- two end ones of which can be folded upon hind the hand, and makes bad work

in wind. The step should be short, the casts frequent, and the seed held firmly in the hand, then the whole work is under complete com mand.

The sower should never

bustle and try to hurry through his work ; he should commence with such a steady pace as to maintain it during the day's work . A sower with both hands makes

the casts alternate, the hand and

foot of the same side moving simul-

Fig . 260. - Broadcast sower ready for work .

taneously with regularity and grace.

Sowing - machines. – Hand - sowing the central division , whereby the machine has been to a large extent superseded by may pass through any field -gate without sowing-machines. These do the work having to remove the sowing-chest. better than it can possibly be done by By the use of the drill-machine less hand, and their use is therefore to be commended. Of seed -sow

ing machines there are many pat terns, some dropping the seed in

drills, others scattering it broad cast. A material difference exists between these two classes of ma chines. The broadcast machine

deposits the seed upon the sur face of the ground, and is in fact a direct substitute for hand-sow

Fig . 261. - Broadcast sower in transit

ing ; and as it deposits the seed

very regularly, this machine is now ex- seed will thus suffice, and another advan tensively used. tage is that the land between the rows may

The drill-machine deposits the seed at be hoed by the hand-hoe,orby a horse once at a specific depth under ground in hoe, such as in fig. 262 (Kells, Meats, &

rows, and at such distances between the

Co., Gloucester), thus tending to clean

rows, and with such thickness in the rows, as the will of the farmer may decide.

theland. Drilling is rightlyenough in

The seed being left by the broadcast machine on the ground like hand -sowing, is buried in the soil more or less deeply as the harrows may chance to take it ; whereas the drill-machine deposits the

seed in the soil at any depth the farmer chooses, and all the seed at the same

depth, thereby giving him such a com mand over the position of the seed in the soil as no broadcast machine or hand

sowing can possibly do. Broadcast Sowers. There are various

Fig. 262. - Horse hoe.

forms of the broadcast sowing-machine. The one illustrated in figs. 260 and 261, favour for good land in good heart, but made by Ben. Reid & Co. , Aberdeen, on poor or medium land it does not give exhibits the machine in the most perfect so much straw as broadcast sowing. The

form , not only doing the work easily and sowing-gear of the broadcast machine is

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

195

connected with the main axle of the car- easy of attainment. To ensure an even

riage, as shown in the figure. The arrangements for regulating the quantity of seed per acre are very simple and effective, and altogether the machine

braird, the machine should be carried in a level position. It sows all kinds of grain admirably, and is equally well adapted for sowing dry artificial manure.

is very easily worked and con trolled . About 18 feet is the usual

width sown at once by the machine. Hand Broadcast Sowers.

Fig. 263 represents a very ingeni ous and most useful hand broadcast sower, the “Little Wonder," of American invention, and brought to this country by Mr J. H. New

C

ton, West Derby, Liverpoool. The illustration pretty well ex

plains its appearance and action.

Fig. 264. - Corn and seed drill.

A light box of thin wood is carried under the left arm with a The quantity to be sown per acre is reg strap over the shoulder. To the top ulated by a little slide. part of this is attached a canvas reStrawson's ingenious air distributor ceptacle for the seed, while on front may also be adapted for sowing grain broadcast.

Drill terns of reliable efficient

Sowers. — There are many pat these, and they are now very in working. Ingenious and devices are employed for regu

lating the quantity of seed per acre, the width of the drills, and the depth to which the seeds are deposited . Fig. 264 represents the improved Suffolk corn and seed drill made by R. Garrett & Sons, Suffolk .

The “ Excelsior ” drill-sowing machine

( The Chadburn ManufacturingCompany ), Fig . 263.- Broadcast hand - sower

and below is fixed a little tinned iron

wheel, or rather four crossed pieces re-

represented in fig. 265, is a most ingeni ous American invention, designed to sow almost all kinds of farm seeds, as well as manure .

Width of Drill . — The width between

volving on a spindle. Round this spindle the rows of wheat varies somewhat.

is passed a thong which forms the string of a bow ,and by see -saw ing " this bow the wheel revolves 66

in alternate directions.

An eccen

tric on the spindle moves a little hopper which keeps a regular stream of seed falling on to the revolv ing “ wheel," and this in its turn

sends the grain spinning out all It will cover a width of about 30 feet, but some have found round .

it best in practice to go up the centre of one rig and down another, thus taking 14 or 16 feet at a time. It is

Fig. 265.- " E.rcelsior " seed drill.

thus possible, if kept supplied with seed, On good land in high condition, 9 to do four acres per hour, while three is

inches is a common width, but many

SEED-TIME.

196

consider that rather too great for ordi- uncertain, while its construction is of the nary land. simplest order. So simple indeed is this Hand Seed - drill.— There are small construction, that at a very remote period hand seed -drills both for grain and root it appears to have taken that form which, crops. Fig. 266 in so far as the simple principles of its represents R. action are concerned,is almost incapable Boby's very use- of further improvement. ful drill of this Iron Harrows. — Fig. 267 represents pattern . Howard's set of iron harrows for a pair Harrowing . - The Fig. 266. — Hand seed - drill.

land,

whether sown by hand or with any sort of ma

chine, must be harrowed. The order in time of using the harrows differs with the

sort of machine used for sowing the grain . When the grain is sown by hand or with

the broadcast machine, theharrow is used chiefly after the grain has been sown, although many consider it desirable to

수

“ break in ” the surface by a single or double turn of the harrows before sow

ing. But in sowing with drill-machines, the harrow is first used to put the

Fig. 267. - English iron harrows.

land into the proper tilth for the ma- of horses. Sellar's harrows, suited for heavy land, are shown in fig. 268.

chine.

Considering the operation the harrov Wooden harrows, once so common, are Iron harrows are now out of

has to perform in covering the seeds that

have been cast upon the soil, and reducing the surface-soil to a fine tilth, it is an implement of no small importance ; and yet its effects are apparently rude and

date.

made of many patterns. Most of them are wonderfully durable, light in draught, and very effective in reducing the soil to a fine condition . They are made

Fig. 268. - Scotch iron harrows.

heavy or light, according to the work the ridge whichever is nearest the open intended to be done.

In some the field . Each pair of harrows should be

teeth or tines are held in by screw and provided with double reins, one rein from nut, and in others by being driven each horse ; and the ploughmen should through holes of the required size. Process of Harrowing. — Two pairs of harrows work best together, their united breadth covering the entire ridge, and lapping over the crown where the soil is thickest. One pair takes the lead,

be made to walk and drive their horses

with the reins from behind the harrows. If a strict injunction is not laid upon them in this respect, the two men may be found walking together, the leading one behind the harrows, the other at the

by going usually on the near side of the head of his horses.

The latter is thus

ridge, while the other pair follows on the unable to know whether his harrows off side, but the leader takes the side of cover the ground which they ought to

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

cover, and the two are more engrossed in talk than in the work in hand.

197

Suppose the harrowing had begun at the top of the declivity, the breaking-in

To draw harrows as they should be commences at once on going down-hill ;

drawn, is really not so light work for horses as it seems to be. When the tines are newly sharpened and long, and take a deep hold of the ground, the labour is considerable. To harrow the ground well—that is, to stir the soil so as to allow the seed to descend into it, and bring to the surface and pulverise all the larger clods, as in the case of broadcast sowing - requires the horses to go at a smart pace ; and for efficient working harrows should on all occasions be driven with a quick motion.

and to preserve the propriety of giving the double tines in opposite directions, the harrows come up the same ridge and finish it, the double tine up-hill being easy because of the ground having been passed over by the harrowing down hill ; and so on with every succeeding ridge. Ăs there is little room for two pair of

harrows to turn at the end of one and the same ridge, the leading harrows are driven forward upon the head -ridge, and the horses are hied so as to movo round

When the seed is sown by a drill- upon the far side of the head -ridge, and machine, it is deposited at a given depth; still hied round , they take up their place and in order that the harrows shall not

disturb its position , the land is harrowed fine before the seed is sown, a single tine—that is, one turn of the harrows - along the drills covering the

on the same side of the ridge they had come down ; while the hind harrows are

hupped so far on the head -ridge as to turn on its far side, and then hieing, take up their position on the same side of the

seed sufficiently.

ridge they had come down, in rear of the - In har- leading harrows. rowing after the broadcast seed, one But where four pairs of horses are at Harrowing

on Incline .

must be guided by the circumstances of work — and four pairs are required to the case . If the harrowing commences cover in and finish as fast as the broad at the foot of the incline, and with two cast sower deposits the seed—this plan pairs of horses, the following plan is would be apt to lead to confusion . If adopted by some. The ridge next the the field ascends from the gate, each pair fence should be ascended by the 2 pairs of of harrows may go up a separate open

harrows ; and on gaining the top of the furrow, as these require more harrowing incline, the second ridge is descended, to than the other portions; and when the break -in its seed ; and hieing — that is, top of thefield is reached, all the pairs turning them round to the left—both godown the side of the field where the the pairs of horses at the foot, the first

sower has commenced.

At the bottom,

ridge is again ascended, which finishes the first pair of harrows pass along the its double tine ; and though both tines head -ridge to the left in front of the

(or stripes or courses of the harrow ) have second pair, which pass to the right, the been given on it in the same direction, one pair going up the land upon which the anomaly is submitted to in order to

the other came down.

The third and

gain a favourable position for the horses fourth pairs do likewise, and in this way to break -in the seed, which is from the confusion in turning is avoided. top of an incline where there is an inThe entire movements are easily and

cline. Hieing the horses again on the quickly managed with double reins ; but upper head - ridge, the third ridge is with a single rein , even with the voice, broke-in down-hill; and hieing again on this mode of turning at the end of a the lower head -ridge, the second ridge ridge is apt to create confusion.. is ascended, and is thus finished in its

If the incline is begun to be sown at

double tine- given in opposite directions. the opposite side of the field, the same Thus by hieing both pairs of harrows arrangements as have just been described

at both ends, one ridge is broke-in on for easy breaking-in of the seed for the going down, and another receives the horses, whether from foot or top of the

double tine on coming up the incline, incline, should be followed ; but in fol which affords an easymode of working lowing them here the horses should be the horses.

hupped -turned to the right - instead of

198

SEED -TIME.

hied , because the open side of the field is ciently fine and uniform , the harrowing on a different hand.

should cease, although the appointed When the field is level, it matters not number of double or single tines have from which side the breaking-in com- not been given ; for it is a fact, espe

cially in light , soft soils, that over Cross - harrowing. — After the ap- harrowing brings part of the seed up

mences.

pointed piece of ground, whether a again to the surface. whole field or part, has been sown and Water - furrows.--When the spring broken -in, the land is cross -harrowed a wheat was sown early in the season , in

double tine — that is, at right angles to January or near the end of February,

the former harrowing, and to the ridges. it was usually considered necessary in But as, for this operation, the ground is former times that the ridges should be not confined within the breadth of ridges, water-furrowed, so that, in case of much

the harrows cover the ground with their rain falling, or snow melting, it may run whole breadth, and get over the work in off the surface of the ground by the less time than in breaking-in.

water-furrows. Whatever of the spring

Cross-harrowing is not easy for the wheat is sown late in the spring, in the horses, inasmuch as the stripes left in last of February and beginning of March,

the ground by the breaking-in have to the water-furrowing is not executed un be cut through, and the irregular motion til after the sowing of the grass -seeds, if of the harrows, in jerking across the open any are to be sown with the wheat crop. furrows of the ridges, has a fatiguing Water-furrowing is making a slight effect upon the horses.

plough -furrow in every open furrow, as

To finish the harrowing, another double a channel for rain -water to flow off the tine along the ridges, as in the case of land. It may be executed lightly with a

the breaking-in, maybenecessary. This common plough and one horse, but better turn is easily and quickly performed, the with a double mould-board plough and soil having been so often moved ; and one horse ; and as the single horse walks should it seem uniform in texture, a single in the open furrow, the plough following tine will suffice for a good finishing. obliterates his footmarks. Efficient Harrowing.— To judge of The better water - furrowing by the

the harrowing of land, the sense of feel- double mould -board plough consists in ing is required as well as that of sight. When well done, the soil seems uniformly smooth, and the small clods lie loosely upon the surface ; the ground feeling uniformly consistent under the tread of When not sufficiently harthe foot.

the channel having equal sides ; and the furrow-slice on each side being small, compared with the one furrow -slice of the common plough on one side, the water can run more freely into the fur row . The plough simply goes up one

rowed, the surface appears rough, the open furrowanddown another until the clods are half hid in the soil, and the

field is finished, the horse being hied at

ground feels unequal under the foot—in the turns into the open furrow. Water some parts resisting its pressure, in others furrowing finishes the work of the field . Under -drainage v. Water -furrows. giving way to it too easily. The old saying that “ good harrowing - On average soils there will be no

is half farming” has more wisdom in it necessity for water-furrows if the land is than at first sight appears. The efficient thoroughly under-drained. The import harrowing of land is of more importance ance of this latter is now universally ac than seems generally to be imagined

knowledged, and great benefit has been

Its object is not merely to cover the derived by the large extent to which has been executed throughout seeds, but to pulverise the ground, and drainage When the soil is excep render it of a uniform texture. Uni- the country. and water apt to lie adhesive, tionally soil the in maintains formity of texture a more equable temperature, not absorb- in pools on its surface, it is very desir ing rain so fast, or admitting drought able that water-furrows should be pro too easily, as is the case when the soil vided to prevent this. Wheat after Grass. — The foregoing is rough and kept open by clods.

Whenever the texture becomes suffi- relates mainly to the sowing of wheat

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

199

after a root crop. But a large extent of than lose the advantage of sowing wheat spring wheat is also sown after grass, in good time before the winter sets in.

chiefly in England, and some of the But with others the aftermath is of earlier and drier districts of Scotland. greater importance, and they accordingly

The success of spring wheat after grass deferthe ploughing of the lea till winter, in England attests the superiority of the and the sowing of the wheat till spring. English climate, which is too dry, and January is considered a good month for

too warm in the southern counties, for wheat-sowing, but it is only in excep the perfect growth of oats. A great obstacle to sowing wheat in Scotland in spring is the action of two classes of soil on the growth of that plant. Clay soils are too inert in the average climate of Scotland to mature the growth of wheat

tional seasons and in favoured districts that the weather permits of this. There is thus a considerable extent of spring wheat sown after grass. Presser -roller. — This implement was called into use with the object of consoli

in a few months; and the light soils, dating light soils, so as they might with

though more favourable to quick vegeta- stand the drought of spring and support tion, want stamina to support the wheat the wheat plant until it attains maturity. plant, and are, besides, too easily affected The action of the presser-roller is to con by drought in early spring — it being no solidate the soil in the lineal spaces in uncommon occurrence in Scotland to ex-

which the seeds of wheat are to have

perience a severe drought in March, and root; hence it is applicable only in drill during the prevailing east wind . culture on loose soil, whether after lea or Wheat cannot be safely sown in the on bare land. autumn in Scotland after the end of The presser-roller is in perspective re October, which is the time for sowing presented in fig. 269, and fig . 270 gives after potatoes. Some sow it in Novem- edge - view of the two pressing -wheels ber, to the risk of producing a thin crop. detached from the carriage, in which is

To plough up lea before October would the axle of the two pressing-wheels as be to sacrifice the aftermath.' Many far- they appear edgewise, their weight being mers do this without hesitation, raiher about 2 cwt. each . The pressing -wheels

d

a a Rectangular frame. b Pair ofshafts.

Fig . 269. - Presser - roller. dd Two pressing wheels. e Light carriage-wheel.

f Iron stay -rod .

9 Two iron scrapers.

c Cast- iron bracket.

are held at the required distance by ning always upon the last - turned - up square collars. A transverse section of

furrows but one ; while the light car

the ground undergoing the pressing pro- riage-wheel runs always upon the solid cess is the shaded part of the section,

land, where the horse also walks, the

exhibiting the state of a soft soil when shafts being placed at that side. pressed by the roller ; and the dotted But the presser is now being more lines of the newly -ploughed furrow -slices advantageously used as to time, in the of lea undergoing consolidation. With consolidation of soft soils, by being con reference again to fig. 270, the press- structed with 4 , 6, or more pressing

ing -wheels are to be understood as run- wheels ; and in this form the carriage

SEED-TIME.

200

In using the is a powerful auxiliary to the farmer of

wheel is not required .

pressure of this construction, the field such soils ; perhaps .it is equal, if not must be ploughed for the seed -furrow , superior, to the drill in these respects.” either entirely or in part, before the

Spring Varieties of Wheat.As to

pressing is begun ; and the field is regu- the varieties of wheat which should be larly gone over by the presser, which, sown in spring in different localities, it from its now increased weight, will re- would be imprudent to dogmatise. With quire two horses. In this form , with 6 the great attention now being given to pressing-wheels and with 2 horses, the the improvement of farm plants, and to the bringing out of new varieties and stocks of exceptional vigour and power

of production, it is quite probable that the variety which is considered best to day will be excelled in the near future. Farmers must therefore be constantly on

11 f

the outlook for improved sorts, and be 1

f

Fig. 270. - Action of the edge of presser-wheels. a a Axle.

ob Two pressing-wheels . ccc Square collars upon the axle. d Transverse section of ground being pressed .

e f Newly ploughed lea , furrow -slices in dotted lines.

guided by the experience of the time as

to which variety they should select. It is this same consideration — the

great ingenuity and enterprise employed in developing new sorts, and the rapidity

with which one good sort is supplanted by a still better — which influenced us in deciding not to attempt in this work a

detailed description of the different varie ties or sorts of the respective farm crops now in use in this country.

For guidance as to the best varieties to use, no farmer need have any difficulty. By a careful study of the experience of

machine will press-roll from 8 to 9 acres other farmers, and due consideration of in a day. The entire weight of the 6- his own peculiar conditions as to soil and

wheel rollers amounts to about 12 or 13 climate, he is not likely to be far wrong work done

The cwt. efficient.

by them is very as to the selection of varieties. Of course care must be taken not to Use of the Land-presser . — The land- sow a distinctly winter variety of wheat presser is not now used so extensively as in spring. As to a winter wheat no mis

it was formerly. This is to be regretted, take can be made, for however early may for there can be no doubt of its beneficial be the habit of the variety sown, the influence upon light soils liable to suffer very circumstance of its being sown in

from drought in spring. The presser autumn, when sufficient time is not given may also be beneficially employed in com- to the plant to reach maturity before pressing light turnip -land when ploughing winter, will convert it for that season

into ridges, to render it more fit for spring into a winter variety. The wheat plant wheat ; and in using it for this purpose is a true annual, but when sown late,and it might be employed in the samemanner the progress of its growth is retarded by as on lea. The late Hugh Watson a depression of temperature, it is convert

Keillor, Forfarshire, stated that, having ed for the time into a biennial. Itis used the land-presser, he could “with therefore highly probable that, as the confidence recommend it on all light soils nature of wheat is to bring its seed to

The late maturity in the course of one season, any Mr A. Bowie,Mains of Kelly, Forfarshire, variety sown in time in spring would

with every sort of corn crop .” 1

remarked : “ The presser is a most use

mature its seed in the course of the ensu

ful implement for easy dry soils. For ing summer or autumn. This is believed saving seed and growing heavy crops it to be a fact ; nevertheless, circumstances may occur to modify the fact in this cli 1 Jour. Agric ., iv. 545.

mate.

Under the most favourable cir

SOWING BEANS.

201

cumstances, the wheat plant requires a plants are able to immediately assimilate considerable time to mature its seed ; and the manure.

From 1 to 2 cwt. per acre

a variety that has long been cultivated in are common quantities of these fertilisers winter, on being sown in spring in the for top -dressing wheat. same latitude, will not mature its seed

When the land has not been liberally

that season should the temperature fall manured with the preceding crop, a

much below the average, or should it be heavier dressing, including phosphatic cultivated on very inferior soil tothat to which it had been accustomed. In practice, therefore, it is not safe — at least in so precarious a climate as that of Scotland — to sow every variety of wheat in

and potassic manures, must be given to the wheat crop ; or it may be manured with dung. See chapter on - Manures and Manuring .”

spring Spring Wheat - seed from Early

SOWING BEANS.

Districts.- Wheat taken from a warm

to a cold climate will prove earlier there

Beans take about 7 months to come to than the native varieties, and, in so maturity, and should therefore be sown

far, better suited for sowing in spring; early - as early in spring as possible. They and if the same variety is an early one should be sown in February if the weather

in the warm latitude - bringing its seed to maturity in a short period, perhaps not exceeding 4 months — then it may safely be sown as a spring wheat, whether

and the condition of the land permit ; in no case later than March. A very favour able season may hasten the plant through its courses of vegetation in a shorter it be red or white, bearded or beardless. time ; but a very unfavourable season The long experience of the late Mr will so retard it as almost to prevent the Patrick Sheriff, East Lothian, led him to formation of the seed. the conclusion that autumn wheats should

In Scotland the bean is not a reliable

not be sown in spring, as they will not crop. It was never cultivated extensive produce a sufficient number of prolific ly there, and in recent years has lost ears . ground slightly. Strong land is best Late Varieties of Wheat.— Special suited for beans, and it still holds an attention has been given in recent years important place on good carse farms. to the bringing out of varieties of wheat The land must be in good heart, and is

suitable for sowing late in spring. Con- generally well manured with dung in siderable success has been attained , and the previous autumn or winter. Beans there are varieties now in use which in are sown on the flat surface, or in rows average years give fairly satisfactory re- from 15 to 20 inches apart, or in raised sults, although not sown till March or drills from 25 to 30 inches wide. The April bean crop occupies varying positions in

Manuring Wheat. - In the descrip- the rotation. It usually comes in be tion of the Rothamsted experiments in tween two cereal crops, between two pages 135-169 of this volume, much use- crops of wheat, between oats and wheat, ful and suggestive information as to the or between wheat and barley.

manuring of wheat will be found. Wheat is usually sown on land in good heart, for the most part after a potato or root crop , with which a heavy dressing of dung and artificial manure had been applied. In this case no special applica-

The bean crop is valuable both for its straw and grain. Though the crop fail in seed, it seldom fails to produce good fodder provided it can be well secured. A dry season stints the growth of the haulm, but produces beans of fine quality ;

tion of manure may be necessary for the and a wet season prevents the growth wheat beyond perhaps a top -dressing of the bean, but affords a bulky crop of with a little ammonia salts or nitrate of

fodder.

soda in spring. The sulphate of amThe culture for beans is not dependent monia may be sown at the same time as so much on the soil as on the peculiar

the seed for the spring wheat, or early growth of the plant. Bearing fruit-pods in spring for winter wheat, but nitrate on its stem near the ground as well as of soda should not be sown until the near the top, it should have both light

SEED - TIME.

202

and air ; and its leaves being at the top, the Highland and Agricultural Society's and its stem comparatively bare, weeds experiments, that idea was not well find room to grow.

The plant should

founded .

The artificial manures which

therefore be wide asunder in the row and gave the best results in these experiments between the rows, so that the crop may are described by Dr Aitken on p. 182. become luxuriant and the land cleaned.

Potash is the dominant ingredient. It

Beans were long wont to be sown is seen that, unaccompanied by potash, broadcast, and are so sown still in some neither phosphates nor nitrate is of much cases . It is not a good plan, however, use to the bean, whether applied sepa

for it has a great tendency to leave the rately or together ; but the addition of land full of weeds.

potash to either or both, at once enor Varieties of Beans. - Several varie- mously increases the crop. The artificial

Those most manures were applied in March, three largely sown are the common Scotch or days before the seed was drilled in with

ties are in cultivation.

horse bean, and the common tick-bean. The former is the best suited for northern

the three -drill bean -barrow .

districts, and under favourable circumstances grows to a height of 4 or5 feet, weighing from 62 to 65 lb. per bushel. The seed is large, flat, of a dingy whitish colour, with a black eye, and irregularly wrinkled on the sides. The tick -bean,

Seeing that a leguminous crop such as beans contains a great deal more nitrogen than cereal crops, it might be expected that nitrogenous manures would exercise a more beneficial effect upon beans than upon cereals. It has been found, how

Beans and Nitrogenous Manure.

which is shorter in the straw, and gener- ever, that such is not the case. At Roth

ally more prolific, is the variety most amsted extensive experiments have been largely cultivated in England. The seed carried out in the manuring of beans and is smaller, plumper, a pound or two other leguminous crops, but curiously heavier per bushel than the seed of the enough the results have not been so clear horse-bean.

Amongst the other best- or instructive as those obtained from the

known varieties are the Russian or winter manuring experiments with most other bean, the Mazagan, and the Heligoland crops. Sir J. B. Lawes says : The general result of the experiments Quantity of Seed.–From three to with beans has been, that mineral constit four bushels per acre are the most general uents used as manure (more particularly bean.

quantities.

In the north it is more potash ) increased the produce very much

frequently four than three, sometimes during the early years ; and to a certain even five bushels. The seed is sown by extent afterwards, whenever the season machines of various patterns - sort of was favourable for the crop. Ammonia

barrow - shaped appliances, worked by salts, on the other hand, produced very hand or horse power, and sowing usually little effect ; notwithstanding that a le one or three drills or rows at a time. Manure for Beans . — Land intended

guminous crop contains two, three, or more times asmuch nitrogen as a cereal

for beans is usually well dunged in the autumn, or early in winter, with perhaps from 8 to 12 tons of farmyard dung, spread just before the land is ploughed. The dung will be all the better for this purpose if it is tolerably fresh, and it

one grown under similar conditions as to soil, &c. Nitrate of soda has, however, produced more marked effects. But when the same description of leguminous crop is grown too frequently on the same land it seems to be peculiarly subject to dis

should be spread evenly on the land. In ease , which no conditions of manuring

other cases, the dung is spread early in that we have hitherto tried seem to spring on the flat or in drills, as for tur- obviate. nips. When the dung is to be spread in “ Experiments with peas were soon

drills, these are opened a little deeper abandoned, owing to the difficulty of than if the land were simply drilled to keeping the land free from weeds, and receive the seed.

an alternation of beans and wheat was

Formerly it was thought that beans substituted ; the beans being manured

could not be grown satisfactorily without much as in the experiments with the farmyard dung, but, as shown clearly by same crop grown continuously.

4

2

SOWING BEANS.

203

“ In alternating wheat with beans, the The improved grubbers or cultivators are remarkable result was obtained, that excellent implements for pulverising sur nearly as much wheat, and nearly as face soil. They do theirwork well, and much nitrogen, were yielded in eight are very speedy — a consideration of spe crops of wheat in alternation with the

highly nitrogenous beans, as in sixteen crops of wheat grown consecutively without manure in another field,

cial importance at this time of the year.

Fig. 271 represents Clay's well-known

and also nearly as much as were obtained in a

third field in eight crops alternated with bare fal low .”

Ploughing for Beans.

wy

-Strong land intended for beans is usually ploughed about the end of autumn or early in

winter, so that it may have the benefit of the

Fig. 272. - Broadshare cultivator.

pulverising influences of

winter. If the land is very heavy and cultivator, while in fig. 272. the same

liable to hold surface water, it will be implement is fitted as a broadshare cul useful to plough it in the direction of tivator. Other forms of grubbers will be

the greatest inclination or fall, so that referred to in dealing with tillage for there may be no cross -furrows to retain the water. But when the land can be

root crops.

The action of the grubber or cultivator

ploughed across the inclination it will in the soil is to stir it effectually as deep be well to do so , and then the drills,

as the tines descend, and at the same

if the crop is to be grown in drills, will time retain the surface-soil in its existing follow the inclination, thus crossing the position. This advantage is especially appreciated in early spring, when it is

autumn furrow .

Spring Tillage for Beans.— The precarious to turn over the soilwith the amount and kind of tillage which bean plough, lest by a fresh fall of rain it land should receive in spring will depend should become wetter and worse to work upon the nature and condition of land, than if it had not been ploughed at all. and the character of the season .

If the If the land be raw and not very clean ,

and the weather precarious, the grubber will prepare the soil for harrowing, of which it should receive one double

tine along the ridges, the

grubbing having been given O

across them. Should this not be sufficient to reduce

the clod , another double tine should be given across the ridges, when the land will be ready for sowing. If the weather in spring Fig. 271. - Clay's cultivator.

is favourable, and the beans are to be sown broadcast or

land lying in the winter furrow is toler- in rows on the flat, ploughing across the

ably friable, harrowing maybe sufficient. winter furrow is by many considered de As a rule, however, a turn of the grubber sirable. The modern grubbers or culti or cultivator will be found beneficial.

vators, however, do their work so well

SEED - TIME.

204

that the necessity for the plough in horses the heavy furrow down hill. The following morning fully as much seed is In preparing land in spring for beans, taken out to the field as will likely be care should be taken not to grub or har- needed during the forenoon, and the bags row more in one day than can be drilled should be placed along the top headland,

spring is much lessened.

up or sown on the same or the following.

if drills are not too long to admit of the

fall of rain on this prepared ground three-drill horse sowing-machine sowing A before it is drilled for the seed would be about ' or six drills before it needed to detrimental to the

be refilled, care being taken that the seed

crop .

Sowing Autumn -manured Beans. always covered the pinions for forcing -The process of sowing beans upon land out the beans.

“ In placing the bags with the seed, which had been purposely dunged and ploughed in autumn or early winter, is suppose that it takes thirty drills to be thusdescribed by Mr F. Muirhead :-

an acre imperial, and we wish to sow 18

“ We will suppose the time has arrived for sowing the seed. The young farmer should previously have had his bean -sowing machine examined, repaired if neces-

stones per acre, it will be more conveni

He should also

drill of each acre ; and in beginning to

sary , and well oiled .

ent to have the beans weighed up to that weight in each bag, and place the bags along the headland , one bag at the last

have provided the requisite quantity of sow, it will be found of advantage to seed — say 4 bushels of common Scotch take out as much extra seed in a bag as

beans for every imperial acre, and he cover the pinions of thesowing-machine, so that when the first bag is all sown, for every twenty he intends to sow, in the person in charge knows at once whe case he may need a little more to finish ther the machine is sowing too quickly the field than he anticipated , or too thinly. Perhaps if the first bag “ He should visit the field a day be- were accurately divided into two, and set had better have an extra bag of beans

forehand, and ascertain the length of the down separately, at half an acre for each, proposed drills, and how many make an the setting of the machine would be the imperial acre ; and the following table may assist him :

The sowing-machine will now begin and sow the three outside

sooner tested .

Inches wide.

Yards long.

drills, and the ploughs will commence and

Drills. 26 27 28

Imperial acre. 6701 6453

cover up the seed as they go down hill,

6222

and open fresh drills at the required width as they return . One sowing -ma chine will easily keep four or five pairs of horses at work ." i

“ The open furrows should be filled in Sowing Spring -manured Beans. with two or three bouts of a two-horse When the dung has to be applied to the plough, and the ends or headlands mark- drills in spring, it is carted to the field ,

ed off, say, to hold eight drills, which and thrown in graipfuls as the horse should be ample room to admit of horses moves along the drills, just as in the

and ploughs turning quickly without dunging of roots or potatoes. The graip treading on the newly formed drills. If fuls are then spread evenly along the the land requires à double stroke of bottom of the drills, which, having re heavy harrows before being drilled, as ceived the seed, are thereupon closed . much should be harrowed the afternoon

If the dung has to be applied in spring,

previous to sowing (provided weatheris and it is intended to sow the beans broad somewhat settled ) as to allow the ploughs to get to work readily the following morning, or the foreman had better be sent half a day beforehand to do this,

cast or in rows on the flat, then the land receives a single or double turn of the barrow , the dung is spread evenly on the surface, and theland ploughed, the seed,

and to open, say, ten or twelve drills; perhaps, being dropped by the single and care should be taken, if the field has bean -barrow into every third drill. And much inclination from top to bottom , to as the furrows are about 9 inches in begin at that side of it which will, in covering up the sown seeds, give the 1 Farming World Almanac, 1888.

SOWING PEAS.

breadth, the three furrows will place the

205

Botanical

Character of Beans.

rows of beans at 27 inches apart. This It was an observation of De Candolle,

ploughing finishes the operation.

that “ it is remarkable that the botanical

When the land is manured in the character of the Leguminos should so

spring, and the seed sown broadcast, the strictly agree with the properties of their dung in the same state is spread broad- seed. The latter may be divided into

cast upon the surface. The further part two sections -- namely, the first,Sarcoloba, of the operation depends on the state of

or those of which the cotyledons are

Should it promise well thick, and filled with fecula, and desti until the bean -sowing is finished, the tute of cortical pores, and which, more dung may be ploughedin, the seed sown over, in germination do not undergo any broadcast upon the ploughed surface, change, but nourish the young plant by harrowed in with a double tine, and the means of that supply of food which they ridges water- furrowed. Should the wea- already contain ; second, the Phyllolobe , ther seem doubtful, a safer plan is to or those of which the cotyledons arethin, Sow the seed broadcast upon the spread with very little fecula, and furnished

the weather.

dung, and plough in both seed and dung with cortical pores, which change at once together, and the surface will be secured from danger. In this case the plants will come up in rows of the breadth of the furrow - 9 inches apart. Harrowing Drills. — If it is consid-

into leaves at the time of germination, for the purpose of elaborating food for the young plant. All the seeds of the sarcolobce are used as food in different

countries, and none ofthose of phyllolobæ ered desirable to harrow the drills, this are ever so employed . " may be done about a fortnight after the

Ancient Notions regarding Beans .

sowing, if the surface is at all dry. If — The ancient Greeks had some strange the land is wet, the harrowing should be notions regarding the bean. Thus Didy delayed, and the first dry state of the mus the Alexandrian says : “ Do not surface taken advantage of.

The com-

mon harrow is sometimes used to harrow

plant beans near the roots of a tree, lest the tree be dried . That they may boil

down drills ; but a better implement is well, sprinkle water with nitre over them . the saddle drill-harrow , such asrepre- Physicians, indeed , say that beans make sented in fig. 273, made by C. Clay &

the persons that eat them heavy ; they also think that they prevent night dreams, for they are flatulent. They likewise say that domestic

fowls that always eat them be

Fig. 273. - Saddle drill -harrow .

Pythagoras also come barren . says that you must not eat beans, because there are found in the flour of the plant in auspicious letters. They also say that a bean that has been eroded becomes whole again at the increase of the moon : that

Co., Wakefield .

This harrow is worked

it will by no

means

be

boiled

in

in pairs; and, to render it applicable to salt water, nor, consequently, in sea its purpose, it is made of an arch form, water,” &c.1 partially embracing the curvature of the drill, and on this account is best fabri SOWING PEAS. cated of iron . The pair of harrows are

drawn by one horse, walking between the drills.

Peas are sown to a smaller extent than

they were at one time in this country. peas are often grown together, the seed They seldom take a prominent place as being sown broadcast. The most general an ordinary rotation crop, but are largely Beans and Peas Mixed . - Beans and

proportion is about one-third of peas to two-thirds of beans.

1 Owen's Geoponika, i. 82.

206

SEED-TIME.

grown near populous towns for sale in this is not the usual character of our the green pod. climate, the yield is but indifferent.

Dung is seldom given to the pea when Peas give the best results on light and friable loamy soils of a calcareous char- sown by itself, having the effect of forc with little grain. acter, or which had been recently dressed ing much strawand beans are reaped to When peas chalk . It is a general obwith lime servation, that annual weeds are encour- gether, they are separated when thrashed

aged in growth amongst peas ; and the simply by riddling, the peas passing pea being a precarious crop, yielding a through the meshes of the riddle, while small return of grain, except in fine warm the beans are left upon the riddle. Sowing Peas. - Peas are sown by seasons, a mere good crop of straw is in-

sufficient remuneration for a scanty crop hand when cultivated broadcast, and of grain , accompanied with a foul state of with the barrow when in rows, in every land. Hence in many cases turnips have third, or in every furrow . With beans, they are sown by a barrow ; on drilled been substituted for peas.

Peas, for a long period, were invari- land, broadcast by the hand : the seed ably sown broadcast; but seeing their falling to the bottom of the drills is

covered by the harrows passing across tendency to protect weeds, and that drillculture rendered the land clean, the con- the drills. Like beans, peas are sown clusion was obvious that peas sown in

on ploughed lea in some parts of Eng

drills would admit of the land being cleansed. It was found that the straw by its rapid growth creeping along the ground soon prevents the use of theweeds

land. On lea, the pea is dibbled in the about 9 inches asunder. When varieties of thewhite garden-pea are cultivated in the field, as in the southern counties of England, these various modes of sow ing them deserve attention ; as also in the neighbourhood of large towns, where the

ing instruments. To counteract this ten-

dency, the practice was introduced of sowing peas and beans together, and while their seasons of growth coincide,

harrowed surface, the holes being placed

the stems of the bean serve as stakes to garden -pea is cultivated and sent in a support the bines of thepea. The pro- green state to the vegetable market. The quantity of seed per acre varies, portion of pea to bean when mixed usuin drilling, from 27/2 to 3 bushels per ally is as 1 to 3. Tillage for Peas.-It is somehow considered of little moment how the land

acre in the south, and sometimes as much as 4

in the north .

The rows are usually

shall be ploughed, when the pea is to be from 12 to 15 inches apart.

A little

sown by itself. Sometimes only one fur- more seed is used in sowing broadcast. The varieties of peas are very numer row after the stubble is given ; and when the land is tender and pretty clean, a ous. Of the varieties of the field -pea, sufficient tilth may be raised in this man- the partridge grey pea in fig. 231, p. 497, ner to cover the seed, which requires vol. i., is suited to light soils and late

neither a deep soil for its roots (which situations, and isconsidered of excellent

are fibrous and spreading near the sur- quality, and prolific when the crop is full. face), nor a deep coveringof earth above them , 2 inches sufficing for the purpose. But a single furrow does not do justice to

TRANSPLANTING TURNIP BULBS

the land, whatever it may do for the crop.

FOR SEED.

The land should be double drilled or

grubbed after the spring ploughing.

When a farmer gets possession of a

Since the pea can be cultivated along first-class variety of turnip, which he with the bean, it will grow on good finds well suited to his land, he should strong soils ; and its spreading roots en- grow fromit every year at least as much able it to grow on thin clays, where the seed as will supply his own wants — per bean does not thrive. But as corn , the haps even a quantity for sale. The seed pea, as has been indicated , thrives best on

should be grown from well -formed bulbs,

light soils. In clay, it produces a large transplanted, perhaps early in March, bulk of straw,andthe grain depends on just before spring growth begins to show the season being dry and warm ; and as itself. With intelligent care, and good

SOWING BARLEY.

207

varieties of roots, the seed may be grown to this duty, others throw old fisher nets successfully over the seed, and this latter is the most

The extent of ground required is not effective method of prevention. great. Reckoning the crop of seed at 30 bushels per acre, weighing 50 lb. per bushel, and allowing 3lb. per acre of seed for the turnip crop, 10 square yards of ground will supply the seed for every acre of turnips grown on the farm . It is necessary to have the plants of different sorts of turnips at a considerable distance from each other ; because, if near, one

SOWING BARLEY.

It may be laid down as an axiom that the seed-bed upon which barley is to be

sown should be fine, moderately deep, and clean, with an abundant supply of all the ingredients necessary for the growth variety will be impregnated by another, of the plant present in a soluble or

by bees and other insects carrying the readily available form . Land after tur pollen of one flower to another.

nips is the place in the rotation which

Let a piece of ground be selected for is generally set aside for the growth of each variety of seed to be raised. Spare barley. spaces in the corners of fields may be converted into nurseries for the purpose.

Tillage for Barley . - If the land is

not of the heavy order of soils, all that is

Let the ground receive a little dung ; necessary is the ordinary ploughing, espe

and the easiest mode of making friable cially if it can be accomplished by the mould at once upon such places is trench- second week of February. The action ing with the spade, and removing stones

of the weather and frost will break

and weeds. Then select the best-formed bulbs of the different kinds from the fields as they are growing ; take them up carefully, preserving the roots and fibres entire, and cutting off the shaws nearly

down and mellow the soil, rendering it friable, so that a double tine of the har rows before putting in the seed is all that is needed to obtain a seed -bed in good tilth. On the heavier class of soils, and where ploughing cannot be done until

close to the bulb.

A line of trench is made in the ground,

later, more especially where the turnip

deep enough to contain easily the bulbs crop has been eaten off by sheep, two and roots,which are inserted at 12 inches ploughings may be necessary as well as apart, and leaving the tops only above the ground, when the earth is returned into the trench. The rows of transplanted bulbs should be 3 feet asunder, to allow air to the plants, and afford room for a

harrowing before seeding. But the simplest and easiest mode of

procedure is toplough the land with one of the new Anglo - American ploughs,

which will break down the furrow, leave person to pass between them to watch the land level, and in excellent tilth.

the seed, when it is near ripe, from the By this plan the old method of cross In rows ploughing, scarifying, grubbing, ribbing, wide apart the plants become stronger &c., may be obviated. and more prolific. It is probable that some of the tur The best time of transplanting turnips nip-land which may have been ploughed

depredation of small birds.

is about the beginning of March, before for spring wheat may have to be of In a large piece of ground the plough ent weather preventing theIn sowing that case

any symptoms of spring growth appear. sown with barley, on account of inclem can form the trenches, and harrows re-

wheat in seasonable time.

,

whether the land had been gathered up duce the ground into mould . The ground occupied for raising turnip- from the flat, or cast together, it should

seed should be protected by a fence of be seed-furrowed in the same form for hurdles against stock, otherwise the crop the barley, to retain the uniform ridging may suffer.

of the field ; for the ploughing for spring Birds often play havoc with turnip wheat being the seed - furrow, and the

seed as it approaches maturity. Unless ridges made permanent, it would be im some means are employed to scare off the possible to reverse the ploughing with one birds, they may indeed destroy almost furrow,without leaving one ridge on each the entire crop. Boys are often told off side of the field half the width of the rest.

SEED-TIME.

208

The ridges would have to be ploughed furrow -slice, to subdivide and pulverise twice to bring them back to their proper the soil. form, but for which there could not be Sowing . – Sowing barley upon a fine time, so they must be stirred with the evenly pulverised surface requires strict

grubber, or ribbed with the small plough. Another method which is being adopted by farmers is to plough the land after turnips, in breaks of six ridges, gathering four and splitting two. This has become advisable nowadays, owing to the ad-

attention, inasmuch as on whatever spot every seed falls, there it lies, the soft earth having no elasticity to make the seed rebound and settle on another spot. Hence, of all sorts of corn, barley is the most likely to be striped in sowing by

vent of the reaper, for which the old open

hand, so every handful must be cast with

furrows were very unhandy, while the great force. Walking on soft ground in crop was uneven, as the growth on the

sowing barley is attended with consider

crown of the ridge was heavier than able fatigue. Short steps are best suited that in the furrow which divided the for walking upon soft ground, and small handfuls are best for grasping plump ridges.

If the ridges have consolidated on being slippery barley. long ploughed, the grubber will make a The broadcast machine sows barley as suitable bed for the barley seed, and keep

well as oats on the ploughed surface, and

the dry surface uppermost. If the soil so do the corn -drills across the ridges is dry and loose on the surface, and tilly after the surface has been harrowed. The

below, it will be best preserved by rib- grubbed surface is best sown by a drill

machine, affording the seed a firm hold A capital implement for preparing a of the ground, while the surface ribbed

bing with the small plough.

"

with the small plough is best sown by illustrated in fig. 274, an ingenious hand, or with the broadcast machine, the fine seed - bed is the “Acme harrow ,

seeds falling into the ribs, from which the young plants rise in rows, the ground being harrowed only a double tine along

the ribs. Barley may be sown any time fit for spring wheat, and as late as the month of May. But the earlier crop will be of better quality and more uni Fig. 274.- Acmeharrow .

form, though the straw may be shorter. Quantity of Seed . — The quantity of seed sown broadcast is from 272 to 4 bushels to the acre. When sown early,

American invention, and brought to this less suffices; when late, more is required, country by Lankester & Co., London. because less time is given to tiller and It breaks up and pulverises the surface

cover the ground.

soil most thoroughly:

2 bushels suffice. Brown makes some sensible remarks

Sown with the drill,

By putting such ridges thus into the best state for barley, there will be no on this subject. "Amongst the farmers,"

difficulty in ploughing the rest of the he says, “it seems a disputed point, whe land. The first furrow upon the trampled ther the practice of giving so small a soil should be the cross-furrow .

quantity of seed (3 bushels per acre) to

Although the field may not be cleared the best lands is advantageous. That ofturnips to allow cross-ploughing from there is a saving of grain, there can be side to side, any portion should be no doubt ; and that the bulk may be as ploughed, and , after harrowing the cross- great as if more seed had been sown, ploughed land a double tinealong, it there can be as little question. e should be gathered up from the flat, or argument, however, is necessary to Littl prove

yoked together ; and both the cross and that thin sowing of barley must be at ridging -up furrows should be deep. The tended with considerable disadvantage ; cross-ploughing should be turned over for if the early part of the season be dry,

with a broad furrow -slice, but the ridg- the plants will notonly bestinted in their ing-up should be done with a deep narrow growth , butwill not send outoffsets ; and

SOWING BARLEY.

209

if rain afterwards falls — an occurrence guide as to the amount of harrowing re that must take place some time during quired in individual cases. the summer, often at a late period of itThe head -ridges are ploughed and sown the plants then begin to stool, and send out by themselves. a number of young shoots.

These young

Finishing. — The grass seeds are then

shoots, unless under very favourable cir- sown with the grass-seed sowing -machine; cumstances, cannot be expected to arrive the land harrowed a single tinewith the at maturity ; or if their ripening is waited light grass -seed harrows, and thereupon

for, there will be great risk of losing the finished by immediate rolling. On strong early part of the crop — a circumstance land, apt to be incrusted on the surface that frequently happens. In almostevery by drought after rain, rolling may pre instance an unequal sample is produced, cede the sowing of grass seeds, and the

and the grain is for the most part of infe- work is finished with the grass-seed har rior quality. By good judges it is thought rows, and perhaps another turn of the preferable to sow a quantity of seed suffi- roller. On all kindly soils, rolling last cient to ensure afull crop without depend- is best for keeping out drought, and giv ing on its sending out offsets. Indeed, ing a smooth surface for harvest-work. when that is done, few offsets are proSoil for Barley . - Medium and light duced — the crop grows and ripens equally,

and the grain is uniformly good . "

1

Germination of Barley and the Weather . — No grain is so much affected by weather at seed -time as barley. A dash of rain on strong land is liable to cause the crop to be thin, many of the seeds not germinating, whilst others burst. In moist, warm weather, thegermination is certain and very rapid ; and it has been observed , that unless barley germinate

loams of a calcareous and friable nature —such as are generally known as good

turnip lands — are best adapted to barley. Barley is grownmost largely after tur nips, and is especially suited for follow ing where a portion of the roots has been consumed on the land by sheep. In some cases it is sown after potatoes or beans,

especially if the land and the season are unfavourable for wheat. When intended for barley, the potato or bean land is

quickly, the crop will be thin. We have gathered up for the winter, water-fur seen the germ of barley pierce the ground only 36 hours after it had been sown, when the ground was smoking by evaporation of moisture, caused by a hot sun in a close atmosphere. We have also traced the germ of barley to its root to the depth of 9 inches below the surface ; and this

rowed, and gaw -cut ; and in spring it may or cross-ploughed and ridged be grubbed up for the seed -furrow. Barley is sown also after wheat, and the sample is always fine-coloured. Bar ley is never sown in Scotland after lea, but might be if the land were partially

shows that land should be ploughed to a fallowed in spring. Barley does not stand the winter in Scotland as it does moderate depth for barley.

Harrowing for Barley. - The har- in the warm calcareous soils of the south rowing required for barley land sown of England.

Winter barley is early ripe, broadcast is generally less than for oat and prolific ; but if the weather causes it

land, a doubletine being given in break- to tiller in spring, it produces an unequal ing-in the seed, and a double tine across sample, containing a large proportion of

immediately after. When sown with the light grain. drill-machine, the harrowing is perhaps a Varieties of Barley . — The varieties double tine along, and double tine across of barley are numerous. They are gen

the ridges, before the seed is sown . When erally distinguished by the number of

sown on ribbed land, the only harrowing rows of grain which grow upon the ear. may be a double tine along the ribs, just The kind which is cultivated in this to cover the seed, as the ribs afford it a country to the greatest extent is two sufficient hold of the ground. Care, rowed or long -eared, from which many

however, should be taken in all cases to improved varieties have sprung, notably ensure a fine even seed -bed for barley. the “ Chevalier,” “ Annat," " Dunlop,' The condition of the land will be the best

&c.

The Chevalier variety was propagated 1 Brown's Rur, Af., ii. 45. VOL . II.

by a Mr Chevalier, who, when examin O

210

SEED-TIME.

ing one of his fields, noticed an ear of quantities, per acre, are 2 to 3 cwt.

better quality, being larger, with better superphosphate, and %2 to i cwt. of the filled grain, than the othersaround. This nitrogenous manure. In many cases a ear he selected and propagated in his light dressing of sulphate of ammonia garden.

or nitrate of soda is found to be very

The Annat barley originated from the produce of three ears selected by Mr Gorrie, Annat Gardens, hence its name. The four -rowed or common barley is

effective alone. In other cases a com bined dressing of phosphatic, nitrogenous, and potassic manures gives the best re

sults . Rothamsted Barley Experiments. bigg, and is confined chiefly to Northern Europe, and in this country to the north The experiments on the manuring of best known under the name of bere or

of Scotland, or to poor upland soils. barley at Rothamsted are full of interest There is also a six -rowed variety, but it to farmers. They have gone on contin uously since 1852, and are capable of Uses of Barley .- The great bulk of teaching some important lessons. Briefly

is not extensively grown.

the better samples of barley is used for summarised, the results are as follows : No Manure. — The plot which has had being employed for the manufacture of no manure of any kind since the begin

distillery purposes, a small proportion

pot barley or barley - meal, chiefly con- ning of the experiments gave an average

fined for use in Scotland. The inferior of 1778 bushels for the thirty -two years or damaged barley is used as food for up to 1883-4%. bushels less than the animals.

Manuring Barley . - When it follows

a well-manured root crop, as it generally does, barley seldom requires or receives any further manuring. Barley is a suitable crop for land on which a portion of the root crop has been consumedby sheep, and in this case the soil is usually in good

average of the first ten years. Farmyard Dung. — Applied at the

rate of 14 tons every year for thirty-two years , this gave for that period an aver age of 4972 bushels, or about 31 % over the unmanured plot. Mineral Manures . — Mineral manures

alone — that is, superphosphate of lime,

heart, especially if the sheep have been and sulphates of potash, soda, and mag allowed extra food, such as cake or grain nesia - gave very poor crops, both of grain along with the roots. The custom is to and straw.

Superphosphate alone, on an

plough this land with a light or moderate average of thethirty-two years, gave only furrow, and thus give the barley an abun- about5 bushels more than the plot with dance of readilyavailable plant-food with- no manure ; the increase from potash, in the reach of its shallow roots .

soda, and magnesia over no manure was

But when the land has not, by previous barely 2 bushels per acre, and from all treatment, become sufficiently stored with these mineral manures combined scarcely fertility for barley, this crop will, as a 6 bushels. rule, respond satisfactorily to direct dressNitrogenous Manures.— These sup ings of suitable manure. Being a rapid- plied in sulphate of ammonia or nitrate

growing shallow - rooted . plant, barley of soda gave more than double the in should have plenty of readily available crease produced by the mineral manures.

food within easy reach of the surface. Ammonia salts, 200 lb. per acre (contain

Quickly acting artificialmanures are thus ing 43 lb. nitrogen ), gave an average of

specially suitedfor barley. Superphos- 3034bushels for the thirty-two years phate and nitrate of soda, or sulphate of nearly 13 bushels over the unmanured

ammonia, in different quantities and pro- plot. Nitrate of soda, 275 lb. per acre portions, according to the character and containing 43 lb, nitrogen ), gave nearly Rape-cake,

condition of the land, are extensively 4 bushels more per acre.

and advantageously used as top-dressing 1000 lb. per acre,calculated to yield 49 for barley. The first and last should be lb. of nitrogen, raised the produce to 434 applied at seed-time ; nitrate of soda, bushels. which acts more rapidly than sulphate

Nitrogenous and Mineral Manures

of ammonia, may be applied in moist combined. These in combination pro weather a few weeks later. Common duced excellent crops, more than the

SOWING OATS,

211

average of the country, continuously for ley ; from 6 cwt. to 8 cwt. would supply thirty-two years.

This result is very in- about as much nitrogen as would be equal

teresting, showing that barley responds to from 40 lb. to 50 lb. of ammonia. With admirably to the influence of readily act- this manure, as with guano, the addition ing artificial manures. Equal quantities of superphosphate is unnecessary. What of nitrogenous and mineral manures ap- ever manure be used, it should be broken plied in the autumn to wheat, and in up, finely sifted, sown broadcast, and har spring to barley, gave considerably more rowed in with the seed .” produce from the latter crop than the former. Practical Conclusions. — From the

results of the experiments with various manures for barley, it is inferred that in

SOWING OATS.

In Scotland and Ireland by far the

corn - growing the soil is most rapidly greater portion of the ploughed lea is exhausted of its nitrogen , next of phos- sown with oats — a small extent being phates, and most slowly of potash. Ni- sown in some parts with spring wheat or trogenous manuresare thus the first and vetches, &c.

cheapest essential, but, especially for barley, phosphatic manures are also required, and give a good return. To most soils of a clayey tendency, dressings of potash will be unnecessary for cereals ; but where it is deficient, a small allowance may be expected to exercise a wonderful influence

In England oats are grown

extensively after turnips or mangels, which have been carted off the land. And in all northern and high -lying dis tricts unfavourable for the ripening of wheat or barley, oats are the prevailing crop after turnips. Oats are sown on all sorts of farms,

on the crop. Here, as in general farm from the strongest clay to the lightest practice, it was found that superphos- sand, and from the highest point to phate is more effective with the spring- which arable culture has reached on sown than with the autumn-sown cereals. moorland soil to the bottom of the low Barley after Corn . - In reference to est valley on the richest deposit. The the practice of growing barley after a

extensive breadth of its culture does not

crop of wheat, Dr Fream says : 1 “ It may imply that the oat is naturally suited to be laid down as a general rule, applicable all soils and situations, for its fibrous to the country at large, that, on the heavier and spreading roots indicate a predilec

soils, full crops of barley of good quality tion for friable soils ; but its use as food may be grown with great certainty after among the agricultural population gener a preceding corn crop , under the following conditions: The land should be got into good tilth. It should be ploughed up when dry, as soon as practicable after the removal of the preceding crop. In the spring it should be prepared for sowing by ploughing or scuffling, as early

ally, and its suitability to support the strength of horses, have induced its exten sive cultivation. Varieties of Oats. — The oat plant thrives best in a cold climate, and is grown in the chief countries lying in the temperate zone. It comes to its greatest

inMarch as possible, if sufficiently dry. perfection in Scotland.

This is to a

The artificial manure employed should certain extent due to the climate, but contain nitrogen, as ammonia or nitrate the care which the Scotch farmer ex

(or organic matter), and phosphates. pends upon his oat crop also contributes From 40 lb. to 50 lb. of ammonia ( or its to this result.

The varieties which

equivalent of nitrogen as nitrate) should occupy the greatest breadth are the be applied per acre. These quantities Common Improved or White oats, and would be supplied in 1/2 cwt. to 2 cwt.

to a lesser extent Black or Tartarian .

of sulphate of ammonia, or 134 cwt. to Common oat is the name by which 214 cwt. of nitrate of soda. With either farmers designate the variety which is

of these there should be employed 2 cwt. commonly grown in the respective dis to 3 cwt. mineral superphosphate of lime.

tricts in which they farm .

For instance,

Rape -cake is also a good manure for bar- in the northern counties, Sandy oats are regarded as the Common oat ; in Perth 1 Rothamsted Experiments, 120 . shire and western counties, late Angus;

212

SEED-TIME.

in Roxburgh and Berwickshire, Blains- sows broadcast by one hand 16 imperial lie, &c.

acres of ground in ten hours. Some men The following are the chief varieties : can sow 20 acres ; and double - handed The Potato, Poland, Angus, Blainslie, sowers will do even more than 20 acres. Hopetoun, Sandy, Tartarian, Tam Finlay, Harrowing after sowing. — The

Red and Dun oats, Canadian oats, Swiss tines of the harrows should be particu larly sharp when covering in seed upon

oat, &c.

Sowing.— The sowing of the oat seed lea . After the land is broken in with a is begun with the common varieties of double tine, it is harrowed across with a

oats about the beginning of March. It double tine, which cuts across the furrow is the custom in some parts to sow the crests, and then along another double

improved varieties a fortnight after the tine, and this quantity commonly suffices. common. The ploughed lea ground should At the last harrowingthe tines should be be dry on the surface before itis sown, as kept clean from grassy tufts, and no otherwise it will not harrow kindly ; but stones should be allowed to be dragged the colour of dryness should be distin- along by the tines, to the injuriousrub guished from that arising from dry hard bing ofthe surface. On old lea, or hard frost, a state improper to be sown upon.

land, another single tine across or angle

Every spot of the field need not be alike ways may be required to render the sur dry even thorough draining will not face fine; and,on the other hand, on light ensure that, thoughspots of wet indicate soil a single tine along after the double where dampness in the subsoil exists.

one across may suffice.

In short, the

Harrowing before Bowing. – Should harrowing shouldbe continued untilthe the lea have been ploughed some time ground seems uniformly smooth and feels

and from young grass, the furrow -slices firm under the foot. The head -ridges are will lie close together at seed-time ; but harrowed by themselves at the last. when recently ploughed, or from old lea, Water -furrow8. — If the land is liable

or on clay land in a rather wet state, the to suffer from surface-water, water- fur furrow -slices may be as far asunder as to rows may be formed in the open furrow,

allow a good deal of the seed to drop down between them, and thus be lost, as oats willnot vegetate beyond 6 or 7 inches deepin the soil. In such states theground

after sowing. But since underground drainage has become so general and thor ough, this practice has become almost a thing of the past.

Almost every Machine - sowing. should receive a double tine or strip of the harrow before being sown. This should farm with two or more pairs of horses,

holdings, has its broad the furrows and even smaller be done in every case unlessclos cast or drill sowing - machine . Hand ely. are small and packed quite

When oats are sownby hand upon dry sowing is thus being replaced by the ground and dance about before deposit- with machines, whether broadcast or drill, ing themselves in the hollows, in rows, is similar to that in sowing wheat and

lea ground , the grains rebound from the machine. The practice in sowing oats

accommodating themselves between the barley. To enable the drill to make crests of the furrow -slices, and do not so good work in sowing on ploughed lea, the readily show bad sowing as upon a smooth surface must be well broken up with the surface. Were the ground harrowed along harrow . Where the surface is rough,and

the ridges, so as not to disturb the seed the furrows tough, the broadcast machine in the furrow -slices, the crop would come would be preferable. up as if sown by drill ; but as the land

Improvements in Oat -culture.

is cross-harrowed, the braird comes up Until a comparatively recent period the cultivation of oats was much neglected.

broadcast.

Quantity of Seed .— The quantity of The prevailing idea amongst farmers common oats usually sown is from

to 5 seemed to be that any kind of culture, no matter how slovenly, was good enough

bushels to the acre . In deep friable land

in good heart, and in early districts, from

for this crop. Even yet, amongst the

3 to 4 bushels of improved varieties is less advanced districts, no great improve considered sufficient seed.

ment has been effected in this respect.

A man does a good day's work if he It remained for the enlightened Scotch

SOWING OATS.

213

farmer to lead the way towards placing depth, and not laid over close. To de

thecultivation of this crop in its proper termine which opinion is the more cor position, as being one of the most im- rect, it should be taken into account that portant operations of the farm . the roots of oats are fibrous, and permeate One old writer informs us that “ of all through the soil to a greater depth than

the plants commonly cultivated in the the roots of barley. This being their field , oats seem to have the greatest character, a good depth of furrow will be power of drawing nourishment from the best for oats. Much of course will de soil, and hence, are justly considered as pend upon the depth and the character

greatly exhausting the land ; " and, by of the soil and of the subsoil ; but as a way of proof, he tells us that “ oats are rule, it is considered undesirable to plough generally the last crop which would re- lea shallower than 7 inches, to afford a turn any increase of the seed." considerable amount of pabulum to the The principal reason is, we suspect, roots of the plants. that oats are a deep-rooted plant, and

Thick and Thin Sowing. — An un

can search for food over a greater area certainty still exists in the minds of than the other corn crops.

farmers whether thick or thin , drill or

Ploughing for Oats. — Difference of broadcast, sowing of oats is the better opinion exists as to the depth to which mode. Experiments have been madeon lea ground should be ploughed for oats. both thesepoints. Mr A. Bowie, Mains

One opinion is that a depth of4 inches of Kelly, Forfarshire, sowed, in 1856, oats is sufficient, with the furrow -slices laid at 5 bushels and 272 bushels the Scotch down close ; others contend that the acre, on two farms, and the results were land should be ploughed 9 inches in as follows : At West Scryne Farm .

to 18 Increase of corn after 2y bushels per acre over 5 bushels = 6 bushels at 255. per quarter, 1 straw 7 = 95 stones imperial at 34 d. , Saving of seed o 7 = 24 bushels at 258. per quarter, 11

11

Total saving, At Mains of Kelly Farm .

9

£2 14

2

Increase of corn after 2 bushels per acre over 5 bushels = 674 bushels at 28s. per quarter, &I0 103 straw = 30 stones imperial at 4d. per st. o 8 = 212 bushels at 28s. per quarter, Saving of seed

9

II

Total saving,

£2 2

7 o

4

Gross produce at Scryne after 24 bushels per acre seed = Ji quarters 2 %, bushels. 11

Kelly

11

!!

= IO

Total,

21

11

O

22

Gross produce at Scryne after 5 bushels per acre seed = 10 quarters 4 % bushels. 11

Kelly

=

11

Total,

9

1%

19

574

11

The land in both cases was pressed with duced i dr. 15/, bushel per acre more. the presser-roller. Experiments in drill- The experimenters recommend from 372 sowing with oats in Nairnshire gave these to 4 bushels of oats, and 3 bushels of results :

barley, of seed per acre. Sowing Mixed Varieties. — Experi

After 6 bushels per Scotch acre, 5 qrs. 24 lb. weight of grain 40 % Ib. per bushel.

ments have shown that a mixture of

After 45 bushels per acre, 6 qrs. weight of grain 39 % lb. per bushel. 11

varieties of oats sown together may pro duce a heavier crop than when sown singly. For example : J. Finnie of

In another experiment, where 472 bushels Swanston obtained, when sown singly, of oats per Scotch acre were sown with from potato oats 74 bushels, Hopetoun the drill, and 6 % bushels with the broad- 65, early Angus 63, sandy 56 to 61 ; cast machine, the broadcast looked best whereas, when mixed, these results were

throughout the season, but the drill pro- obtained : Hopetoun 5 parts, and Kil

SEED-TIME.

214

drummie i part, produced 85 bushels; soda applied as a top -dressing give good Hopetoun and sandy, 80 ; Hopetoun and results when the land requires manuring. early Angus, 76 ; potato and early Angus, The nitrate is specially useful when a

66 ; and potato and sandy, 66 bushels. bulky crop of straw is desired. Common It thus appears that potato oats alone dressings consist of from 12 to i cwt. of produced 8 bushels more than when sown nitrate of soda, and from 1 to 2 cwt. of with either early Angus or sandy oats ; superphosphate. On light land a little

that Hopetoun, with Kildrummie, pro- potash is sometimes applied with advan duced 20 bushels more than when alone, tage. Guano is also a capital dressing with sandy 15 more, and with early for oats. Angus 11 more. But the practice of top -dressing oats is Thus an average of 13 bushels more not general. The oat crop, indeed , re per acre was obtained by mixing seeds ceives less manure in direct applications of oats of different varieties than when than any of the other ordinary farm sown singly, and that from a space of crops- that is, when the oats follow ground which took 6 bushels of seed .

either grass or roots.

Of course when

It must be borne in mind that, in mix- the oats follow another corn crop some ing varieties of oats, the varieties to be dressing is considered necessary. mixed should come to maturity at the

same time. It would be interesting to hear this physiological differencebetween

ROLLING LAND.

potato and Hopetoun oats explained

the potato yielding the larger produce by The common land -roller is an imple itself, while the Hopetoun required other ment of simple construction, the acting varieties to stimulate it to a larger pro- part of it being a cylinder of wood, of duction. stone, or of metal. Simple, however, Oats and Barley Mixed . — Another

as this implement appears, there is

practice prevalent in the north of Scot- hardly an article of the farm in which land is to sow a mixture of barley and the farmer is more liable to fall into oats in the proportion of 4 bushels of error in its selection. oats to i bushel of barley. Good results

From the nature of its action, and its

ensue, especially on land where oats, after brairding, become thin or die out. The gross produce is greatly increased, and an excellent food for horses and

intended effects on the soil, there are two elements that should be particularly kept in view — weight and diameter of the cylinder. By the weight alone can the cattle is obtained. desired effects be produced in the high It is more than probable that the est degree, but these will be always greater produce which is thus obtained modified by the diameter. Thus, a cy

from a mixture of oats and barley than linder of any given weight will produce from either alone, is that oats and barley a greater pulverising effect if its diameter search for their food in different layers is 1 foot, than the same weight would

of the soil - oats penetrating to a consid- produce if the diameter were 2feet;but erable depth, whilst barley confines its then the one of lesser diameter will be search mainly to the upper portion of the much heavier to draw ; hence it becomes necessary to choose a mean of those

soil.

Manuring for Oats . - In its manurial opposing principles. In doing this, the requirements oats are not much different material of the cylinder comes to be from barley.

They abstract a little more considered .

nitrogen and potash, and about the same Wood , which is frequently employed quantity of phosphoric acid. Oats re- for the making of land -rollers, may be quire more moisture than either wheat considered as least adapted of all ma

or barley , and delight in soils enriched terials for the purpose. Its deficiency of by decayed vegetable matter. Thus oats weight and liability to decay render it give large yields on land newly reclaimed , objectionable. Stone, though not defi

or on land whierch hassbeen for a consider- cient in weight, possesses the one marked und able time

gras .

disadvantage of liability to fracture.

Superphosphate of lime and nitrate of This of itself is sufficient to place stone

ROLLING LAND.

215

rollers in a doubtful position as to fit- cwt. But some think it better that the

ness. Iron and steel are undoubtedly roller itself should be rather under these the most appropriate of all materials weights, and that the carriage be fitted for this purpose . up with a box, in which a loading of Diameter and Weight of Rollers. stones can be stowed , to bring the ma

- There has been much discussion from chine up to any desired weight. Such a time to time as to the most advantage- box is, besides, useful in affording the ous diameter for a land - roller.

The

means of carrying off from the surface of

preponderance of practical evidence is the ground any large stones that may to the effect that a diameter of 2 to have been brought to the surface by the 22 feet is, under every circumstance, previous operations. the one that will produce the best effects Divided Roller. - In a large and with a minimum of labour from the ani- heavy roller, in one entire cylinder, the --

mals ofdraught. In many cases, however, rollers of less as well as of greater diameter are in use. The weight is, of course, proportioned to the force usually

inconvenience ofturning at the headlands is very considerable, and has given riseto the improvement of having the cylinder in two lengths. This, with a properly

applied , generally 1 but often 2 horses. constructed carriage, produces a very The weight of roller, including the frame convenient form of land-roller. Fig. 275

corresponding to this, is from 10 to 15 is a perspective of the land -roller con

a a Carriage- frame.

Fig. 275. - Cast- iron land - roller. b Horse-shafts. c Cylinder.

dd Iron stays.

Water -ballast Roller. — A very con structed on the foregoing principles, with the carriage-frame crossed by the horse- venient form of roller, made by Barford

shafts. The cylinder is in 2 lengths of 3 & Perkins, Peterborough, is represented feet to 3 feet 3 inches each, and 2 feet in diameter ; the thickness of the metal is according to the weight required: The axle, in consequence of the cylinder being in two lengths, requires to be of considerable strength, and of malleable iron ; upon this the two sections of the

in fig. 276. It is made in two enclosed cylinders of wrought iron, formed so that by filling or partially filling the cylinders with water, the weight of the roller may be varied as desired . These water-ballast rollers are made of many sizes for field and garden work, and are exceedingly

cylinder revolve freely, and the extremi- convenient to work and move about. A

ties of the axle are supported in bushes water-baMast roller, 2 feet in diameter, in the semicircular end - frames. Two weighs about 11 cwt. when empty, and iron stay -rods pass from the end -frames 22 cwt. when quite full of water . to the shafts as an additional support to

Process of Rolling. — The rolling is

the shafts.

always effected across the line of ridges. Excellent rollers are now made of steel Otherwise the open furrows would not

sheets fixed on wrought or cast - iron receive any benefit from it. Although ends.

the dividing of the cylinder into two

SEED-TIME.

216

parts facilitates the turning of the implement, it is not advisable to attempt to turn the roller sharply round, as part of the ground turned upon may be rubbed hard by the cylinders, with the result

land as to moisture must be considered .

The young braird on strong land is much retarded when the earth becomes en crusted by rain after rolling, so that such land in wet districts is in rainy seasons

that young plants may be injured or not rolled until the end of spring, when the plant has made some progress, and killed. The rolling is sometimes executed in the weather continues dry. Light friable feers of 30 yards in width, hieing the dry land should be rolled immediately

horses one-half of the feering, and hup- after the seed is sown and harrowed, if ping them in the other half. This, how- there is time to do it. But the rolling of ever, is unnecessary with care at the

one field should not be allowed to cause

delay in the sowing of others in dry weather. There will be plenty of time to roll the ground after the oat seed and other urgent operations at this season are finished.

On the other hand, the rolling is most effective in securing smoothness in the surfaceimmediately after har

rowing has been completed. Fig. 276. — Water-ballast roller.

And for the sake of the reap

ing-machine a smooth surface turning. When the ploughman becomes is of much importance. fatigued with walking, itmay be allowIn preparing land for grass and clover

able for him to sit on the front of the seeds the roller is not, as a rule, used so framing, where a space is either boarded much as it should be.

An even firm

or wrought with hard -twined straw -rope, seed -bed is of the utmost importance for as a seat from whence to drive the horses these tiny seeds. with double reins and whip. With this

indulgence, an old ploughman , employed GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CORN CULTURE. only in ploughing, could take the rolling when urgent work was employing the stronger horses in the cart.

The sowing of the chief cereal crops has thus been dealt with very briefly.

Speed in Rolling.– Were a 6 -feet Much more might have been said on the

roller to proceed uninterruptedly for subject, but there seems to be little ne ten hours, at the rate of 272 miles

cessity for describing at great length

per hour, it would roll about 18 operations which are so simple as the acres ; but what with the time spent in cultivation of corn . Of all important

the turnings and the markings- off of work upon the farm this is, perhaps, the feerings, 10 to 12 acres a - day may be most simple and the most uniform in considered a good day's work. When the methods of procedure. The simplicity and the universality of the weather is favourable, and a large

extent of ground has to be rolled, it the general principles of corn cultivation is a good plan to work the roller from are well shown by Professor Wrightson dawn to nightfall, each horse or pair, as in the following admirable epitome: “ No business pursuit is easier than the case may be, working 4 hours at a time. In this way, 16 hours' constant corn cultivation, and this is why we have rolling, from 4 in the morning till 8 such millions of bushels of corn thrown at night, may be obtained in the course in upon us. It is a cheap cultivation. of 24 hours, and from 25 to 30 acres All we have to do is to plough the land, rolled with one roller.

Time for Rolling. — The usual time

throw on the seed, and scratch it in. Of

course we must do this at the right time

for rolling is immediately after the seed of the year, and in the proper manner. has been sown. But the condition of the When we take wheat or barley, or oats

ROLLING LAND.

217

(to be sown in the autumn or winter), the sheep left it, their manure would not after a root cropped on the land, a very be sufficiently intermixed with the soil, general method of cultivation is as fol- and inconsequencethe barley would grow lows : We first plough about 4 inches irregularly in small rows, corresponding deep, then broadcast the seed upon the to the drills that had been manured for

newly turned up fallow, and put the har- the turnip crop . rows on and give it a really good har-

Preparing Turnip - land.— During

rowing , so as to break the compact fur- the time the land is gradually being pre row and cover the seed thoroughly — that pared for barley seed , as the sheep clear is all. Protect it from the ravages of the the ground of turnips, the stubble-land,

birds, and in the spring of theyear roll which had been ploughed in autumn and and harrow it, and that is pretty much in winter, and is to bear green crops the cultivation of corn after roots. A great deal of corn is taken after grass and clover crops ; and the cultivation of either oats or wheat, or barley after lea,

in the ensuing season, should be cross ploughed, andcultivated, as opportunity offers —— that is, if the sowing of the oat seed is also finished.

is much the same thing. We plough and

Harrowing before Cross - plough press, and often sow the seed upon the ing. — The portion of the stubble-land pressed furrow and harrow it in. first to be cross-ploughed is for beans.

“ Again, in other cases we plough, Every winter - ploughed field for cross press, or heavily roll, harrow repeatedly, ploughing in spring is freed from large and drill. That again is the whole of clods by harrowing . The winter's frost the cultivation.

Corn crops sometimes may have reduced the clods of the most

follow peas or beans, in which case the obdurate clay soil, and the mould -board plan would be to dung the surface, and of the plough may thus be able to pul then proceed as before, ploughing in the verise them fine enough, while the lighter

dung , and either broadcasting or else soils may have no clods upon them . producing a proper seed -bed with the use

In

this case it would seem loss of time to

of the harrow, and drilling in the corn . " 1 harrow the ground before cross-plough Insect attacks upon corn and other ing, and some farmers do not then use

crops are dealt with in a special chapter. the harrow ; yet, in the majority of cases, the harrowing will be found beneficial. CROSS -PLOUGHING LAND.

One cannot be sure that, in the strongest soil, all the clods have been reduced to

The first preparation for barley seed the heart by frost ; and should any be after turnips is ploughing the land across buried by the cross - furrow while still

at right angles to the existing ridges. hard, they will not afterwards be so easily The surface of the ground where sheep pulverised amongst the soft soil as when consume turnips is left in a smooth state, exposed upon the harder surface of the trampled firm by the sheep, presenting winter-furrow . Then in the lightest soils, no clods of earth but perhaps numbers of the harrows not only make a smoother small round stones, which should be re- surface, but intermix the surface dry

moved with carts before the cross-plough- frost - pulverised soil with the moister ing is begun. The small stones are use- and firmer soil below, as far as the tines ful for drains, or to repair farm roads, of the harrows can reach. and the large stones for dykes.

There is not much time lost in harrow

A plough then feers the ground for ing before cross-ploughing ; and although cross- ploughing. The reason that land

it should require a double tine to pulver

is cross-ploughed for barley, and not for ise the clods, or equalise the texture of spring wheat, after turnips eaten off by the ground, it should be across instead

sheep, is, that wheat thrives best when the of along the ridges, to fill up the open soil is firm and not too much pulverised furrows with soil,whether the land had —whereas the land cannot be in too fine been previously ploughed with gore-fur a condition for barley.

Moreover, if the

rows or not.

turnip -land were not cross-ploughed after

If time presses, the feerings for cross ploughing may be commenced by one

1 Prin . of Ag. Practice, 136.

plough almost immediately after the har

SEED - TIME.

218

rows have started ; and if the harrows then return and finish the harrowing be cannot get away before the plough, the tween the feerings. Thus, in fig. 277, after the first feering first feering till the harrows have reached e f across the ridges has been ploughed, the second feering; or, still better, the the plough can either take a bout or two plough can takea bout or two round the

harrows can go along each feering, pre- round ef , till the harrows have passed paring the ground for the plough, and the next feering g h, or the harrows can aneste хотырезерттеу

a poza

P

6

r

h

k

m

t

с

Fig. 277. - Field feered for cross -ploughing .

go along the line of each feering, at 30 prosecuting every kind of field -work ; for yards' distance, first e f,then g h, then besides avoiding damage tofinished work,

i k , and so along l m and no in succes- it is gratifying to the mind that, as work sion, and prepare the ground for feer- proceeds, the approach is nearer home ;

ing, and then return and harrow out the while it conveys the idea of a well-laid and I and n. In this way the harrowing commenced at the farthest end and and feerings, and ploughing the feerings, finished at the gate, where all the im ground between e and 9, 9 and i, i and l, plan to have the operations of a field may go on at the same time.

plements meet, ready to be conveyed to

System of Cross - ploughing. – But if another field. The gate is like home, and time is not urgent, the systematic way is in most cases it is placed on the side or to feer the field across, at 30 yards' dis- corner of a field nearest the steading. Ploughing Irregular Fields.- Pecu tance, from e to n, across the whole field,

and the ploughs take up the feerings in liar forms of fields involve considerations

succession. To illustrate this more fully, in field operations of more importance suppose that all or as much of the field than mere convenience — as loss of time.

to be cross-ploughed has been harrowed It is always desirable to commence a feer

as will giveroom to a single plough to ingat a straight side of a field,whence in make the feerings without interruption. striking off the feerings parallelspaces of In choosing the side of the field atwhich groundare included. Where this precau

the feerings should commence, it is a good rule to begin at the side farthest from the gate and approach gradually towards it, because then the ends of the finished feeringswill not be passed, and

tion is neglected, much time is needlessly spent in ploughing anumber of irregular pieces of ground. It is better to leave all irregularities of ploughing to the last; and as an irregularity mustoccur along

the tramplingof the ploughed land be the side of a crookedfence, it is a saving avoided. The convenience of this rule is of time to throw the irregular ploughing felt not in cross-ploughing only, but in to that side.

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

219

In applying this rule to fig. 277, it so happens that the straighterside of the field is nearest the gate b, and the crooked fence, c to d, farthest from it. The feering, therefore, should begin along the side of the straightest fence a b, and terminate in anirregular spacealong the crooked fence

Ploughing the feerings is plain work ; but a hindrance occurs at the last and irregular feering aton — notthat any in tricacy is involved in ploughing irregular

ed.

pieces of ground, but theloss of time is

A straight feering could, no doubt

have been finished before the ploughs

entered the field, the ploughs all com mence at once.

be made at first near cd, leaving irreg- considerable. This feering is ploughed ularities between it and the fence ; but the setting off that feering exactly parallel with the straighter fence a b, to avoid making another irregularity at a b, would impose considerable trouble, and take up

like the rest, till the open furrow of the head -ridge is reached ; and if the head ridges are included in the feerings, the ploughing goes on till the ditch -lip or fence is reached ; but if the head-ridge is

more time than the advantage would to be ploughed with the side-ridges, the compensate for avoiding passing the ends last feering should be made at the open

of the ploughed ground along the side- furrow of the head -ridge at on, and the ridge, d to b, or of working from the gate bent head -ridge will beploughed with the b instead of to it. Let the first feering, side-ridges and upper head -ridge round then, be made about 7 or 8 yards from the field without leaving any unploughed the fence a b, or from the ditch-lip of the space at s. Had the field been a true rec fence where there is a ditch .

Ploughing Ridges and Feerings.-

tangle, like the space included within the

dotted lines an tb, the feering might have

Some farmers neglect the head -ridge in been struck from either fence, and there the cross-ploughing, and measure the would have been no loss of time in plough feering from the open furrow which di- ing alternate long and short furrows. Depth of Cross -furrow . — The depth vides the head -ridge and the ends of the ridges. The head - ridges ought to be of the cross-furrow varies with the char ploughed at this time along with the rest acter of the soil.

It is often , in good

of the field , for, if neglected now , the soil, deeper than the winter-furrow . The

busy seasons of spring and early summer deepness is easily effected by the plough will draw away attention from them, till, passing under the winter-furrow and rais what with trampling in working the green ing a portion of the fresh soil below it. crop and the drought of the weather, they

If the under soil is suitable, the 2 inches

will become too hard to plough, and will of fresh subsoil mix well with the thicker lose the ameliorating effects of sun and winter - furrow . air in the best part of the year. Cross - ploughing the first furrow in

In cross-ploughing the ridges of the spring is unsteady work for the plough

field,the head-ridges mustbe ploughed men , the open furrows presenting little in length, for they can never be cross- resistance to the plough compared with ploughed . But if it be desired to plough the crown of the ridge. the head -ridges with the side-ridges,which The depth of the cross-furrow may form the head -ridges in cross-ploughing, vary from 8 to 12 inches, 10 inches being and the side-ridges must be ploughed be- quite common . Sometimes 3 horses are fore the crop can be sown upon them , the yoked in the plough, as in fig. 26, p. 97, first feering should be struck at 7 or 8 vol. i., for cross- ploughing. Grubbers or cultivators are now exten yards down the ridges from the side of

the head -ridge, in the line of f e ; and sively employed in spring tillage. To feering is executed by throwing the fur- these operations fuller reference will be

row-slices right and left along the same found in the chapter dealing with sowing furrow , as already described in feering turnips .. ridges in fig. 33, p. 108, vol. i. The next feering is h g, at 30 yards' distance from

fe, and so on, feering at every 30 yards' SOWING GRASS SEEDS . distance, to the last feering on. As each feering is made , the ploughmen take it Any time after the middle of February up in succession ; and should the feerings until the middle of May, when the

SEED -TIME.

220

weather is dry, grass seeds may be sown. affording herbage early in spring and They are generally sown in company late in autumn , before and after other

with another crop ; and the crops they grasses have commenced or left off grow accompany are cereals.

ing. Its long fibrous roots and creeping habit are naturally adapted for moist situations.

VARIETIES OF GRASSES .

The grasses all belong to the natural

order Gramineæ. The following varieties

are those principally used in agriculture,

Alopecurus pratensis. (Meadow Foxtail.) Fr. Vulpin de prés.

Ger. Wiesen Fuchsschwanz.

and for the descriptions of these we are Roots fibrous, rootstock perennial. Stems i to indebted to Mr Martin H. Sutton, the author of ' Permanent Pastures,' as revised and greatly enlarged by his son, Mr Mar tin J. Sutton :

3 feet, erect and smooth. Leaves flat and scabrid ; sheath smooth and longer than its leaf ; ligule large and truncate. Panicle spike-like, cylindrical, and obtuse. Spike

Agrostis alba - var. stolonifera . (Fiorin , or Creeping Bent Grass.) Fr. Agrostide blanche stolonifere. Ger. Fioringras.

Roots creeping, rootstock perennial and stolon iferous.

Stems 6 inches to 3 feet.

Leaves

numerous, narrow , flat, short, and usually scabrid ; sheath smooth ; ligule long and acute. Panicle spreading, with whorled bran ches. Spikelets small, one-flowered. Empty glumes larger than flowering glumes, un equal, smooth, and awnless. Flowering

glumes slightly hairy at the base, with occasionally a minute awn .

Palea minute

and cloven at the point. Flowers from July to September . Grows in pastures and damp

places throughout Europe, Siberia, North Africa, and North America ( fig. 278).

Although none of the creeping bent grasses are considered particularly nu Fig. 279. - Meadow foxtail

( Alopecurus pratensis).

lets one - flowered, and laterally compressed. Empty glumes larger than flowering glumes,

awnless, but hairy on the keel. Flowering glumes with straight awn inserted at the middle of the back.

Palea none.

Flowers

from the middle of April to June. Grows

in meadows andpastures throughout Europe, North Africa, Siberia, and North -western India ( fig. 279).

Meadow foxtail is one of the earliest and best grasses for permanent meadows and pastures, and may also with advan

tage be included in mixtures for 3 or 4 Fig. 278.- Fiorin , or creeping bent grass

years' lea. It furnishes a large quantity

of nutritive herbage, produces an abund ant aftermath, and is eagerly eaten by tritious for cattle, yet this variety is all kinds of stock. The leaves are broad sometimes desirable in permanent mix- and of dark -green colour. The habit is ( Agrostis alba, var. stolonifera ).

tures, in consequence of its value in somewhat coarse, hence it is unfit for

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

221

lawns or bowling - greens, but its very fresh than in a dried state, but its very early growth recommends it as eminently pleasant taste, somewhat resembling suitable for ornamental park purposes. highly flavoured tea, is discernible at all

It succeeds best on well-drained, rich, stages of its growth. In point of pro loamy, and clay soils, makes excellent ductiveness, this grass is inferior to fox

hay, and should be included in a larger tail, cocksfoot, and other strong-growing or smaller proportion in most mixtures varieties ; but the quality is excellent,

for permanent pasture. Meadow foxtail the growth very early, and the plant is admirably adapted for irrigation. It continues to throw up flowering stalks also flourishes under trees, and should be till quite late in the autumn. On ac

sown plentifully in orchards and shaded count of the broad foliage, this grass is ill adapted for grounds where short grass is indispensable ; but for parks and plea Anthoxanthum odoratum . sure -grounds it is especially suitable, on

pastures.

(Sweet-scented Vernal.) Fr. Flouve odorante.

Ger . Gemeines Ruchgras.

account of its bright green colour. Pas tures in which this grass abounds natu

Roots fibrous, rootstock perennial. Stems rally ( such, for instance, as the extensive

1 to 2 feet,glabrous, and with sheep -grazing districts in Kent), produce tufted,erect, joints. Leaves hairy , fiat, and pointed ; the finest mutton ; and, both in a young few sheath ribbed and slightly hairy ; ligule state and when mixed with other varie at sum pointedlanceolate, spike-like, Paniclebelow hairy. Spikelets . , uneven mit

ţies, it is much relished bycattle and horses.

It is valuable in hay, as its

flavour enhances the price, and it also yields a good quantity offeed after the hay crop is cut. It constitutes a part of

the herbage on almost every kind of soil, particularly on such as are deep and moist. Avena flavescens.

( Yellow Oat-grass.) Ger. Goldhafer.

Fr. Avoine jaune.

Rootstock perennial, creeping, and somewhat stoloniferous.

Stems 1 to 2 feet, erect,

Fig. 280. - Sweet-scented vernal

(Anthoxanthum odoratum ).

one- flowered. Empty glumes in two pairs ; outer two much larger than the flowering glumes, unequal, hairy at the keels and pointed at the ends, but awnless ; second pair shorter and narrower than first pair, equal ; also hairy and both awned , one with

short straight awn insertedat the back near the summit, the other with long bent_awn inserted at the centre of the back . Palea adherent to the seed . Flowering glumes small, glabrous, and awnless. Stamens two. Anthers large. Flowers April and May.

Grows in fields, woods, and on banks throughout Europe, Siberia, and North Africa ( fig. 280 ).

To thepresence of this grass our sum mer hay-fields owe so much of their fra grance that it should be included in all

mixtures for permanent meadow or hay. The scent is less distinguishable in a

Fig. 281. - Yellow oat-grass

(Avena flavescens).

glabrous, and striated. Leaves flat, sheath slightly hairy ; ligule truncate and ciliated .

SEED-TIME.

222

Panicle spreading, with

many branches,

on drained clays and rich soils generally

broad at the base and pointed at the sum

mit. Spikelets small, three or four-flowered , it grows luxuriantly. The plant is a shining, and of a bright yellow colour. gross feeder, and must be liberally

Empty glumes unequal, keeled, and rough . treated to bring it to perfection. The

Flowering glumes hairy at the base and toothed at summit, with slender twisted awn springing from below the middle of the back .

seed needs to be buried more deeply than is safe with other grasses.

Palea narrow , short, and blunt.

Flowers June, July, and August.

Cynosurus cristatus. ( Crested Dogstail.)

Grows

in dry pastures throughout Europe, North Africa, and Asia ( fig. 281 ).

Fr. Cynosure cretelle.

This grass may easily be discerned in July by its bright golden cluster of flowers , and is among the latest varieties in coming to maturity. The leaves are of a pale - green colour, hairy, and al though they are not produced in great abundance, are much relished by cattle. It affords sweet hay, and yields a con-

siderable bulk of fine herbage. After the crop is cut for hay, a large aftermath is produced . This grass thrives on cal

Ger. Kammgras.

Rootstock perennial, stoloniferous. Stems tufted , height 1 to 2 feet, erect, smooth, and wiry. Leaves very narrow , ribbed, slightly hairy ; sheath smooth ; ligule short and bifid . Panicle spike -like, secund. Spike lets many - flowered, ovate, flat, with a barren spikelet consisting of empty glumes arranged in a pectinate manner at the base. Empty glumes sharply pointed , shorter than flower

ing glumes, unequal, with prominent rough Palea very thin, slightly ciliated .

keels.

Flowering glumes lanceolate, with short awn Flowers July and August.

at summit.

careous land, but is useless in moist low -lying pastures.

Grows in dry hilly pastures throughout Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa ( fig. 282 ).

Avena elatior.

Crested dogstail is a fine short grass,

and constitutes a considerable portion of (Holcus avenaceus, Arrhenatherum avenaceum .) the herbage of sheep -walks and deer (Tall Oat-grass.) Fr. Arrhénathère élevée.

parks.

It is found in most meadows,

Ger. Hoher Wiesenhafer.

Rootstock perennial, widely creeping. Stems 2 to 4 feet, erect and smooth ; leaves scabrid and flat ; sheath smooth ; ligule short and truncate.

Panicle erect

and

sometimes

slightly nodding at the apex, widely spread ing during flowering, closed before and after.

Spikelets two-flowered. Empty glumes un

equal and pointed. Flowering glumes two, the lower with long twisted awn, the upper with short straight awn. Flowers June and July. Grows in meadows and pastures throughout Europe, Africa, Asia, and America.

A strong - growing and rather coarse grass of good feeding quality. The flavour is slightly bitter, and on this account cattle do not at first manifest a

liking for it, but when mingled with other grasses the objectionable character

istic is imperceptible. Although this plant is classed among perennials, it can

Fig. 282. - Crested dogstail (Cynosurus cristatus).

not be relied on as strictly permanent, and therefore we do not advise its em

ployment for a longer period than three whether used for hay or grazing. Sin or four years. For alternate husbandry, clair describes it as forming “ a close

however, it may be freely sown among dense turf of grateful nutritive herbage, other grasses, and its presence will aug- and is little affected by extremes of ment the weight of the crop. On poor

weather.”

From our own experience

thin land tall oat-grass is useless, but and observation, we can fully indorse

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

the opinion of this eminent authority,

and recommend its being included in all best permanent mixtures.

We have

223

Europe, North Africa, North India, and This well -known grass grows luxuri

Siberia ( fig. 283 ).

especially noticed the beneficial results antly in deep rich soils and low -lying obtained by its use with other grasses in meadows. For the enormous quantity sheep -pastures; and it is generally be- of produce it yields, the rapidity with lieved that sheep fed on pastures con-

which it shoots forth again after having

taining dogstail are less liable to foot- been eaten or cut, andalso for the im relished rot than when fed on pastures composed portant fact of its being so much of the more soft -leaved varieties, On by horses and cattle, it is eminently account of its close-growing habit and suitable for sowing with other quick

evergreen foliage, it is particularly valu- growing grasses for alternate husbandry. able for lawns, pleasure - grounds, and It should be included in permanent mix tures for tenacious soils and damp situ other places kept under by the scythe. ations ; but in parks and ornamental grounds its tufty habit of growth renders Dactylis glomerata. (Rough Cocksfoot).

it inadmissible. It withstands drought

well, makes excellent hay, and succeeds Roots fibrous, rootstock perennial. Stems 2 to under trees, &c. It is very useful for Fr. Dactyle gloméré.

Ger. Gemeines Knaulgras.

3 feet, erect, stout , and smooth. Leaves sowing in covers, if allowed to grow glaucous, broad , flat, keeled , and rough ; without checking. sheath scabrid ; ligule long . Panicle secund, spreading below , close and pointed above. Spikelets three to five - flowered, laterally compressed, and closely clustered at the end

Festuca pratensis. (Meadow Fescue .) Fr. Fétuque de prés.

Ger. Wiesen Schwingel.

Rootstock perennial, creeping. Stems tufted , 18 inches to 3 feet high, erect and smooth .

Leaves flat and smooth ; sheath smooth ;

Fig . 284. - Meadow fescue ( Festuca pratensis). Fig. 283. - Rough cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata ).

ligule short. Panicle spreading, but closer and narrower than in Ē. elatior, with fewer

Empty glumes smaller than flowering glumes, unequal, keeled, and

of the branches.

hairy on upper part of the keel, pointedat the summit. Flowering glumes with hairy keel, pointed and ending in a short awn.

Palea bifid at summit, and fringed at base. Flowers May to August. Grows in pastures, woods, orchards, and waste places throughout

branches. Spikelets many -flowered, lanceo late. Empty glumes, shorter thanflowering Flowering glumes, unequal and acute. glumes rough, and slightly awned . Palea acute and ribbed, with hairy nerves. Flowers June and July. Grows on good pastures throughout Europe and Northern Asia ( fig. 284).

SEED-TIME.

224

One of the earliest, most nutritious,

longer than that of F. pratensis. The

and productive of our natural grasses. growth, too, is more robust, of much Both in its green and dried state it is greater size in every respect, and it will

eagerly eaten by all kinds of stock. It consequently produce a heavier bulk of is useful for 3 or 4 years' leas, but hay or feed . The panicles also of the F.

is especially suitable for mor permanent elatior are quite distinct from those of the It

pasture purposes.

is

e

adapted for moist than dry soils ; still it constitutes a considerable

portion of the herbage of all high class pastures. Meadow fescue is thus referred to by Commander Mayne, in his ‘ Four Years in British Columbia and Vancouver's Island ' : “ Cattle and horses are

very fond of F. pratensis, or sweet grass, and it has a wonderful effect

in fattening them . I have seen horses

on

Vancouver's

Island,

where the same grass grows, which had been turned out in the au

tumn, brought in in April in splendid condition , and as fresh as if they had been most carefully

treated all the time.” Although particularly robust in habit, it never grows in large tufts, as is

the case with some coarse-growing grasses. The hay from it is plenti ful, and of excellent quality. Festuca elatior . ( Tall Fescue.) Fr. Fétuque élevée.

Ger. Hoher Schwingel.

Rootstock perennial, stoloniferous or tufted . Stems 3 to 6 feet, erect and smooth .

Leaves

broad, flat, and

smooth ; sheath smooth ; ligule short. Panicle diffuse and nodding. Spike. lets half an inch long or more, many .

flowered, lanceolate.

Fig. 285. - Tall fescue

( Festuca elatior, var. fertilis).

Empty glumes

shorter than flowering glumes, acute and F. pratensis, being branched, bent, and unequal. Flowering glumes broad, rough ; drooping, and composed of large clusters. Flowers June Those of the F. pratensis, on the con and July. Grows in damp pastures and wet trary, are decidedly upright in their early places throughout Europe, North Africa, and stages of growth, becoming slightly bent North America ( fig. 285 ). as the flower approaches maturity. On and toothed at the apex. Palea acute and

ribbed, with hairy nerves.

account of its luxuriant habit, we do not Some botanists consider the F. elatior

recommend the use of F. elatior where a

and the F. pratensis to be identical, and fine turf is required ; yet as a productive these grasses are consequently to be grass, and onewhich is greedily eaten by

found in many botanical works bracketed stock, it may form a part of permanent

together as synonymous. There is, how- mixtures for moist and strong soils where ever, a decided difference, which is clearly the crop is intended for grazing, and also manifest not only in the seed, but in the for irrigation purposes. It is admirably growth of the two varieties. The seed adapted for covers, in which its large of the true F. elatior is broader and

seeds are useful as food .

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

Festuca heterophylla. ( Various-leaved Fescue. ) Fr. Fétuque feuilles variées.

Ger. Wechselblätteriger Schwingel.

Roots fibrous, rootstock perennial, tufted.

225

North Africa, North America, and Austra lia ( fig. 286 ).

This grass is supposed to have received its specific name from Linnæus, on ac

count of its being so much relished by various, folded green, ,upper dark lower ones sheep ; and Gmelin, the eminent Rus ones flat. Panicle diffuse. Spikelets many flowered. Empty glumes unequal, shorter sian botanist, says that the Tartars

Stems numerous, erect, and smooth . Leaves

thanflowering glumes,with prominentmid- generally pitch their tents during the Flowers June and July.

summer months in close proximity to

Grows in meadows and pastures throughout

it, on account of its value to their

rib and long awn .

Central Europe ; introduced into Great herds. Britain for cultivation in permanent pas-

There is no question but that

on good upland pastures, especially if

tures .

used for sheep grazing, this grass should

This species is a native of France, form a large proportion of the herbage. where it is extensively grown, and was In produce it is inferior to some others, introduced to England in 1814. It is but deficiency in quantity is more than well adapted to our climate, and is valu-

counterbalanced by its excellent nutri

able forparks and ornamental grounds, tive qualities. From its remarkably fine for its beautiful dark -green foliage. It foliage it is particularly suited for lawns is also particularly suited to pastures, on and pleasure - grounds, which are con account of its large bulk of herbage ; but stantly mown. it produces little feed the same season Festuca duriuscula .

after mowing. Festuca ovina .

( Sheep's Fescue.) Fr. Fétuque des brebis.

Ger. Schaf Schwingel.

Rootstock perennial, creeping or tufted . Stems 6 to 12 inches erect, and densely tufted, rough at the upper part and smooth below .

( Hard Fescue.) Ger. Harter Schwingel.

Fr. Fétuque durette.

Rootstock perennial, creeping. Stems I to 2 feet, erect, and tufted, but less so than in P. ovina. Stem-leaves flat, lanceolate, and

striated ; sheath downy ; ligule long. Pani. cle erect and spreading. Spikelets many. flowered, and larger than in P. ovina. Outer glumes lanceolate and unequal. Flowering glumes narrow , with a short awn. Palea

Fig 286. - Sheep's ſescue ( Festuca ovina ).

Leaves very slender, chiefly radical, upper ones rolled ; sheath smooth ; ligule long Panicle small, erect. con and bilobed . tracted, and subsecund. Spikelets small,

upright, and many - flowered . Empty glumes shorter than flowering glumes, unequal, and

Fig. 287.-- Hard fescue (Festuca duriuscula ).

Palea toothed, with hairy nerves.

toothed , with hairy nerves . Flowers June and July . Grows in damp, hilly places

Flowers June and July. Grows in dry, hilly pastures throughout Europe, Siberia,

throughout Europe, North Africa , Siberia, North America, and Australia (fig. 287) .

acute.

Flowering glumes small, with min

ute awn .

VOL. II.

P

SEED-TIME.

226

This is one of the most valuable and

important of the smaller fescues, and its

presence in hay is generally indicative of superior quality. It comes very early,

retains its verdure during long-continued

Leaves short, fat, and broad ; smooth. ligule long, broad and pointed at apex. Panicle erect and branching. Spikelets

oblong and many -flowered. Empty glumes unequal, flowering glumes scabrid , and

drought in a remarkable manner, and is

blunt at apex. Palea with ciliated nerves. Flowers July and August. Grows in damp

the best of pasture grasses. All kinds of stock eat it with avidity, but

Africa, and North America .

one

places throughout Europe, Siberia, North

This grass is found growing naturally well on the succulent herbage it produces. by the sides of ditches, pools, lakes, and From the fineness of its foliage, and the rivers, and is perhaps the only water

especially sheep, which always thrive

fact of its resisting the drought of sum-

grass which

mer and cold in winter, it is eminently adapted for sowing in parks and ornamental grounds. A large quantity of food is produced after the grass is cut

sheep and cattle. The leaves are narrow,

is eaten with avidity by both

of a pale green colour, and succulent. It is valuable for moist situations, and thrives especially in the Fen districts.

for hay . Lolium perenne. Festuca rubra .

( Perennial Rye-grass.) ( Red Fescue. ) Fr. Fétique rouge.

Ger. Rother Schwingel.

Rootstock perennial, with long creeping stolons.

Fr. Ivraie vivace.

Ger. Englisches Raygras.

Roots fibrous, rootstock perennial, sometimes stoloniferous.

Stems I to 2 feet, bent at the

Stems erect, 2 to 3 feet.

base, ascending, smooth, and slightly com

rolled ; sheath hairy ;

pressed. Leaves flat, narrow , and pointed ; edges and upper surface scabrid ; sheath

Leaves flat and ligule long. Panicle

spreading, and slightly drooping at apex. Spikelets many -flowered, of a reddish colour. Empty glumes unequal. Flowering glumes lanceolate, with a short awn. Flowers June and July . Grows in dry low -lying places

smooth and compressed ; ligule short and Panicle spiked. Spikelets sessile,

blunt.

near the sea, throughout Europe, North Africa, Siberia, and North America.

Although this grass is considered by some to be merely a variety of F. durius cula, altered in habit by frequent culti

vation on dry soil, yet to the careful observer there will appear an apprecia ble difference between the two varieties.

The leaves are broader, of darker colour than the F. duriuscula, while the growth is not so strong. The principal differ

ence, however, is in the creeping habit of F. rubra, which enables it to live on

loose, light, dry soils, where most other grasses fail. Its creeping roots penetrate so deeply into the soil, as to enable the plant to maintain a fresh and green ap pearance when other varieties are burnt

up.

It is particularly adapted for pas

tures by the seaside. The nutritive value of this grass when just in flower is

Fig. 288. - Perennial rye -grass (Lotium perenne ).

much greater than at an earlier period. Glyceria fluitans.

( Floating Sweet Grass.) Syns. - POA FLUITANS and FESTUCA FLUITANS. Fr. Glycérie flottante. Ger. Schwimmgras. Rootstock perennial, stoloniferous. Stems

branched , floating or creeping, stout and

distichous, and many - flowered . Empty glumes, only an outer one to each spikelet, except in the case of the upper spikelet , which has two, lanceolate, smooth, distinctly ribbed , and shorter than flowering glumes. Flowering glumes obtuse, ribbed ,and with sometimes a minute awn .

June ( fig. 288).

Flowers May and

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

227

There has since 1882 been much dis- plant, which has occupied such a prom rye-grass, and the part which it should prevailed . It has, indeed, been success cussion as to the character and value of inent place in British pastures, has not

play in the formation of permanent and fully repelled by Dr Fream, Sir John B. temporary pastures, the former in par- Lawes, and others, who have demon ticular. In that year Mr C. D. L. Faunce strated the important and significant fact de Laune of Sharsted Court, Sitting that rye-grass with white clover form the

bourne, contributed a paper to the Jour- dominant constituents of many of the nal of the Royal Agricultural Society of finest old pastures in the country, in England (vol. xviii., sec. ser., part 1) cluding the celebrated feeding pastures " On Laying Down Land to Permanent of Leicestershire.

The results of Dr

Grass ,” and there he condemned rye- Fream's investigations are recorded in grass, and urged “ the necessity of elim- the Journal of the Royal Agricultural inating ” it from all mixtures of seeds to Society, vol. xlviii., sec. ser., part 2 . Although we have deemed it neces be sown in the formation of permanent 1

pastures. In the same publication and sary to give this bird's-eye view of the “ Battle of Rye- grass," as the discussion denunciation of rye-grass, stating that , has been aptly termed, we cannot remove “ My observations lead me to believe that rye -grass from its wonted place in grass rye-grass is detrimental to the formation seed mixtures, whether for permanent or of new pasture, not only because it is a temporary pastures. As to the relative short-lived grass, but because, owing to quantity of rye-grass and other grasses, through other channels he continued his

18

the shortness of its roots, it exhausts the hard -and -fast rules should not be insisted surface of the soil ; and when it dies, the upon. The quantities we have stated

bare space left is so impoverished that, will not suit equally well in all circum though grass seeds may germinate upon stances ; and while some may think it manured well to use still larger quantities of rye it, theyfail to live unless highly " 1 grass, others may perhaps find smaller by accident or on purpose . Mr de Laune has certainly formed ex- give better results.

cellent permanent pastures without the An article on perennial rye - grass in assistance of rye- grass, and it cannot be The Field, on November 20, 1886, con denied that much good has resulted, and tains the following information : more good will still result, from the dis“ The modern evidence in favour of

cussion which he has aroused ; for it is perennial rye - grass, proving it to be a true perennial,exists in the report, pre rule, give sufficient attention to the pared for Sir John Lawes by Mr Willis, selection of seeds for pastures, and it is on theflora ofa pasture in Leicestershire,

well known that farmers did not, as a

also more than probable that rye-grasses near Market Harborough.

I am able to

sometimes bulked more largely in seed- give the following details : mixtures than was desirable . “ After fencing off a portion of the pas Mr W. Carruthers, consulting botanist ture to exclude the cattle, the grass in to the RoyalAgricultural Society, joined the enclosure was allowed to grow for the with Mr de Laune in the controversy, in purpose of being botanically examined , so far as to contend that rye-grass is no when it was found that 75 or 80 per cent

more perennial than the wheat plant ; of the whole herbage was composed of two species only – Lolium perenne (com kept free from seeding ; and that it should mon rye - grass) and Trifolium repens therefore be excluded from permanent (white Dutch clover). that it would die out in two years unless

“ The meadow in question was selected pastures. But he has recommended ryegrass for temporary pastures, and admits as the best old pasture of the district.

Its soil was a ' maiden ' yellow loam 3 feet deep, resting on gravel, which se cured natural drainage. It had not been But the attack upon this particular cut for hay within memory, and was de pastured every year by the following ex 1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng ., xviii., sec. traordinary head of stock : Two sheep

that if it were eaten close down and not

they might keep it allowed to seed, "“they alive as long as they like.

ser ., part 2.

per acre throughout the winter, receiving

SEED-TIME.

228

1/2 lb. cotton and linseed cake each daily It is a common notion that wheat will for four months, and a little hay during not answer after Italian rye-grass. The

latter part of winter when the grass is most scanty, and sixteen oxen , or one per acre and two over, entered early in April, and remaining till October or November,

following opinion of the late Mr William Dickinson onthis point is worth con sideration: “ Thirty sheep may be kept upon Italian rye-grass, fed through hur

when they were fit for the butcher. The dles, upon as littleland as ten can be kept oxen received no extraneous food, except upon the common system upon common 6 lb. each daily of the same mixture of cake during the last month. “ It is a general remark that the pas tures are good in proportion to the pro

duction of rye- grass and Dutch clover.” Lolium italicum .

( Improved Italian Rye -grass.) Fr. Ivraie d'Italie ,

Ger. Italienisches Raygras.

Roots fibrous, annual. Stems 4 to 6 feet, erect, stout, and somewhat rough. Leaves broad and succulent. Panicle spiked, erect, and distichous. Spikelets many flowered. Flower ing glumes with long awns.

Flowers June

and July ( fig. 289).

The Italian rye-grass was introduced into this country in 1831 by the late

Charles Lawson. It is very distinct in its character and seed from ordinary rye

grass, and as it is not perennial, it is only suitable for alternate husbandry, and producing early feed in the spring for

sheep and cattle ; but in permanent pas tures it is to be avoidedentirely. For sewage cultivation it stands in the first rank of all forage plants. It has producedextraordinary crops at various sewage farms. On account of its rapid growth, and for its succulent herb

age, it is invaluable for early sheep feed. It may

be sown with safety any time be

Fig . 289 - Italian rye grass (Lolium italicum )

tweenIfthemonthsof February and isthe Octo grass;andthe finest crops of wheat, bar ber. alone, 3 bushels per acre er own ley, oats, and beans

be gr

aft

quantity required ; but if sown on a corn the Italian rye-grass may has .been fed invari off the crop with clovers, a much smaller quan: two years of its existence Wheat

tity will suffice. In the latter case, it ablyfollows the Italian - splendid crops should not be sown until the corn is up.

The mode of cultivation is exceedingly are grown where wheat had not been grown - harrowing the ground before and before.”

simple after sowing, and rolling subsequently, being all that is required . If the land is in good condition, three or four heavy

Phleum pratense.

(Timothy, or Meadow Catstail.) Fr. Fléol des prés.

Ger. Timothygras.

cuttings per annum may be obtained, Rootstock perennial, somewhatcreeping. Stems even without liquid manure ; but undoubtedly, the more manure applied, especially in liquid form , the more abun-

i to 3 feet, erect and smooth .

Leaves short,

flat, and soft ; sheath smooth ; ligule oblong. Panicle spike-like, cylindrical, elongate, and compact. Spikelets one-flowered, laterally

dant thecrop ; and it is important that

the liquid should be applied immediately

compressed. Empty glumes larger than flowering glumes, equal, each with stiff hairs

after cutting

on the keel and a short scabrid terminal awn .

SOWING GRASS SEEDS. Palea minute and pointed. Flowering glumes awnless, toothed, and much smaller than empty glumes. Flowers end of June to August . Grows in meadows and pastures throughout Europe , North Africa, Siberia, and Western Asia ( fig. 290 ).

229

larger, webbed, keeled , and acute. Palea short. Flowers June and early in July, Grows in meadows and pastures throughout Europe, Siberia, North Africa , and North America ( fig. 291 ).

This variety in early spring presents a One of the most common of our mea- beautiful green appearance, and is easily

dow plants. In some parts of America it attains a great height, and forms the bulk of the grass hay of that country. In England it is largely cultivated in

distinguished from Poa trivialis by it's smooth culms and leaves. Being of a more creeping habit than other Poas, it is sometimes condemned as exhausting the soil.

On account of its unusual

earliness and great productiveness at a period of the seasonwhen other grasses are comparatively dormant, it should be

1

Fig. 290.— Timothy (Phleum pratense ). Fig. 291. - Smooth -stalked meadow.grass

conjunction with other strong- growing

( Poa pratensis).

grasses. For early feeding timothy is superior to cocksfoot. It may be pas

included in permanent pasture mixtures

tured for some time through the spring where early feed is of importance. Poa without damage to the hay crop. It pratensis flourishes in dry soil, makes succeeds well on soils of a moist and excellent hay and aftermath, and is val

retentive nature, and is keenly relished uable for garden lawns and ornamental by all kinds of stock, whether in a green grounds. state or made into hay. In addition to Poa trivialis . its usefulness for permanent pasture, it ( Rough -stalked Meadow -grass.) possesses a high value for alternate hus Ger . Gemeines Rispengras. Fr. Paturin commun . bandry. Poa pratensis.

( Smooth -stalked Meadow -grass.) Fr. Paturin des prés.

Ger . Wiesen Rispengras.

Rootstock perennial, creeping and stolonifer. ous. Stems I to 2 feet, erect, smooth, and rather stout. Leaves flat, rather broad and

slightly concave at the tip ; sheath smooth and longer than its leaf ; ligule short and blunt. Panicle loose, spreading and pyram-

idal in shape. Spikelets compressed , fourflowered. Èmpty glumes much webbed, lanceolate, almost equal.

Flowering glumes

Rootstock perennial, somewhat creeping, but not stoloniferous. Stems 1 to 2 feet, rough and slender, erect. Leaves at, narrow , acute , and rough ; sheath rough and equal to its leaf ; ligule long and pointed . Panicle loose, spreading and pyramidal in shape. Spikelets two or three-flowered, and com pressed. Empty glumes webbed, lanceolate, and nearly equal. Flowering glumes keeled and acute. Palea short and slightly fringed . Flowers June to end of July. Grows in

meadows and pastures throughout Europe, Siberia, North Africa , and North America

( fig. 292).

SEED-TIME.

230

This grass is somewhat similar in appearance to P. pratensis, but the two varieties differ materially in habit and

general properties. It will be seen, on

referring to the illustrations, that the flower - stems of the P. trivialis are

slightly drooping in habit, while those of the P. pratensisare more erect ; that the ligule (or small tongue) of the leaf in the

smooth.

Leaves narrow , pointed , rough on

the surface and outer edges ; sheath smooth ; ligule none or very minute. Panicle diffuse ,

slender, and nodding ; spikelets lanceolate, compressed. Empty glumes acute, nearly equal, sometimes slightly webbed. Flower ing glumes rather large, lanceolate, with three hairy ribs. Paleawith nerves slightly fringed. Flowers June and July. Grows in woods and shady places throughout Europe, Northern Asia, and North America ( fig. 293 ).

former is pointed, while in the latter it is blunt. P. trivialis is adapted for good deep rich moist loams, stiff heavy clays, The great recommendations of this and irrigated meadows. It is unsuited grass are its perpetual greenness, and for dry upland pastures, and if sown in such positions will soon disappear. Opin

Fig . 293. - Evergreen meadow.grass ( Poa nemoralis sempervirens).

dwarf, close -growing habit. These quali. Fig. 292. - Rough-stalked meadow -grass

ties, as well as its reproductiveness, ren der it one of the very best varieties for lawns or pleasure-grounds, and the fact

( Poa trivialis).

that it thrives under the shade of trees

ions differ as to the merits of this grass, considerably enhances its value. It yields a good bulk of herbage, endures drought ,

only a it to be experisome botanists declaring own experi and starts growth early in spring. Our own second - rate variety. Our ments quite confirm Sinclair, who thus re Poa aquatica. fers to it : " The superior produce of this Poa over many other speciesof grass, its (Water Meadow -grass.) highly nutritive properties, the season at Fr. Paturin aquatique. Ger. Wasser Rispengras. which it arrives at perfection, and the

perennial, creeping and stoloniferous. marked partiality which horses, oxen, and Rootstock Stems erect, smooth, and very stout. Leaves

sheep have for it, are merits which dis tinguish it as one of the most valuable of those grasses which affect rich soil and

( Hudson's Bay, or Evergreen Meadow -grass .)

broad, rough, and with prominent ribs ; ligule short and truncate ; sheath smooth. Panicle spreading, with many branches. Spikelets many -flowered, oblong and com pressed. Empty glumes unequal and short. Flowering glumes short, broad, and with prominent nerves. Flowers July and August. Grows in wet places throughout Europe, Siberia, and North America .

Fr. Paturin des Boisa feuilles persistantes. Ger. Wintergrünes Hain Rispengras.

Poa aquatica grows luxuriantly in the

sheltered situations."

Poa nemoralis sempervirens.

Rootstock perennial, slightly creeping, but not Fen counties, where it forms a rich pas stoloniferous. Stems 1 to 3 feet, erect, and turage in the summer, and constitutes

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

the chief winter fodder. In districts which are wholly or partially flooded, it is entitled to increased attention . It

231

VARIETIES OF CLOVERS.

The clovers belong to the natural order

may be cut three or four times a -year, Leguminosa, genus Trifolium . The and produces an immense quantity of generic name is evidently derived from herbage on soils which will not grow the tripleleaves of the plants. other grasses. The seed is generally The following are the usually culti vated forms of Ī'rifolium :

scarce . Systematic Name.

Colour of Flower -head.

Common Name.

T. incarnatum

“ Trifolium ”

T. pratense .

T. repens

Meadow clover Alsike Dutch clover

T. minus

Suckling clover .

T. hybridum

Crimson .

Red or purple. Pink and white. White, Yellow ,

Importance of the Clovers. This porary Pastures,' Sutton, 2d edition, tribe includes, therefore, the most valu- pp. 68, 69.

able herbage plants adapted to European agriculture — the white and red clovers. Notwithstanding what has been said of the superiority of lucerne, and of the excellence of sainfoin in forage and hay,

“ Trifolium pratense perenne differs from broad clover in having a somewhat taller, smoother, and, except in its very young state, a less hairy stem, and a stronger, less fibrous, and more pene

the red clover for mowing, and the white trating root. It carries its flowers for pasturage, excel, and probably ever some way above the foliage, surpasses will, all other plants. Soils and Climate for Clovers.

The soil best adapted for red clover, Trifolium pratense, is deep sandy loam, which is favourable to its roots ; but it

will grow in any soil, provided it be dry. Marl, lime, or chalk promotes its growth. The climate most congenial to it is neither

hot, dry, nor cold. Clover produces most seed in a dry soil and warm temperature ;' but as the production of seed is only in some situations an object of the farmer's

attention, a season rather moist, pro vided it be warm , affords the most bulky

crop of herbage. Clover Seed . — Red - clover seed is

imported into Britain from America, Germany, Holland, France, and even Italy, where it is raised as an article of What has been obtained from the last two countries has been

commerce .

Fig. 234.-Perennial red clover ( Trifolium pratense perenne).

found often too tender to stand an Eng broad clover in succulence and weight “ The root of perennial red clover is prepared for sowing by steeping in water or oil, and mixing it with powdered reaches down into the subsoil, enabling

lish winter. In Switzerland, clover seed of crop , and stands frosts much better.

gypsum , as a preventive to the attacks it to obtain moisture and nourishment in the hottest weather, when red clover of insects.

Perennial Red Clover. — The perennial red variety — Trifolium pratense perenne, or cow -grass bears a great resemblance to the biennial in its general habits and appearance, and is thus accurately described in ‘ Permanent and Tem-

gives up from drought. This penetrating habit also affords a means of sustenance to the plant on land which is too poor to grow broad clover, and makes it desir able to increase the proportion of this seed for pastures on thin uplands.

SEED - TIME.

232

" Perennial red clover has two characteristics which greatly augmentits value : it does not begin to flower until at least ten days later than broad clover, and its

used for the alternate husbandry, for which the Trifolium medium is inadmis sible on account of its creeping roots, constituting what, in arable lands, is more robust and solid stems remain suc- termed twitch . .. The nutritive powers

culent and eatable by stock long after of this species are superior to those of broad clover has become pithy and the Trifolium medium . . . . It thrives withered.

Perennial red clover fills up better when combined with other grasses

the gap between the first and second than when cultivated by itself ; but this, cuttings of broad clover, coming into indeed, is also the case with all the

use at a time when there is no other valuable grasses. . . . The slightly creep food for the horses of the ing root remains permanent in the experi farm , butit rarely gives a second crop of mental garden , while the roots of the

available green

any consequence.

common broad -leaved clover have almost

“ Cow - grass produces comparatively disappeared in the third season from

little seed from its single crop ; whereas sowing: For permanent pasture, there red clover yields a good crop of seed fore, this variety (Trifolium pratense from the second cutting,after the first has perenne) is the only proper one to cul been taken as fodder. For these reasons, tivate." Meadow Trefoil. — Trifolium medium seed of the perennial variety is necessarily high in price."

—meadow trefoil — is often confounded

Sinclair says, in his ' Hortus Gramin- with perennial red clover, otherwise so ens Woburnensis ' : “ In the fertile graz- worthless a weed would never have been

ing lands between Wainfleet and Skeg- recommended as a valuable constituent for our permanent pastures on light soils, where it never fails, by its obtrusive character, to destroy the more valuable pasture-plants around it. Sinclair owns

that " the Trifolium medium is inadmis sible in alternate husbandry, on account

Fig. 295.- Red or broad clover

( Trifolium pratense ).

ness in Lincolnshire, this true perennial red clover ( Trifolium pratense perenne) is abundant.

.. Last summer, when

examining the rich grazing lands in Lin colnshire, I found this plant to be more

prevalent than any other species of clover. The natural appearance of this plant in these celebrated pastures is such

Fig . 296. - Perennial white clover ( Trifolium repens perenne ).

as to recommend it strongly for cultiva- of its creeping roots, constituting what, tion. It being strictly perennial, and the in arable lands, is termed twitch , " and

root only slightly creeping, it may be the twitch is most abundant, and there

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

233

fore most troublesome, in light soils, not cattle, and grown with winter barley, or only in arable fields, but in pasture, sown alone on wheat stubbles in August,

where it usurps the place of better it makesexcellent fodder for sheep in the month of May. It is strictly an annual, plants. Creeping Trefoil. — Trifolium repens and can never be sown without risk

-creeping trefoil, Dutch white,or sheep's north of the Humber. There are now in clover – is indispensable for low -lying cultivation four distinct varieties — T. pastures, and is, indeed, better adapted incarnatum , T. incarnatum tardum , T.

to pastures than to meadows. Curtis incarnatum tardissimum Suttoni, and affirms that a single seedling covered

T. tardissimum album .

more than a square yard of ground in

By sowing all these varieties at the same time in the autumn, the period White Clover . — White clover is some- during which Trifolium can be fed or times called shamrock, but it is not the cut, the following summer will be ex

one summer.

true Irish shamrock .

In the eastern tended to at least a month.

Whereas,

counties it is called white suckling, when the early Trifolium is sown alone, which fact causes it to be confounded it has to be all consumed in about a week,

with Trifolium minus — yellow suckling, to prevent its getting pithy and worth which latter plant in Norfolk and Suf- less. folk , singularly enough, is invariably Trifolium minus - yellow suckling called red suckling.

is often confounded with Medicago lu

Alsike Clover. - Trifolium hybridum pulina, yellow or hop trefoil. -hybrid trefoil, Alsike clover — is a

Suckling,

species possessing the properties of the

red and white clovers, and was considered by Linnæus a hybrid between them. It

Fig. 298. - Common yellow clover or trefoil (Medicago lupulina ).

however, is much harder, and more wiry in the stem, darker in the foliage, and

has paler flowers than the Medicago. Fig. 297.- Alsike clover ( Trifolium hybridum ).

Although an annual or biennial, it is much more suited for permanent pastures

is a native of the south of Prope, but than trefoil is, and is equally at home has been introduced into the agriculture on dry soils and strong land. of Germany and Sweden, where it is Medicago lupulina . — Although not a cultivated to considerable extent in the Trifolium , no account of the agricultural

district of Alsike. Its average duration clovers would be complete without refer is three years, it resists cold well, it thrives in moist lands and under irrigation, but is susceptible to drought. Trifolium incarnatum.— Trifolium

ence to this plant, commonly known under

the names of trefoil, black medic, or hop clover. This is the earliest of all the

clovers to come to maturity in spring.

incarnatum , a most beautiful dark crim- On calcareous soils it is invaluable. son -flowered clover ; makes good food for

These are all the species of clover that

SEED - TIME.

234

Impurities in

Clover.

The most

frequently occurring impurities in samples of clover seed are the seeds of dodder,

lb.

Rye - grass . Red clover

8

Trefoil White clover

3

cocom

seem to deserve special notice, out of 166 described by botanists.

12

Suckling

plantain , sorrel, dock, cranesbill, wild carrot, self-heal, corn bluebottle, chick . Costing about 12s. 6d. per acre. weed , chamomile, and scorpion grass. But a far better prescription ( 20 lb. in Varieties of Grasses sown. For all), and one costing no more, is the one year's lea it has been usual for them following: lb. to consist only of red clover, Trifolium

Cocksfoot .

12 42

pratense ; white clover, Trifolium repens; rye-grass, Lolium perenne , Italian rye. grass, Lolium Italicum ; and, on light

Rye- grass. Italian rye-grass White clover

I

soils, the yellow clover, Medicago lupu lina . These, in common parlance, are

Red clover

472

Alsike

I

called the artificial grasses, because they

Trefoil

4

are sown every year like any other

Timothy

I

crop of

3

Suckling

the farm , and are of temporary existence. But of late it has been found very

Two Years' Lea.- When a lea has to

desirable to include other strong growing remain down for two seasons, a slightly perennial varieties, such as cocksfoot heavier seeding is required, and 24 lb. in and Timothy, even where the mixture is all should be sown. The following is an

to remain down but one season, and they extremely useful prescription : are still more indispensable for 2 , 3, 4,

or 6 years' leas. The quantities sown vary but little over the country. The seeds are proportioned according as the grasses are to remain for one year or longer. Seeds for Rotation Grasses.

Ib.

Cocksfoot .

2

Rye.grass . Italian rye - grass Timothy

6

Red clover Alsike Trefoil

22

Suckling

I

4 3

3

212

Every county and district has peculi: This will cost about 14s. 6d. per acre, arities of climate and soil, which should but must not be depended upon for more

be taken into consideration when decid

than two years.

ing upon the exact varieties and propor. tions of the grasses and clovers sown . or For Years ' Lea other valuable But the following mixtures will generally grasses,3 like 4foxtail , meadow fescue, and be found a useful standard to work by. lucerne, may be included with advan

For One Year's Lea .--Where clovers tage : 32 lb. should be sown per acre, are to be sown alone, 16 lb. should be

made up as follows :

sown per acre, in the following propor tio

Foxtail Cocksfoot . Meadow fescue .

lb.

ns :

Ib .

Suckling

5

ܶ‫ܩ‬

Trefoil White clover Alsike Red clover

.

Rye-grass.

I 2

I I2

Italian rye - grass

4

2

Timothy

22

672

White clover

2

I

Cow - grass

3

1/2

At a cost of about 12s. per acre.

Where rye-grass is the only grass used ,

Alsike

I

Suckling

I

Lucerne Trefoil

.

1/2 I

20 lb. in all should be sown, and the

following will be found a desirable pre- Costing about 2os. per acre. scription

For 5, 6, or 7 Years' Lea , from 36 lb. to 40 lb. of seed should be sown per acre,

1 Don's Gen. Sys. Garden. Bot., ii.— “ Legumen , ” and may consist of the following :

SOWING GRASS SEEDS. Ib.

Perennial rye- grass Italian rye - grass

nent pasture will continue to increase. Still, soil and climatic influences must determine in a great measure the extent of arable land that can with profit be con

12

8

Foxtail Meadow fescue . Hard fescue

I 2

Smooth -stalked meadow.grass Cocksfoot .

Timothy Cow -grass

235

3

verted into permanent pasture. Districts

2 2

like the eastern and southern parts of

2

1/2

England, being dry, are better adapted for corn than grass, and a glance at the

White clover

172

returns for the various counties will show

Suckling

I

Lucerne Trefoil Alsike

272

that the proportion of land under grass is smallest where the rainfall is lightest. In the western and northern districts,

12 I

where the rainfall is heavy and strong At a cost which need not exceed that of the foregoing mixture. The process of sowing these temporary mixtures is so identical with that practised in the sowingof permanent grasses,

lands abound, the summer is colder, and thus grass preponderates. Permanent seeds like

lea mixtures

are generally sown in corn, and a wheat

plant is perhaps best for this purpose, that the whole subject may be treated though oats and barley are much more

1

commonly chosen .

under one head.

Grasses for different soils . - It is

Grasses and Clovers for Permanent

1

impossible to give exact advice as to Pasture. the kinds and quantities of grasses and In Great Britain the laying down of clovers required, in consequence of the ex

land to permanent pasture steadily in- treme diversity of the soils of the country, creased during the twelve years up till but the following table will help greatly 1

1888, when the area under permanent to determine which varieties are most

grass amounted to considerably more suitable for any particularsoil under con than one-half of the cultivated land of

sideration. An ample seeding per acre is

the United Kingdom. With the decline 28 lb. of the larger grasses and 12 lb. of in the price of wheat there is every clovers, &c.; and nearly all prescriptions reason to believe that the area of perma- include the following varieties : Especially suitable for

Grasses.

Agrostis stolonifera ( fiorin ) . Alopecurus pratensis (meadow foxtail) Anthocanthum odoratum (sweet vernal)

Heavy and alluvial soils.

Rich deep soils. Medium and light soils.

Avena elatior (tall oat -grass )

All soils.

Avena flavescens (yellow oat -grass) Cynosurus cristalus ( crested dogstail) Dactylis glomerata (rough cocksfoot)

Dry and calcareous soils.

Medium and light soils. All soils .

Medium , light, and thin soils.

Pestuca duriuscula ( hard fescue) Pestuca elatior ( tall fescue)

Deep heavy soils, and clays.

Festuca heterophylla ( various-leaved fescue) Festuca orina ( sheep's fescue) Festuca pratensis ( meadow fescue) Lolium perenne (perennial rye- grass) Phleum pratense ( timothy grass) Poa nemoralis (wood meadow -grass) Poa pratensis (smooth meadow - grass) Poa trivialis (rough meadow.grass) Standard Seed Mixtures. The fol-

.

Rich deep soils. Calcareous and thin soils.

Medium and heavy soils. All soils.

Deep heavy soils, clays, and alluvial. Rich medium soils.

Light thin soils. .

Rich, heavy, and alluvial soils .

lowing prescriptions may be considered

Various -leaved fescue Sheep's fescue

very safe standards :

Hard fescue . Red fescue

Good Loamy Soil. lb.

Foxtail . Sweet vernal Cocksfoot Meadow fescue

212 4

372

Perennial rye -grass Smooth -stalked meadow.grass Rough -stalked meadow -grass Wood meadow -grass

Dogstail Timothy

I

112 3

I

22

12 22

SEED -TIME.

236 Lucerne White clover Cow.grass Alsike . Suckling

I

2/2 112

In thedescription ofrye-grass reference

12

will be found to the objections raised by

Yarrow

4

Costing about 358. per acre .

Mr Faunce de Laune to the inclusion of

rye-grass in seed mixtures for permanent pestures. Although, as indicated there,

Gravelly Soil. Ib.

Fiorin

Mr De Laune's Mixtures.

2

12 IZ

.

good reason has been shown why farmers should still put faith in rye-grass, it may

Golden oat- grass

と

nevertheless be of interest to produce

Sweet vernal Cocksfoot Meadow fescue

12

here the particular mixtures of seeds re commended by Mr De Laune for the formation of permanent pastures on dif

Various -leaved fescue Sheep's fescue Red fescue Hard fescue Perennial rye -grass Smooth stalked meadow.grass Wood meadow - grass .

Dogstail Timothy

2 2

172

Good or

3172

Medium Soils .

9

2 2

Suckling

3

I

Costing about 328. per acre.

Clay Soil. Ib . 2

4 3

172

Rough -stalked meadow.grass Timothy

4

172

White clover

1

Cow - grass

272

Alsike Trefoil

172

3

Costing about 36s. per acre.

7 3

IO

14 3

3

2

Crested dogstail Rough meadow -grass

2

2

5

12

2 1

3

Hard fescue .

I

Sheep's fescue

I

Fiorin . Yarrow Golden oat -grass

1/2

Perennial red clover Cow.grass Alsike Dutch clover

I

Total lb.

I

4 2 1

2 I I

I

1 1

I

1

1

I

I

1

41

40

38

As the germination of the seed and the equal distribution of the plant de pend upon the accuracy of the process, the details of sowing should be carried

out with due regard to the serious loss which failure certainly entails. Time of Sowing . — The best time for

sowing depends much upon the weather,

Featy Soil . Ib. 2

4 NA

22 I

472

and no hard - and - fast period can be named. April may be properly regarded as a safe and favourable month in which

to sow; but if the seed -bed is ready, and the land in working order by the middle of March, there need be no scruple as to putting in the seed . Sowing before is

I

1/2

better than immediately after a shower, even supposing the land can be worked

372

soon after rainfall.

22

Perennial rye- grass Trefoil

372

Alsike .

1/2

White clover

1/2

Cow.grass Costing about 34s. per acre.

acre .

4

I

9

Rough -stalked meadow.grass

acre .

IO

2

Perennial rye-grass

Water meadow -grass Smooth - stalked meadow -grass

acre .

Foxtail Cocksfoot Catstail Meadow fescue Tall fescue

.

44

Yarrow

Lotus corniculatus

Cocksfoot Tall fescue Meadow fescue

Soil. lb. per

:

Cow.grass Trefoil .

Foxtail Agrostis

Chalky

1/2 I I

Fiorin Foxtail Cocksfoot Meadow fescue Tall fescue Various- leaved fescue Hard fescue

Wet

Soils.

Ib. per lb. per

372 12

Lucerne White clover

ferent soils. They are as follows: 1

3

The seeds sown

before rain gradually absorb moisture from the soil and dew until wet weather

1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., xviii. , sec. ser. , part 1 .

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

237

sets in, and then the plants spring up hand-sowing on most farms. This is a with great rapidity. To sow later than most perfect machine for sowing grass the middle of May is most hazardous. seeds, distributing them with the utmost Methods of Sowing.– Grass seeds are precision, and to any amount, and so sown by hand and with machines.

The

near the ground that the wind affects but

hand-sowing is confined mainly to small little even the lightest grass seed. Its farms, while on moderate and large farms management is easy when the ground is the machine is almost universally used . ploughed in ordinary ridges. The horse Hand - sowing.–Sowing grass seeds starts from one head -ridge, and walks in

by hand is a simple process, although it the open furrow to the other, while the requires dexterity to do it well.

machine issowing half the ridge on each Clover and rye-grass seeds are so differ- side, the driver walking in the furrow ent in form and weight, that they should behind the machine, using double reins. never be sown at one cast.

On reaching the other head -ridge, the

The sower

has little control over the grass seed, the gearing is put out of action till the horse, least breath of wind taking it wherever on being hied, enters the next open fur. it may. His sole object is to cast the row from the head -ridge; and on the

seeds equally over the surface, and, as gearing being again put on , the half of a they cannot be seen to alight on the formerridgeis sown, completing it with

ground, he must preserve the strictest the half of a new one by the time the regularity in his motions. Being small horse reaches the head -ridge he started and heavy, the clovers, even in windy from. Thus 2 half-ridges after 2 half weather, may be cast with tolerable pre- ridges are sown until the field is all cision.

It is pleasant work to sow grass

covered.

seeds by the hand . The load is compar-

The seed is supplied from the head

atively light, and the ground having been ridge, upon which the sacks containing it harrowed fine,and perhaps rolled smooth ,

were set down when brought from the

the walking is easy.

steading.

Machine - sowing. — But now the The head -ridges are sown by them grass-seed broadcast sowing-machine, fig. selves. But the half of the ridge next

260, has superseded the necessity of the fence on each side of the field cannot

a

12

6

6

0

1

2

3

Fig. 299. - Grass-seed iron harrows, with wings and swing -trees. a b Main leaves of the harrows.

cd The 2 wings.

be reached by the machine, and must be the crown and open furrow , the furrow sown by hand. brow being the guide for one end of the When ridges are coupled together, the machine, and 2 ridges are thus sown at horse walks along the middle between every bout. Where ridges are ploughed

SEED - TIME.

238

in breaks of 4 ridges in width, the fur- venient to hup the horses with these row -brow is the guide in going and the harrows. To avoid the inconvenience is crown in returning, while sowing 2 to hie the horses at the end of the land of the ridges ; and the crown in going ings, round an intermediate unharrowed and the furrow -brow in returning, while ridge. sowing the other 2 ridges. Harrow Carriage. — Fig. 301 is a Speed of the Sowing - machine.- convenient and safe form of carriage for Were this machine to sow without inter- conveying harrows. This is much better

ruption for 10 hours, at the rate of 27% for the purpose than the ordinary cart. miles per hour, it would sow about 45 acres of ground ; but the turnings at the landings , and the time spent in filling the seed -box with seed, cause a large deduction from that extent. Grass - seed Harrows. — After the

grassseeds are sown, the ground is har-

Fig . 301. - Carriage for conveying harrows, & c .

rowed to cover them in . For this pur pose lighter harrows are better thanthe It consists of a frame of wood sparred in

ordinary, which would bury clover seeds length to take on a pair of harrows too deeply in the ground. These light coupled with their master-tree, and in harrows are arranged (with wings) to breadth 372 feet. The hind part of the

cover a large breadth at a time, so that frame rests on crutches supported upon the sowingof grass seeds is a speedy the axle of 2 wheels, the upper part of Fig. 299 is grass-seed harrows, the rim of which is below the top part of with wings, covering a ridge of 15 feet the frame; and the fore part rests upon wide at one stretch . The harrows have a castor, which allows thecarriage to be

process.

turned when desired. A horse, to draw the carriage, is yoked to 2 eyes of the fore -bar of the frame by the hooks of the plough -chains. The harrows are piled

one above the other on the framing. Such a carriage may convey other arti cles to and from the fields . Rolling for Grass Seeds. — The im

portance of thorough rolling in sowing grass seeds is not fully realised by the general body of farmers. It is ofgreat moment that the small seeds should have

an even firm bed , and this can best be

secured by rolling, which also helps to retain the moisture in the soil, a matter

of great importance in dry soils. Rough land, if dry enough, should therefore be rolled before the grass seeds Fig. 300. - Chain harrows.

are sown .

The rolling will reduce the

clods before they become hard, and give

a set of iron swing-trees. Modern Eng- a kindly bed to the small seeds.

If the

lish harrows well suited for covering land is naturally dry, the roller is the grass seeds are shown in fig. 300, made more required to consolidate it after the by Woodrooffe & Co., Rugeley. winter's frosts. On light loamsand tur Working wide Harrows. - Some dexterity is required to drive these wide grass-seed harrows. They should not be moved from one ridge to the adjoining,

as part of the implement would then have

nip soils, the roller is often with advan tage used, both before and after sowing, the ground getting a turn of light har rowsafter receiving the seed . When strong land is in a waxy state,

to turn upon à pivot , which might between wet and dry, the rolling had

wrench off a wing. Besides, it is incon- better be deferred, while sowing the

GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

239

grass seeds may proceed, if the season, tice is to cover every kind of seed when or state of the crop amongst which the sown . Sowing with Spring Crops. - Al grass seeds are to be sown, is already though double-harrowing across prepares sufficiently advanced . Crops accompanying Grass Seeds.

the land on which spring wheat is sown

- The cereal crops, amongst which grass for the grass seeds ,these are not sown seeds are sown, are winter wheat, spring whenever the wheat is sown. The wheat

wheat, oats, and barley. Wheat on barefallow clay sometimes grows so strong as to injure the young plants of grassesbefore it is reaped, butin lighter soils they

may be sown any time during winter or early spring, when the state of the weather and soil permit. But when wheat is sown at the latest period, the

are always safely sown amongst it. grass seeds should not only be sown then, There is little fear of spring wheat attain- but also amongst the spring wheat pre

ing to such growth as to injure the viously shown ; as also amongst the win grasses amongst it. Oats are the usual ter wheat, should there be any in the to the ground . Remaining but a short It is worthy of consideration , in fields time on the ground , they permit young in which wheat has been sown at different vehicle by which to introduce grass seeds same field .

grass plants to grow considerably before times, that the latest sown should first

winter, and become able to withstand be sown with grass seeds, then the next y t

the vicissitudes of that season .

Barle , lates , and so on to the winter wheat . in some seasons, grows rank and thick, so The reason for this is that it is desirable

as to endanger the existence of the to finish the land most recently worked , grasses. Barley, treated as oats, receives in case the weather should change , and

grass seeds in the same way; but for prevent the finishing. of the grass seeds some reason or other, grasses do not over the whole field Frost Injuring Clover Seeds. - Frost thrive so well with barley as with oats. Unless the winter wheat is too for- injures clover seeds, and will even kill ward, the latter end of March will be the them when exposed to it, so they cannot

best time to put the grasses in. If the safely be sown very early in spring, nor

plant is strong, the common harrows left without harrowing. But they run will be required to obtain a hold of the little risk of damage from frost in March ground ; if weak,and the ground tender, when harrowed in, which is best done the grass-seed harrows will be better. with the grass-seed harrows, the roller

Harrowing the Wheat - braird.- of course following. Winter wheat will be all the better for

If rolling the grass seeds amongst the

a harrowing in spring, even although

corn cannot be done at the time of sow

some of the plants should be torn up by ing on account of the raw state of the

the tines, as it loosens the ground com- land, it should be done as soon as the pressed by the rains, and admits the air state of the ground will permit, as it is to the roots of the plants. After such a of vast importance to have a firm bed

harrowing, rolling will press the weak for the grass seeds and a smooth surface plants into fresh earth, and induce an in reaping the crop. immediate tillering from the roots ; but should the plants have grownrank, the rolling should be dispensed with, in case

of bruising the stems.

GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

The difference

between bruising and bending the stems of wheat by rolling should beconsidered,

It will be interesting at this stage to contemplate the phenomena by which

so that rolling be done or left undone. A the seeds we have sown germinate and cereal crop, on a rolled surface, affords produce plants. The healthy seed of a plant is a living great facility for being reaped at harvest. Many farmers sow grass seeds without object. Though apparently lifeless to

harrowing them in, trusting that they the sight and touch, it possesses the may find their way into the soil amongst germ of life, and its vitality is capable the clods, and be covered by their moul- of exerting great force when excited into dering. But the safe and correct prac- action. What excites the vitality of

SEED-TIME.

240

seeds, we do not know , perhaps never to any extent for the use of plants. shall — it is a secret which Nature has It should be noted that it is the oxy

hitherto kept to herself ; but we do gen of the air that is of chief import know the circumstances in which seeds

must be placed in order that they may

begin to grow or germinate.

ance in germination. But this air must be above a certain

The proof temperature ere the seed will germinate

of the excitement is in their germination,

it must be above the freezing-point,

which is the first movement towards the dorman else the vitality of the seed will remain

t. It is also desirable that the production of a plant. Conditions essential for Germina- soil should be well pulverised , and not tion. — Now, the circumstances which as in fig. 302, where a seed is placed excite germination are the combined

action of air, heat, and moisture.

These must all be afforded in favourable con

ditions, before the seed will germinate and the plant grow satisfactorily. They may all be supplied to the seed, and its germination secured in the air as cer tainly as in the soil ; but on the de

velopment of a root, most plants would die if kept constantly in the air. The

soil supplies all the requisites of air, heat, and moisture to the seed in a better

Fig . 302. - Cloddy and stony soil. a The seed .

b Hard clods.

CA stone.

state than the atmosphere could alone ; and it continues to supply them not only among hard clods on the one side, and for the germination of the seed, but also near a stone on the other, conditions

for the support of the plant, during its not likely to favour the development of A vital seed placed in the soil is

strong regular plants. Moisture and Germination . —Fig.

affected by three agencies — 1,physical; 2,

303 represents the seed placed in a pul

entire life.

chemical; and 3, physiological — before verised soil, the interstices of which are entirely occupied by water instead of air,

it can produce a plant. Air and Germination .

-

When a

vital seed is placed in pulverised ground, it is physically surrounded with air ; for although the particles of soil may seem to theeye to be close together , on ex amination it has been found that the interstices between the particles occupy about 14 of a given volume of soil. Hence, 100 cubic inches of pulverised soil contain about 25 cubic inches of air . Therefore, in a field the soil of which

Fig. 303. - Soil with water and without air ,

has been ploughed and pulverised, and

a The seed .

cleared of large stones, to the depth of White spaces - pulverised soil. Black spaces ,water. 8 inches, i acre of it may containabout 12,545,280 cubic inches of air ; and hence as well as the interior of all the pulver also, as every additional inch of depth ised particles of it. It is clear that, pulverised calls into activity some 260 in this case too, the seed, being deprived

tons of soil, at 1.48 of specific gravity, of air, is not placed in the most favour so the ploughing up of another inch of able circumstances for germination. Be soil not before stirred and not hitherto

sides the direct exclusion of the air, the

containing any air, introduces into the water, on evaporation, renders the earth workable soil an addition of perhaps around each seed much colder than it nearly 1/2 million cubic inches of air.

Thus, by increasing thedepth of pulver-

would otherwise be.

But total want of moisture prevents

ised soil, we can provide a depot of air germination as much as excess. Fig. 304

GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

241

shows the seed placed in pulverised soil, ground, the first change which takes and the interstices filled with air, with place in it is physical — it becomes in no moisture present between or in the creased in bulk by the absorption of

particles of soil. In such a state of soil, moisture; and being also surrounded by air, it only requires the requisite degree of temperature to excite its vitality into action. If there is no moisture present, as in fig. 304, it will remain in a state of dormancy until moisture arrive, and in the meantime may become the prey of the many animals which inhabit the soil,

eager for food, or be scorched to death

by heat. If it is placed in excess of

moisture, as in fig. 303, its germination Fig . 304. - Soil with air and without water. a The seed . White spaces - air and heat.

Dark spaces — dry pulverised soilfull of air.

heat will find an easy access to the seed, and as easy an escape from it.

is prevented by the exclusionof the air, and its tissues are destroyed by macera tion in the water .

When the seed begins to germinate, a substance named diastase is formed at the expense of its albumen. The func

Fig. 305 represents the seed in soil tion of diastase is important. It is to completely pulverised. Between every convert the insoluble starch of the seed particle of the soil the air finds easy ac- into soluble dextrine and sugar ; to effect cess to the seed, and in the heart of every

which change it seems to possess extra

particle of soil moisture is lodged. All ordinary power, as one part of diastase that is here required in addition is a will convert into sugar no less than 2000 The diastase converts the starch which it finds into a useful

parts of starch .

state for the support of the first efforts of vegetation , and after having per formed this important function , it dis appears.

The

Embryo.— “ Under fitting cir

cumstances," says Lindley, " the embryo which the seed contains swells, and bursts

through its integuments ; it then length Fig. 305.-- Soil with water and with air.

ens, first in a direction downwards, next

a The seed .

in an upward direction, thus forming a centre or axis round which other parts are ultimately formed. No known power favourable temperature, which the season can overcome this tendency, on the part supplies, and germination proceeds. of the embryo, to elevate one portion in Composition of Seeds. — The chemical the air, and to bury the other in the composition of seeds consists of organic earth ; but it is an inherent property and inorganic substances. The organic with which nature has endowed seeds, are composed of 2 classes of substances, in order to ensure the young parts, when White spaces — air and heat. Dark spaces - pulverised soil with darker water.

the nitrogenous and the non -nitrogenous; first called into life, each finding itself the inorganic, of earthy, alkaline, and acid in the situation most suitable toits ex ingredients. The nitrogenous substances istence — that is to say, the root in the consist of matter analogous to the caseine earth, the stem in the air .” of milk, albumen of the egg and of blood, The Young Plant. — When the germ and of the fibrine of the flesh of animals ; has shot out from the seed, it is found to

the non -nitrogenous consist of starch and be possessed of a sweet taste, which is mucilage, and of fatty and oily matters owing to the presence of grape-sugar in the sap which has already begun to cir Changes incident to Germination. culate through its vessels. There is little

rich in carbon and hydrogen..

-When a seed is consigned to the doubt that the grape-sugar is formed sub VOL . II.

SEED - TIME.

242

sequently to the appearance of both dias- represents such agrain in a state of ger tase and acetic acid . 1

mination, one shoot having left the Seed dissected . — A seed, considered sheath, another just evolved, and a third physiologically in reference to its organ isation, consists of an embryo, which in. cludes the germs of the root and of the stem , and of a cotyledon or cotyledons.

Fig. 306 represents a grain of wheat magnified, and so

3

dissected as to show

its componentparts. It consists of two

skins, an outer and an inner. ner skin

The in is also

where the nutritive matters, called the

starch and albumen, are situate . There is the little scale or

Fig.of306. — Component parts cotyledon through a grain of wheat. a a Outer skin . b Inner skin .

c Scale or cotyledon. d Rudimentary plant.

which the nutritive matter passes in sweet state, the

e Where nutritive mat- when the grain is

Fig. 307.- Wheat plant in the state of germination . a Shoot leaving the sheath .

c Shoot yet unevolved .

mentaryplant unite. germinating, and b Another shoot just evolved dd Rootlets . by which it is ren dered most fit for the nourishment of the remains unevolved, while the rootlets are little plant ; and there is the rudimen- seen extending downwards. tary plant, from the base of which roots or stems, or both , will afterwards

Different Methoils of Sowing and Germination ,

proceed.

All these parts are essential

to the growth of the seed.

If any

Disadvantage of Broadcast Sow .

one is absent the seed will fail to ger. ing.–Of all the modes of sowing seeds, none requires so much seed as the broad.

minate.

Multiple Stems or “Tillering.”— cast. However regularly the land may The seeds of most species of plants pos. have been ploughed, seed sown broadcast will braird irregularly --some falling into can proceed from them ; but in many the lowest part, some upon the highest, agricultural plants, particularly in the some scarcely covered with earth by the cereals, which yield human food, a re- harrows, some buried as deep as the ruts markable departure from this structure of tines have penetrated. To make the sess such a structure as that only i stem

is observed. In them the embryo plant land smooth by harrowing, previous to is usually thickened towards its base, and sowing the seed, would not cure irregular

is so organised that, instead of 1 stem , 3 covering, since it is impossible to cover a or 4 may spring from i grain. The peculiarity mentioned may be ob served in fig. 307 , where the rudimen

tary plant has 3 projections in the lower part, while in other kinds of seed there would have been only I ; and from

Fig. 308. - Well.ploughed regular furrow - slices.

each of these 3 projections a rootlet cto d Regularly ploughcd furrow.slices. or a stem , or both, proceed when the grain is placed in the soil. The figure large seed as that of the cereals with tines 1 Johnston's Lect. Agric. Chem ., 2d ed ., 221-228.

without the assistance of a rough surface of mould. In fig. 308 the furrows are well and regularly ploughed ; but while

GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

it is obvious that the seeds, when scat. tered broadcast from the hand, will fall

243

irregular furrow-slices of fig. 311 , some

are narrow and deep, some shallow , some

mostly in the hollows between the fur- too large, some of ordinary depth, and rows, yet some will stick upon the points some too high and steep. The seed sown and sides of the furrow -slices.

The seeds

on these irregular furrows is shown in fig.

will thus lie in the ground, as in fig. 309, 6

those which fell into the hollows of the

d

furrows being thicker than the seeds which e

Fig. 312. - Irregular positions of seed on ill ploughed furrows. a Seed clustered and covered shallow. b Seed clustered and buried deep.

Fig. 309. - Positions of secds on regular furrows.

c Seed scattered and covered shallow .

d Seed scattered and covered deep.

eee Seeds fallen in the hollows of the furrows.

sf Seeds scatiered upon tops and sides of furrows.

312, where some are clustered together

stuck upon their tops and sides. But it with a shallow covering, others also clus

is not at all likely that the seeds will be tered, but buried deeply, whilst many are so regular as represented. Some will be scattered irregularly at different depths. too deep and others too shallow in the Such a deposition of seed must make the

soil, whilst some will be left on the sur- braird come up irregularly ; and the plants will grow in irregular positions, as in fig . at the same time.

face. From irregular deposition, plants have not the chance of reaching maturity

310, where some are in clumps from the 9

h

9

In fig . 313, where the seed was covered deeply, the plants will come up late ;

9 b

ruk Fig. 310. - Irregular braird upon regular furrows. ggg Plants growing in clumps. h h Plants growing scattered.

Fig. 313.- Irregular braird on ill-ploughed furrow . b Early plants. a Late plants. c Regular growth of plants.

bottom of the furrows, and others are straggling too far asunder. Where the

seeds have been deposited at different with shallow covering, they will come up depths, the plants will grow at more irregular heights than in the figure. When the land is ill-ploughed, the case is still worse. Fig. 311 shows the irregular furrows frombad ploughing. Bad

early, and will push on in growth; while the remainder, coming up regularly, will form the best part of the crop.

Where

a crop of cereals does not mature at the same time, the grain cannot be equal in the sample. Advantages of Drill Sowing. – One

obvious advantage of sowing with a drill over a broadcast machine, is the deposi w ..

Fig. 311. - Ill-ploughed irregular furrow -slices. a Furtow - slice too flat.

Furrow -slice too high.

c Furrow-slices too wide. d Furrow too deep .

Fig. 314 .-- Regular depth of seed by drill -sowing,

ploughing entails bad consequences in any crop, but especially in cereal ones, tion of seed at the same depth, whatever inasmuch as irregularity of surface can- depth may be chosen. Fig. 314 shows

not be amended by a series of future the seed deposited at regular intervals. operations, as in green crops. In the The braird is shown at the same regular

244

SEED - TIME.

intervals in fig. 315 , and its produce will reasonably be of thesame quality. For drill sowing the land has previously received all the harrowing it requires for

Suppose that each seed produces i stem , and every stem bears i ear containing the ordinary number of 32 seeds, the produce of i acre would be 96 bushels. How far

the crop, and by the coulter or tongue of the machine the seed is deposited regularly at a uniform depth and thickness. Still there are many who prefer broad-

this exceeds the usual return need hardly be stated. Rarely, indeed , have we known

the produce ofwheat to exceed 64 bushels on 1 acre, so that in this case 32 bushels,

cast sowing, and, with careful preparation or 33 per cent of the seed, would be lost, while in an ordinary crop of 40

bushels the loss of seed would be 58 per cent.

The waste in barley seed is estimated Fig. 315. - Regular braird from drill-sown seed .

thus : Chevalier barley at 57 lb. the bushel, and 75 grains to i drachm , avoir dupois weight, gives 665,242 seeds; 4 bushels of seed sown on i acre, gives

of the seed -bed, and skilful performance 2,660,968 seeds; and allowing i stem of the work of sowing, it will usually give from each seed, and I ear of 32 seeds, satisfactory results.

the produce would be 128 bushels ! Even

Drill sowing leaves a blank between with an exceptional crop of 64 bushels the rows of plants, which encourages the there would be a loss of 50 per cent, growth of weeds. On the other hand, while on the ordinary crop of 48

this system permits of hoeing after the bushels the loss would be nearly 69 plants are advanced considerably, and if per cent. this operation is carefully performed by In like manner the loss upon oats may hand or horse-hoe it is usually found to be estimated, and will be found to be be beneficial to the crop.

often more than one- half the quantity of Dibbling. – Dibbling is distributing seed sown . seed by means of a dibble at given disIn all these cases only I stem from tances, and at a given depth in the soil. I seed is reckoned, but many of the seeds The distribution by this system may produce 2 or 3 or more. The actual loss

either be in rows or broadcast. The dif- of produce sustained is thus not so great ference betwixt dibbling and drilling is, that in drilling the seed is placed in lines,

as of seed. Another view of the waste of seed is

while dibbling places it at uniform dis- this : 2,595,510 seeds of wheat on i acre

tances in the line. The object of dib- give 536 seeds to 1 square yard ; 2,660,968 bling is to fill the ground with plants

seeds of barley give 550 seeds ; and

with the smallest quantity of seed . The 5,879,808 seeds of oats give 1214. In seed planted in lines with the dibble ap- wheat and barley the proportion of seed is pears as in fig. 314, and the plants like in proportion to their respective weights, those in fig. 315. The depth of the seed but in oats the seed is more than double

and brairding of the plants are as uni- in proportion to the weight, because of form as in drilling, but the plants stand thethick husk of the oats. independent of each other in dibbling. Waste of Seeds by different Meth

As would be readily understood,dib- ods of Sowing. - P . M‘Lagan of Pum bling is not suitable where any consider- pherston made experiments to ascertain ableextent has to be sown , but it is very the waste of seed in sowing oats in the useful in filling up blanks. three different ways of dibbling, drilling, Waste of Seed.—When sown in all and broadcast.

The oats weighed 42 lb.

these ways in equal quantities, the waste the bushel. The dibbled holes were made of seed, as determined by experiment, is 6 inches apart, and 6 inches between the surprising. Wheat at 63 lb. the bushel rows, making 36 holes in i square yard,

gives 87 seeds to i drachm, avoirdupois weight, or 865,170 to 1 bushel. Now , 3 bushels of seed sown broadcast on the acre, gives a total of 2,595,510 seeds.

and each hole was supplied with from 1 to 4 seeds, making the quantity sown from i peck to 4 pecks on i acre ; and the seeds sown drilled and broadcast

GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

245

were in the same proportion. In drilling inches into the ground . The results were and dibbling, the seed was inserted 37 as follows : From 36 grains sown 72 108 144

11 +1 !!

11

Dibbled .

Drilled .

26 plants

32 plants

19 plants came up.

49

53

52

78

68 87

75 120

360

94

11

270

Percentage

Broadcast .

.750

257

226

.714

.628

There is not much difference in the braird- 208 plants came up, giving a percentage

ing of seed dibbled and drilled, which of .825 . There were also sowed 24 pecks might have been expected, since the seeds to 1 acre broadcast, or 864 seeds to i were deposited much in the same position square yard, which produced 570 plants, giving a percentage of .671 , only a little

in the soil.

It is not easy to explain the disparity morethan in the former case of broadcast, when so many as 144 seeds were sown,

.628. Thus, the smallest number of seeds

involving a loss of about 34 per cent.

gave the largest return of plants brairded. G. W. Hay of Whiterigg, Roxburgh

The broadcast involves a loss beyond

the others of 1623 per cent — an anti- shire, also made similar experiments at cipated result, since many of the seeds the same time, by dibbling and drilling were unburied on the surface, or buried

wheat, barley, and oats, and sowing oats

too deeply. The seeds were sown on the broadcast. The dibbled seeds were put 19th March, and the thickest sown of the drilled and broadcast brairded first on the 16th April . Thick -sown seeds always braird earliest.

into holes within 3 inches square to the number of 1 , 3, and 6 grains in each

hole, which gave respectively 144, 432, and 864 grains to the square yard.

The

The experiments were extended by seeds were sown on the 16th March, and sowing 7 pecks of oats drilled, or 252 the plants counted on the 8th May. The seeds to the square yard, and from these results were these : After 144 seeds.

Of Wheat

After 432 seeds.

296

After

864 seeds. 616

1009 plants came up.

Birley oats

97 95 129 135 125

Sheriff oats

132

335 403 407 413 405

Wheat came up

.67

.69

.71 average .69

Barley

.66

Oats

.90

.79 .94

.79 .91

Barley Hopetoun oats Potato oats

.

687

I117 1332

800

823

1365

777 751

1315

11

1288

Percentage of .75 11

.92

On the 25th March similar seeds were square yard, and the plants counted on sown in drills at the same rates per the 8th May, when the results were : After

144 seeds.

Of Wheat Barley Hopetoun oats

After 432 seeds.

After

864 seeds.

105 86 139 137

327 318 408

652

1084 plants came up.

747

407

795

1151 1 345 1339

Wheat came up

.73

Barley

.60

Oats

.96

.73 .73 .94

.86 .92

Potato oats

798

Percentage of .75 average .74 .73 .94

11

SEED - TIME.

246

On comparing the brairds of the drilled Importance of economising Seed . with the dibbled seeds in the barley and --The questions to which such results oats little difference is apparent, while give rise are, What quantity is too thick the wheat incurs less loss of plants when and what too thin sowing ? and, What is drilled than when dibbled, in the ratio of the least quantity of seed to yield the

1009 to 1084. Comparing the results obtained by both experimenters, we find that Mr Hay obtained braird of 9/10 of the seed in dibbling and drilling ; while

largest crop ? The inquiry assumes much importance when we consider that from / 10 to 1/14 of all the grain grown in the country is every year put into the ground

Mr M‘Lagan obtained only 7/10, and, in as seed. A small fraction of either of these proportions saved would add a pro a lapse of ten days, fit to the farmer to that extent. If i

oats broadcast, 6'10. Tillering. – After

on the 18th May, when rain had fallen bushel of seed could be saved on each in the interval, the plants after broadcast acre, a simple calculation would show were counted, and were unexpectedly that the gain to the farmer would amount found greater in number than the seeds to a vast sum of money . Sown . Thick and Thin Sowing. — Thick The plants must have tillered after the rain, and the tillering was as- and thin sowing of seed is a subject of certained to be from Seeds.

controversy among farmers. The saving Tillering. 360 = one- sixth . 405 = one - fourth . double. 930 648 = one - fifth .

Plants.

315 Barley 325

471 Sherriff oats 520 666 Potato

704 = one - sixteenth .

of seed would be a sufficient argument in favour of thin sowing, provided the same return were received .

But the results

have been found to vary. There are many conditions to be considered in de

ciding as to the quantity of seed to be The advanced state of the plants after

Sown .

The nature and condition of the

the rain indicates that in spring oats soil, the climate, the quality of the seed tiller very strongly and rapidly.

itself, and even the character of the

Quantity of seed. — Taking the re- season , must all be kept in view. spective quantities of seed sown on i

Hewitt Davis, Spring Park, Croydon,

square yard by both experimenters, they who occupied 800 acres of high -rented will be as follows on i acre : poor soil, upon a warm subsoil of chalk ,

Per acre .

Seeds.

Seeds.

36 per square yard = 174,240 = 1 peck. 72 108 144

11

288 432

11

576

11

348,480 = 2 522,720 = 3 h 696,960 = 1 bushel. = 1,393,920 = 2 = 2,090,880 = 3 = 2,787,840 = 4 = 3,484,800 = 5 = 4,181,760 = 6 11

11

11

720

11

864

11

11

stated that “ the practice throughout England is to sow 2 or 3 bushels of wheat to i acre, and the yield seldom reaches 40 bushels, and more commonly

less than 20 bushels, so that 1/10 at least of the crop grown is consumed as seed , whilst i single grain of wheat, planted where it has room to tiller out, will

readily produce many 100 - fold . The knowledge of these facts has induced

Produce from different Methods me, in the course of years, to make a of Sowing . – Kenyon S. Parker made a variety of experiments, the results of comparative experiment between drilling, which have clearly shown me that, in

dibbling, and broadcasting wheat on dependent of the waste, a positive and clover lea, and the results show that

serious injury of far more consequence is

drilling produced more grain than dib- done to the crop from sowing so much bling ; while the straw was longer and seed. I bear in mind that, if so much be stronger, the ears larger, and the seeds sown as to produce more plants than the heavier in the dibbled, thus : Weight per bush.

I acre..

I acre .

bush . peck .

qr. bush . gal .

Broadcast

Ib.

}

soon as the plants cover the ground, and

I

3 produced 3 7

I

62

I

2

4

3

I

63

I

0

4

3

O

63% accordance with these reasons, are, for

Drilled , at 12 in. Dibbled

space will allow to attain to maturity, the latter growth of the whole will be imped ed, and a diseased state will commence as

continue till harvest.” The quantities of seed Mr Davis determined on sowing, in

GERMINATION OF SEEDS. Rye

114 bushel sown in August and September.

Winter barley :

2

Tares Oats

112 6 pecks

Barley

5

Wheat Peas Beans

September. 11

10 (1

9

247

11

11

3 sowings in Aug., Sept., and Oct. January, February, and March . January, February, March, and April. September and October. December, January, and February. September and October.

The returns obtained by Mr Davis, after quantity for all descriptions of soil and these scanty sowings, were 5 quarters of climate - practice and experience alone wheat, 13 quarters of oats,and 8 quarters must be the guide ; for although I am

of barley per acre on " very inferior willing to admit that wheat tillers well land ,'' from the manure available on the on this soil—loamy clay on tenacious farm .1

Mr Barclay, Eastarch Farm , Surrey, drilled 272 bushels of wheat at 9 inches apart, and obtained 37 bushels at 6434 lb. per bushel, and 70 trusses of straw, value £16, 6s. He dibbled i bushel 3

clay subsoil - I find from repeated trials that it is not safe to sow much less than 8 pecks on an average. I now generally begin seed -time with 7 pecks as the minimum , gradually increasing, as the season advances, to 9 pecks." 4

On the comparative merits of thick busbels at 64 lb. per bushel, and 72 trusses and thin sowing, it has been contended of straw , at a value of £15 , 125. 9d. He that experience has established that, pecks at 9 inches apart, and had 37

sowed broadcast 27/2 bushels, and had 40 thick sowing is advisable on newly bushels at 65 lb. per bushel, and 84 broken - up land, containing a large trusses of straw, the valuebeing £18, is . amount of vegetable matter in an active

Here broadcast and thick sowing pre- state of decomposition, when it is bene vailed. Soil, deep loam on chalk subsoil. ficial in repressing, by its numerous Mr Mechi, Triptree Hall, Essex, gave roots and stems, that exuberance of

4 pecks by Bentall's Dropper, and ob- growth which produces soft and succu He gave lent stems, which are easily lodged, and 4 and 5 pecks on the same field by produce unfilled ears. Thin sowing has

tained 40 bushels of wheat.

Bentall's Dropper and hand - dropping, å tendency to make the roots descend He deeply ; and where a ferruginous subsoil gave 9 pecks by drill and dibbles, and exists, thick sowing keeps the roots and obtained 48 bushels of wheat.

obtained 32 bushels of wheat.

“ The nearer the surface, away from it.

Thin

quality of the wheat was good, weighing sowing develops a large ear, grain, and 63 and 64 lb. per bushel ; the straw stem, but delays maturity. Thick sow

strong and bright. The straw was larger ing on old land in high condition renders and longer, and the ears largest, when the plant diminutive, and hastens its thin sown . Ihad only a 12 acre laid on maturity before the ear and grain have

80 acres.” 3 Here thin sowing prevailed. attained their proper size. Thin sowing W. Loft, Trusthorpe, Lincolnshire, in autumn affords room to plants to tiller drilled marigold wheat at 5 pecks, and and fill the ground in early spring, while obtained 56 bushels 3 pecks, at 63 lb. thin sowing late in spring does not afford per bushel ; and in the same field drilled time to the plant to tiller. Thick sow

8 pecks, and they yielded rather more ing in autumn makes plants look best in than 57 bushels per acre, at 63 lb. “This result,” W. Loft says, “ is at variance with the opinions of the advocates of thin sowing as to

worst in winter, but to look better and

quantity of seed ; and indeed I do not

Different Methods of Sowing Com

per bushel .

winter, but gradually attenuates them in spring. Thin sowing makes plants look fuller as the harvest approaches.

believe that any specified quantity of pared. - On comparing the broadcast, seed can be laid down as the proper drilled, and dibbled methods of sowing the cereal grains, it must be owned that Davis's Waste of Corn by Too Thick Sow . ing, 6-12.

the broadcast incurs a loss of seed by

2 Jour. Eng. Agric. Soc., vi. 192. 3 Ibid ., vii. 537.

4 Ibid ., ix. 283.

SEED - TIME.

248

some being exposed on the surface, and

Dibbling-machines. - The dibbling others sent too deeply into the soil. machine first brought into notice was in Such effects are produced whether by vented by James Wilmot Newberry, Hook

hand or machine sowing, and cannot be Norton, Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire. avoided until a machine is contrived to It is ingenious and elaborate in construc

sow corn broadcast at a uniform depth.

tion, and deposits every kind of corn at

The drill does not work well in stony given distances, in any quantity, with the ground, which easily jolts the coulters to utmost precision. Fig. 316 is a view in one side, or they displace small stones, or ride over large ones; while where land fast stones or subjacent rocks are near the surface, they would be broken. Where there are many stones the drill should not be used. Where the soil is fine, drill

ing has the advantage of having the land smooth before the seed is sown,and then seed escapes disturbance by cross -har

d i

rowing

Dibbling may be done by a hand dibble, or with an implement having pins attached to the bottom of a spar of wood, and which pins are thrust into the

ground with a pressure of the foot.

An

other method is, to thrust small hand

Fig. 316. - Newberry's one-rowed dibbling machine. aa Stilts.

dibbles through holes formed in a thin

6 Fore part of stilts.

board of wood .

c Fore -wheel. d Hollow flat disc .

In all these modes the

e Projecting points or dibbles. ſ Large outer ring. 9 Hopper. i Stay to support the machine.

seed is deposited in the holes at stated distances - perhaps 7 inches between the perspective of a I-rowed machine. It rows, 4 inches apart in the rows, and 2/2 consists of a hollow flat disc, which con inches in depth. The earth is put over tains the machinery that directs the corn the holes with the foot. When a man from a hopper into hollow tubes, 18 of

uses a small dibbler, a convenient mode which are connected with and project of keeping the lines straight is this : Take from the circumference of the disc like 2 long lines and stretch them along the the spokes of a wheel from its nave, and side of the field , at a determinate distance their points pass through a large outer between them ; a b and c d are the 2 lines ring, which retains the hollow tubes or

at a distance between them of a c and b d. distributors of corn in their respective places, and prevents them sinking into a C с

-b d

f

the ground beyond the requisite depth. A fore-wheel, which is placed between the extremities of the stilts or handles,

prevents the large outer ring being pressed closer to the ground than needful. A Let him dibble in the seed alonga b, and man pulls the machine forward by means 9

h

when at b, let him shift that end of the of a rope attached to the fore part of the line from b tof, and then dibble the seed stilts, or, what is better, a bridle and

in from d to c, where let him shift the end of the line at a to e, which brings the line straightfrom f to e. Before starting with the dibbling from e, let him remove

shackle might be mounted there, for yok ing a pony or horse to draw the machine. As the wheel is drawn forward by the horse, it turns round by contact with the

the end of the line at c to g, and then ground, the projecting points of the hol as dibbles and making dibble the seed from e to f, where he low tubes acting ground ; a portion of the shifts the end of the line from d to h , holes in the which brings the line straight from g to

dibbles, before leaving the ground, slides

h. Shifting the line from f to i, he pro up upon the upper part, making an open ceeds as he did at b, and soon alternatelying through which the corn is deposited from one side to the other.

inthe holes.

The corn descends of the

GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

249

requisite number from the hopper by tors press every seed firmly into a solid

means of feeding -rollers, moved by a bed, which is so small as to preclude the pinion, which is set in motion by teeth fear of its containing water , and yet placed on the circumference of the flat completely buries theseed. By chang disc.

The disc is supported in its centre ing the cups, the quantity of the corn is

by anaxle revolvingin its ends on plum- regulated, as well as the description of mer -blocks. In using this machine, a corn . With a machine having 6 deposi man holds by the two stilts, while a man tors, i man can dibble i acre in 10 hours,

or horse draws the machine in the given so that the cost of dibbling may be easily line.

Theline notbeing in the line of ascertained by the rate of wages in the

the body of the drill, a rigger is required district. for the horse to be yoked to. A stay In using the machine after the first supports the machine when at rest. This line is laid off straight next the fence,

1- rowed dibble is said to be well suited the workman continues to keep the other for sowing mangel seed on the top of lines straight at the stated distance by the drill.

the mark left on the ground by the ma

Another dibbling -machine, presented chine. The seeds areput in at 4 inches to publicnotice by Samuel Newington, apart in the rows, and the quantity is

of Knole Park, Frant, Kent, is shown in varied by either altering the distance be fig. 317 — a view in perspective of one tween the rows, or increasing the number of seeds in each hole, but it is not desir

able to exceed 3 seeds in i hole. The cups which contain the grains are of 4 sizes, and can be easily removed or re placed by means of screws.

As already indicated, dibbling is too slow a process for the modern necessities of farm practice, but on a small scale,

and for filling up blanks, it may be pur sued with advantage. Deep and Shallow Sowing.– An other circumstance which affects the re

lation between the grains sown and the plants produced , is the depth to which

the corn is buried in the ground. In ill ploughed land, when the corn is sown broadcast, falling between ill - assorted furrows, some of it may sink to the bot tom of the furrow -slice, where it will be buried, to become dormant or lose its Fig. 317. - Newington's 6 - rowed dibbling -machine.

vitality. Corn is differently affected by depth in soil, some sorts germinating at

having 6 depositors. The box in front a considerable depth, whilst others be contains the corn, and the points of the come dormant or die if placed at a smaller depositors are seen to rest upon the depth below the surface of the ground. ground, which has been harrowed smooth A stem of barley has been traced to a for the purpose.

The depositors place depth of 9 inches, while oat seed buried

the seeds atthe desired depths, deeper or

7 inches cannot be depended on to ger

minate. This accounts for oats which had slipped to the bottom of the furrow slices of lea and perished. The risk of thus losing seed in fresh -ploughed lea positors, when withdrawn, leave the re- induces us to recommend partial har

shallower, being kept in their places by pinching screws. The machine is worked by taking hold of the upper rail by both hands, and, on pressing upon it, the de-

quisite number of seeds in each hole the rowing of ploughed old lea before the depositors have made, by the machinery seed is sown. Wheat possesses a peculiarity in the in the interior of the machine. By pressing down the upper handle, the deposi- growth of the root. The grain will

SEED - TIME.

250

bear to be deep - sown

not so deep will then be enabled to send up nourish as barley, but deeper than oats. Most ment to the crown by means of the pipe wheat seeds may of communication .” Now the form which the plant assumes, germinate at a depth of 6 or 7

inches, but sowing

when sown near the surface, is different, as in fig. 319, where a is the seed with its seminal roots ; b the

at that depth is risky, for the crop will likely be thin. After the germ of

pipe of communica tion between them

wheat has become

and the coronal roots

aanother stem, it puts out

cc, a little beneath the surface d . The

set of roots

coronal root c being

about 1 inch below the surface. The deeper may be called the seminal,

at a short distance

from the surface, the pipe of communica

and the upper the

tion is shortened to d

coronal root of the

the smallest degree.

wheat plant. Fig. 318 shows the posi

“ Hence it is obvi ous,” continues the

tion of the roots

same writer, “ that

under the surface,

wheat sown superfici

where a is the seed

ally must be exposed to the frost, from the shortness of the pipe

with its seminal roots C , and the

germ b rising from

Fig. 319. - Roots of shal. low - sown wheat.

of communication

it to the surface of placing the seminal root within reach of the ground at f, the frost. The plant, in that situation, above which is the

has no benefit from its double root.

stem , with its leaves.

the contrary, when the grain has been

On

About 1 inch below properly covered, it depends almost en tirely on the coronal roots, which, if well are formed the cor- nourished during the winter, will send onal roots, e e, the up numerous stalks in spring ; and on the surface f, at d ,

office of which is the tillering of the corn the goodness of to form the site the crop principally depends; but if not from which the tillers are sent forth . At whatever depth the seed may have been sown, the coronal Fig. 318.--- Double roots of deep -sown wheat.

well nourished there will be no tillering. A field of wheat dibbled, or sown in equi distant rows by the drill, always makes a better appearance than one sown with the

roots are formed at 1 inch below the sur-

harrow . In the one the pipe of commu

face.

nication is regularly of the same length,

“ As the increase and fructification of but in the other it is irregular, being

the plant depends upon the vigorous either too long or too short. ” The con clusions these statements would warrant in practice are : That wheat sown before winter should be deeply covered with earth, to be beyond the reach of ordinary frost ; that in spring the coronal roots the N. counties wheat is generally sown will set up abundance of tillers or stools; late. When the frost comes, the coronal that wheat sown in spring should be roots, being young, are frequently chilled. lightly covered, the tillersbeing few; absorption of the coronal roots, it is no wonder that they should find themselves so near the surface where the soil is always the richest. I believe I do not err when I call this vegetable instinct. In

This inconvenience may, however, be that autumn wheat should be drilled to easily prevented by sowing more early, secure the pipes of communication be and burying the seed deeper. The sem inal roots, being out of the reach of frost, i Georgic. Ess., i. 67-69.

GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

251

each kind, and as different seeds differ in

tween the seminal and coronal roots

being long and uniform ; that spring bulk and weight, the numbers of each kind differed materially.

A better plan

wheat should be sown broadcast ; and that autumnal wheat should have a

would have been to have sown the same

smaller quantity of seed than spring

number of seeds of each kind whatever

their weight, and the proportion which Depth for Grass Seeds. - Depth of came up of the plants would have been sowing affects no plants so sensibly as more easily ascertained than by the the grasses. Some experiments were method adopted. Each kind of seed was made at Glenbervie, Falkirk, to ascer- covered from 14 of an inch to 3 inches tain the depth which the common grass of depth in the soil. They were sown on and clover seeds should be covered, to the ist of July, and counted on the ist wheat.

produce the greatest number of plants. of August, and the results are shown in

Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) 348

in .

in .

in .

in .

in .

29

30

27

16

19

13 IO

14 II

9

13 10

13 6

7 II

24 276 30 300 31220 28 324

21

20

19 13

22

15

15

24

20

16

28

16

3 ? 424 in . in. II

8 5

9

9 2

2

18

12

9

4.

1

10

15

IO

8

5

3

I

3

1

of ion Proport thatts Plan

.57 .51 .38 42 .36

124

.35

114

.38

.

20

23

198 145 115 142 117

..

23

30

4 5

..

31

300

1

2 2

4

348

came .up

in .

in .

9 6

caine that

plants of No. 2

in .

.

17

17

16

15

12

7

6

528

52

39

37

19

16

15

7

Evergreen wood meatlow -grass

228

24

14

4

I

(Pou nemoralis semperrirens) Rib -grass ( Plantago lanceolata ) Red clover (Trifolium pratense) White clover ( Trifolium ripens )

252 192 144

22

25

17

14

16 Ir

II

II

II 8

TO

17 13 12

JO

19 14 6 8

4 6

3 4

2

94

.49

..

192

Timothy grass or meadow cat's. tail (Phleum pratense major)

..

Italian ryegrass (Lolium Italicum ) Cocksfoot ( Dactylus glomerata ) Large fescue (Festuca elatior ) Meadow fescue ( Festuca pratensis) Varied -leaved fescue ( Festuca het. erophylla ) Hard fescue ( Festuca duriuscula ) Meadow foxtail ( Alopecurus pru.

1% 1% 1%

in .

:::

1

id .

. up

COVERED AT

о А лон

KINDS OF SEED EXPERI . MENTED ON

seeds of No. sown alto . gether

The same weight of seed was sown of the following table :

190

.36

tensis) ..

74

37

43

.18

134 85 38 42

.53

.43

1581

• 46

.

:: :0

: a :::

..

:::

90

3840 349 303 232 181 144 118

2

21

::::

96

..

Yellow clover (Medicago lupulina) 1

4

8

14

9

.44 .26

In only 3 cases did the number of plants to be got by first rolling, then sowing, exceed 12 the seeds sown , those being then harrowing with a light-toothed or

perennial and Italian ryegrass and large chain harrow, and finally rolling. He is fescue -- the average of the whole being thuss opposed to rolling prior to sowing s under 12 — viz., .46. The clovers came gras seed . up in small proportion, particularly the In such soil as prevails on Mr Speir's white, which is considered a hardy plant farm, which is not difficult to reduce to in this climate.

Of the depths, the 14- a fine tilth, there will rarely be any

inch covering gave the largest return of necessity for rolling before sowing. Roll plants, and 16 per cent more than 12 ing is unquestionably beneficial when by inch.

the harrows a fine smooth surface cannot

Mr John Speir, Newton Farm , New- be prepared for the grass seeds. If chain ton , Glasgow , states that, in a series of or light-toothed grass-seed harrows will trials with grass and clover seeds sown not provide a sufficiently deep covering at different depths up to 112 inch, he for the seeds after rolling, then ranker obtained results which do not agree with toothed harrows may be used. The these recorded at Glenbervie. Mr Speir object aimed at in using the roller before remarks that his experience does not sowing is to secure for the small seeds a favour so shallow a covering as is likely firm level bed, where their regular ger mination will not be interfered with by i Trans. High . Agric. Soc., Jan. 1845 , 341 . clods and heights and hollows. Where

SEED - TIME.

252

this can be obtained without prior roll- root - is a valuable one in an economical ing, there is no need to occupy time point of view . But for this property, with this operation. when the seeds of the cereals happen to Depth of Sowing Turnip - seeds.The author of this work made an ex-

be destroyed by insects under ground, or by the unfavourable state of the

periment on turnip - seeds, to ascertain ground or air for vegetation, or from effects of deep

sowing in com- the destructive effects of frost, or when

the

parison with shallow in the most favour- young plants are injured by insects as able circumstances for vegetation a they appear above the surface, the crop loose soil in the temperature of 75° would be so scanty that it would be

in a vinery.

Seeds of swedes, yellow ploughed up by the farmer, and another

Aberdeen, and white globe turnips were substituted in its stead .

The extent of

sown, 40 of each, in friable soil taken

tillering depends in some circumstances from under fine old pasture, at 1 , 2, 3, on the state of the soil and weather, and and 4 inches in depth in pots, and the the space allowed the plant to spread in. plants which came up in time and in A loose soil, admitting the shoots of the numbers were : Swedes. Inches

Plants

In pro

In

in depth , came up . days hrs. portion. 4 12 31 .77 From 40 seeds , I 11 2 5 18 .72 29 20 6 21 11 3 .50 11 IO 8 18 4 , 25 Yellow Aberdeen . 11 I .70 4 1ο 28 11 2 25 4 18 .62

radicles to penetrate easily, encourages tillering more than a stiff hard soil. Yet wheat tillers best on a moderately

firm clay soil in good heart.

The

weather when moist and warm promotes

tillering

Unless plants have space for their roots, they will not tiller.

Tillering

implies an instinctive faculty in plants to search for as much food as they can,

11 11

3 4

14

5

13 14

5

· 35 .I2

White globe. 11

11 11

I

22

2

18

3 4

and this is strikingly exemplified in the stronger or tillering plants overcoming and killing the weaker.

1ο

12

4 4 7

7

7

13

13 o

.55 .45 .30 .17

The question which such an occurrence gives rise to is, Whether it is better to

allow few plants to fill the ground by tillering, or to fill the ground at once

On comparing these results, the large proportion of plants coming from seeds at 1 and 2 inches in depth, compared with 3 and 4 inches, is very apparent;

with the requisite number of plants ? The answer to this question must be given conditionally. In naturally fertile soils, and in those rendered fertile by

while there is not much difference be- art, tillering will take place, and should tween 1 and 2 inches in depth. The be encouraged, inasmuch as the straw proportion that came up at 4 inches was and ears of tillered plants are much so small, it is possible that had the ex- stronger and larger than those of single periments been made in the open air, no plants. In such conditions of soil, plants would have come up at all, since a small quantity of seed will suffice in those which did come were puny. Of early spring, and it is in that season the seeds the swedes gave the most that tillering takes place in a sensible vigorous plants, the white globe the degree ; but the seed must not be sown weakest, though the yellow Aberdeen so deeply nor so late as to deprive the showed more weakness in penetrating 4 plant of time for tillering, so as to occupy

inches than the globe. The conclusions the ground fully. drawn are, that no turnip -seed should be The extent of tillering is sometimes sown deeper than 2 inches . In many remarkable. Le Couteur mentions a

cases the coulters of sowing-machines downy variety of wheat which tillers to

place turnip -seeds too deeply in the the extent of 32 plants, and from 5 to soil.

10 stems are a common tillering for

Tillering.- The property of the cereal ordinary varieties of wheat. Barley also plants to tiller or stool — that is, to send up a number of stems from the same

i Le Couteur's Il'hcat Plant, 29.

FORAGE CROPS .

253

tillers, though late and thick sowing, ates by the beginning of August, each with quick growth, overcomes that tend- seed will afford four plants, or in all, ency. Oats indicate fully as strong a 1,760 plants At the end of August tendency to tiller as wheat. In weak soils, and soils in low condition, the

these will produce

5,280

tendency to tiller is much checked , In September these again 14,080 each single root being conscious of And in November these last will produce its inability to support more than its 21,120 single stem . Hence the practice is to The time occupied in sowing the 440 sow more seed in low than in high con- grains, and dividing and transplanting ditioned land, and yet the ability to their produce, stands thus : Hours, min. support the larger number of plants is July 440 grains, o in an inverse ratio. Yet what can the farmer do but sow as many seeds as will

produce as many plants as will occupy The best way for him to escape from the dilemma is to put the soil in high condition, and reap the advantages derivable from tillering. Destruction of Seed . — The great loss in plants compared with the numbers of seed sown may be accounted for from natural causes. Birds pick up seeds ex the soil ?

20

sowing,

August, taking up beginning, 11 dividing into . 11 planting . August, end , taking up 11 dividing into . 11 planting. September, taking up

5,280 5,280 5,280

11

dividing into . planting

14,080

PI

14,080

11 PI

.

440 plants, o I 1,760

20

1,760 1,760

30 28

November , taking up 14,080 11 dividing into . 21 , 120 21,120 planting

!!

3

11

I

3 10

4 9

30 33 24

II

23 9 44

14 42

4 14

130

49

28 10

10

posed on the surface after broadcast sow- Equal to 13 days 49 minutes' work at 10 ing. Many vermin, such as the rabbit, hours a -day. Of these 13 days, 5 days devour the young germ as it penetrates may be reckoned for women and boys the soil, and many insects subsist on the occupied in taking up and dividing the stems and roots of young plants.

plants, which, at is . 6d. per day, will

Transplanting - A mode of saving seed to a greater degree than by dibbling and drilling, is by transplantation. This is done by sowing a small portion of ground with seed early in the season , taking up the plants as they grow, dividing them into single plants, and transplanting them. By thus dividing

cost 78. 6d. The remaining 8 days are for men transplanting, at 148. per week, which will cost 18s. 8d. more ; both 26s. 2d. per acre. The seed for the plants, 12 bushel at 48s. the quarter, or 6s. the bushel, would cost 3s. The entire cost would be £ 1 , gs. 2d. The saving of seed from the ordinary quan

the plants as they tiller into single tity sown would be the difference of cost plants, at four periods of the season, a between 12 bushel and 3 bushels, 158. very small quantity of seed will supply So that the loss on the transplanting as many plants as would cover a large over sowing would be 14s. 2d. Of extent of ground.

Though wheat no

course the cost of transplanting would

doubt bears transplanting, yet the amount of manual labour which the

vary with the rate of wages. The best way of executing this plan is scheme would entail would be so great to dibble in the seed two grains in a as to render it impracticable upon any hole, about 4 inches from each other, the considerable scale. plants to be taken up when in a proper This method, however, has been pur- state, and divided into five, which would sued with a certain measure of success in

be as many at that time as could be had , and then planted out at once, where they When it is desired to propagate a new are to remain, thus getting rid of all the

the formation of permanent pastures.

variety of grain quickly , this process of intermediate dividings. transplanting might perhaps be useful. It may therefore be interesting to pre serve the following record of the details and costs of the operation : Suppose 440

FORAGE CROPS.

grains of wheat are sown widely on the Forage crops may be defined as those ist of July, and that every seed germin- which are grown for the sake of their

SEED-TIME.

254

leaves and stems, as distinct from crops Chief amongst the forage crops are the grasses and clovers. These have already been described, and here will be given some

grown for seeds and roots.

to rely on turnip crops can also fall back on vetches, trifolium , rye, and winter oats, which, when autumn-sown, occupy the land at a period when it would prob ably otherwise be either fallow or grow

information regarding several other ing weeds. These crops, if cut forgreen forage crops which may be grown to provide wholesome green food for farm live stock. These are vetches, lucerne, sainfoin , rye, cabbages, rape, mustard,

fodder just when they have attained their maximum growth, might be converted into silage, and the soil be still available for growing swede and turnip crops the

kidney-vetch, gorse or whin, buckwheat,

same year. There appears to be great

maize, sorghum, and prickly comfrey. gain, from several points of view , in

Sainfoin, lucerne, buckwheat, maize, and taking this course, and no doubt it has sorghum are confined to southern parts, been adopted largely since the ensilage where the climate is mild ; the others system was introduced some four or five

may be grown in almost any part of the years since. In the first place, the tillage expenses need not be increased, and on

kingdom .

Importance of Forage Crops. — The tolerably clean land there wouldbe many

growing of forage crops, particularly of less weeds by two croppings taking place crops to be cut and used as green food,

instead of one. In nearly all cases where

has not yet received from British farmers land intended for swedes and turnips is so much attention as it deserves. Our kept idle throughout winter and spring,

acquaintance with forage crops is still three, and sometimes four, ploughings very imperfect, and the extent to which are given, the amount of additional

they are capable of contributing to the cleaning being very great indeed . saleable produce of the farm is not fully

understood or appreciated.

Forage Crops for Heavy Land .

Providing “ The assertion has often been made that

a plentiful supply of green succulent catch crops can only be advantageously food coming into use in succession all grown when the land is perfectly clean through the year is one of the greatest

as well as in a good state of fertility ;

objects of the stock -owner. The forage but, in the course of correspondence with crops at present in use, as they are now practical farmers on the subject of this known and cultivated, are far from ade- paper, I have been informed by a gentle quate for this purpose, and assuredly no man of great skill and excellent judgment

subject could more worthily engage the that he considers it by far the most eco attention or employ the resources of nomical and remunerative course on all

our great agricultural and experimental heavy or medium soils to sow vetches in bodies than furnishing to farmers the the autumn if the stubbles are foul, to

knowledge and the means which would ensile the crop in June, and give the enable them to grow a more abundant

land fallow working for six weeks, then

supply of green food for stock through- to take a crop of mustard , to be sown out the year.

about the last week in August, for sheep

Forage Crops as Substitutes for feeding or for a second silage crop, as Turnips. — In a very useful paper upon may be most convenient. this subject in the ' Journal of the Royal “ Many cases could be mentioned of

Agricultural Society of England ' (vol. the heavy Weald clay district of East xxv. part I. , 1889), Mr Joseph Darby Sussex, and a portion of Surrey, having writes : been greatly benefited by the introduc “Cabbages, thousand-headed kale, and tion of the ensilage system. On the kohl-rabi may be made use of as substi- farm of Major Cazalet, near Dorking, tutes for turnips and swedes as well as 300 acres being arable, no roots whatever mangels, and the cost of growing kale are grown , some 400 tons of green fodder

and kohl is not usually considered to be affording sufficient silage for them to be more than that for swedes.

Further,

dispensed with.

Lieut. -Colonel Couss

while requiring less manure than man- maker, at Westwood, Guildford, in crop

gels, they are equally sure in succeed- ping 112 acres of arable, depends on ing well. Farmers who find it difficult mangels and thousand-headed kale, by

FORAGE CROPS .

255

appropriating 572 acres to each, which provide green food in spring before a full with 3 acres to cabbages and carrots, and supply of grass is available. Sown be about 15 acres of trifolium and vetches,

fore the winter frosts set in, usually dur

and a still larger area to Italian rye-grassing September or October, this crop will for silage, make up his winter supply of generally afford a good cutting from the succulent food, unless able to grow some second week in May till end of June in

swedes and turnip after the catch crops. northern parts, and still earlier in warmer On Mr R. Whitehead's farm, at Old counties. Vetches are often consumed Paddockhurst, nearly 500 cattle and 400 on the land by sheep, this practice being

sheep, besides horses, are wintered chiefly on silage, the manager, Mr Abbott, giving it as his opinion that from 10 to 12 tons of silage per acre can be obtained at less

confined mainly to southern counties. The importance of having a supply of fresh succulent food at this season of the year, when roots are wholly or nearly ex

than half the cost the growth of any hausted, and before the pasture fields can

kind of roots would entail on this kind sustain the animals, will be readily ac of land .” Vetches.

knowledged by all farmers, and it is sur prising that winter vetches are not sown much more extensively than they are,

The vetch or tare belongs to the especially when it is remembered that natural order of Leguminosa , and the they are off the ground in time for a root cultivated tare or vetch is named Vicia or potato crop in the following season. In the wild state it is a native

Spring Vetches . — Vetches should be

of Europe, in corn or cultivated fields ;

sownat different times in spring, so as to

sutiva .

plentiful in Britain ; also in North afforda succession of cuttings when green purple. This is a very variable plant in quired. If the weather and the state of

America, about Fort Vancouver. Flower food is likely to be most urgently re the form of its leaflets, in the size of the the land permit, the first sowing may be

colour and size ofthe made in February, and successive sow stems, and in the The Vicia narbonensis, Nar- ingsmay take place every second or third

seeds.

bonne vetch, and the Vicia serratifolia, week up till towards the end of June. serrate -leafleted vetch, are cultivated on the Continent.

It is advisable to sow small breadths at Anderson has recom- a time, so as to have a succession of cut

mended the culture of the Vicia sepium , hedge-vetch ; and a writer in the Bath of the Vicia cracea , advocates that papers These are eminently tufted vetch . beautiful native plants, but too tiny in

tings when the crop is in full bloom. By judicious sowings at different times in winter, and spring, supplies of autumn, fresh -cut tares may be had from the end of April till October.

Information as to the feeding value of the leaf and attenuated in the stem to make them worthy of cultivation. There vetches, with analysis of vetches made

are 108 described species of Vicia — a into hay, is given in pp. 276 and 377, name said to be derived from vincio, to

vol. i.

Use of Vetches. — The value of vetches bind together, because the species have tendrils by which they bind themselves as a forage crop for supplying green food to other plants. The Romans took care in summer and early autumn is not suffi

not to sow tares in dew or moisture, the ciently recognised. Where, from drought period of the day being some hours after or other causes, there is likely to be a

sunrise, and no more was sown than The vetch is a most valuable forage crop . It is hardy and prolific, and affords could be covered up before night.

scarcity of food for stock in summer or autumn, a few successive sowings of

spring vetches will come in very oppor tunely. Then , in carrying stock from

palatable and wholesome food for stock. the grazing season to the winter rations, There are two varieties, the winter and

the spring vetch . The former, through repeated sowing in winter, has acquired a hardiness that is quite remarkable. Winter Vetches. The winter vetch is often sown along with rye or oats, to

vetches will also be found most valuable. Vetches for Horses.

Horses eat

vetches with a keen relish, and thrive well upon them . They should be pro

vided for horses during the harvest work, and given in moderate quantities along

SEED -TIME.

256

with dry food. It is considered by many dom fail to do well with any sort of mo that onstrong land there is no better or

derate season , and with a full crop they

cheaper way of keeping farm -horses in smother root-weeds well out, and owing

summer than by feeding them in the to the early cutting of the crop, seed stable or yards with vetches and a little weeds have no timeto ripen their seeds. dry food .

The land being bare comparatively early

Land for Vetches. — Vetches usually may be bastard fallowed, cleaned, and follow a grain crop. They thrive best sown with wheat or other winter growing

on strong loamsand tenacious clays, just crop. Vetches, therefore, if well done to, the sorts of soil upon which turnip cul- offer an excellent opportunity of keeping ture is most difficult. But they alsoafford down weeds, and of cleaning the land a good return on lighter soils.

In some after the removal of the crop , thus leav

cases vetches are sown upon strong land, ing it in good condition for what is to which is fallowed in summer asa pre- follow . ” 2 paration for wheat.

In other cases tur

Lucerne.

nips or potatoes succeed winter vetches, In warm climates, notably in the “ catch crop ” —and a most useful one southern counties of England, lucerne it is. is a prolific forage crop. It is the Medi so that the latter come in as a sort of

Seed.—The seed of vetches is usually sown broadcast, but often in rows about 8 inches apart. The quantity of seed varies from 27/2 to 372 bushels per acre. The seed is harrowed in the same way as

cago sativa of botanists (Nat. Order Leg uminosce); roots sub -fusiform , stem erect, flowers large and violet-coloured. Its name is derived from that given by Di oscorides to Median grass. Lucerne is

a corn crop. In many cases, a little rye said to have been brought to Greece or oats is mixed with the vetches.

The

from Asia.

The Romans were well ac

grain helps to support the pliant bine quainted with its properties as a forage of the vetch . About 2 bushels of vetches . plant, particularly for horses. Hartlib to i of oats or rye per acre would be sufficient seed .

endeavoured to introduce its culture into England in the time of the Common

Cutting Vetches.—Vetches are most wealth, but did not succeed. It is culti valuable for feeding when cut just in full vated in many parts of Europe in the bloom , and before the seed has begun to field ; but “ it is very remarkable that form . It is thus important to sow small this species of forage, to which so much quantities at a time, so as to be able to importance was attached by the Romans, use the crop as it comes into bloom . has altogether disappeared from Italy. When vetches are grown for seed they are,

We are assured by M. Chateauvieux that " 3

of course, allowed to ripen, and are cut and harvested in the same way as peas. Manuring Vetches. Land for vetches may be easily and cheaply manured . Mr John Speir says : “ If the

not a single plant of it is now to be seen . When well laid down in suitable soil —deep calcareous loam, clean and in good heart - lucerne affords several cut tings every year of excellent green food,

land is in moderately good condition, it which is relished by both cattle and may receive a light dressing of farmyard horses. If kept free from weeds, the manure, which it is preferable to let lie crop may remain productive for six or on the surface for a few weeks previous seven years. Weeds, however, are liable

to ploughing in. Along with the dung, to disturb it, and may cause it to be or at any suitable time before it or after ploughed up earlier. Land should there it, 3 or 4 cwt. of kainit should be sown fore be prepared with great care for lu. over the unploughed land, and the same cerne, It should be well cultivated, and or more on the surface, as soon as the

as thoroughly as possible cleared of weeds

land is ploughed and before it is har- of all kinds. Occasionally the year's pro rowed .”

duce amounts to 30 tons per acre, and 20 Vetches and cleaning Land.— “ With tons are by no means rare. such a system of manuring, vetches sel 2 lbid . 3 Dict. Gr. Rom . Anti. - art.“ Agricultura." 1 Parming World Ycar - Book, 1889.

New edit.

FORAGE CROPS.

257

The seed is sown in April, in rows 10 flower ; and though much inferior to the or 12 inches apart, at the rate of 10 to virgin hay, it far exceeds any other kind 20 lb. per acre. One cutting will be as yet commonly propagated in Eng obtained in the autumn of the same land ; and if it be a full crop by good year, but it is advisable to leave a rank culture, may amount to above 3 tons growth to protect the roots from the win

on an acre .

This is that sainfoinwhich

ter's frosts.

is commonly made, and the larger it is The Crop for Dry Seasons .— Lu- the more nourishing for horses. I have

cerne withstands drought wonderfully. known farmers, after full experience, go It thrives best in a dry climate, and is three miles to fetch the largest stalky therefore cultivated extensively on the

sainfoin, when they could have bought

continent of Europe.

It is an excep- the small, fine, leafy sort at home, for the tionally deep -rooted plant, and is thus same price, by the ton. The next and

comparatively independent of rain . - Sir last sort of sainfoin that is cut only for John Bennett Lawes has found it the hay is the full-grown, the blossoms being best of all the forage crops for a drought. gone or going off: this also is good hay,

Lucerne is not suited for extendedcul- though it falls short, by many degrees, of tivation in our moist climate.

Professor

the other two sorts.

It makes a greater

Wrightson remarks that, as a special crop crop than either of them , because it for odd corners, it is well enough, but grows to its full bulk , and shrinks little that as a competitor with our established in drying.” 1 Sainfoin, like lucerne, is a deep -rooted plant, and thrives best on dry soils in a dry warm climate. It is grown exten

fodder crops, it is nowhere. Sainfoin .

Upon the calcareous soils of the south- sively, and with great success, on the ern counties of England, sainfoin has chalky soils of the southern counties of

proved a most useful and reliable forage England. It is useful as an ingredient crop. Belonging to the Natural Order in mixtures for temporary grass and hay, Leguminosa, it is the Onobrychis sativa, but is perhaps still more valuable as a the cultivated sainfoin of botanists; roots forage crop grown by itself. sub-fusiform , stems erect, flowers in spikes

If well laid down in clean suitable

or long foot-stalks, of a beautiful pink or flesh colour. Its generic name is derived from the Greek, signifying plants grateful to the ass ; its ordinary name is

land, it will endure, and yield liberally for six or seven years. It should not be resown upon the same land for some twenty or more years. Indeed it is a

evidently from the French, meaning con- common saying that land will not suc

secrated hay — from its property of producing an excellent hay. Sainfoin Hay. — The sainfoin yields by much the finest quality of hay when

tured, and especially for sheep a run of old sainfoin is much esteemed.

cut before the blossom comes out. - This

It is not a reliable crop on strong

cessfully carry sainfoin more than once in a lifetime. Sainfoin is both cut and pas

hay, so cut before blossoming,” saysJethro lands or in wet climates. Tull, " has kept a team of working store-

Land intended for sainfoin should be

horses, round the year, fat. without corn, thoroughly clean and in good heart. and when tried with beans and oats, The seed is best sown with barley or

mixed with chaff, refused it for the hay. oats, and it may be mixed and drilled

The same fatted some sheep in the winter with the grain seed. In other cases it in a pen, with only it and water ; they is drilled separately at the same time throve faster than other sheep at the across the rows of the grain seed. The same time fed with peas and oats. The quantity of sainfoin seed used per acre

hay was weighed to them , and the clear is usually about four bushels of un profit amounted to £ 4 per ton.

They milled seed ; rough seed in the pod.

made no waste, though the stalks were Sainfoin does not develop fully until the

of extraordinary bigness ; theywould secondyear, and itis thereforeconsidered break off short, being very brittle. This a good plan to sow from 6 to 8 lb. tre grew on rich land in Oxfordshire.

The

second sort of sainfoin hay is cut in the VOL. II.

1 Tull's Husb. 174, 175 ( 1762). R

SEED - TIME.

258

foil (Medicago lupulina) per acre along successful way, in a greater variety of soils or climates, than the Drumhead

with it.

It would be well to defer grazing the cabbages. With suitable manuring they sainfoin until after the first cutting has may be grown on sand, loam , or clay, been removed. Young sainfoin is liable and on the sea -shore, or well up the

to be damaged by being grazed too soon by sheep.

mountain-side.

“ The seed should be sown in a seed

bed about the middle of July, and the Rye plants transplanted from it to the field in Rye makes a very useful forage crop. spring Planting may be done in any

It is wonderfully hardy, and may be suitable weather during March or Aprii, sown in autumn or winter for spring use the best crops being usually obtained

as forage in northern parts, where even from the earliest plantings, all other

vetches cannot be depended upon. It things being equal. "By planting moder throws up a rank growth, and although ately early fewplants fail to catch root, it is not so succulent as the vetch , it is, and as they are rarely hurt by frost after nevertheless, a valuable forage plant, af- being planted out, they have thus a much fording, as it does, the earliest green longer season in which to mature a full food for sheep or cattle in spring. As already mentioned, it is often sown along

crop.

with winter vetches.

ways have their farmyard manure ap

“ Where possible, cabbages should al

For spring forage, rye should be sown plied to them in the drill. The cabbage in autumn immediately after the re- is such a gross feeder that it is almost moval of a grain crop, at the rate of impossible to spoil it by excessive man about 3 or 4 bushels per acre. If the land is in good heart, or the crop well

uring. Any available quantity of farm

yard manure, from 20 tons per acre up manured with dung or superphosphate, wards, may therefore be applied, and

and nitrate of soda or sulphate of am- whatever assistance the crop afterwards

monia, the rye will afford a large pro- requires can be made up by surface man duce in the following April, when it may be consumed on the land by sheep, or cut and fed to cattle in the house.

uring with artificials. " The drills should not be less than 28 or 30 inches in width, and the plants about 2 feet apart in the drill.

Cabbages.

Plant

ing is best done by the dibble, although

The cabbage is a most suitable plant some people prefer the spade. grown

for field culture.

It is not

so

“ As soon as the plants have thor

extensively as might be expected, when one considers the vast amount of wholesome food which it is capable of producing. The variety most largely used is the Drumhead or common cattle cabbage.

oughly taken with the ground, and have begun to spread their leaves across the drill, they should receive from 1 cwt. to 2 cwt. of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia per acre. For a first manuring

It is the Brassica oleracea of the Natural this is best applied by dropping a little Order Cruciferæ . at the root of each plant, 1 cwt.doing a The cabbage succeeds best on deep much good at this date, applied in thi good loams, with porous or well-drained manner, as 2 cwt. applied broadcast, the

subsoil, and it also does well on well- plants being so far asunder that a large farmed strong clays. It is a gross feeder, proportion of such a soluble manure and requires liberal manuring and deep runs to waste. Before the crop is earthed tillage. Land to be planted with cab- up for the last time, it is always advis bage in spring should be deeplycultivated able to apply I cwt. or 2 cwt. of nitrate in the autumn or early in winter, and of soda or sulphate of ammonia, no mat should be well cleaned of root-weeds.

ter how much manure may have been

In a paper on “ Forage Crops ” in the applied in the drill. This is best sown Farming World Year - Book, 1889, Mr broadcast, after the drills are grubbed John Speir says : and before the crop is earthed up. By

“ Probably no ordinary farm green this means the whole nitrate is turned crop admits of growth in a moderately over on the top of the roots of the plants,

FORAGE CROPS .

259

and under their wide-spreading leaves, sica of the cabbage sort, which is much so that it is protected from washing, no esteemed as food for the sheep -fold. This matter whether the season prove wet or variety may be sown about the end of

dry. Manured in this way, an enormous April, on rich well-prepared land, at the crop of cabbages can be grown almost rate of 4 or 5 lb. of seed per acre, and any year, on nearly any kind of land. will produce a bountiful yield of excel “ Few who have not seen a crop thus lent food for sheep in theautumn. manured can form any idea of the weight Mr Russell of Horton Kirby, Dartford , which may be produced, even under un- Kent, writing of thousand -headed kale, favourable circumstances ; and certainly says : “ The least known and most de for autumn consumption no other crop will sirable of any green crop I have ever

produce anything like the same weight of seen ; it is a plant that produces more food per acre than any other ; does not dis leaves and of an equal feeding value. Utilising Cabbages .- " Cabbages are agree with any stock, nor does it im

well suited for consumption by any kind poverish the land. With me it has never of farm stock , but for dairy cows they caused sheep or lamb to blow or scour. are particularly valuable. They are Eighteen perches a -day with a little oat usually given to the animals raw , al- straw have kept 270 sheep for three

though a few people give them boiled or months, without the loss of one. ” Mr steamed ; this, however, is generally con-

Russell sows the bulk of his crop towards

sidered to be unnecessary . In ordinary the end of April for use in autumn and seasons the Drumhead cabbage will be early winter, and in August he sows ready to use from the beginning of Oc- about 20 acres, to be fed off in April and tober till the New Year. May of the following year. From 4 to 5 “ In consuming the crop it is always lb. of kale-seed is sown per acre. best to begin by using the largest and

Transplanting

Kale .

Thousand

ripest cabbages first, as these are the headed kale gives the best return when ones to suffer most by frost. In the the plants are raised in a seed -bed, and

interval the smaller and greener ones planted out like ordinary cabbage. A increase considerably in size, and the common plan for feeding purposes is to

labour so spent is doubly repaid by the sow in a seed-bed, earlyin August, and better preservation of the crop, as the transplant into well-prepared land, well small green cabbages suffer little from even severe and protracted frost.

dunged, in October and November. This should afford an abundant growth for

“ Where early cabbages are grown for table use, a crop of considerable value is got in autumnfrom the second growths. Alongthe sea-shoreof the southern counties, thousand -headed cabbages may be grown after early potatoes. Those come in very handy in spring for feeding ewes and lambs, when other green food is

folding in the following summer. If re quired, a moderate dressing of nitrate of soda would force on the growth of the plants. Consuming Kale . — Thousand -headed kale thus grown, may either be consumed

by sheep being folded upon it, or by the heads being cut off and consumed by extremely scarce." sheep on pasture - land. If by the first The storing of cabbages is dealt with method the stems are not too closely ut p . 159, vol. i. Cabbages are usually eaten or peeled by the sheep, the plants 9

regardedas an exhausting crop. This, will throw out new leaves, and afford a however, is only partially true.

They supply of delicious green food in the fol

are certainly gross feeders, and require lowing spring. In cutting off the heads heavy manuring; but if they are con- the bottom leaves should be left, and by sumed on the farm the exhaustion does taking care not to injure the stocks by not arise.

either eating or cutting, and not allow

About 7000 cabbage plants are re- ing them to run to seed, the plants will quired to plant an acre. The produce endure, and supply useful fodder for sev on good land under liberal and skilful eral seasons. treatment may reach from 50 to 80 tons Rape. per acre. Brass ( Rape Brasanoth is kale -heade Thousand ica napus, Natural Order er d

260

SEED - TIME.

Cruciferce) is grown to a considerable ex- Crucifera ) makes a very useful catch

tent as autumn food for sheep in the fold . crop. It grows up very rapidly, being The main crop is usually sown in June, ready for consumption on the land by but small patches may be sown as early sheep in about eight or nine weeks as April, to afford successive folds of after being sown .

The white mustard

green food as they may be required. may be sown in southern counties after

Rape is usually ready for consumption an early corn crop, about a peck of about three months after being sown.

seed being sown broadcast.

It is some

About 5 lb. of seed per acre is sown in times also sown in spring before a late rows about 15 inches apart. The land crop. should be well dunged, and a dressing of In many cases it is sown to be ploughed from 2 to 4 cwt. per acre of superphos- under as a green manure. For this pur

phate along with the seed will be useful. pose it is also very useful. Besides afford Rape delights in fen or peaty soils rich in vegetable mould. It issometimes sown upon reclaimed peaty land, and consumed by sheep, thus helping to re-

ing useful manure itself, it helps to pre vent the waste of nitrates, which, instead of being washed away in drainage-water —which would probably happen if the

duce the rough soil to a useful condition. soil were bare - are stored up in the In some cases rape is sown after an early growing plant. crop of potatoes, and consumed early in Other Forage Plants. winter. Furze, gorse or whin ( Ulex europaus, Rape should be hand -hoed like turnips, but is not so carefully thinned, although Natural Order Leguminosa ) as a for

it undoubtedly affords the largest yield age crop has been noticed in vol. i. p . when the plants are thinned out to from 12 to 14 inches apart. Between the rows

268.

hoe or drill-harrow .

Wrightson thinks it worthy of a trial,

The kidney-vetch is regarded by some weeds must be kept down by the horse- as a useful forage plant. Professor

Rape is sometimes sown along with and says that it ought to form an ingre vetches, the vetches being sown broad- dient in mixtures of permanent pasture cast over the rows of rape. This mixed seeds intended for light and thin soils, in

crop affords admirable green food for which this plant finds its most suitable sheep. Rape is also, in some cases, sown position. Maize and sorghum are both recom in seed-beds, and planted out like cabbages. It is well suited for clay lands mended as forage plants for southern

when it is sown early and consumed counties. They are undoubtedly unsuited in summer and early autumn, when these to northern districts, and until they have

lands will bear sheep without injury. been more firmly established in this Then the early removal of the crop ad- country we think it well to speak of them mits of the land being prepared in good with caution in this work. As to their feeding properties, and in regard to the

time for wheat.

Rape will afford a second crop if the attempts to grow them in England, some plants are not destroyed, or too closely information will be found in vol. i. pp. eaten down when first folded .

The

276, 277 and 320-322.

The character of prickly comfrey second crop however, although often almost as bulky as the first, is not so ( Symphytum asperrimum , Natural Order wholesome for sheep. It is considered Boraginec ) as a forage crop is also re injurious to ewes in lamb, and lambs do ferred to in vol. i. p. 277. For odd cor not thrive well upon it. ners it is undoubtedly a most useful crop.

Rape is known to possess high fatten- It requires heavy manuring. It is peren ing properties. It is better to give it nial, and the plants are dibbled in 18 along with other foods, such as after- inches apart, in rows from 18 inches to 2

math, cabbages, vetches, &c., than by feet apart. Brickwheat is also of some use as a

itself.

forage crop. Mustard.

It is very susceptible of

injury from frost, and can seldom be Mustard ( Sinapis albi, Natural Order sown with safety earlier than May.

2류

PLANTING POTATOES.

261

PLANTING POTATOES . As a rule the potato crop, cultivated beneficial; and as grubbing is a speedy on the fallow division of the farm , follows operation it need not long delay the

a crop of oats, which, in turn , had suc- planting. The grubber indeed is a better imple ceeded pasture. In some districts potatoes come after lea, and this many con-

ment for stirring the soil, under the cir

sider the best place in the rotation for cumstances, than the plough, as it will the crop

retain the dry surface still uppermost, Land for Potatoes . — Potatoes thrive and bring to the surface the weeds that

best on light dry, friable,or sandy loams. have entangled themselves about the They also do well upon virgin soils and tines. The time occupied in doing all

mossy or turfy land, but seldom give this, according to the character of the good results on strong, tenacious clays, weather, may be about a month, from with retentive subsoil. early in March to early in April, when

Tillage for Potatoes . — The stubble the potatoes should be planted. land intended for potatoes is ploughed

In cultivating land for potatoes, it is

early in the autumn, so that it may have important to remember that the roots the full benefit of the ameliorating influ- and tubers should have free scope to ences of winter. Potato land should be ramify in soil. tilled early in spring, and cleaned as well Manuring Potatoes. as possible. The time for cleaning land Farmyard dung is the staple manure is usually limited in spring , so that the

cleanest portion of the fallow -break should for potatoes. Withouta certain amount be chosen for the potatoes to occupy :

of dung they are seldom grown ; and

The stubble land will either have been heavier dressings of dung are employed

cast in autumn, or cloven down without for potatoes than for any of the other a gore-furrow , according as the soil is ordinary crops of the farm . From 15 to strong or light.

Having been abun-

20 tons per acre are common quantities,

dantly provided with gaw -cuts, to keep and often as much as 25 to 30 tons per it dry all winter, it may be in a state to acre is applied. be cross-ploughed or cultivated soon after

Mechanical influence of Dung on

the spring wheat and beans have been sown , where either is cultivated ; and where not, preparing the potato land is the earliest work in spring after the ploughing of lea. After the cross-plough-

Potatoes. It is obvious that the potato crop cannot make immediate use of more than a small portion of the plant-food contained in these heavy dressings of dung. Farmyard manure, however, would

than to be far more to theItspotatoes ing or grubbing, the land is thoroughly aseem mechanical source of nutrition. line of the furrow, and a double tine influence upon the soil has evidently a

harrowed with a double tine along the

across it, and any weeds brought to the peculiarly beneficial effect on this crop. surface and gathered off. If the land be It not only opens up the soil and renders

clean, it is then ready for drilling ; if not, it more friable, but by the decay of the it should receive a strip of the grubber organic matter the temperature of the in the opposite direction, and again be soil is raised , thus surrounding the potato harrowed , and any weeds gathered off.

with more kindly conditions than would

The cross-ploughing of potato land in have existed in the absence of dung. spring is not so extensively practised These heating and pulverising influences now as formerly. With deep autumn or of dung are undoubtedly of great import

winter ploughing less spring stirring suf- ance ; and we are inclined to thinkthat fices, and if the land is clean, and the a good deal more of the value of dung soil fine and friable, rank harrows may as a manure lies in these functions or

do all that is necessary. Most likely, influences than has usually been associ however, a strip of the grubber will be ated with them . S VOL. II.

262

PLANTING POTATOES.

Typical Dressings. - In the Lothians Dr Aitken on Manuring Potatoes. of Scotland, where potato -growing is a prominent feature in the system of farmWith special reference to the experi ing, the dressing of dung ranges from 20 ments conducted under the auspicies of

to 30 tons per acre — even as much as 35 the Highland and Agricultural Society, or 40 tons per acre being occasionally Dr A. P. Aitken writes as follows as to used for an early crop. In addition to the manuring of potatoes : these allowances of dung, from 5 to 10

“ The potato is a feeble rooter, and re

cwt. of artificial manure is applied, the quires its manurial food to be closely latter consisting of guano , dissolved within reach.

In order that the tubers

bones, superphosphate, and perhaps a may be able to expand, the soil about little potash, or instead of guano, nitrate them must be loose. Manures which of soda or salts of ammonia. A dressing keep the roots free are therefore very ap of 6 cwt. of artificial manure sometimes propriate.

There is nothing so suitable

used with about 20 tons of dung, consists as dung for that purpose, but any very

of 2 cwt. bone-meal, 1 cwt. vitriolised bulky manure is also good, and especially phate, i cwt. sulphate of potash, and matter to keep the soil warm and make bones, 1/2 cwt. of mineral superphos- if it has a large proportion of organic

cwt. sulphate of ammonia.

On light a soft compressible seed-bed.

lands in Ayrshire, where potatoes are

Form of Manures for Potatoes.

successfully grown for early consumption,

“ The potato is not well adapted for

very heavy manuring is practised. In utilising insoluble materials, and there some cases here as much as 30 tons of fore any artificial manures applied with dung, and 12 to 15 cwt. of artificial the dung should be of a soluble, or, at manure, is applied per acre — the artifi- least, not very insoluble kind . Super

cials consisting of 4 or 5 cwt. of kainit, phosphate is better than ground mineral and 8 or 10 cwt. of a mixture containing phosphates or bone-meal; and even dis solved bones is rather a slow manure for from 8 to 10 per cent of ammonia and th is crop 20 to 30 per cent of phosphate. Quickly acting Manures for Pota-

Nitrogen for Potatoes.— “ The most

toes.-For potatoes, manure should be important ingredient of a potato manure supplied in a readily available form near

is nitrogen, and the most of it should , as

at hand, as it is a moderately or rapid has been said, be of a soluble quick -act growing, feebly rooted plant. It is thus ing kind. Insoluble nitrogenous matters

desirable that,howevermuch dung may do not come into activity quickly enough be applied, a certain quantity of more for the wants of the crop. When dung

quickly acting manure should also be is used, there is no better way of increas It may be that the dressing of ing the nitrogenous manure than by giv dung will contain far more nitrogen, ing some nitrate of soda along with the phosphoric acid and potash, than the crop dung. of potatoes will require. Experience, " Sulphate of ammonia along with given.

however, has clearly shown, notably in dung is to be avoided. It not only pro the case of the Rothamsted experiments duces a smaller crop than the nitrate of (p. 264), that only a very small portion soda, but it causes the production of an of the plant food in the dung can be undue proportion of small tubers. “ On the other hand, if no dung is utilised by the first crop of potatoes.

Thus, while the heavy dressing of dung being applied to the potatoes, sulphate is beneficial, partly as a source of manure of ammonia is an excellent nitrogenous and partly on account of its mechanical manure, especially in a wet season . influence on the soil, it is necessary to

Potash for Potatoes.— “ As regards

apply phosphates, nitrogen, and potash, potash the wants of the potato crop are in forms in which they will be imme- peculiar. The potato plant takes away

diately available to the crop. For this a great deal of potash ; and fields on phosphate, or both, guano, sulphate of soon become exhausted of potash. This

purpose, bone-meal or mineral super- which potatoes are frequently grown very ammonia or nitrate of soda, and kainit must be made good, for the potato is very dependent on potash manures. Where are most largely used.

PLANTING POTATOES.

263

much dung is used there is little need of than the plot which had no manure of applying extra potash manure, seeing any kind in those six years. that dung is so rich in potash ; but where Dung and Superphosphate.- The dung is used for the green crop, only an addition of 372 cwt. superphosphate of addition of potash salts is to be recom- lime to the dung had very little influence mended, for much of the potash in dung on the crop. The yield rose to 5 tons 12 is not very readily available. cwt. , or an increase of 7 cwt. over the dung alone. Too much Potash Injurious. “ Where no dung is used , potash forms Dung , Superphosphate , and Nitrate

an exceedingly important ingredient. of Soda.—But when the dung and super

The limit of potash manure required phosphate were supplemented by some for potatoes is nevertheless very soon nitrate of soda, supplying 86 lb. of nitro reached ; and no good but rather harm gen per acre, a marked difference upon is done by overdoing the application of the crop became apparent. The produce rose to 7 tons 2 cwt. - an increase of 1 % “ It is a common practice to apply very ton, due to the 86 lb. of rapidly acting large doses of light manures to the potato nitrogen.

potash.

Much extravagance may occur Artificial Manures.-Artificial man in that way, and sometimes more harm ures were also tried by themselves, sepa

crop.

than good result. It is important in such rately, and in different combinations. cases that the manure should not be

Superphosphate of lime ( 372 cwt. per

placed in direct contact with the sets. It acre) applied alone gave an average

of 3

should rather be applied some time before tons 1338 cwt. for twelve years —- nearly 2 planting, and should be well incorporated tons 6 cwt. more than the no -manure plot. with the upper layer of the soil as a

general fertilising application.

Mixed mineral manure ( consisting of

372 cwt. per acre of superphosphate, 300

Proportion of Manurial Elements. lb. sulphate of potash, 100 lb. sulphate - “ When no dung is used, the propor- of soda, and 100 lb.sulphate of magnesia) tion of the manurial ingredients in a gave only 2 cwt. per acre more than the well -balanced potato manure, will be just superphosphate alone. Salts of ammonia (450 lb. ) alone gave about equal parts potash, ammonia, and phosphoric acid. When applied along a poor result-only 2 tons 534 cwt. per

withdung the potash may be diminished acre, or 6 cwt. more than the unmanured by half, and the nitrogen slightly in- plot. creased ." Nitrate of soda (550 lb.) alone did little better. It exceeded the salts of Rothamsted Experiments with Potatoes. ammonia by 7 cwt. per acre. Nitrogenous and mineral manures An interesting series of experiments

very different results. mixed produced been Applied upon the manuring of potatoes hasresults together to the same plot they conducted at Rothamsted . The have been fully explained by Dr Gilbert

raised the produce to an average of over

in his lectures at Oxford and Cirencester, 672 tons— 6 tons 1472 cwt. for salts of and several of them are of considerable ammonia and mixed mineral manure, and practical value to farmers. 6 tons 13 cwt. for nitrate of soda and

Farmyard manure was tried by itself mixed mineral manure. Conclusions.— In contrasting these and in conjunction with nitrogenous, phosphatic, and potassic manures. The experiments with various kinds and dress

some noteworthy results potatoes were grown on the same land ings of manure,As to artificial manures

every year, and on this account the re-

are observed.

sults cannot be unreservedly applied to it is shown ( 1) that the exhaustion of potato culture under ordinary rotation phosphoric acid by the potatoes was farming. Still some lessons of import- greater than that of potash ; ( 2 ) that in ance may be learned.

the continuous growth of potatoes here

Farmyard Dung. — This was applied it was the available supply of mineral at the rate of 14 tons per acre every year,

constituents within the root-range of the

and the average yield for six years was plant, more than that of nitrogen, which 574 tons per acre - just over 3 tons more became deficient — hence the greater pro

264

PLANTING POTATOES .

duce from mineral manures alone than

Residue of Dung. – Then as to the

from nitrogenous manures alone ; (3)

residue of dung, the results showed that it

that it is only when all the essential ele- acted very slowly. Of the nitrogen sup ments of manure are present in sufficient plied in the annual dressing of dung only

quantity that the full benefit of any kind about 6.4 per cent had been recovered of dressing can be derived ; and (4), that in the crop of potatoes in the first six

when thus applied together in a well- years. In the succeeding six years pota balanced dressing, artificial ( nitrogenous toes were grown every year on the same and mineral) manures produced a crop plot without any further application of which for twelve successive years exceed- dung or other manure, and in that time

ed the average yield of the United King- only 5.2 per cent of the unrecovered dom — decidedly greater indeed than the nitrogen was taken up in the crop . yield from farmyard manure alone, and Thus in twelve years only 11.6 per cent

only about 8 cwt. per acre behind the of the nitrogen supplied in the dung produce from a combined dressing of during the first six years had been re dung, superphosphate, and nitrate of covered in the crop. soda.

Dr Gilbert on Dung for Potatoes .

The efficacy of well-proportioned arti- —Referring to this point in his Ciren ficial manures for potatoes thus demon- cester lectures, Dr Gilbert says : “ In strated at Rothamsted is a consideration the case of other crops it has been found

of great importance to farmers. Equally that only a small proportion of the nitro valuable to the practical farmer is the gen of farmyard manure was taken up in unquestionable conclusion that, in effi- the year of application . But these re cient and profitable manuring, an essen- sults seem to indicate that the potato is

tial condition is that the dressing shall able to avail itself of a less proportion of be properly balanced—that is, contain all the nitrogen of the manure than any the necessary elements of plant-food in other farm crop. Yet in ordinary prac due proportion. tice farmyard manure is not only largely Slow Exhaustion of Dung . - In the relied on for potatoes, but is often applied Rothamsted experiments with potatoes in larger quantity for them than for any some interesting information has been other crop. It is probable that, inde brought out as to the behaviour of farm- pendently of its liberal supply of all nec

yard manure in the soil. The most strik- essary constituents, its beneficial effects ing point in these results is the slow are in a considerable degree due to its

action of the dung, particularly of the nitrogen it contained . The dressing of dung applied annually to the potato crop contained, per acre, about 200 lb. of nitrogen — besides, of course, an abun-

influence on the mechanical condition of the soil, rendering it more porous and easily permeable to the surface - roots, upon the development of which the suc cess of the crop so much depends. Then ,

dance of mineral matters, & c.; yet from again, something may be due to an in 86 lb. of nitrogen, supplied in the form creased temperature of the surface soil, of nitrate of soda or salts of ammonia,

engendered by the decomposition of so

along with an artificial mixture of mineral manures, the average produce was considerably greater thanfrom the dung, Thus it is observed that, while the dung

large an amount of organic matter within it ; whilst the carbonic acid evolved in

the decomposition will, with the aid of moisture, serve to render the mineral re

supplied far more nitrogen than the crop sources of the soil more soluble .” In considering these results obtained required, it did not contain enough in

such a readily available condition as that at Rothamsted it should, of course, be borne in mind that the system of crop it could be at once seized by the crop. Further striking evidence of the slow ping pursued on the experimental plots

action of nitrogen in dung was furnished there — the same crop on the same plot by the fact that by supplementing the dung with some quickly acting nitrogen -86 lb. of nitrogen per acre in nitrate of soda — the produce of the tubers was increased by over 12 ton per acre.

every year - differs greatly from that fol lowed in ordinary farming. In all pro bability, with the more thorough and varied tillage, and the cropping with plants of different depth of roots and dif

PLANTING POTATOES.

265

ferent powers of assimilating food which together by splitting each drill with the obtain in ordinary rotation farming, the drill plough. residue of dung would be more speedily recovered by crops than was the case at Rothamsted . Still it can hardly be gain-

Details of Planting.

The planting of potatoes demands at said, that the Rothamsted experiments tention early in spring. have proved that the beneficial influence

Potato -seed . - While the land is being

of dung upon potatoes is due in a larger prepared for the potatoesand it will measure to its mechanical effect, and in not be possible to prepare it continuously, a less degree to it as a source of plant- as the sowing of grain has to be attended food , than was before generally believed to - the potato-seed should be prepared by A Practical Lesson . — The chief les- the field -workers. When preparing po son which the practical farmer is to draw tato-seed a great saving of time will be from these conclusions, as to the action

of dung, is that, while a large dressing of dung may with advantage be applied for potatoes, it must not be relied upon as the sole source of plant -food for the crop — that the dung must be supple-

effected if the seconds ( i.e. , after the ware has been taken out ) are dressed over

1/4 inch riddle, and then over 134 inch riddle. The tubers above the 134 inch should be taken to an outhouse and cut,

while the smaller ones can be covered up again and planted whole. In selecting quick-acting nitrogenous manure, such as tubers to cut into sets, the middle-sized ,

mented with a substantial allowance of

nitrate of soda, and with a smaller appli- that have not sprouted at all, or have merely sprouted buds, will be found the cation of phosphates and potash. Potash for Potatoes. — The undoubt- soundest ; and wherever the least soft ed value of potash for potatoes is not ness is felt, or rottenness seen, or any

very clearly shown in the Rothamsted suspicion as regards colour or other pecu experiments. In soils deficient in avail- liarity is indicated, the tuber should be able potash the application of about 2 or

entirely rejected , and not even its firm

3 cwt. of kainit per acre will be found to

portion be used for seed. The very small

have quite a wonderful effect on the pro- potatoes should be picked out and put Good results have been obtained aside to boil for poultry and pigs. from kainit when sown as a top-dressing Potatoes intended for seed should al just before the drills of potatoes are ways be turned in the pits between Feb earthed up for the first time, especially ruary and March , in order to prevent duce.

when rain happened to fall soon after, sprouting. This checks the growth, and thus carrying down the potash to the plumps up the buds wonderfully. roots of the crop, which is then ready to Potatoes are planted whole or cut into absorb it. Mr John Speir says he pre- parts or sets. Large whole potatoes fers to sow the kainit on the ploughed should not, as a rule, be planted, as it is land in autumn or early winter, which a waste of seed. Some kinds of potatoes,

indeed is generally believed to be the however, such as Magnum Bonum , are

best plan . Application of Manure for Pota-

best planted whole. With the Magnum Bonum, growth begins so late in the toes. - Occasionally, chiefly in stiff soil, season, that at cutting time it is impos the dung for potatoes is spread upon the

sible to say whether or not any eye will

land and ploughed in late in the autumn grow. They have few " eyes,” which are or in winter.

In that case the land is

nearly all at one end, and when cut the

again ploughed in spring or perhaps first part containing the eye is thin. Very grubbed, and then ploughed and the seed small sets, or very small whole potatoes planted on the flat in every third furrow, should not be used as seed, as they are the artificial manure being sown just be- liable to produce a light crop of puny

fore the last ploughing, or deferred till tubers. Moderately small tubers, if they the plants are hoed or earthed up the first time. But the most general system

have not too many eyes, make good seed.

the artificial manure on the top of this,

cording to the number of eyes it contains.

The usual practice is to cut a middle is to spread the dung in the drills, sow sized potato into two or three sets, ac and then plant the seed , and cover all in It is well to leave two eyes in each set,

PLANTING POTATOES.

266

lest one of them may have lost its vital- ous expedients have been devised to pre

ity. The sets should be cut with a sharp pare the seed, with the view of warding knife, be rather large in size, and taken off disease, but without much practical principally from the rose or crown end of effect. Potatoes not required for seed, firm and the tubers. The other heel or root end may be kept for pigs or poultry. When of good size, whether intended for sale or fresh the tubers cut crisp, and exude a for use in the farmhouse, should remain good deal of moisture, which soon eva- in the outhouse until disposed of or used,

porates, and leaves the incised parts dry. kept in the dark, with access to air, and A common practice was to heap the examined as to soundness when the

cut sets in acorner of the barn until they were planted. Had they been exposed previously to drought they might remain uninjured, but if heaped immediately on being cut, in a moist state, they will pro-

sprouts, if any, are taken off. Planting on the Flat. — In many parts of England, where the climate is dry, po tatoes are grown extensively on the flat.

There autumn or winter dunging is often

bably heat, and heated potatoes, whether practised, and by grubbing, harrowing, whole or cut, rarely vegetate. Much and ploughing, the land is prepared for of the injudicious treatment which sets the seed in spring. As already stated ,

of potatoes receive arises from want of the seed in this case isdropped into every room to spread them out thin.

The third furrow , the seeds being from 9 to

straw -barn is most generally used, but in 14 inches apart in the furrow . The spaces many cases it cannot be spared, as the between the rows of potatoes are hoed by cattle-man and ploughman must have horse and hand hoes just as in the case of

daily access to it. The corn-barn may be drills, and when the plants are well grown occupied with grain. The implement- they are earthed upby passing a double house has too little room — besides the mould plough between the rows, thus many small articles which it contains. forming ordinary drills. The only alternative is an outhouse ; a The Drill System . — But the growing large one should be in every steading.

of potatoes in drills is far better than

A considerable quantity of seed should planting on the flat. The drill system is be prepared before planting is begun, and all-prevailing in Scotland (except in some the rest can be made ready when the parts of the Highlands and Western

horses are engaged with the barley or oat Islands) and the northern counties of seed, or duringany broken weather. A England, while it greatly predominates

considerable quantity of seed can usually in Ireland, except on small holdings be stored about the steading for cutting where the " lazy-bed " method is still in wet or stormy weather ; while the rest pursued extensively. can generally be prepared at the pit-side. Autumn Dunging . - If the land is Preserving Sets.— When cut indoors strong and a supply of dung happen to the sets should be spread out thin and be then on hand (which, however, is not dusted with lime. This forms a crust on often the case ), it is considered a good the incised surface, and prevents the sap plan to spread the dung for potatoes on

from exuding. Potatoes are best cut a the stubble just before ploughing in the day or twobefore planting, as they keep endof autumn or early in winter. This, longer fresh in the ground when there is no doubt, tends to the better preparation a crust on the incised surface of the set. of strong land for potatoes ; and the cart Quantity of Seed per Acre.—The ing and spreading of the dung in autumn sets required to plant an acre of land or winter lightens the pressure of work vary very much according to size of sets in spring. One great hindrance to this and kinds of potatoes. From 8 to 10 system is the fact that a sufficient supply cwt. of cut Regents will plant an acre, of dung is not usually available in the

while from 10 cwt. to 14 cwt. of whole autumn or beginning of winter. Where Magnums will be required.

summer-house feeding is practised, there

Since the prevalence of disease among is generally an ample supply of dung in potatoes in all soils and situations, numer- good time for this purpose; and these two systems, which, in suitable circumstances, 1 Trans. High. Agric. Soc., xiv. 144.

are both to be commended, fit well into

PLANTING POTATOES.

each other.

267

On dry soils and in dry sea- further ploughing may be necessary .

sons dunging before ploughing usually single or double stripe with the grubber gives the best results. In the opposite and moderate harrowing will most likely conditions spring dunging will be found suffice, and then shallow drills are opened to excel. from 28 to 30 inches wide. The seed is Spring Tillage with Autumn Dung- planted in these drills with from 10 to ing . – When the potato land has been 14 inches between the sets, and an allow dunged and deeply ploughed in autumn ance of artificial manure is sown, and the or winter, the spring tillage is simple and drills are closed by splitting each ridgelet soon finished . If the land is clean no in two with the drill-plough,of which an

Fig. 320. - Scotch drill.plough.

improved Scotch pattern , made by A. to heaps on the field in winter. In cases, Newlands & Son, Linlithgow, is repre- however, where there is no such excessive sented in fig. 320. rush of spring work, and where the potato Spring Dunging. The more general field is within easy distance of the home

practice is to apply both the dung and stead , the dung had better be left in the the artificial manure in the drills at the courts till required for the drills in spring, time of planting in spring. If the land or until it is to be spread upon the land is clean and not too rough, a small amount in one form or other. of spring tillage will suffice. When they Details of Planting. In the after have to hold dung, as well as the seed noon before the day on which the plant and artificial manure, the drills have ing of potatoes is to be commenced, the to be a little deeper than is necessary drill-plough should be set to work to with previous dunging on the surface . open a few drills, so that on the following Carting Dung for Potatoes.—The morning the full force of men, women, more expeditious plan is to have the dung boys, and horses, may at once get into carted in a heap on the field before the

action. As soon as the carts with the

rush of spring work sets in. In this case dung get into drills they are followed by the carting of the dung into the drills is men, women, and boys spreading the speedy work . But it is very often found dung. These again are closely succeeded

that better cropsof potatoes are obtained by women and boys plantingthe seed, and from dung carted right from the cattle- by a man sowing the artificial manure.

court to the drills than from exactly similar dung which had some time before been carted into a heap on the field. Where the lessening of spring work is of special importance , as in late districts, with their long winter and short growing season, it will perhaps still be best to pursue the practice of carting the dung

One or two drill - ploughs are opening drills, and one or two closing in, ac cording to the size of the farmand the extentto which potatoes are cultivated. In some cases the ploughs open one way and cover the other. Single v. Drill Plough . — Mr Speir, Newton Farm , Glasgow , says : “ On any

268

PLANTING POTATOES .

land , fine or firm , where one or more should be avoided by throwing the dung, ploughs can be kept in constant work, a not into the centre drill, but into the

single mould -board plough with a speci-

drill on the side of the cart next to where

ally narrow mould - board on, makes much

the dunging was begun .

better work and is easier held than the double one. With it the soil is lifted

the graipfuls of dung in the drills is

Spreading Dung.-The spreading of

and turned right over on the dung and done by men , lads, and women . sets — not shoved over as with the other. In England women are rarely seen at Here no double mould-boards are used at this work, and in Scotland also the planting time." It is very important custom of employing them at it is by

that the double mould plough should be some strongly condemned as unbefitting formed so as to turn over rather than

modern civilisation.

press the soil outwards.

upon a discussion of the question here.

We shall not enter

Upon a large farm , where a consider- Our object is rather to describe practices able area is devoted to potatoes, the as they exist. Certainly much less female operations of opening drills, carting dung labour is now engaged in outdoor farm spreading dung, planting seed, sowing work than in former times, and the ten

artificial manure, and closing in drills, dency is still towards diminution. are all proceeding simultaneously. There

In many parts of Scotland women are

is no more active scene upon a farm in the course of the whole year than this ; and few operations afford greater opportunities for the exercise of skill and fore-

still extensively employed in spreading dung. It is undeniable that they do it almost as well and as expeditiously as average men ; and they are usually far

thought in arranging and controlling superior to lads and boys. A long shafted steel fork or graip, with three Filling Dung . — To avoid delay in the or four prongs, is best suited for spread field, and keep the horses as active as pos- ing dung. It is very important that farm labour.

sible, one or two men may be employed the dung should be finely broken and at the dung-heap in assisting the drivers of the carts in throwing the dung into the carts, which is done with ordinary four-pronged steel graips. The move-

evenly spread in the drill. Lumps of dung should be thoroughly broken, and rolls of straw or other litter undone, so that the dung may not only be evenly

ments of the carts are so arranged that distributed over the land, but be so ex

only one, or at most two carts are at the posed to the surrounding soil as that it dung-heap getting filled at one time. Distributing Dung from Carts.

may speedily and regularly decompose. Four or five workers will, in average

The dung is thrown from the cart into circumstances, spread as fast as one drill the drill in graipfuls as the horses move plough can cover in. on at a moderate pace. The quantity of Planting the Seed . — The spreaders

dung intended to be given to the land is of dung are followed immediately by a Women evenly apportioned by the farmer or over- similar force planting the seed.

seer, fixing the length of drill which loads make the best planters.

Five or six

of certain size should cover, and seeing planters with theseed regularly supplied that the man throws out the dung in uniform graipfuls at regular distances. Intelligent horsemen very quickly become expert at this practice, which is far more expeditious and satisfactory than the antiquated method of dragging the dung out of the cart into heaps in the drills. Three ordinary drills are just about the width of a farm - cart. The dung is often thrown into the drill in which the

to them will plant as fast as the four or five workers will spread the dung; and this force of spreaders and planters, with one man to sow the artificial manure,

will keep one drill-plough at full work in covering in. It is perhaps better that each planter carry her own sets, as a relief to the stooping posture is thus obtained , and each planter should have a separate drill, otherwise parts may be

horse is walking, and one wheel of the missed.

The sets are dropped into the

second cart thus runs over the dung drill upon the top of the dung, at from thrown out from the first cart. This 9 to 14 inches apart. packing of the dung by the cart-wheel Planting -machines . — Machines have

PLANTING POTATOES.

269

been invented for planting potatoes, but half of the land on one row of sets and have not come into use to any consid- the other half on the other, both of the

erable extent. They plant only whole drills being completely covered in two sets.

Conveying Seed to the Planters.-

rounds of the plough. The whole of the drills dunged and planted should be cov

The sets are shovelled either into sacks ered every day — the man who has been like corn, or into the body of close carts, opening helping the one who is covering, and placed, in most cases, on one or both after he has opened enough to serve for

head-ridges or middle of the field, accord- the day, with a few for a start next ing to the length of the ridges. When morning. Where there is only one drill-plough, the drills are short, the most convenient

way to get at the sets is from a cart; but it is employed alternatively in opening when drills are long, sacks are best placed and covering in, or opens one way and along the centre ofthe field. A still bet-

covers the other.

Or the single board

ber plan, if a horse can be spared, is for plough is used as described on page 267. a boy to drive the potatoes alongside the

Complete Planting as it proceeds.

planters. The cart can go in the drills - It is undesirable to open many more that are covered, and the boy will carry drills than canbe planted and covered in the sets to the workers. before nightfall, lest inclement weather In some cases a small round willow should set in, and so render the opened

basket, with a bow-handle, fig . 321 , is drills too stale before the planting can be provided for each person who plants the resumed . The work of planting is done most satisfactorily where, as far as it

goes, it is begun and completed in the same day. Danger of leaving Dung and Seed

uncovered . — Most farmers are specially

careful as to the completion of the work of potato-planting as it goes on. In many cases it is insisted that, even at loosing

Fig. 321. - Potato hand -basket.

from the forenoon yoking, every drill should be covered in, although the plough man should work a little longer than the rest of the work -people ; for which deten tion he would delayas long in yoking in the afternoon. In dry hot weather he should make it a point to cover in the drills at the end of the forenoon yoking in a complete manner, as dung soon be

Others prefer aprons of stout sacking. As a considerable number of hands are required, boys and girls may be employed beyond the ordinary fieldworkers. The frying-pan shovel,fig. 252 comes scorched by the mid -day sun, and ( vol. ii. ), with its sharp point, is a con- in that state is not in good condition ; venient instrument for taking the sets not on account of evaporation of valuable

sets.

out of the cart into the baskets.

Sowing the Artificial Manure.

materials, as what would thus be lost would be chiefly water, but because dry

Whatever artificial is to be given at the dung does not incorporate with the soil time of planting is sown broadcast by hand along the drills, after the dung is spread, and either before or after the seed is planted. A man sowing with two hands will sow as fast as three drill-

for a long time, and still longer when the soil is also rendered dry. If all the ploughs cannot cover in the drills at the hour ofstopping at night, give up dung ing the land and planting the sets a little

ploughs can cover in.

sooner, rather than run the risk of leaving

Covering in . — The drill-plough should any dung and sets uncovered. at once follow the planters, as both dung

Width of Potato -drills .--Drills for

and potatoes suffer by being exposed to potatoes should be made 28 inches to the sun. The drills are split in the same 30 wide, according to kind of potato.

way as they are set up — that is, the Abundance of air is of great importance plough splits the drill, throwing one- to the potato plant. Near large towns

PLANTING POTATOES .

270

the drills are made narrower, from 24 to the size of the farms, a different class inches to 27 inches, the early varieties of of plough is used from that which is potatoes chiefly cultivated there having commonly met with throughout the comparatively small stems.

country.

There the area planted is so

Width and Depth of Sets. — The dis- great in proportion to the power at the tance between the sets in the drill varies

command of the farmer, that a speedier

from 9 to 14 inches, according to the method must be adopted than that in width of the drill, the variety of potato, general use. The plough (one of which, whether the stems are tall, medium, or made by T. Hunter, Maybole, is shown

short, and the character and condition of in fig. 322) has very much the appear the soil and climate, whether likely to favour a heavy or light yield, and the size of the sets. Sets placed 6 inches under the surface yield the greatest crop ; at 3 inches the plants are weak ; and at 9 inches many never come up at all. Experiments with Late Planting .

-The main bulk of the potato crop is

Fig. 322.- Triple drill.plough.

usually planted in spring, except in the later districts, where it is generally done ance of an ordinary 3 -horse grubber, at least so far as the frame is concerned ,

early in May.

It has been suggested that in certain while it has also two similar side-wheels, circumstances potato-planting might be a fore-wheel, and lifting lever. Instead, more remunerative if the tubers were not however, of from five to seven tines, it planted until June. Mr John Speir, has only three, all set abreast, each tine

Newton Farm, Glasgow , conducted experiments with plantings on different dates in June and July in the years 1888 and 1889. Early varieties were planted —whole seed which had been strongly sprouted before being set. Farmyard

being in fact a double mould -board plough hung from the frame. The mould -boards are a little less in size than those in use

in the ordinary mould -board plough, but otherwise they are the same. By this plough, with three horses, three drills

dung alone was used. In 1888, the are opened or covered at one passage of planting on June 30 gave about one- the plough. To work it properly the

third more produce than the planting ten days later. The July plantings were still more unsuccessful in 1889, but in both years the June plantings gave satisfactory

land must of necessity be well prepared beforehand, and any farmyard manure which is to be used has generally been ploughed in some time previously.

In this district, where much of the results. In June 1889 three plantings gave the following results : best potato-land is very sandy, a peculiar classof double mould -board plough is also Planted . Produce. used to earth up the potatoes. In it the June 10 7 tons per acre . !!

20

512

29

4

11

mould -boards are solid and continuous

from the sole of the plough to the top of the drill, so that in working in dry wea

Mr Speir is quite convinced that the ther thewhole weight of the plough is system is capable of great expansion, exerted in pressing the sandy earth on more particularly on market-garden farms the side of the drill, and in the driest or in late districts. But he adds, that to weather slipping down rarely happens. be attended with any measure of success The same class of plough is in use on the at all, the seed must be sprouted, and the early potato-lands of Cheshire, from which sprouts must never have been broken off, district the Ayrshire men adopted it. but be the first ones which come. An Ayrshire

Practice.-

The Lazy - bed System.- Another

On the mode of field -culture for potatoes is in

earliest farms along the coast of Ayr- lazy-beds, very common in Ireland. This shire, principally around Girvan, May- system is becoming less general on arable

bole, and Ayr, where the area of potatoes land, though on lea -ground it gives very grown is excessively large in proportion good results, and seems indeed to be

PLANTING POTATOES. best suited to certain circumstances.

In

271

row acts as a complete drain for surface

the island of Lewis drill -sowing was at water ; but wherever drilling is practi one time adopted, but found unsuitable cable, it is decidedly preferable, the pro for the soil and climate, and the lazy-bed duce being greater indrills than in what

system had again to be resorted to . The may be termed, comparatively, a broad usual method is to remove a line of turf

cast method .” 1

along the margin of the proposed lazyCulture after Planting. — Potatoes bed , after which a slight covering of require a considerable amount of horse dung is given, and the next line of turf work both before and after brairding.

turned over green side under upon the As soon as convenient after planting, the top of the sets.

The next line is turned

drills should be harrowed down either

over without sets, then dung, &c. ; this with a set of light zigzag harrows or

proceeding being adopted along thewhole chain - harrows, or, better still, with a bed, until finished, after which a trench saddle -drill harrow, such as is illustrated is cut or formed round the edges to carry in fig. 273, p. 205. Immediately after, off any surplus moisture .

the drills are again set up with the double

In reference to Ireland, Martin Doyle moulded plough. When the plants are says : “ In bogs and mountains, where the well sprung, but before they are too far plough cannot penetrate through strong advanced, the drills should be again har soil, beds are the most convenient rowed down.

This makes a fine surface

for the petty farmer, who digs the sod for the young plants, and helps to keep with his long narrow spade, and either down weeds. A very suitable implement lays the sets on the inverted sod—the

to crush clods on strong land is a fluted

manure being previously spread - cover- roller to embrace two drills. This crushes ing them from the furrows by the shovel; the clods, and rolls them into the hollow or, as in parts of Connaught and Munster,

of the drills.

he stabs the ground with his loy — a long Hand -hoeing. — The drills are then narrow spade peculiar to the labourers of hand -hoed, loosening the soil around Connaught - jerks a cut set into the the young plants and removing weeds. fissure when he draws out the tool, and

The hollows of the drills are stirred with

afterwards closes the set with the back of the drill - harrow or horse -hoe, and then the same instrument, covering the sur- the drills are set up with the double

face, as in the case of lazy -beds, from the mould plough. furrows.

Unless weeds are

SO

abundant and strong as to necessitate

“ The general Irish mode of culture on another hoeing, no further tillage may old rich arable lea is to plough the fields be required. in ridges, to level them perfectly with the Varieties of Potatoes. spade, then to lay the potato -sets upon the surface, and to cover them with or

The potato belongs to the class and

without manure by the inverted sods from order Pentandria Monogynia of Lin the furrows. The potatoes are afterwards næus ; the family Solaneæ of Jussieu ; earthed once or twice with whatever and to class iii. Perigynous exogens ; mould can be obtained from the furrows alliance 46, Solanales ; order 238, Sola

by means of spade and shovel. And after naceæ ; tribe 2, Curvembyree ; genus these earthings, the furrows, becoming Solanum of the natural system of Lind deep trenches, form easy means for water ley. - On this remarkable family of

to flow away, and leave the planted plants, Lindley observes that they are ground on each side of them compara- “ natives of most parts of the world tively dry.

without the arctic and antarctic circles,

“ The practice in the south of Ireland especially within the tropics, in which the is to growpotatoes on grass land from one mass of the order exists in the form of to three years old, and turnips afterwards

the genera Solanum and Physalis. The

manuring each time moderately, as the number of species of the former genus is best preparation for corn, and as a pre- very great in tropical America. At first vention of the disease called fingers-and- sight this order seems to offer an excep toes in turnips. In wet bog-land, ridges and furrows are the safest, as the fur-

1 Doyle's Cy. Prac. Husb .-- art. “ Potato .”

PLANTING POTATOES.

272

tion to that general correspondence in black berries. These plants can be iden structure and sensible qualities which is tified botanically only by an examination so characteristic of well -defined natural of the leaves and berries.

The active

orders, containing as it does the deadly principle in both is an alkaloid, Solania , nightshade and henbane, and the whole- which is itself a poison, although not some potato and tomato ; but a little in- very energetic : two grains of the sulphate quiry will explain this apparent anomaly.

killed a rabbit in a few hours.

Accord

Theleaves and berries of the potato are ing to Liebig, this poisonous alkaloid is narcotic ; it is only its tubers that are wholesome when cooked . This is the

formed in and around the shoot of the

common potato when it germinates in

case with other succulent underground darkness ; but there is no evidence that stems in equally dangerous families, as the potatoes are thereby rendered inju the cassava among spurgeworts ; besides rious. Their noxious qualities are prob which, as De Candolle justly observes, ' Il ably due to other causes. The Wild Potato . - Having been so ne faut pas perdre de vue que tous nos ali-

mens renferment un petite dose d'un principe excitant, qui, s'il y etait en grande plus quantité pourrait être nuisible,mais qui y est nécessaire pour leur servir de

long familiar with the potato in a culti vated state, it is interesting to become acquainted with its appearance in its native localities and unaltered condition .

The leaves of all “ The wild potato ,” says Darwin , “ grows are, in fact, narcotic and exciting, but in on these islands, the Chonos Archipelago,

condiment naturel.'

different degrees, from Atropa belladonna, which causes vertigo, convulsions, and vomiting, to tobacco, which will frequent ly produce the first and last of these symptoms; henbane and stramonium , down to some Solanums, the leaves of which are used as kitchen herbs. An extract of the leaves of the common

potato, Solanum tuberosum, is a powerful narcotic, ranking between belladonna and conium ; according to Mr Dyer, it is particularly serviceable in chronic rheuma-

in great abundance in the sandy, shelly soilnear the sea -beach. The tallest plant was 4 feet in height. The tubers were generally small, but Ifound one of an oval shape, 2 inches in diameter ; they resem bled in every respect, and had the same smell, as English potatoes ; but when boiled they shrank much, andwere watery and insipid, without any bitter taste. They are undoubtedly here indigenous ; they grow as far south, according to Mr Low, as lat. 50°, and are called Aquinas

tism , and painful affections of the stomach by the wild Indians of that part : the and uterus. ... The common potato in Chilotan Indians have a different name

a state of putrefaction is said to give out a most vivid light, sufficient to read by. This was particularly remarked by an officer on guard at Strasburg, who thought the barracks were on fire, in consequence of the light thus emitted from a cellar full of potatoes." 1 The Solanaceae, or Nightshades, comprise 900 species, of which we have only

for them . “ Professor Henslow , who has examined

the dried specimens which I brought home, says that they are the same as those described by Mr Sabine from Val paraiso, but that they form a variety which by some botanists has been consid

ered as specifically distinct. It is remark able that the same plant should be found

five in Britain. The genus Solanum has on the sterile mountains of Central Chili,

only two British representatives— Sola- where a drop of rain does not fall for found occasionally in hedges; and Sola- damp forests of these southern islands.” ? num dulcamara, a pretty climbing shrub, more than six months, and within the num nigrum , with an herbaceous stem .

“ The potato (Solanum tuberosum ) was

Both these plants, like the rest of the generally cultivated in America at the tribe, are strongly narcotic. The Sola- time of its discovery ; but it is only a few num dulcamara, bitter-sweet, or woody years since its native country has been nightshade, has a purple flower and bears ascertained with certainty. Humboldt red berries; the Solanum nigrum , or gar- sought for it in vain in the mountains of

den nightshade, bears white flowers and Peru and New Granada, where it is cul 1 Lindley's Veg. King ., 619-21 .

? Voy. H.M.S. Beagle round the ITorld , 285.

PLANTING POTATOES.

273

tivated in common with Chenopodium according to Katsoffer, an elevation of quinoa. Before his time the Spanish 4800 feet. botanists Ruiz and Pason were said to

“ Towards the north of Europe, the

have discovered it in a wild state at potato extends beyond the limits of bar Chancay on the coast of Peru. This fact ley, and consequently that of all the was doubted after the journey of Hum- cereals ; thus an early variety has been

boldt and Bonpland, but it was reassert- introduced into Iceland, where barley

ed by Caldcleugh, who sent spontaneous will not grow. The potato degenerates plants from Chili to the Horticultural rapidly in warm countries, yet the English Society of London ; and latterly Mr have succeeded in cultivating it in the Cruikshanks confirmed it in a letter to mountainous regions of India ; but it is Sir William Hooker, in which he says,

doubtful if it will ever succeed in the

— This wild potato is very common at Valparaiso ; it grows chiefly on the hills near the sea. It is often found in mountainous districts far from habitations, and never in the immediate vicinity of fields

intertropical plains of Africa and America, where the temperature varies less than in Bengal. An elevation of at least 4000 feet seems to be necessary for the growth of the potato in tropical regions.

and gardens.' There is little doubt, thereSelecting Varieties for different fore , that Chili is the native country of Soils . — A remark of Mäers, that “ some

the potato ; but Meyer affirms that he potatoes put out long filaments into the found it in a wild state, not only in the soil, others press their tubers so closely mountains of Chili, but also in the Cordillera of Peru.”

together that they showthemselves above ground,” suggests considerations in the

Introduction into Europe. — It is selection of potatoes, which do not re asserted that Sir Francis Drake intro-

ceive sufficient attention from farmers

duced the potato into Europe in 1573 ; in search of seed -potatoes. On choosing but this is very doubtful, since it has also seed, it is too often the case that the been ascribed to Sir John Hawkins in 1563 ; it is, however, certain that Raleigh

tuber alone is regarded, without refer

ence to the habit of growth of the plant

brought it from Virginia to England in under ground ; and many of those who 1586 ; and it appears probable, from the profess to study the habits of the plant, learned researches of M. Dunal, that the confine their attention to the stem , foli

Spaniards had established its cultivation in Europe before this time. It was first cultivated extensively in Belgium in 1590, in Ireland in 1610, and in Lancashire in

age, and flowers, while the habits under ground of roots and tubers are entirely neglected. Now, when it has been ascer tained that one variety “ puts out long 1684. Between 1714 and 1724 it was filaments into the soil,” surely it is im

introduced into Swabia, Alsace, and the proper to plant that variety in strong

Palatinate ; in 1717 it was brought to soils, which necessarily oppose the pene Saxony ; it was first cultivated in Scotland in 1728 ; in Switzerland, in the canton of Berne, in 1730 ; it reached Prussia in 1738, and Tuscany in 1767. It spread slowly in France till Parmentier, in the middle of the eighteenth century, gave it so great an impulse that it was contemplated to give his name to the plant ;

tration of tender filamentsthrough them , when a light soil is just suited to that

peculiarity of growth. Mr John Speir writes that on his farm , where all pota toes are grown for seed purposes, coarse, degenerate, or foreign varieties are reg ularly dug out every season before the crop is matured .

the famine in 1793 did still more to exCultivators should take the trouble of tend its cultivation. investigating experimentally the peculiar

Distribution of the Potato . — Accord- growth under ground of different varieties ing to Humboldt, the potato is generally of the potato-plant, so that it may be cultivated in the Andes, at an elevation cultivated in soil suited to its nature,

from 9800 to 13,000 feet ; which is and thereby return the largest yield of nearly the same elevation to which barley sound, wholesome, and palatable tubers. attains, and about 9800 feet higher Varieties in Use.— The varieties of than wheat. In the Swiss Alps of the

canton of Berne, the potato reaches, 1 Johnston's Phys. Atl., — " Phyto.,” Map No. 2.

PLANTING POTATOES.

274

potatoes now in use are very numerous. in connection with other “ Fungoid Several hundreds indeed there are, and every year adds to the number.

Diseases

of crops.

The Boxing System of preparing The principal kinds planted now are Potato-sets. the various sorts of Regents for early sale, while Magnum Bonums and ChamMr John Speir, Newton Farm , Glas pions form the main crop. More interest gow , thus describes the system of pre is taken in rearing new potatoes by paring the potato -sets in boxes : hybridisation, and new varieties of conThis system was introduced for the

siderable promise are offered to farmers purpose of maturing the potato crop sooner than could be done by the ordi The influences of soil and climate in- nary manner of planting. It is said to

every season .

troduce variations in the different sorts,

have been first introduced in Jersey,

but the multiplicity of varieties is due where it is extensively practised. Along mainly to the raising of new sorts from

the whole of the Firth of Clyde it is

It has been found that an

more or less in use on all the earlier

the seed.

occasional new variety successfully re- farms, and more particularly in the sists disease for a few years, and this, of neighbourhood of Girvan it has been course, has given a great stimulus to carried to such an extent that several propagation from seed . farmers there have upwards of a hun Good Potatoes.-A good potato is dred acres of potatoes all planted from neither large nor small, but of medium boxes. Boxes. — The boxes may be of any size ; of round shape, or elongated

spheroid ; the skin of rough and netted convenient size or shape, provided they appearance, and homogeneous; and the are not too deep, the size in most com eyes neither numerous nor deep -seated. mon use being about 2 feet long, 18 Smooth potatoes are almost always inches broad, and from 3 to 4 inches watery and deficient in starch .

deep. Each box generally holds from 3 Some kinds of potatoes, as Kidneys to 4 stones of potatoes, the former being and Regents, are fit to use when lifted, about the average. The boxes are made of

but other kinds improve with keeping, 12-inch deal, and have pins i inch square and 6 inches high nailed in each corner. The intrinsic value of a potato, as an The top of these pins therefore projects article of commerce, is estimated by the from 2 to 3 inches above the edge of

and are best in spring.

quantity of starch it yields on analysis ; the box. These pins are strengthened but, as an article of domestic consump- in their position by having another bar, tion, the flavour of the starchy matter is 1 inch square, nailed across the ends, of as great importance as its quantity. and reaching from the top of the one Almost every person prefers a mealy corner pin to the top of the other. These potato to a waxy one, and the more

cross-bars also serve as handles for car

mealy it is usually the better flavoured . rying theulboxes, besides being in other

The mealiness consists of a layer of mucilage immediately under the skin, covering the starch or farina, which is held together by fibres. Light soil yields a potato more mealy than a strong soil ; and a light soil pro-

ways usef .

Tubers Boxed. — The potatoes used may be of any variety, but where early

maturity is the main object, only the earliest varieties are used.

Those most

in demand at present are Don, Sutton's

duces a potato of the same variety of Early Regent, Beauty of Hebron, Good better flavour than a clay soil. Thus soil has an influence on the flavour, as

rich , Dalmahoy, and Red Bogg, in the

order here enumerated . Only small or well as on culture ; and the culture which medium -sized potatoes are used, all over raises potatoes from soil which has been 14 inch and under 134 inch in diam dunged for some time, imparts to them eter being considered suitable.

a higher flavour than when grown in

Cut Seed Unsuitable . Cut seed

immediate contact with dung. The destructive fungoid disease known

cannot so satisfactorily be used, because

the sets remain so long in the boxes, and as Peronospora infestans is dealt with such a quantity of the moisture evapo

PLANTING POTATOES.

275

rates from the sets that they ultimately with the potatoes in them are removed shrivel up, and become so dry that the to the field in carts, and distributed bud never starts into life.

along the side of the land, placed Boxing the seed.— The seed may be in much the same way as being sacks of cut placed in the boxes any time between potato -sets are put down before planting

the end of July and the New Year, the begins. most suitable time being probably September or October.

At the latter end

The sprouts at this time may be from 2 to 4 or more inches long, but instead

of July, all potatoes which are at that of being white and brittle like those seen time dug and of too small size for table on potatoes in an ordinary pit, they are use, may at once be put into boxes, and blue and tough, and not at all readily

thus preserved for seed to the following broken off. The tubers are generally re spring. In the boxes they keep with moved from the boxes by light trowels, very little loss, even although quite soft and carefully deposited in hand -scoops of and green

when put in, whereas if stored such a size that a woman or boy can

in the ordinary manner all would be easily carry them full in one hand , while lost. the potatoes are picked from them and Storing Boxes. During autumn planted with the other. The removal of the boxes may be stored in any unused the potatoes from the boxes to the scoops

barn, byre, shed, or other house which is is generally the work of one or more

rain -proof. The boxes are placed in tiers careful persons, as they will not bear rough handling, while others carry them when filled to the planters. If the sprouts are comparatively short, the sets may be transferred from the boxes to over the depth of the box giving sufficient the planters' aprons in the usual way of room for the ventilation of the tubers and carrying cut potato -sets; but by doing one above the other to any convenient height, the corner pins and cross-bars of the one box supporting the weight of those above, the extra height of the pins growth of the sprouts.

so the plants get much rougher hand

When cold weather sets in, the boxes ling, and a few are always more or less should be removed to some position where damaged. Seed per Acre. — The seed required they will be free from the effects of frost. Very many are stored on the joists of to plant an acre on this system varies

byres, bullock - houses, &c., where the very considerably according to the size heat from the animals is always sufficient of the potatoes used. Where the small est size of potatoes are planted, 30

to start germination, and keep out most frosts.

Others, again, are stored in boxes containing from 3 to 372 stones

empty cheese - rooms and other houses will be found amply sufficient, even specially built for the purpose, which are where two-foot drills are made, and close provided with artificial heat in the shape planting in the drill is followed. If, of a stove or other heating apparatus. however, the potatoes are larger, say

It is not often that the heating apparatus requires to be called into use, but it is almost a necessity against occasional extreme frosts, and it comes in handy for pushing on late boxed or tardy ger-

about 134 inch in diameter, 50 boxes of the same capacity may not be more than sufficient. In the former case, there: fore, 12 cwt. or so will be sufficient for

an acre of land, while a ton may be re quired in the latter. minating tubers. Planting Boxed Seed. — Planting is Advantages of the System. - The generally begun about the first of March, reasons of the success of this system

and in the most favoured localities a little appear to be,—ist, the gain in time by

earlier. Before this system was adopted, the localities which now use it generally began to plant in January or February, but now there is nothing to be gained by beginning so early, and much may be lost

the sets being sprouted before being ing to which the seed is subjected to in the boxes so ripens the potatoes and alters the constitution of the plant, that

planted ; and 2d, the long period of dry

by frost cutting off the haulms of the it matures its tubers the following season plants after they have come through the much quicker than if it had been pre ground. Previous to planting, the boxes served and planted in the usual way.

PLANTING POTATOES.

276

A crop from seed which has been boxed know, new varieties of potatoes are is usually ready to lift three weeks earlier raised from the plum, as it is popularly than one grown from similar seed which

called.

The plum holds the same rela

has not been boxed. The produce is, tion to the potato -plant as the apple however, generally believed to be a little does to the apple-tree. It is the fruit, less than that grown in the ordinary way, and, within , the fruit contains the seeds. more The seeds of the apple or orange, I pre but the higher price at that than makes up for the lessened crop and sume, every one is familiar with. The potato also, like them, has its seeds extra expense incurred .

In the forcing of rhubarb, hyacinths, contained in a mass of pulp, which , narcissi, spiræa, &c., the plants or bulbs however, unlike the apple or orange, is must all be rested a certain time before not of such a pleasant taste. Hence growth will begin, no matter what heat the seed of the potato is not so well and moisture are used ; and in the case of the potato, the dry - keeping in the

known. Seedless Varieties . — Some varieties

boxes instead of the damp - keeping of potatoes do not throw up flowers, and in pits, appears to have a somewhat

therefore cannot have plums. Seed must

similar effect, as more time is gained thus be looked for only on those varieties than is accounted for simply by sprout- which have flowers. Again, all varieties ing.

An unsprouted crop may indeed

which have blossoms do not have plums,

look as far forward as a sprouted one,

as some appear unable to set a single bloom , unless on very rare occasions. With plants as with animals, in -breeding, if I may so express it, although not at first very hurtful in its effects, is very liable if persisted in to have a deleterious influence on either plant or animal ; the stamina of both evidently becoming so reduced, that they fall a ready prey to

and yet not exhibit half the weight of tubers.

Raising New Varieties of Potatoes. New Varieties Resisting Disease.

-Ever since the well - known potato disease ( Peronospora infestans) manifested its effects with such baneful influence, the raising of new varieties has been incessantly pursued, because it was

disease.

found that new varieties withstood the disease better than most old ones . It

which nature has adopted in plants, not

Cross - fertilisation .

- The methods

exactly to prevent self - fertilisation, but has, however, been found that potatoes to favour cross-fertilisation, are numerous, which were almost absolutely proof curious, and very interesting. Darwin

against disease when first introduced, proved beyond doubt that certain plants have in course of time gradually fallen

if self-fertilised would attain a moderate

a prey to it, until in the end they had

size ; if cross-fertilised from plants grow to be discarded altogether. Since the ing alongside of them, they would attain introduction of the Champion and Mag- a much greater size, and if fertilised from num Bonum, this search after new dis- plants of the same variety grown on ease - resisting varieties has received a different soil, some miles away, their size marked impetus, and as these varieties would be still further increased . likewise began to show evident signs of These facts are of very great import decay, the desire for new varieties con- ance to the raiser of new varieties of

tinued to increase. In order, therefore, potatoes. In fact, it is principally on to stimulate private energy in the direc- cross-fertilisation that he relies for suc

tion of introducing new and improved cess. A new and quite good enough varieties, we produce here the following potato may be raised from seed where description of the process, prepared for no intentional cross -fertilisation has been us by Mr John Speir, Newton Farm , done, but the chances are that such a

Glasgow. The illustrations used in de- plant has been self - fertilised, or cross scribing this process are taken (by the fertilised by a plant of its own variety. kind permission of the publishers, Messrs The consequence will be that a much

A. & C. Black) from Balfour’s ‘ Elements smaller proportion of the seeds sown will of Botany.' Potato - seeds.

produce plants having vigorous constitu

As most people tions, than if a different and improved

PLANTING POTATOES.

277

variety from a dissimilar class of soil had called the stigma, with pollen -grains, P, been used in fertilisation . adherent to it, sending tubes, tp, down Male and Female Organs. — Among

plants, as among animals, there are male and fe male organs, which in most plants are situated in the same flower . some,

On how

ever,

the c, Calyx.

male

of a flower. Fig. 323. - Section al P , Pet .

8, Stamen .

blos

are on one

the

and

part of soms plant the female ones on another, while in others the males and females are on separate plants.

Fig. 325. – Vertical section of a potato -blossom . P, Petals .

Fig . 326. - Stamen dis

charging pollen . a, Slits in the anther. P, Pollen ,

c, Calyx.

e, Stamens.

8 , Pistil.

0 , Ovary.

In fig. 323 is shown a section of a flower, in which c represents the calyx or the conducting tissues of the style, styl ;

short green hard leaves at the base of the ovule is 0; while in ( 2), p is a pollen most powers, p is the petal or flower grain separated , proper, s is a stamen , of which there are and tp its tube. two shown on either side of the central

stg

P

Fig. 328 repre

figure : these are the male parts of the sents à pollen

P

flower, while the centre part is the pistil grain very much . or female part. magnified , show Fig . 324 is a horizontal section show- ing three points where the tubes ing the organs of fructification of the

potato ,

where

come out, one of

the

which is consider

calyx or outer scales

ably elongated. Fig. 329 is a very much magni

are five in number, and the blossom pro contains five

per

fied vertical sec

petals, the one over

tion of the style and stigma of the pistil, showing two pollen - grains on

lapping the other. Inside the circle of Fig . 324.- Horizontal

petals are shown five

section .

stamens, and inside

the top ,throwing that again the pistil, with seed -pod at out their protruding tubes which de

its base.

ty

styl

tp

1

Fig . 327. - Pistil with

pollen -grains on top. (1) stg, Stigma; P , pollen

In fig. 325 is shown a vertical section scendtothe ovules. o,grains; ip,tubes ; styl,style: -grain ; (2) P, pollen Process of tp,ovule. its tube. of a potato -blossom , in which c represents the calyx ; P, the petals, or bloom Cross-fertilising. proper; e, the stamens ; s, the pistil; and -When it is wished to cross-fertilise a O, the

ovary or seed -vessel. At a certain potato-blossom , the flower is held stead

age the stamens throw off from their top ily in the left hand, while with the right parts of the flower, a very fine powder, which is called pollen. the stamens, or Fig. 326 represents a stamen in the are cut away with a pair of fine- pointed act of discharging its pollen, which in scissors, or a sharp and fine- pointed some cases is thrown out through slits knife.

These are the parts marked s in

in the anther, a, or top part, while in fig. 323, and e in figure 325, all of which

others, like the potato, it comes out must be destroyed soon after the bloom through holes or tubes.

has expanded.

Three or four days after

Fig. 327 is a pistil with pollen-grains wards, on a bright clear day, the bloom on the top. VOL. II.

The uppermost part, stg, is of some plant which it is intended to T

PLANTING POTATOES .

278

cross with the one on which we have showing the seeds inside. According to operated, is taken, and the pollen scat- variety the size of the plum may vary tered on the stigma of the mutilated from that of a cherry to the size of a plant. If the anthers are ripe, this can be very readily done by bending the stamens back with the tip of one of the

fingers, then letting it spring forward again , when the pollen will be thrown off. Another way is to brush them with

塔

Fig. 330.-- Potato -plum .

damson plum . magnified seed. Marking

Fig. 331. - Plum cut, showing seed's inside

Fig. 332 represents a

Fertilised

Plum .

- In

order that the plum of the flower on which cross - fertilisation has been

practised may not be mistaken for some self-fertilised one, each bloom as oper ated on should be tied to a stake, to

which a label is affixed, giving the name of parent, date of cutting the stamens

away, date of fertilisation, and name of Fig. 328. -Pollen -grain

magnified .

the variety used for cross ing. Flowers thus labelled are easily found, as the

Fig. 329. – Vertical section of style and stigma mag . nified.

a dry feather or small camel-hair brush,

0

white stakes and

labels

are good guides, and worth

pollen - grains, which by drawing across the stigma are in part conveyed to it.

all the labour for that Fig. 332. — Potato alone. Ripe Plums. When seed magnified.

The top of the stigma always contains

the plums are thoroughly

which takes on a certain amount of the

more or less glutinous matter, on which ripened, they should be gathered and the the pollen -grains readily stick .

seeds separated from the pulp.

The

If it is desired to make the cross-fer- ripening stage is easily known, because tilisation very accurate, and to be certain as maturity is approached the stalk bear that no other pollen-grains are conveyed ing the plum first withers, then gradually

to the stigma by insects or the wind, the bloom may betied to a stake and covered with a small fine canvas bag, or a glass globe. For the purpose of raising seedling

shrivels up, ultimately becoming so dry that it breaks, when the plum drops on the ground. If left to themselves the plums soon rot, the hard seeds alone re

maining fresh, and if these are kept

potatoes these precautions are, however, moderately dry and out of the reach of unnecessary. It may be here mentioned birds they remain dormant till spring, that when a potato-bloom has been only when they begin life anew. a day or so opened, the organs of fructifi-

Securing and Storing Seeds . — For

cation then have a more or less greenish experimental purposes, however, the

tint, the colour of the stamens and pistil plums should be cut up when ripe, and being as yet only partially developed ; - the seeds picked out and dried under that is the time to cut away the stamens.

cover, preferably on a window -sill, or in

a dry greenhouse ; and when dried suf than the pistil, but as they approach ma- ficiently to keep during the winter, they turity they become more of one length. may be stored away in any dry situation. At first the stamens are much shorter

Fig. 330 represents the ripened plum, Instead of thoroughly drying the seeds, while fig. 331is one cut across the centre, they may be mixed with dry earth or

PLANTING POTATOES.

sand, and thus stored during the winter, the whole ( the earth or sand and seeds) being sown in a seed -bed in spring. The plums may even be treated in this way, by surrounding them with dry earth and letting them so remain till spring, by which time the pulp will have rotted or dried up, leaving the seeds more or less mixed up with the soil.

279

The first year all plants not positive ly bad should be preserved, and a note kept of any peculiarities of growth, shape, colour, size, or productiveness of each. Storing . – With many experimenters,

the separation and preservation of, it may be, several hundred varieties, has been a serious drawback to their con

Either plan may be adopted successfully tinuing the search for improved kinds. enough , but personally I prefer the first.

This, however, may be easily overcome

Sowing the Seed. - In spring the in the following manner: A number of seeds may be sown under glass any time ordinary drain -pipes should be procured,

during February, March, or April, the and, for the first year's crop, the smaller young plants being kept under glass, the bore the better.

One end of the

particularly at nights, until all risk of pipe having been closed bya small wisp frost is gone. If no glass is at hand, the of hay or straw, the tubers of each variety are put in along with their number, when April or May, when it may be sown another small portion of straw, or piece

sowing of the seed should be deferred till

thinly on any garden soil in a small bed of turf from an old pasture, is put on the by itself. The

Young

Seedlings. — In the

top, then another variety, and so on till the tiles are all filled. The first year

month of May the young seedlings each tile may hold several varieties, should be planted out, in rows not less whereas the second year one variety than 20 inches apart, with i foot be- may be more than enough for one nar tween the plants.

If the seeds have row - bored tile, in which case two may

been raised from strong-growing varieties be used, or larger-sized ones procured. such as Champion orMagnum Bonum , Small strips of wood, coated with white the seedlings will be all the better of lead, and marked with an ordinary lead

more space ; while if they are from smaller- pencil, serve for numbering each lot; or stemmed varieties, such as Myat’s Kid- pieces of tin, with the figures stamped on, ney, &c., they can do with less space. If may be used, if a set of figure stamps can the ground is dry-bottomed, they should be procured. After packing, the tiles be planted in the bottom of the drills, so may be built up in a heap, and covered as to give a suitable opportunity for as if it were an ordinary potato - pit,

thoroughly earthing them up. But if when they will require no further atten the young plants are likely to run any tion until planting-time in the following risk of being soured at the root by heavy spring. rain they will be better planted on the Period of Development. It is a

flat, the earthing up in either case being common belief that seedling potatoes done as the plant grows. If moderately require several years to form ordinary manured, and kept in good clean order, sized tubers. Such, however, is not the the plants will soon cover the ground, case, as even the very first year many the time they will take to do so being of the varieties may yield potatoes of

not very much longer than if ordinary a medium size and upwards, while the potato sets had been used. second year all worth preserving should Lifting and selecting .- At the end have one or more full-sized potatoes. of October, or beginning of November, Second Year. When the potatoes storing should commence, when the ex- are taken out of the pit or clamp the

perimenter's real difficulties begin. When following spring, they may be planted in storing, all varieties of a very bad shape, the usual way, and at the usual time, no

coloured, or partly coloured skins, or bad particular advantages of soil , situation, colour of the flesh, should at once be re- or manure being given, in order to facil.

jected, as their preservation will likely itate the elimination of the worthless only lead to trouble and expense, with varieties as soon as possible. At the end of the second year, they very little chance of any corresponding gain .

should again be stored in tiles as for

280

HORSES IN SPRING .

merly. This time each variety will re- find it so difficult to cast away seedlings on which they have expended so much

quire one or more tiles for itself.

The selection must this year be much time and care, and to do so appears to more searching than the former one, and them like sacrificing their own children. instead of rejecting only what appeared For want of courage to apply the prun to be positively bad varieties, those onlying -knife severely enough, they continue, should be kept which show some good in the hope that they will yet improve, points, or other noted peculiarity. to propagate and keep in existence a If notes have been taken during both

large number of varieties which no one

the growing seasons of the robustness, but themselves thinks worth devoting earliness, lateness, liability to disease, attention to. The consequence is, that or other peculiarity of the plants, the in the end they become overwhelmed grower will be greatly aided in his se- with varieties which are of no commer lection . cial value, and they throw up the whole

Third Year. — The third year, only thing in disgust. Need for New Varieties . — At pres tubers should be kept whichshow positively some good points, all others being ent there are more than enough varieties

laid aside for consumption. In this way of potatoes in commerce or cultivation. the list will be gradually reduced each Unfortunately, however, there are only autumn and spring, as many good crop- a few good ones, so that the field for re

ping varieties will be found to be bad search is not only a wide, but a very keepers. A large portion of the plants varied one. The qualities requisite to will thus be rejected every autumn, with make a first-class early, medium, or late

a smaller portion in winter and spring, potato are so many, and even good vari as some which have stood the test of eties retain these for such a short time,

several years may be found not to keep that there is likely always to be a de well, or to cook badly. mand for really first-class varieties. Al Retain only Superior Varieties.- though the personal attention requisite After the fourth year, no variety should may be too heavy a drag on the ordinary be kept which the grower does not con- farmer, who already has as much to do sider better than those already in cultiva- as he can well accomplish, the raising tion, because to propagate any that are of new varieties of potatoes might well not superior to those already in use, form a very suitable and interesting undoubtedly in the end will be sure pastime for a proportion of our farmers' to bring pecuniary loss on the grower . sons and daughters, as well as older

It is on this rock that most raisers of farmers and gardeners, who have the new varieties wreck themselves. They time to spare.

HORSES

IN

SPRING.

The feeding and general treatment of tion of the more strength -giving and farm -horses in spring is, in the main, a staying foods, such as oats, should be

continuation of the methods pursued in winter. The various systems of feeding and management are so fully discussed in Divisional vol. ii. pp. 392-420, that little need be said here .

increased, the object being to make the horses strong and active rather than high in condition,and soft and liable to exces sive perspiration. Great attention should be given to the

As the spring advances and the days grooming as well as to the feeding of lengthen, more work has to be accom- horses that are hard worked in the spring When they return to the plished by the horses than fell to their months.

lot throughout the winter. The allow- stable, most likely wet and “ steaming " ances of food must therefore be a little with perspiration or rain, or both, they more liberal. In particular the propor- should at once be well rubbed down with

THE FOALING SEASON . a handful of straw .

Then when dry

281

form or other. A fright, chasing, hurried

they should be combed and well brushed . driving, a kick from another horse, over At night their legs and feet should be exertion at work, a shake between the

cleaned of any clay or earth adhering to shafts of a heavily loaded cart or waggon, them, and a comfortable bed, as well as are amongst the more violent actions

a plentiful and wholesome supper, pro- liable to cause abortion. But it may also be induced by serious illness, improper

vided for them .

A nightly or occasional feed of raw feeding, especially with forcing food, swedes will be relished by work -horses exposure to wet stormy weather, eating in spring ; and many give a warm mash, poisonous plants, consuming frosted food,

consisting perhaps of boiled barley and drinking an excess ofcold water, &c. oats and turnips, at least once a week.

The greatest possible care should be

Good hay is preferable to oat-straw for exercised all through the period of preg hard -worked horses in spring. The mid- nancy, alike in feeding and working day meal in the height of spring work, the mare . She should be fed liberally when the horses are hard driven, and but not excessively, for overfeeding may need rest as well as food, should consist itself cause abortion. It is a well-known

largely of such concentrated sustaining fact that overfed mares are liable to pro The horses speedily duce small foals,and the tendency to this consume a feed of bruised oats, and thus is still greater when the overfed mare is material as oats.

have time for rest.

Hard -worked horses

an idle animal, kept perhaps solely for

should be disturbed as little as possible showing and breeding purposes. When abortion does occur, the mare during the hours allotted for rest and feeding, so that they may return to their should be kept apart from other mares work fresh and vigorous. in foal until they have produced their young. And these other mares should not be allowed access to the spot where THE FOALING SEASON .

the unfortunate mare aborted . Working Mares in Foal. — There is

In connection with the management of chief subject of The foaling season is an anxious time for the owners of brood mares. The risks in foaling are greater than the calving

considerable difference of opinion and ing of mares up to foaling-time. accustomed to steady farm -work may safely enough be kept at the lighter kinds of work up to within a few days, or at

risks, for the bovine race is hardier than

most a week, of the expected date of foal

horses in spring,consideration. foaling is of course the practice amongst farmers as to the Mares work

the equine.

With moderate skill and ing. Indeed, if thework is not too heavy,

timely attention, however, serious losses and she is not overdriven, the mare will

in foaling are not likely to be of frequent be all the better of the exercise. Har occurrence.

Insurance against Foaling Risks.

-Several insurance companies provide special facilities for insurance against losses in foaling, and farmers are very prudently taking advantage of this provision of safety. The cost of insurance is comparatively small, and the sense of

rowing is very suitable farm -work for

mares near foaling ; and they also may be employed safely in ploughing if driven at an easy pace , and not yoked with a rest less ill-natured animal, or in the care of a reckless ill-tempered man. Carting is unsafe work for mares heavy in foal, and should be avoided if at all possible.

security it affords to the farmer is very The shafts may inflict serious injury, and comforting. backing a loaded cart often brings on Abortion in Mares. — Abortion in dangerous abortion . mares, as in other animals, is often difFoaling -box. — About ten days before ficult to account for. Some mares are the date upon which the foal is expected,

predisposed to it by disease, or by mal- the foaling quarters should be prepared. formation of the parts specially involved A large loose -box or shed, apartfrom the

in generation. In the large majority of other horses, is best adapted for the pur cases, however, abortion in the mare may pose ; and the compartment should be be attributed to injury inflicted in one comfortably littered , free from unpleasant

282

HORSES IN SPRING .

smells, perfectly free from draughts which the veterinary surgeon should at once be could play either upon the mother or called in.

Rarely, indeed, is a case of

youngster, yet be so ventilated as to maintain the atmosphere in pure, equable, and wholesome condition. The means of ventilation should thus be placed some

difficult foaling carried through success fully by any except an experienced and specially trained man in obstetrical work amongst farm animals.

little distance above the head of the mare

Difficult Foaling . - If the mare has

when she is standing, perhaps in the roof gone the full time of pregnancy, any ex of the house. Where a special compart- ceptional difficulty in foaling is more than ment such as this does not exist, or can-

likely to arise from the foal lying in an

not be provided , a fairly comfortable foal- abnormal position. The head and fore ing-box may be improvised by removing feet should come first, the head resting a travis and turning two stalls at one end upon the two fore-legs, just as in the case of the stable into one loose-box.

The of a calf.

If the labour pains are pro

foaling compartment should always be tracted without any apparent or sufficient large enough to allow the mare to turn progress, the hand should be smeared herself with ease at any part of it with

with oil or lard, and gently inserted to

out incurring the risk of crushing the discover the position of the foal. If it foal in so doing.

is in its natural position as indicated, a

Watching Mares at Foaling. It is little time will likely complete the pro very desirable

that an eye should be kept cess. If the foal is not yet in the pas on the mare night and day at foaling- sage, give the mare more time, and if time. Mares carry their foals from 330 necessary make another examination. If to 360 days, eleven months being the

the foal is not presenting itself in the

time most generally “ reckoned.” They usual position mentioned, it may be nec are by no means punctual however, and essary to adjust it, or at any rate to very often a mare has to be watched for make some alteration in its position be a week or ten days, occasionally even

fore birth can take place.

longer. This duty may be irksome, but But this delicate work requires so much it is better to endure it than run the risk skill that, as already stated, it cannot be of losing a valuable foal, and perhaps also safely intrusted to any but a well-trained a still more valuable mare. veterinary surgeon. If at all possible, Symptoms of Foaling. – One of the have the veterinary surgeon at hand in surest signs of the approach of foaling is such cases. If this is impossible, obtain afforded by the udder. It of course be- the advice and assistance of the most ex comes large, and a fluid begins to ooze perienced person within reach. Do not out of the teats. At first the fluid is be too hurried in assisting the mare.

thick, dark - coloured, and sticky, but it Watch carefully, and assist nature when gradually becomes white and milk- like. assistance seems likely to be useful. The When this change has set in the foal may

mare needs more skilful and more careful

be expected within twenty -four hours, operating than the cow in difficult par and the mare should not be left for a

turition .

moment till the event has taken place.

Such a case as this, however, is quite Less definite indications of the comple- exceptional. As a rule,all that need be

tion of the period of pregnancy are the provided for the mare is a comfortable drooping of the belly, the swelling of the and cleanly compartment, with just a external organs of generation, and the little less than the usual amount of food flanks sinking inwards. The mare be- given to her when at work. The rest

comes dull and disinclined for exercise, will, in most cases, be accomplished by while the movements of the foal will be seen to grow more distinct and active.

Assistance in Foaling . – Mares sel-

dom need assistance in foaling. When aid is required, great skill and care must be exercised in rendering it. In cases which threaten to be protracted , or show any unusual and dangerous symptoms,

nature.

Reviving an Exhausted Mare. If the mare should seem to be weak or ex

hausted she will be revived by a drink of milk -warm oatmeal gruel, with the addi

tion of a little brandy, perhaps about three ounces. In protracted cases this may have to be repeated at intervals.

THE FOALING SEASON .

283

Support to Mare's Belly. — Brood freed itself from the enveloping mem

mares which have produced several foals branes, so that respiration may set in. are liable, when well up in years, to show Then examine the umbilical cord, or a large extension of belly. For the sake navel-string, and see that it has been of appearance as well as comfort to the severed, and that there is no serious mare, it would be well in extreme cases bleeding. The navel - string is usually

to support the belly for a time after foal- snapped in the act of foaling, but occa

ing with wide soft bandages, wrapped sionally, particularly if the mare is lying several times round the body.

and unable to rise, it may not be broken.

In that case, the attendant should at times occurs in the udder of a mare being once tie a piece of twine around the Mare's Udder . - Inflammation some-

sucked.

The udder is found to be hard navel - string at two places, about two

and hot to the touch, and evidently pain- inches apart, and then sever it between ful to the mare. Foment the udder with the tyings. warm bran -water, rub gently, and draw

Reviving Weak Foals.-It occasion

away a little milk at frequent intervals. It may be necessary to remove the foal for a few days and give the mare a dose of physic. Do not give medicine un-

ally happens that a foal, although still living, is to all appearance dead when born. In this case, efforts should at once be made to induce respiration. A

less the foal is taken away from the mare moment's delay may result in the ex

for the time. A change of diet and low tinction of the vital spark, which, with feeding for a few days may give relief. prompt action, might be fanned into In a bad case, lose no time in calling in active life. Sponge the mouth , face, the veterinary surgeon . and nostrils with cold water, blow hard

After Foaling. — When it is seen that upon the nostrils, smack the sides of the the foaling has been completed success- chest smartly with a cloth, rub the body

fully, andthe mare and foalon their feet, a drink of warm gruel, made of oatmeal and water, or oatmeal, bran, and water, should be given to the mare, some sweet hay being placed in the rack . The two should then be left in solitude fora little time. As a rule they speedily become

well — all this as quickly and deftly as possible, but without violence. In all probability respiration and breathing will begin immediately, and no further trouble will be encountered. Cold water dashed sharply against the chest is some times successful in reviving foals.

accustomed to each other's society, and Weakly foals will be all the better of only in exceptional cases is any further a little extra attention at the outset, in

interference required, either on behalf of the way of rubbing and drying with a the foal or the mare.

woollen cloth.

The limbs as well as the

Cleansing. - In ordinary circumstances body should be well rubbed. It helps the “ after-birth ” will come away of its to promote circulation and give strength own accord very shortly after delivery. to the young creature. If it has not done so within at most a

couple of days, it will most likely have to be removed by the hand . This must

Rearing Foals.

Foal-rearing demands the most careful be done gently and carefully ; and if the attention from the breeder. Foals are after-birth has begun to putrefy, the pas- not so robust as calves, and are more

sage and uterus should be cleansed and subject to injury from cold and wet. disinfected by alternate injections of In the great majority of cases, the foal is reared almost entirely on its mother's After-straining. - If the mare should milk for a period ranging from four to continue to strain heavily for some time six months. Unless exceptional circum warm water and diluted Condy's fluid .

after birth, it may be assumed that all stances have arisen - unless from some is not well with her, and that the ad- cause or other the mare becomes an

vice of the veterinary surgeon would be inefficient or unkindly nurse-it will useful.

rarely happen that the mother and off

Attention to the Foal.— The foal spring require any special aid or inter needs attention the moment it is born. ference until weaning-time arrives. · Coaxing a backward Mare. — Occa First see that it has broken through and

284

HORSES IN SPRING .

sionally it does happen that a mare, most and upon friendly terms. The presence

likely in cases of the first foal, will not of strangers is liable to make the mare admit the youngster to the udder. The suspicious, and therefore restless. cause of this may be nervousness or illExtreme Measures with Obstinate

temper, and, as a rule, a little kindly Mares. Sometimes, when coaxing has coaxing will do all that is required. Let failed, confinement of the two in a

the mare see that you mean no harm to dark loose-box will be sufficient to bring her or her foal, speak gently to her, give mother and foal into friendly relation her a drink of milk -warm gruel, and a ship. If this again should fail, hold the mouthful of sweet hay. Leave the two mare and allow the foal to suck. If the together for a quarter of an hour, and if mare is vicious, she may attempt to kick

she should once begin to lick the foal there will be little fear of her objecting to its sucking If you find still that she is not licking the foal, sprinkle a little flour over its back, and contrive gently

the foal. In that case, hold up her near fore-foot, andif she is persistently obsti nate and mischievous, it may be necessary to put the twitch on her nose, and per haps administer a little sharp chastise

to bring the presence of the flourunder ment with the whip, taking care that no harm comes to the foal in the excitement.

her notice.

Try hard with coaxing before resorting These extreme measures will very seldom to other measures. A mare in such cir- be necessary, and should never be resorted cumstances is inclined to be suspicious, to until all the more gentle efforts have and will watch your conduct very closely, been tried in vain. Admit the foal to the udder five or and with wonderful intelligence. Kind-

liness and patience are valuable attributes six times a -day, and each time, before

in the attendant upon brood -mares. In resorting to harsh measures, do your is ample scope for the exercise of both willingly. Most likely two days of such

cases such as have been indicated, there very best to induce her to let it suck

.virtues. In nine cases out of ten they treatment will bring the mare to a sense of her duty. In rare cases of obstinacy, will accomplish the object. Intelligent Treatment of Mares .

the interference may have to be continued

But if it should unfortunately happen for a whole week . that by gentle coaxing the mother canBeginning the Foal to Suck.—The not be induced to admit the foal to the foal will often be very awkward in its teat, other measures of a firmer kind first efforts to suck. Do not attempt to must be resorted to, still taking care assist or direct it. Keep the mare quiet,

that in all measures, however drastic, and let the youngster feel its way itself. calmness and good temper are displayed. The instincts of nature will be its best Fussiness and irritability should never teacher, and it will soon learn how to

be witnessed in the foaling-box. The proceed. The mare's udder may be hard, mare would quickly detect such be- and the teats dry.

If so, rub the udder

haviour, and would become the less with the hand , and draw away a little tractable in consequence.

Be kind but milk, leaving the teats moist, so as to

firm with the mare, giving her clearly to lead on the foal in its first attempt to understand that, while you are not to suck. Extra Food for Foals. — Many ex abuse her, you mean to make her submit

to your will. Depend upon it she will perienced breeders begin very early to to foals, even where there not be slow to read your meaning. The give extra food obvious deficiency of milk on intelligence of horses is wonderful.

We

is no very

the part of the mother. In some cases are in the management of contrary ani- mashes, consisting of scalded oats, bran, would often be more successful than we

mals if we treated them more rationally and water, with perhaps a little boiled than we do, and paid more respect to beans or peas, and a sprinkling of salt, their intelligence and sensibility. In a are given to the foal before it is quite two

very special sense these remarks apply months old. To induce the foal to eat in the foaling-box.

this extra food, it may be taken away

The attendant at foaling-time should from its mother for an hour or two each be a man with whom the mare is familiar, day, and the food then given to it. In

THE FOALING SEASON.

its first few months the growth of a foal

285

to rear a foal for which mare's milk

may be easily and effectually stimulated ; cannot be obtained . For some time at and this should certainly be done, with the outset at any rate, the milk should due care, of course, not to overdo the be new and warm as it comes from the It is a cow. Many experienced breeders think common experience amongst breeders it desirable to dilute the milk with warm

young animal in any way.

that a pint or two of beans, or other water and a little sugar. The foal should

similar food, given to a foal, will do more get little at a time, and be fed four or

to promote the growth of the animal at five times a -day. It may not be con that stage than double the quantity con- venient to milk a cow so often as five sumed two years afterwards. times a-day, and therefore, at least for Nursing Motherless Foals.— When two of the meals to the foal, the cow's a mare dies and leaves a living foal, or milk may have to be kept for two or when a mare is unable to rear twin foals, three hours. In this case the milk should or even to rear one, the best course for be heated to about the temperature of the sake of the foal is undoubtedly to new milk by the admixture of a little procure a nurse -mother. No system of hot water in which a very little sugar hand-rearing is quite equal to the mare's has been dissolved. When it is desired udder ; and especially in the case of an to give the milk undiluted, the best way exceptionally valuable foal an effort of heating it is to insert the tin vessel should certainly be made to procure a holding it into another vessel containing nurse -mother. This, however, is usually difficult to obtain, and, as a rule, foals

hot water. Bean - milk and Cow's Milk for

that cannot be suckled by their own Foals. - It sometimes happens that foals mothers have to be reared by the hand . Rearing Foals by Hand. - For the

do not thrive satisfactorily on cow's milk alone.

In this case the substitution of

bean -milk for perhaps about one-half of food to the mare's milk. If the foal is the cow's milk may be tried . The bean newly born, the milk must at the outset milk is prepared by boiling the beans be poured gently into its mouth. A almost to a pulp, removing the shells

young foals cow's milk is the next best

feeder may be improvised by taking and pressing the pulp through a fine a teapot or kettle with small spout, hair-sieve. The result is a thick creamy and wrapping two or three folds of a fluid or paste. Sprinkle a pinch of salt cloth around the spout to make it soft over it, add the entire or diluted cow's

and comfortable for the foal's mouth. milk, and the compound is ready for The foal will suck away at this, but take

the foal.

care not to let the milk run into the foal's mouth too rapidly at first. As a

highly spoken of by breeders of great

protection against this the aperture in the spout of the feeding vessel should be

This system of feeding is

experience. Linseed , Bean -meal, and Milk for Foals .

Another liquid mixture used

very small, perhaps not more than an successfully in rearing foals consists of eighth of an inch. skimmed milk , linseed, and bean -meal. By the time the foal is a week or ten One formula for preparing the daily food

days old it may be taught to drink the of a foal from these substances is as fol milk out of a pail, just as the hand-fed lows : 12 pints sweet skimmed milk, i calf drinks its milk .

And the method of

quart of linseed, which has been previ

teaching a foal to drink in this way ously boiled for three or four hours, and is very similar to that pursued in learn- 3 lb. of fine bean-meal added in a dry ing the calf. Give the foal your fingers state. In some cases where the mares to suck , and gently lead its head into the are hard -worked on the farm , the foals pail until it draws up milk between the are weaned when only a few weeks old, fingers. By introducing the foal to the and reared by the hand in some way milk a few times in this manner it will

similar to the above.

Supplementing the Mother's Milk. readily learn to drink of its own accord - In some cases the mother's milk is not when the pail is placed before it. Cow's Milk for Foals.-Cow's milk, sufficient to rear the foal successfully. as we have said, is the best food on which Supplementary food should then be given,

HORSES IN SPRING .

286

and there should be no delay in providing lar quantity of laudanum. Boiled rice the extra food, for it is desirable that the

or starch - gruel should be used as the

progress of the foal should be continu- vehicle of these medicines, as well as ous. For very young foals this supple- food in small doses at intervals. The

mental food should consist of diluted body should be enveloped in a soft warm cow's milk , or some of the other liquid

blanket, and the dwelling kept clean and

mixtures described above. The quantity comfortable. As the mare's milk may

given will of course depend on the supply be the cause, the foal should be kept of milk furnished by the mother and on

from her except at short intervals, and

the wants of the foal.

her diet ought to be changed, while

While it is quite true that by a liberal tonics — as iron-and alkaline medicines, and judicious feeding the progress of a may be beneficially given to her.” 1

foal maybe greatly promoted, it is equally Housing Mares and Foals.- The certain that by insufficient feeding in its mare and foal should be kept in the foal

youth the animal may be spoiled for life. ing-box for about a week or ten days. To stint or starve a foal is a most ruinous

Both should then have a little exercise

policy. Good feeding may not be able daily—a run for an hour or two on a to convert a weedy foal into a first-class pasture-field if the weather be dry and

horse. Bad or insufficient feeding, how- moderately warm , or merely a walk out ever, may very easily transform a first- and back again if the weather is un

class foal into a weedy horse. The foal favourable. Unless the weather is dry should be bountifully fed from the very and genial, it will be prudent to keep the outset and all through its career,-fed so mare and foal under cover for three or as to maintain its health and keep it four weeks. At the end of that time growing in size and strength. If the they will bothbe able to stand exposure

mother is unable to do this herself, do to a good deal of inclement weather, if not delay in providing additional food to they are by degrees accustomed to the the youngster. exposure , and are all the time well fed,

Health of the Foal. - During the and comfortably but not too cosily ac nursing period the health of the foal commodated over night. must be watched carefully, so that its

Serious losses are sometimes incurred

progress must not be interrupted by any by want of care in turning mares and derangement of the system that might foals out to pasture soon after foaling. be avoided or remedied . Young foals The sudden removalfrom a warm foaling are liable to suffer from constipation,

box to an exposed field in cold wet

especially if they have not been able to weather is in itself very dangerous; while suck the first milk from the mare's udder. the risk is increased by thechange from The first milk is by nature provided with dry food to green succulent pasture — the

a moderate purgative tendency which is result being, perhaps, serious attacks of very beneficial to the offspring ; but if the slightest symptoms of constipation

cold, inflammation, or diarrhea. Great care should be exercised in the

appear in the foal it should at once re- exposing of mares and foals after partu ceive a light dose of castor -oil.

rition.

Let every change be introduced

Diarrha must also be carefully gradually, whether it be a change in food, guarded against.

Fresh air, exercise,

from a cosy box to an open field , or from

protection from inclement weather, and idleness to work. good sound food to the mare, are the It will be a good plan, ifthe season is surest preventives.

favourable and sufficiently far advanced,

Referring to this ailment in foals, Dr to accustom the mare to living on a pas Fleming says: “ When it appears it ture-field for two or three weeks before must be checked immediately by giving foaling. A month or six weeks after a dose of castor -oil in a little milk or foaling, if the weather be dry and warm gruel, and afterwards small doses of and the field well sheltered ,the mare and alkaline medicine — such as bicarbonate foal may be left out over night. This is or biborate of soda, with a few drops the best plan for southern counties; but of tincture of iron, and if there is

straining or evidence of pain, a simi

1 Prac, Horse -Keeper; 163.

THE FOALING SEASON .

287

in the north, where the spring nights are there is any reason to suspect that in cold, it is thought advisable to take flammation has begun, a portion of the mares and foals under cover over night milk should be drawn away by the hand until well into summer .

and the udder bathed with cold water

Working Nurse - mares.-:-Draught before the foal is admitted. It is believed by some farmers that, If circum- when a nursing-mare gets overheated at

mares are often returned to work two or

three weeks after foaling.

stances permit, it would be better to de- work, and returns to her foal with a full lay till the beginning of the fifth week- udder, the milk, because of the overheat better for the mare and the foal too.

In

any case, the work for a time should be light, and for several weeks the mare

ing of the mare, is liable to injure the foal. They therefore draw away a little of the milk and bathe the udder with

should not be kept longer from the foal cold water. This idea, however, is not than two or three hours on end. With well founded. The mere heating of the good feeding the mare will be able for mare will not spoil her milk so as to en two yokings, of three hours' duration danger the foal, and unless there is rea each, at light work , in six or eight weeks son to fear that inflammation has begun

after foaling. As long as the foal is de- in the udder, the foal may be admitted pending mainly upon the mare for its at once without any previous stripping sustenance, it will be better, in a pressure or bathing of work, to take three yokings of three But the overheating of nursing-mares

hours each daily from the mare, with in- at work is very reprehensible, and should tervals of not less than an hour, than to never on any account take place. keep her longer in work at one time. Two short yokings daily, however, are as much as any nursing-mare should have to accomplish. Some recommend that the foal should

Feeding Nursing - mares. - Brood mares while nursing their young should be liberally fed. For the first few weeks, while the mare is kept in the house, the

mare may be fed on sweet hay, given in

accompany the mare to the work, and be small quantities, three or four times a allowed to suck her at frequent intervals.

day, with bruised oats and bran, in one

This plan has its advantages and its disadvantages. It no doubt familiarises the foal with the society of men and of other horses, and prevents the evils that sometimes occur to both mare and foal from long fasts. But it may be dangerous to

or two moderate feeds, and at least one

milk production, as well as more palatable to the mare, if a little treacle is dissolved

the foal to have it moving about amongst

in it.

mash daily, made perhaps of barley, oats, and bran and water, with a sprinkling of salt. The mash will be all the betterfor For a few days at the very out

other horses, and where it may be liable set, if the flow of milk is not sufficient, to injure itself by running against field it will be well to give frequent drinks of implements ; while it may also sustain oatmeal or flour gruel. harm by exposure to sudden storms or When nursing-mares are being worked

they must be exceptionally well fed. Let It is upon the whole safer to keep the them have plenty of sweet hay or fresh

chills.

, foal in more comfortable quarters, and grass — the latter introduced gradually or four

bring the mare to it at intervals of from

and a liberal allowance in three

feeds per day of bruised oats, bran , and half hours, according to the stage in the some such mash as has been described. If the mare has not to be worked, and nursing period.

two and a half to three or three and a

It is most injudicious, dangerous indeed to both mare and foal, to keep the mare away from the foal until her udder is very much engorged and distended. Inflammation may arise in the udder,

if grass is plentiful, and the flow of milk sufficient, nothing more will be required than what she picks up on the pasture that is, when the grazing season has fully set in. When first turned out to grass

and unless it is at once checked, the life it may be necessary to give a feed of of the mare be endangered. Then it will bruised oats morning and evening for a be risky for the foal to allow it to suck week or two. In arranging the feeding, the milk from the inflamed udder.

If

in all circumstances the condition of the

288

HORSES IN SPRING .

mare and the supply of milk for the foal must be carefully considered . Weaning Foals.

When the foal is being weaned it

should be kept out of sight and beyond the hearing of the mare, otherwise both

will be restless,and may become injuri In ordinary circumstances foals are not ously excited. For a few days it may be weaned until they are from four to six well to keep the foal in a yard or loose

months old. The weaning of foals, there- box, but if there is a safelyfenced pas work ; yet, in some cases, the separation the mare, the youngster will thrive better fore, does not properly come into spring ture-field some considerable distance from of mother and offspring takes place ear- there than in a house.

lier, and it may, on the whole, be con-

Feeding Foals at Weaning -time

venient to deal with the subject of wean- As to feeding, the foal should be well ing here. attended to at weaning -time. Feed it

The weaning-time is a critical period liberally but not to excess, taking care to in the existence of a young horse. It is keep its bowels and general health in usually the first great trial of its life, and as good order as possible. Bruised oats, if not properly cared for at the time, the bran, and beans, make a capital mash for progress of the young animal may be foals; and some add boiled linseed. With seriously impaired. The separation of moderate feeds of such food as this - giv mare and foal should be effected gradu- ing the foal just what it will readily con ally, so that to both the influence of the sume, but never gorging it—and a run change may be as light as possible.

on a pasture-field, a strong healthy foal

As already indicated, the foal will be trained to eat other food some time before weaning. As the time for weaning approaches, the intervals during which the

will not be long in forgetting its mother. The youngster will soon be able to main tain itself mainly on pasture, but a little artificial food as well will be well be

foal is withdrawn from the mare will be stowed; for the ultimate development and lengthened, and the extra food increased.

value of the horse may be much increased

When the weaning begins in earnest, the by liberal treatment in its youth. The foal should have admission to the mare object is to promote the growth of bone

twice daily, morning and evening, for a and muscle, and oats, beans, and bran,

few days, taking care not to let it quite are well suited for this.

Oats stand pre

empty the udder at either time ; then eminent, and should bulk most largely. break off to once daily. And if the foal

Attention to the Mare at Wean

takes kindly to its other food this process ing -time. — At weaning-time the feeding need not be long continued .

of the marealso needs careful attention,

Whether the weaning process is to be short or protracted will depend mainly upon ( 1 ) the manner in which the foal takes to and thrives upon the other food ;

so that the flow of milk may be stopped.

Hard work and spare feeding will dimin ish the secretion of milk. Let the food be dryand lessened somewhat in quan

(2) the condition of the mare's udder; and tity. Even the allowance of water may (3) the necessities of the time as to the be slightly restricted. Draw some milk working of the mare. If the foal is from the udder once or twice a -day, or weakly, and does not seem to thrive satis- oftener if it becomes very full, but do not factorily upon the other food, it may be empty it at any time. If the secretion of well tocontinue a little of its mother's milk is not diminishing satisfactorily, it

milk for some time : better submit to may be well to give a light dose of phy some inconvenience in this way than spoil sic. This is sometimes necessary with a good foal. Then the mare may have mares maintained solely for breeding,

such an abundant flow of milk that the but rarely with mares kept hard at sudden withdrawal of the food would be undesirable for her sake. On the other

work.

In the event of a mare having to be

hand, the pressure of work may require dried soon after foaling, by the death of that the weaning shall be completed as the foal or other cause , the flow of milk quickly as possible. Thus, in weaning, will usually be stopped by drawing away there is need for experience and careful a little milk by the hand once or twice consideration . daily for a few days, and by giving the

THE FOALING SEASON .

289

mare some purgative medicine, a short have enough to well maintain his con allowance of dry food and little water, and plenty of work or other exercise. The Mating Season .

dition and vigour.

With the evening

allowance of hay some green food, such as tares or grass and clover may be mixed,

but when the horse has much walking

The latter end of spring and early to accomplish, as is often the case with summer is the mating season for horses. Both mares and stallions are in the best form for breeding when in robust health, in good natural condition — just such condition as should be shown by hardworked well - cared - for horses. Over-

stallions on their rounds, a big stomach ful of green food is undesirable. A little split beans added to the bruised oats will be beneficial to old stallions. It is all the more necessary that care ful attention be given to the feeding and

feeding should be avoided ; it is as general treatment of stallions during the injurious as insufficient feeding. service season , seeing that derangement A mare will usually come into season of his system and physicking may im about nine or ten days after foaling, but pair his usefulness just when it is most occasionally not in less than twice that required. Physic or drugs, if any,

period. It is generally quite apparent should never be resorted to except in when a mare desires to receive a stallion ; cases of absolute necessity. We have but if there is any doubt, the point may no belief in the so -called prescriptions

easily be settled by trying the stallion for stimulating the procreative powers with her.

of a stallion. If plenty of good sound It is advisable to serve the mare in food, such as has been indicated, with

the first heat of the season .

As a rule,

pure water and abundance of exercise,

with healthy animals one service will be do not maintain the fertility of a horse, sufficient. About twenty days after the nothing else will. first service the mare should again be

Exercise for Stallions . — Exercise is

shown to the stallion, and if the usual very beneficial for stallions in the active symptoms of desire are not then exhib season . It is customary for horses to ited by her, it may be assumed that she make a circuit of the districts in which

is pregnant. Still shemay “ comeround ” they are to serve, going the round three again in about three weeks, and the or four times in the season. In these attendant should watch carefully for the cases the necessary walking affords ample

symptoms. Some breeders think it de- exercise. When the stallion is stationed sirable to have the mare served twice at at a certain place and the mares brought one time, with an interval of ten to

to him, it is very desirable that he should

twenty-four hours ; but this is not the have walking exercise every day. Number of Mares to one Stallion .

rule.

Feeding and Treatment of Stal-

- The number of mares allotted to one

lions. — The management of stallions stallion in a season varies considerably during the service season requires con- with circumstances, such as the age, con siderable care and experience. He should dition, and value of the horse . An adult be in full, natural, lean flesh, but on no horse in robust active condition may account highly fattened. The food given have from 60 to 70 mares. The num to him at this time should be strength- ber often exceeds 80, but it is highly giving rather than fattening.

Nothing imprudent to overdo a stallion, and it

excels bruised oats and sweet hay, and of this food the stallion should

mayincur the risk of manyblunks amongst his mares.

SWINE IN SPRING .

290

SWINE

IN

SPRING.

As with other varieties of farm live have a stranger to attend to the sow stock the bringing forth of the young at such a time. is the main feature of the spring work in It has been the custom at Holywell Manor for a great number of years to the management of swine.

Aspointed out in page 421 , Divisional have the pigman with the sow when she vol. ii., it is desirable that, as a rule, the is farrowing ; and of the many hundred

fattening of pigs should be done dur- of sows which have been kept there, only ing the warmer months, say between

one was much trouble.

March and October.

cause of the sow being savage ( no other word so well expresses her state) was

The times for far-

rowing will therefore be in the main regulated to suit this system .

afterwards discovered.

In this case the

Some workmen

who were making alterations in the farm premises stupidly amused themselves by FARROWING OF SOWS.

teasing the sow a short time before she

This appeared to There is as much diversity of opinion as render her almost mad for two days to the best system to adopt with a sow after the arrival of the little pigs. So was due to farrow .

at the time of farrowing as there appears excited was she that she would not allow to be on most other points connected with the soiled litter (straw) to be removed, the management of pigs. Some persons nor the pigman to enter the sty to feed will advise that the sow should be left her. The sow gradually tamed down, and entirely to herself whilst she is farrow- within a fortnight was as quiet as usual. Preparation for Farrowing . — It is ing, and others will just as strongly urge that the sow ought to have some one in a good plan to have the sow placed in attendance on her.

the sty or house where it is intended

As with many other apparently con- that she should farrow, at least a fort trary views relating to stock manage- night before her time is up. ment, there is much to be said in favour Period of Gestation . — The period of of both systems ; everything depending gestation with sows is as nearly as on the temperament of the sow, and the possible sixteen weeks. Some aged manner in which she has been previously sows, and yelts with their first litters, treated . will often farrow a day or two before Many of the common "anyway-bred” the four months have elapsed ; whilst country sows, whose time is spent in a the more robust sows will as frequently struggle or search for the bare necessaries carry their pigs one hundred and fifteen of life, and whose aim is to give as wide or eighteen days, and in a few cases even a berth as possible to every human being a little longer.

Symptoms of Farrowing. — The pig lest they should meet with the punishment they have already deserved (or man will easily foretell the arrival ofthe most likely will, at some future time, litter. The sow will be restless, her

deserve) for their predatory habits, re- udder will become swollen and heated, sent the presence of an attendant when and on the teats being drawn, moisture they are farrowing. At such a time of a sticky glutinous nature, and some sows of this class are naturally in a times milk , will be found at least twelve somewhat excited condition. hours before the little pigs arrive on the On the other hand, the well-bred, scene ; the vulva will become enlarged, carefully tended sow, whose experience and the muscles on either side of the

tail will give way . Litter for Young Pigs.—It is not attendance of the person who is in the advisable to allow the sow to have much of man is of an exactly opposite nature,

appears to like rather than dislike the

habit of feeding and looking after her. long straw for bedding during the first It would, of course, be most unwise to few days after she has pigged, or the

FARROWING OF SOWS.

291

little pigs may become entangled in it, seldom any great difficulty in relieving and get lain upon by the sow.

Some

the sow .

The two great essentials are

persons give their sows at this time long cut chaff for bedding, but the best material for the purpose is the wheat screenings or “ cavings ” from theriddles of the threshing machine. This is both short and soft, and has no sharp ends

careanda plentiful supply of lard. The hand and arm of the operator should be small and well smeared with grease. If the sow appears to be slightly amiss a day or two after farrowing, 2 oz. of sulphur and ļoz. of nitre should be

such as are found in cut chaff.

given to her in a pint of skim -milk .

Treatment of the Sow and Produce She will soon drink this up, and gener in Farrowing . — When the sow com- ally it will be all the medicine needed. mences to farrow , the attendant should

Pigs Biting Sow's Udder.-It will

have ready a three-dozen size hamper,

sometimes be found that when the newly

three-parts filled with wheat-straw, and born pigs are placed with the sow, they as the little pigs come into the world will fight for the teats to such an extent they should be wiped with a cloth and as to bite the udder of the sow , which at put into the hamper, where they will rest the time is especially sensitive. The sow contented and warm until the sow has will jump up in a hurry, and should no

finished farrowing - unless it be a very steps be taken to prevent the youngsters prolonged case. In the latter event the injuring her, she will often lie flat on her

piglings should be taken out of the body and refuse to suckle the little pigs. hamper and placed near the udder of This occurs more frequently when the the sow , when they will soon begin to sow carries her pigs beyond the usual forage about for that which nature period of sixteen weeks. The eight tusk -like teeth of the piglings will be almost invariably provides for them.

After the sow has suckled the pigs it found abnormally long, and generally of will be advisable to again place them in

a dark colour at the root. Old -fashioned

the hamper and to give the sow a little pigmen were wont to say that “ these slop composed of bran and sharps stirred black-teethed pigs are never any good, with tepid water or skim -milk. The and are sure to pine away and die.' In sow will then soon lie down again, when this they were doubtless correct, unless

the pigs may be placed with her and the the simple remedy of breaking off these family party will generally rest comfort- offending teeth was applied. If this were ably until the return of feeding-time. not done the pigs would naturally be In cold weather it is better to cover the come more hungry, and consequently hamper with a sack or cloth, as the little more combative, whilst the sow's udder

pigs are easily chilled before they have would become more sensitive and in flamed’owing to the milk not being ex

become dry. The After -birth .

In some cases the

tracted.

The usual result would be that

sow is allowed to eat the placenta or the pigs would be starved to death from after -birth. This should be carefully avoided. The placenta should be re-

want of their natural food, and the sow

would suffer from inflammation of the moved from the sty as soon as it is udder.

The remedy, a most simple and effica

clear of the sow.

It will be found advisable to walk the

cious one, is to remove the pigs out of

sow out of the sty the day after she has

hearing of the sow, and to break off the

farrowed. The little exercise will gener- teeth of the piglings with a small pair of ally cause her to relieve the bowels and pincers.

If the pigs are then placed

with the sow no further trouble will be

the bladder.

Assistance in Farrowing . — It is not experienced. Each pig will soon settle often that the sow requires any assistance down to its selected teat, which it will

in getting rid of the pigs, but it will make its headquarters for obtaining occasionally be necessary to give her help. lacteal nutriment until it is weaned. Sometimes the little pig will present itself crosswise.

Weaning Pigs.

This should take

At other times there place when the pigs are about six weeks

may be a double presentation , or the old, if in summer, and about eight fætus be abnormally large.

There is weeks old in the colder months.

The

POULTRY IN SPRING .

292

weaning should be done gradually, by of brick . When two sows only are kept, extending the time during the last the other two sties may be occupied by three or four days, of keeping the sow the weaned pigs. Prolificacy in Swine . - In the dif

from the pigs.

Housing Brood -sows. — Fig. 333 rep-

ferent varieties, and even in the different

resents an arrangement of four sties or strains or families of each breed of pigs, compartments for brood -sows, all under there is a marked difference in the pro

one roof, and communicating with a lific powers. This is most noticeable in those strains which have been bred for San a number of years for showyard points 6 alone, without due regard to those more a

useful and general- purpose qualities 9

9

which are the only really valuable ones for the pig -breeder to study and cultivate. We would not for one moment wish to

be understood as expressing the opinion that prolificacy, utility, and ability to

g h d

win prizes are not to be found combined in several families or tribes of the dif

k

Fig. 333. -Sties for brood - sows under one roof. a b Two sties, 715 by 12 feet. cd Two sties, 77% by 8 feet. eee e Wooden partitions. f Four doors of sties. gggg A feeding -trough in each sty. h Area from which to overlook the sties

and to fill the troughs. k Outer door of sties. 1 Window for the sties.

ferent kinds of pigs. There are, indeed , numerous instances of such a happy blending, but it is undeniable that the rule is " the other way about.” Sows are capable of breeding — that

is, of conceiving — when about seven months old ; but it is imprudent to begin at such an early age. About the

compartment in which the attendant tenth month is soon enough to mate a sow with the boar. may provide a bed for himself. A good breeding -sow will produce and Drains proceed from all the sties to the nearest liquid - manure drain ; and nurse two litters in a year. What is said in Divisional vol. ii. pp. the apartment is rendered comfortable

by having the ceiling and walls plas- 421-425, as to the feeding and manage tered, a ventilator placed on the roof in ment of pigs, should be consulted at this connection with the ceiling, and the floor time.

POULTRY HATCHING .

IN

SPRING.

glossy hue ; and even by February they

will chant—which pleasant sound is a Spring is the busy and happy season sure harbinger of the laying season . of the feathered inhabitants of the farm . Selecting Sitting Hens. — By March, Laying Season . - As soon as the grass a disposition to sit will be evinced by

begins to grow in spring, so early willwell- early-laying hens — but every hen should cared - for hens delight to wander into not be allowed to sit ; nor can any hen sheltered portions of pasture, in the sun- sit at her own discretion, where the

shine, in the warm side of a fence, pluck practice is, as should be, to gather the

the tender blades of grass, and pick up eggs every day as they are laid. the insects which the genial air may It is expedient, then, to select the have warmed into life and activity. hens to bring out chickens. Those With such morsels of spring food, and selected should have quiet dispositions, in agreeable temperature, their combs not easily affrightened, nor disposed to a

redden, and their feathers assume

wander afar ; should be large and full

HATCHING .

293

feathered, to cover their eggs well, and wisely kept beyond the knowledge and brood their young amply. Those which control of man. have proved themselves good sitters and

The matter of sex of the egg is of no

brooders, careful and solicitous of their importance on a farm, as good chickens broods, should be chosen in preference of both sexes are valuable as an article to birds which do not exhibit these char- of food . Number acteristics. But it is proper to make

of Eggs in a Setting.

some young hens every season sit for the Either eleven or thirteen eggs are placed first time.

under a hen ; eleven are more likely to

Selecting Eggs for Hatching . — The be entirely hatched than thirteen, as few eggs to be set should be carefully selected. hens can cover thirteen large eggs suf

Every one proposed to be hatched should ficiently. The custom prevails even at have the date of its being laid written the present day, of setting an odd number upon it.

Those of a particular hen of eggs under a hen. This may have desired to be hatched should be kept arisen from the idea that, allowing one by themselves, well preserved, and set egg to be a nest -egg, an even number of after her laying-time is finished.

couples of chickens will be obtained in

In selecting eggs for hatching, they the hatching ; and hence it is a good should be quite fresh — laid within a hatching if ten chickens are brought out few days—large, of truly ovoidal shape, from a setting of eleven eggs, or twelve single, not seeming double-yolked ; neither from thirteen eggs. too thin nor too thick, but smooth in the

Brood - nest. — A brood- nest for the

Their substance should almost sitting hen may consist of a circular entirely fill the shell, and be uniform hassock of soft straw -ropes, for a founda

shell.

and translucent when looked through at tion on the ground, or ina box or basket. a light, which is the best test for their The object of this foundation is to raise examination.

the nest sufficiently above the ground to

Sex of Eggs. — It has been said that keep it dry, and to give it such a hollow the position of the cell that contains the as none of the eggs shall roll out by any air in an egg determines the sex of the mischance. A box or basket is a con

chick — if the cell occupies the exact venient receptacle for a nest, but in using apex of the end, which is always the either, it will be requisite to stuff the large end, the chick will be a male ; and corners firmly with straw, that neither if on one side of the apex, it will be a the eggs nor the young chicks may fall female. But this cannot be accepted as into them . The nest itself should be of being reliable, nor can any of the other soft short oat-straw . It should be made

numerous supposed methods for predeter- as large as to afford the hen ample room , mining the sex of eggs.

not only for her body, but her tail.

If

Hens are required to lay eggs for the the tail is bent awry while sitting, the dealers of eggs, and young cocks are hen will feel uncomfortable.

Nests are

required for the dealers of fowls, and commonly made too small. The hollow for converting into capons. Both busi- occupied by the body of the bird should nesses are carried on by different persons, not be larger than she can fill; but the and hence the utility of determining the sides and base of the nest should spread sex of eggs. M. Génin says, that as the out to give room around the hen, and female skeleton of a fowl contains smooth elevation above the floor. bone, and that of the male rough, so the Hatching Compartment. Places

male egg is wrinkled at the small end, may be chosen for the sitting hens in and the female is smooth at both ends. the regular hen-house. Hatching-places This is the result after three years' ex- should be made to contain one hen at a time, but partitioned to separate the perience.

But all the indulged notions as to hens completely, as hens are jealous of

will some each other when sitting, andpossession determining the sex of eggs, and regu- times endeavour to take of lating sex in breeding, have, in the case of poultry as of other animals, been the nest and eggs of others, or drive proved over and over again to be fal- them away from their eggs. Other lacious. We take it that this is a law places may be selected for sitting in VOL. II.

U

294

POULTRY IN SPRING.

an outhouse, a loft, a spare room in the farmhouse, or even the back - kitchen, when warmth is required for early broods. Where a large number of hens

the dark, it might suggest itself to any considerate person, one should suppose, that darkness is more easily found at night, and that natural darkness is better

are set, it is especially desirable to set than artificial. apart a room , loft, or house for their ac Feeding Sitting Hens. While sit

commodation. In that case, they should be set in hatching-boxes, 21 inches high, and 15 inches square, solid ( except for ventilation holes) on top and sides, the front forming a door, and no bottom.

ting upon her nest, the hen should be looked at regularly every day, and sup plied with fresh food, corn, and clean water. She will not consume much food during the time of incubation , which is

The nest should be made in this on fine

three weeks.

Every two or three days

earth, and the hens let out for feeding the dung, feathers, & c., about the nest once a day.

and on the floor should be swept and

Training Hens to Sit. — Should the carried away, and the place kept clean hen selected for sitting have been accus- and dry. tomed to lay in the hen-house or else-

Testing Fertility of Eggs. — It is

where, she would feel annoyed on being advisable to test the eggs when they transferred to new quarters ; she will have been sat on for a week, as in this have to be coaxed to it, and even after way infertile eggs can be removed, and all may prove obstreperous, though ex- the work of hens economised . Many hibiting strong symptoms of clucking, in breeders set two or three hens at the which case she must be dismissed and same time, and if there are several eggs another chosen, rather than run the risk infertile they give all the fertile eggs to of spoiling the entire hatching by her one or two hens, and place fresh eggs under those thus liberated . caprice. Having got a quiet subject, a couple The method of testing is to take the

or so of old eggs should first be put into eggs into a dark place and hold them in the nest, upon which she should be induced, by meat and water beside her, to sit for two or three days, to warm the nest thoroughly before the eggs she is to hatch are placed under her. After she shows a disposition to sit, and the nest

the left hand between the forefinger and thumb, midwaybetwixt a candle and the eye, shading the light with the right hand also. Or an egg - tester may be used. Fertile eggs will be dark and quite opaque, whilst those which are in

warm , the old nest-eggs are taken away, fertile will be perfectly clear. and the selected eggs are put in the nest During very dry weather the ground - eleven being enough — and the hen under and around the nest should be

allowed to go upon them in her own moistened by a moderate quantity of way, and to manage the eggs as she warm water every other day, but the

pleases, which she will do with her bill eggs must not be damped. and body and feet, spreading herself out fully to cover all the eggs.

Chicks Appearing. - In three weeks

a commotion among the eggs may be ex

Time for Setting. — The time chosen pected ; and should the hen have proved for setting the hen should be towards a close sitter, and the weather mild, it is

the evening, when the natural desire for not unlikely that the heads of two or roosting and rest arrives, and by next three chicks will be seen peeping out morning she has taken to the nest con- below her feathers before that period. tentedly. It is usual to set a hen at any The hen should not be disturbed during time of the day, even in broad daylight, the time the chickens are leaving the

when she is almost certain to come off eggs, or until they are all fairly out and and desire to wander ; and to curb the dry. Any attempt to chip an egg, if not disposition, a tub is placed over her to carefully done, generally kills the chick. keep her in the dark. The consequent Feeding Chicks and Hens. -- For

fright not only prevents her attending the first twenty-four hours, or until the to the eggs, but some may be broken in yolk is absorbed and digested, being the her attempts to get out of confinement.

first food of the chicks, they should re

In the desire to keep the creature in ceive neither food nor water. After that

HATCHING .

295

give water. Food is then set down to but no dependence can be placed in it them on a flat plate, the food consisting for a regular supply of young fowls. of crumbled bread and oatmeal, or some The weather may not suit hens sitting in

of the well-known prepared foods, with the open air ; and hens have not the dis

a flat dish or small fountain of clean position to sit in the most desirable water. The hen's food consists of corn , or soft food, boiled potatoes, and water.

periods of the year — early and late. It is impossible to obtain a regular

The chickens should be visited every three hours, and a variety of fresh food presented, so as to induce them to eat it the more frequently and heartily — such as picks of hard oatmeal porridge, crumbled boiled potatoes, rice, groats, or some of the well - known prepared

supply of eggs or chickens, unless pro vision is made for collecting the eggs and hatching the chickens in a syste matic manner. Chickens go six to eight weeks with

their mother. A good hen that has brought out an early brood will become

foods, - taking care to have the food so fat while rearing them , that she will fresh and the water clean, however small soon begin again to drop eggs, and of the quantity that may be consumed . course again become a clucker, and may

Care of the Young Brood. — The then be employed to bring out a late hassock , or box, or basket, should now

brood.

be removed, and the true nest set upon

Hatching and Rearing Turkeys. the floor, with a slope of straw from it, that the chickens may walk up to the The hatching and rearing of turkeys nest to be brooded at night. are usually regarded as difficult matters.

In the course of twenty - four hours, Many, however, maintain that turkeys are almost as easily reared as chickens. hen will express a desire to go out, which When a turkey -hen is seen disposed to after all the chickens are on foot, the

she should be indulged in if the weather lay, a nest should be made for her in her

is dry, and especially when the sun is hatching -house. It consists of the same out ; but if it rain she had better be materials as the hen's nest, but of larger kept within doors, unless a convenient size to suit the bird. A box or basket is shed is near, in which she may remain an excellent thing, with the corners filled with her brood for a short time. up. When once the turkey-hen lays an

Visited every three hours during the egg, and a nest-egg is placed in the nest, day, and supplied with a change of food

she will use it regularly every time she

and water until the feathers of the tails requires it, which will be once in about and wings begin to sprout, chickens may thirty hours. As the eggs are laid, they

be considered out of danger, and become should be removed, and placed gently in less of a charge.

a basket in the house, in a dry place,

It is not always expedient to set a and turned with caution every day. number of hens at one time, but in sucWhen she has done laying, which may cession every three weeks or a month ;

not be till she has laid twelve or thirteen

for a few chickens, ready for the table in or even fifteen eggs, she will be disposed succession , are of greater value than a to sit, when the eggs should be placed under her, towards evening, to the num large number of the same age. Chickens should receive food four ber of eleven or thirteen , the eleven times a - day, consisting of barley and being the most certain of success, as a

oatmeal, made crumbly and moist with turkey cannot cover more of her own hot water, or boiled potatoes, as long as eggs than a hen can of hers ; and a they last, and the other foods already brood of ten poults is an excellent named. Open -air Laying and Hatching.–

hatching. A turkey need not be confined within

As the season advances into summer, the apartment she occupies , as she is not hens, as they become fat by picking up disposed to wander, nor is she jealous, food in the fields, have a predilection to like a hen, of another one sitting in the select places there for nests to lay eggs, same apartment with her. A turkey sits and bring out chickens. It must be four weeks, and is proverbially a close owned this is a most natural predilection , sitter.

296

POULTRY IN SPRING.

Let the poults be visited every three or should be supplied to her fresh and clean four hours, and supplied with hard -boiled daily, and the dung and feathers removed egg and clean water. Let this food be During the incubation, corn and water

from the nest every two or three days.

removed after the poults are served,

Care of Turkey -poults.— When the poults are expected, the turkey should be frequently looked at, but not disturbed , until all the poults are fairly

otherwise the turkey will devour it ; for she is a keen feeder, and not so dis interested a bird in regard to food as a hen .

All turkey-poults require at Let them remain two nights and one first is a drink of water, and they should day in the house, and afterwards let them be immediately returned to the warm go into the open air and enjoy the sun

hatched .

nest, where the mother will receive them and warmth, of which, it is hoped, there with characteristic fondness.

will be plenty by May.

In wet weather

But before leaving the turkey for that they should be confined to the house, or night, the box or basket in which the go into a shed. When the birds become

nest is formed should be taken away, strong and active in the course of a few and the nest formed with a sloping face

days,let the turkey be placed in a coop

towards the floor, to enable the young on the green to curb her wandering pro poults to gain it. pensity, until the poults can follow her, For twenty-four hours the poults will which they will beable to do after they eat nothing, though the turkey herself have been supported on hard -boiled eggs should be providedwith corn, boiled oat- for two weeks — for three all the better. The hard-boiled eggs should be put upon meal, or boiled potatoes, and water. Food for Turkey - poults. — Next a plate on the green beyond the reach of

morning the young creatures will be the coop, and where the poults can help quite astir, and ready to eat food, which themselves; whilst the food of the turkey

should now be given them. It should is After placed the within reach of the coop: consist solely of hard -boiled eggs, yolks feathers in the tails

and

and whiteshredded down very small, and wings of the poults have fairly sprouted, the egg may be gradually withdrawn, In one respect turkey-poults appa- and hard -boiled picks of porridge, with rently differ in their nature from chick- a little sweet-milk in the dish, to facili ens, inasmuch as they evince a tendency tate the swallowing of the porridge, to purge for the first two weeks of their should be given them at least four or five existence ; and when purging overtakes times a -day at stated hours — which put on a flat plate or small board.

them , it is difficult of cure, and generally wholesome food will support them until

proves fatal. The prevalenceof this the mother can provideinsectsand other complaint among turkey-poults, it is be- natural food as a variety. They will ve

lieved, arises from the laxative condition now thri apace, and grow fast as the of the food they then receive. Hard- weather becomes warm . Excellent food,

boiled eggs being astringent and nourish- specially prepared for rearing turkeys, ing, no tendency to purging is observed is largely advertised. Should the grass be damp, let the coop with them . On the contrary, the little

things are as lively and healthy as ordi- be placed on the gravelled walk or some nary chickens, and, after their wing and other dry spot, asdampness is injurious tail feathers have sprouted , can bear in- to all young birds of the gallinaceous clement weather.

tribe.

After the egg is withdrawn, the poults meal porridge was given instead of hard- are fond of shredded dandelion, cress and boiled eggs, and in afew days twopoults mustard leaves, and, when at liberty, pick For the sake of experiment, firm oat-

took the fux and died, the rest having the tender leaves of nettles with avidity.

been saved by a return to the egg . With The predilections for ants and nettles egg for two weeks not a single death show that turkeys enjoy stimulating con occurred among two hatchings every diments with their food. In eight or ten year for upwards of fifteen years; and

weeks they are well feathered . They eat

this surely is sufficient experience to jus- rice, pot-barley, fresh curds, acorns, beech tify the recommendation of any practice. masts, sunflower -seed .

HATCHING .

Turkeys as Layers.— Turkeys are sometimes extraordinary layers. One

season a hen -turkey, after bringing up

297

Hatching Geese.

Geese make early preparation for incu

eleven poults till they were eight weeks bation. They, however, seldom lay eggs bush of nettles at the edge of a young The goose and gander cannot copulate

old, made a nest in the middle of a large in Scotland till the end of February.

plantation, which she visited by contriv- except in water ; and if the pond which ing to slip away unnoticed from her brood they frequent be covered with ice, it to lay an egg every day.

The nest was should be broken to allow them to get

soon discovered ,the egg taken away as it to the water, and every egg requires a was laid, and a nest-egg left ; and she con- separate impregnation. Geese as Layers.-An attentive ob tinued to visit the nest daily till she had laid the extraordinary number of ninety server knows when a goose is desirous of laying, by her sitting down amongst eggs.

The consequence of this oviparous fe- straw and picking up and placing one on cundity was, that she did not moult till this side and oneon that side of her, as the depth of winter, and the moulting if making a nest. Whenever this, or an was so very bare that she had to be con- embrace on the water with the gander, is fined to a warm house ; and whether the noticed, a nest should be made for her to

misfortune which befell her before spring lay in, in the hatching -house, in a box or was owing to the late moulting, acting basket to suit the size of the bird, to on an exhausted constitution, superin- which she should have easy access by the duced by the inordinate production of door. It is improper to confine a goose eggs, we do not know, but inflammation a long time before laying her first egg ; seized one of her eyes , and deprived her but when symptoms of laying are observ of sight. By spring she recovered from ed, she should, in the morning, before

the moulting, had a new plumage, the being let out, be examined in the lower blind eye healed, but she never recovered part of the abdomen ; and if the egg is her condition on the best of food, and felt, she should be put in her nest and died a short time after. confined until she lays it in the course

Turkey -hens as Mothers. — Turkeyhens are most watchfulprotectors of their young, and are particularly wary of birds of prey, which, whenever observed, even at the greatest height in the air, they

of the day, when she is let out, the egg taken away, kept dry in a basket, and turned every day until the entire number is completed --a nest-egg being left in the

nest. Produce in Eggs. — Every second day understand, and will hide themselves in- after the first, the goose will visit the

will utter a peculiar cry, which the poults

stantly amongst long grass and other nest made for her, and lay an egg, and plants within reach. the number will seldom exceed twelve, Another peculiarity affects the turkey- though eighteen have been laid. By the

hen : one impregnation from the cock time she is done laying, it will thus be fecundates allthe eggs of the ovarium ; about the end of March .

Considerable difference in this respect and on account of this property, it is not uncommon in spring,in Ireland, for exists amongst geese. They layThon some

people to carry about turkey -cocks and

farms earlier than on others.

is may

offer their services at farmsteads. It is, arise from the nature of the soil, as pro

perhaps, this peculiar constitutional pro- bably a dry, sharp, early soil for grass perty of the turkey - cock that makes and grain promotes the functions of ani him regardless of his own progeny, and mals to anearlier development. Setting a Goose.—After the goose which leads the hen to shun him as long has finished laying, she will incline to sit. as she has charge of a brood. The brood goes with the turkey -hen She should receive her eggs towards for an indefinite length of time. Roosted evening, so that by the morning the nest

on a high straw -rack , a turkey-hen has been seen to spread her wings over one of her young on each side of her, when they were nearly equal to herself in size.

will be so warmed as to induce her to keep possession. The number of eggs to be hatched should be eleven, which is as many as a goose can easily cover. The

298

POULTRY IN SPRING .

goose plucks the down off her breast

Period of Incubation . — At the end

and furnishes a lining to her nest to in- of a calendar month the eggs will be

crease its heat; while the down also forms hatched. During the hatching the goose a covering for the eggs when she leaves should be left undisturbed, but not unob her nest for a time, thus preventing their served. cooling.

Care of the Goslings . — After the

Feeding a Sitting Goose. — A little goslings are fairly out of the shell, and clean water and afewoats are put beside before they are even dry, they may be her while she is sitting ; but she will eat taken in a basket with straw to a dry very little food all the time she sits. A sheltered spot in a grass-field hard by, feed of good oats, such as is given to a the goose carried by the wings, the gander

horse, will serve a sitting goose for a month ; yet this handful is often grudged the poor patient goose. The lightest corn is only allowed by many who con-

following uttering a soft whistling sound. Here they may remain for an hour or two, provided the sun shines, and in sun shine goslings pick up more strength in

one hour than from any brooding they In neglecting her food, the chance is that receive from their mother for a day. The sider themselves good rearers of stock.

she will forsake her nest in order to goslings endeavour to balance themselves search for the necessary sustenance. At on their feet and pluck the grass ; the

any rate, it is proper to attend to her goose rests beside them ; and the gander proudly protects them all. Water should

every day while she is sitting.

Some do not allow a goose to go out be placed beside them to drink. while she is sitting, in case she should

Should the sky become overcast, and

forsake her nest ; but this is an unneces- rain appear likely to fall, the goslings sary constraint. Let her have food and should be carried with the goose to the water beside her, and let her go off when- nest : for if they get their backs wetted

ever she pleases, and she will return to her nest in time to maintain the heat preserved by the down. Many will not allow her to go to the water at all, alleging that when she returnswet upon the

in the first two or three days of their life, they will lose the use of their legs, and die. Should the weather be wet, a sod of good short grass should be cut and placed within their house, beside a shallow plate

eggs they will become addled ; but this of water.

In setting down a common

is a mistake. Let her go to the pond if plate to goslings, it should be prevented she wishes to wash herself, and she knows upsetting, as some will put their feet

better what to do for herself than her upon its edge and spill the water. teachers; she will not continue longer

After two days'acquirement of strength,

than to refresh herself. Her feathers cannot become wet, it is opposed to

in sunny weather, the goslings may ven

their nature ; and after the relaxation

ture to a pond to swim ; but the horse pond, being frequented by so many kinds

she evidently so much enjoys, she will sit of animals, is too dangerous a place for them as yet. A piece of water in a grass Geese are liable to become costive field is the best place for them . For the first few days after goslings go while sitting and eating nothing but the closer.

corn .

To counteract this tendency, they about, they should be particularly ob should now and then have boiled pota- served ; for should one fall upon its back

toes in a crumbled state ; in fact, every on the grass, or into a wheel-rut in the

fowl, while sitting, should have this use- ground, it cannot recover its legs, will be ful ingredient.

left by the others, and perish.

After

The Gander.-— The gander usually three or four days in dry sunny weather, takes up with one mate, but if there are and on good grass, they will become so only two geese, he will pay attention to strong, and grow so fast, as to be past all both. Regard for his mate is so strong danger. It is surprising how rapidly a

in the gander that he will remain at the young gosling grows in the first month door of the hatching -house like a watchdog, guarding her from every danger, and

of its life. Feeding Goslings . — After that time

ready to attack all and sundry that ap- they begin to tire of grass, and go in proach her sanctuary.

search of other food ; and this is the time

HATCHING.

299

to supply them daily with good oats, if fine birds by Michaelmas are desired ;

Hatching Ducks. Ducks will begin to lay eggs as early any other grain will answer the purpose -rice, Indian corn, let it be but corn, as November, if early hatched young

though oats are their favourite food. ducks are selected. It is therefore pos Light corn will be better than none ; and sible to obtain an early hatching of duck

if they get corn till harvest, they will lings. But early ducklings are rarely have passed their fastest-growing period, desirable, as, even with the utmost care, and will then be able to shift for them- they do not acquire much flesh, their selves, first in the stack -yard, and after- bills and bones growing disproportion wards on the stubbles.

The sex of the gosling may be easily

ately large. They indeed never become fine birds.

ascertained after the feathers begin to It is early enough to set duck-eggs in sprout — the ganders being white, and Scotland by May, and by April in Eng

strong in the leg , head, and neck ; the land, unless, as in the Aylesbury district,

geese grey,with a gentler aspect. Gos- a point is made of supplying the spring lings go with their parents for an indefi- market. Hens nite length of time.

as Foster -mothers for Ducks.

Artificial Hatching and Rearing of —It is customary to place duck - eggs

Geese. — Geese are in general close sit- under hens, owing to the difficulty of ters ; but sometimes they forsake the re- making a duck take to a nest she has maining eggs after a few of the goslings not herself made. Hens make tolerable are hatched.

One instance of this sort foster-mothers to ducklings, though the

of desertion is worthy of mention. A task imposed upon them of a week's goose after hatching five goslings left her longer sitting is not in conformity with nest, would no longer sit on the other six their nature, and their tempers are fre eggs, and would be away with the gos- quently sorely tried when the young

lings she had. She was not allowed to fleet of ducklings launch themselves upon do that ; but fearing that the deserted the water and leave them , where they eggs would perish , my housekeeper cannot follow. brought the eggs into the house, put

Ducks should bring out their own

them in a basket amongst warm flannel kind ; and it is thought that, when a and wool, heated the oven gently, placed duck does choose a nest for herself, lines the basket with the eggs in the oven,

it with her own down, and brings out a

and continued the heat in it until the brood, that the ducklings are better than goslings were hatched one by one, excepting one which had died. They occupied some daysin leaving their eggs, and longer than they would have done under the goose. They were carefully attended to, taken out to the grass in the best part of the day, kept warm in the

any reared under a hen ; her instinct

leading them to places in search of food

suitable for them upon land as upon water. Still the entire production of ducklings on a farm should not be left to the chance of ducks setting themselves on eggs, for they are proverbially care

house at night, and, when the weatherless of where they drop their eggs, so was bad, a grass sod was brought to that hens must be employed to hatch a them .

The goose refused to take this part of

few broods of ducks.

A hen can cover

only eleven duck eggs with ease ; a lunar

her own brood when offered her, after month is required to bring them out; and

they had gained sufficient strength to go during the hatching, the hen should be about : they were brought up without left undisturbed until all the brood comes her aid, and became as strong birds as the rest.

out.

Care ofDucklings.—Ducklings should

This was a remarkable instance of disregard of personal trouble ; and is an encouraging example of successful perseverance in the preservation of the lives of useful animals under unfavourable and

be kept from water for two or three days.

even provoking circumstances.

drink, in a flat dish in which they can

The food which they receive should be

soft, as oatmeal porridge, boiled pota toes, bread steeped in water or milk, barley - meal brose, and clean water to

POULTRY IN SPRING.

300

not swim. With this treatment, three or continues to care for her young through four times a day, they will thrive apace, the greater part of the year. and become soon fledged over the body, Hatching Pigeons. when they are fit for use ; but the quill feathers do not appear for some time Ducklings can be made very

after.

Pigeons, when their dovecot is favour ably situated for heat, begin to lay in

fleshy by feeding on boiled rice in which February, and will continue until De some greaves have been mixed.

cember.

They make their own nests,

Duck -rearing in Aylesbury .— A large which are of the simplest materials and number of ducks are bred and reared rudest construction, sticks and straw laid every year, in the Vale of Aylesbury in down indiscriminately; and the same Buckinghamshire, for the London market. nest will be used by the same pair sea The eggs are hatched by hens, and three son after season , even after it is much or four broods are put together into one elevated by the dung of the young pigeons.

division ; whilst other divisions contain On this account pigeons' nests should be

them in a more forward state of growth, cleared away at the end of every brooding some half-grown, others full-fledged, and all are fed alike. In this way one person may have 300 or 400 ducklings feeding about the house, perhaps some of them

season. They lay only two eggs at a time.

which the hen can cover effectually by pushing them below her, with her bili, amongst the feathers.

in some cases under the same roof with

A Plea for Poultry. the family. A great many are housed in little space, and never allowed to go at What has been said on the mode of large, but permitted to wash themselves hatching the different sorts of fowls usu every day in a pond made on purpose ally reared, is suitable to every sort of near the house. farm , and may be acquired by any do They are fed three times a day, on

mestic of the farmhouse ; and that it is

potatoes, barley-meal, bran, greaves, & c., practicable and certain, our own experi and receive as much as they can eat; and ence for years has proved. Great schemes it is stated that they eat an incredible are recommended in books, and large es

quantity of food while thus forcing for tablishments, consisting of buildings and the market. When full-feathered they ponds and spare ground, are erected and are sent to London , where they find a laid out in the parks and farm -courts of

ready sale at from ios. to 128. a pair. As country gentlemen ; but let any other

the season advances, prices fall,till they plan be what it may, and its erections reach 4s. a pair, when the breeding is and appliances of whatever magnitude, given up for the season .

none will afford poultry at all times in

a higher degree of perfection and health Hatching Pea-fowls. Pea-hens, in their hatching, will not be

than the simple methods here described. It may not be a cheap plan, that will

subjected to control. The hen selects a supply good poultry at little or no cost secluded spot for her nest, in which she such an idea of cheapness, at least, as is lays about five eggs—not unlikely in a entertained by farmers when they con garden, where she feels herself secure descend to cast a thought on the poultry from the attentions of the cock, whom of their farms. Fowls cannot be reared

she avoids at this season with marked upon the refuse of the products of a farm assiduity. She takes care that he shall more than any other sort of stock ; and not know , not only where her nest is, but when one sees that the best oats, the best where the pea -fowls are when they come urnips, and the best grass that farm out, because the cock would destroy them . can raise, are required to rear such horses,

A pea-hen in this country seldom brings cattle, and sheep as purchasers desire to

out more than three or four birds, which have, one must also believe that poultry require the best food to make them as places where wild food, insects, can be acceptable to purchasers. For the plan

she tends with great care, taking them to

found in greatest abundance ; and be- here recommended for an ordinary farm , sides, they are fed as young turkeys, it can at least be said that it requires no their habits being very similar. She costly buildings, and will assuredly yield

HATCHING.

301

poultry in good condition at all seasons, Eggs may be brought to life, but unless in return for the food and trouble be- the process of incubation be properly executed, the birds will be weakly, ill a reasonable farmer desire ? conditioned, and die a short time after stowed upon them—and what more can

Fowls in Towns. - Fowls are kept, in wards. towns, in places quite unsuited to their To prevent the yolk of weak eggs habits. Sometimes in a small court, sur settling by its specific gravity, and ad

rounded by high walls, and the hen-house hering to the shell, it is useful to pass a cellar under the street pavement-

condition the very worst for fowls.

a the hand over them, so as to change their The position every twenty-four hours. The

floor of the court is generally covered egg of a strong healthy bird, at the time with dirt, and the small vessel which is of protrusion from the body, is almost intended to contain water is as often dry completely filled with yolk and albumen .

as plenished with clean water, while the If examined a few days after, by holding food is thrown upon the dirty court-floor.

it toward the light , a small cell of air will be discoverable at the larger end, shines upon the hen-house, or only for a which increases with the age of the egg .

Add to these the fact that the sun never

fewminutes in the afternoon, when the This contraction of its internal substance , fowls are about to retire to roost . Ducks by condensation of the more volatile

are treated in even a less ceremonious parts of its contents, causes the absorp manner than hens; having no water, tion of the atmosphere through the their feathers become begrimed with pores of the shell. When the cell is

dirt, and their food is given them in a state little else than dirty puddle. It is impossible fowls can thrive in such circumstances ; and to purchase such at a

large in any egg, it is unfit for incuba tion ; nevertheless, in a good egg, as incubation proceeds, this cell becomes considerably enlarged, probably from

poulterer's, they cannot be deemed whole- evaporation by heat and the vital action going on within the shell.

some food .

Sand, Dust and Water for Fowls.

The cell

serves an important purpose in the econ

One cause of suffering to hens is the omy of this mysterious process, by want of sand or gravel and lime, to assist supplying the chick with its first inspira An egg will not hatch in

the triturition of food and the formation

tion of air.

of the egg - shell. Another source of suffering to them is the want of dust to

vacuo. Phenomena of Incubation . - The

burrow in and shake amongst their feathers, in order to destroy the vermin which annoy their skin ; and ducks and geese suffer as much from want of water

progressive series of phenomena, daily observable during the process of incuba tion in the egg of a common fowl, are curious and instructive. In an impreg

to wash in and clean their feathers.

nated egg, previous to the commence ment of incubation, a small spot is dis

Facts about Eggs. — Few eggs are

worth the trial of hatching if more than cernible upon the yolk, composed of a a month old; their condition, however, membraneous sac containing fluid matter, is greatly influenced by the season and in which the embryo of the future chick the state of the weather. An egg retains swims. its freshness longest in moderately cool ist day.-- At the expiration of twelve weather ; very hot weather destroys vitality in a few days ; and an egg having been frozen is also useless for

has commenced , the matter within

Failures in hatching arise

from want of impregnation in the egg-

semblance to a head ; vesicles as sume the shape of the vertebral

from age, commonly called staleness, whereby life has become extinct - from weakness of the vital energy of the eggs,

2d day.—In thirty -nine hours the eyes

hatching.

produced by age, lowness of keep, or illhealth of the parent, in which cases the

or fourteen hours after incubation

the embryo evidently bears a re bones of the back.

make their appearance ; vessels join together indicating the navel, the

chick partially develops itself, but dies

brain, spinal marrow, rudiments of the wings, and principal muscles ;

before the full period of incubation.

the heart is evidently proceeding.

POULTRY IN SPRING .

302

3d day.—At its commencement the beating of the heart is visible ; some

Embryo of the Chick.— The embryo of the chick is not in every egg placed

hours after, two vesicles containing precisely in the same situation, but varies blood appear, one forming the left considerably. Generally it develops it ventricle and the other the great

self within the circumference of the

artery ; the auricle of the heart is broadest part of the egg ; sometimes it next seen, and pulsation is evident.

is found higher, sometimes lower ; and

4th day. – Wings assume a defined form ; when held before a strong light, has an the brain, the beak, the front and appearance , when a few days old, some what resembling the meshes of a spider's hind parts of the head visible. 5th day.—Liver seen ; circulation of the web, with the spider in the centre. As blood evident.

it increases in size, the bulk of the con

6th day. — Lungs and stomach dis- tents of the egg decrease, so that when tinguishable ; full gush of blood the bird is completely matured, it has ample space to move, and to use its

from the heart distinct.

7th day . — Intestines, veins, and upper limbs with sufficient effect to ensure its mandible visible ; brain becomes liberation. consistent. The position of the chick in the shell 8th day.—Beak opens ; formation of is such as to occupy the least space. flesh on the breast. The head, which is large and heavy in . 9th day . - Ribs formed ; gall -bladder proportion to the rest of the body, is placed in front of the belly, with perceptible.

10th day. - Bill formed ; first voluntary motion of the chick seen.

its beak under the right wing ; the feet are gathered up like a bird trussed for

11th day.— Skull becomes cartilaginous ; the spit; yet in this singular manner, and apparently uncomfortable position, protrusion of feathers evident. 12th day. — Orbits of sight appear ; ribs the bird is by no means cramped or con fined, but performs all the necessary perfected. 13th day . — Spleen in its proper position motions and efforts required for its liberation with the most perfect ease,

in the abdomen .

14th day.—Lungs enclosed within the and with that consummate skill which breast.

instinct renders almost infallible.

15th day. Mature state approached ; The chicken, when it breaks the shell, 16th day. yolk of the egg still out- is heavier than the whole egg was at 17th day.

side of the body.

first.

18th day . - Audible sign of life outside

Formation of Feathers. — In regard the shell ; piping of the chick to the formation of feathers in the chick heard . of a bird, Raspail has the following

Increase of size and strength ; observations : “ If we examine,” he says, yolk enclosed within the “ the epidermis of a sparrow , as it comes 19th day. body ; chick liberates it from the egg, we shall find that we can 20th day. 21st day.

self by repeated efforts isolate each of the small bottles, which made by the bill, seconded the vesicles that form the rudiments of

by muscular exertion of hairs assume the shape of, as well as the the limbs.

nerve of which it seems to be the ter

Testing Eggs for Chicks.—On the minal development. It might almost be

eighteenth day the eggs may, by very supposed thatthe object viewed was the simple means be tested for the presence eye of a mollusca , with its long optic of chicks.

Place the eggs gently into a

nerve .

The summit of this vesicle is

basin of water heated to about 102 de- open, even at its early period, to afford grees Fahr., and every egg containing a a passage for a cylindrical bundle of chick will speedily show signs of life by small fibres, which are also cylindrical, swinging about in the water.

The eggs and which are nothing else than the

which lie perfectly still may be regarded barbs, as yet single, of the feather. If, as rotten, and may be thrown away so as afterwards, we examine a feather at a to enable the hen to devote her attention more advanced period, we may, by a to the fertile eggs. little address, satisfy ourselves that its

HATCHING

303

tube is formed and grows by means of there are instruments sold by various spathæ one within another, of which the makers. external ones project over the inner

The effect of castration is enlargement

ones, so that the tube seems as if di- of the body of the fowl, and increased vided by so many diaphragms. The in- delicacy of its flesh ; but its flavour is terstices of these diaphragms are filled in no way improved. Time was when with a fatty liquid, which condenses in capons were more plentiful at the table

them gradually as the summits of the than chickens, so that even kain -rent spathæ approximate and adhere to each was paid in them . But the conversion of fowls into capons is now almost other.” 1 Artificial Hatching. — The ancient abandoned in Scotland, as an unneces

Egyptian system of hatching eggs in sary and troublesome operation

and will

ovens has been modified and adapted to not probably be resumed as long as a practical wants in this country in an well-fed delicate chicken can be procured admirable manner.

By artificial incuba- with little trouble,—although the Lon

tors, eggs may now be hatched success-

don market is always well supplied with

fully in unlimited numbers without the them.

Turkey-poults are converted into poul mere toys- ardes by the same operation, which pro expensive luxuries for the rich. But duces similar effects upon their size and

aid of sitting hens.

For a long time

artificial incubators were

many machines are now in use which condition .

are simple , most effective, and comparatively inexpensive.

Temperature for Incubation.— We

In these there is to are not aware that any experiments have

be found effective regulation of the temperature, maintaining it at the natural heat of a hen, provision of moisture, and a supply of fresh air, all of which are essential to successful hatching. Where large numbers of chickens are bred, an incubator will be found of the greatest

been made to ascertain the exact tem perature which is maintained in a nest containing eggs under incubation . Bos well simply says, “ To have eggs pro

ductive, they must be subjected to an equable temperature of about 96° Fahr. during at least three weeks.” ? This is

service, both for continuous hatching about blood - heat. F. Malézieu states that the Egyptians in their hatching

and when hens desert their nests.

Caponing. — Capons of the common apparatus maintain a heat of from 63 fowl are formed both of the cock and hen to 72° ; and that Gerard, in his hatching chickens, when they are fit to leave the establishment at Paris, is content with hen , at about six weeks old. Chickens a heat of 66° to 70°.3 Judging from are transmuted into capons by destroy- the heat of the body of a fowl, and ing the testicles of the male and the the long and constant sitting, we should

ovaries of the females ; the latter being expect the temperature to be higher known by the French name poularde. than the blood-heat of man , in a nest The testicles are attached by a mem- devoted to hatching. Now , it is generally accepted that brane to what is called the backbone of

the carved fowl. They are destroyed by 104° is the temperature for incubation ; laying the bird on its near side, keeping but it has frequently been proved in

it down, removing a few feathers, and incubators that hatching will take place They making an incision through the skin of from 102° (or even 101 °) to 106°. at 100°, or the abdomen, and, on introducing the will not hatch with the heat

fore-finger through the incision, first the below 95 °. one and then the other testicle is obliter

Poultry Dung. ated by pressure of the finger. In the case of the hen, the ovary is nipped off Anderson has analysed the dung of by the thumb -nail, or cut off by a domestic poultry, obtained in as fresh a

knife. The incision is stitched up with state and as free of foreign matters as thread, and little danger is apprehended was possible. The specimens were sup of the result. To facilitate the process, 2 Boswell, Poul. Yard, 85 . 1

Raspail's Org. Chem. , 283.

3 Malézieu, Coqs. Domes., 49, 58.

PARING AND BURNING.

304

0.32 10.75

plied by John Gibson, Woolmet, and Sand Alkaline salts .

the results were :

100.00

Pigeom Dung. Ammonia

Water

0.85

58.32 Phosphoric acid in the alkaline salts 28.25

Organic matter Phosphates

trace .

2.69

Sulphate of lime

1.75

The small proportion of ammonia de

Alkaline salts Sand

1.99

serves notice.

7.00

Goose Dung. 100.00

Water

77.08

Phosphates

13.44 0.89 2.94

1.75 Organic matter and 'ammoniacal salts

Ammonia

Phosphoric acid in the alkaline salts equal to 0.20 phosphate of lime, Hen Dung. Water

Organic matter and ammoniacal salts Phosphates nate

Carbo of lime Alkaline salts

O.IO

60.88 19.22 4.47

7.65

Alkaline salts Sand

5.65 100.00

Ammonia

0.67

Phosphoric acid in the alkaline salts equal to 0.26 phosphate of lime,

O. I2

I 09

.

Sand

6.69 Three-fourths of this dung consists of water, less than one per cent of phos phates, and two-thirds per cent of am 0.74

100.00

Ammonia

Phosphoric acid in the alkaline salts equal to 0.15 phosphate of lime Duck Dung. Water

Organic matter and ammoniacal salts

monia, while the alkaline salts are large. The conclusions from these analyses are, that pigeon dung has a value not exceeding three times that of farmyard 46.65 manure, and that the other kinds of 36. 12 0.70

3.15

Phosphates Carbonate of lime

3.01

PARING

AND

poultry dung scarcely, if at all, exceed

it in value.1

BURNING.

Advantages of Paring and Burn Paring is the removal of a thin portion of the surface of the ground, with ing. – The advantages which result from

what may be growing upon it. Burning the operation are ( 1 ) The change produced in the me is the reduction by fire to a state of chanical condition of the soil, the texture powder, of what has been pared off. Object of Paring and Burning.- being altered — opened up — especially

The object of the process is to assist in upon stiff clays, by the admixture of the reducing rough surface-soil into a work- ashes which result from burning. able condition more speedily than could (2 ) In peaty soils, or where a large be accomplished by the slower influences amount of rank and coarse vegetation of tillageand cropping. covers the ground, a complete change is The practice was at one time pursued quickly effected by the process - render a considerable extent, but has very ing the future breaking-up of these soils by the plough a matter of easy accom properly lost in repute.

As to the advantages and disadvantages of paring and burning there is great diversity of opinion amongst practical farmers. For the sake of those not acquainted with the process, we may

plishment. ( 3) Leas and old pasture are frequently infested so much by the larvæ of insects, notably wire - worm ( Elater lineatus) and the grub of the daddy - longlegs

here briefly state the arguments for and against the practice.

1 Trans. High. Agric. Soc., Jan. 1864, 170.

PARING AND BURNING.

305

( Tipula oleracea ), that the prospect of soil ought to be heavily manured with the corn crop is rendered doubtful. nitrogenous manure. These, as well as the seeds of noxious Paring and Burning Condemned. weeds, &c., are destroyed by this prac- -Still, with due recognition of all that tice.

has been claimed for the practice, we are

( 4) Burning is one of the quickest agents employed in agriculture for the conversion ofthe dormant ingredients of the soil into an active or soluble form . Heat breaks up the various compounds, separating the acids from the alkaline bases, which, forming more simple compounds, are to a greater extent soluble in

bound to say that we regard it as entirely out of keeping with the spirit of the age. This view of the matter is well expressed by Mr George Brown, Watten Mains, Caithness, who, writing for this edition, says: “ The practice is objectionable, and is based upon wrong principles. All the advantages claimed for it may be

water, and in consequence in a fit state to derived by following theordinary routine be assimilated by the roots of plants.

of farm practice. If a farmer has rough

Disadvantages of Paring and Burning. These advantages are ob-

land let him plough it early in spring, summer, or autumn the earlier the

tained at the sacrifice of allthe organic better- and leave it to the ordinary portion of the soil, which, being vola- forces of nature until the following

tile, is dissipated by combustion, pass- spring ; sow it then with oats, and again ing into the air in the form of gaseous plough early, taking another crop of bodies.

It is also found that while oats . In the third year it will be ready

potash is rendered more soluble by for a turnip crop . If a little rough after the action of heat, phosphoric acid is sowing, give a turn of a heavy roller rendered nearly insoluble. Over-burn- along the drills, and a heavy crop will

ing also frequently occurs, and this be the result. This method (which is in on a clay soil will convert the residue into brick - dust, a spreading of which may increase the friability of a soil, but can have no action in increasing its fer-

accordance with sound practice, backed by the latest researches of science ), the writer has seen pursued with success upon hundreds of acres of waste land

tility, as it becomes insoluble matter.

and heath when first reclaimed.”

Methods of Paring and Burning. Then, in peaty soils, in dry weather, the former may ruin its producing power by – Having thus given expression to the total destruction of the humus or the prevailing views for and vegetable matter. against paring and burning, Useful on Certain Soils. - From the we now append some notes as

foregoing it would be inferred that paring to the different methods of and burning might be carried out with carrying out the process. advantage on stiff clays, where the loss Various implements are em of the small amount of organic matter ployed to execute paring and which may be present is compensated

burning.

The common No. 5

by the increase of soluble inorganic mat- garden spade, fig: 334, with a ter ; or on a soil which is made up sharp edge and its corners a largely of inert vegetable matter, such little worn by work, removes as peat; and on soils infested with larvæ,

rough herbage very well, and

or seeds of weeds.

Some calcareous

the turfs can be set up at the

soils might perhaps also. be burned to

time by the workmen to be

advantage .

dried.

But the labour with it

Lime Essential. — But no matter what entirely is expensive, and is soil is burned, the full benefit of the

seldom incurred.

operation cannot be obtained unless lime Flauchter-spade.-A more is present. Lime is absolutely necessary expeditious implement is a

for the liberation of potash and soda. spade of a different form , fig. Fig.334. Common It is good practice, therefore, to give a

335 ; the face of which is an

spade .

coating of Time where such is deficient gular and sharp, the blade 9 before the work of paring and burning is inches broad and 15 inches long ; the commenced ; while after completion the straight side of which is turned up

306

PARING AND BURNING .

square 3 inches, with a cutting -edge in est parts ofthe ground, and more often front; the helve is 5 feet long and flat, provided with a broad cross-handle 2 feet

112 inch . It takes a man one week to turn over one acre of ground, and he is

long, fastened at right angles to the helve. paid 35. or 48. a -day, or 20s. an acre, for The blade is set at an angle to permit his hard work.” Paring -plough . — A more expeditious the handle to be elevated to a man's haunches, while the blade works flat upon method still is to pare off the surface the ground. It is called in Scotland the with a horse and plough. An English flauchter -spade, from the Teutonic verb paring-plough, made by Vipan & Headly, to flauch or take off the skin .

Leicester, is represented in fig. 336.

The mode of using this implement is this : “ The workman is provided with a short leather apron faced with two boards

Fig. 336. - Paring -plough.

This plough is specially adapted for par ing the tough surface off an old pasture about to be broken up, or for paring stubbles to facilitate the removal of sur

face weeds. Itpares to a depth of from i to 3 inches, and with a pair of horses will cover from 1/4 to 2 acres per day. Fig. 335. – Flauchter -spade at work . The ordinary plough may be fitted for in front of the groin, the apron being paring by having the feather of its share

buckled round the waist and round the widened to from 12 to 15 inches. Fig.

upper part of the thighs. The blade of 337 is theshareof the common plough, the instrument is laid flat on its sole, the breadth of whose feather is 10 inches, and its point is made to enter the ground but by welding a wing 3 inches in breadth, by a push of the body of the workman

upon the handle placed againstthe boards in front of his groin, and there held by

both hands. The body gives successive pushes, longer or shorter, as the nature of the ground admits; and the point is made to dip deeper, keep level, or move

upwards, by the direction of the hands, according to the thickness of the surface to be removed . At each push the point cuts forward under the turf, while the

Fig. 337. - Paring -sock. a Breadth of sock , 10 inches.

c Ear of feather, 15 inches in breadth from land-side.

cutting edge severs the loosened turf from the solid surface. When the turf is 1 or 2 feet in length, according to the state of the surface, it is turned upon its

having a sharp edge upon the outer side of the feather, the paring -face is increased to 15 inches in breadth from the land -side of theshare. When the paring isfinished,

back or side, on the pared surface on

the wing can be cut off, and the share

the left hand, by a sudden jerk of the handle. The edge of the spade is kept sharp with a scythe-stone. The thickness of the turf removed depends on the strength and skill of the workman, but it

is again fit for ordinary use. The mould board cannot lay over so broad a furrow slice as 15 inches as it lays over in lea ; the broad furrow -slice being partly rolled

seldom exceeds 2 inches even in the soft-

over upon itself, which is in its favour for drying.

PARING AND BURNING.

Paring with the plough is, of course,

307

Drying the Sods.The sods are set

much less expensive, as well as more ex- up on edge against one another in the

peditious, than paring with the flauchter- way best to expose the largest surface to spade. Where the ground is even, the the air, to be dried in the quickest time plough with wide share will turn over the for being burned. The long continuous

entire surface ; but in uneven and much- turfs turned over by the ploughs require broken ground, where stones abound, it to be cut in convenient lengths with the cannot be used, and the flauchter-spade spade before they can be set up to dry. must be employed ; while the common In dry weather they are ready to be

spade is used in small deep hollows, or

burned in about two weeks.

among thick masses of herbage. Thus all Process of Burning.- In burning, the implements may co -operate to com- the fires must be begun with some com plete what one alone couldnot do so well. bustible materials — as wood, chips, shav When the turfs are laid over by the ings ; and at first they must be strictly

spade, the workmen might set them up attended to, in order to have the first one against the other , though not so turfs completely dried. After these have neatly as by hand. The flauchter-spade, begun to burn , surround them with fresh taking up a long thin turf, cannot get sods, to keep the fire in a smouldering quit of it without either laying it flat or state, and not to flame or burn fiercely. setting it partly on edge.

The broad A number of fires should be lighted one

continued turf laid over by the share of after the other, the field -workers carrying the plough must fall flat upon the ground , the turfs to supply them with fresh sods, and be set up by hand to be dried.

A placing them thickest on the windward

paring-plough, which has been used in side to keep down the force of the fire. parts of England in the fens, pares the This being the object, the turf, after the turf by means of two angular shares with first dried ones, should not be too dry

the wings facing each other, and just before the burning begins. The heaps crossingthe centre line, one being a little are supplied with turfs until they attain before the other ; and they are attached a large size, capable of containing from

to shanks, placed in front of the mould- ten to fifteen cart-loads of ashes, and the the turf is raised in a larger the heap the less effect has the air board, uponwhich similar to the furrow -slice in or- on the ashes. manner

dinary ploughing, and is set on its edge

The dried and burning turfs from one

upon the pared ground, ready to be dried, heap will supply fire to begin the burning as neatly as if done by hand.

of other heaps. To prevent the fire break

Expeditious Paring. – Perhaps the ing into combustion through the night,

most expeditious mode of procedure the heaps should be well covered with would be to take a couple of tines out of fresh sods in the evening,partly to be re a common grubber and cross the land to moved in the morning. When the fire gets be pared, then start an American chilled dull, a hole in the windy side, punched plough at the required depth.

The into the heap with a stake, willgive it life.

breadth of the share and curve of the In a large heap there is no fear of the mould -board are suitable for the work, fire being extinguished, although there and by the previous crossing with the be no symptoms of activity on the out

grubber-tines, the surface would be left side. A heavy rain cannot put out the fire of a large heap. To obtain good results, the burning Time for the Process .— Paring may be executed any time during the winter should not be conducted in a thoughtless

in good -sized turfs for burning.

and spring,but it is best and most easily manner, but done to a plan previously done from February to April. It is diffi- fixed upon . A Good Plan.-A good plan is to cult to do when the ground is dry and hard, but in boggy land it is best done burn one row of heaps, then another, and

in dry weather. While boggy land is very to begin at that side of the field most wet it cannot be done at all, the footing convenient to plough the ground. Hav

then being insecure, and the soil soaking ing gathered the turfs on both sides of a with water; nor in clay land, when wet, as the surface soon becomes poached.

line of heaps, a space of ground will be

cleared of turf; and as one line of heaps

308

PARING AND BURNING .

is constructed and burning, let another exposed till ploughing in the autumn for

be begun from the end where the former wheat; part pared and burnt late, the line finished, until all the field has been ashes left in heaps, and spread just before

heaped and burning. The charred turfs ploughing the wheat ; the third pared of the previous line will be easily carried

and not burnt at all, by reason of bad

across the ground to the line to be formed. weather. The first was by far the best, Cooling the Heaps.—The time that the second the next, and the third beyond may elapse before the burned heaps be- all comparison inferior.” ] The superiority come cold depends on the state of the of the results from the first method was, weather, but it will be considerable if the no doubt, due to the ashes having in heaps are allowed to cool of themselves. their exposure absorbed ammonia from

The hot ashes may be spread to cool, if the atmosphere. required soon ; but should wind arise after a heap has been broken, the ashes

Changes involved in Burning Soil.

-The chemical and physical changes

will be scattered, or be blown off the which occur in the burning of soil may ground altogether. Caution is requisite be stated thus : Combustion and decay in opening up a heap. The Ashes. — When thick turf has been laid over by the plough, it will afford more ashes than the ground requires at one time. To avoid a superabundance of ashes, some pare as much turf in strips as will just supply the ashes wanted. To

are synonymous ;—the ultimate results

from each are similar, but the proximate organic compounds are different. Com bustion acts quickly, and dissipates organic matter in the form of carbonic acid, ammonia , and watery vapour. De cay acts more slowly, and allows these

effect the stripping, the ear of the feather volatile substances to recombine with of the share is turned up with a cutting the alkalies and acids present in the soil, edge. But where the herbage is rough, thus forming soluble salts, such as car the strips left are as difficult to reduce bonate of lime, and nitrate of potash, as ever. or lime. Chief of the inorganic com The better plan is, to pare and burn pounds is silicate of ammonia, which all the surface, and carry off the extra cannot be held as plant- food ; but,

ashes to another field about to bear a according to Professor Tanner, in com

green crop ; and as carrying away ashes bination with this compound there are implies robbery of the land which has supplied them, a substitute should be provided in farmyard or other manure. The burning of heaps in line clears the ground for the plough, which is feered between the heaps, to ridge the land in any form desired ;

others — viz., silicate of potash and lime in certain proportions — forming double silicates. This compound is broken up

by the action of heat, and the silicic acid having a greater affinity for am monia, the potash is driven out and

and before the recombines with other free acids present.

land is ploughed the ashes are spread upon it. This is the simplest mode of applying the ashes ; for if they are not spread until after the dung for turnips

Lime, being rendered caustic by the process also, comes into contact with salts of potash, and liberates the base and combines with the acid .

has been laid on, as some writers recom-

Thus we learn that a constant change

mend, the ashes will have to be carried is taking place, the complex or insoluble

off the field, and then brought back when compound being rendered simple or wanted .

soluble, all being regulated by chemical

Time to Plough in Ashes.—" There affinity. are two methods, one to spread and Apart from chemical action, burned

plough in immediately, the other to spread immediately, but to have them exposed to the atmosphere some months before turning in . Mr Wedge, on the thin sandy soil on a chalk bottom of Newmarket heath, had in one a treble experiment : part was pared and burnt in the spring, and the ashes spread and

clay, charcoal, & c., have a great power of absorption, and many maintain that the ammonia lost by burning is fully compensated by the power the burned residual matter has for absorbing this wonderful agent in plant-growth . 1 Pott's Brit. Far. Cy. - art. " Par. Burn ."

SUMMER .

309

SUMMER. THE WEATHER.

radiate or emit heat during the night.

Objects which are good radiators, such As spring is the restoration of life to as grass, flowers, and foliage generally, vegetation,and the season in which the give out heat readily, and thus when works of the field are again in activity during night they emit heat without re

so summer is the season of progress in ceiving any in return, their temperature vegetation and in the works of the field . falls below that of the atmosphere which This advancement involves no difference

surrounds them.

The cold surface of

of practice, only impressing into its ser- these plants attracts and condenses the vice many minor works for the first time, vapour in the adjacent air, which deposits in assistance to the greater. Many of itself in the form of dew. Hoar-frost is

these minor operations being manual, and similarly formed, the condensed vapour performed in the most agreeable season taking the shape of hoar-frost when the of the year, they are regarded with pecu- temperature ofthe earth is below freez liar interest and delight by the light- ing-point, or 32° Fahrenheit. hearted farm -workers.

The reason why little or no dew is

Atmospherical Complications in formed when the sky is clouded is that Summer. — The atmospherical pheno- the clouds, being good radiators, give mena of summer are not only varied,

back as much heat as they take away

but of a complicated character, difficult from the earth, thus maintaining an al of explanation, and apparently anoma- most even balance of temperature between lous in occurrence. There are dew , which the earth and the surrounding air. is a great deposition of water at a time

Beneficial Influence of Dew.-The

when not a cloud is to be seen ; a deposition of dew is a happy provision of thunderstorm , which suddenly rages in

nature.

Often when the rainfall is insuf

the midst of a calm ; and hail, which is ficient, the wants of vegetation are sup

the descent of ice and congealed snow in plied by dew. This is particularly the the hottest days of the year. case in tropical regions where there may Dew.- The phenomenon of dew is be little or no rain for months, and where, familiar to every one residing in the owing to the rapid radiation of heat at country. In the hottest day of summer, night, and the great evaporation of mois the shoes become wetted onwalking over ture from the soil into the surrounding

a grass-field about sunset, and they may atmosphere during the day, abundant be wetted as thoroughly as in wading dews are deposited. through water. Wells investigated the Dew is often found upon plants when phenomena of dew more closely than any bare soil and stones close at hand show other man of his time. His experiments,

no traces of it.

as detailed in his instructive and amusing essay on that subject, appear to have been very satisfactorily conducted, and the theory which he established by these experiments has been generally embraced by philosophers. Cause of Dew . — Briefly, the cause

that plants have much greater radiating power than soil and stones, and thus the former fall more quickly in temperature after sunset. Wind tends to prevent the formation of dew by carrying away the

This arises from the fact

particles of vapour before the adjacent colder bodies have been able to condense

of dew is unreciprocated radiation — the them. radiation of heat from the earth, plants, Measuring Dew.—To measure the

and other bodies upon which dew is quantity of dew deposited each night, formed. The earth during the day both an instrument is used called a drosome absorbs and gives out heat. The supply ter. The most simple process consists in of heat for absorption of course ceases exposing to the open air bodies whose

with the setting of the sun, but the earth exact weight is known, and then weigh and bodies upon its surface continue to ing themafresh after they are covered X VOL . II .

SUMMER .

310

with dew . According to Wells, locks of to restore the equilibrium of both. The wool, divided into spherical masses of 372 forcible passage of the fluid causes such inches diameter, are to be preferred to a concussion in the air as to give rise any other thing for measuring the deposit to the noise which is heard in thunder. All circumstances that favour

The time taken by the electric fluid to

radiation equally contribute to the for-

pass from one cloud to another is inap

mation of dew . A body that is a good radiator and a bad conductor of heat, will therefore be covered with a very abundant dew. Thus glass becomes wet sooner

preciable, but the velocity of sound is calculable. It has been calculated that for every 472 seconds of time which

of dew.

elapse after seeing the lightning to hear than the metals ; organised bodies are ing the thunder, the clouds are situate

wetted more quickly than glass, especially one mile from the auditor. when they are in small fragments - beLightning. - Lightning is of three

cause, as the heat passes with difficulty kinds. First, forked, or zigzag, lightning; from the one to the other, that which second, sheet-lightning ; and third, ball.

is lost is not replaced by that which is lightning. Ball-lightning is regarded as transmitted from the interior to the sur-

very dangerous, and unfortunately the

face of the body. Locks of wool are lightning - conductor is no protection therefore well suited to these experiments, against injury from it. and become covered with a very abundant

Motion of Electricity . — The motion

dew. The moister the air is, all other of the electric fluid is most commonly things being equal, the more considerable from the clouds to the earth, though is the quantity of dew that falls in a numerous examples exist of its having given time. followed an opposite direction. It is pro

Dalton computed the amount of dew bable, however, that in most cases of which annually falls at five inches.

In

electric explosion the fluid leaves both

fine weather, in the evening, the vapour- clouds, or the cloud and the earth, at plane being destroyed, and the nubific one time. However this may be , the principle, as Forster observes, ceasing to stroke always goes in the most direct

act, the vapour so deposited comes down line, even through substances of the least in dew. Dew, however, is not the result conducting power. Animals are frequent always of the stratus cloud, and it differs ly struck, because their fluids easily con from the wet mist of the cirro-stratus of duct the fluid ; while the shock given to the lower atmosphere. the body seems to be through the nervous Heavy Dews Foretelling Rain . - In system . Hence conductors . Lightning our country, nights with abundant dews

may be considered as foretelling rain ; lightning - conductors have been recom for they prove that the air contains a

mended not only to draw off the fluid

great quantity of the vapour of water, quietly from the atmosphere into the and that it is near the point of saturation. Thunderstorms. - Summer is the sea-

son in which electricity is most active in displaying its existence. The electric fluid accumulates in the clouds of vapour. When two clouds, thus provided with electric matter beyond

earth, which they certainly do when at tached to houses, but also with the view

of lessening the number and virulency of thunderstorms, which it is doubtful

that any number of conductors would effect. Thunder has never been heard at a

their usual state, are not far from each greater distance than 14 miles from other, the electricity of the one always the flash of lightning. The report of becomes positive, and that of the other cannon has been heard at a much greater negative. They thus attract and ap- distance. Indeed it is stated that the

proach each other; and when they come cannonading at the battle of Waterloo so near that the force of the positive was heard at the town of Creil in the electricity is able to overcome the re- north of France, a distance of 115 miles sistance of the air between the positive from the field of battle. and negative clouds, the fluid leaves the Utility of Thunderstorms. — Thun

positive and enters into the negative derstorms are of great use in the economy cloud in lightning in such quantity as of the atmosphere. The surplus electric

THE WEATHER.

311

city is disposed of to the earth, the sur- the White Sea to the Arctic Ocean ,2 plus vapour is condensed and sent down and it includes all that large portion of to the earth in rain, the air is prevented Europe to the E. of it. Rain without Clouds. — Every one from becoming stagnant, the extraneous matters floating in the air are brought may have observed rain to fall without down to the earth, whether these be in the appearance of a cloud. When the a solid or gaseous state . equilibrium of the higher regions is

Hail in Summer. — The fall of ice from the atmosphere in hot weather is a phenomenon not easily solved. That both snow and ice are required in the for-

violently disturbed, especially when any cold N. winds come into collision with those from the S., it may happen that rain falls from a serene sky. Large drops mation of hail there cannot be a doubt. are seen to moisten the earth ,and yet at Hail generally falls in the hottest the zenith the sky is blue. The vapours

hours of the day in Spain, Italy, and condense into water, without passing France. It falls in Europe generally in through the intermediate state of vesicu lar vapours as clouds. Humboldt gives the day, and seldom in the night. Sleet.— Small hailstones mixed with several examples of the kind, and Käemtz snow and rain are termed sleet.

The remarks from his own observations that

the fact is not very rare, having observed it two or three times annually.

largest are sometimes surrounded with a slight film of ice. Sleet falls in winter and spring during gusty weather, and rarely accompanies storms, but always falls during gales. When the weather

the winds in summer in this country is gentle and refreshing. This is the season

is variable , such gusts of cold wind seem

for the land and sea breezes.

Summer

Wind.— The character of

In fine

a necessary condition for the formation weather, on the sea-coasts, no movement of sleet . is perceived in the air until eight or nine Summer Rain . — The character of rain o'clock in the morning, when a breeze in summer is refreshing. Even in a rainy from the sea gradually rises, and increases season , though we may feel displeased in strength till three o'clock in the after

at being kept withindoors ona summer noon, when it decreases, and gives place, day, we feel assured that it will in a great after a short period of calm , to a breeze measure be absorbed by the varied mass from the land towards the sea , which rises

of vegetation which is in constant activity soon after sunset, and attains its maxi during this season. Since the experi- mum of velocity and extent at the mo ments of Hales proved that a sunflower ment of sunrise. The direction of these

plant, 372 feet high, and an ordinary- two breezes is perpendicular to the coast sized cabbage,on the average perspire 22 line ; but if another breeze arise at the ounces of water, and consequently absorb same time, both are modified in various as much every twenty-four hours, one ways. On the E. coast of this island,

may judge of the immense quantity of when the wind blows from the E. the

water required daily to supply the wants sea-breeze is strong,and the land -breeze of vegetation. And when it is known weak ; and on the W. coast, the land that evaporation, besides, carries an in- breeze is stronger than the sea-breeze. credible amount of vapour direct from These effects will be the contrary with the surface of the ground into the atmo- a W. wind . In a wind from the N. or S.,

sphere, one may wonder whence all the both the land and sea breezes will be requisite moisture can be derived, rather changed in their direction respectively than imagine that too much has been

to the N.E. and S.W.

provided.

very

The sea -breeze is

weak in gulfs, and the land -breeze is

The boundary-line of the province of as weak on promontories. summer rains in Europe proceeds W. A day wind betwixt the mountains from the Carpathian mountains to the and plains exists in the same manner N. of the Alps, through the middle of as the land and sea breezes, though to France, the W. of Holland, and by the a less degree.

N. part of the Gulf of Bothnia, through 1 Hales's Stat. Ess ., i. 12, 15.

The alternation of all these winds is

2 Johnston's Phys. Atl.—“ Meteo.,” Map iv.

312

SUMMER .

explained by the unequal heating of the saturation : after having attained its land and of the sea, and of that of the minimum , the quantity of vapour again

mountains and the plain ; and as conti- increases very regularly until next morn nents are hotter in summer and colder ing, while the air becomes relatively more in winter than the contiguous sea, the and more moist. Vapour being the re sea -breeze ought to predominate in sum- sult of the action of heat on water, it is evident that its quantity must vary in mer, and the land-breeze in winter. In summer, when the wind is variable, different seasons. The quantity of vapour rain is indicated, and also when the wind attains its maximum , 11.626 per cent, in blows along the surface of the ground July, the month in which the air is driest. and raises the dust upwards. When cur- Evaporation is nearly twice as active in rents of air are seen to move in different

directions, the upper one will ultimately

prevail. When it is uncertain whether there be any breeze, the lifting up of a wetted finger will instantly feel the current, and indicate the quarter from whence it comes.

summer as in spring . Light. — Light is a most important

element in nature for the promotion of vegetation in summer. Its properties are most evidently manifested in this

season, and have been shortly and for cibly enumerated by Lindley.

“ It is

In summer, especially in July, the to the action of leaves,” he observes wind blows chiefly from the W. — the " to the decomposition of their carbonic predominance of W. winds over E. at this acid and of their water ; to the separa the sap season attaining its maximum ; and at tion of the aqueous particles ofdissolved the same time the N. winds become more from the solid parts that were common ; whence it follows that the in it ; to the deposition thus effected mean direction of the wind in this season is N. of the annual mean .

When the wind blows strongly from

of various earthy and other substances, either introduced into plants, as silex and metallic salts, or formed there, as

any quarter, even from the S.W., which is the warmest wind in summer, for two or three days in succession, the temperature of the air is diminished, sometimes

vegetable alkaloids ; to the extrication of nitrogen, and probably to other causes as yet unknown, —that the formation of the peculiar secretions of plants, of what as much as 20°, and seldom less than 10°. ever kind, is owing. And this is brought When small whirlwinds are seen raising about principally ,if not exclusively,by

the dust upon the roads or fields, it is a the agency of light. Their green colour sign of dry weather.

Evaporation.—In proportion as the sun rises above the horizon, evaporation increases, and the air receives a larger quantity of vapour. The fact of the ris-

becomes intense, in proportion to their exposure to light within certain limits, and feeble, in proportion to their re moval from it ; till, in total and con tinued darkness, they are entirely des

ing of vapour from the ground may be titute greenetiolated. secretion ,The and same become re distinctly observed in summer by the blanchedof and flickering of distant objects seen through sult attends all their other secretions;

it ; and as the air, by its gravity, opposes timber, gum, sugar, acids, starch, oil, an obstacle to the rise of vapour, the air becomes further and further removed from the point of saturation, its humidity becoming more and more feeble. The

resins, odours, flavours, and all the numberless narcotic, acrid, aromatic, pungent, astringent, and other prin ciples derived from the vegetable king

rate increases until mid -day, when the dom, are equally influenced, as to quan maximum occurs, and in different months tity andquality, by the amount of light it occurs sooner or later. The absolute

to which the plants producing them

quantity of vapour diminishes, until the have been exposed .” 2 The advantage that summer possesses day, without however attaining a mini- over the other seasons as regards light, mum so low as that of the morning. As is seen in its comparative duration in the temperature rises during all this

time of the highest temperature of the

space of time, it follows thatthe air is

farther and farther from the point of

1 Käemtz's Meteo ., 92. 2

Lindley's Theo. Hortic, 52.

THE WEATHER .

313

the respective months. Summer indeed The barometer remains pretty stationary enjoys more than double the light of in summer, and comparatively high, any winter, a half more than spring, and a

remarkable oscillation being a sudden

third more than autumn.

fall before a violent wind from the S.W.

Thus

It was an observation of Dalton, that in summer, after a long continuance of fair

In Winter,

November has 8hours 108 minutes of light a -day. weather, with the barometer high, it 7

December

!!

11

7

44

11

10

Making a mean of 7

41

11

11

11

January

appearance of rain ,

In Spring, February has 9 hours 30 minutes of light a - day. March

11

II

11 April Making a

14

11

mean of 11

49 9

11

49

10

generally falls gradually, and for one, two, or more days, before there is much If the fall be

sudden, and great for the season, it will probably be followed by thunder. The thermometer is also steady and high, only indicating a great fall during

11

a hail-storm . 11

The air is clear and dry

in summer, the clouds high, and the wind breezy. The changes from this

In Summer,

May

state are occasioned by thunder and has 16 hours 11 minutes of light a-day. hail storms, and such changes are al

June

11

17

16

11

11

July

1

16

45

11

!!

44

11

Animals are numerous in summer, and

Making a mean of 16

11

ways sudden and violent.

constantly in the air, and their covering of hair and feathers being peculiarly sensible to the changes of the atmo

In Autumn,

August has 14 hours 34 minutes of light a-day. sphere, gives rise to such actions in the September 1 12 October

"

IO

11

23

11

!!

17

11

11

Making a mean of

12

25

11

Besides its existence for a greater num

animals as are significant of approaching changes in the weather. Ducks, geese, all water-fowl, the guinea -fowl, peacock , crows, frogs, and sparrows, make much noise before a fall of rain .

Bees roam

ber of hours each day, light is of greater but a short distance from their hives, intensity in summer than in the other and ants carry their eggs busily before seasons, because it is then transmitted rain. through the atmosphere at a higher wind.

angle . The light of the sun or of the moon, in its passage across the meridian, is dazzling to the eye, whilst we can gaze without difficulty at either body when near the horizon, because the rays

Magpies chatter much before Spiders cover everything with

their gossamer when the weather is to continue fine. Wild - flowers indicate changes in the atmosphere as sensibly as animals. Chick -weed expands freely and remains open fully, in a continuance

cannot so easily penetrate through the of fine weather.

When it, with the

thick stratum of atmosphere and of trefoil and convolvulus, contracts its

vapour they have there to traverse, in petals, rain may be expected . which , moreover, many of them are ab-

ticular forms

of clouds also

Par indicate

sorbed .

both steady and changeable weather, as Heat of the Sun. - As heat always thus : accompanies light with the solar rays, If woolly fleeces strew the heavenly way, its intensity increases with the light. Be sure no rain disturbs the summer day. It would appear that a very large proWhen clouds appear like rocks and towers, portion of the heat of the solar ray The earth's refreshed by frequent showers. is absorbed in passing through the at Summer Proverbs. -- The metrical mosphere, and that the proportion is in

creased as thesun approaches thehorizon. proverbs of summer are not many. Summer Weather Prognostics . - In summer, weather prognostics are numer

May. A cold May and a windy ,

ous. Falling-stars generally indicate the

Makes a full barn and a findy.

approach of a thunderstorm . Fire-balls are not uncommon on warm summer nights.

May, comes she early or comes she late, She'll make the cow to quake.

SUMMER.

314

Beans blow-before May doth go . A May flood-never did good. Shear your sheep in May-and shear all away.

sunset, announce the return of fair

A swarm of bees in May Is worth a load of hay.

on the following day. We may expect

Look at your corn in May, And you'll come weeping away.

showers when the sun is of a brilliant white, and sets in the midst of a white

weather. A twilight of a whitish yel low, especially when it extends to a dis

tance in the sky, is a sign of wet weather

light, which scarcely permits us to dis June.

tinguish it.

Look at your corn in June, And you'll come home in another tune. Calm weather in June - sets corn in tune.

July. A swarm of bees in July — is not worth a fly.

The prognostication is still worse when light clouds, that give the sky a dull ap pearance, appear near the horizon. When

the twilight is greyish red, in the midst of whichare seen portions of deep red

that pass into grey, scarcely permitting

to fill, the sun to bedistinguished , vesicular the corn July, when IsA shower worth ain plough of oxen, andbegins all belongs

vapour is very abundant, and we may calculate on wind and approaching rain.

theretill.

No tempest, good July ! Lest corn come off blew by.

Daybreak. — The signs drawn from

daybreak are somewhat different. When Rainbow Prognostics. — The prog- it is very red we may expect rain ; whilst nostics connected with the rainbow are :

a grey morning announces fair weather.

After a long drought the bow is a cer tain sign of rain ; and after much wet, of fair weather. When the green is large and bright, it indicates rain ; and when

SUMMARY OF SUMMER FARM . WORK .

the red is the strongest colour, both wind and rain are indicated . If the bow break Calendar and Agricultural Sea up at once, there will follow serene and sons. — Practical farmers know well that

settled weather. When the bow is seen farm-work cannot be sharply divided in in the morning, rain will follow ; if at accordance with the months of the calen noon, settled and heavy rain ; and at dar. Indeed the farming seasons, as

night, fair weather. The appearance of commonly understood, differ consider For

two or three rainbows indicates fair ably from the calendar seasons.

weather for the present, but settled and instance, there are the autumn and

heavy rain in two or three days after. spring seed-times, which stretch respec Very often only a portion of the arc

tively into winter and summer. It must Twilight. — The appearance of twilight the division of the farm duties in this depending on the state of the sky, fore- work it was the agricultural seasons

appears, and it is indicative of rain .

thus be remembered that in arranging

tells to a certain extent the weather of

the following day. When the sky is

rather than the calendar months that were considered.

blue, and after sunset the western region is covered with a slight purple tint, we may expect that the weather will be fair, especially if the horizon seem covered with a slight smoke. When

prudent to adhere in the main to the original plan of the work in treating of the various operations of the farm as they come round in rotation, we have

Moreover, while it has been deemed

the horizon at sunset is occupied to occasionally departed from the plan for some height with densely orange -col- the sake of convenience, or to lessen the oured vapour, heavy wind will come in amount of repetition , of which indeed , twenty-four or thirty hours. When the as with actual farm - work itself, there horizon at sunset is of crimson or ver- must be a good deal. But in any case, milion colour, the wind will be accom- in a work, the practical utility of which panied with heavy rain

When the is the main consideration, we should

horizon is green at sunset, rain will fol- never hesitate, for the sake of clearness, low next day. After rain , isolated clouds,

coloured red and well illuminated, at

to resort to repetition. Root Sowing. — Early in summer the

SUMMARY OF SUMMER FARM -WORK .

315

land for the root crops is worked, cleaned, lambs from the ewes is now effected, drilled, dunged, and sown. The culture and marks of age, sex , and ownership of roots is a most important and busy are stamped upon the flock. Forage Crops . — The forage crops on occupation, employing much labour in singling and hoeing the plants for the farms in the neighbourhood of towns greater part of the summer.

are now disposed of to cowfeeders and

Fat Cattle.- Feeding cattle not to be carters. Butter and cheese are put to grass are now got rid of as soon as Dairying. the state of the markets warrants. There made on dairy-farms in quantities which

is usually a deficiency of fat cattle for the supplies of milk warrant. Weeds. - Summer is the best disposal early in summer, the winter

of all

supply becoming exhausted before grass- seasons for making overwhelmingattacks of fields and It is upon weeds, those spoilers thus a good plan, when it can be carried contaminators of grain.

fed animals are fit for slaughter.

Whether in

out conveniently, to have a few fat beasts pasture, on tilled ground, along drills of for sale early in summer.

green crops, amongst growing corn, or in

Fat Sheep . — The fat sheep are also hedges, young and old, weeds should be sold, except when desired to have their

day by day exterminated.

And their

fleece, in which case they are kept until extermination is, in many cases, most

the weather becomes warm enough for effectually accomplished by the minute and painstaking labour of field -workers ; clipping Repairing Fences. — Before stock is for which purpose they are provided with put on grass, the hedger should mend appropriate hand-implements. every gap in the hedges and stone walls,

Insect Attacks. — This is the season in

and have the gates of the grass fields in which all manner of insects attack both repair. crops and stock, much to their injury and Grazing Stock . - Young cattle, sheep, annoyance. and cows are put on pasture, to remain Fallow Land . In anticipation of all summer.

Cattle and sheep graze well next year's crop, the fallow land is

together, cattle biting the grass high, worked, cleaned , manured, and limed , while sheep follow with a lower bite. if necessary, in readiness for wheat seed For the same reason, horses and cattle in autumn. graze well together. Horses and sheep, Top - dressing. — Top - dressings of

biting low, are not suitable companions specific manures upon growing crops are on pasture. Horses, besides, often annoy applied for the promotion of their growth sheep.

and fecundity, at the fittest state of

Horses. — Horses now live a sort of weather and crop. idle life. They escape from the thralHours of Labour.-The hours de dom of the stall-collar in the stable to voted to field -work in summer vary in

the perfect liberty of the pasture-field, different parts of the country. In some and there they doenjoy themselves. In parts it is the practice to go asearly as the opinion of many farmers it is better four o'clock in the morning to the yoke, for work-horses to have forage at the and the forenoon's work is over by nine, steading than to be grazed on the fields.

time being given for rest in the heat of

The brood - mare brings forth her foal, the day. The afternoon's yoking com and receives immunity from labour for mences at one o'clock, and continues till six. Thus ten hours are spent in the fields.

a time.

Haymaking. - Haymaking is represented by poets as a labour accompanied with unalloyed pleasure. Lads and lasses are doubtless then as merry as chirping grasshoppers. But haymaking is in sober

But in most parts of the country the morning yoking does not commence till six o'clock, and , on terminating at eleven , only two hours are allowed for rest and dinner till one o'clock, when the after

truth a labour of much toil and heat: noon's yoking begins, terminating at six wielding the hayrake and pitchfork in P.M. In som places the afternoon yoking hot weather, for a livelong day, is no does not commence till two o'clock, and, child's play. finishing at six, only nine hours are spent

Weaning Lambs. — The weaning of in the fields; or it is continued till seven

SUMMER .

316

o'clock. In other parts, only four hours are spent in the morning yoking, when the horses are let loose at ten o'clock, and, on yoking again from two till six in the afternoon , only eight hours are de voted to work in the fields, the men

To gather round the aching breast The curtain of repose

Stretch the tired limbs, and lay the head Upon one's own delightful bed ! ” JAMES MONTGOMERY.

The Farmer's Duties. - Every opera

being employed elsewhere by themselves tion, at least early in summer, requires for two hours.

the constant attention of the farmer.

Many farmers maintain that the best Where natural agencies exert their most division of time is to yoke at five o'clock active influences on animal and vegetable in the morning, loose at ten, yoke again creation, he requires to put forth his at one, and loose at six in the evening, greatest energies to co-operate with the giving three hours of rest to men and very rapid changes they produce. Should horses at the height of the day, and he have, besides his ordinary work, field ten hours of work in the field .

One experiments in hand, the demands upon

drawback to this plan is that the his attention and time are the more

horses have not, without their night's urgent, and he must devote both assid rest being unduly curtailed, had time uously if he expect to reap the greatest to feed sufficiently before the day's work advantage derivable from experimental begins.

results.

Day-labourers and field -workers, when

The Farmer's Holiday.- Towards

not working along with horses, often work from seven till twelve, and from one till six o'clock in the evening, having one hour for rest and dinner. When

the end of summer is the only period in which the farmer has liberty to leave home without incurring the blame of neglecting his business. Even then the

labourers take their dinner to the field, time he has to spare is very limited. this is a convenient division of time; but Strictly speaking , he has only about two commencement three weeks before

when they have to go home to dinner, or the one hour is too little for dinner and rest of harvest, in which to have leisure for between the yokings — and rest is ab- travel. A journey once a -year to wit solutely necessary, as neither men nor

ness the farm operations of other parts

women are able to work ten hours with- of the kingdom , or of foreign coun out an interval of more than one hour.

tries, enlightens him in many uncer

It is a better arrangement for field- tain points of practice. He there sees workers to go to work at six instead of mankind in various aspects, his mind seven, and stop at eleven instead of becomes widened and raised above local twelve, when they have to go home to prejudices, and a clearer understanding of dinner. places, manners, and customs is afforded When field -workers labour in connec- him when reading the publications of the tion with the teams, they must conform day. A month so spent may, in its ex with their hours. perience, be worth a lease-length of local Rest.—The long hours of a summer reading and of stay-at-home life. day, of which at least ten are spent in the fields — the high temperature of the air, which suffuses the body with per-

HAY-STACK FOR HORSES.

spiration—and the oft-varying character of field-work in summer, bearing hard

It is the custom in many parts not to

both on mental and physical energies, break upon the hay -stack until the busy cause the labourer to seek rest at an

work of spring has begun.

This, how

early hour of the evening. None but ever, will depend upon the supply of those who have experienced the fatigue other food for horses, such as good oat

of working in the fields, in hot weather, straw or good bean-straw. When these for long hours, can sufficiently appreciate are plentiful, little or no hay may be the luxury of rest - a luxury truthfully used till well into spring. defined in these beautiful lines : “ Night is the time for rest .

How sweet, when labours close,

Taking in Hay.- As much of the

hay-stack is brought in at a time as will fill the hay-house. Each portion of

FLAX CULTURE.

317

the stack cut off from its top, 4 or 5 feet is kept keen with a whetstone, and the in breadth , should have its covering re- hay firm, it makes bad work. moved , and the remainder on the stack A hay - knife which some prefer is in firmly secured, otherwise the wind may the form of the dung -spade, which, being used standing, is wielded with much blow it away entirely.

Hay -knife. The implement used for greater force, and makes a deeper cut ; cutting hay is the hay-knife, fig. 338, and having two sharp sloping edges, it observed that the line

It will be cuts equally well to the right or left. A very expeditious form of hay -knife

of the back of the

is that shown in fig. 339. (J. G. Rollins

blade is not at right

& Co. , Ld. , American merchants, Old Swan Wharf, London. )

which is a convenient form.

angles to the handle, a position which gives the cutting edge of

Method of Cutting a Hay-stack.

In cutting off a breadth of hay across the stack , the stack should be left per pendicular and the cutting horizontal.

the knife an inclina tion to the line of

section, and conse

When the dace is not cut down to the

quently affords it, in

ground, straw should be placed upon the cut portion left, to protect it from rain , and a hurdle or two placed upon the straw to prevent it being blown off. The

its downward stroke, a force to cut the

successive straws of Fig. 338. --Hay-knife. hay, which it could

hay is usually conveyed tothe hay-house

not do were the stroke perpendicular to in a cart, as in the case of grain to the the length of the blade. The person who sheaf -barn . cuts the stack is the steward, and in using

Hay for Young Horses.

-Young

the knife he kneels upon the part he is horses should receive hay after the stack cutting off, with his face to the body of the stack.

has been broken into, straw becoming too hard and dry after March. More

This form of knife requires consider- over, it is expedient to improve their able force in its use, and unless the edge condition to prepare them for grass.

HAT KNIFE . * Nemungan

Fig. 339. — Lightning hay -knife.

Feeding cattle rarely receive hay in vated most largely in the north of Ire Scotland, but in England meadow - hay land, whereit is grown with great success

is given to feeding cattle either alone, to supply fibre to the extensive linen with some straw , but more frequently chopped hay and straw together, or in

grow

mills of Ulster. The Irish farmers both the crop and prepare the fibre for

union with oilcake, or with linseed prepared. On dairy-farms, cows generally receive hay after having calved, either as steamed chaff or dry fodder.

the linen - mills. In most other parts, notably on the continent of Europe, the farmer merely grows the crop and leaves its manipulation to others. In order to obtain the finest fibre the flax has to be

pulled before the bolls or seed are ripe, FLAX CULTURE.

and thus a twofold return of seed and

fibre is seldom obtained from the one

Flax ( Linum usitatissimum , Nat. Order crop. Linece) is cultivated for fibre or for seed, As already explained (vol. i. p. 257), or for both. In this country it is culti- linseed, the seed of flax, possesses great

SUMMER

318

value as an article of food, especially for be in too fine a state of pulverisation when the seed is sown. To promote this Soil for Flax. — The flax plant re- fine state of the soil, cross - ploughing

cattle.

quires a deep mellow loamy soil, abound- should be executed early in spring, taking ing in vegetable matter, and equally re- care to avoid wet weather, or the soil in moved from strong clay and thin gravel. a waxy state, as dry weather following On clay the plant grows too strong and renders the soil difficult to be pulverised. branchy, yielding coarse fibre, and on

gravel it is stinted in 'growth.

Clods left on the surface, after a double

Any turn of the harrows, should be reduced by

soil in too high condition causes flax to a clod -crushing implement. The cross-ploughing in spring should be rank, branching, and coarse. Rotation for Flax. — The finest flax be done about two months before sowing. is best obtained after corn or potatoes. Medium land after potatoes will do with In the north of Ireland , where flax culti- one ploughing from four to six weeks

vation is pursued extensively and with great success, it is not considered good practice to grow flax after lea. It is difficult to get lea -land into a sufficiently fine tilth , and insect attacks are more frequent after lea than after wheat or

potatoes. Flax should not follow turnips, but it does well after potatoes. Flax should not be repeated on the same land at shorter intervals than about seven

before sowing . Heavy land after potatoes should be ploughed as early in the year as possible.

Plough shallow, about 4

inches deep, after potatoes. It is re commended that as far as possible weeds should be removed by forks and graips before the seed -bed is prepared. Flax delights in a firm , even seed -bed , and if the land is dry naturally or well drained , it thrive best broadc or in row on s

ast

s

years ; some say nine years would be the flat. In drills it is more apt to be better still. Flat land is preferable to uneven in length , and it is very import

undulating, hilly uneven land rarely ant that flax should be asuniform in producing flax of a uniform reed .

length as possible. Light land should

Tillage for Flax . — Whether after notbe too much stirred ,but heavy land

cereals or lea, the land for flax should cannot be too much pulverised . be ploughed early in winter, to receive

the full effects of the frost.

Clod - crushers. -

Crosskill's

clod -

It cannot crusher, shown in perspective in fig. 340,

GAR Crosskill's clod -crusher. Fig. 340.--

is a most efficient implement.

The those wheels, by which its action upon

roller consists of a number of toothed the soil may be easily understood. wheels, supported on feathered arms, and When such a great number of angles, an eye formed in the centre fitted to acting like so many wedges, are brought move easily on the axle of the roller

into contact with the indurated clods,

Fig. 341 shows a side view of one of they infallibly split them into numerous

FLAX CULTURE.

319

fragments, and the repetition of the pro- plement has been tried in Scotland, the cess produces a well-pulverised surface. results have proved equally favourable The effect is quite different from that on strong and light soils — in pulverising of the plain roller, by which, if a clod does not crumble down at once

the strong and consolidating the light.

Norwegian Harrow .— Another very useful pulverising implement is the Nor wegian harrow , shown in fig . 342, and made by C. Clay, Wakefield. The action of this machine is to reduce large clods

with

its pressure,

into very small ones, by the insertion of the points of the rays into them , to split

it is forced into the soil

tion.

them into pieces by their reiterated ac The larger clods are split into

in a solid state.

This clod crusher has Fig. 341.- Sideview ofone wheel of the clod -crusher.

been

but

smaller pieces by the first row of rays, the second row splits these into smaller ones, and the third row splits those smallest pieces into still smaller ones ; so that, by the time the clods have under

partially used by Scottish farmers, though gone those various splittings, they are extensively in use in England - perhaps probably sufficiently pulverised. Sowing Flax. — The time for sowing on account of the greater extent of clay soils there, which are always subject to

flax will of course depend partly on the

induration by drought. Where the im- climate of the district and on the charac

1 Fig. 342.- Norwegian harrow .

ter of the particular seasons. As a rule, heavy soils and after green crop, and from the last week in March till the third Riga seed for medium and light lands.

week in April is the flax seed-time. The The former produces the finer fibre, and

young flax plants, if the sowing has been done too early, are liable to injury from frosts, which cause the plant to branch, thereby greatly lessening the value of the

is usually cleaner than the Riga seed. The latter,indeed, should invariably be put through a flax -seed sieve, made for the purpose of perforated zinc, before being sown, as

thereby considerable Prepare a fine, smooth, firm seed -bed trouble in removing weeds may be

crop..

with the harrow and roller.

Some har-

row, roll, and then sow ; others harrow,

saved.

As to the quantity of seed, if the crop

roll, and harrow again, and then sow . is grown for the fibre, from 2 to 212 Mark off the land on the flat for the bushels per acre should be allowed ; if

casts of seed with poles or footprints. for seed, 1/2 bushel will suffice. Flax In some cases, to facilitate weeding, it seed is sown by the hand, but as the is sown in rows 8 to 10 inches apart, seed is very slippery it must be done by a skilful person . The seed should be but generally broadcast. Seed . — Dutch seed is best suited for taken hold of by the thumb and two

SUMMER .

320

foremost fingers, like grass seeds, and Being in broadcast, and thickly sown, thrown forward in sharp casts, with short the only practicable way of weeding flax

quick steps, and being dark-coloured, is ground is by the hand. As the plant is easily observed to fall upon the rolled

firm and elastic, the stem is notinjured

A strip with a light harrow will suffice to cover the seed. Flax seed is oblong lenticular in shape, having a smooth oily surface, feels heavy, and should be plump and

by the weeders treading on it, if they are

ground in regular broadcast.

careful.

The weeders should not wear

shoes, so as to avoid injuring the flax. The weeding should be done effectually, and at intervals, till the plants are from

fresh. As good seed is of great import- 4 to 7 inches high. Close hand-weed ance in the success of this crop, flax ing is costly, but the increase of crop seed beyond a year old should never be will more than repay the outlay. Besides the common surface and root

Sown .

Grass Seeds with Flax. — Land is weeds which infest the soil, there are

frequently sown out into grass with the others special to flax; as Gold of Plea flax crop . Italian rye -grass is injurious to the flax on account of its vigorous growth, but perennial rye-grass, clovers, and natural grasses may be sown with impunity. These should be sown immediately after the flax seed, and the two harrowed in together with a light har-

sure, Camelina sativa , the seed of which is imported among the flax seed ; the flax - dodder, Cascuta europea, which adheres parasitically to the flax plant, and materially injures its fibre. “ It is a plant,” says a writer, “ which germi nates in the ground, and sends up a slen

If it is desired to have Italian

der threadlike stem , which, twisting itself

row.

rye-grass after flax, the seed may be sown about, soon touches one of the stems of as soon as the flax is pulled in July. the flax amongst which it is growing. As a catch -crop for districts where the As soon as this takes place, the dodder climate is suitable, scarlet clover ( Tri- twists itself round the flax, and throws folium incarnatum ) nay be sown when out from the side next to its victim seve the flax is pulled, and this will provide ral small processes, which penetrate the a useful cutting in the following May, outer coat or cuticle of the flax, and act after which the land may be prepared as suckers, bywhich the parasiticaldodder and sown with turnips. Others sow appropriates to its own use the sap which rape or winter vetches and rye after has been prepared in the flax, upon which flax for spring food for stock. the growth of the flax depends. The dod Top -dressing Flax. - Although the der then separates itself from the ground, flax crop does not bear being sown upon and relies solely upon the flax for its dung, a top-dressing of bone-dust of 10 nourishment, producing long slender or 12 bushels to an acre, after a white leafless stems, which attach themselves crop, may often be given with advan- to each stem of flax that comes in their Thus large masses of crop are ress. slow matted together, and so much weakened

especially if the crop is making way. tage, pr og

But the best plan for flax is to have as to become almost useless. This plant the land in high condition from previous produces great quantities of seed, which manuring, so that top -dressing may not is usually threshed with the flax seed, and necessary

be

. The Belgians profusely sown again with it in the succeeding year. top-dress their flax-ground with liquid Several years since, I took considerable

manure (in which have been dissolved trouble to ascertain if all foreign flax seed both rape - cake and nightsoil), to the was mixed with that of the dodder, and amount of 2480 gallons to one acre.1 was led to the conclusion that the Ameri Weeding Flax . — The only attention can flax seed is nearly free from this pest, which the flax crop requires in summer and that that from Russia, and especially

is to keep it free from weeds. These will from Odessa, is peculiarly infected with appear as soon as the crop itself ; and

it.” 2 A thorough weeding will remove

when the crop can be identified from

this pest from the soil before it has the

them , the ground should be weeded. power of injuring the flax plant. 1 Radcliff's Agric. Flan ., 42.

Garden. Chron. , Feb. 10, 1844, 189.

FLAX CULTURE.

321

From the time the weeding is finished coloration produced by the sun on green the crop needs no further attention till

flax will never be removed till it goes to

the pulling time approaches, usually in the bleacher, and will give him some trouble also. ” July. Rippling. - On being pulled, the plant PULLING , STEEPING , AND DRYING FLAX .

is deprived of its bolls or seed -capsules

by rippling, which consists of drawing

Pulling. – The flax plant is pulled up the head orboll end of the stem through by the root. The pulling is done after the teeth of an iron comb 8 inches in the plant has flowered and the seed at- length, set upright upon a form, across

tained a certain degree of maturity in the which two men sit opposite each other,

capsule or boll which contains it. As and ripple their handfuls alternately, the to the proper time to begin pulling, great bolls falling on a barn-sheet spread under care and judgment must be exercised . the form . Another convenient arrangement is to If pulled too soon the fibre will be weak ;

if allowed to ripen too much, the fibre have the comb bolted to a plank, securely will be dry and coarse .

fastened to the body of a cart from which

The test for pulling, according to Hen- the wheels are removed. When the cart derson, is this : “ I have found the test is full of bolls or seeds, raise it on to the recommended by Boss, to ascertain the wheels and remove the bolls to where

degree of ripeness that gives the best they can be dried . produce with the finest fibre, perfect. It The arrangement of labour should be is this : Try the flax every day when such that the rippling goes on simul approaching ripeness by cutting the ripest taneously with thepulling. The rippled

capsule on an average stalk across, hori- plants should be tied in sheaves, to be zontally, and when the seeds have changed taken to the watering-pool to be steeped . from the white milky substance which Some steep the bolls on the plants, but they first show to a greenish colour,

no good is attained thereby. The Bolls. — The green bolls or seed

pretty firm , then is the time to pull. The old prejudice in favour of much ripening is most injurious, even as regards quantity ; and the usual test of the stalk stripping at the root andturning

Turn them frequently, and when partially

ripen.”

outer fibre of the stem from the interior

should be at once spread over lofts to dry.

dry they are taken to a corn-mill and finished on the kiln moderately heated. Steeping. – Next comes the steeping, yellow, and the leaves falling off, should not be depended on. Where there is a most important process. The object of one man that pulls too green, 500 over- steeping the flax plant is to separate the Method of Pulling. — When thus ripe, pith by disintegration. The adhesive the flax should be pulled in this way, as substance between the fibre and pith is described by Henderson : " I use the mucilage, which is the sooner dissolved

Dutch method, by catching a few stems the sooner the plant is steeped. If steep of the flax at a time close below thebolls, ing is so long continued as to affect the which allows the shortest of the flax to texture of the fibre, the flax will be in

With the next handful the jured ; and should it not be continued puller draws the short flax, and keeps until the pith may be easily loosened,

escape.

the short and the long each by itself, to much labour will be required to get rid be steeped in separate ponds. It is most of it.

essentialtokeep the flax even at the root-

Proper steeping, then, is not only an

end, and this cannot be done without essential, but a nice process, and clear

time and care ; but it can be done, and should always be done. The beets or sheaves should always be small, equalsized, straight and even, and should never be put up in stooks or windrows, but taken to the pond the day they are pulled, or the day after at longest, especially in bright weather ; for the dis-

instructions regarding Hen it should be scru derson says : pulously followed. “ The water brought to the pond should be pure from all mineral substances , clean and clear . The water from large rivers is generally to be preferred ; but spring water which has run some hundred yards

becomes soft, and will have deposited

SUMMER .

322

any mineral impurities it may have con- recommended by many authorities is thus tained ; but that immediately from the described by Henderson : " Try somestalks

spring seldom does well. If the water be of average fineness by breaking the woody good and soft, it is injurious to allow it part in two places, about 3 inches apart, to stagnate in the pond before being used for steeping. I put in two layers, each somewhat sloped, with the root-end of is one layer at isa time each downwards: and perhaps so, alsaid to be safer, though I have tried both ways, and have observed no difference.

at the middle of the length ; catch the wood at the lower end, and if it will pull downward freely for those 3 inches, or tearing the fibre, it without breaking is ready to be taken out. This trial should be made every day after fermen

The flax should tation subsides, for sometimes the change

be placed rather loose than crowded in desired is rapid. Flax is more frequently the pond, and laid carefully straight and injured by too little than too much of the regular. Having an abundant supply of water ." Drying. - Continuing, water, I do not let any into the pond till

the first layer is first placed in it. I cover the flax with sods laid perfectly close, the shear of each fitting to the other. Thus covered, it never sinks to the bottom, nor floats above the water, nor is affected by air or light. It is generally watered in eleven or thirteen days. A gentle stream

says :

“ Great care and

Henderson neatness are

necessary in taking the flax out, as broken or crumpled flax will never reach the market.

Set the sheaves on

end against one another as taken out of the pond, to drain the water off them the more quickly. Spread the flax on

should, if possible, always pass slowly the same day it is taken out, unless it

over the pond ; it carries off impurities, happens to be heavy rain. Light rain and does not at all impede due fermenta- does little harm ; but, inany case, spread tion.

Flood and impure water should be the next day, for it will heat in the pile, 23

carefully kept off ; and perhaps the best and that heating will be destructive. Flax “ should be spread even, straight way to do this is to make a drain or ditch around the pond. The greatest cause of at its length, not too thick, and well injury in steeping is exudation of water shaken , so that there shall be no clots ; from the sides or bottom of the pond .

indeed, if possible, no two stalks should

Stripe and discoloration are mostly im- adhere. I have ever found it injurious puted to the quality of the water brought to keep it long on the grass : it is in the

to the pond ; whilst in most cases the water oozing from the sides and bottom of the pond itself is the cause. Even if such water were pure, which it seldom is, it is injurious; but when impregnated with iron or other materials, it does If such ponds must immense harm. continue to be used, the injury may be partially amended by draining around

steep the wood is decomposed ; on the grass the fibre is softened , and the wood little, if at all, affected. I rarely let it lie more than five days, sometimes only three : one year it had only three days, and I never had better flax. It should never, if possible, be spread upon the ground where it has grown - it claps down, and the clay and weeds discolour

the sides and ends, at 6 or 8 feet dis- it : clean lea, or lately cut meadow , is the

tance, and 18 inches deeper than their bottom, and filling the drains with tiles or stones. No other thing I know of does so much injury as this springing of water within the pond." Water deeply tinged with iron is certainly very injurious to the flax ; but a slight tinge of iron in the only supply of

best ground .' When it has to lie long on the grass owing to rainfall, the flax may occasion ally suffer from mildew . To guard against this it is deemed advisable by some to lift the flax in handfuls by the boll end, and set it up on the root end in the form of a hollow cone, with the boll ends twisted

water available should not prevent a a little to keep the cone together. But farmer from growing flax, if the condi- in the case of high winds following this tions otherwise are favourable. practice, the flax is liable to injury by The utmost care should be exercised in being blown about. deciding when the flax has been suffici Lifting. — “ Lifting, like all other ently watered. The Dutch test which is operations, requires care and neatness

FLAX CULTURE.

323

to keep the flax straight in its length, suming that the crop is grown from Riga The portion set apart for seed

and even at the roots. This operation is

seed.

too frequently hurried and coarsely done. If the steeping and grassing have been perfect, flax should require no fire ; and to make it ready for breaking and scutch-

production should be sown rather thinner than that from which no sowing-seed is

intended to be taken, and it should be allowed to ripen on the foot. Poor ing, exposure to the sun should be suffi- stunted spots often occur in flax -fields

cient; but if the weather be damp,the which might be judiciously left to flax tough, and must be wrought off, then mature, and save the seed therefrom. Selecting Seed . “ Seed must be it must be fire-dried . Such drying is

always more or less injurious ; and if it selected by its appearance, choosing it be put on the kiln in a damp state, it is of a bright colour and plump, and as ruinous — it is absolutely burnt before it free as possible from imperfect pickles ; is dry.

All who can afford it should

but even with all these characteristics

keep such flax over to the ensuing spring the farmer may not procure a really or summer, putting it dry into stacks, good article.

The surest method of ob

when it will work freely without fire- taining genuine seed is to purchase a heat. known brand from a reliable importer.” Old Seed. - It is said that in Belgium * The proper culture and preparation of flax require more care, exertion , and two-year-old seed is preferred to new.

expense than the old slovenly method ; Mr Andrews prudently observes, how and those who will not give those requi- ever, that “ no seed beyond one year old

sites, would do wisely to abstain from should be sown without testing its vege growing flax altogether. Any other crop tating power." Manurial Value will abide more negligence. Flax is pro-

of Flax - pond

the very Water. — It has been believed by many verbially either the very best or » 1 that the water in which flax has been worst crop a farmer can grow .

Scutching. — This is more distinctly a steeped possesses considerable manurial part of the manufacturing process, and value. This, however, is very doubtful, therefore does not come within the scope of this work. Growing and Saving Seed . — The

late Mr Michael Andrews, Secretary of the Flax Supply Association for the Im provement of Flax in Ireland , contributed

and would not likely repay the cost of

pumping and distributing. FLAX -GROWING IN GREAT BRITAIN.

It is at first sight somewhat strange

an instructive paper on Flax Culture to that a crop which is grown with financial

the ' Journal of the Royal Agricultural success in Ireland and in many foreign Society of England ' in 1881.

Those

countries should have never come into

who may desire fuller information on the culture in England and Scotland. subject would do well to consult that Formerly Grown . For domestic purposes very small patches of flax have paper.

In regard to flax seed, the supply of been grown in some parts of England and

which is principally foreign, Mr Andrews Scotlandfor a very longtime. But it has says :

"In this climate home production never taken rank in these countries as

would be too precarious to depend on ; an ordinary farm crop. Indeed even the and another consideration is, that to small patches of flax or lint for domestic treat flax so as to save seed suitable for use have in most cases become things of sowing reduces the quality of the fibre. the past. The “ lint- pools," once dotted

The saving of seed for sowing, however, pretty freely over Scotland, have nearly is not sufficiently attended to in Ireland, all disappeared, and many of the Scotch and it would be desirable that growers and English farmers of the present day

of flax should reserve a small portion of have never seen a stem of flax growing. each year's crop for seed - of course asRecent Trials .

Between 1880 and

1887 there was a good deal of discussion as to the propriety of introducing flax as a 1 Henderson's Cult. of Flax, 1. 2 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., sec. ser.,.vol. farm crop in England and Scotland. In xvii., part 2, 408.

several parts of the country the

crop has

SUMMER.

324

been tried upon small patches, but the making may yet be discovered which will results financially have not been suffi- provide a remunerative outlet for flax ciently good to warrant any great exten- straw in that ever-growing industry. sion of the enterprise. Outlet for Flax Straw . — The main hindrance to the successful cultivation of

Experiments in Flax -growing. An interesting experiment in the grow

flax in England and Scotland is the want ing of flax as a farm crop was carried out

of a profitable outlet for the flax straw. by Mr Richard Stratton, The Duffryn,

In the north of Ireland flax - growing Newport, Monmouth, beginning in 1880. flourishes because, in the extensive linen-

He was induced to make the trial by Mr

mills of that industrious province of the Green Isle there is a sure and ample demand for the straw. There, indeed, flax is grown almost for the sole purpose of supplying flax fibre to these linen -mills. The two industries go hand in hand, the one being essential to the success of the

Reed, manager of the Ely paper-works, Cardiff, who had been using flax straw in the manufacture of paper, and who agreed to pay Mr Stratton £ 4,1os. per ton for the flax straw , straight from the threshing machine.

other.

For his first crop Mr Stratton selected Little attention is given to the a field of eight acres, a sandy loam of

seed, for the reason that, by allowing the seed to ripen, the fibre of the flax, the main concern of the Irish flax -grower, would be somewhat injured in quality.

moderate depth resting on gravel. In the previous winter ( 1879-80) about 15 tons of farmyard manure per acre had been ploughed in . Having previously

It has been well shownin the various grown three successive crops ofoats, the trials conducted that the climate and soil land was in poor condition. In the spring

in most parts of Great Britain are well of 1880 the field was twice scarified and suited for the successful growth of both dragged, and in the second week of April

flax straw and flax seed . The unfortu- the flax seed was sown, 11/2 bushel of nate thing is that, until a better market seed per acre being drilled in eight inches

can be found for the straw , the value of apart. The crop was weeded at a cost of the crop when it is grown is not sufficient about 2s. per acre, and about a week after the wheat, it was ready for harvesting, the to adequately remunerate the grower.

Uses of Flax Seed - For flax seed, pulling, tying, and stooking costing £1 or linseed, as it is more commonly known, per acre. Wild vetches and “' goose there will always be a reliable and satis- grass spoiled some patches, yet the

factory market. Its high feeding pro eight acres gave the following return : perties are well known, and it is an article which is easy of transport.

.

32 cwt. straw at 48. 6d. .

£ 8 16 7

0

4

£ 16 0

o

mirable thatch, but the demand for this purpose would never be worth reckon

ing. Its most remunerative use is the

Value per acre .

Yield per acre .

22 bushels seed at 8s.

Uses of Flax Straw . - With the flax straw the case is different. It makes ad

This result was so satisfactory that Mr

manufacture of linen. Unfortunately in Stratton decided to repeat the experi England and Scotland there is no such ment upon a larger scale. A field of 21

demand for it forthis purpose as there is acres , of similar soil, also poor and foul, in Ulster. Whether or not the demand from having borne eight consecutive hay may arise, or could be raised up by any

crops followed by spring wheat, was se

concerted action, is a very doubtful point. lected for the second trial. It was well Flax Straw for Paper - making.- tilled and cleaned in the autumn and

Flax straw is also adapted to the manu- spring, manured with 7 cwt. of damaged facture of paper.

Its value for this pur- decorticated cotton - cake per acre, and

pose, however, is kept severely in check sown, about the middle of April, with by the abundance of other commodities

112 bushel of flax seed.

Hand - hoeing

which are more suitable, and which — by this time cost 5s. per acre. This crop the processes of manufacture now known came up admirably, and although there -can be manufactured at less outlay. It was a little shedding of seed, owing to is just possible that methods of paper- wet weather having delayed harvesting,

FLAX CULTURE.

the return was again satisfactory.

It

was as follows: Yield per acre .

Value per acre .

40 cwt. straw at 48. 6d. .

£9 o 8

20 bushels seed at Sä.

o

O O

325

1. More profitable. 2. Far less risky, being virtually rain proof.

3. Being generally a new crop, it is an entire change for the land, and therefore desirable.

£ 17 0

4. However strong the land may be,

A third experiment was not so satisfac- flax will not lodge seriously, unless pulled tory.

It was on tenacious soil, on the down by bind -weeds ; so that on the land

Old Red Sandstone formation. The pre- where barley would certainly be too without be

vious crop was swedes, eaten off, for the heavy, flax may grown any most part, by ewes and lambs without danger of that kind. 5. Birds do not touch it at planting any cake or corn. The land was not

ploughed until the end of April, and time, though, when ripe, finches are very fond of it. 6. It maybe planted later than spring was sown at the rate of one bushel per corn, thus affording more time to clean

then it could not be reduced to that fine tilth so essential for flax. The flax seed

acre about the 7th of May. Dry weather followed, and the crop came up much too

the land. 7 . It may be grown on land that can

thin, giving the following poor return :-

not be depended upon to produce malt ing barley. 15 bushels seed at 8s. £6 o O 8. I believe it is practically proof o 3 12 16 cwt. straw at 45. 6d. against wire-worm . 9. Rabbits and hares do not eat it, £9 12 0 though they will occasionally cut roads This result is indeed only what might through it.7° Yield per acre.

Value per acre .

.

have been expected under such untoward

Disadvantages of Flax over Corn .

-On the other hand, Mr Stratton found circumstances, especially in view of the rough state of the ground . The ground that the cultivation of flax cost about was in such bad condition , and the season 1os. per acre more than wheat or barley , so unfavourable, that a crop of wheat on and harvesting also about ios. more,

the other half of the same field realised while threshing flax by the ordinary only £6 per acre for both corn and threshing - machine was likewise rather straw . more costly than the threshing of the Mr Stratton induced his friend, Mr T. common corn crops. Then the flax R. Hulbert, North Cerney, Cirencester, straw , being sold instead of consumed to try a small field of flax on a poor on the farm, costs perhaps ios. per ton shallow piece of soil, high on the Cots- for delivery. These extra outlays, as

wold Hills. The preceding crop on this compared with corn -growing, Mr Strat land was roots, eaten off by sheep, which ton estimated at 35s. per acre, which The with 8s per bushelfor flax seed, and £4, seed (11/2 bushel per acre) was sown in Ios. per ton for flax straw - was far more the first week of May. The crop pro- than repaid by the greater value of the

had an allowance of corn as well.

duced 20 bushels of seed and i ton of straw per acre. For this Mr Hulbert

flax crop Loss of the Market for Flax Straw.

—just about -In the interesting account of his ex realised £14, 1os. per acre double the value of the corn crops on his periments which he published in the farm in that very bad year — 1881. Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society

With these prices for the produce — 8s. of England, Mr Stratton explained clearly per bushel for seed, and £4, jos. per that the success of flax-growing in lieu ton for straw — Mr Stratton was thor- of corn culture depended mainly upon oughly satisfied that flax would be more whether or not the demand for flax straw profitable to the grower than corn . for paper-making at the price of about Advantages of Flax over Corn.- £4, ios. per ton would be maintained. The advantages which, with the above prices, Mr Stratton claimed for flax over 1 Jour, Royal Agric. Soc. Eng ., sec. ser. , corn were stated by him as follows : xviii. 461 . VOL. II .

SUMMER .

326

This, unfortunately, has not been the but wood isused , and the paper made is case. The paper-makers, as has already suitable for fine printing and other papers. been indicated , found a cheaper substi- This wood can be delivered to English tute for the flax straw in the « waste ports at about 30s. to 355. per ton ; from flax-mills, and owing to the loss of and I consider it is quite equal to flax

this market for the straw , Mr Stratton straw, except that it requires rather more had to give up the growing of flax. Will the Market return ?

Whether

or not a sufficient demand will open up

expensive treatment, whilst the yield of fibre is about the same.

Flax straw is

therefore bowled out, except in districts

again for flax straw for paper-making is where wood is not easily obtainable, and uncertain.

As to the probability of re- even then the use of the wood has oper

suming the growing of flax, Mr Stratton, writing in 1889 to the editor of this work, says, “ I am quite prepared to go on growing flax now , if I can get à fair

ated to bring down the price of all other fibres. Esparto ( cheapest kind ) is now

worth about £3, 155. per ton, and straw is much cheaper than formerly; so also

market for the straw . I am strongly of are rags and all other fibres. And I see opinion that it ought to be grown to a no prospect of any change . The supply much greater extent in England than is of wood is abundant .

done at present. I am fully persuaded " I think , however, there is an opening that no country is better suited to it, for improved methods of treating flax either in regard to soil or climate, than straw for producing fibre for textiles ; the United Kingdom ; and it does seem and those interested should turn their strange that while we grow almost none ,

attention to that .

At present the flax

all nations grow it, and send both seed used in this country is mostly imported .” and fibre here ."

Flax Straw displaced . — In response to an application for information as to the

The Flax Plant.

The flax plant is stated to be a native

circumstances which have led to the de- of Britain ; and yet flax seed was not preciation and disuse of flax straw in the sown in England until A.D. 1533, when

manufacture of paper, Mr A. E. Reed it was directed to be sown for the making courteously replied to us as follows, under of fishing-nets. date October 19, 1889 :

Ure says

of the flax plant : “ In it two

“ When a few years back I arranged principal parts are to be distinguished with Mr Stratton to grow some flax for the woody heart or boon, and the harl the works of which I was then manager, (covered outwardly with a fine cuticle), esparto, straw , and rags were the fibres which encloses the former like a tube,

principally employed for making paper consisting of parallel lines.

In

the

for cheap newspapers, together with a natural state, the fibres of the harl are

certain quantity ofmechanically prepared attached firmly not only to the boon wood pulp. At that time esparto (of but to each other, by means of a green which a larger quantity was used than or yellow substance. The rough stems any of the other fibres named ), was of the flax, after being stripped of their

standing at about £6 per ton for the seeds, lose in moisture, by drying in cheapest sort, and went up indeed to warm air, from 55 to 65 per cent of

£7. Flax straw not yielding so much their weight, but somewhat less when fibre, and requiring more chemicals for they are quite ripe and woody. In this its treatment than esparto, was not worth dry state they consist, in 100 parts, from so much.

I estimated its value to be

20 to 23 per cent of harl, and from 80

about £2 per ton below esparto, and to 77 per cent of boon. The latter is agreed to pay Mr Stratton £ 4 ios. per composed, upon the average, of 69 per ton. But the high price of esparto cent of a peculiar woody substance ; 12 stimulated the working out of processes per cent of a matter soluble in water ; for the chemical treatment of white pine and 19 per cent of a body not soluble in wood, and the success of the methods water, but in alkaline lyes. The harl

employed has resulted in raw wood be- contains, at a mean, 58 per cent of pure coming largely used.

In fact, at the

mill which I am now managing nothing

1 Haydn's Dict. Dates — art. " Flax."

HEMP CULTURE.

327

flaxen fibre, 25 parts soluble in water ancient mummies that the Egyptians in

(apparently extractive and albumen), those early times were acquainted with and 17 parts insoluble in water, being

cotton.” 2 Flax is manufactured into twine, rope, with either hot or cold water, the latter and thread, and into fabrics, varying in

chiefly gluten.

By breaking the harl

substance is dyed brown by the soluble texture from coarse bagging, employed matter, while the fibres retain their co- to pack cotton or hops, to canvas, linen,

herence to one another. Alkaline lyes, cambric, and finest lawn. “ Formerly the seed of the flax was

and also, though less readily, soap -water,

dissolves the gluten , which seems to be occasionally used with corn to make the cement of the textile fibres, and thus bread ; but it was considered hard of

set them free. The cohesion of the fibres digestion, and hurtful to the stomach . in the rough harl is so considerable, that Ina scarcity of corn which happened in

by mechanical means — as by breaking, Zealand in the sixteenth century, the in rubbing, & c . — a complete separation of them cannot be effected, unless with great loss of time and rupture of the filaments . This circumstance shows the

habitants of Middleburgh had recourse to linseed, which they made into cakes, and which caused the death of many of the citizens who ate of it, causing dread

necessity of having recourse to some ful swellings of the body and face." 3

chemical method of decomposing the gluten. The process employed with this view is a species of fermentation, to which the flax stalks are exposed.

HEMP CULTURE.

It is called retting, a corruption of rot- Hemp ( Cannabis sativa, natural order ting, since a certain degree of putrefac- Urticaceae) is grown to a very limited ex " 1 tion takes place .”

“James Thomson and Bauer have

tent in this country, chiefly in the counties of Lincoln and Dorset. The climate of

shown that the fibres of flax are trans- Scotland does not suit it. It grows best parent cylindrical tubes, articulated,

in deep rich moist alluvial soil.

Its

and pointed like a cane ; while the fila- mode of culture is in several respects ments of cotton are transparent glassy similar to that of flax. Hemp responds tubes, flattened, and twisted round their well to a heavy dose of dung, the finest own axis. A section of a filament re- fibre being grown after a dressing of sembles, in some degree, the figure 8, about 20 tons of dung, applied in the the tube, originally cylindrical, having autumn before sowing.

collapsed most in the middle, forming Hemp is sown towards the end of semi-tubes on each side, which give to April, in rows about 18 inches apart, the fibre, when viewed in a certain light with 3 to 5 pecks of good seed per acre. the appearance of a flat ribbon, with a The plants are thinned out in the rows

hem or border on each edge. The uniform transparency of the filament is impaired by small irregular fissures, probably wrinkles arising from the desiccation of the tube. In consequence of this difference between the structure of linen

to nearly a foot apart. The plants throw up a rapid and bulky growth, so that little weeding early inthe seasonis suffi cient to keep the land clean. The crop is pulled, stacked, and steeped similarly to flax. The object of the steeping in

and cotton fibres, Thomson and Bauer water, of course, is to rot away the woody were enabled to ascertain that the cloth

in which the Egyptian mummies are

part of the stem and separate the fibre.

When the crop is growing, the ground

wrapt is always linen, and never cotton. should be watched after sowing until It is clear from this that the opinion the plants are in leaf, to keep off birds entertained by some, that what is called of the finch tribe, which are very fond of

in our translation of the Old Testament hemp seed. Even the young plants are fine linen of Egypt ought to be the cotton injured by them — the capsules of the cloth of Egypt, is erroneous. We have

seed, being brought above ground by the

no evidence from the cloth wrapt about 1 Ure's Dict. of the Arts — art. " Flax."

2 Thomson's Org. Chem.— “ Veget.," 849. 3 Phillip's Hist. Culti. Veget., i. 208.

SUMMER .

328

embryo, are greedily devoured by those soap, the use of which is very common birds. Care should be taken in weeding in the manufacture of stuffs and felts ; not to break the young plants, as, if and it is also used for tanning nets," broken, they will never rise again. A good crop of hemp yields about 16

The proportion of oil from the seed varies from 14 to 25 per cent. The seed is used

bushels of seed, and from 6 to 8 cwt of for feeding cage-birds, and all the finch tribe are remarkably fond of it. The hemp plant has the male and The composition of hemp seed, accord female flowers on different plants. The ing to Bucholz, is :

fibre per acre.

male plants are recognisable by the difference of their inflorescence, and in thinning a number of them must be left in order to the formation of the seed.

The male plants ripen long before the female plants, and should be pulled first, so as to promote the formation of a good

Oil

19. I

Husk, &c. Woody fibre and straw Sugar, &c. Mucilage

38.3

.

Soluble albumen (casein ?)

5.0 1.6 9.0 24.7

Fatty matter

1.6

Loss

0.7

crop of seed. 100.0

The stem of hemp is upright, from 5 to 8 feet high, and is strong and branching. HOP CULTURE.

Its valuable fibre makes the cordage of our ships.

It is a native of the cooler

parts of India, and is not cultivated

The hop is the most speculative of all

there for its fibre, but for its intoxicating the farm cropsgrown in the United King property. Lindley says that “ it appears dom. Its produce varies from little more to owe its narcotic properties to the pres- than 2 to 20, or perhaps even 25 cwt. per ence of a resin which is not found in Eu- acre, worth from less than the cost of

rope. This resin exudes, in India, from picking to upwards of £20 per cwt. the leaves, slender branches, and flowers; Many fortunes have been made and lost when collected into masses it is the chur- in the growing of this crop, around which ras, or cherris, of Nepal. Its odour is has gathered a halo of romance which

fragrant and narcotic, its taste slightly hop -farmers delight to contemplate and warm , bitterish, and acrid .” The hemp plant of India is a legumen of the order

talk of.

The hop requires a fine climate and

Fabaceo, Crotolaria juncea, the sun- good land. Its cultivation in this country hemp, which affords a coarse fibre, from is confined mainly to the English coun which bags and low - priced canvas are ties of Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Hampshire,

largely prepared .

“ According to the Worcestershire, and Herefordshire, and

observation of Vaucher of Geneva, the usually occupies less than 70,000 acres. seeds of Orabanche ramosa will lie many One feature of the agriculture of the

years in the soil unless they come in con- principal hop -growing districts is, that tact with the roots of hemp, the plants the hop maybe almost said to monopo

upon which that species grows parasitic- lise the attention of the farmer, with the ally, when they immediately sprout. The result that the other crops of the farm manner in which the seeds of Orabanche occasionally suffer. attach themselves to the plants on which Soil for Hops. — The soil for the hop

they grow has been observed by Schlau- plant should be deep and mellow , and if ter. This writer states that they only resting on a fissured rock, so much the

seize seedlings, and are unable to attack better. An old meadow forms the best 1 site for a hop-ground. In every case the An oil is expressed from the seed of ground should be dry -- not subject to

roots of stronger growth .”"

hemp, which is “ employed with great stagnant water, and, if not naturally dry, advantage in the lamp, and in coarse it should be made so by thorough drain painting. They give a paste made of it age. To afford sufficient room for the

to hogs and horses, to fatten them . It roots of the plants, the drains should be enters into the composition of black not less than 4 feet deep, and the distances · Lindley's Veget. King., 265, 549, and 610.

2 Wisset's Treat. Hemp.

HOP CULTURE.

329

between them from 15 to 35 feet, accord- hills of hops are each surrounded, in a ing to the tenacity of the subsoil. Preparing Land. - Land which is about to be planted with hops is either trench -ploughed or trenched by hand in the autumn before planting. In the former practice the land is ploughed

triangular form, by three poles.

In

cleaning the ground with the horse-hoe from b to c, one pole is closely passed at each hill on theright, and two poles are as closely passed on the left hand ; and f h

deeply with an ordinary plough, fol lowed by a subsoiling apparatus, to break up the hard bottom as shown in figs. 46 and 47, pp. 119 and 120, vol. i. If this plan is not thought advisable or practicable, then the land is dug by ħand labour to the depth of two spades. It is considered a good preparation to fold sheep on the land and feed them well before ploughing or digging ; and at

d

a

1

the time of ploughing or digging a heavy dressing of farmyard manure is given . Rearing Hop Plants. — Hop plants are raised from cuttings taken from the

g

“ hills,” or plant-centres, when these are

Fig. 343. - Square mode of planting hops.

being dressed early in spring. The cut tings are reared in a nursery until about

a Square hill of hops with 3 poles.

the end of the autumn of the same year, the same happens in cleaning the ground by which time they have formed a

from d to e.

On cleaning the ground

strong root. These sets, or young plants, from ftog and h to i, onepole is passed

The may be purchased from thosewho give closely on both handsatandeach hill. represe

nt h i, special attention to their culture, and lines in 6 c, d e f g, good judgment is required in selecting the spaces of ground stirred by the horse the kind best suited for each particular hoe. If will be observed that while one

locality. Local experience is the best dark square piece of ground included be guide as to this, as well as in regard to tween every four hills is stirred twice, many other points in farm practice. At tempts to raise hop plants from seed have

not been successful, owing to the strong

h

tendency of the plant to revert to its wild type. Planting Hops. — The planting takes

place either just before winter sets in or early in spring. The cuttings or shoots

d

are planted in “ hills,” two or three to

each “ hill,” the “hills ” being from 5 feet 9 inches to 6 feet 6 inches apart each way.

Thereare two modes of arranging the plants in a hop -ground - one in squares, the other in quincunx. Of these two modes the quincunx is, in some respects, the preferable, because the plants, standing independently, are more exposed to sun and air ; a greater number of plants are placed on the same extent of ground, in the ratio of 120 to 100 ; and the ground can be cleaned nearer the plants with the

Fig. 344. - Quincunx mode of planting hops.

one square piece of ground surrounding each hill is left untouched by the hoe, and must be cleaned by manual labour at an enhanced cost, while the half of

" nidget ” or horse-hoe. In fig. 343 is the ground is only once stirred. shown the square method, in which the In fig. 344 is shown the quincunx

SUMMER .

330

method, in which each hop-hill is sur- three- pronged fork or “ graip," with rounded by three poles set ina triangu- broad points. lar form , as in the square method. But The vacant ground between the hills here, in stirring the ground with the must be frequently cultivated during the horse-hoe from 6 to c, and from d to e in season, a sort of horse-hoe, or “ nidget " one direction, and from b to f, and from

as it is called in Kent, being used for

g to h in a second direction, and from d this purpose.earthed In the month ofspade. June the to i, k to 1, and f to e in a third direc- “ hills " are up by the The hop- land has to be thoroughly to each pole, which is as near the hop dug or ploughed every autumn or winter,

tion, the ground is not only stirred close

plant as any horse implement can ap- the " spud ” being used for this purpose. proach, but the greatest proportion of it

When labour is scarce a small plough is twice, and some of it three times, is used , but this has little or no effect in

stirred.

Of the two modes, the quin- lessening the cost, as there is after all a

cunx saves manual labour in cleaning good deal of the land around the “ hills "

the smaller space of ground around and stacks of hop -poles stowed away each plant, but stirs the hoed ground for winter, which must be dug by manual oftener.

labour.

The maximum distance between the plants is regulated by the combination

are dressed as soon as the soil is sutfi .

of the power of the soil and the nature

ciently dry to be worked satisfactorily.

Early in spring the adult hop plants

of the variety of hops to produce the The old bines and fibrous growth of the largest development of plant. The min. previous year are cut away, and some imum distance is determined by the room fine earth is thrown over the “ hills. " required to keep the ground clean. In The poles, which had been removed the maximum the distance should not

at the time of “ picking," are replaced

exceed 7 feet, and for the minimum not around the “ hills,” and after this until less than 5 %2 feet. With 672 feet as picking attention is confined to the cul the distance, the number of hills in i tivating of the vacant ground — that is, acre is 1194 in the quincunx order, and unless fungoid or insect foes attack the 1031 in the square. The distances are plants and demand serious treatment.

set off by means of a measuring chain ,

Manuring.

Hops are greedy for

and pins are stuck into the sites of the manure . The annual produce of a hop future plants. ground consisting of hops and bines is

The crop is not expected to give any very considerable, and as the perennial produce the first year.

In that season nature of the plant does not permit it to

the ground between the hills may be be placed in the category of those plants utilised in growing potatoes, cabbages, of the farm which follow each other in or some such crop, though it is better any given rotation, it is necessary to not to do this, as the hop plants require manure the ground at least once, if not a great quantity of manurial substance. twice, every year. The first manuring After Culture. — The vacant spaces after the crop may be given in autumn between the " hills " must be well culti-

or spring ; and if in spring, the time is

vated, and kept free from weeds, and before the digging of theground com mences. heavily manured. The best plan is to apply the In the first spring a pole is placed in manure twice a -year : in the spring, with

each “ hill,” and to this the young bines farmyard manure and woollen rags, and during the summer with some such man In the spring of the following year, ure as guano, rape-cake dust, superphos

are tied, so as to be trained upwards.

when a crop is anticipated, the ground phate of lime. Of farmyard dung, from is again cultivated and manured, the 25 to 30 cubic yards should be given to hills dug with " spud ” and hand -hoe ; an acre . Black mould is an excellent ap three poles stuck in at each hill, and any plication about the crown of the roots,

worthless suckers on the plants cut away. and from 80 to 100 single horse-loads As the hop -bines grow up they are tied may be put on an acre. The dung and to these poles, which carry the bines high mould may be carted on the ground be over a man's head . The “ spud ” is a fore poling, and if applied afterwards,

HOP CULTURE.

331

is drawn on to the land between the grow fast, but are coarse, hollow, or what

such rows of polesin long narrow carts called we call pipy, and unproductive : ofalltying.

“ dollys ” in Kent. Of woollen rags from 12 to 20 cwt. per acre ; woollen waste or shoddy from 20 to 30 cwt. per acre ; and guano rape-cake dust, and superphos-

should bediscarded at the time Consequently the operation of cutting or dressing, on which the future well-doing of the plant so much depends, is not left

phate of lime, 6 or 7 cwt. per acre, so much to the judgment or skill of the are convenient applications, in June and operator as to his care and attention. July, generally dug in closely around the Many planters have their hops dressed “ hills," and sometimes spread over the by the day, paying extra wages to persons surface, and hoed in with horse-hoes or in whom they can confide to do it with

“ nidgets.” Mustard -cake makes a good care. After all the old bine and runners, manure for the hop plant.

as the roots and small rootlets near the

Details of Dressing. — After the surface are called, are cut and trimmed

manuring and digging in spring, the off clean, some fine earth is pulled over plant-centres or stocks are dressed, and the crown, and a circle made round with cuttings taken from them .

These are

the hand -picker, to intimate where the

nice operations, and require an experi- hill is before the young shoots appear.” The dressing should be finished before enced hand to execute them, otherwise the success of the future will be rendered the bines begin to show . Such of the doubtful.

Mr Rutley writes thus par- sets as have two or more joints are

ticularly on this subject - after stating selected to put into a nursery, or sold that one boy or woman opens around the for that purpose. But the cuttings should stock of the hill, with a small narrow be taken only from the most healthy hoe, a little below the crown of the hill-

bines.

Hop - poles. — Everything is now ready “ one man follows with a pruning -knife and a small hand -hoe, with which he for the reception of the poles—for, the clears out the earth on the crown of the hop being a climbing plant, it is neces

hill between the sets or shoots of last year that were tied to the poles ; and which, from having earth put on them the preceding summer, swell out to four or five times their original size, and form what we call sets or cuttings ; and it is the cutting them off at the right part

sary that it be supplied with a pole sufficiently strong and long to support it effectively. The best poles are of ash, chestnut, larch, willow, oak cut in winter, birch, alder , beech, in the order enumerated .

Creasoting Poles.

Hop - poles are

that should be particularly attended to , now universally treated with creasote at

or great injury may be done. It is there- the ends, and this preparation makes fore necessary that the person cutting them last about twice as long as before them should ascertain exactly where the the practice was introduced. The crea crown of the hill is, that he may not sote , purchased at about 2 /2d. or 3d. cut them too low or too high ; and the per gallon, is poured into a tank into place where they should be cut off is which the poles are set on end and kept

between the crown of the hill and the first joint, for it is around the set close to the crown where the best and most fruitful bine comes . If the set is pared

there, sunk about 18 inches in the creasote for fully twelve hours. By this treatment the end of the pole which is stuck into the ground is rendered quite

off down too close to the stock or crown,

impervious to wet.

There are three

it takes away the part from where that standard lengths of poles , 12, 14, and bine comes, as little buds are seen ready 16 feet, and the cost of poles for one

to shoot forth at the time of cutting, acre of hops would run from £30 to which , if cut off, the bines come weakly as much as £70.

and few. On the other hand, if the set Poling. — In most cases there are is cut off above the first joint, which some- three poles to each “ hill,” but often times will be the case if the man in only two, and in other cases the one

cutting does not pay the attention to “ hill ” has three poles, and the next it he ought , the bines which come from only two. The two or three poles are that or any other joint higher up the set set around each “ hill ” at equal distance

332

SUMMER .

apart. A hop - pitcher makes a hole deep enough to give the end of the

Insect and Fungoid Attacks.

pole a firm hold of the ground, which The hop is unfortunately subject to should be about as many inches in depth serious injury from various insects and as the pole is of feet in height. The pole fungi. As to these attacks, see the is pushed down to the very bottom of chapter on the subject in this volume. the hole, and if it have any crook or set Harvesting Hops. at the lower end, that is placed inwards, Picking . - The harvesting of hops is to be out of the way of the horses in “ nidgetting ” the ground ; and the top really autumn work, yet the brief de should have a lean outwards, to give

scription to be given of the process may

room to the bines to branch, and let in be conveniently introduced here. Hop -picking usually begins about the air and light, while the body of the pole should be as upright as possible, to give last days of August or the first week in it the strongest position .

September. The picking is a tedious

Tying up the Bines. — Whenever process, demanding the employment of the bines shoot to a length to be fas- a great number of hands.

As a rule

tened, they are tied to the poles. In the picking is done by bands of immi some seasons when the bine comes very grants, men , women and children, who

early the coarser bines are pulled out. wander to the hop-growing districts from large towns and villages. The process

Three of the best bines are selected to be

tied to each pole, and the rest are cut generally extends over three weeks, and Withered rushes are used for the immigrant pickers live in extemporised tying ; and the tie is made with a slip- villages, in huts, hopper-houses, or tents knot, so that the tying may give way provided for the purpose. as the bines enlarge in diameter. The The process of picking is thus de tyings are done from near the ground scribed by Mr Charles Whitehead, who away.

up to 5 feet above it, and whenabove has done much by his writing to improve that height ladders are used, which stand the practice of hop culture 1 : independently upon the ground. The " The pickers are divided into com tying begins about the end of April. panies of eight or ten, each of which is From 18 inches to 2 feet of the lower under the charge of a ganger or 'binsman,'

end of the bines may be stripped of their who pulls up the poles for the pickers with leaves, to allow air to get tothe crown of wooden levers having iron teeth, called the roots. Substitutes for Poles . — There are

dogs, ' and holds the ' pokes,' or sacks, or sarpliers,' for the measurer when he other methods of poling hops, but these comes round to measure the hops that

have not come into general use in this have been picked. In most cases the country. In Germany wire is extensively bines are cut about 2 feet from the used as a substitute for poles, and this ground, and the poles are pulled by seems to be both economical and efficient.

means of ' dogs, ' or wooden levers with

Longevity of the Hop. — The power iron teeth, and carried to the pickers,

of some hop -grounds to produce a great who pick the hops from them into the crop year after year, when external circumstances are favourable, is extraordinary. Many grounds have borne crops for upwards of half a century, and some

bins or baskets. Occasionally when the hops are not quite ripe, or when the plants are weak , the poles are not pulled, but left standing. The bines are cut 4

exceed in age an entire century . It or 5 feet high, and the bines with hops

must not be supposed from this, how- upon them are pushed up and over the

ever, that any plant which had been poles with forked sticks, as bines cut planted at the formation of the ground high and kept to the poles in an up remains alive such a length of time. Whenever a plant or an entire “ hill ” indicates symptoms of decay, it is removed, and another substituted ; care being taken to plant the same kind of hop as that cultivated in the ground.

right position do not ' bleed ' so much, or lose so much sap as when cut short

and left lying on the ground. The hop grounds are marked out into as many 1 Jour. Bath and West of Eng. Agric. Soc., 1881 , 208.

HOP CULTURE.

333

portions or sets,' containing 100 hills, ful, so that from 200 to 250 bushels may as there are companies, for which lots be drying on one kiln at a time.

are drawn by each binsman, so that

For two kilns of these dimensions, a

there may be no wrangling about good cooling-room of 20 feet in width and 40 or bad sets. The hops are picked into feet long is required. This should be bins — long light wooden frames with on a level with the kiln - floor. And there sacking bottoms. There is one of these should be another room of similar dimen for every two adult pickers. In Mid sions, under the cooling -room , for stow and West Kent and the Weald of Kenting and weighing the hops in the pockets. Great caution is required to regulate and Sussex, and in Worcestershire and Herefordshire, these bins are used. In the fires of the kilns. If too strong East Kent large baskets are used for at first, when the hops are naturally

picking into, holding 15 to 20 bushels. moist, they will be drawn down to the picked into baskets holding 7 bushels, quality. The fire may be increased as which are emptied into long bags, called the drying proceeds, and be pretty brisk * sarpliers,' holding 14 bushels, in which near the last; but the heat should not In Hampshire and Surrey the hops are haircloth and be much deteriorated in

they are taken to the kilns. In Kent, much exceed that of 140° to 150° Fahr. Hops shrink in bulk as they are drying. Sussex, Worcestershire, and Herefordshire the hops are measured into pokes About 13 cwt. of coal, with a little char

will dry one ton of hops. coal, 10 bushels - in which ---sacks holding The Sulphur is also used in drying hops, taken to be dried. measurer, who generally takes from six from 14 to 1 cwt. to i ton of hops. The

they are

to eight companies, is accompanied by a object of using sulphur is to improve the boy, who enters the number of bushels colour of the hops.

It is of importance

picked into a book keptbyeach picker, to the seller to present his hops in the market with a light - coloured delicately “ The price of picking hops ranges greenish hue. When taken from the kiln, the hops from 174d. to 3d. per bushel. The and into a book retained by himself.

average price is 2d. per bushel. Bins- are laid in heaps on the cooling-floor, not men are paid from 2s.4d. to 38. per day. only to cool, but to acquire a state of Measurers get from 4s. to 5s. per day. adhesiveness, which, though dry, causes Driers, who work night and day, earn them to lump together when squeezed in from £2, 1os. to £ 3, 158. per week. the hand, and yet not so much as to lose Before picking commences, the planter elasticity. This is an important point in generally fixes a price for picking. Some- preparing hops for packing, for if they times itis not fixed until after a day or arenot sufficiently dry they will rot, and will become brittle, two, that it may be better ascertained if too much dried break into pieces, and be unsaleable. how the hops come down.” Drying Hops. - Immediately on being The drying will cause a loss equal to

picked, hops are artificially dried. They about three-fourths of the weight in a are dried in square or circular kilns, 16 green state-giving 1 lb. of prepared for or 18 feet square or indiameter, on hair- 4 lb. of greenhops . cloth, and heated by Welsh coal, coke, or Pocketing . - Hops are put into pockets The kiln - floor is situate at 10

in the stowing-room, through an opening

to 13 feet above the fire, and the height of the kiln is 18 or 20 feet above the kiln -floor, surmounted with a cap -cowl 7 or 8 feet in height and 3 or 4 feet diameter in the bottom , a free circulation of air being kept up through the fire and hops to the top of the kiln. The hops require to be rapidly dried to keep the pickers in operation. The kilns ought to take i bushel of green hops on i square foot of flooring, and be filled twice a -day,

in the floor of the drying-room, under which the pockets are suspended. A pocket is 3 feet wide and 772 feet long, consisting of 5 yards of cloth, weighing 5 lb. , and contains i cwt. 2 qrs. and a few pounds gross weight of hops.

charcoal.

Hops cannot be too firmly packed in

the pocket, and powerful screw- pressing machines are employed for the purpose. These presses, which are formed upon one principle, differing only in detail,

giving from 9 to 12 hours to each kiln- are thus described by Mr Whitehead :

SUMMER .

334

“ A wooden circular foot, just large of the best fewell, exceptes Hope tym enough to go into a pocket 3 feet in bere . ” 2 diameter, is fitted to a ratchet lever, which is worked up and down by handles.

Varieties of Hops.- No fewer than about 160 varieties of hops are said to

This is fixed immediately over the ' pocket be in culture throughout the world. In The empty pocket this country only a small number are in

hole ' cut in the floor.

is fastened to a movable frame or collar, regular cultivation , the principal of these so as to keepits mouth firm to the floor while it is being filled, suspended in midair. There usually are two posts set up below, into which two rods, connected with a wooden stand, run up to hold the pocket up and to keep it straight. In place of these guiding rods, some pressers have circular iron cases to surround the

varieties being — Goldings, Bramlings, Grapes, Jones, Farnham Whitebines, Mathons, Cooper's Whites, Fuggles, and Colegates. The Golding is generally ac knowledged as the best variety in this country, but for certain localities other sorts are more suitable. The selection of the most

suitable

pocket and keep it from bulging. Pressers variety for a given locality and soil cost from £ 14 to £,27.” 1 requires considerable experience and The pocket is neatly sewn up, leaving good judgment. Whichever kind is a lug, or ear, projecting from each side of chosen, it is desirable either to have the sewn mouth . only one variety within one hop -ground, The produce is then ready for the or the varieties separated in the same market.

ground. Different varieties require to Stacking Poles. — When the bines are be pulled at different times. It is desir

cleared of the hops, they are taken off able, in choosing different varieties, to the poles, which are then put up in small have them to ripen in succession, in order

conical stacks at equal distances apart that the hops may not all be ready for on the hop ground, with the sharped picking at the same time. ends on the earth , having four equidis-

Male and Female Hops. — The male

tant divisions striding over the “ hills.” and female being on separate plants, there Each division of the stack should be has been a good deal of discussion as to bound round with three bines, deprived the necessity or desirability of planting of their leaves and twisted into a rope, male plants so as to ensure fertilisation. which binds the division close and com- It is contended by many that there should pact, and prevents the poles being stolen, be at least one male plant on each acre or makes a theft more easily detected.

of hops.

But in practice no attention is

The small refuse poles are bound to- paid to this. The male plants, Mr White

gether, separating those which may be head says, are generallygrubbed up, and used for the young bines of the first year the fertilisation of the female plants left from those which may be burned into to chance. charcoal, or used as firewood. Ash of Hops. — The composition of The Hop Plant.

the ash of hops was found by Nesbit to be as follows : Yellow

The hop, Humulus lupulus, belongs to the class and order Diæcia Pentandria

of Linnæus, natural order Urticacec . Some plants have male flowers and others female flowers.

It is generally

Golding Hop.

Potash Lime

24.50

Magnesia Phosphate of iron Sulphuric acid

believed that the hop was introduced

Phosphoric acid

into this country in 1524; but in Notes

Carbonic acid Chloride of sodium

and Queries it is stated that in one of

15.56 5.63 7.26 5.27 9.54 2.61 7.05

the covenants of a lease, granted in Kent

Chloride of potassium 1.63 Manganese

in 1463-64, it is specified that the ten

Silica .

Grape Hop . 18.61 23.75

6.13 6.79 4.16 5.26 3.36 3.18 2.21

1.59

20.95

24.96

100.00

100.00

9.90

15.80

ant shall receive “ evry yere duryng the

terme, an acre of wode competent and 1 Jour. Bath and West of Eng. Agric. Soc., 1881 , 214.

Percentage of ash

? 2d Series, ii. 276.

HOP CULTURE.

The quantity of mineral matter removed from the soil per acre by the dif

ferent parts of the Golding hop plant is, according to Way and Ogston Flowers. Leaves.

Potash Lime

Magnesia

Sulphuric acid Whole crop.

Bine.

Ib.

1b.

Phosphoric acid

4.10

Carbonic acid Chloride of sodium

9.00 2.95

Ib .

Silica

32.6

97.3

12.9 142.8

Phosphoric acid

29.5

40.6

15.1

85.2

Sulphuric acid .

Silica (soluble)

8.7

3.0

Sand and charcoal

3.4

8.2 52.4

15.4

19.9 71.2

16.3

134.0

31.0

181.3

Magnesia

8.2

21. I

4.9

Peroxide of iron Potash

I. I

0.8

1.0

34.2 2.9

54.0

57.0

22.9

133.9

10.0

19.9 3.4

18.3

.

Soda

15.3

Chloride of potassium

0.70 27.10 21.So

99.10

Percentage of ash

10.40

Cost of Hop -planting.- The plant ing of hops is very costly. Mr Charles 45.2 Whitehead, writing in 1881 , states that

Chloride of po tassium

1.45 23.70 2.75 2.50 3.05

Phosphate of iron

Ib .

Carbonic acid Lime

335

" the cost of raising one acreof hop-land, taking the average of all the hop districts Total 170.4 435.0 129.5 734.9 in the kingdom , is £ 25, " made up in the following manner : The hop plant is peculiar in the quantity Ploughing, subsoiling, and of phosphoric acid required for all its preparing the land Chloride of sodium

1.3

13.6

.

out this view.1

The composition ofthe ash of the flower

2600 sets, at 38.

c- ocs ow

co, omingo

exceeds any other plant which we have examined. It may not be without reason, therefore , that the value of land which is devoted to hops has been referred to the great prevalence on it of the phosphate of lime. The chemical history of the greensand district is such as to bear

Manure, 30 loads at 58. 6d . Setting out and digging holes

ооооо

.

different parts : in this respect it far

I

3 18

Planting Nidgetting and summer cul tivation Stakes or poles and setting

2

0

0

Ι

ΙΟ

Ο

4 14

O

Ore year's rent, tithes, and taxes

Total cost of raising an acre of hop -land Cost of Hop Cultivation . — Mr White

} £25 o 03

Hop .

Yellow analysis Grape in i ton Нор.. of hops.

24.88

25.56 29 5

21.59

18.47 27

Golding

Ib .

Potash Lime

.

4.69

Magnesia

1.75 7.27 14:47 2.17 3.42

Phosphoric acid Carbonic acid

Chloride of sodium

Chloride of potassium Silica

19.71 99.95

5

Digging, or ploughing and

2 I2

4 3

17.58 25

2

11.68

4.54 I. 12

2

4.34 9.99

4 6

I

25

0

99.96 136

1

7.212

instructive : 1 Jour. Eng. Agric. Soc., xi. 515 . 2 Ibid . , ix. 145.

O

6 O 14

Dressing Poling Tying

O

Pullingbines, and earthing

O

Ladder tying

Keeping land clean round hills Nidgetting and harrowing Annual average supply of poles Stripping, stacking pole, and making bines

O

I 15

4 15 OI2

All expenses of picking, dry ing, selling an average crop of 7 cwts. per acre

2 (

Spent Hops as Manure. — As spent hops are used for manure, the analysis of their ash, by Nesbit, may prove

I

digging

0

£7

o

Percalcu cenlated tage dry of ash,} 5.95

5

7

16 1345755

Peroxide of iron

Sulphuric acid

senting average costinper of culti vating antheacre of hops fullacre plant : Manures, including winter and summer dressing, carting, and spreading

5.27 1.41

ооооооооо

of the hop, according to the analysis of Frederick Eggar, is : head gives the following as fairly repre Mean of

оо

Rent, rates, tithe, taxes, re. pairs of oasthouse, interest Total

7

0

£36 12

O

04

3 Jour. Bath and West of Eng. Agric. Soc ., 1881 , 218.

* Ibid ., 218.

336

SOWING TURNIPS .

Sulphuring and washing for blight commended to farmers who are trying to would increase the cost in the former case from £ i to £3 per acre ; and in the latter from £2 to £ 5 per acre. Produce of Hops. The produce of hops of course varies greatly with the seasons both as to quantity and quality.

discover some culture likely to pay , or, at least, not to farmers in districts where hops have not before been tried, as be

sides the amount of capital that is requi site and the uncertainty of the crop, the demand for hops is limited strictly by the

The average may be given at from 672 consumption of beer, and the competition of foreign countries is great. In seasons

to 7 cwt. per acre.

Price of Hops. — This varies remark- when hops are dear, substitutes, as quas ably, so great indeed as to invest the his- sia, for example, are used to a consider tory of hop- growing with something of a able extent, and the importations from romantic character. It has been as high Germany, France, Belgium , and the as £30 per cwt. even as recently as United States prevent prices from rising

1882, but the importation of foreign to famine point, as in the halcyon days hops, which rose from 24,662 cwt. in when hops were worth £25 per cwt., 1855 to 266,952 cwt. in 1885, has and a small crop was hailed with satis brought the price to a much lower level faction. The fluctuations in the acreage in recent years. The average has lately of hop -land show the uncertainties of this been frequently under £5 percwt. culture. Since 1878, for example, the

Hop -growing Risky. — The speculative, and therefore risky, character of hop -growing is well described by Mr Charles Whitehead, who says : Hopgrowing, even in the best districts, is a speculative business. There are men

acreage decreased from 71,789 acres to 64,943 acres, a decrease of 6846 acres. Since the duty was repealed in 1862 there have not been such sudden fluctua

tions in the acreage, as, for example, in the period between 1847 and 1849, when

here and there who have made much the acreage was reduced by 9530 acres ; money ; but there are, on the other or between 1855 and 1857, when nearly

hand, very many who have lost much, 7000 were grubbed. These reductions, and very many who are in prettty much it need hardly be said, involve the loss of the same position as they were twenty, a great deal of capital, and are only made

or forty, or sixty years ago, when they when it has become impossible by reason began hop -growing, after having had the of bad seasons for planters to find money

intense anxiety and worry which no one to work their hop-land properly .' 1 who has not had the experience of the Since Mr Whitehead wrote the above

changes and chances of this fickle crop in 1881 , the fluctuations in the acreage of No one who hop-land have been considerable . Then values peace of mind should cultivate it amounted to 64,943 acres, and rose to

can in any degree realise .

hops, nor should any one who has not 71,327 acres in 1885.

Since that date it

capital enough to stand the racket ' of has rapidly decreased, and now ( 1889) at least two bad seasons go into this stand at 57,7 acres, the lowest point business . Hop cultivation cannot be re- since s1866. 50

SOWING TURNIPS. Advantages of the Turnip Crop.- clean and fallow his land, and at the The turnip crop plays a great part in same time to grow an immense quantity British agriculture. For the light land of nutritious cattle food, even from poor in the northern districts of the British light soil. It has been said that the

Isles, where the climate is too cold for greatest improvement in arable land farm the sugar - beet or even the mangel

crop, the turnip crop is of primary importance. It enables the farmer to

1 Jour. Bath and West of Eng. Agric. Soc ., 1881 , 220 .

1

SOWING TURNIPS.

337

ing during the last hundred years is due attempt to grow roots upon the same to the introduction of the turnip crop land too frequently — that is, with too into the rotation ; thus providing, as it short an interval between the successive did , a cleaning and fallowing crop, and crops of roots. In speaking of the fun

obviating any necessity for a bare fallow goid attacks upon roots, further reference on lightsoils, and enabling the farmer, will be made to this point, of the too during the winter months, to keep a frequent recurrence ofwill thesuffice crop on the Here to say

number and quality of cattle formerly same land. it that it has been clearly proved that the The turnip crop has, to a large extent, growing of roots, like most other things, given to Scottish agriculture the eminence can beeasily overdone, and that the re it has attained, and it has made the sults of an indiscretion with this tendency

impossible.

eastern half of Great Britain the greatest may be almost disastrous. cattle-feeding district in the world. If With this qualification, there are few

properly managed, the crop is a moder- who would not indorse what is said

ately reliable and valuable one on the above as to the advantages of the turnip lightest and shallowest of soils ; and although in some cases it has been too often repeated on the same land, whereby inferior crops and destructive disease have been produced, its introduction has been of immense advantage, and its place

crop and the part it has played in build ing up the fabric of British agriculture. Varieties of Turnips in Use.-In

vol. i. pp. 160-169, some information will be found as to the varieties of turnips. The varieties now in use are very numer in the rotation cannot be filled so well ous. Of the Swedish turnip ( Brassica

by any substitute which has as yet been campestris, rutabaga) there are

over

tried .

20 field varieties, more or less widely On stiff clay soils its cultivation is not cultivated ; and of the common turnip

of so much advantage.

The cost of re- ( Brassica rapa) and hybrids there are

ducing these to a proper tilth for the more than 50 varieties in cultivation. seed is great, and if theweather is either Swedes. — The Swedish turnip has a

too wet or too dry, the crop is precarious blue-green smooth foliage. It is a com and uncertain. Then clay land is liable paratively slow -growing plant,and there to be injured either by carting the roots fore requires to be sown earlier than the

off the land or by the treading of sheep common turnip. It requires for its suc cessful growth, and will resist without Unlike the potato crop, the turnip crop injury, a greater degree of heat; is less

in consuming them upon it.

is usually consumed on the farm , and the watery ; of harder texture ; will stand

unappropriated matter returned to the soil. In properly constructed farmeries there should, therefore, by the growth and consumption of roots, be compara-

several degrees of greater cold without injury ; and will keep longer than the common turnip. The bulbs of some of the varieties are green-topped; some are

tively little waste of manurial elements, purple or bronze-topped . The purple and consequently little exhaustion of the topped varieties are usually more or less land.

tankard in shape, and thus stand farther Turnip -growing may be Overdone. out of the soil. In consequence, they are

-The serious injury which the turnip more apt to be injured by severe frosts, crop has so frequently in recent years sustained from insect and fungoid plagues, together with the heavy costs involved in its cultivation, have somewhat weakened the hold which it obtained on the affections of the British farmer. The decline in the price of grain has also

and should be lifted and stored early. From their habit of growing well out of the ground, they are thought to be better suited for shallow soils than the green topped varieties, the general shape of which is globular. The bulbs of the latter are more deeply seated in the

tended, indirectly, to lessen the area ground, and are thus better protected under turnips. It has been contended, from winter frosts. with a good show of reason, that the

Common Turnips. — The Brassica

unfavourable experience with the crop rapa, rough -leaved summer rape, or tur has been in a large measure due to an nip, has rough foliage of a more decided

SOWING TURNIPS .

338

green colour. The yellow -bottomed varie- animals, the selection of the sorts best ties are looked upon as a cross between the adapted for the surrounding conditions

swede and the white turnip. They grow and the purposes in view, is a point more rapidly than the Brassica swede, whichdemands, and will repay, the most and come to maturity sooner. They careful attention from the farmer. In may therefore be sown successfully much deed it is a point which the farmer who later.

They will grow on a poorer soil, The bulbs con-

would be successful cannot afford to overlook or disregard .

tain less solid matter, are more easily

Climatic Influences on Turnips.

and in a colder climate.

injured by hard frosts ; they should there. The turnip has a moderate range of fore be used or pitted sooner than is temperature. necessary for swedes.

A summer isotherm of

about 56 °, with a moderately moist

The varieties called hybrid are a cross atmosphere, is the most favourable.

between yellows and white varieties, Before getting into the rough-leaf stage, and are usually soft in flesh, tankard

it is easily adversely affected with night

in shape, and ill adapted for resisting hard frosts. The white - bottomed varieties are even more rapid in growth, more soft in texture, more easily injured, and more watery than the yellowbottomed varieties. Some varieties of the yellow -fleshed are green, some are purple-topped. The

frosts. These, with hot scorching days, such as are frequently experienced in the end of May and first half of June, are very inimical to the young turnip in its cotyledon stage, and often cause its destruction, and necessitate resowing. Insect Attacks. — This condition is

generally aggravated by the attacks of

white-fleshed varieties are white, green, insects, suchas the turnip-beetle ( Haltica) grey, purple, or red-topped. The latter and several kinds of weevils (Curculio), are now but little cultivated, while the that puncture and nibble at the seed

area occupied by the Swedish varieties leaves, which in dry weather tends to kill the plant from bleeding or drying is steadily increasing. Produce of different Varieties.-

up.

At this stage insects seldom do

Experiments, purposely conducted to test much harm if theweather is damp, and the point, and general experience in tur- the nights free from frosts. nip culture, have shown clearly that there

Distribution of the Turnip.

The

is a very wide range in the productive turnip is therefore a plant whose consti powers, not only of the various kinds tution is eminently suited to the damp of roots, but also of each individual and comparatively cold climate of the

variety, propagated and grown under British Isles. The crop indeed reaches different conditions.

In the midland its most certain and highest development

and southern counties of England the in the northern parts of the islands. The crop of swedes generally runs from 12 cool climate of Caithness, Orkney, and

to 18 tons per acre ; in Scotland,Ireland, even Shetland favours its bulb growth . and north of England, from 18 to 30 In the Hebrides it grows well, the damp tons. Common turnips may give from aircausing increased luxuriance of top. i to 4 or 5 tons more per acre. Often, In the south of England the turnip indeed, the extremes are still greater.

is often a failure in dry seasons. The

Much of course depends upon soil and hot dry winds occasionally experienced climatic conditions, which are beyond the there are liable to kill the plants in the

control of the farmer, and still more per- early stages, and to cause stunting, and haps upon the system of culture, which sometimes mildew , if the growth is far is almost entirely within his direction ; ther advanced. There, in some seasons yet it is unquestionable that, by selecting sorts which have been distinguished for abundant production upon the different classes of soils, the yield of the crop may be sensibly increased . In regard to the feeding and keeping properties of roots, the same remark holds good. With turnips, as with all farm plants and

the plant has a struggle for days and weeks with dry warm winds and a parched soil, and makes little progress until the shorter days and cool nights of autumn set in. The turnip thrives in a temperature

too cold for the profitable cultivation of cabbage, kohl- rabi, or mangels. These

SOWING TURNIPS.

339

in the British Islands do best in moder- difficulty in securing a braird among the ately dry warm seasons. Among grain rough particles in dry seasons, from the crops, the oat luxuriates in a climate hardness of such soils preventing the

similar to what is required for the growth free spreading of the roots, and from the of turnips, and wherever heavy, well- absorbed and retained water injuring the filled oats can be grown, there the culti- roots in wet seasons. On the stiffer clays, vation of the turnip will succeed. which occupy a large area in the southern Turnips in Foreign countries. — The part of England , the cultivation of the crop is cultivated in large breadth only crop is so precarious that it cannot be in the British Isles. On the continent profitable in the average of seasons,

of Europe, if we except some parts of although good crops are occasionally Denmark, the breadth of it is quite insignificant. In southern Europe maize is the chief forage crop. In middle and northern Europe the sugar-beet and po-

grown. Were it not that the working of the land for the crop acts upon the soil similarly to a bare fallow, its culti vation on these soils would not be at

tato take the place of the turnip in

tempted to any considerable extent.

stock -feeding. In the older settled parts of Canada turnips are grown to some extent. The soils of Quebec and On

TILLAGE OF TURNIP LAND.

tario are generally highly suitable, but Variety of Systems. — The system of the summer is rather dry and warm for tilling land so as to prepare it for the the turnip, and in consequence the aver- turnip crop necessarily varies greatly age weight is only about two-thirds that upon different classes of soils, and in

of the British Isles, while the severe win- the different parts of the country. The ter compels early storing in cellars. In condition of the land as to foulness or New Zealand turnips are grown for freedom from weeds has likewise to be sheep - feeding, and to save labour the considered in deciding upon the system seed is usually sown broadcast, and al- of tillage likely to bemost effective and

lowed to grow without thinning.

In economical.

Victoria, Australia, the cost of labour It has also to be remembered that in has operated against the cultivation of many farming operations there are variar turnips. The summer is too dry, but tions in local customs, for which there

very promising and heavy crops, up to is no apparent or sufficient explanation forty tons per acre, have been grown beyond the simple influence of long-con during the winter months.

tinued usage. In regard to most branches

Soils for Turnips.— The soils most of farm -work, it is assuredly true that

suitable for turnip cultivation are those there are several ways of doing the same of a light friable description. The fine thing ,-- several methods by which the same piece of work may be accomplish readily reduced favours the germination ed, and this, too, with almost equal of the small seeds. On such soils cul- efficiency, and with little difference in

state of division to which these can be

tivation is easy, and they also suit the outlay. That teaching which would seek to in habits of the plant, which spreads its

roots like a network into every part of culcate the idea that any one way is the the soil.

right way and the best way, and all other

Alluvial and sandy soils are the best methods wrong and inferior, is essentially for the turnip plant. Next come the narrow and unsafe, arising most likely lighter soils formed from trap or volcanic from limited experience or a dogmatic rocks, and the lighter soils resting on spirit - or from both ; for there is a close Silurian, Cambrian, Devonian, granitic, kinship between dogmatism and limited and New Red Sandstone rocks.

knowledge.

The more one sees of the

Clay Soils Unsuitable for Turnips. detail-work of farming in the various -The soils least suitable are the clays, divisions of our own country and in

from whatever derived. The London, foreign lands, the less inclined one is to Oxford , and Kimmeridge clays being dogmatise, the more indeed is one im especially stiff, are not well suited for pressed with the almost infinite variety

turnip cultivation, partly from the great of methods and practices which farmers

SOWING TURNIPS .

340

may, with prudence and good results, condition for the reception of the manure pursue in the prosecution oftheir calling. and the seed. Unless the land happen The introduction of these remarks at

to be exceptionally foul, or is of a strong

this particular point has been suggested by the fact that in his observations as to the methods of root culture in nearly every corner of the British Isles, and in foreign countries as well, the editor of this work has noted with special interest the almost

clayey nature — in which cases other methods to be explained presently may be adopted — this system of autumn or winter ploughing and spring cleaning and manuring answers admirably for the turnip crop.

endless variety in the details of practice. In perusing the remarks which follow as

Normal Conditions.

to the system of preparing turnip land, In the first place, we will describe the and in contrasting the practices described process of preparing land for turnips, and recommended with differentpractices under what may for convenience be called which may prevail in certain localities, average or normal conditions. By this it should therefore be borne in mind that term is meant land well, or at least

it is not presumed by us that the methods moderately well, suited for turnips — described here are the only methods worthy of description and commendation. Indeed we will go further, and suggest that any farmer who has been moderately successful with methods different from

heavy clays excluded ; in average condi tion as to weeds, fertility, and drainage, and with average weather. Exceptional circumstances will receive

treatment subsequently.

those described here should think well

Autumn and Winter Ploughing :

before introducing a change, doing so at first only to a small extent, and in an experimental way. To describe all the good systemsof root culture is out of the ques-

Turnips almost invariably follow a grain crop . As soon as practicable after the completion of the grain harvest, the stubble land intended for roots next year

tion. We, however, set forth thedetails is — unless very foul - ploughed with a of certain methods which we know to be deep strong furrow , varying in depth

pursued with success in different parts of Soil, Climate, and System of Tillage.--- The character and condition of the soil are of course the main considerations in determining the system of tillage.

according to the character and depth of the total surface-soil from perhaps 10 to 14 inches — rarely over 12 inches. In deep ploughing care has to be taken not to bring to the surface more than a very small quantity ( if any) of the subsoil at

Stiff clay land requires very different treatment from light friable soil. The former must not be touched in wet weather, or while it is in a very wet con-

one time. Many subsoils contain mat ter which is positively injurious to vege tation, and which, if mixed freely with

dition .

time have a deleterious influence on the

the country .

The latter is much less liable to

injury from unseasonable working.

the surface-soil, may for a considerable crops. If the land be strong loam , it

The climate is also answerable for may be advisable to yoke three horses

variations in systems of tillage. The in the plough. When the land is very comparatively mild open winter of the steep, and it is desired to run the furrow southern and lower-lying parts favours up and down the incline, the plan of autumn and winter tillage. In thehigher- going up-hill empty and taking a strong lying and colder districts, with their furrow down -hill is often resorted to.

severer winter, much of the tillage work With this method no feerings are must be delayed till spring.

re

quired after the first side furrow , as all

Prevailing System . — The system the ploughs follow each other at con which prevails most largely in the princi- venient intervals in the one furrow . pal turnip-growing district of this country, A good deal of time, however, is un is to plough the landwith a strong furrow avoidably wasted by this plan , and far in the autumn or winter, allow it to lie mers generally contrive to get a furrow

in this condition under the disintegrating each way by running the plough so to influences of winter, and in spring clear avoid the direct line of the incline. it of weeds and reduce it to the desired For ploughing with a strong furrow in

SOWING TURNIPS .

341

steep land the one way, ploughs described the fine surface - mould produced by and illustrated in vol. i., pp. 117, 118, are the winter frosts will be kept nearer very useful.

With the one-way plough the surface, and will make the germina the furrow can always be thrown down- tion of the turnip seed more certain. In hill, which of course lightens draught stiff soils fewer of the large clods will be greatly. brought to the surface; in dry weather In this strong furrow the land lies over less evaporation from the surface will winter, deriving much benefit from the take place, and the success of the crop frost and snow to which it is thus freely will be more assured. exposed. Diggers and Cultivators. Some of Spring Tillage . — In average seasons the implements intermediate between

the land intended for turnips, which has the ordinary cultivator and grubber and been ploughed in autumn or winter as plough perform excellent work in the just described, may probably not be preparation of turnip land. The digger touched again until the sowing of the grain crops has been completed. The spring working of the turnip land is usually begun in April, but the greater portion of it will most likely have to be

brought out by Messrs Barclay & Sellar, and manufactured by Messrs George Sellar & Son, Huntly, represented in fig. 345, is a good sample of these implements. This digger has coulters

gone through in May, some of it perhaps and shares just like a plough. even later.

The

breast or mould-board, however, is totally

The extent and nature of the spring different, inasmuch as it is made in two tillage will depend upon the character halves. The upper half turns the furrow

andcondition of the land and the state slice similarly to the plough. The lower of the weather. For even in what may half, being turned at an angle to the still be called normal or average condi- passage of the furrow, cuts off the under

tions, there are many variations which surface as it passes over, and allows it demand the careful consideration of the to fall loosely into the bottom. The farmer. effects produced are thus a combination Ploughing or Grubbing . Most of the plough and cultivator. This digger may be used for other likely one spring ploughing will be sufficient, this time with a moderate furrow, purposes besides preparing turnip land

perhaps from 6 to 9 inches deep. Many in spring. farmers now prefer to stir the land with

Used on stubble land it pulverises the

some kind of strong iron -toothed imple- soil to a good depth, and turns only the ment of the grubber kind ; or it may be upper few inches, thus exposing the roots

a half-plough, half-grubber, -an imple- of weeds which lie near the surface to ment having a plough-like sole, and iron the winter's frost, and leaving the soil spurs instead of a mould -board . thoroughly broken up . Amongst land Whether it is advisable to plough the after turnips it also does good work.

land, or only to drag it with a grubber While pulverising the soil it does not or cultivator, will depend upon the kind turn it over, and expose the dung, as is

of soil and the weather at the time. If often done by the common plough. the subsoil is very hard, the plough will

Further reference to the use of the

pierce and loosen it more effectively than grubber or cultivator will be found in the grubber or cultivator.

If the season page 203 of this volume- vol. i. -where

is wet the plough is preferable, as much illustrations will be found of Clay's less injury is inflicted by the treading cultivators. Pulverising Ploughs.—By the at

of the horses in ploughing, unless the

grubbing is done by steam - power, tachment of revolving prongs, ploughs

which is very effective, if not done too are made which, at the one operation, plough the land and pulverise it, throw

deeply.

The cultivator gets over the land much ing most of the weeds on to the surface. more quickly than the plough. But if the An excellent implement of this kind is soil is stiff or full of weeds, a second turn that represented in fig. 346, made by after harrowing and gathering will be T. Corbett, Shrewsbury. necessary. VOL . II.

By the use of the cultivator

Disadvantages of Grubbing.– The Z

SOWING TURNIPS .

342

drawbacks to grubbing are the putting If the weather permit, harrowing and down of the weeds by the hoofs of the rolling must be continued until the clods

horses, which press some of them be- are reduced, and a fine mould formed . Removing Weeds. — The harrowing yond the grasp of the harrows follow-

ing ; and the hardening of the sub- brings the weeds loosely to the surface. soil due to the pressure of the horses ' Chain -harrows are frequently used to Both these are points of some collect the weeds into heaps, and so are

feet.

importance, yet grubbing or cultivating horse-rakes, the work being concluded by hand -rakes and forks, or graips.

is on the increase.

Harrowing TurnipLand . — Whether Hand -picking is preferred by many far ploughed or stirred, the land must be mers, and is of course the most thorough afterwards harrowed, the weeds picked system. The weeds may be burned in off, and the large stones, if any, gathered. heaps on the field and the ashes scattered

Fig. 345. -Barclay and Sellar's patent digger or cultivator .

around, or carted to some convenient cor- which render deviations from the pre

ner to be united with lime to form a com- vailing system necessary or advisable. post-heap. In the latter case care must For instance, stiff clayey land, land be taken not to spread the compost on which is excessively foul, and land un the land until the vegetable matter in it usually free from weeds, all receive has been thoroughly decomposed . peculiar methods of treatment. Again , the land may be both stiff and foul,and Exceptional Conditions.

in this case still another plan will be

In soils well suited to turnips, and adopted. The questions as to whether kept in good heart and condition as to the roots are to be sown in drills or on cleanliness, the foregoing process of till the flat, and at what time the farmyard

ing and cleaning will most likely be suf- dung is to be applied — whether inthe ficient to preparethe land for the sowing autumn or winter, on the flat in spring, or laying down of turnips, as it is often or in drills at sowing-time- are also re sponsible for variations in the prepara

termed .

But there are many circumstances

tory work.

SOWING TURNIPS.

343

land of this kind the autumn is the best

Preparing Foul Clay Land. This is often a serious undertaking.

time — that is, if the weather should be favourable. Begin the work as soon as

No progress can be made with it in wet the grain crops are secured . The first weather. Indeed, any attempt to culti- operation will either be the cultivating (or vate or clean clay land when it is in a grubbing) or the ploughing of the land wet condition must inevitably result in

with a shallow furrow ,—a furrow just

failure. Far better let men and horses remain idle than allow them to work stiff clayey land unseasonably. In this condition the more it is worked the greater is the injury inflicted.

deep enough to turn over, but not to bury, the weeds. The depth of the first furrow is indeed regulated mainly by the character of the weeds, whether they are deep-rooted, creeping, or surface weeds. When therefore the farmer has before Some of the surface -weeds may be killed him the unenviable task of having to by being buried with a deep furrow ; but clean a stiff clay land which is in very couch -grass, docks, thistle, knap - weed,

foul condition he must watch the weather and other well-known troublesome weeds,

carefully and seize every suitable day for require more drastic treatment. Grub the purpose.

bing or dragging and harrowing follow

Autumn Cleaning. — For cleaning ploughing, and if necessary to break

Fig . 346. — Digging and pulverising plough.

clods holding weeds, the land is then fore important to have the weeds brought rolled, again harrowed, and the weeds to the surface with as little knocking collected and burned or carted away. about as possible. A Second Crop of Weeds . — An exCross - cultivation . — The subsequent

amination of the land may reveal the fact that it is still far from clean. In this case the whole process should , if the weather permit, be at once again gone over. Theploughing may perhaps be

omitted.

ploughing and grubbing are usually given at right angles to or in a slightly different line from the preceding. The object of this cross-cultivation is of course to ensure that all portions of the soil may

The grubber orcultivator, fol- be stirred .

lowed by the harrows, will take the reSteam -power for Cleaning Clay maining weeds to the surface, and this Land . — For the cultivating and cleaning time, in particular, it will be advisable of strong land steam -power is very suit to hand-pick the weeds, so as to ensure able. The steam -cultivators go over the

that all the little particles of couch-grass ground quickly, and they can be as easily roots may be removed . Do not Break Weeds. — Excessive

regulated as to depth as implements for horse-labour. Half-ploughing . - Land which is ex

tillage is liable to break these weed -roots intosmall pieces, each of which, if left, cessively foul is sometimes cleaned by will form a centre of filth . It is there- another process, a piecemeal method -

344

SOWING TURNIPS.

known as break -furrowing, raftering, or becomes pulverised and more easily pre

half-ploughing. Only half the surface is at once disturbed, each furrow being thrown on to its own breadth of ploughed land. Harrowing and weed -collecting

pared for the seed. In southern parts, where the winters are open, the spring tillage of this land is begun as early as possible - as early as January or Feb

follow, and this fleece of weeds being re- ruary if the weather is sufficiently dry. moved, the strips of the land formerly It is then cross-ploughed at least once.

undisturbed are then turned overby the Often, indeed, strongland is ploughed plough, harrowing and weed-collecting two or three times in spring, in the This is à attempt to reduce it to that fine tilth tedious and costly process, which is not which is so advantageous to the root

completing the process.

often adopted, and need not be resorted to except in such rare cases as where the

crop. Grubbing

or

Cultivating

in

land is so excessively foul that the entire Spring. — Grubbing or cultivating is mass of weeds in it could not be con- preferable to repeated ploughing in veniently dealt with at one time. spring, for while the former leaves the

This system is more frequently adopted finelypulverised soil on the surface, the for the purpose of killing surface-weeds. In this case the land lies over winter in

plough turns this underneath.

By repeated harrowing, rolling, and

the ridged -up appearance which the half- grubbing or dragging, the rough strong ploughing gives to it.

land is reduced asfinely as possible, and

Autumn Dunging and Ploughing. is thus prepared for the reception of the -Assuming that the weather has been seed. sufficiently dry and free from frost to Preparing Clean Land. enable the farmer to complete in autumn When the land intended for turnips is and early winter the cleaning processes described above, the next step — with strong in a cleanly condition, the preparatory

land intended for roots — will perhaps be tillage operations may be considerably to spread its allowance of farmyard dung lessened . As early as possible in the and plough in this with a shallow furrow . autumn or winter, the land, whether light This is the usual practice, and by far the or strong, isploughed with a deep furrow best plan in stiff land of this kind, where or cultivated with a rank grubber. On

the turnips are to be sown on the flat, and where there is a sufficient supply of dung ready in time for application before the last ploughing in autumn or early winter. The advantages of the autumn

strong clay land the dung — as much of it as is then made — is spread on the stubble just before ploughing. In spring, strong clean land will require similar treatment to that just described

instead of the spring dunging of heavy in speaking of the preparation of foul land will be mentioned in dealing with clay land, which had been cleaned in the manuring of turnips. If the dung the autumn. is not to be applied at this time, the land

Spring Tillage of Light Clean Land.

is turned over in a strong furrow before

- But in the case of light land free from

weeds, very little spring tillage may suf Spring Tillage of Strong Land.- fice. Indeed, such land may be allowed The spring tillage of stiff clays intended to lie in the winter furrow till the work

the rigours of winter fairly set in.

for roots has to be carried out with of grain -sowing is finished. It may then the utmost care and caution .

Clay is receive a strip of the harrows across the stubborn material, in the working of winter furrow, be turned over once with which the farmer, who has not before the plough, or stirred by the grubber or

had practical experience of it, is liable cultivator, and again harrowed two or to unwittingly commit errors, which may three times. In many cases this will be seem trifling at the time, but which may found sufficient; but if the tilth is not result in serious injury to the crop. reduced as finely as desired, another turn

If the land has been cleaned and of the grubber or cultivator and harrows dunged in the autumn, the spring work may be prescribed, and with this the is thereby greatly simplified. Lying preparation will be completed. over winter in a strong furrow the land Overworking Injurious. — Not un

SOWING TURNIPS.

345

frequently injury is inflicted upon the always been the studied and careful pre

turnip crop by the overworking of the paration of the land. Such deep tillage land in spring Turnips delight in a fine moistsoil. The finer the soil is the better, but it must also be damp. In preparing turnip land, therefore, the

and cleaning as the land receives are done in dry weather in autumn, when the dung is also put in. Then in some cases which we have known to be suc

farmer must strive not only to break cessful in an eminent degree, no further down the soil but also keep in the stirring of any kind is given to the soil moisture.

This, as will be at once

till sowing - time, when, after a turn of

understood, is not so easy to accomplish. the harrows, the seed is sown in rows

Repeated ploughing and opening up the

on the flat.

land, late in spring and early in summer, This plan, of course, would not succeed It is in land containing many weeds but ; encourages the escapeof moisture. on thus important that in dry districts the some of the strongest clays in England deep turning and stirring of the land we have seen it carried out with the should be done in autumn, winter, and most gratifying results — upon land so

early in spring, so that when the dry strongly adhesive that it would some season has set in, shallow stirring and times exhibit in spring with little efface surface- scratching may be sufficient to ment the footprints made upon it by provide the desired tilth .

labourers five months before.

The dissipation of moisture by spring

The chief difficulty in turnip culture, tillage may be to some extent lessened on strong clay land in a dry climate, is

by immediately following the ploughing to obtain a strong regular plant. This or grubbing by harrowing and rolling.

is most effectually promoted by retain

Even in moderately moist climatesthis ing the winter moisture in the soil. And matter is deserving of more attention the best method of conserving the mois than farmers, as a rule, bestow upon it. ture is to clean, dung, and plough the Indeed it may be described as one of the land in autumn, and stir it as slightly cardinal points in successful turnip cul- as possible after the advent of warm ture. The importance of retaining moist weather in the following season. soil around the young turnip plant is

Still, when the farmer has done his

perhaps the consideration which has been very best, turnip - growing upon very most powerful in maintaining the system strong clayey land will often fail. And of growing turnips on the flat in England. while it is interesting and may be useful Forking out Weeds. -A practice to record these instances of exceptional much pursued in England, with land not success, one cannot with confidence re

so foul as to require a special course of commend the extensive culture of turnips tillage to clean, is to sendseveral workers upon such land. over the stubbles in the autumn with

Flat and Drill Systems of Sowing. For some time at the outset turnips plan, likely to save after- labour in re- were without exception sown broadcast on the flat surface of the land. At one moving weeds. graips or forks to dig out couch and other visible weeds. This is a good

It is the habit, indeed, of some par- time, indeed, that was the universal cus ticularly careful farmers, to send two or

tom with all farm crops.

Introduction of Drill Sowing.–For this way, forking out any weeds to be the introduction of that most serviceable seen, and giving special attention to head- system of drill sowing, we are indebted ridges and sides of fences, which often to Jethro Tull, whose writings, during the form perfect nurseries for weeds. first generation of the eighteenth century, Turnips on very strong Clays.- did much to promote the improvement of

three labourers over the entire farm in

In some cases in England, on very strong farm practice.

In his book on " Horse

clays, which are by nature ill adapted hoeing Husbandry ,' published in 1731 , for turnip culture, crops of swedes, which he advocated the system of drill-sowing would delight the heart of any farmer, wheat in narrow ridges. The success of are occasionally grown. The main secret the method attracted much attention, and of success, in these instances, has nearly

it was soon after tried for other crops.

SOWING TURNIPS .

346

For turnips it was found speciallysuitable,

Advantages of Raised Drills . — The and as early as 1745 the drilling of tur- system of raised drills possesses several

nips was practised in Dumfriesshire by advantages of the highest importance. Mr Craig of Abbeyland. The system In the first place, the gathering of the

rapidly won many converts, and soon finely pulverised soil together in the after the middle of the eighteenth raised drill, gives the roots the benefit of century, turnip culture in drills or rows a deeper and freer soil than they would was being pursued successfully in va- obtain on the same soil in the flat system .

rious parts of the country, notably, besides Dumfriesshire, in Cumberland, Northumberland, Roxburgh, Berwick , and Norfolk. Indeed, to the last-named

The stores of plant-food in the surface soil, and the manure applied at the time, are brought into closer proximity to the young plants, whose growth in the early

county, still noted for turnip culture, and most critical stages is thus effectually an improved system of turnip cultivation stimulated. The thinning and hand was as early as 1730 introduced from the hoeing of the crop are more easily and Netherlands by Charles, Viscount Town- expeditiously accomplished in the raised shend of Rainham . drill than on the level surface, while the Turnips in Raised Drills. — In Scot- subsequent hand-hoeing and horse-hoe land, Ireland, and the north of England, ing, or drill harrowing, bring back the turnips are now universally grown in land to a nearly level condition by the raised drills. This method , it is said, time the crop is throwing out its spread dates from about 1760, when it was ing root- fibres. begun by Mr Dawson of Harperton, Width of Drills. — This varies from

Kelso. For districts with a moist or 25 to 30 inches, the most general width moderately moist climate, it has long ago being 27 inches. In narrow drills there proved itself to be superior to all other is difficulty in covering rank dung thoroughly, and there is less facility for Disadvantage of Raised Drills.- horse-hoeing. On the other hand, the The one drawback to raiseddrills is that yield of thecrop per acre will belessened methods of root culture.

throwing up the land in this form en- by having the drills much wider than courages evaporation, and thus intensifies about 27 inches. the effects of drought. Mainly for this Drill - plough.—The raised drills are reason, the system of sowing in rows on now most generally made by the drill

the flat is preferred in the greater part of plough, the construction of which is England. well shown in fig. 347, in an improved

Fig. 347. — Drill-plough.

drill-plough made by Newlands & Son, the soil loosely rather than to squeeze it Linlithgow.

The breast and mould-

together, as would be done by a wedge

boards of this, as of all other improved shaped plough. The width of the drill drill-ploughs, are formed so as to throw up can be easily regulated by the screw

SOWING TURNIPS.

shown between the shafts. The " marker"

347

seed on the flat surface in rows from 15

is adjusted to the corresponding width, to 25 inches apart. As already explained , and with these improved ploughs a skil- the main object in pursuing this plan is ful ploughman makes drills that are to avoid the dissipation of moisture, pleasing to the eye of a tasteful farmer which is to a considerable extent un

-straight in line, and uniform in depth avoidable in raising the soil into loose and width .

ridges.

As a sort of general rule, it is recom to thoroughly cover the dung. Where mended that, in districts with an average rainfall less than inches per annum, The depth of the drill must be sufficient

of

there is no dung to cover, the drill may

24

the flat system should be the prevailing be shallower, yet deep enough to make one. A maximum crop is not likely to the ridge complete on the top. In many districts the drilling is done be obtained by this method, but in dry by the ordinary single plough. In drill- climates it is the safest, and is therefore ing with the single plough, the tail of it extensively pursued in the south. is purposely kept high, which leaves the Width of Rows.The rows on the bottom of the drill narrow . One passage flat are invariably narrower than raised

of the plough is quite sufficient for either drills. The most general width between opening or closing, and many consider it the flat rows is from 18 to 20 inches,

preferable to the double mould - board occasionally more and frequently less. plough, unless for earthing up potatoes.

With a greater width in the midland

One point in favour of the single plough and southern counties of England, where for drilling is, that by it the clods are the roots seldom attain the weights that thrown over the drill and fall into the

are common farther north and in Ireland,

bottom of the previous furrow , instead of the cropwould fall off in yield per acre ; being thrown, as by the drill-plough, into yet it will be readily understood that the the centre of the drill, above the dung comparatively little space thus left be and under the seed.

tween the rows on the flat does not per

Raised Drills on Strong Clays.- mit of satisfactory horse-hoeing while the The system of raised drills is not so suit- plants are growing. Moreover, the horse able for strong adhesive clays as for more hoeing cannot be begun so soon not

friableoften soils.practised Still even in very stiff land until the plants are sufficiently far up to with success. On it is

ensure that they may not be unwittingly

land of this kind — which, as we have seen,

buried.

may be seriously injured by much tillage Broadcast Bowing of Turnips. — The late in spring - perhaps the best plan is broadcast sowing of turnips is now rarely to form the drills in autumn or winter, practised. Where turnips are grown for

after the land has been cleaned , dunged, the development of root, it is quite un and ploughed . In these open drills the suitable.

land lies till the time of sowing, when a Still, in certain cases, when a crop light harrow, chain-harrow preferably, is of turnips cannot be got in in time to

drawn over the land in the direction of the grow roots satisfactorily, a useful supply drills. Any artificial manure to be given of green food in spring may be provided, is then sown broadcast, the drills are set only in a good climate of course, by sow

up by the drill-plough, and the seed at ingin August, with the broadcast barrow, once sown .

from 134 to 2 lb. per acre of turnip

This provides a moderately fine tilth seed. For this purpose the ground is for the seed on the top of the drill, and harrowed before and after sowing, and yet it does not unduly promote evapora- then rolled. tion. But it leaves the soil hard a few When not to be systematically thinned ,

inches below the surface, preventing turnips do better sown broadcast than in the roots from developing freely, and

rows.

thus tending to make the crop a small

In some parts of the south, where an abundant supply of field food for sheep

one .

Drilling on the Flat. - In the midland is a matter of great importance, land and southern counties of England, the planted with beans is occasionally thinly prevailing system is to sow the turnip broadcasted with turnip seed. In a mild

SOWING TURNIPS .

348

autumn, after the harvesting of the beans, rains, the harrowing down and drilling the turnips develop a wonderful bulk of very useful food .

up again may be dispensed with. The Force Employed. — The arrange ment of the force of horses and workers

PROCESS OF SOWING .

in sowing turnips on a large farm , so that there may be no delay and no colli

The actual details of the process of sions or interruptions to any of the force, sowingturnips depend upon whether the requires considerable skill and fore raised -drill or flat-row system is pursued, thought. We will assume that there are and what manure has to be applied at two drill-ploughs at work, and that the the time of sowing. force for carting andspreading dung and sowing manure will be sufficient to keep

Dunging and Sowing in Raised Drills. these fully employed opening and closing Taking first the system which pre- drills during the entire day. The num vails in Scotland, Ireland, and northern ber of carts, and men to fill them, re

counties of England, we find that the quired to keep the two drill - ploughs

detail work of sowing — assuming the land to be already cleaned of weeds, and sufficiently pulverised - consists, in succession, of opening the drills with the

busy,will depend upon the proximity of the dung-heap to the drills, and the quantity of dung to be applied per acre. With the dung in heaps at the end of

drill-plough, carting the dung and spread- the field, and not more than about 15 ing it in the drills, perhaps drawing a tons of dung per acre, four carts, with one light harrow along the drills, sowing or two men to assist the carters in filling,

artificial manures most likely broadcast, should be amply sufficient. Assuming covering in the drills with the drill- that the two drill-ploughs would open plough, and sowing the seed with the and close about four acres per day, the four carts would thus convey to the drills Simultaneous Drilling and Sowing. about 60 tons of dung per day, perhaps

drill-sower.

- Upon large holdings possessed of a from 18 to 20 loads each, in the full sufficient force of horse and manual la working day of ten hours. Four or five workers — men, lads, or bour, all these processes go on at one time.

The result in the crop is generally women — will be required to spread the

most satisfactory when there is no ap- dung, one man will sow the artificial preciable delay between the opening of manure, and another will follow all with the drills and the completion of the the two-drill turnip -sower, dravın, per

operation by the sowing of the seed . It haps, by a good -sized cob or farmer's is bad practice to open many more drills pony. The steward, bailiff, or grieve (as in one day than can be manured, closed, the farm manager is variously called ), or and sown before nightfall of the same the farmer himself, usually sows the tur day.

nip seed, and as the turnip -drill takes

Stale Seed - bed Undesirable. — Tur- two drills at a time, and the draught is the nip seed does not take kindly to a “ stale " very light, it will usually go overrather seed-bed. It comes away most satisfac- whole day's opening and closing in

torily when sown upon a freshly turned- less than a half-day.

There will thus

up mould, fine in the texture, and toler- be employed in the “laying down” of ably moist - -about two to four hours about four acres of turnips eight horses,

after the drills are closed in. When, at least eight or nine men, and five or sis therefore, it does happen that a portion

lads and women for a whole day, and an

of land has lain for a few days in finished additional man and horse for four or five drills unsown, perhaps on account of wet hours. The cost, per acre, involved by

weather, some farmers consider it advis- the employment of this force would vary able to draw a light harrow along the with the rate of wages, price of horses, drills, and set them up afresh with the and cost of horses' food in different dis drill-plough. This, however, takes time tricts and seasons. Arranging the Force. — So as to and labour when these can ill be spared,

and unless the surface of the drills has avoid interruptions and ensure the maxi become firmly packed or caked by heavy mum amount of work done in an efficient

SOWING TURNIPS.

349

and satisfactory manner, it is important in driving the carts between the dung to have the duties of each person clearly heap and the drills.

When the first

and intelligently defined and understood drill receives its dung, 4 spreaders are beforehand. About a dozen drills or so placed in divisions of equal length along

should be opened the night before, so that the drill. This enables the manager to the full force may at once get to work in check the work of any spreader, which the morning

can be readily known.

Opening and Closing Drills. — As to the two teams with the drill-ploughs, the better plan is for the one to open and the other to close in the drills. In some cases the practice is for the two

sowing manure, and another for sow ing turnips, completes the operations. There is no waiting in any division of the work, but the whole proceeds in a regular manner. In this way

A machine for

ploughs to follow each other, and open 12 horses, and 15 men, women, and in the one direction and close in the other. This is apt to cause confusion and delay at the ends. In any case the amount of time occupied in turning at the ends is very considerable, far more than one would suppose without entering into minute calculations, and it will

boys, can lay down from 6 to 8 acres of turnips per day, without any undue pressure. Carting Dung into Drills . — The old

fashioned method of emptying the dung from the carts in small heaps in every third drill is still in vogue inmany parts

be readily understood that the loss of of England.

In Scotland and Ireland it

time at the ends would be appreciably has long since given place to the much greater if the teams have at every round more expeditious and economical plan of to go along the ends of perhaps a dozen throwing the dung in graipfuls from the or fifteen drills, instead of each turning cart into the drill as the horse moves

right round and going back on the same along. A careful workman distributes Moreover, by the one team open- the dung in this manner with admirable

line.

ing and the other closing, there is less precision as to quantity, and it is left so chance of the teams in the plough com- as to make the work of the spreaders

ing into contact with the carts on the comparatively easy . The spreading of end-ridges. This plan we would always the dung is rendered still easier if the adopt when there are two or more carter throws the graipfuls into the side teams drilling. drill (next to the drills already dunged ) In cases where there is only one drill- so that the wheel of the next cart may

plough at work, the best plan is to open not go over the graipfuls, which would in the one direction and close in the be the case if the dung were, as is often This plan is followed where the the case, thrown into the drill in the single plough is used to open and close centre of the cart. With short well thedrill with one furrow . made dung thrown out in this way we Another Method . — The following is have often seen two smart women spread another method of arranging the force, as fast as one team with a drill-plough which some would prefer. In the even- could open and close in. ing before, 20 drills or so are opened, so Cart for Steep Land. — Ordinary

other.

that an immediate start may be made farm carts are employed in carting out with the dunging operations in the morning. Three ploughs being used, they open the drills up -hill, and close them down the slope, if the field is not level. Three persons are placed at the dung-heap to load the four

carts employed in dragging the dung. Each man throws the dung out of his own pair of carts, which come to the drills in rotation. This plan gives

Fig. 348. - Farm tip -cart.

an interval of leisure to each man,

so that he is not constantly kept in one dung. In Div. vol. ii., p. 520, information position. A boy is sometimes employed is given as to the positionof dunghills and

SOWING TURNIPS .

350

carting out dung, which should be con- the dung as it is thrown from the cart, sulted at this stage. In steep land, when

but as yet these have not come into A very useful appa cart similar to that shown in fig. 348, ratus of this kind is that shown in fig. made by the Bristol Waggon Works 351, invented by Mr Davidson, Mill

a load has to be conveyed down-hill, a general practice.

Company, will be found useful. It is a of Clola, Aberdeenshire, whose inventive genius has been hindered but not discouraged by the terrible calamity of total blindness. This machine is attached to the rear of the cart,

is fed with the dung by the carter, and scatters the dung by its re volving prongs. For spreading dung on the flat surface, say for top -dressing meadow or pasture, or where the dung is to be ploughed in , this apparatus is most service Fig. 349. — Tip -cart going down kill.

able. For spreading in drills it is not so well suited.

It is diffi

tip-cart, with screw arrangement, where- cult to cover the dung perfectly when it by the load may, as shown in fig . 349, be is thus scattered all over the drills, in raised off the horse's back. Fig. 350 stead of neatly spread in the hollow of shows the same cart tipped so as to the drill. empty itself.

Sowing Artificial Manure. — The

Dung - spreading Apparatus. — Ap- artificial manure is most generally sown pliances have been invented for spreading broadcast by hand just before the drills

NARE

Fig. 350. - Cart tipped.

are closed in .

It is a good plan to run a and likewise still further pulverises the

light harrow along the drills after the dung is spread, and before the artificial manure is sown . This helps to keep the quickly acting artificial manure nearer the rootlets of the young plants,

seed -bed . When there are many clods, some roll the drills before sowing the artificial manure. The manure is sown along the drill rather than broadcast, and may be done so quickly by a two-hand

SOWING TURNIPS .

351

sower that one man will keep two drill- sents an excellent machine, made by ploughs going, and supply himself with James Gordon, Castle Douglas. Most manure from the bags or carts deposited of these modern drills can also be ar ranged with larger boxes for the sowing Machines are also used for sowing the of mangels. Rollers can be attached to

at the ends of the drills.

artificial manure in turnip-drills — both the rear of the machine, but these are only sometimes used. Drilling Manure and Seed . — Man

ures are occasionally drilled along with the seed . In the raised drill system this is not often practised, as it is tedious and not of much practical advantage

over broadcasting, unless where very small quantities are used. When large quantities of manures are used, they should be distributed over and mixed

through the soil.

Water Drill. — The water drill, so common in the flat - sowing system of England, has been used with advantage Fig. 351. - Dung -spreading machine.

in the north in dry seasons. It will sometimes secure a braird which would otherwise have failed. A stream of

broadcast and drill machines. See fig. water, in which superphosphate may be dissolved, is run into the seed-rut. It 254, Div. vol. iii., p. 135. Turnip Seed Drill. — Various have acts as a moistener of the soil, and

been theformsof turnip-sowing machines, stimulant to the young plants. and modes of distributing theseed. The Consolidating the Drill-top. — If the oldheavysquare wooden -framed machine, weather is very dry and the soil open, it and revolving seed -barrel once so com- is found advantageous to go over the mon, is now seldom seen . Its weight

drills a second time with the turnip

was useful in heavy soils, but it was machine, although no seed is sown. The

cumbrous, and the seed - barrel required rollers consolidate the drills, and makea great care to give an equal delivery. braird more certain. A drill-roller made The improved modern turnip-drill sow- by Crosskill, Beverley, Yorks, is admira

ing-machine is light, elegant, and easily bly suited for this purpose. The braird seldom comes well if the managed. It consists of a simple iron frame, with shafts, handles, two rollers, soil is so damp that the rollers clog with 00000

earth .

Drill for Sowing on the Flat. -A machine of a different de

scription is employed for sowing turnip seed in rows on the flat It is in general form similar to the Suffolk drill, shown

surface.

in fig. 264, vol. ii., p . 195 , but is provided with means for sowing Fig. 352.- Turnip drill-sower. either dry artificial manure or water or liquid manure along seed -boxes, spouts, and coulters. The with the turnip seed. arrangements for working the seed -boxes,

Water Drill. — A well-known machine

and for regulating the quantity of seed of this kind is represented in fig. 353,

deposited,varyconsiderably ,but the Chandler'spatent, made by Reeves & better known drills are all thoroughly Son, Westbury, Wilts. This drill may

efficient and reliable in working. The be arranged for sowing, in rows on the drill is shown in fig. 352, which repre- with water or liquid manure. A tank

general formation of the modern turnip- flat, any kind of rootor corn seed along

352

SOWING TURNIPS .

is provided for the water with which the artificial manure is mixed, and by which the manure is carried down the coulters into the rows along with the turnip seed.

the ashes from burned weeds, and is carried on the drill in a receptacle, from which in regulated quantity it isdeposited in the rows along with the seed.

The flow of the liquid is regulated by a valve, and the quantity allowed varies

- Both these drills are extensively used

Water and Dry Drills compared.

from about 200 to 700 or 800 gallons in the south of England. There is much difference of opinion as to their

per acre .

Dry Drill. — The machine for sowing respective advantages and disadvantages. root seeds and dry artificial manure to-

By the use of the water drill, the seed of

gether, in rows on the flat, is very course is provided with more moisture in

similar to the water drill. The artificial the seed -bed . In average seasons this manure is mixed with ashes, generally would most likely be an advantage, yet

பவம் ET

MARE

Fig. 353. – Seed and water drill.

it is maintained by many that it may way, sometimes killing from a third to often prove to be the reverse, or at any a half of the seeds sown .

The obvious

rate a doubtful advantage. In very dry remedy for this is not to sow the guano seasons, for instance, it has been found alongwith the seed, but to incorporate in numerous cases that a stronger and it with the soil before, as is done in the more regular plant has been obtained northern system . from the dry drill than from the water Time of Sowing. drill. The reason assigned for this is The period for sowing the Swedish that the superabundance of moisture at

the very outset caused the seeds to turnip in Scotland usually extends from germinate too rapidly, and set up a rate the roth May to the ist June ; for of growth which could not be maintained yellows, from the 20th May to the when the artificial supply of moisture 20th June. In the south of England, began to fail. and most parts of Ireland, the sowing

Manure Injuring Seeds. — One im- may be almost a month later. But there, applying artificial manures, guano espe- as a rule, the best chance of becoming a portant drawback to this system of as in Scotland, turnips sown early have,

cially, in close contact with the seed, is full crop. Notwithstanding an occasional that the vitality of the seed is thereby season in which mildew attacks the apt to be injured or destroyed. Guano earlier sown crops, it is an undoubted

very often does much mischief in this advantage, if the land can be properly

MANURING TURNIPS.

353

prepared, to sow the seed as early as small and immature, and will produce a possible after the roth May. stronger plant and heavier turnip. In the south of England late turnips Depth for Turnip Seed . are frequently sown up till the end of The depth to which turnip seed should August, and occasionally even in September. In these cases, however, heavy be put into the soil varies with the crops of solid roots are not looked for.

state of the weather and the condition of

the soil. In dry weather, with the soil Quantity of Turnip Seed . moderately dry, the seed should be put The quantity of seed required varies fully an inch under the surface. In with the season and soil. The seeds of wet weather, with plenty of moisture in

the Swedish variety are about one-fifth the soil, from a quarter to a half inch will larger and heavier than those of the be sufficient. common turnip, and a correspondingly larger quantity must be used. Swedes

sown in May require from 3 to 5 lb. of seed per acre. The latter quantity of good

MANURING TURNIPS.

seed should be used in the earlier part of

Dependence upon Manure.

It is

the season,if the soil is rough or of a stiff quite essential for root crops of all kinds nature . If the season is somewhat ad- that a dressing of manure, usually very vanced , and the soil finely moulded, liberal, shall be given for their own from 272 to 3 lb. may be sown. For special benefit. Turnips are gross feeders :

yellows sown in May the quantity may they produce a greatweight of material be from 2 to 3 lb.; if sown in June, in a comparatively short space of time, from 1/2 to 2 lb. may be sufficient. and must therefore, if their success is as We have sown as much as 7 lb. of sured, have within easy reach an abundant

Swedish seed per acre, and although supply of readily available plant-food. every seed seemed to germinate, frost

It is a characteristic of the turnip

and fly withered up theseed -leaves and crops that they fail entirely upon im necessitated resowing. poverished soil. Upon a deteriorating Thick and Thin Sowing.— While unmanured soil grain will continue to pro thick seeding is expensive and injurious, duce some considerable yield long after

in some seasons producing a rush of turnips have failed upon it completely. This peculiarity has been well shown Not a few crops have been at Rothamsted. There Norfolk white lost where a little more seed would have turnips grown for three successive years saved them. Moderately thick sowing on two plots- one with no manure, the sometimes helps to ward off an attack of other with 12 tons of farmyard dung

spindly plants, it is not prudent to sow

too thinly.

the fly. As the season approaches mid every year — gave in roots (omitting tops summer, the weather gets warmer, the or leaves) the following results per risk of fly diminishes, and a smaller quantity of seed is sufficient. If the seeds could be evenly distributed , and if all could be depended upon to ger

minate and grow , 3 ounces of average yellow turnip seed , and 3 %2 ounces of swede seed per acre, would give a plant for every six inches of drill. Selection of Turnip Seed . — Great care should be exercised in the selection and purchase of turnip seeds. It is sometimes mixed with old stock, or even with wild mustard seed killed by immersion for one minute in boiling water.

acre : No manure . cwts .

tons.

1843 1844 1845

4 2 O

Average 2

12 tons dung. tons .

cwts .

334 4/4 1334

IO

972 154

17

034

74

I2

872

9

On another piece of land an

un

manured plot was cropped continuously on the Norfolk four - course system ,

roots, barley, clover (or beans or fallow),

wheat,—and while the turnips coming at intervals of four years fell from 3 Home-grown seed if fresh is more certain, tons 572 cwt. in the first year ( 1848), to and a smaller quantity will suffice. Fine I ton 6 cwt. in the second crop of roots in plump seed is better than that which is 1852, and to 5 cwt. in the tenth crop in

SOWING TURNIPS .

354

1884, the barley following after these tillage and cleaning the land received in miserable crops of roots, without any preparation for the roots, and to the manure whatever, gave the respectable surplusage in the dressing of manure. average of 315/8 bushels per acre for the It was at one time supposed and con whole of the eleven crops grown in this tended that turnips enriched the land by way at intervals of four years. their large extent of leaf-surface absorb It is thus evident that turnips readily ing nitrogen from the atmosphere, and

exhaust the soil of the available supply

leaving it in the soil for the benefit of

of plant-food suitable to them, and that succeeding crops. Careful investigations as foragers in poor soil they are not have shown that this idea is not well equal to the grain crops. founded, and that the root crop , if

In quite an exceptional degree, there- wholly removed from the land, is the fore, turnips are dependent upon dress- most exhausting of all the ordinary farm ings of manure applied for their own crops grown in this country . special benefit. No farmer would ever These considerations all tend to em

think of attempting to grow turnips phasise the importance of the question without an allowance of manure, in that of " manuring for turnips." or the previous season, no matter how Elements Absorbed by Roots. fertile naturally or how high in condition First, let us see what are the elements the land may be. and the quantities of these elements ab An Exhausting Crop.- Assuredly sorbed by an acre of turnips. Reverting the turnip crop, is an exhausting crop to the table on page 63, vol. i.,giving the

The fact that, in prevailing farm prac- weight and average composition of farm tice, it generally leaves the land better crops in pounds per acre, we find that than it found it, is due, not to the influ- the figures relating to common turnips ence of the roots, but entirely to the and swedes are as follows : SWEDES .

TURNIPS .

Roots,

Leaf.

17 tons.

Dry matter Total pure ash

Nitrogen Sulphur Potash Soda . Lime .

Magnesia

Phosphoric acid Chlorine Silica .

Total crop .

Roots, 14 tons .

Leaf.

lb.

crop .

Ib.

lb.

lb.

Ib.

3126

1531

4657

3349

706

218

146

364

163

63

49

II2

74

12.2

5.7

20.9

108.6 17.0 25.5

40.2

148.8

14.6 63.3

7.5

22.8 19.7 6.8

10.7

24.5 74.0 9.5 33. I

75 28 3.2 16.4 9.2 22.7

16.9

4.8

II.2

22. I

5.1

7.7

6.8 3. I

3.6

5.7 .22.4 10.9 2.6

48.5 3.8

Total

2.4

8.3

lb.

4055 238 102

17.8 79.7 32.0 42.4

9.2 21.7 15.1 6.7

Elements to be supplied in Man- embrace the question of liming, but will

ure. - Now the next and all important assume that the soil is sufficiently pro question is, What proportion of these vided with it. Of the other elements elements has to be supplied in manure ? mentioned in the above table the natural

In ordinary farm practice the only essentials of manure are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. To most soils not by nature calcareous, lime has to be applied at intervals ; but the functions of limein the soil are well known to be so different

supplies will almost invariably be ample enough for the wants of the crop. Subordinate Elements. — On some

soils the application of magnesium, calcium , and sulphur has produced a considerable increase in the weight of

from those of what are generally under- the turnip crop. But the good effects stood as manures, that we will not here seem limited to certain soils; and are

MANURING TURNIPS.

355

probably due more to chemical and moves, would not be efficient and econo mechanical agency than to the supplying mical manuring. The reason for this is of direct food to the plant. Thus caustic twofold. In the first place, there are the and carbonate of lime act upon soils by stores of fertility already in the land,

disintegration, and by causing a more which may be sufficient to provide much rapid decay of the organic matter, liber- of all, and all or the greater portion

ate nitrogen, which acts as a plant-food of some, of the elements . On the other to all crops, and in the turnip give an in- hand, the whole of the plant-food in the crease of shaw equal to that obtained by a manure applied may not, in an available

small application of sulphate of ammonia. form , come withinthe range of the roots The addition of sulphuric acid, especially of the crop for which it was intended. in a free state, must act upon and change For guidance in manuring, therefore, some of the soil constituents. we have to rely largely upon practical Uncertainties in the Manuring experience as well as upon scientific

Question.-- Confining attention, there- formula. For instance, the general sys fore, to those three important elements tem of cropping pursued on the farm has

of plant-food - nitrogen, phosphoric acid, to be considered,-whether the manure and potash — we have to consider what to be applied to the root crop has to quantities of each of these should be serve for future crops, for what other

applied to the different kinds of turnips crops, and for how many years the man in different conditions as to soil and uring is intended to last. This, indeed, climate. This, unfortunately, is not a is a most important point in arranging simple mathematical question. There the allowance of manure for turnips,—a are so many uncertainties as to the point which has been fully discussed in character and contents of the soil, and the chapter on “ Manures and Manuring.”

so many disturbing influences in climatic Another important consideration is the variations, that the farmer, however manner of utilising the crop of roots scientific, careful, and capable generally, whether they are to be in whole or in must always be to some extent working part consumed on the ground by sheep, by chance. Moreover, the farmer has to or entirely removed. keep in view the important considerations Turnip-tops are now seldom removed of profit and loss as well as the perfec- from the land: they are either consumed tion of the crop. He is not content to on it, along with the roots, by sheep, or discover merely what quantities of nitro- they are cut off when the roots are being

gen , phosphoric acid, and potash would pulled and ploughed in. In considering be likely toensure a full crop of turnips. the after fertility of the land, the ele His great object is to learn what quanti- ments absorbed by the tops would there ties of these elements should be applied

fore not have to be taken into account.

in order to secure the greatest possible In manuring for the roots, however, the return for the outlay involved. The pru- entire contents of the crop must be kept dent farmer, like all prudent business men, in view, works for profit. He wants not merely a

big crop but a paying one as well.

Nitrogen, Potash, and Phosphoric for Turnips. — It is found, then, that

Now in practice it is found that to crops of common turnips and swedes apply to the land the exact quantities of would absorb about the following quan essential manurial elements which anal- tities of nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric ysis shows that the particular crop re- acid per acre : COMMON TURNIPS ,

SWEDES,

17 tons (of bulbs ).

14 tons (of bulbs ).

Bulbs and tops .

Per ton

(of bulbs ).

Bulbs and tops.

Per ton

(of bulbs).

Ib .

lb.

Ib .

lb.

Nitrogen

II2.0

6.88

102.0

7.28

Potash .

148.8

8.58 1.95

79.7 21.7

5.69

33. I

Phosphoric acid

1.55

356

SOWING TURNIPS .

These yields per acre are above the a dominance over one class of plants more average for England, and below what than another. would be reckoned good crops in ScotIt was found in this barren sand that land, Ireland, and thebest turnip dis- the turnips came to nothing where nitro

tricts of the north of England. From gen was withheld; that when phosphorus these figures , however, it will be easy for any farmer by a simple mathematical question to form a useful estimate as to the quantities of these elements of plantfood which his crops of turnips are likely to absorb. We use the word estimate advisedly, because it should be remembered that such figures as these, giving the

was withheld the turnip crop was as com

plete a failure as when everything was withheld ; and that without potassium the turnip crop was very poor and de ficient. Experiments on Average Soils.

In the years from 1879 to 1882, Mr John Milne, Mains of Laithers, Aberdeenshire,

average composition of turnips, cannot made experiments with test manures for be held to represent the composition in turnips in general field cultivation on all cases with precise accuracy. Yet by forty -seven farms in the north -east of multiplying the number of tons he ex- Scotland, representing all classes of soil

pects to grow by the quantities per ton found there. To one plot all the chief shown above, the farmer will come suf- ingredients found in the ash of turnips, ficiently near the actual facts to afford him

as well as nitrogen, were applied.

From

a useful guide as to the supplies of these each of the other five plotsone ingredient important elements of plant-food which should be available to his crops. Chief Manure for Turnips.

was withheld in turn .

The average deficiency of crop in plots

To where nitrogen was omitted was 11 per

judge by these analyses of turnips, one cent ; wherephosphorus was omitted,33 would conclude that potash and nitrogen per cent ; where potassium was omitted, should bulk more largely than phosphoric 15 per cent ; where magnesium was omit acid in manures for turnips. In practice, ted, 4 per cent ; and where calcium sul

however, it is found that such isnot the phate was omitted, i per cent. case. The dominant element in all special These indicate the relative potency of manures for turnips is phosphoric acid. the different ingredients in growing tur It must in some form or other be ap- nips on average soils, and show the power

plied to all soils, and in many cases con- ful influence of phosphorus, the moderate stitutes the sole application for the turnip influence of potassium and nitrogen, and crop. the inconsiderable influence of calcium , Experiments in Pure Sand. — Many magnesium , and sulphur, on the weight useful and interesting sets of experiments of the turnip crop. Gloucestershire Experiments . — An have been conducted with the various elements of plant-food applied to differ- elaborate series of experiments upon ent farm plants in pure, utterly barren various manures in thegrowth ofswedes sand. The conclusions pointed to by was carried out by Professor Wright experiments of this kind carried out by son,under the auspices of the Cirences Professor Jamieson of Aberdeen , are ter Chamber of Agriculture, in the years stated by him as follows :

1868-1876.

The conclusions arrived at

1. That neither sulphur, nor mag- are summarised as follows : 1_ nesia, nor lime is required to be in 1. That poor land, and in poor manures .

condi

tion, derives the greatest benefit from

2. That nitrogen, phosphorus, and artificial dressings. 2. That land in high condition has potassium are the only elements that are been proved in many cases to derive little required in manures.

3. That nitrogen influences chiefly or no benefit from the use of artificial the cereal crop.

4. That phosphorus influences chiefly the root crop.

dressings.

3. That land in this (Cirencester) neighbourhood appears to be satisfied

5. That potassium does not influence with moderate dressings, and the use of any of the usual crops so much as nitro

gen and phosphorus do, nor has it shown

1 Pallow and Podder Crops, 113.

MANURING TURNIPS .

357

heavier dressings is not attended with from the atmosphere. There is reason , commensurate results. however, to suspect that the powers of 4. That 3 cwt. of ordinary mineral the root crop to procure nitrogen for it superphosphate per acre has given the self and succeeding crops in this way has At any

most economical result (along with dung) been greatly overestimated.

during several years' experience over rate it is evident, as shown in Professor hundreds of plots. Jamieson's experiments in barren sand

5. That guano, nitrate of soda, organic (p. 356), and by other similar experi matter, and even farmyard dung dimin- ments, the turnip in its very earliest ish the germinating power of swede stages that cannot abstract from the atmo seed , and cause a blankness in the crop

sphere sufficient nitrogen for its de

when they are brought into contact with velopment. Nitrogen in the Soil . — Thus a certain

the seed.

6. That guano and nitrate of soda ap- supply of nitrogen in the soil itself is plied to the growing swedes increase the indispensable. Practical experience has crop, but scarcely to an extent to war- tended to show that, in most soils in good average condition as to cultivation and rant their general use.

7. That the average increase in swede fertility, the turnip will find as much crops, from the use of 3 cwt. of super- nitrogen as it can profitably take up.

phosphate (along with dung) amounts to Certainly wherever a reasonable quantity 5 tons 6 cwt. per acre. That in some of short or well-rotted farmyard manure cases the increase has been nil, while in is applied , there will be little or no need others it has been as much as 14 tons per for any further direct application of acre. nitrogen. On the other hand, where no dung Nitrogen for Turnips. can be spared, and where it is known or In farm practice it has not been found suspected that the soil is deficient in

that any considerable direct application available nitrogen, the application of a of nitrogen has been repaid by an in- small quantity will most likely produce crease in the turnip crop.

Yet it has

been proved that the presence in the soil

an increase in the crop. Rothamsted Experiments with Ni. trogen for Turnips.- In a series of

of readily available nitrogen is essential for the healthy growth of the crop. experiments at Rothamsted with Nor Atmospheric Nitrogen Insufficient. folk white turnips and swedes grown for

- With their broad leaf-surface, turnips four successive years ( 1845-1848 ), the have been credited with the ability to

following results—per acre— were ob

draw a considerable quantity of nitrogen tained : Norfolk White Turnips. Roots. cwts . tons.

Leaves. tons. cwts .

Total . tons.

cwts .

No manure

1

4

o

17

2

I

Ammonia salts = 45 lb. nitrogen

1

7

I

o

2

Mineral manures alone

8

4

2

14

IO

7 18

Do. with 45 lb. nitrogen

9

18

14

Swedes. Roots . tons .

cwts .

Leaves. tons. cwts.

No manure

2

6

O

Ammonia salts = 45 lb. nitrogen

3 7 8

17 5 18

Mineral manures alone

Do, with 45 lb. nitrogen

.

Total . tons .

cwts .

0

6 6

4

3

o

IO

7

15

o

II

9

9

2

I2

1 In a later experiment of a similar kind, nitrate of soda gave rather better results than ammonia salts,

From these figures it will be gathered : manure made a slight, but in no case 1. That in all cases the nitrogenous a great, influence upon the produce. VOL . II.

2 A

358

SOWING TURNIPS .

2. That by itself the nitrogenous man- it is under the influence of nitrogenous manures that the greatest amount of the non - nitrogenous substance — sugar - is 3. That in the case of white turnips produced . the increase traceable to nitrogenous 3. If nitrogenous manures are used in

ure was more effective upon swedes than white turnips.

manures occurred chiefly in the leaves or

excess — that is, in such an amount as tops, so that in this case there was very to force luxuriance, that the roots do not

little gain in feeding material from the properly mature within the season application of the ammonia salts.

there will be, not only a restricted pro

Nitrogen producing Leaves. — The duction of root, but an undue amount significance of this last result is indicated by the fact that in the plot which received the highest nitrogenous manuring there was nearly as much dry solid matter per acre in the leaf — which for the most part only becomes manure

and proportion of leaf. 4. Excess

of

nitrogenous

manure

tended to lower the percentage of dry matter and increase the percentage of nitrogen in the roots. English Practice.- Notwithstanding

again — as in the root, which may be the importance which the Rothamsted said to be the only edible portion of experiments place upon nitrogen for the the crop . turnip crop , it is not the rule in English

With the swedes the results are altogether more satisfactory. With these nitrogenous manure had very little influence on the leaf, the proportion of which to root is always small in the swede. Such increase as the ammonia salts effected in the swedes took the shape of useful feeding matter in the

practice to apply nitrogenous manures directly to turnips. As to this point, Professor Wrightson remarks : « Am monia salts and nitrate of soda, although producing an increase of leaves, do not greatly increase the yield of bulbs. Their effect, when applied alone on exhausted soils, is trifling ; but where there is an

bulb.

abundance of available mineral food, an increase is no doubt effected by their

Dr Gilbert's Conclusions.-In sum-

marising the results of the Rothamsted application.

This increase is, however,

experiments upon different manures for not commensurate with the expense, and

turnips, Dr Gilbert submits the follow- the wiser system is to employ super

ing conclusions in reference to nitro- phosphates in root cultivation, and hold back the ammonia salts and nitrate of

genous manures :

1. It is entirely fallacious to suppose soda for" application on the cereals or 1

that root crops gain a large amount of

nitrogen from atmospheric sources by means of their extended leaf - surface. No crop is more dependent on nitrogen in an available condition within the soil ; and if a good crop of turnips is grown by superphosphate of lime alone, it is a proof that the soil contained the nec-

grasses. Experiments with Nitrogen at

Carbeth.—At Carbeth, Killearn, Stir lingshire, in the years 1882 to 1885, Mr D. Wilson, jun., M.A., F.C.S., con ducted an interesting series of experi ments on the growth of yellow turnips with various manures.

In those years

essary nitrogen. In fact , provided the 38 plots on different fields were dressed season be favourable, the condition of with 10 to 13 tons of richi covered -court

the land, as far as nitrogen is concerned , dung, and to 19 of these plots 34 cwt. of may be more rapidly exhausted by the nitrate of soda, or its equivalent in sul growth of turnips by superphosphate phate of ammonia, was also applied per than by any other crop . 2. A characteristic difference between the uncultivated and the cultivated tur nip root is, that the cultivated root con tains a much lower percentage of nitro gen, and a much higher percentage of non -nitrogenous constituents, especially

acre.

The results were : Average of 19 plots, per acre .

Dung

tons,

cwts .

20

12

Do. and 34 cwt. nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia

21

sugar, by the accumulation of which the

percentage of nitrogen is reduced.

Yet

1 Fallow and Fodder Crops, 70.

1 1

MANURING TURNIPS .

359

The increase from the nitrogenous man- applied, it is more than probable that the ure was thus only 12 cwt. per acre ; and addition of a small quantity of potash

as the 34 cwt. nitrate of soda cost about to the dressing of manure would be 8s. , the 12 cwt. extra of roots entailed profitable. an outlay at the rate of 138. 4d. per ton .

Many instances have been observed of

Plainly, therefore, in this case it was not quite a remarkable increase in the crop profitable to apply nitrogenous manure from a moderate allowance of potash . with dung

These of course have taken place where

In the same series of experiments all the elements and conditions necessary (which are reported fully in the Transac- for the production of a large crop of tions of the Highland and Agricultural roots are present excepting available

Society, for the years 1884, 1886, and potash. In manuring, the farmer should 1887 ) artificial manures alone were also never forget the significance of the law tried in the growth of turnips. In this of minimum — that law whereby the pro case the application of nitrogenous man- duce is limited, not by the combined ure gave a very different result. quantity of all the elements present in

Of 34 plots dressed with artificial the soil, but by the producing power of manure, 17 received 1/2 cwt. per acre the supply of the essential element present

of nitrate of soda or its equivalent in in the smallest proportion. sulphate of ammonia, and 17 plots no Thus when potash is deficient, the ap nitrogenous manure, but the same treat- plication of it is followed by a marked ment otherwise. The result was almost increase in the crop . regularly an increase of one - fifth in Potash is usually most deficient in the produce of bulbs from the nitro- light gravelly soils in poor condition . genous manure. In other words, when Still it is the exception rather than the in an unfavourable turnip year the rule for land to be in need of potash

plots without nitrate of soda gave 12 for turnips.

The conclusion which the

tons of roots, the nitrate of soda plots majority of experimenters and observing gave 1472 ; while in a good year with

farmers have arrived at is, that unless 20 tons without nitrate of soda, there there is good reason to suspect that the was grown a 24-ton crop with the nitro- particular field is deficient in available potash , it need not be included in the genous manure. Mr Wilson thus arrived at the conclu-

sion that while turnips are not, upon

manure .

An Excess of Potash Injurious.

soils in average condition, nearly so de- Indeed it has been found in several cases pendent upon supplies of soluble nitro- that an excess of potash has injuriously genous manures as the cereals, it will affected the yield of roots, as in the pay in most soils, when growing them Highland and Agricultural Society's ex without dung, to use a little nitrate of periment referred to on page 180 of Divisional vol. iii. At Carbeth, Stirling soda, say fully i cwt. per acre.

Nitrogen is most likely to be required shire, Mr Wilson had similar experience. Potash salts equal to 2 cwt. of kainit per organic matter, and where the climate is acre were tried on 22 plots, alongside 22 warm and dry. similar plots without potash, but dressed for roots when the soil is deficient in

also with dung as the other plots also Potash for Turnips. were. The results were : Although potash bulks largely in the Average of 22 plots, per acre. analysis of the root crop, the application tons. cwts . of potash in the form of manure would not in all cases be followed with ad vantage. In most soils there are great

Dung alone Dung with 2 cwt. kainit

21

20

9 13

Decrease due to the potash, 16 cwt. per acre.

natural supplies of potash, and, as a rule, all the additional potash required will be

Tried at Carbeth without dung on four

provided in a moderate dressing of farm- different soils, potash gave a profitable yard dung. But in certain soils, notably increase in roots in only one soil. In those of a lightsandy and gravelly nature, the other cases the supply of potash and in cases in which little or no dung is already in the soil was sufficient.

As

SOWING TURNIPS .

360

It will be interesting to present these that “ the mineral acids combined in results here in tabulated form :

to excess of potash, Mr Wilson remarks

these salts seem to be set free, and to do mischief to the crop.” Mr Wilson therefore advises the with

Average per acre of 9 crops of Swedes i 4 -course rotation .

holding of potash, unless it is believed from

actual experiment or observation

Roots.

Leaves .

that there is a deficiency of it in the particular field . Test the soil. — Here again let us urge the farmer to watch closely and

Unmanured

test every year the condition of his land

Superphosphate

as to its supplies of the leading elements in plant- food. See pp. 91-94 in Divi

Mixed manure .

Total Prodluce.

tons, cwts. tons, cwts. tons, cwts . .

I 1478

o

8

432

15 12%

2

O

o 16%

9

0 %%

I 1378

17

6 %8

548

sional vol. iii.

Too much Reliance on Phosphates.

Phosphates for Turnips. - There is a tendency in some parts of In all manures specially adapted to the country to place too much reliance turnips, the dominant element should be upon phosphatic manures alone for the

phosphoric acid . Under all circumstances, in all soils and situations, with dung and without dung, it is the almost invariable practice to furnish turnips with a phosphatic dressing in some form or

turnip crop. This should be guarded against, for with imperfectly balanced manuring the results cannot be fully satisfactory. It is more than probable that in many cases where phosphatic

other.

manures alone are applied, the addition

Phosphatic Manures Alone. — Upon of a small allowance of nitrogenous and

average soils in good condition as to till- potassic manures would very substantially age and general fertility, wonderful crops increase the produce of the crop. This would not likely be the case in of roots are frequently grown by the application of phosphatic manures alone. land which is naturally fertile and in

Thus at Rothamsted, under conditions good heart from liberal manuring with not favourable to such large yields of dung and other lasting manures in pre roots as are obtained in Scotland, super- vious years. But in land in poor or phosphates alone (consisting of 200 lb. medium condition, it would, in all prob

bone- ash dissolved in 150 lb. of sul- ability, be advantageous to add small phuric acid per acre) produced, on an quantities of nitrogenous manures and to the phosphates. grown in a four- potash of nine crops average rotation, Superphosphate Manuring Ex 8 tons 472 cwt. of

course

swedes per acre - or 6 tons to cwt. more hausts the soil. - In the economical

than was grown upon an unmanured manuring of any particular farm crop, it is important to keep in view the after plot alongside. Phosphates with other Manures.- condition of the soil — that is, the effect

But while this result is in itself remark- which, under the dressing of manure able, it is important to note that in the now applied, the crop is likely to exer

same series of experiments at Rotham- cise upon the general fertility of the soil. In the manuring of turnips this con mixed manure” produced in the nine years an sideration demands more attention than average of over 1572 tons per acre. many farmers have been in the habit of sted, another plot dressed with This “ mixed manure

was both com- giving to it. For it is tolerably well

plete in composition and liberal in quan- authenticated that by the injudicious tity. It consisted of300 lb. of sulphate —the excessive or exclusive — use of

of potash, 200 lb. sulphate of soda, 100 superphosphates for turnips, the stand lb. sulphate of magnesia, 200 lb. bone- ard fertility of the soil has in many ash, 150 lb. sulphuric acid , 100 lb. cases been appreciably lowered. Indeed, sulphate of ammonia, 100 lb. chloride as we have already seen, Dr Gilbert

of ammonium , and 2000 lb. of rape- states that “ there is perhaps no agri cake per acre .

cultural practice by which what is

MANURING TURNIPS.

361

termed the condition of land — that is, the mainly to its assisting the plant with readily available fertility due to recent easily assimilated phosphoric acid before accumulations — can be to so great an it could lay hold of the more slowly

is, dung. Another advantage the one crop, as by acting one extent exhausted by superphosphate of great importance, that of often growing turnips by lime alone, provided , of course, that the quickly acting superphosphates force the season is favourable ."

plants more rapidly past the stage in This point was illustrated by the series which they are attacked by the fly. Mr Phosphates without Dung. of experiments at Rothamsted just re-

ferred to . On the plot which received Wilson also experimented with phos no manure inall the ten years, the barley phates without dung, andwith and with which succeeded the root crops averaged out the aid of other artificial manures. no less than 315/8 bushels per acre ; while On land at Carbeth which is evidently on the plot which received for the turnips above average fertility, the average pro 200 lb. of bone-ash, and 150 lb. of sul- duce of roots without dung or phos 17 cwt. per acre. phuric acid converted into superphos- phates was 7 tons phate every fourth year, the average With 8 cwt. 25 per cent superphosphate,

produce of the barley fell to 2678 the average produce rose to 17 tons The advantage of the 19 cwt. - an increase of 10 tons per acre.

bushels per acre.

Cheapest Phosphate for Turnips.liberal dressing of mixed manures applied to the roots was seen in the barley An important question, as to which there

crop, which rose to an average of 40% is a good deal of difference of opinion, bushels per acre .

is that of the most economical form of

Recouping the soil. — The exhaust- phosphate for the turnip crop. From 1840 to 1870, Peruvian guano ion of the soil which thus takes place by the growth of turnips from exclusive and roughly crushed bones, with the

or excessive dressings of superphosphates occasional addition of dissolved bones may be prevented, or rather recouped , by and superphosphate, were the manures

the consumption on the ground, not only of the root crop but also of some other food, such as cake or grain, by sheep. This is extensively done in many parts

chiefly employed to supply the nitrogen and phosphates to the turnip crop. Since the Chincha Island deposit of guano became exhausted, the other deposits,

of the country, and is especially com- being inferior in ammonia and high in mendable where dung cannot be spared price, are comparatively little used. for the root crop. Indeed it is the rule Crushed bones, more finely ground than in many districts to consume on the land formerly, are still in much repute for

by sheep the whole or greater part of turnip manure in all light soil districts; any section of the turnip crop which while on the heavier soils dissolved bones had not received farmyarddungand was and, still more, superphosphate, have be grown solely by artificial manure. Phosphates with Dung.

In the four

come the general manures. Mineral

Phosphates.

Notwith

years' experiments at Carbeth, Stirling- standing some opinions to the contrary, shire, already referred to, the only arti- carefully conducted experiments have ficial manure sown along with dung shown that phosphates from mineral

which repaid its cost in an increased sources, such as rock guano, coprolites, crop of roots was superphosphate, applied Carolina phosphates, and the phosphate at the rate of from 3 to 5 cwt. per acre. from the Thomas -Gilchrist steel slag, From a large number of plots in different when finely ground, act on the turnip fields and in different years, dressed with crop almost as well and nearly as fast from 10 to 13 tons of rich covered -court as the phosphate in finely crushed bones,

dung, the addition of 5 cwt. of super- while the mineral phosphates can usually phosphate gave an average increase of be bought at a much less price per unit.

2 tons 10 cwt. per acre in bulbs. The So long as mineral phosphates are much dung given here was sufficient to supply cheaper, the farmer in favourable circum all the phosphoric acid required by the stances as to soil and climate may do roots.

The increase from the addition

well to use them, in part at least, in place

of superphosphate is therefore attributed of crushed bones; taking care that the

362

SOWING TURNIPS .

grinding is as fine as possible, and avoid ing all the phosphates of alumina, and the crystalline apatite, which latter should always be dissolved before application.

steamed bone - flour, the superphosphate failed at Carbeth to sustain its suprem acy. Steamed bone - flour mixed with

superphosphate produced 13 cwt. more Discrimination in use of Mineral per acre than an equal money value of

Phosphates.-- To use undissolved min- superphosphate alone. Mr Wilson adds eral phosphate successfully as a turnip that, making allowance for the nitrogen manure, the farmer must exercise not contained in steamed bone - flour, more

Some mineral phosphates will give excellent results in one soil, while in another soil, not very different in appearance , the effects will be disappointing. Indeed, the potency of phosphates varies so much, owing to physical condition, pulverisation, and structure, as well as owing to the varying influence of soils apparently similar, and also climate, that their gen-

a little discrimination .

phosphoric acid is got for the same money in this form than in super phosphate.

Along with dung, Mr Wilson prefers superphosphate (mainly for its quick action ) to all other forms of phosphates. Without dung, he would provide the phosphates ina mixture of steamed bone flour and superphosphates. The Aberdeenshire experiments, de

eral unpopularity is easily understood, scribed on pages 170 to 175, Divisional for the average farmer cannot be ex- vol. iii., have a very direct bearing upon

pected to study the varieties, soils, and this point. Note in particular what is manure profitable. An exception is phos- phosphates rendered soluble by sulphuric

influences which render the use of this said (page 173) as to the influence of phatic slag, which is invariably effective acidupon the tendency to " finger-and toe,” and as to fineness of grinding or

on light and medium soils.

The various forms of phosphate are perfect disaggregation ( pages 172 and fully described in the chapter on “ Man- 174) being as effective as dissolving in ures and Manuring,” pp. 102-120, Divi- sulphuric acid. sional vol. iii.

Climate and Soil to be considered .

Superphosphates. - Superphosphate

- In deciding as to the form of manure

of lime, the characteristics of which are fully discussed at pp. 116-118, Divisional vol . iii., is now extensively used as the source of phosphoric acid for turnips.

used, the characteristics of the climate and soil must be carefully considered. As to this point, Mr John Milne, Mains of Laithers, Aberdeenshire, who is a

In great parts of England, where the practical chemist as well as an exten soil and climate are dry, it is indeed almost the only form of phosphates now used for turnips along with dung. In many cases it has been found the most economical form of phosphatic manure for this crop, producing a heavier yield

sive experimenter and successful farmer, “ In cold wet districts, or if the crop is late in being sown, the quantity of soluble phosphate should be increased, as its effect is to force the crop to early matur remarks :

than the same value of crushed or dis- ity. In these circumstances, if farmyard solved bones.

manure is applied, little or no nitrogenous At Carbeth, Mr Wilson compared manure should be used, as its tendency

superphosphates with equal money's is to keep the crop growing longer,and worth of ground Charleston phosphate. thus retard its maturity. Undissolved He obtained in four years an average of mineral phosphates always act best in 10 per cent more weight of bulbs from warm early seasons, and do not show

the superphosphate than from the ground mineral phosphate. Mr Wilson also con trasted the superphosphate with Thomas slag. The results again were in favour of the former, at the existing prices of the two articles . Mr Wilson likewise considered the phosphates in guano

quite so well as soluble phosphates in cold wet years.

“ In manuring, the farmer should be guided by the quality of his soil, the period of sowing, and probable character of the weather. If his soil is rough or stiff, the sowing late, or the climate cold

dearer than those in superphosphate; or wet, a pretty large proportion of sol but in contrast with the same value of uble, precipitated , or very finely ground

MANURING TURNIPS .

363

Too much Forcing Injurious. — On phosphate is advisable. If the soil is soft, the season early, andthe climate dry, the the gravelly and lighter soils, and especi

phosphate need not be so finely divided, ally for yellow turnips, too much forcing and a larger proportion of nitrogen may in the first stages is injurious, except in be beneficially used.”

Farmyard Manure for Turnips.

cases of very late sowing.

Its usual

effect is to aggravate the difficulty of singling the plants in proper time.

In prevailing farm practice this is the renders the crop more apt to set and standard manure for turnips. It is the even to mildew at a later stage. The rule — which, however, has a good many turnips will be of inferior feeding qual exceptions — to apply the whole or the ity ; and the early rapid growth dis greater portion of the farmyard dung to tinctly increases the tendency to anbury. the potato, turnip, and mangel crops. Is Dung Essential in Turnip Cul

The prevalence of the practiceis a toler- ture ? — This question has been much ably sure indication that a dressing of discussed. It is still the subject of dif dung is well suited to the turnip crop, ference of opinion. Many noted agri

We have seen (p: 353) how marked culturists, including Professor Wrightson, was the influence of repeated dressings contend that good crops of swedes cannot of dung in growing turnips at Rotham- be grown without dung. Others hold sted — 12 tons of dung every year having that it is not by any means essential, in three years raised the produce of white and that better results will be obtained

Norfolk turnips from 972 tons to over 17 by applying the dung to other crops, such tons per acre.

as potatoes, or on pasture or meadow

Supplementing Dung.–But while a land, and growing the turnips entirely dressing of dung is highly beneficial to or mainly with substantial artificial man the turnip crop , it may be found advis- ure. It is going too far, we think, to able to supplement it with some more hold that swedes cannot be grown ad

quickly acting fertilisers, such as super- vantageously without dung. As a matter phosphate, nitrate of soda, and potash. of fact, good crops of swedes are grown Much will of course depend upon the condition and quality as well as the quantity of the dung. Well-rotted dung acts more quickly than fresh dung, while if it has been enriched by the consump-

without dung ; and the feeling is gaining ground that some proportion of the ex cessive dressings of dung which are often applied to swedes might be more advan tageously utilised for other purposes.

tion of concentrated foods, it will be still

Assuredly it is most desirable that a

more efficacious. It is highly important substantial dressing of good farmyard

that the plants be pushed forward rapidly dung should be available for swedes.

It

in their earliest stages, so that they may is the best foundation of all for a suc

get beyond the ravages of insects. For cessful crop ; and, as a rule, it will be acting phosphatic manure will be a valu- main portion of the dung to the swedes. able supplement to the more substantial But while dung is probably necessary to but slower farmyard dung. As we have ensure a maximum crop of swedes, it is seen , superphosphate or a mixture of not absolutely essential for the production

this purpose a dressing of some quickly found the safest practice to devote the

very finely ground mineral phosphate and of a profitable crop. In some cases it may steamed bone - flour will likely be most

be desirable to grow a greater breadth of

suitable. When dung is applied to soils swedes than the available supply of dung in good condition, only a small quantity will cover ; and this may be done by the of any readily acting phosphate is re- use of artificial manures. Generally, how

quired, and when quick growth is wanted ever, it is deemed prudent to substitute superphosphate will serve the purpose yellow turnips when the dung becomes very well. Still, if the price per unit, exhausted. instead of per ton, and the residue of It would be unnecessarily restricting

ingredients left in the soil for future the operations of the educated and skil crops, are taken into account, super- ful farmer to tell him that he must not

phosphate is found to be at present the attempt to grow swedes without farm most costly manure in the market.

yard dung

364

SOWING TURNIPS .

The softer varieties of turnips are dressings of manure from 3 to 8 or 10

grown very extensively, and with great cwt. of phosphatic manures, 42 to 3 cwt. success, without the slightest particle of of nitrogenous manures, and 2 to 3 cwt. dung, great care, skill, and liberality of potash salts. More general quantities of dung run from 8 to 15 tons. Along in the use of artificial manure, so as to with from 10 to 12 tons of dung, from

being of course necessary in these cases

maintain the fertility of the land. Un- 3to 5 cwt. of phosphatic manures, i cwt. less the turnips are consumed on the of nitrate of soda or sulphate of am

land by sheep, it will most likely be monia, and 1 to 1/2 cwt. of kainit,would

necessary to top -dress some of the other be a liberal dressing. For swedes some crops which follow upon the land which farmers give as much as 12 to 14 tons received no dung for the roots.

of good dung, 4 cwt. of mineral super phosphate, 2 to 3 cwt. crushed or dis solved bones, i cwt. of nitrate of soda,

Quantities of Manures for Turnips. The quantities of manure applied to and i cwt. of kainit. Others curtail the the root crop vary greatly throughout artificial manure to about 3 or 4 cwt. the country. The ruling influences are superphosphate, 1/2 cwt. of nitrate of the cli ate, the natural character of the soda, and 1/2 cwt. of kainit.

Often the

soil, its condition as to accumulated fer- two latter are omitted altogether; still tility or exhaustion, the purposes for more often the potassic manure is omit which the roots are intended, and the ted, and the small allowance of nitro Yield and Quantity of Dung.-

genous manure included . Advantage of Heavy Dressings

The consideration which most largely regulates the amount of manure — that is, where the objectionable practice of applying all the manure for the rotation

Questionable . - Several of these dress ings of artificial manures along with dung are assuredly very heavy. Many careful and successful farmers are doubt

with the root crop has been abandoned

ful as to the economy of such liberal

general system of farming pursued.

-is the suitability of the district and and costly additions to the supplies the field for the production of a heavy or of dung. By his carefully conducted light crop of roots. Where a crop of 25 experiments at Carbeth , Stirlingshire, to 30 tons per acre is to be looked for

Mr Wilson was led to the

conclu

the allowance of manure must, as a mat- sion that the usual practice in many ter of course , be much larger than where turnip - growing districts of expending likely to exceed 12 to 15 from 30s. to £ 2 per acre upon artificial the yield is not tons. These figures roughly represent manure, to apply along with dung, is not the respective yields of the best turnip- a profitable one, and that in many of growing districts of Scotland, Ireland, these cases half the rent of the land and the north of England, and in the might be saved by reducing this out midland and southern counties of Eng- lay. Certainly the once practised method land, and thus in the latter the prevailing quantities of manure applied are of applying manure - dung, bones, and

much less than in the green isle and guano - to the turnip crop to serve for north of the Humber. the entire rotation, hasbeen exploded as The general questions to be considered thoroughly unsound. The allowance of in deciding as to the quantities of man- dung for the rotation may of course be, ure for the various crops have already and is still, applied to the roots, and been fully discussed in the chapter on with good effect ; but with the artificial “ Manures and Manuring,” Divisional manure the case is entirely different. In

vol. iï . pp. 89-185 .

Seein particular regard to these, it is a safe rule to apply

pp. 126-135. Here, therefore, a very no more at any one time than you ex few notes as to the prevailing customs pect the first crop will profitably utilise will suffice. or repay .

A reasonable exception to

Scotch Dressings. — In Scotland, in this rule would be a dressing of crushed the north of England, and in Ireland, the bones, particularly for grass land. allowances of dung vary from 5 to 20

Moderate Dressings of Dung.

tons per acre, and the accompanying When the supply of dung is not suffi

MANURING TURNIPS.

cient to go over the entire root break, it is a good plan to lessen the allowance per acre, and make the dung go as far

365

Application of Manure for Turnips.

The general methods of applying as possible, increasing the quantity of manures, and the principles upon which artificial manure in proportion. Better these should be regulated, have already far give 8 tons to the entire break than been dealt with (pages 126-135 Divisional 12 tons to a certain portion , and none to vol. iii.) What is said there should be the remainder - better especially for the carefully studied in connection with the culture of turnips. after fertility of the land. Artificial Manures alone.

-

When

Dung . - As to the merits and demerits

no dung can be spared, the allowance of of the various practices of applying dung artificial manures has to be very liberal. in the autumn, and on the flat surface,

In some cases the allowance is as high as and in the drills in spring, enough has from 5 to 6 cwt. superphosphate, 2to 3 been said in the pages just referred to. cwt. steamed bone - flour or crushed or Upon heavy lands where the dung is dissolved bones, i to 2 cwt. of nitrate of available in time, the best and most

soda, and 2 to 3 cwt. of kainit. In general practice is to plough down the other cases, again,from one-half to two- dung with a shallow furrow in the autumn thirds of these quantities are supplied, or early in winter. the potash often being omitted altogether. In many cases superphosphate at the rate of 8 to 1o cwt. , and 1 to 2

cwt, of nitrate of soda, constitute the

Where this has not been done, and

where the turnips are to be sown on the flat surface, the dung is spread on the flat surface and ploughed down with a

sole dressing. Others use a portion of moderate furrow early in spring. Late finely ground mineral phosphate. dunging in this case is not to be com But the variations in the individual mended, as the rank dung would be dressings are so numerous that it would liable to unduly encourage the escape

be impossible to fairly represent them of moisture by keeping the surface soil here. Southern

open .

Dressings.

.

- The

most

The general practice where the turnips

general dressing in England, where a are grown in raised drills, is to spread crop of from 12 to 18 tons is expected, the dung in the bottom of the drills at

is from 8 to 12 tons of dung and 3 the time ofsowing the seed ; yet, as just cwt. of superphosphate per acre.

A explained, if the land is stiff and the

small allowance of guano or nitrate of soda, from 12 to 34 cwt. per acre, is often drilled along with the superphosphate and the turnip seed, but thisplan is regarded by many leading authorities as unprofitable.

dung available, autumn dunging, even with sowing in raised drills, is in many cases a beneficial method. It lessens work at sowing-time,and the dung helps to disintegrate the adhesive soil. Artificial Manure. — The most gen

Necessity for Individual Judg- eral practice with all kinds of artificial ment. - In arranging the quantities of manure for turnips, is to apply it at the manure for turnips, as in most other time of sowing the seed, as described on farm operations, the circumstances of each individual case must be carefully considered . General rules are subject to many variations, which each farmer must decide upon for himself. A care-

page 350. Southern Customs. — In England, wherever the turnips are sown in rows

ful study (aided by a few experiments, which should always be going on) of the condition of the soil and its capabilities under favourable circumstances as to fertility will be the safest guide

seed with the dry or water drill, as al ready explained (p. 351 ). Guano, nitrate of soda, and sulphate of ammonia are, however, liable to injure the germinating power of the turnip seed when thus

on the flat surface, the artificial manure is generally drilled in along with the

as to the most profitable quantities of brought into contact with it. To ob manure to apply. Itis a pointin farm viate this,the nitrogenous manures (when management which demands the very such are given ) are sometimes sown best attention from the farmer.

broadcast, and harrowed in just before or

SOWING TURNIPS .

366

after the seed is sown. Indeed, in many mainder with the other manures broad cases in England all the artificial ma- cast, and harrow in, following with the

nures are thus sown broadcast, although roller. with a light application sown in this way Potash is in many cases found to the crops grown in rows on the flat are give the best results when sown in the

very often disappointing. Broadcasting previous autumn. artificial manures is more satisfactory Top -dressing Turnips .The practice with raised drills, as in this case the of top -dressing turnips is rarely pursued . scattered particles of the manure are If nitrogenous manure is required, some gathered towards the plants by the oper- consider it a good plan, especially in wet ation of the drill-plough. climates, to hold it back till the plants For the flat-row system the best plan are about ready for 'singling, and then

perhaps is, where the artificial dressing apply it in the form of atop-dressing of consists entirely of superphosphate, to nitrate of soda. drill the whole of it along with the seed , Singling and Hoeing. and where other manures as well as

superphosphates are given, to drill the Influence of Weather.— The seed greater portion of the superphosphate leaves usually appear in from three to along with the seed, and sow the re- seven days after sowing.

The plants

HART

Fig. 354. – Scotch drill -scuffler or horse -hoe.

grow rapidly in fine dry weather, if the times almost drown the crop and prevent nights are free from frost.

Until the its farther growth. A dry warm autumn is always favourable for bulbing ; but after December heat starts the roots and

tops anew, tends to run the tops to seed, and deteriorates the quality of the bulb . Turnips should be singled when the leaves measure about an inch across .

Drill-harrowing or Horse -hoeing .

-But before singling or hand -hoeing is Fig. 355.- English horse -hoe or turnip -scuffler.

commenced , several operations may be

performed which will make the labour of plants are of considerable size, heat and hoeing more easily performed, and by dryness favour their growth, while at

farther loosening the soil tend to pro

this stage much rain is not fa vourable, and on clay soils in wet seasons they are sometimes to be

seen with red leaves, “ sojered ,” after which they seldom develop

into a satisfactory crop. At a later stage, when the plants are 20 to 30 inches across, dry weather is un favourable, and on dry soils they will luxuriate in wet weather.

Fig. 356. - Horse -hoe and harrow .

If

the subsoil is retentive, however, a very mote the growth of the plants. If the heavy rainfall is injurious, and will some- weather is dry, the drills should be run

SINGLING AND HOEING.

367

between by a drill-harrow or scuffler, let rows before the first horse or hand hoe in as deeply as possible. But the width ing, the object being to loosen the sur stirred should not exceed twelve inches, face-soil, pull out surface-weeds, and thin out the plants a little.

Careful

turnip -growers in the north do not approve of disturbing the

plants thus early and in such an irregular fashion. Drill-Scarifier.

A drill-scari

fier, first brought out by Mr

M'Kidd, Thurso, Scotland (and

shown in fig. 358), is used on

MARE

some farms in the north for par ing away the sides of the drills, thus destroying weeds, and bring ing the drills into the intended

form , leaving less to be done by Fig. 357. - Turnip horse -hoe.

The implement, as made by various firms (that the hand -hoe.

for if set wider the land will be too here illustrated being made by T. Hunter, much drawn away from the plants before Maybole), somewhat resembles an im

the process of singling is finished, and proved turnip - sower without the seed the raised drill too much reduced .

boxes. The centres of the bevelled rollers

Fig. 354 ( Sellar & Son, Huntly) rep resents a type of a drill-harrow , scuffler, or horse-hoe, which is largely used in Scotland . An ingenious and modern English turnip horse-hoe or scuffler, made

Fig. 357. — Dickson's turnip-cleaner .

are left out, so as not to injure the plants, and four steel plates for paring theedges Fig . 358. - M -Kidd's drill-scarifier.

of the drills are attached to the frame.

The plates can be attached to an ordi by S. Corbett & Son, Wellington, Salop, nary turnip-sower, if the rollers are made is represented in fig. 355. Other two so that the centre part can be removed. very useful implements of the kind, but of different patterns,

and made respectively by T. Cor bett, Shrewsbury, and Vipan & Headly, Leicester, are shown in figs. 356 and 357. Horse -hoes are made to take

two or more drills at a time.

English scufflers or horse - hoes are made so as to work either in the raised drills or in narrower

rows on the flat system. Harrowing across Flat Rows.

Fig. 360. - Briggs's turnip -thinner,

-In, inthesome a sort south of drag similar cases Turnip - cleaner. – Dickson's double to a -har light Scotch row drill-harrow , is drawn right across the flat drill turnip - cleaner, made by Thomas

SOWING TURNIPS .

368

Hunter, Maybole ( shown in fig. 359), is to the width usually left between the a useful implement for working up close plants. to the turnip plants.

Process of Hand -hoeing on Raised

Thinning -machines. — To perfectly Drills . — As already mentioned, the tur single turnips by machine is practically b impossible. Several more or less success ful machines have, however, been con structed to thin the plants in raised drills,

and render the work of singling more easy to accomplish either by hand or hoe.

Fig. 363. - Turnip hand -hoc . a Thin iron plate. b Eye of plate. c Wood

shaft .

If the soil is fine, and the braird equal, these machines are an undoubted sav- nips should be thinned when they mea ing of labour.

Two successful machines

sure about an inch across, when the tops

of this kind are here illustrated - fig. are well into the rough or second leaf. 360, patented by General Briggs of The hoer ought to be taught to draw the hoe towards himself

or herself in pulling out

the spare plants, and to work as lightly as possi ble. If the plants are

pushed away from the hoer, a deeper hold of the soil must be taken , a greater quantity of soil will be removed from

the remaining turnips, the drills will be more

pitted and levelled, and

Fig. 361. – Wardlaw's turnip -thinner.

the plants thus too much denuded of support. Hoers generally take pride in their work , striving to leave the drills as high and sym metrical, and as smooth

Strathairlie , Largo ; and fig. 361 , pa- in the surface as possible, all weeds

tented by T. Wardlaw, Toughmill, Dun- thoroughly removed - uprooted, not cut fermline.

—and the plants thinned to precise Hand -hoes. — The hand-hoe used in distances as arranged, care being taken thinning turnips is a simple instrument. to leave strong well-formed plants, and Yet even in itimprovements have been never two together. introduced in recent times. Instead of Hoeing-matches. — In some parts of the shaft or the country hoeing-matches in the even handle being ing are quite an institution, and there is closely at- often great enthusiasm amongst the rival tached to the hoers — the farmers' families and servants

blade, it is of the surrounding district. These friend now often ly contests are very properly encouraged made with a by farmers, for they stimulate tasteful

bow - shaped and careful hoeing, which in turn has Fig . 362.- Improved hand -hoe.

attachment, a considerable influence upon the yield as shown in of the crop — far greater than would be at

fig. 362. A hoe of this pattern works first thought imagined. Good and Bad Hoeing. Itis quite of the old shape, shown in fig. 363. within reason to say that the difference

more lightly and cleanly than the hoe The length of the blade of the hoe

in the yield between a carefully hoed

varies from 5 to 8 inches, according piece of ground - hoed as we have in

SINGLING AND HOEING.

dicated above

and another hoed care-

369

ever, it increases the cost of thinning

lessly, with irregular intervals between and hoeing. the plants, weak plants left instead of The better system of management , strong, two plants sometimes left to- therefore, is to have a sufficient force of

gether, and the drills cut deeply into, hoers to overtake the thinning as the and weeds only partially removed,-in plants become ready for the process. In short, between good and bad hoeing, — average seasons the sowing is done so that may very easily amount to from 2 to 4 the plants come forward to the hoe in

breaks; but irregularities in the weather Hand-hoeing in Flat Row8. — Here, may upset this arrangement, and result also, the plants should be drawn towards in a pressure of work at certain times in the hoer. Indeed, as will be readily the hoeing season , perhaps justifying re understood, the great part of the hand- course to hand -thinning if an extra force hoeing on the flat must be done in this of hoers cannot be obtained. In any way, as it is more difficult to push out case, some farmers, who are particularly weeds in the flat row than on the raised careful of their turnip crop, would give

tons per acre !

the preference to the hand-thinning, Speed of Hoers. — The amount of because by it a little more care can work done by hoers varies according to be exercised in leaving the strongest drills.

the soil, the width of the drills or rows, plants. In some parts the thinning is done the intervals left between the plants, the thickness of the seeding, andthe stage partly by the hoe and partly by hand. at which the hoeing is done. If the soil The hoers go on before, taking gaps is clean in raised drills, the plants not out of the row of plants, leaving little

too thick, and taken at the proper size, bunches of perhaps three to half -a -dozen an average hoer should overtake an

plants, while lads and women follow,

imperial acre in from twenty - five to and single these bunches by the hand, twenty - seven hours. If circumstances taking care to leave in the strongest are very favourable, it may be done even and most promising -like plant in each in twenty hours ; and if very unfavour- bunch. Transplanting Turnip Plants . hours to single an acre. If the drills Common turnip plants cannot be trans are well scarified, the work is much planted with success. With swedes, lighter. however, transplanting is often done, to

able, it may take forty to forty - five

Expert men -hoers often go over the fill up blanks in the drills. The results ground almost as quickly in the flat- are fairly satisfactory, sometimes yield

row system of the south, where the rows ing nearly half the weight of an average may be only from 18 to 20 inches apart.

bulb .

But it would be all the better for the

crop if a little more pains were taken with the hand-hoeing than is often the case .

Distance between Plants.

There has been much discussion, and there is still wide difference of opinion,

In Scotland, Ireland, and the north of as to the distances which should be left England, women do a large portion of between turnip plants. The prevailing the hoeing ; but in the midland and practice in this matter has undergone southern counties of England it is per- many modifications and alterations since

formed almost entirely by men and the introduction of turnips as a regular lads.

field crop throughout the country gen

Thinning by Hand . - In some cases erally. when a greater breadth of plants comes Mr Stephen Wilson's Experiments.

forward at one time than can be gone –Probably no one has given closer or over with the hand -hoe as quickly as may greater study to the botany of the com be considered desirable for the sake of

mon farm crops than Mr A. Stephen

the crop, thinning by hand is resorted to. Wilson, North Kinmundy, Aberdeen This isan expeditious method of avert- shire, author of that interesting work ing injury by the overcrowding of the entitled The Botany of Three Historical young plants. In the long - run, how- Records. Mr Wilson carried out in the

SOWING TURNIPS.

370

three years prior to 1879 an exhaustive

the journey in the drill ; and therefore

series of experiments, extending over we must study the character and capa several farms, on numerous fields and city of our little embryos. Some of them with different kinds of turnips and

have a faultless constitution, and if their

swedes, with the view of throwing light disagreeable neighbours were hoed out of upon the subject of turnip -thinning. In the way, would acquire the enviable bras the Transactions of the Botanical So- sical corpulence of eight or ten pounds. ciety of Edinburgh, 1876-77, and in a

Others have a taint of some insidious

pamphlet entitled “ Agricultural Botany : disease, or the hopes of their youth are

Turnip Singling,” published by John Rae obscured by the fly, or their roots are set Smith, Aberdeen, in 1879, Mr Wilson upon by a myriad of the spores of plas records the results of these experiments, modia, and thus they may protract a

which are unquestionably the most ela- miserable existence under a diameter borate, searching, and reliable of the which would be discreditable to a parsnip. kind that have as yet ( 1889) been made We have therefore to endeavour to find in this country. İt will be interesting out to what weight the average plant to contrast here the conclusions arrived

will attain .

We have to find out the

at by Mr Wilson with the prevailing extent of ground in which a turnip will practices throughout the country as attain its greatest dimensions. We have to the distances left between turnip to find out whether the greatest indi plants.

vidual dimensions are consistent with the

Peculiarities of Turnip Seed . It is greatest crop. And, involved in this, we calculated that there are about 140,000 have to ascertain whether our plants

seeds of the common turnip (the seed should be permitted to go on to their of swedes being a trifle heavier) in a pound weight, and that with drills 27 inches wide and 3 lb. of seed sown per acre, about fourteen times as many seeds

greatest size, or should be checked at à certain bulk by limitation of the spaces in which they grow. In virtue of certain, presently unknown, proper

are planted as are intended to grow. ties, some varieties naturally acquire a As the result of carefully conducted greater bulk than others; and we have experiments, Mr Wilson found that to consider whether our crops, with

large turnip seeds produced heavier out any additional outlay of manure, bulbs than smaller seeds ; and by might not be augmented by a more way of emphasising the importance of general adoption of the most prolific selecting good seed and good sound varieties." Weight without Singling.-- Assum heavy-producing varieties of roots, he ing that

remarks : 2_

3

lb. of the seed of common

“ Our turnip seeds are not to be re- turnips were allowed to grow at equal garded asmere indifferent starting points, distances in 27-inch drills, there would which, like a gun - ball answering the be about 420,000 plants in an acre, with charge of powder, will go forward the little more than half an inch to each obsequious messenger of some grasping plant. In this space the plants would phosphate.

A turnip seed is a fully probably attain a weight of nearly half This would give a total

formed plant. It has two leaves tightly an ounce each.

wrapped round its root. And within the weight of about 6 tons per acre without substance of these two leaves, or coty- thinning. To what distance should the plants be ledons as they are called, it has a store the maximum of milk or pap, needing only to be mois- thinned in order to secure tened by water to enable it to start in weight per acre ? This was the ques the world and walk a little without

tion which Mr Wilson endeavoured to

manure of any kind. So long, indeed , as

answer.

its own sandwiches hold out, most other

Trials at 6, 9, and 12 Inch Distance .

kinds of food are poison. But no two –In 1877 Mr Wilson experimented with seeds are alike, or equally furnished for greystone globes and swede turnips, thinned in 27 -inch drills to 6, 9, and 12 1 Trans. Bot. Soc., Edin. , 1876-77. 2 Ag. Bot. , 10.

inches between every two plants. The following were the results :

1

DISTANCE BETWEEN PLANTS .

371

GREYSTONE GLOBES.

SWEDES.

No. of

Interval.

Plants per Acre.

12 inch . 9

!!

6

..

Average

Total The0

Average

Actual

retical Weight

Actual

Weight.

per Acre .

Weight.

Total Theo retical Weight per Acre ,

Ib .

tons.

Ib.

tops .

19,360

1.70

14.29

2.50

21.61

25,813

1.42

16.36

1.95

22.47

1.15

19.88

1.54

26.62

38,720

The year 1877 was unfavourable for tur- 6 -inch over the 9-inch was 3.50 tons

nips, and theseweights are far belowthe per acre with greystone globes, and average of Mr Wilson's district of Aber- 4.15 tons with swedes. Twelve Inches Discarded as too deenshire, which is noted for its production of turnips. Moreover, this experi- Great. – This result in regard to the

I 2-inch distance so fully coincided with trials previously conducted by Mr Wil weight per acre had to be shown. It son, that he decided to discard that in was therefore decided to carry out an terval as greater than could be justified ment was conducted on a small scale, so

that a calculated instead of an actual

experiment in the following year on a in practice. much more extensive scale .

Trials with 6, 8, and 9 Inch Inter .

From this first trial it is seen that, al- vals. The next series of experiments though the individual roots were heaviest were restricted to intervals of 6 inches, with the greatest width , yet by far the 1 link or 7.92 inches (practically 8 greatest weight per acre was obtained inches ), and 9 inches. These trials were with the short intervals of 6 inches , conducted in 1878 on seven fields on the 6 -inch distance beating the 12-inch seven different farms, and all the work

by 5.15 tons per acre with greystone of planting, singling, numbering, and

globes, and by 5 tons per acre with weighing was done by Mr Wilson him swedes ; while the advantage of the self . The results were as follows :

6 inch .

COMMON TURNIPS.

SWEDEN .

Average of several varieties.

Average of several different kinds.

Actual

Actual

Theoretical

Weight of

Weight per

Weight per

Plant.

Acre.

Acre .

Actual Weight of

Actual

Theoretical

Weight per

Weight per

Plant .

Acre .

Acre .

Ib.

tons.

tons.

1b .

tons.

tons.

1.84

28.64

31.88

1.83

25.48

31.61

2.40

26.61

28.78

2.22

24.22

26.52

8 9

Deficiency in Weight at Greater to the weight of the roots grown at in Distances.—Mr Wilson points out that tervals of 6 inches the proportions of in order to give as heavy a total yield 150 and 132 to 100. How far short they

per acre, the roots at 9-inch and 1 link fell of this will be shown at a glance in intervals would need to bear in weight the following table :

SOWING TURNIPS .

372

Common TURNIPS.

SWEDES.

i Link .

9 Inch .

1 Link .

100

132

150

132

150

...

114

138

119

126

...

18

12

13

24

6 Inch .

9 Inch .

Proper proportion for equal weights per acre

Actual average proportion

Percentage deficiency in weight at the greater distances

Mr Wilson's Conclusions.-In re- it is inclined to develop large or medium ferring to the details of his experiments, bulbs. The soil and climate must also

Mr Wilson remarks that overthe seven be considered, for under conditions which

fields on the seven farms, with several favour the growth of large roots the in different kinds of turnips, they show such tervals should be longer than where small

uniformity as hardly leaves any doubt roots are expected. that in general 6 -inch intervals will enThe space between the plants should sure a heavier crop of swedes or of com- of course vary with the width of the drill, mon turnips than either 8 or 9 inch in- or between the rows of plants if the crop

Indeed, he says he satisfied is grown on the flat surface. The most himself, after all his trials with many general width of the raised drill is 27 sorts of turnips, in favourable and un- inches, and, as will be readily understood

tervals.

favourable seasons, under ordinary rota- the plants may be left nearer each other

tion of cropping, that 6-inch intervals in these wide drills than in the much will give a heavier crop than any wider

narrower flat rows which abound in the

interval.

midland and southern counties of Eng

And these conclusions derive special land. These flat rows are usually only 20 inches apart, and so the importance from the fact that Mr Wilson from 16 to intervals between the plants there most frequently vary from 13 up to 16 inches taking, scientific, and thoroughly impar- for swedes, and about 2 or 3 inches less

is no mere theorist or enthusiastic reformer. He is, indeed, a most pains-

tial experimenter. We have no hesita- in the case of other varieties of turnips. Growing Roots in Squares. — There tion in saying that the most implicit reliance may be placed upon the accuracy is little doubt that the maximum weight

per acre of roots would be obtained by and genuineness of his experiments. It is, of course, a different matter to growing them at equal distances apart in consider how far the conclusions arrived all directions, in squares of one foot or

at by Mr Wilson might be advantage- 14 inches for instance. Indeed it was ously extended into ordinary farm prac- found by experiments in Canada that a tice.

better crop resulted from placing the

Prevailing Intervals. — These experi- plants in the centre of a square unit than ments by Mr Wilson, and other more in the middle of an oblong unit, as in the limited trials, have tended to shorten the case of common drilling. intervals left between turnip plants in Advantages of Drills . — But there is

certain districts. The prevailing inter- a practical advantage in the drill and row vals are still, however, considerably wider systems which far outweighs any loss in

than Mr Wilson would advise. Where the produce of roots. The cleaning and the system of raised drills obtains, the tilling of the land are facilitated , and intervals most general are from 10 to 12 thus by growing them in tolerably wide inches in the cases of swedes, and from rows or drills the root crops take the

8 to 10 inches for common turnips. A place of the costly “fallows” of olden good deal depends upon the known habit times. of the particular variety of roots, whether Medium and Large Roots. — One

AFTER CULTIVATION .

373

important point which should be kept in phere, as in wide singling, has a tendency view in discussing and deciding as to the to check the development of mildew. Irregularity in Growth of Turnips. best intervals to be left between turnips is the ascertained fact that, as a rule, —Notwithstanding every care taken to

medium-sized bulbs show a higher specific single the plants at equal distances, it gravity and contain a greater percentage will usually be found after the crop has of useful feeding material than excep- made some progress in growth that ir tionally large-sized roots.

This is the

regularities appear both in the distances

case in a very marked way with the com- apart and in the size of plants. Unless mon varieties of turnips. It is slightly the seeding is very liberal, plants are apt different with most kinds of swedes.

to appear and grow somewhat irregu

66

Large” and “ small ” are comparative larly, especially in dry weather. A good terms. It is claimed for most of the im- hoer will strive to leave a strong plant, proved varieties of swedes that the larger even if an extra inch or two beyond the

they grow the more nutritious they be- distance intended.pulled After hoeing, plants up by crows and

come.

What is meant in this case of

are occasionally

course is, not roots of abnormal dimen- wood -pigeons, and cut across by wire sions, but what the practical farmer would worm and grub - worm . Some of the regardas large roots grown under normal plants receive other injuries which pre vent growth .

conditions.

The smaller and more

The object of every farmer should cer- backward get shaded and overtopped. tainly be to grow a big—that is, a heavy The available supply of manure is ap

-root in relation to the space allotted propriated by their more vigorous neigh to it.

What has been taught by investi- bours.

The manures, especially dung,

gations as to the nutritive properties of are seldom too well spread ; so that an roots of different sizes is not that small

average field will show not a little ir

varieties of roots should be cultivated, but that the maximum quantity of good feeding material per acre is more likely to be obtained by growing (at shorter inter-

regularity both in size of bulbs and dis tance apart. Indeed it is only on the most fertile and easily pulverised soils, and under the most favourable circum

vals) a greater number of medium-sized stances of soil and climate, that the roots than a smaller number (at longer bulbs approach equality of size and intervals) of abnormally large roots- regularity of distance apart. this, too, even although in both cases

the gross weight of the produce may be equal.

In other words, three medium

After Cultivation. The cultivation required by turnips

roots— “ big -little ” roots—weighing each after the singling has been completed 3 lb. , and grown in, say, 30 inches of an

consists of hand -hoeing once or twice,

ordinary drill, will, as a rule, contain less and horse -hoeing between the rows of water and more solid nutritive matter plants two, three, or more times. The than two bulbs of 472 lb. each, grown season and condition of the land as to weeds and tilth will regulate the num

in the same area of ground .

Moderate Intervals. — The teaching ber of hoeings. of modern investigation is therefore de-

About ten or fourteen days after sing

cidedly in favour of shortening the in- ling, the horse-hoe or drill-harrow is run tervals between the turnip plants.

For along the drills or between the rows of

common turnips from 5 to 9 inches plants, to stir up the soil and eradicate should perhaps be the range in drills weeds. The second hand - hoeing may from 26 to 28 inches wide, and for follow in a few days, the hoers removing swedes about 2 inches

more.

In flat all weeds left by the horse -hoe or drill

rows from 16 to 20 inches wide, suitable harrow , and loosening, but not displacing, intervals would be from 9 to 11 inches the earth around the plants. If in any for common turnips, and from 11 to case two plants have been left together, 14 inches for swedes. In dry seasons in singling one should now be carefully favourable to mildew the wider intervals pulled by hand. will likely give the best results.

The

Care in Hoeing Strong Plants.

free exposure of the plants to the atmos- It is no doubt beneficial, except2 Bin times VOL. II.

374

SOWING TURNIPS .

of drought, to stir the soil around the in a chapter in this volume devoted plants even after they have grown al- specially to the insect and fungoid pests most to cover the drill with their tops. of the farm . In this operation, however, the greatest Conditions influencing Nutrition in care must be exercised not to cut the Turnips. rootlets, which are now spreading like Careful and observing feeders find net - work in all directions, and which cannot be cut or seriously disturbed with

marked differences, not only in the keep

out less or more injury to the crop. For ing, but also in the feeding properties of this reason the third hand-hoeing is often the several kinds of both swedes and abandoned .

Earthing -up Turnips . — It is some-

yellow turnips in cultivation . Soil and Nutrition in Roots . — The

times found beneficial, chiefly on wet soil has a decided influence on the quality soils, to earth -up turnips immediately of the turnip crop. A heavy clay soil

after the second hand -hoeing. The main produces roots of good and nutritious advantage of this is, that surplus surfacewater is carried away more freely. In dry soils, however, the earthing-up may do more harm than good . Some of the rootlets may be cut or injured by the plough, and their development thus impaired . Then the sharp, deep furrows

quality. A light medium soil will also produce roots of a fattening quality, but a moorland soil with red subsoil or pan

will produce bulbs that are less nutri tious. On moorland soils turnips seldom grow much in autumn after the tap-root reaches the subsoil, and small bulbs of

are troublesome, even dangerous, in case poor quality are the result.

Peaty soils,

of sheep feeding on the roots, as sheep if they contain a mixture of other in may get upon their backs in the ruts, and gredients, usually produce large roots, but of soft and spongy quality, producing If earthing-up is to be done at all, it dark - coloured dung in the cattle using should be carried out as soon as possible them .

perish if not released in time.

after the second hoeing. The younger Manures and Nutrition in Roots. the plants the less will be the injury or -Professor Jamieson of Aberdeen, who disturbance to the rootlets. But the conducted for the Aberdeenshire Agricul

earthing -up of turnips is neither a general, tural Research Association an elaborate series of experiments on the growth and nor, as a rule, a commendable practice. composition of the turnip crop, found the Turnip Pests. composition of the bulb to be largely in Birds of Prey.-No sooner is the seed fluenced by the manures applied. The application of nitrogen increased

of the turnip sown than animals begin

to prey upon it. Pigeons are eagerto the percentage of water, and lowered the Various percentage of solids in the bulbs. In the

pick up the uncovered seeds.

small birds, such as linnets and finches,

crop grown in 1876, the forty -five yellow

run up the drills just as the cotyledons turnips he selected, grown with nitrog: are appearing above ground, pull up the enous manures, contained an average of

plants, and devour the softened seeds. In 8.31 solids. Twenty -five grown without some seasons these birds do such injury nitrogenous manures, contained an aver

as necessitates the resowing of acres of age of 9.18 solids. Ten selected Swedish turnips. When the turnip gets into the turnips, manured with nitrogenous man rough leaf, rabbits and wood -pigeons nip ures, contained an average of 10.19 solids ; off the leaves and thus retardthe growth ten not manured with nitrogenous man of the plants. ures, an average of 10.43 solids. Protecting the Seeds.—The seeds Subsequent experiments, and also those

may be protected from birds by rubbing them with red -lead before sowing. Paraffin has also been tried with success, but it is not so safe as dry lead .

made by Professor Jamieson in Hunting don and Kent, confirmed these results. He found that small-sized bulbs yielded about one per cent more solid matter

Insect and Fungoid Injury . — The than large bulbs. Other experimenters insects and fungi which prey upon tur- have found the solids diminished by the nips are numerous. These are dealt with use of soluble phosphate in the manure.

SOWING MANGELS.

375

Nutrition in Large and Small Wilson, jun., Carbeth, made analysis of Roots . — Dr Aitken made an analysis turnips from twenty -seven plots, also of turnips grown on sixty plots, man- variously manured, at Carbeth, Stirling

ured variously, at Pumpherston exper- shire, in 1884. The following are the imental station in 1882 ; and Mr David

results : Composition of 100 parts Dry Matter.

Average analysis of turnips

oz .

from 60 plots, Dr Aitken 27.6 8.71 | 7.72 | 1.34

74.26

5.98 10.79 1.446 85.2

Average analysis of turnips

from 27 plots,Carbeth ". 25.4 8.91 6.06 6.76 15.23 52.95 | 7.47 11.54 2.056 47.3 It would thus seem that whatever easily affected than those of the swede. tends to increase the size of bulb , or

weight of the crop, has a tendency to in-

If a good feeding and keeping quality of yellow turnip is desired, too much

crease the percentage of water, and lower soluble phosphate should not be used, the percentage of solid matter in the the application of nitrogenous manure bulbs, whether it be by the application should be restricted - as large quantities

of nitrogenous manures, the use of much retard the ripening and induce a coarse soluble phosphate, or wide distances be- watery bulb—and if the soil is good, the

tween the plants; and that the composition distance between the plants should be and quality of the yellow turnip is more kept rather small than large.

SOWING

MANGELS.

The mangel-wurzel, known more com- tures being obtained by persistent care monly as mangel, also as mangold, is ful cultivation and selection. Professor Wilson states that the man embraced in the general term of “root crops.” It belongs, however, to a race gel was introduced into this country in of plants quite distinct from the Cruci- 1786 by Thomas Booth Parkins, who ferce, to which turnips and cabbages be- obtained the seed in Metz. It is culti

long. The mangel cultivated on farms vated largely in France and Germany for is the Beta vulgaris of the natural order the production of sugar. It is grown in

Chenopodiaceae. It is really a cultivated the United Kingdom solely as food for form of the wild sea-shore beet found in stock. Climate for Mangels.- Mangels re countries of the temperate zone. It was

first grown as a garden plant, and it is understood that the field mangel was raised by crossing the red and white varieties of garden beet, the great development of root and distinctive fea-

quire different climatic conditions from those most favourable to turnips. Dry, hot summers are best suited to mangels. They thrive admirably, and yield a great weight per acre, in the southern counties

SOWING MANGELS .

376

of England and in the warmest parts of spring. A light harrow is drawn along Ireland ; but even in the best favoured the drills (not across them ), the drills districts of Scotland they are unreli- are again set up by the drill -plough, able, and north of the Tweed are and the seed thereupon sown. Such

grown only to a very limited extent. artificial manure as is to be given may Mangels stand drought much better be sown broadcast either before the than turnips.

harrowing or before the setting up of

Soils for Mangels.- Mangels need the drills. good soils.

Thin poor soils, and the

When the dung has been simply

bleak, cold, high -lying lands upon which ploughed in with an ordinary furrow in turnips luxuriate, are quite unsuited for autumn, the land has to be grubbed and

mangels. Rich alluvial loams in high harrowed in spring just sufficiently to condition and well cultivated are best secure as fine a tilth

as possible. Deep adapted for mangels, and they also grow spring ploughing when the land has been well on strong lands in a warm climate,

dunged in autumn is not to be com

if these are carefully prepared and liber- mended. ally manured. For the strong lands of It often happens, most generally in

the south of England they are better fact, that a sufficient supply of dung is not available till well into the winter or

suited than turnips .

Cultivation for Mangels. — The preparation of land for mangels is in the main similar to that for turnips. And having already discussed so fully the various methods of autumn and spring tilling, cleaning, and manuring land for turnips, it will be unnecessary to do more here than point out wherein these practices should be varied to suit the mangel crop.

early in spring. In this case the land is cleaned in the autumn and left in a strong furrow till early spring, when it is grub bed or ploughed, or both, then harrowed, drills opened — if the raised drill system is pursued — the dung spread, artificial manure sown, the drills closed , and the

seed sown. Strong land should be stirred as little

as possible in spring.

Mangels, like

Autumn Tillage. — The great object turnips, delight in a fine moist seed

to be aimed at in preparing land for bed, and it is difficult to obtain this mangels is to have it cleaned, dunged, with much stirring of strong land late and deeply ploughed in autumn. When in spring the land is stiff these should be done as

Drills and Flat Rows. — Mangels are

early in autumn as possible, generally sown both in rows on the flat and in before the end of October. Deep autumn

raised drills.

The latter is the better

ploughing is especially beneficial for man- plan, as it affords greater facilities for gels, and where the subsoil is inclined to the after tillage and cleaning of the land. form into a “ pan ,” it should be broken The rows on the flat usually vary from up by subsoil ploughing.

18 to 25 inches wide, and the raised

It is a good plan, after the land has drills from 25 to 28 inches. Mangel Seed .-- The seed of mangels been thoroughly cleaned and deeply ploughed in September or October, to is encased in a rough woody capsule

at once open drills, spread the dung, and which makes germination very slow , un cover in the drills just as at seed -time less special means are taken to hasten it.

for turnips. Some recommend that be- For this purpose the seed is steeped, for fore spreading the dung a drill-grubber from 12 to 36 hours, before sowing — by should be runalong to loosen the bottom some in warm water, by others in cold

of the drills. In these ridges the land water, and by others again in liquid manure.

If warm water is used , 12 lies throughout the winter, admirably ex posed to the disintegrating influences of to 14 hours should be sufficient. The

the season,and is found easily prepared seeds, when removed from the steep, are for the seed next spring.

spread on a wooden floor, or on canvas

Spring Tillage.—When the land has cloth or sieve, and allowed to attain been cleaned, ploughed, and dunged in such a state of dryness as will pre drills in autumn, as just described , little vent adhesion .

In some cases the sat

has to be done in the way of tillage in urated seed is coated with a quantity of

SOWING MANGELS.

377

finely powdered charcoal, which is freely show at a glance that the manurial wants mixed with it.

of the mangel differ considerably from

The seed is then sown either by the those of the turnip crop. Phosphates are flat- row drill or raised -drill machine, as essential for both, but do not by them

the case may be. The peculiarities of selves exercise such a marked effect on

the mangel seed necessitate the attachment of specially devised seed - boxes. Water or ashes may be sown along with the mangel seed, as in the case of

mangels as on turnips. On the other hand, nitrogen, so little required for turnips, must be freely given to mangels. Then mangels will turn heavy dressings

turnips.

of good farmyard dung to better account

Quantity of Seed.—The quantity of than turnips can, while the palate of the mangel seed sown per acre is usually mangel would seem to delight in having its food seasoned with a substantial pinch

about 6 or 7 lb.

Time of Sowing.—Mangels have to of common salt. be sown earlier than turnips. April is, Phosphates for Mangels. — The ex as a rule, the best month for mangel haustive series of experiments with vari sowing, but portions of the crop are ous manures for mangels conducted at usually sown earlier, sometimes even as Rothamsted have shown that while super

early as February. When , owing to a phosphate is essential in a complete man urefor mangels, it gives but a poor return crop occupying the land, or when, from in this crop unless accompanied by a liber

crop of winter rye or some other catch

some other cause, it cannot be prepared aldressing of nitrogenous manure.

The

sooner, sowing may be done in May. following table shows the small effect of After the middle of that month it would superphosphate, as also of mixtures of mineral manures, upon mangels : be very risky. Manures for Mangels.

Average for eight years, 1876-83 . Per acre. cwt. 9 4

Dependency on Manure. - Mangels

tons.

require, and will under favourable con

No manure

ditions repay, liberal manuring .

3/2 cwt. superphosphate per acre

It

them upon scanty fare.

They produce an extraordinary yield in a comparatively short space of time. To enable them to realise their full

3% poetasuper.,500 lb. sulphate} 5

372 cwt. super. , 500, ib.

2

4

ro

would be useless to attempt to grow

5

14

sulphate

of potash, 200 lb. common

salt, and 200 lb. sulphate of magnesia

capabilities in this respect, an ample supply of the kinds of plant - food best

In these plots the mangels were grown

suited to them must be furnished in a

year after year and removed from the

readily available condition.

And the land. Upon this impoverished soil the

farmer must discriminate as to the kinds

mineral manures alone were unable to

of plant-food to be supplied . Ingredients absorbed by Mangels. - The following table, compiled from that on page 62, Divisional vol. i. , shows the quantities of nitrogen, potash, and

appreciably raise the crop above the

yield on the plot which had no manure of any kind for eight years. But in conjunction with other manures

a moderate dressing of superphosphate phosphoric acid—the three chief manurial was found to be profitable in these ex elements-taken out of the soil by a crop periments, as it has certainly been in

of mangels weighing 22 tons of roots ordinary farm practice. The truth of per acre : Roots . lb.

Nitrogen

.

Potash

Phosphoric acid

96

Leaves. Total. Ib . per acre . Ib.

222.8

51 77.9

36.4

16.5

147 300.7 52.9

this remark will be shown clearly when we come to speak of the effect of " mixed manures"

for mangels.

Nitrogen for Mangels.—The influ

ence of nitrogenous manures upon man

gels is quite wonderful. Elements of Manure for Mangels.

The following

shows the results obtained in eight years'

- These figures, compared with the cor- continuous cropping with mangels at

responding analyses of a crop of turnips, Rothamsted :

SOWING MANGELS .

378

is that along with a liberal dressing

Arcrage for eight years, 1876-83 . Per acre. cwt. tons.

No manure

4

550 lb. nitrate of soda, equal 13 to 86 lb. nitrogen 400 ammonia salts, equal to 1 7 86 lb. nitrogen Do. and rape- cake, equal to II 184 lb. of nitrogen Rape -cake, equal to 98 lb. II nitrogen

9 17

7 7

6

This result of an average of 13 tons 17

of mixed manure, including superphos phate and potash, the slower forms of nitrogenous manure, such as ammonia

salts or rape-cake, might be used with good effect, but that when the crop has to depend upon what is already in the soil for much of its food, especi ally potash , the more readily active form of nitrate of soda should be selected

for mangels. Potash for Mangels.— The results

cwt. of mangel roots for eight years from obtained by the application of potash for a dressing of nitrate of soda alone is cer- mangels at Rothamsted have been some tainly very remarkable, all the more so

when the exhausted condition of the soil

is kept in view.

what erratic.

use alone.

Potash is, of course , of no

As a constituent of a mineral

In the first year of the dressing it was of little or no account.

trial, when the land may be supposed to With the quickly acting nitrogen in ni have been in an average condition of trate of soda, it had only a slight effect. general fertility, nitrate of soda alone With the more slowly acting forms of raised the yield from 6 tons 1o cwt. with nitrogenous manures, ammonia salts and

no manure to no less than 20 tons 13 rape - cake, it exercised a marked in cwt. per acre.

It is further remarkable,

as showing the importance of readily available nitrogen for mangels, that even where a heavy dressing of farmyard dung had been spread, the addition of nitrate of soda gave a marked increase in the crop

fluence. Dung for Mangels . — A substantial

dressing of farmyard dung would seem to be even more desirable for mangels than for turnips. From dung, as from all suitable manures, under favourable

This result will be shown circumstances, the former certainly give a

under the heading of “ Mixed Manures for Mangels.” A point of striking importance brought out here — and quite in keeping with practical experience — is the fact that the

much larger production per acre than the latter. The following table shows the marked influence of dung upon the mangel crop in the Rothamsted experi ments :

more slowly acting forms of nitrogenous manures have not given such a satisfac-

Average of eight ycars, 1876-83. Per acre . tons. cwt.

tory yield of mangels as the quickly act ing nitrate of soda. Salts of ammonia, for instance, which

yield up their nitrogen more slowly than nitrate of soda, have throughout the Roth-

No manure

14 tong dung 550 lb. nitrate of soda

3/2 cwt. superphosphate .

4 15 13

9 10

17 2

5

amsted experiments — by themselves and in conjunction with other manures — had

It has been found in practice that to a much weaker effect upon mangels than produce the maximum yields of mangels the nitrate of soda. It will be noticed a liberal dressing of dung, along with Yet

presently that the best results from other manures, is quite essential. ammonia salts were obtained when the it is important to observe that, as will dressing of artificial manures included be shown presently, wonderfully large yields were obtained at Rothamsted from a liberal supply of potash. Similar remarks would apply to rape- artificial manures alone. cake. By itself or in conjunction with Salt for Mangels.—It is not in the

superphosphate it acted slowly, but least surprising that the application of with plenty of available potash present common salt has been found in general it gave as good results as did nitrate farm practice to substantially increase of soda. the yield of mangels. The plant, we have

The lesson which the practical farmer seen, is indigenous to thesea -coast, and would perhaps draw from these results its ash is found to contain from 25 to

SOWING MANGELS.

379

50 per cent of common salt. The late gels, the produce of which, without salt, Dr A. Voelcker applied salt to mangels was 21 tons 2 cwt. ; with 5 cwt. salt, on deep sandy soil, and obtained an in- 20 tons 10 cwt., and with 10 cwt. salt, crease of 2 tons 6 cwt. per acre from 3 18 tons per acre. cwt. of salt ; 5 tons ir cwt. from 5 cwt. These results at Rothamsted indicate salt ; and 4 tons i cwt. from 7 cwt. salt. that the application of salt is not de Sir James Caird has stated that a liberal sirable in all circumstances. Yet it dressing of salt, about 5 cwt. per acre, is well established in farm practice

may increase the produce of mangels by that a moderate dressing of from 2 to 5 cwt. of salt will, as a rule, be pro 10 tons per acre . In the series of Rothamsted experi- fitable. Mixed Manures . - Having noticed ments already referred to, the application of salt, along with other artificial man- briefly the effects of the chief manurial ures, increased the yield in all cases. In elements by themselves, we shall now

some special investigations into the use glance at the results obtained from of salt as a manure, Sir John Bennet mixed dressings. The results of the Lawes and Dr Gilbert have obtained re- Rothamsted experiments on mangels in Indeed, Sir the eight successive years 1876-1883, may

sults unfavourable to salt.

John states that in his special trials the be conveniently shown in the following salt seemed to check the growth of man-

table :

Average of Bulbs for eight years .

Yearly Dressing.

Per acre .

Per acre .

tons.

cwt.

No manure

4

9

3/2 cwt, superphosphate .

5

2

.

7

17 7

.

II

7

II

6

13

.

15

.

12

550 lb. nitrate of soda, equal to 86 lb. nitrogen

21

14 tong dung 400 lb. ammonium salts, equal to 22

9

2000 lb. rape- cake

6

.

32 cwt. superphosphate :

23

8 13

10

14 tong dung

22

15

I4 tong dung

3/2 cwt. superphosphate

I

25

}

550 lb. nitrate of soda 14 tong dung .

3/2 cwt. superphosphate

22

I

400 lb. ammonium salts -24

2000 lb. rape -cake 400 lb. ammonium salts I4 tong dung

2000 lb. rape- cake 3/2 cwt. superphosphate 550 lb, nitrate of soda

13

22

17

16

32 cwt. superphosphate :

IO

12

8

I2

17

3/2 cwt. superphosphate 2000 lb. rape -cake 3/2 cwt. superphosphate . 500 lb. sulphate of potass 3/2 cwt. superphosphate . 500 lb. sulphate of potass .

4

17

9

372 cwt. superphosphate . 500 lb. sulphate of potass .

14

15

22

IO

17

14

5

14

19

10

.

3/2 cwt. superphosphate . 500 lb. sulphate of potass . 2000 lb. rape -cake 400 lb. ammonium salts

.

32 cwt. superphosphate . 500 lb. sulphate of potass . 2200 lb. rape -cake Mineral manures, consisting of

32 cwt. superphosphate, 500 Ib. sulphate of potass, 200 lb. chloride of sodium (common salt) , and 200 lb. sulphate of magnesia Above mineral manures

I4 tong dung

3/2 cwt. superphosphate

:} 9

2000 lb. rape - cake 400 lb. ammonium salts

400 lb. ammonium salts

2000 lb. rape-cake

cwt.

550 lb, nitrate of soda

86 lb. of nitrogen . I4 tong dung

400 lb. ammonium salts I4 tons dung

tons.

3/2 cwt. superphosphate .

10

14 tong dung I4 tong dung

.

Per acre.

3/2 cwt. superphosphate . Noo

ammonium salts

Average of Bulbs for eight years.

Per acre .

400 lb. ammonium salts

550 lb. nitrate of soda 400 lb. ammonium salts 2000 lb. rape -cake and 400 lb.

2000 lb. rape- cake

Yearly Dressing.

18

: } 16

550 lb. nitrate of soda Above mineral manures 400 lb. ammonium salts Above mineral manures 2000 lb. rape -cake 400 lb, ammonium salts

16

-25

14

Above mineral manures

2000 lb. rape -cake

: }:

19

13

SOWING MANGELS .

380

These results tabulated as above will

repay careful consideration.

Conclusions. — The principal

That this increase is greatest with the slowly acting nitrogenous manures -

con- greatest of all in the plot which had

clusions which this consideration will

point to are : 1. In regard to Dung and Nitrates.

most nitrates in the form of ammonium salts and rape -cake.

That the addition of potash to the ammonium salts, rape-cake, and super That even with a liberal dressing of phosphates increased the yield by from

dung a further supply of nitrogen, in close on 5 to over 10 tons per acre, as the form of artificial manure, gives a compared with an increase of only about large increase in the crop .

half a ton on the plot which received

That the largest dressing of nitrog- superphosphates and nitrate of soda. That the less dependency of the enous manure gave the heaviest crop.

That with dung the different forms of nitrate of soda plot upon applied phos nitrogenous manures tried, nitrate of phates and potash would seem to be due soda, ammonium salts, and rape -cake, are to the greater power which the quickly nearly equal in efficacy. acting nitrate of soda (as compared with the more slowly acting nitrogenous man 2. Dung and Superphosphates. ure ) exert upon the capabilities of the

That the addition of superphosphates crop to ransack the soil for the phos to dung gave hardly any increase in the phoric acid and potash it already con tains.

crop.

This conclusion would support

the general opinion among practical 3. Dung, Superphosphates, and Nitrates.

farmers, that nitrate of soda is not

That with dung, and quickly acting only itself a valuable source of plant nitrogenous manure in the form of food, but possesses the additional attri nitrate of soda, the addition of super- butes of a stimulant, enabling the crops phosphate gave a moderate increase in to utilise more largely the supplies of the crop, fully 2 tons per acre, on the other elements of plant-food which exist average for the eight years. That with dung, and the more slowly acting forms of nitrogenous manures,

such as ammonium salts and rape-cake,

in the soil. 7. Mixed Mineral Manure and Nitrates.

That a mixture of mineral manures,

the addition of superphosphate had very consisting of superphosphate, potash, influence

little

on the crop .

common salt, and sulphate of magnesia, had by itself very little influence upon

4. Superphosphate and Nitrates. the mangel crop . That the addition of nitrogenous man That a mixture of nitrogenous manures

and superphosphate produced more than ure to this mineral mixture at once double the yield from superphosphate raised the crop to, in several cases, alone, and from 1 to 3 tons more than the nearly the level of the yield from dung yield from nitrogenous manures alone. That the increase from the addition

and nitrogenous manures.

That the highest average over the

of superphosphate was largest with the entire series was obtained from mineral quickly acting nitrogenous manure in manures and the heaviest dressing of the form of nitrate of soda.

5. Superphosphate and Potash.

artificial nitrogenous manure, in the shape of ammonium salts and rape-cake, exceeding the dung, ammonium salts,

That the addition of potash to super- and rape -cake by an average of 13 cwt. phosphate produced no increase, but per acre over the eight years. rather the reverse on the crop.

That dung and ammonium salts beat mineral manures and ammonium salts

6. Superphosphates, Nitrates, and Potash. by 6 tons 5 cwt. per acre. That the addition of potash to the That dung and nitrate of soda beat

mixtures of nitrogenous manures and mineral manures and nitrate of soda by superphosphates produced a remarkable about 2 tons per acre. increase in the crop.

That nitrate of soda is thus a more

SOWING MANGELS.

381

suitable form of nitrogen to accompany cwt. of superphosphate, 2 or 3 cwt. of mineral manures than ammonium salts. common salt, and 2 to 3 cwt. nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia. In many 8. Common Salt. cases even larger quantities of artificial

That with all kinds of nitrogenous manures are applied ; but with land in manures the addition of common salt good average condition as to fertility

seemed to increase the yield—the in- these doses should as a rule be sufficient. crease from common salt and sulphate

With a full allowance of dung there

of magnesia being from about 12 to 3 will seldom be much necessity for the tons per acre .

application of special potash manure. If

Farmers must think for them . selves.-It cannot be doubted that from

there is any reason, however, to suspect that there is a deficiency of potash in the

experiments conducted by far others—such soil, from 1 cwt. to 2 cwt. of kainit per mers may as these just described

acre should be applied.

derive much information that will be useful to them . Yet conclusions which

soda or sulphate of ammonia which should

As to whether it should be nitrate of

may be thoroughly sound in regard to be used along with the dung, the farmer one set of circumstances cannot be said

must think for himself.

He will espe

to have a general, or even a very wide cially consider the market price of the

application. So great is the variation two commodities at the time, and buy in soil, climate, and system of cropping whichever happens to be the cheaper. throughout the country, that each farmer See what is said as to nitrate of soda and must think for himself as to the particu- sulphate ofammonia at page 107, Divis lar dressing of manure that will be best ional vol. iii. In a rainy climate and

adapted for his own special circum- wet seasons sulphate of ammonia will stances. He must study the climate, the most likely give better results than ni. nature of the soil, its condition as to trate of soda.

fertility, abundance or deficiency of any The condition of the dung as to rotten of the essential ingredients of plant-food. ness should also be taken into account in

Careful observation in this way, aided by deciding whether to sow nitrate of soda test experiments on his own farm , and by or sulphate of ammonia. In well-rotted a consideration of experiments conducted dung there is more readily available ni by others, will enable him to pursue such trogen than in fresh dung . With fresh a system of manuring as may be expected dung, therefore, nitrate of soda would to give satisfactory results. as a rule be preferable to sulphate of Useful Dressings.-In general prac- ammonia. tice farmyard manure is almost always Application of Manure for Mangels. applied. To obtain a maximum crop, and yet maintain the land in a high state

Read what is said in the special chap

of fertility, a liberal allowance of dung may be regarded as essential. Still it has been shown in the Rothamsted experiments that in certain circum-

ter on “ Manures and Manuring," as to the general principles to be observed in applying the various manures to land,

stances a mixture of artificial manures,

Pp. 126-135 , Divisional vol . iii. Dung.-If dung is available it should

consisting of from 3 to 4 cwt. of super- be applied in the autumn, and ploughed phosphate per acre, 5 cwt. of sulphate of downor spread in drills, and covered in. potash, 2 to 3 cwt. of common salt, and If it cannot be applied in the autumn or 4 or 5 cwt. of nitrate of soda, and perhaps winter, and if the mangels are to be sown a little rape-cake, might produce a fairly in rows on the flat surface, the dung satisfactory crop of mangels without any should be spread and ploughed in as early as possible in the spring. Where farmyard manure. A heavier dressing of dung may with the mangels are to be sown in raised

advantage be given to mangels than to drills, and the dung cannot be applied turnips. From 12 to 16 tons of good till spring, it is spread in the bottom of dung are often applied with good results. the drills at sowing-time, as in the case Along with this a liberal allowance of of turnips - carted out and spread as de artificial manure would be from 2 to 372 scribed for turnips.

SOWING MANGELS .

382

Artificial Manures. — Perhaps the of excessive size. And by moderate, rather most general plan is to sow these by the than large, intervals between the plants, hand or machine in the drill or row at the maximum yields of good food per the time of sowing the seed, as for tur- acre are likely to be obtained. As a rule , however, it will be After Hoeing. — The treatment of found advantageous to reserve the whole mangels after thinning is, in regard to

nips.

or greater part of the nitrogenousmanure, hoeing by hand and horse-power , very especially if it happen to be nitrate of similar to that of turnips. The horse soda, and apply it as a top-dressing some hoe or scarifier should be kept at work time in July.

The allowance of common as long as the leaves of the roots will

salt is also by manyheld back till July, permit. Transplanting Mangels. when some careful farmers apply a mix-

Theyoung

ture of from 12 to 2 cwt. of nitrate of mangel plant may be successfully trans soda, and 2 to 4 cwt. of common salt in planted. Blanks in the rows should be filled up by transplanting. This should There is no denying the advantage be done with care, so that the tap - root of such a top -dressing for mangels. It may be dibbled right down into the soil. two sowings.

has been well established in extensive Unless the weather is showery at the practice. By holding back the nitrate time or the soil moist, the transplanted of soda till the plants are ready to make plants should receive a spray of water. Very heavy mangels have been grown use of its nitrates, loss by washing into the subsoil and drains is avoided.

experimentally from plants raised in a

Theoretically, one would expect that seed-bed (sown in January), and planted the slower acting sulphate of ammonia out in February. How far this system should give better results by being ap- could , with advantage, be extended into plied at the time of sowing. Neverthe- farm practice is uncertain . less, some farmers prefer to use it as a

Injuring Mangel Plants . — Man

top-dressing - prefer it to nitrate of soda gels are peculiarly liable to suffer from for this purpose also. These are points injuries to the leaves of the plants. Cuts or bruises to the leaves, even if inflicted when the plants are very young, do not heal up as would be the case in turnips Thinning and After Cultivation . - they remain as open, “ bleeding

as to which hard-and -fast lines cannot in all cases be followed .

27

Preliminary

Cleaning. — Mangel sores, robbing the plant of not a little of

plants are slower in growth at the very its life- juice, and rendering it liable to To ready attacks of frost and decay. In

outset than are those of turnips.

keep down weeds, therefore, it may be the thinning of mangels, therefore, the necessary to horse or hand hoe the rows plants should be guarded with the great or drills before the plants are ready for

est care .

thinning. This preliminary hand-hoeing

Varieties of Mangels. There are many sub-varieties of man ing injuriously upon the plants . The gels in use. The principal sorts are the need be resorted to only in narrow rows

on the flat, or where weeds are encroach-

horse-hoe or drill-scarifier will suffice, as long red , red globe, and orange and a rule, in raised drills.

yellow globes. The last two are the

Thinning. - As soon as the plants hardiest , of excellent quality, with good show a fairly strong leaf, they should be keeping properties, and suitable to most thinned and hand -hoed as in the case of soils in which mangels grow satisfactorily.

turnips. From 12 to 16 inches are com- The long red mangel is extensively grown mon intervals between the plants.

The on heavy soils, and produces great crops narrower the drills, the greater should be in favourable circumstances. They stand the interval between the plants in the high out of the ground, and are there rows.

fore exposed to damage from early frosts.

As with turnips, it has been found (by The red globe is better suited for lighter the late Dr A. Voelcker and others) that soils. mangels of medium size usually contain Produce of Mangels. —This varies more solid nutritious matter than mangels greatly — from 12 to over 50 tons per acre.

KOHL -RABI, CARROTS, AND PARSNIPS.

383

From 30 to 35 tons are considered good fungoid attacks. The mangel maggot crops in moderately favourable years. Diseases and Insect Attacks. — The

often injures the crop by feeding on the leaves. See the chapter on insect at

mangel suffers less than turnips from tacks.

KOHL-RABI, CARROTS, AND PARSNIPS. These subsidiary varieties of root crops are well worthy of the attention of farmers. Often by cultivating patches of these the revenue of the farm may be appreciably increased.

the stiffest classes of clays, and the fen lands of East Anglia. It possesses great powers of resistance to drought, and in fact thrives best in hot and dry seasons. It is exceedingly hardy, and resists frosts successfully. The crop may therefore be

left over till the spring of the year. The leaves are of the same quality for feeding purposes as the stems, and resemble rape Properly speaking, the kohl-rabi should or kale leaves in nutrient properties. It not be classed with the root crops. Its is well suited for cow-feeding, as it does KOHL-RABI.

bulb is formed by an enlargement of the not impart an unpleasant flavour to stem or stalk, and it is thus grown for milk .

It is well adapted for sheep

its stem and not for its root. Neverthe- feeding on the ground, because the bulb

less it falls into the rotation with the being supported upon a footstalk it can same purposes, namely, to provide winter inevitable when turnips are fed. It is root crops, and is cultivated for the all be eaten without the waste which is

food for farm stock. an excellent feed for ewes and lambs in Kohl-rabi was cultivated in this coun- the spring, as it supplies leafy herbage as

try as far back as 1734, but it was not well as more solid food.” Uncertain Crop. — Perhaps the in generally known till about 1837. Advantages of Kohl-rabi. — Kohl- fluence which has been most instru

rabi undoubtedly possesses high merits mental in restricting the cultivation of as a field crop, and it is surprising that kohl-rabi is the beliefthat it is rather in England especially its cultivation has uncertain in its growth — liable to grow not extended much more widely than to a mass of leaves with insufficient de In Scotland, and velopment of bulb . This drawback is other partswell suited forturnips, there being gradually removed by the raising

has been the case. there may be

little necessity for it, but of improved varieties which are more re

on the stiff clay and soft fen lands of liable in their development. England, which are well suited for kohlSoil for Kohl- rabi. — Kohl- rabi grows

rabi and badly fitted for turnips, it well on all soils adapted to swedes, and ought to be grown more largely. may also, as we have seen, be cultivated The advantages of kohl-rabi as a field with success on stiff clays and fen lands. crop are thus forcibly stated by Professor

Tillage

and

Manuring. -

These

Wrightson : should be very similar to what are “ It is subject to no diseases, and few best suited for mangels — deep autumn insect attacks. Like the turnip, the tillage and dunging, grubbing or cul

young plants are liable to the depreda- tivating in spring, witha liberal dressing tions of the turnip flea-beetle, but in a of nitrogenous manures. less degree to swedes and turnips.

It

Planting or Sowing. — Kohl - rabi

thrives on two classes of soils upon may be sown either on the flat or in

which turnip cultivation cannot be very raised drills exactly like turnips ; or the successfully carried out- namely, upon

plants may be raised in seed-beds, and transplanted into rows 25 to 27 inches

1 Pallow and Fodder Crops, 190 .

apart, with from 10 to 16 inches between

KOHL -RABI, CARROTS, AND PARSNIPS.

384 the plants.

The seed should be sown in

Carrot - tops as Food for Stock

the seed -bed fully two months before the The high feeding value of carrot-tops is time for transplanting, as the plants not generally known or acknowledged should be about 8 inches high before among farmers, for the tops are, as a being transplanted. From 10 ounces to rule, left on the ground, just as in the 1 lb. of seed sown thinly in rows a case of turnip -tops. Writing on this foot apart, in a well-prepared seed-bed, subject, Mr John Speir, Newton Farm ,

should produce sufficientplants to cover who grows carrots extensively for the one acre. Some particularly careful farmers al-

Glasgow market, says : “ Where carrots are grown the carrot

ways raise a few kohl-rabi plants with leaves form an excellent class of food which to fill up blanks and odd corners for any kind of farm stock. in the root field .

They are

relished extremely by both sheep and

Time for Sowing. – The seed may be cattle, dairy cows doing particularly well sown in the drills in April.

Transplant

on them .

A good few tons of leaves

ing may take place from the first of are yielded by each acre of well-grown carrots, and a ton of carrot-leaves appears May till the middle of August. Thinning and Hoeing.–When sown to me to be more valuable than the same directly in the field the plants are weight of turnips. thinned like turnips, with wider in“ To dairy cows I have fed carrot

tervals between the plants — from 10 to leaves regularly for over a dozen years, 15 inches . The after tillage and hand- and the longer I use them the more I hoeing is exactly the same as for other prize them. I have repeatedly been root crops. laughed at for the opinions I held re

Produce . — From 20 to 25 tons per garding the value of carrot-leaves, by Occasionally those who had little or no experience of

acre are common crops.

the produce reaches from 30 to 35 tons their use, my friends saying they were not worth the cartage, and that I was Varieties. — The varieties of kohl-rabi impoverishing the land by taking them most largely in use are the green round, to the cows. I grant I was decreasing green oblong, purple round, and purple the fertility of the land, but I was in creasing my milk production, and there oblong. or more .

was no greater occasion why these carrot leaves should not first pass through the

CARROTS.

bodies of animals before being applied to Carrots (Daucus carota, Natural Order the land, than should a second crop of Umbellifera ) are more of a garden crop hay or clover, diseased potatoes, or for that matter of it, any palatable farm crop, be it a first or second one. “ Analysis. — In support of this view small patch of them may be grown with advantage. Carrots are , in limited are appended , for the sake of comparison ,

than a crop for general field culture.

Yet on most farms with suitable soil a

quantity , excellent food for horses ; and the analyses of the digestible constitu with capital results the carrot-tops may ents of a few similar plants, as given by be used as food for cows in milk .

Water

Albuminoids Carbohydrates Fat .

Professor Stewart.

Carrot . leaves,

Cabbage.

Turnips.

Potatoes.

82.2

84.7

92.

75 .

2.2

1.8 8.2

I. I

2. I

6. I

21.8

So. 2.5 9.2

.4

.I

.2

.4

7.0 .5

“ From this it will be seen that carrot-

Pasture Grass .

much to be said in favour of carrot-leaves.

leaves compare favourably with any of If we allow the stock themselves to be

the other articles of food, and although the judges, the point will be easily variation in the analyses of the samples considerable latitude be allowed for settled, as the carrot-leaves will be taken here given, there is still room enough for

1

Farming World Year - Book, 1889, 124.

CARROTS.

385

in preference to almost any of the other loose range for the searching root are very desirable. Yet harm may be done “ I may here mention in support of by overworking the land in spring.

foods named.

this view that it is well known that hares

and rabbits travel long distances to feed

Cleaning for Carrots . — It is specially important to have the land for carrots as

on carrot-leaves, and they are as dainty thoroughly cleaned as possible.

The

in regard to their food as any animals on

leaves of the carrot are small, compared

the farm . In my own case I have for very many years used the produce of from 15 to 20 acres annually with the most satisfactory results, while through-

with those of mangels and turnips, and the growth of weeds is thus encouraged by the large amount of space which re mains uncovered.

out the country generally it is only the Sowing Carrots . — Carrots are usu few here and there who do use them any- ally sown about the end of March and

thing like extensively. Those farmers beginning of April. They may be sown who allow them to lie and rot would be in rows on the flat, from 15 to 18 inches

considering they were extremely careless apart, or in raised drills from 27 to 30 if they allowed even a tithe of the same inches wide.

weight of turnips to lie rotting in the fields, while they pay no attention to what is an equally ifnot more valuable crop , although at the same time a more perishable one. Storing . — This last, in fact, is one of the greatest difficulties in using a large breadth of carrot-leaves, yet by judicious management in consumption , the cold season of the year during which they come into use, and by keeping them in

In the latter case, two

rows of seed are sown on the one drill. .

The wide raised drill is preferred by many, because of the greater facility it

affords for cultivating and cleaning the land.

Preparing Carrot Seed . — About 6

lb. of seed will sow an acre. The hairy covering of the seeds makes their separa tion rather difficult, and to overcome this difficulty it is a good plan to mix the seed with fine sand, perhaps at the rate

very small heaps in the field, their con- of 172 to 2 bushels of sand per acre. The

sumption may extend over a period of seed and sand should be thoroughly in from one to two months, according to termixed by rubbing with the hands ; the area to be con sumed and the number of stock to consume them .”

moisten

the

mixture

with

water,

spread it out on a dry floor, turn daily, Soil for Carrots. — Carrots, having a sprinkle with water if it become dry,

strong deep root, require soil of consid- and when it has lain from a week to

erable depth.

A good sandy loam is ten days in this form, it should be sown,

best adapted for the crop.

We have just before the seed germinates. When

seen excellent crops of carrots on well . this preparatory process is gone through manured land with a mossy tendency. with proper care, the plants will come Tillage and Manuring. — The land up more quickly than if sown without must be deeply cultivated in the autumn. the week or ten days of incubation . This

If the subsoil is stiff, it should be loosened by the subsoiler. Autumn dunging is generally preferred, but where this is not convenient the dunging may be done in spring, as for other root crops. Car-

is an important point, because the carrot plants are so tiny in their earliest stages that, when sown on the flat surface, they are liable to be covered and over come by weeds.

rots will take as heavy dunging as any

In many cases a little oats, barley, or of the root crops. The dressing of arti- turnip seed is sown along with the car

ficial manure applied may consist of from rot seed for the purpose of indicating the 2 to 3 cwt. superphosphate and 1 to 2 rows, and thus enabling the hoe to be cwt. of nitrate of soda, sown as a top-

used with freedom

before the carrot

dressing just after singling, or in two plants are very clearly visible. portions, one before and the other after singling

It is unsafe to use old carrot seed . It should be the produce of the previous

If the land has been dunged and well year's crop. Thinning Carrots . The plants tilled in the autumn, little cultivation in spring will suffice. A fine tilth and a should be thinned when the leaves are

KOHL -RABI, CARROTS , AND PARSNIPS .

386

from 1 to 3 inches high. Intervals of long red, white Belgian, large red , and from 4 to 8 inches, according to the vari- short red. Produce .- The produce in average ety grown, are left between the plants. When grown on raised drills, with two rows

on each drill, the plants are

seasons should reach from 12 to 20 tons It is sometimes more , often

per acre.

singled so that they alternate rather less.

than sit directly opposite or abreast in

Certain species of wire-worms and the

Horse and hand hoeing carrot - louse ( Aphis dauci) attack and should be pursued as with other root damage the crop.

the two rows.

crops.

Carrots and Rye . - The late Professor

Wilson described a practice followed by

PARSNIPS.

some enterprising Continental farmers, which crops of

rye and carrots are grown

upon the same land, so as to overlap each other in rather an ingenious way. He said : “ In the light-soil districts of Belgium and Holland, where carrots are cultivated to a far greater extent than with

The parsnip is the Pastinaca sativa of the same Natural Order as the carrot, Umbelliferæ. Indeed , the two plants are so very similar in their habits of growth

that the remarks as to soil, tillage, and manuring for carrots may be held as

us, itis a common practice to growthem applying also to parsnips. mixed with a crop of rye or flax. In the Parsnips go still deeper into the soil former case the rye is sown early in the than carrots, and grow to their best in a autumn, so as to root well before the heavier loam than that which carrots

winter sets in, and thus come early to specially delight in. In the south the harvest the following year. In the spring parsnip seed—6 or 7 lb. per acre, with the carrot seed is sown broadcast as late

a little oat, barley, or turnip seed, as

as the growth of the rye will admit of with carrots—may be sown as early as the harrows being used to cover the seed. February. This germinates and continues its growth

Parsnips are usually grown in rows

until the rye is ready for cutting, which on the flat surface about 14 or 15 inches usually takes place about the second or wide, and the plants are thinned to from third week in June.

It is then mown

with a cradled scythe, care being taken

6 to 8 inches apart.

Among the varieties of parsnips most

not to cut it so close as to injure the top largely grown are the long-rooted par of the root of the young carrot plants, snip, the Student, the long Jersey (or which by this time have acquired a size hollow crowned), large Guernsey, and about the thickness of one's finger. The Cattle parsnips. field is cleared as quickly as possible of Both parsnips and carrots are found

the stooks, the harrows are sent over the growing wild as a weed in this country. ground to disturb the surface, and to

No doubt the cultivated varieties have

drag up the roots and stubble that are

been raised from these.

left, while the remaining weeds are care-

It will be seen from analysis on page

fully removed by the hand. The liquid- 266, Divisional vol. ii., that the parsnip manure cart follows with a supply of is possessed of very high fattening pro rape-cake mixed up with ' purin,' and in perties. a few days the young plants begin to

show themselves again ; and by the end of the autumn are in a condition to yield a weighty crop of roots, which, when

FORAGE CROPS.

In pages 253-260, Divisional vol. iii.,

forked up in the usual manner, leaves information is given as to the cultivation the land in excellent condition, both of forage crops which should be perused chemically and mechanically, for the at this point. Note in particular the succeeding crop of corn . ”

directions as to successional sowings of

Varieties. — There are many varieties vetches and the sowing of the seed of of carrots in use.

The best known cabbages, thousand -headed kale, and rape

are James's Intermediate, the Altringham in thesummer months.

SUMMER CULTURE OF CORN CROPS.

387

SUMMER CULTURE OF CORN CROPS. The corn and pulse crops require a plants, to give them a firm footing on the share of the farmer's attention in the top of the drill. summer months, particularly in the Rows on the Flat . — The summer cul earlier part of the season . By horse and ture of beans growing on flat ground in

hand hoeing, weeds are kept down and the land stirred, with much benefit to the crop. In many cases a moderate top-dressing of manure is applied with advantage , while, in wet seasons, the farmer must see that surface -water is not allowed to lie on any portion of his crops.

rows is the same, in as far as scuffling, hoeing, and drill-grubbing the ground are concerned, as on the raised drill.

Almost the only difference is that the land is not set up with the double mould board plough , No Harbour to Weeds.—No amount

of horse and hand hoeing should be

grudged that may be necessary to make and keep the land free from weeds. CULTURE OF BEANS.

It

should be remembered that one of the

objects in having beans sown in drills is

Beans require a good deal of labour to have the land well worked and cleaned. and attention in summer.

Beans in Raised Drills. — The spring work in connection with bean - sowing was completed ( see p. 205, Divisional vol. iii. ) by the harrowing of the drills about a fortnight after the seed had been sown .

Broadcast . — When beans are grown

broadcast, no implement but the hand hoe is of any avail in clearing the ground of weeds; and as hand-hoeing would re quire to be performed much oftener than time will allow, to keep the ground as clean as it should be, the consequence is

Horse -hoeing . - As soon as the young that a crop of broadcast beans affords a plants growing on raised drills have at- harbour to weeds, unless growing weather tained 2 or 3 inches in height, the com- pushes the bean plants forward to mon drill-grubber or scuffler should re-

smother the weeds.

move the weeds that have appeared Cropping Beans.— After the bean between the drills in the interval of plant has grown until all the pods are time since the drill-harrowing. The set, the practice of the garden indicates

grubbing will also reduce the clods and that, when the top of the plant is cut off loosen the soil generally,

in moist weather, at that period of its

Hand - hoeing. — The field -workers growth the crop will be sensibly in

follow the scuffler with the hand-hoe, creased. This is a probable result, it and remove the weeds growing around being a common observation that in the plants, and displace clods that are moist weather the bean has a great seen to interfere with the plants. The tendency to grow in height long after workers should be careful in using the the pods have ceased to form .

As long

hoe amongst bean plants, which are very as this tendency continues , the pods and tender and easily cut and bruised . beans do not enlarge; and the only mode After the plants have risen about i of checking it is to cut off the top, when

foot in height, which they will soon do the vigour of the plants' growth will be in good growing weather, the blossom solelydevoted to the nourishment of the will begin to appear ; and its appearance is with many the signal to finish the work amongst the crop. Time may be found to again drill-grub between the drills,

fruit. CULTURE OF PEAS.

Although a common practice is to sow and hoe the sides of the drills along the plants; but if not, the double mould- peas along with beans, yet, as they are

board plough should, as the last opera- also cultivated alone, it is necessary to tion, set the earth up to the roots of the bestow attention on them when so culti

SUMMER CULTURE OF CORN CROPS .

388

vated. When sown broadcast, the pea sheep can restrain it then as well as in plant, growing quickly, especially in winter. moist weather, soon overspreads the Cropping Rank Wheat. The winter weeds growing along with it. But luxuriance can be restrained in spring

though it overspreads,it does not entirely only by mechanical means— by cutting destroy them. The consequence is, that off the tops with the scythe. This may the ground is left by the pea crop in a be done safely until the plant puts forth foul state.

the shoot-blade, perhaps as late as the

When sown in rows, in every third end of April. Before commencing crop

furrow of the plough, or in raised drills, ping with the scythe, some of the most the ground is scuffled , hoed, and drill- forward plants should be opened to ascer

grubbed, as are beans when sown in tain the position and length of the ear, rows on the flat.

which should not be touched. The leaves

These operations require to be rapidly cut off lie on the ground to decay. The

performed, the quick and straggling advantage of cropping wheat when over growth of pea -stems affording neither luxuriant is, that rain will no longer hang time nor room for dilatory work

upon it, and air and light will have access to the stem to strengthen and support it.

The risk of lodging is thereby greatly CULTURE OF WHEAT

The amount of attention which the wheat fields demand in the summer

lessened. Spring wheat rarely becomes too luxuriant in summer, and requires

no expedient to check its growth . Soil and Over-luxuriance.-Of the

months depends mainly upon the time classes of soils which produce over-luxu they had been sown.

riance, dry deep clay loam is

Autumn Wheat . - Autumn or winter sown wheat may be too far advanced in

most apt to do it in a mild

growth before the advent of summer to permit of any cultural work being given

clay land, upon a retentive wet subsoil, is most liable to destroy wheat in March. Even when showing no luxu riance, and the crop promis ing, yet by the injurious ef

to it in that season.

autumn and winter ; and thin

Such horse-hoeing

or harrowing as it may require will there fore be performed in spring.

The state

of the autumn-sown wheat in summer depends on the weather in winter and

fects of March weather the

spring, and the nature and condition of

plants may not only be sickly

the soil upon which it was sown.

and scanty, but too late to tiller.

Over -luxuriance in Autumn Wheat.

- Mild weather in winter will cause to grow luxuriantly ; and if the mildness continue till spring, the plants may, from over -luxuriance, lie down in spring, and become blanched and rotted at the roots. In the early part of winter, if the ground

Weeding. - The weeding of the cereal crops in summer where the land is foul is an

indispensable work for their welfare. If the crop should be too far advanced to per mit horse labour, the weed

is dry, sheep may eat down luxuriant wheat to a considerable degree. Even if not folded on it, sheep will do much good to luxuriant wheat by trampling upon it

ing must be done solely by the hand or with manual im

plements ; if not, both manual and horse implements may be employed — that is, where the

for a while every day, and eating off the tops of the plants.

But the winter luxuriance is frequently checked, and even the plants destroyed,

a

seed has been sown in drills.

Fig. 364.- Among broadcast grain, weed

Weed -hook. ing must be performed by the hand and with manual imple shine during the day in March. Should a with Acutehook 2 sharp

by severe frosts at night and bright sun-

ments. An effective tool for the winter luxuriance continue till spring, edges. this purpose is the simple sheep cannot then crop it uniformly, and should not be allowed to attempt it. If weed-hook, fig. 364. It consists of an

luxuriance only commenced in spring, acute hook of iron, the two inner edges

CULTURE OF WHEAT.

389

of which are flattened and thinned to yet sufficiently durable, and do their cut like a knife, and which are as far work admirably, cleaning from six to asunder at one end as to embrace the a dozen rows at a time. One form is

stem of succulent herbaceous plants shown in fig. 365. which are destined to be cut down.

The coulters used

in these horse - hoes are of many differ

The cutting-hook is attached to a socket, ent patterns, in some cases fixed upon which takes in the end of a light wooden one cross - bar, and in others upon two shaft about 4 feet in length, which is bars, the one in front of the other. fastened to it with a nail

or screw, the hook having such a bend as that its

under surface shall rest

upon the ground, while the worker uses the shaft TAMTH

in a standing position. A sharp spud with a cross head handle is the best instrument for cutting weeds with strong stems

ut vast

-as docks, thistles—with

a push . The best way for field Fig. 365. - Steerage horse -hoe.

workers to arrange them

selves, when weeding broadcast corn, is for two to take one These hoes go over the ground quickly,

ridge, each clearing one-half of the ridge and areeasy work for one horse. On The horse-hoeing of corn should be weeding amongst corn , the point of the intrusted to a careful man and a steady

from the open furrow to the crown.

weed -hook is insinuated between the stems horse. A steady horse will not leave of corn toward the weed to be cut, and the row he walks in from end to end of

on its stem being taken into the sharp cleft the landing. A young horse is unsuited of the hook at the ground, it is easily for this work. A careful man to steer

severed by a slanting cut upwards to- the hoes is as requisite as a steady horse ; otherwise the hoes may run are left on the ground to decay ; but no through the rows of corn -plants, tearing weed should be allowed to grow beyond them up as well as the weeds. the time of its flowering. Docks should As already indicated, to wheat sown be pulled up by the root and carried in the preceding autumn or winter this wards the worker. The weeds, cut over,

away and burned .

horse -hoeing has usually to be given in Wheat spring, that is, if given at all. sown in rows may be weeded with the Top -dressing Wheat. — If the crop is Hoeing

Drilled

Wheat.

.

hand -hoe, or with horse-hoes. The handhoe is used by field -workers, who each take one row between the drills. To prevent jostling, the worker in the centre

not making satisfactoryprogress, or if it is considered desirable for any reason to top -dress wheat late in the season, this may be done during the month of May.

of the band takes the lead in advance

Mild moist weather is most suitable for

position, while the others follow on each the process. At this late period of the side in echelon. Where drilled crops oc . season a dressing of nitrate of soda, per cupy much extent of ground, the ordinary haps from 1 to 2 cwt. per acre, would number of hand-hoers are unable to clear likely give the best result. Some would

the weeds before the crops advance too add 2 cwt. of superphosphate. It is con far to go amongst them . Hence the sidered a good plan to delay a portion of need of the more expeditious horse -hoe. the more quickly acting manures to be Horse - hoeing. — There are many sown as a top -dressing in this way. See

forms of horse - hoes for cleaning the pages 135.169 and 201, Divisional vol.iii. ground between the rows of corn. The Flowering season. — The flowering improved kinds are light in construction, season is critical for wheat, since a differ VOL . II.

2 C

SUMMER CULTURE OF CORN CROPS .

390

ence in the weather of June may affect

Barley is not much affected by the

the yield to upwards of 50 per cent weather in the flowering season, since Should the weather be rainy and windy rain and strong wind seldom then come in the flowering season, the produce will at the same time.

inevitably be scanty. Rain alone, unless of long duration, does not affect the pro duce as much as strong wind, which seri.

CULTURE OF OATS.

ously injures the side of the ear exposed to it.

Showers and gentle breezes do no The weeding of oats is not often prac harm ; but sunshine, heat, and calm are tised when the seed has been sown broad . the best securities for a full crop. cast, except to remove docks or thistles. When the thistle flourishes amongst corn, it is extremely troublesome to CULTURE OF BARLEY .

reapers at harvest. This plant should not be cut down till it has attained 9

Such weeding and hoeing as the barley inches in height, otherwise it will spring may require is usually given as in the from the root, and require another weed case of wheat. ing ; and by the time it has attained 9 Removing Charlock . The barley or ro inches, the oats will be about 1 foot

crop is especially liable to be infested high. In weeding oats in broadcast, the with charlock, Sinapis arvensis (some field -workers may be arranged in the times known as “ skeylock ," " wrinch,” manner described for wheat. or wild mustard ). It is a most troubleCharlock is also a troublesome weed some weed , and, if left to its freedom, amongst oats. It may be removed as

would, in many cases, most seriously described in the case of barley. injure the crop. Formerly the only A light top -dressing of from 1 to 172 remedy was to pull up the charlock cwt. nitrate of soda and 2 cwt. super plants by the hand ; but this process was phosphate per acre, is sometimes given too costly and tedious to be practicable to the oat crop early in May. (See page upon large areas. At last, however, the 214, Divisional vol. iii.) genius of the inventor came to the aid of Oats are as little affected by weather the farmer, and a machine (the “ Kold in the flowering season as is barley. moos Weed Eradicator ") is now made Both are in flower about the same time, by which the weed may be expeditiously and theweather must be stormy for suc removed, or at least severely checked. cessive days to injure either. This machine consists of a revolving

drum set on wheels, with an arrange

ment of comb-like teeth , protruding from and retiring into the drum during its revolution . When the charlock comes

CULTURE OF RYE.

Rye has become almost obselete as an

into full bloom , it is some inches higher ordinary corn crop in British husbandry. than the braird, and the teeth of the It is now chiefly confined to Northern machine grasps the heads of the plants, Europe, on poor, loose, sandy soils which and either tears them up by the roots or are not suited for other kinds of grain. detaches them from the stem . The crop In the south it is grown as a sort of

thus obtains considerable if not complete forage or catch crop , to be consumed on relief, while the charlock is prevented the land by sheep. from seeding Rye, sown in spring, runs through its Top -dressing Barley. - Barley may courses rapidly, and comes early to ma . be top -dressed like wheat. From 1 to 2 turity in summer. The straw thus cwt. of nitrate of soda and 2 cwt. super- attains a considerable height before the

phosphate would be a good late dress- ordinary weeds make a formidable ap ing. ( See pages 210-211, Divisional

pearance, so that summer hoeing or

vol. iii.)

weeding is seldom necessary.

CROSS -FERTILISATION OF GRAIN .

391

CROSS - FERTILISATION OF GRAIN. It may be useful to introduce here the

Mr Raynbird's Experiments . - In

following notes by Mr John Speir as to 1851 Mr Raynbird and Mr Maund showed the cross-fertilisation of grain , with the

ears of cross - bred wheats at the great

view of obtaining improved varieties of International Exhibition held in London renewed vigour

in that year.

These are supposed to be

Degeneracy of Grain . — Most varie- the first direct cross-bred grains which ties of fixed types of plants appear to were ever offered to the public ; and al degenerate or become weakly after hav- though many of them were considered ing been subjected, for a number of years, more as curiosities than anything else, to the forcing influences of modern cul- still one of them attained considerable tivation. Comparatively speaking, in- popularity as Raynbird's Hybrid in after deed, only a short time elapses between years. Mr P. Shirreff's Experiments.

their introduction and the time when

they commence to show signs of decay. About this date Mr Patrick Shirreff of With the grains this is in part averted Haddington commenced his experiments

by repeatedly and continuously using in cross-breeding and selection. In the seed grown in some different locality, twenty years or so during which he per so that their rate of degeneration is slow severed in the work, he succeeded in in proportion to that of some other farm introducing several new varieties ; but although he may be considered the first crops - potatoes, for instance. As a rule, however, new varieties of methodical cross-breeder of grain, he still grain, if otherwise good, are more vigor- says he was as successful in getting new

ous in growth than most old ones, and in consequence their production is a matter of great importance to the arable farmer. The grains have not been improved to an equal extent with most

varieties from mixtures by natural cross ing as from those directly fertilised . Recent Experiments . — About the

year 1882 Mr Sharman, of the firm of Messrs James Carter & Sons, London , other farm crops. commenced experiments in the cross Mr Knight's Efforts . — Previous to breeding of wheats, which have been the middle of the present century most attended with a good deal of success.

of the new varieties of grain were natural These experiments have been since carried

crosses or sports, which were perpetuated on, and ten new varieties are offered to the and increased by selection . It appears public, most of which, as far as appear that Mr Knight, a celebrated horticul- ance of the grain is concerned , look well. turist who lived during the latter half All more or less differ in character, some

of the last century , introduced a considerable number of new varieties of grain ; but although he was aware how cross - breeding was done, it does not

having long straw , and some short. Others have slender straw, while many are stout ; some are very early, while others ripen about the usual time.

Messrs E. Webb & Sons, Wordsley, varieties he introduced by directly cross- Stourbridge, are also carrying out ex ing them. His method of procedure was tensive experiments upon the cross-breed to grow a number of varieties together, ing of grain, and hereagain considerable in the hope that a favourable natural success has been attained. cross might be produced . In this way Process of Cross -fertilisation. he was able to introduce several new

appear that he obtained any of the

varieties, which were of such a strong

In regard to the cross - breeding of

constitution that, during the years 1795 grains it may be here mentioned that in and 1796, when most grain in this all grains and flowers, as in animals, there country was blighted, the varieties thus

is a male and female, and the process con

obtained are said to have more or less sists in fecundating the female of one va escaped.

riety with material called pollen taken

CROSS -FERTILISATION OF GRAIN .

392

from the male of another. The process, fructify artificially, a description of the means difficult, and to carry it out does À variety having been selected, the stig although a little delicate, is not by any process, as applied to it, shall be given .

not require any special training in, or mas of which itis desired to impregnate knowledge of botany.

with the pollen-dust from the anthers of

Organs of Fructification . — The ac-

some other variety, the ear is taken as

companying sketch , fig .366 ( for the use of

soon as it comes out of the sheath, and

which we are indebted to Messrs A. & all the seed -vessels or spikelets are cut

C. Black ), represents the organs of fruc- off except one, two, or three. This muti tification, much enlarged , of a spikelet lation of the ear assists considerably the of wheat, the chaff-scales beingremoved future operations, and if more than one for the sake of convenience. The round seed -vesselis left on each ear, they should

part, o, is the ovary, and what ultimately be left as far apart as possible. An ear is the grain ; the feathery parts, s, are the two styles, or female portions of the flower ; while e represents the three stamens, or male portions of the flower. The tops of stamens are called anthers, while the tops of the

is now procured of the variety which it is intended to use as a male parent, and which, if possible, should be about from three to five days out of the sheath, while the ear which has been prepared, and on which it is intended to operate,

styles are called stig- should not be over two days out of the In all the grains sheath, otherwise risk of self-fertilisation

mas.

the organs of fructifi- will be run . cation are very much For convenience in carrying out suc alike, so that what is cessfully the delicate process of fertilisa said regarding one, as tion, the operator should provide himself a rule will apply to all. with a verysmall pair of forceps, so as to

For the purpose of be able readily to pluck out the anthers effecting cross-fertilisa- from the one flower, and lift up those of a.

tion of any variety, the anthers, e, are cut away Thou - lie before they are old Fig. 366.- Organs enough to have deoffructification in

the other. These may be made of a strip of thin steel, brass, or tin, about a couple of inches long, and quarter of an inch wide. Both ends of this strip are nar

posited any pollen on rowed to about one -sixteenth of an inch

wheat.

the stigmas. If such broad at the points, the strip being then has happened, cross-fertilisation cannot carefully bent over a lead pencil placed be effected, and all labour in that direc- at the middle, while thetwo points are tion will be lost.

brought together and held in position by

Male and Female Influence. — Messrs the finger and thumb. The ear, which

James Carter & Co. have found in their it is intended to make the male parent, trials that the length of straw is, in the is then taken, and the spikelet gently bulk of cases, regulated by the male opened by pressing the point of one of parent, while the length and form of ear the fingers on the tips of the glumes, B ,

appear to generally follow the female and palea, A ( chaff), fig. 367. The chaff parent. In theanimal kingdom , it is scales having been thus opened, the also found that in the majority of cases anthers, e, will be exposed to view. The

the male has the preponderating influence slender stems which support these are in forming the body, while the female called filaments, which the operator now generally imparts the greatest impression takes hold of with the forceps, and plucks in regard to

per. In neitherthe one out, laying each on a sheet of paper in

case nor the other, however, do these order to be readily taken hold of again rules always hold good, as sometimes the when required . Enough anthers having been procured, produce bears no resemblance to either parent, so that although they may be the prepared ear, which it is intended

parent, is taken, it is themost that to make the female carefully true in a general way, opened the chaff - scales very can be said of them . Details of the Process . - As wheat is

as already described, and the anthers

perhaps the easiest of all the grains to plucked out.

If both ears have been

CROSS-FERTILISATION OF GRAIN .

393

taken at the proper stage, the anthers of to a stake and labelled with the names of the one which it is intended to make the both parents.

female parent will present a decided

Time of Natural Fecundation . -

greenish tint, while the others will be It is a general belief among farmers that more of a cream colour.

the grain is being fecundated when the

In plucking the anthers from the anthers - or bloom , as it is called -- appear female parent, care should be taken to on the outside of the ear. Such, how catch them by the filaments only, other- ever, is not the case, as fecundation has wise, if caught by the anthers ( if too already been carried out, the expulsion

ripe), a portion of the pollen might be of the anthers being an effort of nature to rid herself of what is now so much

useless material, and the presence of which might interfere with the forma

tion of the grain. The plant opens the chaff-scales and thrusts these out in good

weather only, and as soon as they fall off by decay, or are broken off by the wind, Mé

the palea are again closed. Good Weather Essential.- At this

stage of the life of the plant, good weather appears to be necessary, not for the fertilisation of the plant, as has

generally been supposed, but to prevent damp getting inside the palea at the time they are partially opened to get clear of the anthers. The smallest por

tion of damp getting on to the feathery stigmas causes them to rot ; so that the

Fig. 367.-- Organs of fructification in wheat.

farmer's idea, that good weather is neces

shed on the stigmas, causing self-fertili- sary at this stage to ensure a full crop, sation. While the chaff-scales are being is quite right, although its effect is held open with the one hand , the anthers slightly different from what it is popu

on the sheet of paper should be caught larly supposed to be. by the forceps, and dropped on the top

Period for Crossing. In order to

of the stigmas, the chaff-scales or palea prolong the period during which cross being then very carefully closed .

In

ing may be successfully carried on , a

putting in the anthers, they are none the portion of the plants with which it is worse, but all the better, of being caught intended to operate should be cut over

and pressed by the forceps, as if nearly near to the ground before and after the ripe this forces out the pollen, there being no occasion to catch them by the filament, as when taken out. Care should , however, be taken not to bruise the feathery stigmas, otherwise fertilisa-

stalks are formed, which has the effect of producing a late crop of ears. In this manner the period of crossing may at least be doubled . First Year usually Unsatisfactory .

tion will not proceed. If the palea or -Seeds of grain which are produced by chaff-scales are not most accurately closed, artificial crossing have a habit of always

damp gets in and rots the feathery por- presenting themselves the first year in tion of the stigma, thus preventingfer- anythingbut a pleasing form . Whether tilisation .

or not this is brought about by injury to

The pollen - dust retains its fertilising properties for several days, so that, although the female parent is not ripe enough for fecundation when the opera-

the stigmas or ovary during manipula tion, or by the imperfect closing of the chaff-scales, it is difficult to say, so that inexperienced experimenters should not

tion is performed, it becomes so very be discouraged when they are in the first

soon after, and long before the pollen- year rewarded for their trouble with a dust becomes useless.

badly formed or badly coloured grain, as The ear should now be securely tied the next season may quite change its

394

CROSS -FERTILISATION OF GRAIN.

character. It is generally the second one of the earliest wheats next to the year, and it may be the third or fourth, Talavera group. before the true type of a grain can be “ Another cross between Royal Prize Red and another long-eared variety ex said to be permanently fixed.

Percentage of Success.— In a favour- hibits a curious freak, since the long, able season , and in the hands of an ex- square, thick-set ears are distinct from perienced operator, from 25 to 75 per those of either parent. In another cross

cent of the spikelets operated on may between the same red wheat and a long produce grains, while, if the operation is eared white wheat, as male, the influence clumsily done, none may be produced. of the latter has been most potent in

Protecting the Ears.-- As soon , how- the colour of the grain ; while,curiously ever, as it is seen that the flowers have enough , the offspring ripens a fortnight set, the ears should be encircled by fine earlier than either parent. wire gauze, or strong muslin, to prevent “ A cross between a woolly -chaffed white

birds destroying the grain. The opera- wheat and a smooth -chaffed club-headed tion of crossing, for the sake of con- red for male, proves exceedingly pro

venience, is generally performed near the ductive and vigorous, one plant having

side of a wheat plot; and the fixing of yielded sixty ears, and a field crop having a stake to each plant is a necessity for produced at the rate of fifty -four bushels identification, and this stake is almost per acre. The colour of the grain shows sure to be made a resting-place by the the influence of each parent alike. sparrows and other small birds which in“ In another case square-headed white, fest the sides of wheat fields, so that if un- female, and long-eared white, male, have

protected many grains are sure to be lost. produced a wheat which proves to be the After Culture.—When the grains are

last sort to thrust its ear from the sheath

ripened and thoroughly dried, they should of the stem, while, next to Talavera, it is at once be sown in 3- or 4-inch pots, one of the earliest to mature. Except

one in each, in which they may be grown that the ear is closely packed, it favours till late autumn or early spring, when most the male parent, having an ear and they should be transferred to a piece of grain of the same colour and the same specially prepared land in the middle length of straw .

of an ordinary wheat field. Here they

"A cross was effected between Talavera

should be planted at least one foot asun- and Royal Prize Red for the purpose of

der each way, with a space a foot or two obtaining theearly habit and superb qual clear from the ordinary crop. By giving ity of the former,combined withthe vigor the plants so much room , each tillers to ous constitution of the latter.

The result

its full extent, while the grain when ripe proves a decided success, the offspring of runs little risk of being stolen by birds. Details ofMessrs Carter's Experiments. - Mr H. Evershed gives the following details of Messrs Carter's experiments, in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England : 1

the cross, or rather the latest selection

from it, possessing the desired qualities. “ The selection from a cross between a

bearded April wheat and an American bearded variety proves earlier than either parent, with grain quite equal to that of

“ In crossing red and white wheat to the well-known Russian Kubanka. This,

gether, a white sort called Fill -measure, of course, is a spring wheat, and the habit with smooth chaff and square ears, was derived from its parents must be kept up crossed with Selected Red Square Head by constant sowing in spring. wheat as the male parent. The offspring “ One of the most singular results of has longer straw than either parent, and crossing is found in a sort which has re

longer ears than the male, which has, ceived the characteristic name of Bird however, clearly influenced the cross- proof. The female parent was Fill bred offspring in the shape of the ear measure, the male an American bearded and the colour of the grain. This same wheat, and the cross exhibits sharp successful cross turns out to be satisfac- pointed awns on some of the glumes at tory in regard to quality, as well as being the apex of the ear a defence which 1 Sec. Ser. , vol. xxv. part 2, p. 260 .

birds have shown themselves shy of ap proaching."

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS.

395

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS. mologist of the Royal Agricultural So ciety of England ), from the reports

INSECT INJURY TO CROPS.

Amongst the many troubles which above mentioned, and other of her pub farmers have to contend against, few are lications. Miss Ormerod's personal study of these so vexatious as the growing injury to their crops and stock from insect agency. subjects and her publications are too

The need of plain knowledge of how to meet the evil is therefore year by year more urgently demanding attention — the need increasing steadily as the increase in amount of cropped or stocked ground constantly affords a greater amount of

well known to require comment, and we feel favoured in being permitted to avail ourselves of her serviceable work, and likewise of the illustrative figures, in several cases from her own pencil, which she kindly permits us to use.

food for the pests. The arrangement adopted by Miss Services of Entomologists. — To the Ormerod - that is, of alphabetical se researches of John Curtis, afterwards to quence — has been adhered to, and each

those of Professor Westwood, Life Presi- of the attacked crops, and the pests which dent of the Entomological Society, and infest it, are dealt with separately. still working in his honoured old age on this useful labour, we are indebted for a series of observations extending over many years, throwing light on the his

BEANS .

Bean Aphis.

The black bean blight ( Aphis rumicis), tories andmeans of prevention of insect pests of the farm , the orchard, and the (fig. 368), is one of the very few insect garden. Then the valuable contributions attacks which can often be checked satis made by our own agriculturists, of the successive attacks and means of

lessening losses therefrom , which have been recorded each year now for twelve years in the annual re

ports of Miss Eleanor A. Ormerod, the Consulting Entomologist of the Royal Agricultural Society, form in

themselves a most valuable library of reference, and especially as being in great part the precise record of

agricultural work carried on by practical men .

Space does not allow us to enter here on detailed histories of insect

attack. We refer merely to a few of the commonest kinds, and of the

Fig. 368.-Bean aphis ( Aphis rumicis, Fabr.) 1, Bean -shoot, with aphides ; 2, Male, magnified ; 3, Natural size ; 4, Wingless female , magnified .

most troublesome of these we give figures, with a few observationsserving factorily by direct treatment when the as guides to the kind of treatment which

has been found practically useful.

insects are settled on the plants.

The attacks are begun by a few wing

The epitome given in the following less females establishing themselves near observations has been in part compiled the top of the bean -stalks at flowering by Mr F. W. Silvester, Recorder of Economic Entomology of the Herts Natural History Society, from various sources, but mainly by permission of Miss E. A. Ormerod (Consulting Ento-

time. These produce living young, and one generation succeeding another in rapid succession, the upper part of the plant soon becomes coated with the col liers, and a mere filthy mass of insects

396

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS .

and the sticky juices drawn from the Mr George Brown, Watten Mains, Caith 66 ness : Procure an air-tight vessel - one plants. Treatment. — The infested tops of the of the tanks for holding water on board

beans should be cut off as soon as “ the ship is an excellent article for the pur colliers ” appear. This treatment is very pose. Put the beans or peas into this, successful, if care is taken to carry off the filling up to within a foot of the top. infested tops and to destroy them. A Level the surface of the beans or peas,

healthy luxuriant growth in this, as inall and set a lighted candle upon

it .

Close

cases of attack, is important. In garden up the vessel so as to be quite air-tight. cultivation, soot, or any dry dressing to The burning candle uses up all the

make the bean-tops unpalatable tothe oxygen and develops carbonicacid, which aphides, is sometimes of service, especi- is fatal to all animal life.

This plan I

ally if applied after rain, so as to adhere have seen successfully adopted in South to the black lice and shoots.

Africa for killing weevils in rice.

When

the tank is opened the entire surface is Bean-seed Weevils. found to be covered , perhaps to a con These are chiefly injurious in this coun- siderable depth, with dead weevils.”

try by lessening the germinating power of the seed. Necessarily, as the plant in

BEET

AND

MANGEL.

its first growth depends on the nutriment contained in the seed — where this nutri

Beet Carrion Beetle.

ment is diminished in proportion to the

Beet and mangel crops are sometimes

amount of the future seed-leaves which are removed, the growing power is lessened, and a bad start made, which tells on the future plant-growth . This This kind is certainly now naturalised, whether it was originally British or not. Curtis's name granarius is retained, as it is that

attacked by the beet carrion beetle ( Silpha opaca ), which begins to prey upon the leaves as soon as they appear above ground, giving great trouble to the sugar beet growers in France .

under which he describes this species,

of an inch long when full grown.

The grubs are much like the wood -lice

in shape, black and about three-quarters

Prevention . — As the eggs are laid in but it appears that the species described is considered to be that which we know putrid matter, it is advisable (to avoid as Bruchus rufimanus. repeated attacks) to put the manure on Infested beans may be known by hav- in autumn, and only use artificial at the

ing a little round depression of the skin time of sowing. Stronger manures, such covering the end of the larval gallery ; as offal and sea -weed, or shore refuse, may those that have been infested, by round bring it ; and as it winters in decayed holes where the beetle has escaped.

leaves, they should be removed .

Mr

Prevention. The great safeguard is Fisher Hobbs's turnip-fly preventive, con to avoid sowing infested seed — a great sisting of lime, gas-lime, sulphur, and deal of which is imported into this coun- soot (the proportions of the mixture are

try—and in infected districts to change given further on, under the head of Root Crops), has been found of service. the crop frequently. Where beans or peas are known to be

When the mangel is swept off in the

infested , the beetles or chrysalids within may be destroyed by steeping. Water alone has been found in laboratory experiments to answer the purpose. For

seed -leaves, it is advisable to put in im mediately another kind of crop. Turnips, carrots, parsnips, potatoes, peas, beans,

dressing has been used : “ Blue vitriol ,

gels had been destroyed.

and cabbage have been recorded as suc preparing seed for fields, the following ceeding perfectly on land where the man 1 lb.; Macdougall's sewage carbolic, i

pint ; water, 6 quarts. The above dressed

Mangel-leaf Maggot.

Another well-known beet and mangel 6 bushels of beans, and the result was satisfactory in all ways. pest is the maggot of the Anthomyia

The following simple and effective betæ, Curtis (fig. 369). This damages method of clearing beans or peas in- the crops by feeding on the pulp of the fested with weevils is recommended by leaves, which it often reduces to nothing

INSECT INJURY TO CROPS .

397

but dry skin. These white legless mag. attack in cases where the crop is still gots are about the third of an inch long, young and can bear thinning. The of a yellowish white colour, and as soon plants should be carried away and de as they are hatched, voraciously bore stroyed, and thus the maggots within will be got rid of before they can turn to chrysalids, and thence to flies, to start new attack .

Cabbages suffer very much from white

Fig. 369. - Beet-fly (Anthomyia betæ , Curtis ).

2

Female, niagnified ; Line showing spread of wings,

natural size ; Head, magnified ; Pupa, natural size aud magnified .

through the skin of the leaf by the aid of two black hooks within the head - end.

Prevention. — Autumn cultivation, and measures to ensure a rapid growth, are the best means to combat with these

maggots. Paraffin-oil has been applied Fig. 371.-Small white cabbage butterfly ( Pieris rapa, success in the preparation of a mixwith ture. Eight parts water, and one part soft-soap thoroughly incorporated, form the lye which takes mineral oil, and is said to amalgamate with whatever proportion of this may be added , the in-

1 , Female butterfly ; 2, Caterpillar ; 3, Chrysalis.

butterfly caterpillar attack . We give illustrations of the two principal offend ers, —the large white cabbage butterfly ( Pieris brassica, Latreille), (fig. 370), and the small white cabbage butterfly

( Pieris rape , Latreille), ( fig. 371). Leaves on which the eggs are laid

should be picked off, and the cater

3

pillars searched for and destroyed . The caterpillars are more common

in gardens, where they find con genial shelters, than in large open fields. Measures to promote a healthy growth should be adopted. The ichneumon fly ( 11icrogaster

glomeratus) comes to our aid as a natural enemy to these caterpillars, in which it lays its eggs. The maggots from these eggs feed in side on all the parts not necessary

to the caterpillar's life till the time 1

comes for it to change to the chry salis, when , instead of turning, it dies. The small yellowish cases collected in bunches much resem

Fig. 370.– Large white cabbage butterfly (Pieris brassicæ , Latreille ).

bling silkworm cocoons, often seen

;2;Esse; 3, Caterpillar ; 4, Chrysalis ; 1,Femalebutterfly 6 , Parasite Chalcid -fly ( Pleromalus brassicæ ) natural size 5 and and magnified .

gredients being mixed in a boiling state of course applied cool.

on cabbages, are those of the ich

neumon maggots. They should not be destroyed. The great measure of prevention is

searching for the chrysalids, which may

Hand -pulling of the plants has been be sometimes collected in handfuls from found to answer in checking increase of shelters under eaves, boards, &c., in the

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS .

398

Prevention . — In methods of preven neighbourhood of gardens; and sending boys on the ground to hand-pick the tion and remedy three great points should caterpillars, has been found useful as a be considered 1. Any measures tending to lessen the remedy on the broad scale wanted in quantity of eggs laid . garden-farming 2. Methods of cultivation which will CORN CROPS .

The following are some of the kinds

of insects more especially prevalent in corn crops.

Corn Aphis. With the corn aphis (Aphis granaria,

Kirby ), ( fig. 372), we are almost unable to cope, as nothing can be done to get rid of it when on the corn ears : little is known of its winter habitat.

Daddy Longlegs. Great damage is done to corn and tur

nip crops by the grub of the daddy long legs ( Tipula oleracea, Linn.), (fig. 373 ), which gnaws the young plant just below the surface of the ground, and thus stunts its growth.

Fig. 373. - Daddy longlegs ( Tipula oleracea , Linn .) Fly (after Taschenberg) ; Pupa and larva (after Curtis).

The crane-flies, as they are

also called ,deposit their eggs in neglected

destroy the egg or grub in infested The flies and grubs may be found ground, as deep ploughing, Croskill throughout the summer ; but when the rolling at night, penning sheep, dressing with gas-lime, paring and burning -a practice now seldom pursued

grassy spots — meadows and marshes.

and draining

3. Manurial agents to encourage the healthy growth of the plant.

Applications of soot are beneficial,

2

字

as is also guano and a mixture of salt - 4 cwt. to the acre ; and nitrate

of soda is particularly serviceable, as its use is beneficial to the plant and injurious to the grub. A spray of paraffin from the Strawsoniser

7

( see p. 409) would probably kill the grub. 5

8

6

Xх

Fig. 372.-Grain aphis (Aphis granaria , Kirby).

Corn -fly. Another great enemy to our corn fields is the ribbon -footed corn - fly

( Chlorops tæniopus, Curtis), ( fig. 374). The injury is caused by the egg of the Chlorops being laid either

3-4,Aphides, winged andavenæ wingless, natural size andplagiator magni: on the lowest part of the ear itself fied ; 5 and 6 , Aphidius ; 7 and 8. Ephedrus (parasite flies), natural size and magnified. or at its base, whilst the plant is

latter change to the pupa state, especi

young ; and by feeding of the 1 Thismanaged,as is best at night or as early late on as thenormore the grubsare

ally from July to September, they can do can be no harm .

the surface .

1

INSECT INJURY TO CROPS.

399

maggot hatched from it the growth is Prevention . - Damp parts of the field checked, and consequently the proper appear to be liable to be infested . Drainage should be resorted to,

12

and the application of any nitrog enous or ammoniacal manure com.

แ

bined with phosphates, to promote the healthy growth of the plant ; as a great safeguard against attack is to keep the plant in good condi

10

tion.

Corn Saw -fly. The corn saw -fly (Cephus pyg 8

mæus, Curtis ), (fig. 375), attacks by piercing a hole in the stem whilst it is young and soft, and

laying an egg therein .

Within

this stem the maggot feeds, first

making its way upward, and pierc ing the knots of the stem in its Afterwards it descends, still within the stem, and about

passage.

5

harvest-time gnaws a ring round -fly ; Gout (Chlorops tæniopus, Fig . 374. - Ribbon -footed corn Curtis).

the inner part of the stalk , just at

2-6, Larva, popa,and Aly of Chlorops tæniopus, natural size the ground -level. Consequently on flies;sizeand 7 and 8,magnified parasite Calinius niger; magnified this injury 10. much and the stem and 12, falls, and Pieromalus damage micans by boththus , natural ; 1, 11,9and is caused, Infested coin -stem .

loss on the ear and the twisted

development of the ear is prevented . state of the straw . The distinctive mark of the Chlorops atPrevention . — The maggot winters in tack is the pitchy -brown furrow , from the stump ; therefore any measures to destroy the infested stubble before the saw -fly comes out, in about the May of 2

3

the following year, are the best means to prevent recurrence of attack. Hessian Fly. In 1886 a new pest was discovered in England. The Hessian fly ( Cecidomyia

destructor, Say ), ( fig. 376 ), was found to 5

6

Fig . 375.-Corn saw - fly (Cephus pygmans, Curtis).

Fig. 376. - Hessian fly (Cecidomyia destructor, Say ).

1 and 2, Saw.fly, magnified and natural size ; 3 , Stem containing larva ; 4 and 5, Larva, natural size and mag-

be present in some barley - fields near

nified ; 6 and 7, Parasite fly (Pachymerus calcitralor ) magnified and natural size.

Hertford .

the base of the ear down to the first knot

The following abstract, from a German source, gives its life-history : “ The larvæ

in the stem .

live inthe haulm of wheat, rye, and barley.

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS.

400

The female flies usually lay their eggs on winter attack to the young plants, and the young leaves twice in the year — in the summer attack

May and September - out of which eggs to the growing the maggots hatch in fourteen days. These work themselves in between the

straw . The flies which come out in

leaf-sheath and the stem, and fix them- August or Septem selves near the three low

joints, often

ber from the " flax

near the root, and suck the juices of the

seed ” chrysalis-cases

stem , so that later on , the ear, which only (sheltered above the produces small or few grains, falls down second joint of the at a sharp angle.

Six or eight maggots straw from the

may be found together, which turn to ground we ), lay their

pupa in spring or about the end of July,

are

eggs,

in

from which the flies develop in ten days." formed by various Pro ---(Stett. Ent. Zeit., xxi. p. 320.)

observers -

Miss Ormerod ( from whose pamphlet fessor Riley, the on the subject this information is taken ) State entomologist, found, on visiting the infested fields, the amongst the number

stems doubled sharply down a little above —in the grooves on

the joint, as shown in fig. 377, lower the surface of the leaves, or between the stalk and sheath where loose, and, as soon as the foot

less larva or mag got hatches, it makes its way down the leaf to the base

of the sheath, which

in the young winter

1

wheat is at the crown of the root. This form of at

tack has not yet

been

reported in

England. The sum mer attack with us

is

started

chiefly

from flax - seeds or which chrysalids

have survived the winter.

The flies

from these seeds Fig. 377. — Hessian fly attack on barley. 1, Bent barley stem ; 2, Leaf bent down, showing

come

“ flax out

in spring, or about

the

beginning of

“ flax -seeds. "

May, and as, where the corn is running down ; and between this double and the up to stem the ten

joint there lay, closely pressed to the stem der ground · leaves and covered by the sheathing -leaf, the are no longer to be

flax -seed -like chrysalis-cases. The injury found, which are is caused by the fly -maggots, lying at the used for autumn same spot, sucking the juices from the egg -laying, the flies stem, which is thus weakened , and falls. have no choice, but The Hessian fly has commonly two they lay them in

Fig. 378. -Chlorops. Stem attack showing

maggot furrow .

broods in the course of the year — the stead, as we know , so that the maggot,

INSECT INJURY TO CROPS .

401

when hatched, shelters itself between pygmaeus) cuts the corn off near the

the stem and sheath, just above the first ground ( fig. 378). or second joint from the ground, and there it turns to the flax -seed chrysalis, from which the autumn brood presently

Wheat-midge. The “ red maggot or larva of the >

Cecidomyia tritici, Kirby, ( fig. 379), so

come out.

How the pest came to this country we troublesome in Canada, often does harm

do not know, and very likely never shall. by injuring young grains of wheat in All evidence points to it having come the ear. The C. tritici, or wheat-midge, from Russia and the east of Europe. In all probability it came either in foul corn, and was distributed in

10

cheap screenings — or it may have come in straw ; but the examinations

of nearly a year of straw at receiving ports did not disclose more than one infested stalk . Prevention . - Our chief method

of prevention is in late sowing, so that the young wheat will not be up until the autumn brood is dead —this is a most important precau tion .

All measures to secure hearty

good growth are very desirable ; so is rotation of crop, and it should be 12

borne in mind that strong -stemmed

14

corn is less liable to attack than the

kinds of which the outside is more

readily injured by the maggot One most important measure to prevent recurrence of attack from

13 Sep Fig. 379. - Wheat-midge (Cecidomyia tritici, Kirby). I, Infested floret; 2-6, Larva and cased-larva (? pupa ),

infestation present in any locality is natural size and magnified ; 7 and 8, Joints of antenne , destruction of siftings, in which the magnified : 9and 10, c.tritici,natural size andmagnified. flax -seeds, as they are called , are Macroglenes penetrans, natural size and magnified. thrown by the threshing - machines.

These chrysalids are often present in is like a very small gnat, of the shape

great numbers, and would if left be figured above, and of a yellow colour. the origin of next year's attack ; and

When the wheat blooms in June, the

if burnt together with the rubbish midges may be seen laying their eggs,

in which they lie great danger will be especially during the evening. The spared. Miss Ormerod , in the preface of maggots, which are orange colour and her second report on this subject, thinks legless, but wrinkled transversely into “ the experience of last season has re- folds, by means of which they wriggle moved much cause for anxiety on the themselves along, are in large numbers score of the Hessian fly ; and the attack stored with the corn when cut, while of 1888 — so far as reported — was enormously less in amount than that of 1887. It may be of use to mention the differences between the three great corn pests.

others, which leave the ear, go down into

the ground. Prevention . — To destroy the mag

got in screenings, or to resort to such methods of cultivation as will destroy

Hessian fly attack is at once known by it when in the ground. Deep ploughing the stem falling at an

acute angle, with a skim coulter, which will take off

usually about the second joint (fig. 377). a thin slip, and bury this down under a The special mark of Chlorops attack is succeeding land slice. Chaff and rubbish the pitchy-brown furrow , from the base from thethreshing-machines should be of the ear down to the first knot of the burnt ; firing the stubbles is good ; also

stem ; whilst the corn saw -fly (Cephus destroying such wild grasses as themidge

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS .

402

is known to frequent, notably the wild waste and destroy more than they require for food . The egg

oat, Avena fatua. Wire-worm .

from which this grub is

hatched is laid either in the earth close

We now come to a most important to the root of a plant, or between the injurious insect, whose ravages are very sheathing leaves near the base of the widespread, the wire -worm or grub of stem. On being hatched, the grub or wire-worm eats into the stem just above the true root, and sometimes eats its way up to the middle of the stalk . Wire-worms are said to live five years in the grub state :

** 10

11

4

theygo down deeper in the ground

8

cung

7

( s

as the frost increases ; they feed voraciously near the surface till the time has come to turn to the chrysalis (or pupa ); they then go deep into the soil, and form an earth -cell in which they change,

and from which the perfect beetle comes up through the earth in two or three weeks, generally about the

9

Fig. 380. - Wire -worms ; Grubs of Click beetles (Elater line

first weeks in August, or they may

atus,Elater obscurus,and Elater sputator, Linn.; and Elater pass the winter in this state, and ruficaudis, Gyll.) the beetles develop the next spring. 1 and 2, E. lineatus ; 3 and 4, E. obscurus; 5 and 6, E. sputa Prevention . — As clover leys tor, natural size and magnified ; 7, Larva of E. sputator (?) ; 8 and

and 11, and broken -up. pasture-land often natural sizestraight and magnified; of E. lineatus, Larva 9.Pupa lines show10 natural magnified — the ofwire-worm

swarm with these grubs, paring

length .

and burning is advantageous, care (See being taken to burn the rubbish as soon

various kinds of click beetles.

as possible, or the wire-worm will soon fig. 380.) These may easily be known by their secure itself below. Soot and guano has

hard shiny yellow appearance, likea short stopped the mischief on a bad crop of bit of flattened wire. They should be oats. Nitrate of soda and salt are bene distinguished from the grubs of other ficial, also soda ash . Rape -dust is a

insects, and insect allies which pass good stimulating manure, and rape-cake, 2

as has been proved, acts beneficially by enticing the wire -worms from the crop .

1

Moles, rooks, plovers, and pee 3

영

wits assist us greatly in keeping down wire-worms, and it should be borne in mind white mustard has been found to act well as a

clearing crop on infested land.

ohni

Dar Cockles. 7

Fig. 381. – False wire -worms. Snake millepedes : 1 , Julus Londinensis ; 2 and 3 , J. guttatus, natural size and magnified ; 4 , J. terrestris ; 5, Horn ; 6 and 7,

Flattened millepede, Polydesmus complanatu, natural size and magnified.

“ False ergot,” “ purples,” or ear

cockles

attack of ears of

wheat ( a small purple gall - like growth), is caused by the eel.

worms ( Tylenchus tritici), ( fig.

under the name of false wire-worms, 382 ), of the family Anguillulida. The millepedes, or Julus worms, shown in colour is yellowish white, and the largest

illustration ( fig. 381 ). From their method wormlets are from a seventh to even a of gnawing roots or underground shoots, quarter of an inch in length. and then going to another plant, they Prevention . — As a method of preven

INSECT INJURY TO CROPS.

403

tion, “pickling" with sulphate of copper, The attack of this destructive species or dilute sulphuric acid , is supposed to of nematode or thread -worm has for be of service in killing the wormlets in some years been specially studied for the cockle - galls.

practical use (as well as scientifically in

Another species of eelworm — the Ty- connection with two of the chief Con lenchus devastatrix of Kuhn, is the cause tinental experts) by Miss Ormerod, and details of the progressive observations will be found in her yearly reports.

A

complete account of the attack in con nection with clover, with notes of ser viceable means of remedy, and also good

figures of the wormlet, appear in her Thirteenth ( 1889) Annual Report. Before quiting corn pests we must just allude tothe corn thrips (Thripscerealium ,

ser

Haliday) which infest damp spots and

late-sown corn. Draining and good culti

To

vation are the only practicable remedies. HOPS.

Fig. 382. - Ear cockles ( Tylenchus tritici ). Wheat cockle-gall ; Eclworm .

IIop-fly. Hop plants, both above and below

of very serious injury to different crops, ground, are liable to attacks from several and especially to oat plants and clover. kinds of insects, and the losses to planters In oats the small microscopic eelworms occasioned by the hop - fly have been which infest the inside of the plant give almost incalculable. Ît appears they rise to the deformed bulb -like growth at have been of more frequent occurrence

the base of the stem known as “ tulip- during the past fifty years. root ” ( fig. 383). In clover, one of the The hop aphis is of the genus Phoro most common forms of disease, or “ sick- don, so named from the toothed or

ness," as it iscalled, is also owing to the gibbous form of the first joint of the an presence of the T. devastatrix in the

tennæ , and from the toothed frontal

tubercles, which are most developed in the wingless viviparous females. For the

shoots, which are often

and

shortened

mode of attack, and for the remedies and further details, the reader is referred to

thickened in

growth ; and in bad

the Report of Mr C. Whitehead , our highest authority on hop -growing. The following notes, taken almost entirely from Mr Whitehead's writing, contain

cases have the side

shoots stunted in to

mere

rounded

bunches of leaves

observations of some of the chief hop pests, and common methods of treatment.

aborted into scales, set thickly along the stems. The use of a mix

Hop Aphis (Aphis humuli), ( fig. 384).

ture of phosphate

plants generally about the beginning of May, and if the conditions of temperature

The hop -aphis appears upon the hop

of potash and phos phate of ammonia,

383:-Tulip-rooted Fig.plant and of the plants are favourable, it pro infested by pagates with astonishing rapidity. The never-ending still-beginning swarms live

oat

at the rate of about eelworm .

4 cwt. the acre, has

been found to answer extremely well as entirely upon the sap of the plants, and an application where eelworm is present, suck it up by a kind of pumping process and deep ploughing (with a skim coulter), 1 Report on Insects Injurious to Hop Plants,

so as to bury down the surface of the land whereinfested crops have grown, is by Charles Whitehead, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S., prepared for the Agricultural Department.

a very serviceable method of prevention.

Eyre & Spottiswoode.

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS.

404

with their monstrously long beaks, attack. This is applied by means of large gar ing first the youngest and smallest leaves den -engines, with strong pumps, the jets of the leading shoots, which are more being held under the leaves by men. In succulent than the older leaves.

After the case of large plantations, horse wash

a week or two the growth of the plants ing-machines are used. To ensure suc is checked, and they struggle in vain to cess the wash must be applied as soon as reach the tops of the poles. Their juices the lice are seen on the leaves, ard must be continued till all these have been cleared off.

The Coccinellæ ( lady birds) are the hop -fly's

2

great natural enemies,

and they have often been known to appear in such

large numbers as to avert an impending blight. Minor measures con

sist in carefully remov Fig. 384. - Hop aphis ; Green fly (Phorodon humuli, Schrank ).

ing what may be shelters

1 and 2, Female aphis, natural size and magnified ;3 and 4, Larvæ or“nits,” of infestation, as pieces natural size and magnified .

of dead bine, &c., before February, and the appli

are exhausted by the continuous suckings cation during the winter of lime, soot,

of these insects, and the respiratory ac- and caustic substances round the stocks. tion of the leaves is stoppedas to their under surfaces, upon which the aphides always congregate and feed, by their filth

Wire-worm in Hops. Wire-worms, the larvæ of the striped

and exuviæ , and upon their upper sur- click -beetle, Agrotis lineatus, are the faces by the “ honey dew," a peculiar glu- first enemy to attack the hop. They tinous sweet secretion ejected from the often do much mischief by gnawing

bodies of the aphides; this falling upon the sets directly they are planted, and the leaves effectually prevents them eating off the radicles and shoots as soon from absorbing oxygen into their tissues. as they are formed . This plague is most

After this, which, as a rule, happens prevalent upon land that has been broken from three weeks to a month after the up from old pasture. Several acres are appearance of the insects, the plants sometimes so much destroyed as to re give up, the leaves turn black and fall quirereplanting. The plan recommended off, and all chances of a crop are lost. Prevention .

by Mr Charles Whitehead for getting

Professor Riley's ob- rid of wire -worms in a hop - ground, is

servations during the past season have to put pieces of mangel, carrot, or tur

provedthe migration of Phorodonhumuli, nip or rape-cake close round the hills,"

Schrank, between plum and hop - an and to examine these once or twice a important fact, previously much believed week, and capture the wire-worms that

in , but not absolutely demonstrated. have burrowed into them. Therefore, when damson - trees are in Slugs. grounds, they should be washed with Little black slugs, if undisturbed, at soft soap, & c., to prevent this migra- tack and devour the shoots or bines as tion. they appear. This plague may be pretty fested in the neighbourhood of hop

The best remedial measure is to use effectually prevented by sprinkling quick the well-known hop -wash, the composi- lime over the “ hills ” very early in the tion of which is

100 gallons of water, soft water if possible, or, if hard, with soda added .

morning.

Cone-fly.

The hop cone-fly or fever-fly ( Dilophus 4 to 5 lb. of soft soap. 6 to 8 lb. of quassia, boiled well to get full vulgaris), which revels in manure-heaps, extract. is often troublesome, and so is the hop

INSECT INJURY TO CROPS .

405

jumper ( Eracanthus interruptus, Linn .), finds a fit hold, and spins its web, af fig. 385, for which the only remedy fixing the threads to the prominences and

proved to be practical and effectual, is hairs of the leaf ; and under this shelter to hold tarredboards or sacking on two a colony, consisting of many of both sides of the plant, low down in the sexes in maturity, and young in all their ages, feed and multiply with

rapidity.

The plant

soon shows the influ

ence of their presence in its sickly yellow hue ; the sap is sucked by myriad insect mouths from the ves

sels of the leaf, and

its pores are chokedby excremental fluids ." Prevention .

-

386. - Red spider - The ( Fig. Tetranychus telarius,

hop - wash, previously Linn.) ( Euacanthus interruptus, Fig. 385. — Hop-jumperLinn. )

described , is the only effectual remedy. Poles should be well

shaved before they are set up, as their alleys, and to have the poles smartly bark harbours these mites, and many tapped with a stout stick . Washings other insects injurious to hop plants. do not appear to have any effect on the Thousand Legs. jumpers. Hop - flea.

On undrained lands the thousand legs ( Julus Londinensis, J. guttatus, doc.) are

The hop-flea ( Haltica concinna, Cur- often troublesome. Prevention . — Thorough cultivation of rejoices in cloddy ground, so it is de- the land, especially turning the surface tis), like its congener the turnip-flea,

sirable to well work round the plant- early in the year, and removing all veg centres early, and get a good season all etable and decaying matter which would

over the plantation as soon as possible serve as a shelter for them. Where ni after poling. trate of soda or salt can be applied so as One means of preventing the spread to reach them in solution, this is an im of these beetles is to have the pieces of the old bines moved away after hoppicking. After a bad attack, lime, soot, &c., should be applied in October.

mediate destruction to the spotted mille pede the Julus guttatus, and salt, lime, nitrate of soda, and other alkaline appli cations are found serviceable as deter

The caterpillar of the ghost moth rents. ( Hepialus humuli, Stephens ), and the Hops are also liable to attack from the

hop - bug ( Lygus umbellatarum ), which hop frog-fly ( Eupteryx picta, Fab .), the lives by suction, are two other hop hop dog-caterpillar of pale tussack moth pests, but not so important as the hop ( Dasychira pudibunda, Linn.), and the aphis and the red spider ( Tetranychus caterpillar of the hop-vine snout moth telarius, Linn.), fig. 386. ( Pyralis rostralis, Linn .), the injuries of which may be lessened respectively by Red Spider. use of tarred boards or syringing. The red spider, which is so troublesome in hot and dry seasons, is neither an insect nor a spider, but, strictly speak

ONIONS.

Onions -- an important crop in the ing, a “ spinning mite " —that is, belongs to the genus Tetranychus, of the order south of England — are often attacked Acarina or mites. Mr Andrew Murray with most disastrous results by the

thus describes its work : “ On leaves onion- fily (Anthomyia ceparum , Bouche), ( especially the under side of them) it fig. 387. The injury is caused by the VOL . II. 2 D

406

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS .

maggots feeding inside the onion bulbs, has been tried with success both in which are often completely destroyed. England and Canada. Where onion - beds have been much These maggots may be found as early

as May. When hatched the maggots make their way into the lowest part of the bulb, where they feed for a fortnight, and then go down into the earth, and

infested, it is a good plan to trench down the surface-soil in autumn, and so bury the maggots 'or chrysalids that may re main on the ground too deeply to cause

turn into the chestnut - coloured “ fly- further mischief. PEAS .

Peas are often attacked by the cater pillars of the pea moth (Grapholitha pisana, Curtis). These cause the "mag goty peas ” often found in old pods when the crop is maturing. Prevention. — In gardens where the

peas are picked green, a large number

2016

of maggots are destroyed with them ;

but in field cultivation, where the at tack is noticeable, the haulm should be

cleared away and burnt, or it may

Fig. 387. - Onion -fly ( Anthomyia ceparum , Bouche).

be

burnt along the rows where it has stood, to destroy the caterpillar in the ground. It has been found to answer the purpose if it is buried beneath wet manure. Al

cases. " From these the fly comes out teration of cropping, so that peas are not in ten to twenty days in summer, and taken too often on infested ground, is a proceeds to egg -laying, and so the de- desirable means of prevention.

struction goes on as long as the onions remain and the warm weather lasts. Prevention . — Miss Ormerod has no-

Pea and Bean Weevils.

The greatest enemies to leguminous

ticed that the onion - maggot can creep crops are the pea and bean weevils from an infested bulb to those near, and ( Sitona lineata, Linn. ; Sitona crinita, to avoid this spreading it is im portant to carefully remove each injured bulb, with the earth round it. Or the bulb may be destroyed by letting a few drops of carbolic acid fall on it, which will spread through the decayed tissues, and kill the grubs, butwill do no harm, as nothing live is growing on the

2

spot.

Amongst the remedies that have been tried are sprinkling sand sat urated with paraffin amongst the

3 5

onions, also putting on a dressing of soot on a damp morning. And in garden cultivation, watering

I and 2, S. crinita, natural size and magnified : 3 and 4, S. line

with soap - suds and house - slops

ata, natural size and magnified ;s, Leaf notched by weevils.

Fig. 388. — Pea and bean weevils (Sitona lineata , Linn . ; Sitona crinita , Olivier).

is a good old -fashioned remedy. A most effectual method of prevent- Olivier ), fig. 388. The attack is known

ing attack occurring, is to grow the by the leaves being scooped out at the onions in trenches, and keep the bulbs edge. The beetles begin their ravages at

so far covered with earth that the fly the outsides of the leaves, and often eat cannot reach them to oviposit.

This all except the central rib . The striped

INSECT INJURY TO CROPS.

407

pea weevil Sitona lineata is of an ochre- is too cold forit, we are likely to escape ous or light clay colour, the horns and

the attack .

In case it should appear,

legs are reddish. The spotted pea weevil the subject is before the public in the (Sitona crinita) is rather smaller and Government circular. more of a grey colour ; the wing -cases have short bristly hairs down the furrows, andare spotted with black.

The maggots have been found, by the observations taken in the last few years, to

feed at the roots of peas and clover, and may be found in large numbers at clover roots during the winter. The weevils

until lately were supposed to feed by day, and shelter themselves in the ground under clots or rubbish at night, but more recently they have been observed to be night-feeders also.

Prevention . - As peacrops suffer most from weevil attacks in the early stages of their growth, it is most important the

soil should be well pulverised, and an available supply of manure beneath to push on the growth of the plant. Dressings of lime and soot (applied when the peas are wet) are good . Starlings and insectivorous birds are very fond of these weevils; but it has been observed that though these birds visited an infested

Fig . 389. - Colorado beetle ( Doryphoru decemlineata, Say ).

The eggs , figured above, are laid on the young shoots or beneath the leaves of the potato ; the grubs are orange or reddish, and change to pupæ in the ground ; and the beetles are also distin guishable by their orange colour and by

field in large numbers, not one house- having (besides a large black spear sparrow was seen till

the peas were large enough to peck out of the pod. Care should be taken to have the

weevils

swept out from the bottom of

waggons and carts

when the crop is be ing carted home, and

1

also to remove them

from platforms of the threshers, and burn them. POTATOES .

The potato, which has become such an

important factor in the rotation of most

farmers, was, in the year 1877, threat ened with the Color

Fig. 390. - Death's-head moth ( Sphinx atropos). 1, Moth ; 2. Caterpillar.

adobeetle ( Doryphoru decemlineata, shaped mark on the back ) ten black Say ), fig. 389 ; but as it has not yet stripes on the wing-cases— five stripes obtained a footing, and as our climate upon each .

D

INSECT AND FUNGOI

408

PESTS .

The caterpillar of the death's - head Prevention.-- As the fly will appear moth ( Sphinx atropos), fig. 390, is some- before turnips are sown, it is most im

times found in large numbers feeding on portant to clearaway charlocks and other potato-leaves. It usually feedsby night; weeds suitable for its food. and when it is noticed as doing great One spring, a field in good tilth, ready

damage,it is advisable to resort to hand- for turnips, suddenly became a mass of charlocks. This was entirely cleared --the great size of the grubs renders them away by the fly , which again appeared

picking in the twilight, or by moonlight,

easily distinguishable.

and preyed on the turnips when sown. Had the precaution of harrowing up the charlock as soon as it appeared been TURNIPS . taken, the turnips would in all proba The annual loss incurred by insect bility have been saved . pests injurious to turnips and other In coping with the turnip -fly the fol root crops is of serious proportions, while lowing especial points should be ob

many of the remedies found to be of served : ist, cleaning the ground ; 2d, practical service are within the reach of destroying rubbish round the fields, or every farmer. A great deal of useful in- any rough nooks which might serve as formation relating to the turnip -fly will winter shelters to the flea -beetles; 3d, be found in Miss Ormerod's Report on

so preparing the ground by good culti

the widespread ravages of this trouble- vation and plenty of manure that the some pest in 1881. growth of the turnips may be pushed on vigorously past the first leaves, in which The Turnip -fly. they are most subject to the fly : where The fly, or, more properly, the filea, it is possible, autumn cultivation is de

beetles ( Phyllotreta nemorum , Chevrolat), sirable, so that at turnip- sowing the fig. 391, live through the winter - in à upper surface will only require slight torpid state, or otherwise, according to disturbance, and thus the moisture be neath , which is a great desideratum

for the young turnips, will remain to aid the growth ; 4th, all dust ings, dressings, & c., should take place when the dew is on the leaf, and the fly exposed to them , not in bright sunshine, when the fly would escape. If a rapid healthy growth

3

t

9

103 11

8

po

he

can be ensured , the young plants are less likely to succumb. The old adage “ Where clods prevail The turnips fail "

speaks volumes. The importance Fig. 391. – Turnip -fly ( Phyllotreta nemorum , Chevrolat). 1-3, H. nemorum ; 4 and 5, Eggs ; 6-9, Maggot ; 10 and 11 Pupa ; all natural size and magnified.

of keeping the moisture in the ground at sowing - time, and the

advisability of autumn cultivation, the amount of cold — and under such thick seeding, rolling in the early morn shelter as is afforded only too often by ing when the dew is on the plants, are rough ground, stones, or apparently points to be attended to. almost any kind of moderately dry field Mr Fisher Hobbs's celebrated remedy rubbish .

for the fly is as follows : “ bushel of white gas-ashes ” (gas come out to trouble us, and feed, until lime) " fresh from the gas-house, i bushel

With the return of sunshine they

the turnips and cabbage are ready for of fresh lime from the kiln , 6 lb. of sul them , on shepherd's-purse, Jack -by -the- phur, and 10 lb. of soot, well mixed hedge, ladies' smoek, charlock, and other together and got to as fine a powder as possible, so that may adhere to the wild Cruciferæ .

INSECT INJURY TO CROPS .

409

young plant. The above is sufficient for ravages of the turnip-fly and other crop two acres, when drilled at 27 inches. It pests, that particular notice of it should

should be applied very early in the be made here. It was invented by Mr G. F. Strawson, Newbury, Berks, and is broadcast machine being the most expe- likely to prove one of the most import

morning when the dew is on the leaf, a

ditious mode of distributing it ; or it ant inventions of the time to farmers may be sprinkled with the hand carefully and growers of bushes and trees. This over the rows."

machine was first exhibited at the show

In all probability it will be found that of the Royal Counties Agricultural

“ Strawsonising ” ( see below ) the in- Society at Bournemouth in 1888, and fested crop with some liquid or dry its remarkable accomplishments have mixture which will kill the insects, will become speedily known. be the most practical remedy of the It is really an air-power distributor, future.

and it introduces for the first time the

pneumatic power in the cultivation of field crops. THE STRAWSONISER .

In its agricultural form (as shown in This machine has been employed with fig. 392 ) it is a light machine on a pair

such marked success in preventing the of wheels, and drawn by one horse. The

S

JAN Fig. 392. — The Strawsoniser at work.

revolution of the road -wheels gives, by suitable gearing, a strong blast of air from a powerful blower ; over this blast of air is placed the hopper containing

the material to be spread, either dry or liquid, which is gradually fed into the current. The quantity to be fed is, in the case of liquids, regulated by cocks.

410

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS.

There is therefore, practically, no limit to turnips, swedes, and many other crops. the accuracy of adjustment; like water It is chiefly found on the under sides of it may be turned on from the tiniest jet the leaves, and is most troublesome in to a full stream . In the case of solids, dry seasons. Titmice, ladybird beetles

a sliding shutter regulates the quantity, and their grubs, are its natural enemies. which can be instantly started or stopped Prevention . - Washings — i.e., drench

by levers in command of the driver. The ings with soap-suds, or even with pure machines are constructed chiefly of iron and suitable metal to give requisite strength and durability.

3

The regulation and management of the machines are very simple.

By the use of this ingenious machine the thinnest and most attenuated films can be spread

evenly over land or growing crops. The almost omnipresence of min ute insect or fungoid devastators de mands that the distribution should

be nearly perfect in order to reach their microscopic bodies. In many

trials the ravages of the turnip “ fly " or flea -beetle have been com

pletely checked by distributing.I gallon of paraffin to the acre with this machine. Freshly slacked lime, and also lime and sulphur finely pre pared, have also been effectual when Fig. 393. - Turnip aphis; Turnip green fly (Aphis rapa , Curtis ; put on in the same way. Aphis floris-rapa , Curtis).

The pneumatic power is so per fect an agent that it can deal effect

1-4, Aphis floris -rapo ; 5-8 , Aphis rapæ , natural size and magnitied .

ively with fine particles that are

invisible to the naked eye, or those water — and also waterings, especially larger and heavier substances, such as with manure - water, are serviceable in the grains of nitrate of soda, clover garden cultivation, but up to the present seeds, and wheat maize, &c. Nitrate of time have been rarely attempted for field soda, for instance, may be spread over use. Now , in all probability, the fluid or

the land most perfectly in quantities dry dressings given by the " Strawsoniser ” from 28 lb. to 4 or 5 cwt. per acre, while it will also sow farm seeds at

mentioned above will be of great use. The turnip -leaf is also attacked by

the rate of from 10 lb. to 4 bushels maggots of two kinds of Diptera — Phyto per acre.

myza nigricornis, Macquard, the black

Besides being useful for these ground leaf miner ; and Drosophila plana, Fal crops the machine may be made to dis- len, the yellow leaf miner. These, and tribute vertically or horizontallyas occa- caterpillar of the diamond -back turnip sion may require, to suit the applications moth (Cerostoma xylostella, Curtis), to various plants, such as hops, vines, though seldom observed, sometimes clear shrubs, and trees. Its use is also suggested for spreading salt on snow,

and sand on slippery roads, as well as disinfectants over cattle runs, market, streets, and other places. The Green Fly, doc.

all before them.

Dart Moth Maggot. The caterpillar of the common dart

moth ( Agrotis segetum , Westwood ), fig. 394, is often very destructive. Whilst the plants are young they gnaw off the

The green fly, or turnip aphis ( Aphis tops, or drag the leaves down to their rapæ , Curtis), fig. 393, common to so burrows to be eaten during the day.

many plants, is especially hurtful to When the bulbs are formed , they estab

INSECT INJURY TO CROPS .

411

lish themselves inside and feed on them . and the rapid successionof broods. They Sometimes 12 or 14 have been found in are known as “ blacks,” “ black palmers," one root. “ niggers,” & c. They will sometimes Prevention . - Catch cropping is a clear off the leafage of a whole field .

good remedy for the destruction of these The following diagram ( fig. 396) will caterpillars, and, where possible, turning give an idea of their destructiveness. One saw.fly will lay from 200 to 300

eggs, and these will hatch in five days, or less in warm weather . When full grown, in about three weeks they go down to the earth and spin a silken cocoon ; from these cocoons the saw -flies emerge in about three weeks.

It should be re

membered that, when they are changing

their skins (that is, every six or seven

days during the time they continue in the grub form ), if they are disturbed they die ; for if they lose hold with the pair Fig . 394. - Dart moth ( Agrotis segetum , Westwood ). 1 , Moth ; 2, Caterpillar ,

of feet at the tip of the tail during the operation, they cannot fix themselves so

as to pull themselves out of the old tight

up the earth round plants and hand- skin , and therefore they perish in it. picking.

Prevention . - Some think it a good

The encouragement of birds

that especially feed on them, such as the plan, in order to effect this dislodgment,to crow , the rook , and the partridge, is draw a very light bush - harrow over the worthy of attention . turnip -leaves. When the attack is bad,

Bird assistance in destroying injurious it is well to delay hoeing. The applica insects is not sufficiently appreciated.

tion in moist weather of nitrogenous or

The caterpillar of the heart and dart ammoniacal manure, and watering with moth ( Noctua exclamationis, Linn.), and liquid manure in drought, are measures

all other surface caterpillars, should be worthy of attention, it being remembered dealt with in the same way.

that a rapid growth is the greatest safe guard against all kinds of insect attack .

Turnip Saw -fly Grub. The mischief caused by the grubs of

Weevils, dc.

the turnip saw -fly (Athalia spinarum,

In reference to some of the many

Fabricius), fig. 395 , is very great, in

insect attacks on turnips, Mr John Milne, Mains of Laithers, Aberdeen shire, writes :

“If the turnip crop is destroyed by the fly (or beetle), harrowing

down the drills and re-forming them before resowing will cover and de stroy many of the beetles. “ Two varieties of weevil, Cur

culio, are also very destructive to 7

the young turnip plants. They, in deed , sometimes do more mischief than the turnip -beetle. The most destructive one is the little Cur

Fig. 395. - Turnip saw -fly (Athalia spinarum , Fabricius). Caterpillars, pupa, and pupa-case ; Saw -fly, magnified, with lines showing natural size.

culio, Ceutorhynchus contractus, one fourteenth inch long, which punc tures

the

seed - leaves

with

its

When approached , it suddenly drops to the ground,

rostrum .

consequence of their voracious appetites draws in its legs and snout, and remains

(they begin to feed as soon as hatched) immovable for some time.

The C. as

412

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS .

similis, which rears its larva in the

turnip seed - pod, attacks the plant also at this early stage. “ No practical remedy has been suggested for the attacks of small weevils, which prey upon the young turnip plants. Reducing the soil to a fine powder prior to drilling, and hard rolling

Mr George Brown, Watten Mains, Caithness, referring to the weevils which attack turnip plants, says : “The weevils

are small and black. They fix on the under side of the cotyledons or seed leaves, which are quickly eaten off, leav ing nothing but the stalk . In some years, fields are totally cleared by this

of the drills, will no doubt mitigate their insect. In one instance I sowed a field of attacks, which are most destructive where 20 acres three times before getting the

the soil is rough and unpulverised . The turnips into the rough leaf. The second grain fields should be kept free of char- sowing was literally blackened by myri ads of weevils. The copper - lime cure would have saved the first sowing ." As to the turnip saw -fly,

Mr

Brown

remarks that “these are not easily dis They are lodged . the worst enemies we have to contend with .

Attacks are rare, but,

when they do occur, no practical remedy is as yet known.” General Observations. The above short ob

servations are given

by no means as a manual of reference.

They form onlya very brief record (with the Fig. 396. - Turnip saw.fly grub at work.

assistance of the fig ures) of what are some of our chief in

lock, as both the turnip - beetle and sect pests, and of various measures which weevil feed upon it as they do upon are applicable for prevention, or for less turnips. eningthe amount of their ravages.

“ The most effective remedy for the nigOne great point needed to help agri ger caterpillars of the saw -fly is poultry, culturists in fighting against farm insect which should be turned into the infected pests, is that they should have informa

fields, in as large numbers as possible. Rooks and some other birds, as well as pigs, will devour the larva. Brushing them off the leaves, then stamping and covering them, havebeen tried with more or less success. Cutting ditches_may help to circumscribe their attacks. Thun-

tion at hand, or be able to gain it by reference, as to the whole history of the destructive insect, and thus know at what stage of its life the pest lies most surely under power of prevention. When the attack is in full .progress, it

is far more likely than not that any ap

derstorms are said to sometimes kill plication to check it by attempting de them. struction of the insectswill merely bean “ To mitigate the attacks of the turnip additional expense. Manurial or fertilis Aphis, man is almost powerless. They ing dressings that will push on a vigor

possess such extraordinary fecundity that ous and rapid growth are our best hope ‫وز‬

their increase is amazing.”

under these circumstances.

But some of

INSECT INJURY TO CROPS.

413

the worst attacks, which it is almost im- measures which have been recommended , possible to deal with when in possession,

although they may have been found effec

may be greatly mitigated by previous tive on a small scale, are not quite prac measures of cultivation of the land, or ticable where large fields have to be of destruction of sheltering rubbish, or dealt with. In other cases, the cost of sometimes by special dressings. application under former conditions was Where land can be left free for a suffi- greater than the farmer cared to face.

cient length of time to turn the applica- Now, however, we are all hopeful that tion to a safe and serviceable manure, that most ingenious machine, the ' Straw dressings of gas-lime, which in caustic soniser,' may lift us out of our diffi state is poisonous alike to insect and culties, and enable us to effectually, and vegetable life, are of great service. at moderate cost, do battle with most of The careful dragging and burning of the insect enemies of our crops. For stubble, couch grass, and rubbish gener- turnip -fly or weevil, a solution of 6 lb. ally from the surface of the field har- sulphate of copper, 6 lb. caustic lime in vested in autumn, would in itself destroy many pests ; and all measures to secure

100 lb. of water, sprayed by the ' Straw soniser ' over an acre , would seem to be

good growth are amongst the best pre- the best and most practicable remedy. ventives of damage from attacks of the

Paraffin is also useful.

In all proba

crop insects which more or less are sure bility it will, in the near future, become

to occur, together with the crops they arecognised farm practice to send the feed on 6

.

Strawsoniser ' over a crop suffering from

Mr George Brown, Watten Mains, an insect attack . ” Caithness, who has given much attention Literature on Farm Insects. — For

to the combating of insect pests in farm those who wish to study the prevention crops, writes: “ Insect attack is most of crop insects in extenso, there is much

serious at the most critical period of the excellent information available in the growth of the plants—that is, when the papers by John Curtis, published in the

plant has exhausted the food -supply of early numbers of the Journal of the the seed, and is becoming dependent Royal Agricultural Society of England, upon the soil. From this we infer that and also procurable in collective form plenty of food in a readily available in the volume entitled Farm Insects,

form , within easy reach of the plant at by John Curtis, a work that contains this juncture, will, as a rule, be the best many excellent illustrations, several of remedy. But the difficulty often is to which the publishers, Messrs Blackie &

detect an attack before the ravagesbe- Sons, have kindly permitted us to use come too apparent.

For this very close here. The reports on “Injurious Insects of

observation will be necessary.

“ Climatic influences have everything Great Britain,” prepared for the Agricul to do with the life-history of insects. À tural Department by Mr Charles White certain amount of heat is necessary for head, give an immense mass of useful

their development into the larva. Now I information in plain wording, with plen have observed that if we have very warm

tiful illustration, and at the cost of a few

weather when the turnip seed is being pence for each report. In the Manual sown, followed by a spell of cold weather, of Injurious Insects, a single octavo we are certain to have our turnips seri- volume, and in the yearly Reports of ously attacked by the fly and weevils. Miss Ormerod, the Consulting Ento

It is the same with the grub, Tipula mologist of the Royal Agricultural So oleracea.

I fancy the warm weather so ciety of England, there is much useful

hastens the development of the insect information, these reports being espe embryos that they become contempo- cially contributed from agriculturists

raneous with the braird in its early of practical as well as scientific obser stages, and then, when cold weather vation. sets in, the plants are checked in their For those who wish to study the sub

growth, and thus fall a ready prey to ject of injurious insect prevention in other countries, the Reports of the En

their insect enemies.

“ Unfortunately, most of the remedial tomological Society of Ontario, published

414

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS.

yearly by order of the Canadian Parlia CORN MILDEW . ment, may be mentioned as embodying This is a prevalent and very destruc excellent information, both scientific and practical. tive disease, arising in different forms

The same remarks apply to a great extent to many of the Reports of the Department of Agriculture, and of the State Entomologists of various of the

and from various causes. The “ spring rust and mildew ” is one form , known early in the season as rust, when it is seen in the form of reddish spots on the

States of America.

stems and leaves, and later in the season

In these, however,

the scientific entomological information as “ mildew , ” when it shows itself in is often given in such full detail and black spots. It is, however, practically technical phraseology as to make them one disease, due to the attacks of the

of little service excepting to trained same parasitic fungus, Puccinia rubigo vera, D.C. entomologists. This fungus appears very early in For those who are disposed to pursue

the subject intoanother language, the April or May, or even in March, and German work, Die praktische Insekten absorbs the substance which should go Kunde, by Professor E. L. Taschenberg, in five parts, may be commended. This work, indeed , has perhaps no equal for sound information both on the practical and entomological bearing of the

to the production of the ears of grain. The growth of the corn is thus impaired, and a deficient crop is the result. The straw as well as the grain is injured, and in the foriner the disease is carried on

subject. It lays before the reader not from the one season to the other. Summer rust and mildew is another only the life-histories of the insects re-

ferred to, but also descriptions of them and more destructive form . It is caused in every stage, besides giving beautiful by the fungus known as Puccinia gram illustrations of many kinds. It also inis, Pers. It is usually first seen in enters at length into methods of pre- June and July, and often reduces the vention and remedy. crop by from 30 to 50 per cent or even more ,

FUNGOID ATTACKS ON CROPS.

Corn Mildew and Barberry Blight. -As to the life -course of this destructive

fungus there is a sharp division amongst Farm crops are unfortunately subject

botanists.

Many leading botanists and

to injury from the attacks of vegetable others believe and contend that the as well as animal enemies. The number germs of the fungus must pass through, of fungi known to attack and live upon or, as Mr W. G. Smith puts it, be the cultivated crops of the farm is almost “ nursed by a barberry bush ” in spring uccessfully attack the countless. Some of them are compara- before they can suc

tively harmless; others are exceedingly corn crop. Mr W.G. Smith is a vigor destructive.

ous exponent of the other school, which

We cannot here attempt anything like maintains that there is no necessary con a full account of the many fungoid at- nection between the corn mildew and the tacks to which crops are liable. We deal barberry blight ; that the fungi are per at considerable length with two of the

ennial; and that both can live on from

most destructive, club -root or anbury in turnips ( Plasmodiophora brassica , Wor.), and the potato disease (Peronospora infestans, Mont.) A few others we will refer to briefly. Those who desire to

year to year for an indefinite period without aid from each other. Mr Smith assuredly seems to have won the battle, and the practical significance of this conclusion is that the destruction of the

study fully the life-history of the various “ barberry bush ” will not contribute to fungi which prey upon farm and garden the prevention of corn mildew. crops may, with advantage, consult some

Corn Mildew Hereditary . - There

specialistwork, such as Mr Worthington would seem to be no doubt that the G. Smith's admirable volume, entitled mildew is hereditary in corn — that, as Diseases of Field and Garden Crops, Mr W. G. Smith puts it, “ it exists in a published by Macmillan & Co.

finely attenuated state in seeds taken

FUNGOID ATTACKS ON CROPS.

415

from diseased plants, and can be trans- have a tendency to produce a firm stiff mitted in a long interminable line from growth unsuited for rust and mildew. As corn generally does so well in dry generation to generation.” limestone and chalky districts, a hint Means of Prevention.

might be derived from this fact as to the

of manuring Indiscussing themeans of preventing desirability, where possible, We have seen this

attacks of corn mildew, Mr W. G. Smith land with chalk. done with success says : 2

in North Herts and

“All low -lying lands suffer most from South Bedfordshire, where chalk is easily mildew, and it is said that elevated lands obtainable. “ It is probable that the resting-spores are next most seriously affected, the in-

termediate positions being generally most of the fungus of corn mildew seldom

This fact is generally explained hibernate through two seasons; there by the presence of mists in the low fore, in instances where stable manure lands, and clouds on the hill-tops, the must be used, it should if possible be mists and clouds being especially favour- used in the crop preceding the corn or able to the development of Puccinia. the crop following it rather than for the

free.

Mildew is commonly seen at its worst in corn itself.

places where bushes and trees abound , as

“ An alteration of crops is in every

these objects impede free currents of air way desirable. Beans, peas, turnips, and aid fungus growth . potatoes, clover, and other farm pro “ We have ourselves observed corn

duce should be taken alternately with

mildew to develop with great rapidity corn. “ There is but one way of getting rid after rain in August, and we have some-

times noticed the late sown wheat to be of corn mildew, and that is certainly not most affected .

When the ears are badly by cutting down barberry bushes and

attacked the grain is not only greatly pulling up borage plants. Corn mildew impoverished and reduced to " skeleton is a hereditary disease, and therefore no grain ,” but it is hardly possible to separ- seed corn should be gathered from mil ate the seed from the husks. dewed plants. If the hereditary nature “ Mildew is said to be more frequent of the disease is disputed, it cannot be after crops of clover than after other disputed that certain examples of corn crops.

We think the fact of straw from have a strong and inherited predisposi

stables being so frequently thrown over tion for mildew ; therefore predisposed old clover fields a sufficient explanation examples should be struck out and no of this fact. Wheat after clover is cer- seed gathered from them. Especial care tainly a favourable alternation of crops should be taken in the rigorous selection

with many farmers, — perhaps because of seed from white wheats, which are the old decaying cloverroots act as good notoriously more subject to mildew than When clover pre- red, probably because the latter are cedes corn it should be heavily folded naturally more robust. If seed mer manure for the corn.

with sheep, andmanure. straw from stables should chants would guarantee that the seed not be used as

corn they sell is taken solely from corn

“ It is now generally accepted as a fact free from mildew , in the course of years

amongst practical men that after dressing the attacks and consequent losses from of soda, mildew often puts in a strong Mildew is every year so common in our

the land with farmyard manure and nitrate this pest would be considerably lessened.

appearance ; but after mineral manures, fields simply, as we think, because the bone superphosphate, and bone - meal disease is planted with the grain. “ Old corn stubble should not be left drilled with the seed, rust and mildew are much less apparent. There can be too long in the fields. Some corn - growers no doubt that farmyard manure has a say that a top -dressing of salt has a

tendency to produce a gross soft growth tendency to lessen or prevent mildew. “ Mildewed straw is bad when used as in corn which is suitable for fungi, and that mineral manures, on the contrary, food for stock in chaff, and the inferior grain is hardly fit for pigs. The straw is 1 Dis. of Field and Garden Crops, 199.

more commonly used as litter in stables.

ID PESTS .

INSECT AND FUNGO

416

In this position the spores of the Puccinia of disinfecting wheat seed, Mr W. G. remain uninjured , for neither warmth ,

frost, wet, or dryness materially affect

Smith says : “When bunt is known to be amongst

the vitality of the resting-spores of the seed grain it should be washed or steeped fungus of corn mildew .

They are so in some weak poisonous solution, as the

small that no amount of treading from horses, herds, or flocks injures them The warmth and dampness of the stable floor in every way suits them , and they are frequently taken from this position, full of life, and at once thrown on to the

minute spores from bunted grains ad here to the healthy seeds. Water, salt, quicklime slacked with boiling water, sulphate of copper, a quarter of a pound to a bushel of corn, and sulphate of soda, have all been recommended. Sulphate

fields in the saturated straw.

of soda in solution and the seeds after

If the

spores are consumed with food by ani- wards dried with dusted quicklime is mals, their passage through the aliment- said to be one of the best preventive ary canal does not injure them .

The

solutions.

The lime combines with the

disease is probably, as we think , pro- soda and forms sulphate of lime or pagated by the mildewed straw being gypsum , whilst caustic alkali is set free. used as manure, and by the germinating As the spores are lighter than water, resting-spores of the fungus of corn mil- mere steeping in brine or even pure

dew infecting the first young leaves of water is often effectual, as the spores the corn.

float, and are easily washed away. It “ Mildewed straw should be destroyed, is probable that the presence of a few

because the Puccinia, with its myriads scattered greasy spores are quite as, if of resting - spores, is in this material. not more, damaging than the whole We have shown that these resting-spores bunted grains with unbroken seed -coats. germinate in the spring and early sum- Some alkaline ley should be added if mer at the exact time when rust, which water is used, as the oil on the surface

is the early state of mildew , first appears. of the spores combines with the alkali Whether the resting - spores attack bar- and forms a soapy substance which is

berry bushes, or whether they do not, is fatal to effectual spore germination .

of no great importance, for there are Sufficient permanganate of potassium generally no barberry bushes to attack. may be added to the water until it The mildewed straw should , as far as becomes rose -coloured, or one per cent

practicable, be destroyed, and the hedges of carbolic acid may be mixed with the

kept clear of rusted and mildewed water. It is not proper for the seed to remain long in these solutions ; they should be washed quickly and then

grasses." BUNT OF WHEAT.

allowed to dry.

“ When millers see bunted grains

This disease is caused by the fungus, amongst the wheat they generally pass Tilletia caries, Tul.

The diseased it through a dresser with a strong ex

grains may not be readily observed, but, baust, and this draws away the fætid when examined closely, they are seen to be unusually short and thick, and are found to contain a black powder with an

spores.”

offensive odour.

This is a fungoid disease, too well known to need description. It is caused by the fungus, Ustilago carbo, Tul. When attacked, the grain is entirely destroyed , crumbling away in the form

Prevention . — The spores of the fungus causing bunt are sown with the seed, and germinate after they have been lodged in the damp ground. The best method of prevention, then, is to treat the seed before sowing, so as to kill the germs of the fungus. This should be

SMUT OF CORN.

of a fine black or dark - brown powder.

It attacks wheat and barley, as well as oats, but is most destructive in oats, not unfrequently blasting one-third or

done without fail, if there has been bunt in the crop from which the seed is more of the crop. selected.

Disinfecting Seed.—As to the means

1 Dis. of field and Garden Crops, 252.

1

FUNGOID ATTACKS ON CROPS.

417

Propagation of Smut. — Mr W. G. clover plants, absorbing the substance Smith states that the disease is doubt

lessly propagated by the spores of the

therefrom .

The dodder seed is imported with

fungus being blown over the fields and clover seed. It is therefore necessary that absorbed bythe earth, and by the fungus great care should be exercised on the part spores which adhere to the seed at the of the seedsman to sift out any dodder time of sowing. He considers the evi- seed before supplying the farmer. The dence complete that the infection comes seed of the dodder rarely ripens in the from the ground, and travels upwards. British Isles, but it is recommended

Prevention . - As to the prevention of that dodder plants should be carefully smut, Mr W. G. Smith says:

pulled up and destroyed ,and not allowed

“ It is obvious, therefore, that smut to rot on the ground — this, because it is

can only be prevented by dressing the believed the thread-like stems are some seed, as in the case of bunt, and the times perennial. directions for one apply to the other.

Mr W. G. Smith mentions that some

“ A remedy against smut, much in farmers, on first seeing the yellow favour in the north of England, and patches of dodder in the clover fields, one which is said never to fail, is the remove all the clover from the outer

preparation of the seed, immediately be- edges of the invaded patch for a width fore sowing, with a sprinkling of stale of about 18 inches. This leaves nothing

urine, the seeds being afterwards raked for the dodder to prey upon , as the in powdered quicklime till the seed is thread-like stems cannot stretch across white. Sometimes the seed is prepared the 18 inches of vacant ground. The with vitriol or sulphate of copper solu- clover is removed because it is extremely

tion, or 'bluestone' dissolved in boiling difficult to entirely remove dodder. water.

One pound of “ bluestone ' dis

solved in 5 quarts of water is sufficient POTATO DISEASE. for a sack of 4 imperial bushels. The seed is soaked for ten minutes, or the 10 The potato crop gives little trouble pints of solution may be poured over till early in summer . As the season ad all is absorbed ." i vances, however, the extensive grower of potatoes watches his potato -break with FUNGOID ATTACKS ON CLOVER .

uncomfortable anxiety. He is looking for that unwelcome visitor, Peronospora

It is wellknownthat clover isattacked infestans, by whose depredations British and injured by mildew caused by fungi, farmers have sustained enormous losses. notably two forms of Peronospora - nameCause. The particular “potato dis ly, trifoliorum , D.By. and exigua, W.Sm. ease which we are now considering, and The part which these fungi may play in which has proved so serious as to throw sickness the so - called “ clover

” is uncer-

minor ailments into the shade, is the

tain, but there can be no doubt that work of a fungus, now generally recog

they often cause considerable damage to nised as Peronospora infestans, Mont. clover.

This fungus makes its appearance on These fungi are favoured by bad the potato-leaves towards the end of July, drainage and the absence of free venti- and during the months of August and

lation, such as is sometimes caused by September. It is seldom observed in over-thick sowing. The germs pass the this country before the end of the third winter in the stems of clover, and a use week in July

ful method of prevention is to cut and

Weather and the Disease . — The

burn all dead and decaying clover ma- fungus generally appears during close terial.

weather, with a humid atmosphere, espe

Clover Dodder.—The clover dodder, Cuscuta trifolii, Bab., is a troublesome parasitic plant, which, with its threadlike stems, entwines itself around the

cially when mists hang over the fields in the eveningsand mornings, and the days are hot and damp.

These are conditions

well known to favour fungoid growth, and never fail to increase the seasonable

Dis. of Pield and Garden Crops, 261 .

anxiety of the potato-grower.

418

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS .

Recognising the Fungus. — The fun- peruse the following extracts from Mr gus, as a rule, first attacks the leaves, Worthington G. Smith's admirable little and any measures taken to prevent it volume on the Diseases of Field and from reaching the tubers will be more Garden Crops (Macmillan & Co.) : effective if promptly adopted.

It is

“ For an exact examination of Perono

therefore important that farmers should spora infestans, Mont., a very minute be able to at once recognise the fungus and extremelythin and transparent slice when it makes its appearance .

" The

must be cut from a diseased leaf at a

fungus, ” says Mr Worthington G. Smith, spot where the white bloom caused by “ generally manifests itself to the less

the presence of the fungus is visible

experienced observer as à fine white bloom on the leaves, accompanied by dark putrid spots. The bloom is sometimes more profuse on the lowermost

underneath. A good plan is to cut a diseased leaf in two through a disease spot, and then with a sharp lancet cut an extremely thin slice off from one of

leaves of potato plants, not because the the exposed cut surfaces.

If the slice

fungus has travelled up the stem from last cut is somewhat longitudinally the seed tuber, but because the air is wedge - shaped, it will often best show

more moist and stagnant near the ground. the structure of the leaf and the con

The bloom , with its accompanying black tained fungus at the thinner end of the disease blotches, soon travels to the stems,

section. Such slicing requires great care

and when at length the tubers are reached, the exhausted seed tuber (the weakest part of the plant) is commonly traversed in every part by the spawn of the fungus. During warm, humid conditions of the

and experience, and the art is only acquired after many failures. The atom to be examined should be placed on a glass slide in a drop of glycerine (this is preferable to water, as the latter often

weather, the black decomposed spots are dries too quickly), and then covered with sometimes present for several days on the a clean thin cover-glass. leaves before the fungus is seen . These “ The magnification given by an ordin blotches indicate that the putrefactive ary lens is useless for the observation of spawn of the fungus is within the leaves, the minute fungus now before us, so we

awaiting favourable conditions for its must at once place it under the higher complete development as a white bloom

outside.

powers of the microscope.

If the slicing

The phenomena just mentioned through a disease spot is successful, we

are accompanied by a peculiar and very shall probably see the atom when magni offensive odour well known to every per- fied 100 diameters, as at fig. 397. The son who has walked through a field of thickness of the lamina of the leaf is potatoes suffering from disease. The shown at A, B ; the under side of the

odour is caused by the putrescence set leaf is represented at A, from which sur

up in the tissues of the host plant by the face the fungus almost invariably springs. contact of the mycelium of the potato The fungus, therefore, reallygrows down fungus. Although the attack of disease wards. The true upper surface is shown in potato plants is apparently sudden , at B. This reversal of the leaf in the

and made on apparently sound plants, illustration is merely, as in other in yet all known facts point to the proba- stances in this book, to show more clearly bility of the existence of the fungus in a the tree - like branching growth of the

nascent state during at least several weeks fungus. If we confine our attention for prior to its general recognition. The thepresentto the section of the leaf, we belief in the extreme suddenness of fun- shall note that it is made up of minute goid growths is, in many instances, a bladder - like cells, loosely packed to mere popular delusion.” 1 gether ; and that the cells at top and

The Fungus in its Active State. As to the structure and mode of growth of this remarkable fungus, it will

bottom , representing the lower and upper cuticle of the leaf, are devoid of the

shading, which is meant to indicate the green colouring matter or chlorophyll be interesting and useful for farmers to within. An opening into the interior of the leaf will be seen at c ; this is one 1 Dis. of Pield and Garden Crops, 279. of the stomata or organs of transpiration ,

FUNGOID ATTACKS ON CROPS.

419

sometimes referred to as 'breathing of the potato fungus is capable of growth, pores. The stomata are like the gates and of ultimately reproducing theparent to a camp or to an intrenched position ; fungus. The cells immediately under the they are the weak points through which true upper cuticle of the leaf at p are an enemy may enter, and when once termed palisade cells ; and their disposi these gates are passed, the whole interior tion in the manner illustrated serves to

of the plant is at the mercy of the in- give the necessary firmness to the ex vader. At d may be seen a hair built posed upper surface of the leaf. “ If we now look within N

the fragment of the leaf we see transparent threads runningbetween the small spherical leaf-cells ; these

o

are the spawn-threads or mycelium of the fungus. It should be especially noticed that wherever the spawn touches the cells it

O

Yu

E

discolours them (as indi cated by the darker shad ing ), and causes putres cence by contact. If we again look at the pali

M

MM

к

sade cells near G, we ob

serve that a spawn-thread has pushed itself between them

and

between the

cells of the upper cuticle, and is emerging into the

D

air. If we trace the spawn - threads to the organ of transpiration at H , we notice that a thread

in its passage from the body of the leaf has

H

blocked up a so - called mouth. This choking pre

vents the transpiration of vapour, and hastens pu

R.

trescence.

Two other

threads have pushed them

B

selves between the leaf cells at G and A. When the larger of the emerged threads is traced upwards

to K, a tree-like growth is Fig . 397.— Section through a fragment of a potato -leaf, with the potato noticed ; and this branch

fungus,Peronospora infestans, growing within its substance, and emerging ing form is the fruiting through the epidermis. Enlarged 100 diameters.

condition of the fungus of

up of four transparent cells, the two the potato disease called Peronospora in lower being traversed by a mycelial festans, Mont. The whole fungus is per thread of the potato fungus. On the fectly transparent, like colourless glass,

upper part of this hair, attached to the andextremely fine, thin, andattenuated outside at E, may be seen one of the in all its parts. If we now look at the small branches of the fungus; this branch branches, MM, we observe that each is

has burst and thrown out a mycelial surmounted by a transparent spore, thread from its side. Every fragment technically termed ( as in other species

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS .

420

of Peronospora ) a conidium , as at NN ;

“ One has only to imagine a large field

and to these bodies we shall more speci- of potatoes, with all the leaves moist ally refer further on. It must also be and swaying backwards and forwards noticed that all the branches are more with the wind, to perceive that such a

or less constricted or jointed in a peculiar field, say on a warm misty morning or manner, as at oo ; and that each joint

evening, would form a sort of continuous

has at one time carried a conidium , the lake of moisture on which the zoospores lower conidia having been pushed off as could float from one plant to another,

the branches have continued their growth, The conidia, with the contained zoospores, Sometimes a weakly impover- are also carried through the air in millions ished thread, if grown in dry air, will by the wind ; they are so lightly attached quickly become strong and robust in to their supporting stems and so ex growth if transferred to warm moist air, tremely small and light, that the faintest

as at PP.

as in the thread illustrated at Q.

breath of air wafts them away.

Insects

“ If ripe conidia [N N] are placed in and other creatures also carry the conidia water, it will be noted that a differentia- from place to place. The flies which tion of the contained protoplasm takes alight on potato plants carry off hundreds a bird place ; and that the interior mass of each of conidia on their bodies.

If

conidium becomes divided into fromfive drops in a field of diseased potatoes, to nine or more portions, each contained the fluttering of its wings will disperse portion being furnished with one or two millions of the conidia of the fungus of lustrous vacuoles.

These differentiated the potato murrain into the air. The

portions speedily emerge from the top of same phenomenon occurs when a dog or

the conidium when placed on any moist other animal runs amongst diseased po surface ; and each portion now free, be- tato plants. When the conidia or z00 comes quickly furnished with two ex- spores burst and germinate, the threads

tremely fine hairlike cilia, tails, or vibrat- which emerge are corrosive or putrefac ing hairs. These secondary spores or tive. To such an extent is this the case

zoosporesare able to sail about in the that the spawn is said to be capable of slightest film of moisture. After a brief piercing or boring through the cuticle of time the little motile zoospores or an- the leaf from within or without, regard

imal-like spores rest and take a globular less of the natural openings or stomata, form , and the vibrating hairs dissolve and even of piercing the bark of the away or drop into the finest dust. After stem or the tuber itself, a short rest the now quiescent zoospores “ The fungus of the potato disease

burst and produce a thread of spawn ; generally attacks the leaves first, and, this germinal thread is capable of carry- as the leaves produce successive crops of ingon the existence of the potato fungus. fungus growth, thedisease quickly spreads

“ Sometimes the conidium , which, to the leaf-stalks, from the leaf-stalks to when it bears zoospores, is really a sort the chief stems, and from the stems to of spore-case, sporangium or zoospor- the tuber. Sometimes a week or two angium, does not differentiate within, elapses before the tubers are reached by but bursts and protrudes a small mass the putrefactive spawn of the fungus ; of protoplasm or vital material. This but in other instances the attack is so mass speedily elongates into a mycelial sudden and so highly destructive, that thread capable (like the thread from the the whole of the potato plants above zoospore) of carrying on the life of the ground in a large field will be destroyed potato fungus. It must be specially in a day or two. The disease doubtlessly

noted that water or moist air is essential starts at first from a few centres only; every part speedily perishes in dry air, less unobserved . The fungus, however,

for the existence of the fungus, for nearly there it remains for a brief time more or

heat, or frost.

When the conidia burst possesses such wonderful powers of spore

and set free the minute zoospores, the lat- production and rapid growth, especially ter sail over the damp surfaces of leaves, when the air is moist and the tempera and even float into the organs of tran- ture ranges from 60° to 70° Fahr., that spiration. A zoospore swimming in an in a few days one fungus growth will be intercellular space is shown at R , fig. 397.

come ten thousand. This growth goes

FUNGOID ATTACKS ON CROPS .

421

on in a constantly increasing ratio until state, is seen at D. The transparent at length the great flood of disease seems oogonia of the summer have now become to almost suddenly cover the potato fields.

brownish ripe oospores or winter resting

“ When the fungus spawn reaches the spores of a larger size. Six resting -spores the tuber it decomposes the cells and cor- are shown in the illustration ,-two in In bad cases the transparent leaf hair, three in the inter rodes the starch. tubers are soon reduced to a mass of cellular spaces of the leaf, and one inside putrefaction.” a spiral vessel, in which position it is ex tremely common to find them . Winter. the passes Fungus How the “ The perfectly mature resting -spores Perhaps the most formidable hindrance are best seen in the remains of old rotten to a successful warfare against the potato tubers left in the fields from the previous

disease is the peculiar provision which year, and commonly seen on the ground enables the fungus to pass through the and about dung-heaps and hedge-sides in winter in minute resting-spores, ready to March and April. pounce upon the crop in the following “ On an examination of a large number year, should the weather and other cir of resting -spores it will be found that cumstances favour the development and attack of these mysterious germs of fun goid life.

The fungus having attacked the leaves of the potato, and found its way down the stem to the tubers there, runs through the course which Mr W. G. Smith has so

graphically described .

Having finished с

that course, it produces myriads of rest ing-spores which lie dormant during the winter, and carry on the disease to the crop of the succeeding year, which in its

turn passes the fungus through another round of its destruciive life, to be handed on again to a succeeding crop as before. B

Mr Worthington G. Smithdescribes the course of these resting -spores very min utely ; and we have to thank him for his permission to reproduce here, besides the illustration already given on page 419,

wille

a drawing made by himself of a section of an old potato leaf showing the rest

ing-spores. In referring to the resting spores Mr Smith says : “ We will now leave the potato fungus

as seen in a living potato-leaf and take Fig. 398. - Section through afragnientofoldpotato a fragment of a dead leaf, one that has leaf, with resting-spores or cospores of Peronospora been destroyed by the Peronospora, such infestans, insitu. Enlarged 100 diameters.

as may be seen in fields and gardens in September, or, if preserved with care, the convolute mass of protoplasm within, such as may be kept on a garden -bed till though generally in one coil, may at

the following June. A fragment of such times be in two or even three distinct a potato -leaf is illustrated in fig. 398, portions, which, on germination, will pro enlarged, like fig. 397, to 100 diameters.

ducu one, two, or three germ -tubes ; in

The upper surface ofthe leaf is shown at other instances the interior mass be A , the lower surface with two stomata at comes differentiated into zoospores, which

B B, and a small hair belonging to the escape, and speedily come to rest and ger leaf is seen at c. Nearly all the mycel- minate ; the germinal threads from oo ium of the potato fungus has vanished ; spores and zoospores alike, when placed fragment only, in a hibernating, septate either on the foliage or tubers of potatoes VOL. II.

2 E

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS.

422

and kept uniformly moist and warm , soon The resting-spores of the potato fungus give rise to the fungus of the potato dis- germinate in and upon the ground at the ease, and cause discoloured patches of precise time of the year when the potato decomposition as the growth proceeds. “Every part of the fungus, except the oospores, generally perishes with the supporting plant; the oospores or resting-

plant is in the best condition for infec tion. Habits of this nature are extremely common and well known amongst para

sitic fungi.”

spores are left alive upon or in the

ground where potato material has de cayed, and in this position the oospores

REMEDIAL MEASURES .

Cure . — There is practically no cure. germinate in June and produce the first Such of the coni- An attack of the fungus may be partially dia as are blown from the ground or from or entirely averted or checked , but an

conidia of the season .

decaying potato refuse on to potato plants, injury once inflicted cannot be repaired. or certain allied plants, produce disease ;

Preventive Measures. — The meas

such as fall in unsuitable positions perish. ures which have been found most use The progress of the disease is, therefore, ful in preventing or mitigating the on necessarily at first extremely slow : it slaught of the fungus are— ( 1 ) earthing

only progresses with rapidity after the up the potato -drills with a deep cover living potato plants are thoroughly in- ing of earth , with the view of preventing vaded.

the fungus from passing down the stem

“ We have secured potato cospores or through the soil to the tubers ; ( 2 )

direct from the ground by observing cutting off the diseased potato -tops before water filtered through earth on which the fungus reaches the tubers ; (3) re

diseased potato material has been al- moving and destroying (burning) all dead lowed to decay. and decaying potato -stems, leaves, and “ The fungus has attacked the leaves tubers, especially after a crop which has and proceeded downwards by the stems been attacked bythe disease ; (4) plant into the seed tuber from which the plant ing varieties which have been known to originally arose, and there, having run be exceptionally successful in resisting

its course, it has produced resting-spores the disease ; (5) growing the potato for the invasion of the following year's crop under such general sanitary and crop of potatoes.

It is much less com- manurial conditions as will ensure to the

mon to find resting-spores in the hard fullest extent possible the healthy and new tubers even when discoloured by vigorous development of the crop; and disease ; still it is quite possible to find (6) careful storing of potatoes to be used them even in new potatoes. Ripe rest- as seed.

ing-spores of the potato fungus may be None of these measures could be re found with great ease in the spring and garded as an absolute remedy, but in early summer, in the fragments of dis- certain cases each and all have been eased and decayed potatoes picked up in carried out with manifest advantage. the fields or about manure and refuse

heaps by hedge-sides.

Protective Moulding.

“ A germinating resting -spore may be This method is known generally as the compared with a germinating seed of Jensen system, from the fact that Mr J. dodder. The dodder has enough nour- L. Jensen of Copenhagen was, with the ishing material stored up within its aid of Mr C. B. Plowright, M.R.C.V.S.,

outer integument to support an infant King's Lynn , mainly instrumental in dodder plant for a short time. If no bringing it into public notice. It con suitable host plant is near, the young sists in earthing up the potato-drills with dodder perishes. The first fruiting branch a deep furrow , so as to have about 5 from a germinating resting -spore of the inches of earth over the uppermost potato fungus is in an exactly similar tubers, and thus tend to prevent the condition, for, unless the spores or coni- mycelium of the fungus from reaching dia are aided by the wind to reach a the tubers from the leaves through the

potato or some other suitable plant, the soil — the stems and leaves of the potatoes

first-produced conidia perish at once. being bent to one side, so that the spores

FUNGOID ATTACKS ON CROPS.

423

of the fungus may fall from the leaves ought to be performed with the moulding into the hollow rather than on the top plough, the Protector ,” which is con of the drills.

structed to meet the necessities of the

The fungus has in a few instances

been found to begin in the tuber and

described system.

“ 7. In order to prevent after-sickness,

work upwards, but the rule is exactly which may often be exceedingly great, not be lifte ere abou Development in the leaves the potatoes must of the potatoes would seem to be an three weeks after the last important condition in the life of the potato -field are withered.

the reverse .

t

d

leaves in the

“ 8. If the potato -tops are cut off and fungus. The object of the Jensen system is therefore to prevent its getting carried away, which, for the sake of the beyond the leaves and stems. quantity and quality of the crop, ought Mr Jensen gives the following as the not to be done before the leaves in the

“ principal points ” in the protective- main are withered , the lifting may, as it moulding system:

seems, without danger of after-sickness, “ 1. The ground must be thoroughly take place about six days after such worked, so that the potatoes may be removal.”

bedded in well -crumbled earth .

Such

Merits of the System . — This system

earth affords a better means of protec- has been extensively experimented upon tion than a lumpy soil. in this country,and the results have been “ 2. The potatoes should be planted somewhat variable. The majority of the (pretty early ) in a distance between the experimenters have come to the conclusion rows of at least 28 or 30 inches. A that if carried out carefully and at the pro

greater distance is not required by the per time, immediately thefirst signs of the system, but a smaller distance would

impede the protective moulding.

disease are observed, it will most likely have the effect of greatly mitigating a

* 3. The first moulding must be flat, serious attack of the disease - reducing so that the formed ridge be broad on top

the loss by disease in extreme cases,

and only about 4 inches high. This perhaps from 30 to 10 per cent of the moulding may be repeated if it is thought entire crop. In other cases again, it serviceable. has been much less effective. Then in

* 4. The protective moulding must be most instances it has been found to have applied as soon as the disease blotches

a marked tendency to lessen the yield of

make their appearance on the leaves of the fully grown tubers—increasing the per potato plants. If this has not occurred centage of small unmarketable potatoes,

before wheat-harvest time, the moulding so much in many cases as to make the ought to be executed then , without await ing theappearance of the disease blotches.

crop unprofitable. Mr Speir's Experiments . — Mr John

" The protective moulding is performed Speir, Newton Farm , Glasgow , put the sys by throwing up from one side of the row tem to a thorough trial, and the results led

of plants a high ridge with a broad base, him to the opinion that by it the disease and running to as sharp a point at the top as possible. The covering of earth thereby produced over the upper surface of the uppermost tubers must be about 5 inches to begin with ; later, by the settling of the earth and by sliding down, it will, as a rule, preserve a thickness of about 4 inches.

At the

may be kept within very narrow limits. His first series of experiments with the system resulted as follows : Percentage of

High Moulded . 15th June

diseased tubers .

ist July 15th July

time of this moulding the potato -tops 15th August are gently bent over towards the opposite Ist September side of the row , so as to give the top at 6th September (just after disease least a half-erect position . appeared)

16.04 12.88 8.06 7.25 9.70 5.37

6.55

“ 6. The flat and the protective mould- Moulded ve inrytheflausual way t ing, where potatoes are only grown on a Benť tops, with the high moulding small scale, may be done with a hand

31.00

hoe ; on a larger scale these operations Tops not bent

10.54

at various times

24.20

7.68

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS.

424

These results were obtained in drills

The Main Difficulty. — The main

30 inches wide. But healso experimented difficulty in late moulding is the rankness

with the system in drills of various widths, of the potato-tops. These are often so from 24 to 30 inches wide, finding that rank that it would be almost impossible by far the best crop with least disease to have the earthing up accomplished was obtained from high moulding on 30- without great injury to them. On this inch drills.

Upon 24 -inch drills, the re- account alone many who have tried the

sults of the high moulding were unsatis- systenı and acknowledge its efficiency factory.

This corresponds with the ex. have abandoned it as impracticable.

perience of others, who have found that in: As a means of obviating this difficulty a narrow drill with a sharp apex, numerous of injuring the tops in late earthing up

potatoes are liable to be a greened ” by it has been recommended— (1) that the coming so near to the surface.

potato -drills should be unusually wide,

Other Experiments. — Results quite not under 30 inches ; or ( 2 ) that between as favourable to high moulding as in the every twodrills of potatoes there should

trials made by Mr Speir were obtained be two, four, or more drills of roots, in the south -east of Scotland by MrS. D. mangels or turnips. The latter method Shirreff, North Berwick, Mr H. Elder,

would be most advantageous to the pota

East Bearford, and others. On the other toes, but in working it would rarely be hand, at Barneymains, near Edinburgh, practicable—that is, where potatoes are Mr John Durie found that while the high grown to any great extent. moulding lessened the disease by a small Upon the whole, we have no hesita percentage, it incurred an actual loss on tion in recommending that where it can

the crop by reducing the yield of market- be done without serious injury to the able potatoes.

potato - tops, the protective moulding

Bending the Tops. — The bending of should be resorted to whenever an attack the potato -tops to one side of the drill of the disease is observed. no doubt tends to lessen the disease, but

High Moulding Plough . — The Jen

it is also liable to reduce the yield of the son or “ Protector ” plough is designed crop. If done roughly, so as to break or specially for the high moulding. The bruise the stem , the development of the work may be done, however, by an ordin

tubers will be seriously interfered with. ary drill or single-furrow plough, provided If done at all, the bending of the tops with an unusually deep mould for throw must beperformed with great care and ing the earth on to the top of the drill. Antiquity of the System . — The sys very tenderly. It is almost impracticable where large areas of potatoes are grown . tem of high moulding was not " in The System little Practised. — Al- vented ” by Mr Jensen, as has been though there would seem to be certain

sometimes stated.

It was practised by

merits in the protective moulding - a few English potato - growers about although it would seem to be the most 1850, and was described by Dr Jeffrey effective method yet known of repelling Lang in the Journal of the Royal Agri or lessening a threatened serious attack

cultural Society of England for 1858.

of the disease — the fact remains that the Dr Lang remarks that " it was observed system has never come into general use that no potato covered with more than3

throughout the country. A few, but only inches of soil was ever diseased. . . . It a few, persevere with it, and while there will at once be seen - and too much stress are a good many farmers who speak well cannot be laid on the fact — that the dis

of it, it does not seem to be gaining ground. It is probably most effective in repelling an attack of the disease which occurs late in the season — that is, after the crop has approached its full growth.

ease is in exact ratio to the proximity of the tubers to the surface.” Then, as now , the practical difficulty of

carrying out the work successfully would seem to have prevented its extensive

In thiscase, of course, injury to the tops adoption. would not tell so seriously upon the yield as if it occurred earlier in the season.

Cutting off the Tops.

Since it is generally the case that the 1 N. B. Agriculturist, 1882 and 1883.

disease begins on the leaves and passes

FUNGOID ATTACKS ON CROPS.

425

down the stems to the tubers, it follows fungus may be powerfully influenced by that the tubers might be protected from theconditions under which the crop is it by the leaves and stems being cut off cultivated . It may be accepted as a and removed as soon as the fungus is general rule, that whatever tends to re observed upon them.

tard the healthy growth or weaken the

This, indeed, is a speedy and effective vitality of the plant assists the fungus in method of combating the fungus. But its onslaught. the remedy inay be worse than the disHumidity necessary for the Fun ease . The removal of the stems and gus . - As with most forms of fungi, it is leaves at once stops the development of necessary for the preservation andpropa the tubers. The starch of which the gation of the potato fungus, Peronospora potato is so largely composed is first

infestans, that a considerable amount of

formed in the leaves. If, therefore, the moisture should be present. Indeed, we leaves are removed before the tubers are have it on the highest authority that ripe, the result must be a deficient crop. nearly every part of the fungus in the It is thus only as a last resort—where an immature, deficient crop would be

active state (that is, apart from the con dition of the resting - spore in which it

better than the crop likely to be left by lives through the winter ) speedily perishes the disease, if allowed to take its course in dry air, heat, or frost. In the form --that this drastic measure should be of the zoospores, or resting - spores as adopted. they are aptly termed, the germ of the

As a further precaution, when the fungus will survive through the hazards leaves and stems are cut off, it has been

of the winter.

recommended that the cut ends of the

and free propagation on the potato plants

But for its fructification

stems should be sprinkled with dry lime. in the following season, a considerable amount of moisture on and around the

Disease-resisting Varieties. potato plants would seem to be quite It is known that certain varieties are, essential. for the time being, exceptionally successDry Elevated Land for Potatoes.

ful in resisting the attacks of the fungus. The practical lesson to be drawn from This valuable property is most generally this is, that potatoes should, as far as found in some comparatively new variety possible, be grown upon well - drained —a variety recently raised from the seed, land, in a dry, elevated, bracing position.

perhaps by cross-fertilisation, as described Low - lying swampy ground, subject to in pp. 276-280 of this volume - whose mists, is, on this account, particularly ill constitution and vitality of growth are suited for potatoes . It is well known unusually robust. that the disease is most liable to break

It is obviously advantageous therefore, out and do serious mischief during close as a means of guarding against loss from humid weather when mists envelop the the disease, to plant for the main crop such varieties as are at the time known

fields morning and evening.

It will often be beyond the

power of

to be the most successful in resisting the the farmer to avert these conditions. He onslaught of the fungus. can, however, do a good deal in this Unfortunately there is a tendency in direction - mainly by avoiding low -lying all the cultivated varieties of potatoes to

ill - drained land with his potatoes, and

lose vitality with long -continued culture. The “ Champion ,” for instance, which for many years was almost disease-proof, at last fell an easy prey to the fungus. It is therefore desirablethat the propagating

planting them on dry exposed land. tive to the fungus. It is therefore useful to have the potato -drills wide apart, and

of new and robust varieties should be

set so that the noonday sun may have

Sunshine and Dry Winds. — Bright sunshine and dry hot winds are destruc

liberally encouraged by potato-growers. full play amongst the tops. See pp. 276-280 of this volume. Manure . — In manuring, as in other matters connected with the culture of

Conditions of Culture.

potatoes, it is important that the crops

The liability (or the opposite) of the should be treated so as to secure as robust

potato to injury from an attack of the and steady growth as possible. Imper

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS .

426

fectly balanced manure will tend to pro- are dispersed each June, whose special duce plants which are constitutionally mission is to devastate potato crops. weak . See therefore that the crop has The warmth or moisture of the ' pies

all that it requires of the various ele- (or pits) and manure-heaps are the exact conditions required by resting -spores for

ments of plant-food.

The decaying of rank dung in the soil their maturation . “ As darkness, heat, and humidity are is favourable to fungoid life. Well-rotted

dung is for this reason preferable to fresh highly favourable to the growth of the dung for potatoes. And artificial man- Peronospora, all potatoes should be ure affords less encouragement to the stored in perfectly dry, airy places, in fungus than dung, with its bulk of putre- positions where light is not entirely ex cluded . Potatoes should never on any fying vegetable matter. As with the human family, so with account be stored in heaps in the damp

plants --the best safeguard from disease holes in the ground termed pies.'” It is the general plan to store potatoes is healthy food and healthy sanitary surin long narrow clamps or pits, sunk per roundings. haps 8 or 10 inches in the soil, and Destroying Potato Refuse. covered with earth and other material. One of the most essential and effective It would no doubt be an additional pre precautions against future outbreaks of caution against the disease to store in a

the disease is to gather and destroy all specially dry, airy position ( as in the " boxing ” system, see p. 274), such tubers that may be left on the field potatoes as are to be used as seed.

potato refuse - leaves, stems, and rotten when the crop has been harvested.

In

Mr Jensen has described and recom

all probability, if disease had attacked mended a system of disinfecting potato the crop, this refuse will be swarming sets by heating them in a sort of oven with the germs of the disease .

up to a temperature of 104° Fahr.

The

To gather this infested rubbish to scheme, however, is scarcely practicable. the dung -heap is absolutely nursing the enemy-keeping it warm and vigorous for future attacks.

OTHER POTATO DISEASES.

Burn the potato

refuse, if convenient; if not convenient, Potatoes are also sometimes attacked bury it beneath the reach of the tillage and injured by other fungi, notably the implements. " No more fatal mistake,” Fusisporium solani,Mart., andThe thePeziza former says Mr W. G. Smith, “ can be made by postuma, Berk. and Wils. potato-growers than leaving dead stems, often does serious damage to the crop leaves, and tubers about in their fields,

in the southern and midland counties

especially after a potato crop has suffered of England, but has not invaded Wales red

from disease.”

or Scotland .

The latter has incur

heavy losses, chiefly in Ireland, by de Care of Potato Seed .

stroying the leaves before the crop has

The seed to be planted should not matured. only be selected from disease-resisting The best method of prevention against varieties, but have been stored in con- these fungoid attacks is to burn or bury

ditions antagonistic to the life of the deeply all potato refuse, dead stems, germs ofthe fungus. Upon this point leaves, and rotting tubers. Mr W. G. Smith writes : “ Sometimes Smut in potatoes (producing a form growers keep their potatoes in enormous of scab) is caused by the fungus Tuber. underground heaps, called ' pies ' [orcinia scabies, B. It grows beneath the pits] ; in these positions the tubers fre- skin of the tuber, forming there a thin quently heat and rot. In other instances dark stratum , and showing itself by dis diseased potatoes are interbedded in coloured blotches on the skin . Tubers

dunghills, or dug into the ground. In showing traces of smut should not be all such cases the best means have been

taken for successfully propagating the disease. From all such positions many millions of conidia of the potato fungus

used as seed.

Other forms of scab may be due to 1 Dis. of Field and Garden Crops, 314, 315 .

FUNGOID ATTACKS ON CROPS .

427

some irritating influence in the soil, leaves on a few plants, first noticed in a which , when detected, should be avoided. dry warm day. When pulled up, the tap TURNIPS.

root is found to be more or less diseased , and the smaller rootlets may have alto gether disappeared, and the bulb will be

“ Finger-and- Toe" or Sporting. more or less affected . The excrescences This is a condition of the turnip plant rapidly increase in size, are irregular in characterised by a non -development of form , sometimes like races of ginger. In

bulb, and a division of the tap -root into more than one branch. Sometimes the divisions resemble human fingers or toes, and hence the name. Cause . — Professor Buckland has de

monstrated that the disease is due to “ a

degeneration of the plant from cultivation to wildness,” to which there is always a tendency in root crops exposed to adverse

conditions,—such as poor exhausted soil ; continuous bad cultivation ; rearing of theseed without transplanting, from small or late -sown bulbs ; or in a dull, dark, warm climate.

Sporting. – One form of the disease is called sporting. In this case the stem

gets tall, strong, and branched ; and the roots, mere strongly divided fangs or forks, taking such a hold of the soil as to render

the plant difficult to pull up. This sport ing is frequently seen in the south and west of Ireland, where the common turnip often runs to shaw, and even swedes fre

quently produce sports, which do not happen with the same seed sown in a different climate. Remedies . — The indicated remedies

Fig. 399. - Anbury or club -root - early stage.

are, to raise the seed from fair - sized

transplanted bulbs, and good cultivation bad cases the roots decay, and, being un fit to absorb moisture or nutriment, the both before and after the seed is sown . Finger -and -toe distinct from An- plant fades and dies altogether. Or the bury . — The name of this disease is often diseased roots may get amputated, and

popularly applied to anbury or club -root, the plant throw out new roots, and a totally different ailment having no

recover so far as to form a fair - sized

character in common with finger -and-toe bulb. or sporting

Anbury or Club -root.

If there is even a little of this disease

in a crop, its keeping qualities will be im paired. A slight frost will cause many

Features and Symptoms. — This dis- of the bulbs to decay ; and the feeding

ease is characterised by warts or excres- qualities will be much deteriorated, the cences on the bulbs,ortap -root, as shown roots being spongy and sapless. in fig. 399. When attacked at an early Cause . — The real cause of this disease stage, club -like swellings may be seen on has long been a puzzle. By the late Rev.

theminute roots beforethe plant is three James Duncan' it was erroneously ascribed weeks old. At other times the crop is in to the attacks of the maggot of the An

a more advanced stage before the disease thomyia brassica, the cabbage-fly, whose is manifest .

The first outward symptoms of the dis ease often appear in a shrivelling of the

bite he believed produced the excres 1 Trans. High . and Agric. Soc .

INSECT AND FUNGOID PESTS .

428

cences, as that of the gall-insect produces cells are mostly, in comparison with the neighbouring cells, somewhat enlarged . Mr Barclay, M.P. for Forfarshire, in a In sections of cabbage roots that prize essay written in 1863, says : “ I are more severely attacked, other cells have come to the conclusion that the are densely filled with very minute, like .

galls.

' finger -and - toe ' [anbury] disease is wise colourless globular bodies. caused by a superfluity of the combustible This fine - grained plasma is the plas as compared with the incombustible ele- modium, and the small round bodies are ments assimilated by the plant — that is,

the spores of that organism , to which

the diseased plant has abstracted from I give the name of Plasmodiophora the soil, and more particularly from the brassicce. atmosphere, a quantity of combustible “ In all parenchym cells, which con. constituents too large in proportion to tain the plasmodium of the Plasmodio

the incombustible elements which it has taken up from the soil, its only source of mineral food . This superfluous quantity of combustible elements has to be disposed of, and hence result those excres cences and abnormal growths which de

phora, the formation of spores gradually comes into play, and almost simul

taneously the whole mass of the hernia protuberances begins to putrefy. When they remain long in moist ground, the hernia protuberances soon become

stroy the plant. In short, the disease quite rotten, and by this means the is the result of the inability of the roots spores find their way, first into the earth , to extract from the soil, as fast as the

and then into the young roots of the

growth of the plant demands, that certain still quite healthy cabbages, which in quantity of minerals indispensable for the their turn get quite infected with the production of healthy turnip fibre." disease. The farther development of the M.Woronin’s Discoveries.-In 1878

spore lying loose in the earth consists in

M. Woronin, a Russian fungologist, pub- the escape of a myxameba from every lished a paper on the club-root in cab- spore.

The myxamceba do not re bage, which throws new light upon the main long in the ground ; they contrive allied disease in the turnip. From a to penetrate the healthy young cabbage translation of that paper the following roots. Unfortunately I have altogether extracts are taken : failed to see this process of penetration

“ The hernia disease attacks all varieties actually going on under the microscope ; turnip , rape, and nevertheless

assume it as an indisput so I In England cabbage hernia is able fact that the myxamoeba do pene

of cabbage, forth.

called clubbing, club -root, anbury, or also trate into the cabbage roots, right through finger-and-toes.. : . The real cause of the hairs and epiblem cells.” this cabbage hernia has thus remained Mr A. S. Wilson's Experiments. hitherto unknown , and now I have suc- The discovery of M. Woronin has been

ceeded in finding it out. On examining verified by Mr A. Stephen Wilson of the protuberances of the roots, I dis- North Kinmundy, Aberdeenshire, who covered a new organism , which I have satisfied himself ? that the fungus in the termed Plasmodioj hora brassicæ . . If we make two cross sections, the one

turnip club is the same fungus as M. Woronin found in the cabbage. He

of a quite healthy cabbage root, and the other of a root of the same age, but which already has been attacked by hernia, and compare these two sections together, we shall see that the difference

found turnip seeds sown in “ water mixed with the pulverised clubs of the pre vious year to have their roots attacked.” He also mixed a quantity of rotten clubs of crop 1878, containing these spores,

between them consists solely in this with garden mould in which no disease that in the diseased root some cells of existed, “ and all the resulting plants the bark parenchym are filled with an became at an early stage excessively and

opaque, colourless, fine - grained, plas- fatally clubbed.” matic substance, and moreover, that the There thus seems a strong probability 1 Jahrbucher für wissenschaftliche Botanik. Pringsheim , 1878.

2

Papers read to Cryptogamic Society of Scot

land in 1879 and 1880.

FUNGOID ATTACKS ON CROPS . that this fungus is the cause of clubbing,

429

Preventive Measures. — There seems

and that its spores exist both in diseased to be no cure for the disease.

The fol

roots and in the soil, and attack healthy lowing measures of prevention, however, cruciferous plants. have been found useful : To have as Contributing Influences. While many years between turnip crops as con

M. Woronin has probably discovered the venient; avoid taking infected dung to true cause of the disease, its virulence is the farm, or, if made on the farm ,use

greatly controlled by surrounding condi- it for some other crop than turnips; tions, which affect the constitution of secure seeds from healthy plants ; avoid the crop, and alter its powers of with- working land when wet ; drain wet land. standing attacks. Wet districts and soils If a field is infected — that is, has shown containing much humus are more subject the disease in the previous crop - expos to the disease than soils in a dry climate, which accumulate less organic matter.

ing the drills to dry weather before the dung is put on has a beneficial influence.

The frequent repetition of the turnip If a field get infected, the substitution

crop upon the same soil, as in the four of potatoesor other crop for turnips will or five course rotation, is notorious as sometimes eradicate the disease. Lime

causing an aggravation of the disease, or marl, applied some years before the while the disease seldom causes much crop is sown, is found to have a favour loss under a six or seven years' course. able effect in lessening the disease, but

Working the land wet, either in autumn when not required to benefit crops it is a or spring, distinctly increases it, and rather costly remedy. A dressing of gas ought to be avoided as much as possible. lime and salt, mixed a month or two The treading of horses upon wet soil is before application, has been tried with most injurious to succeeding crops. good results. Manure and Anbury . - Farmyard Mildew . manure, made from cattle consuming dis eased turnips, and turnip -shed refuse, will Turnips, like most other plants, are infect sound land and cause the disease.

occasionally attacked with mildew , or

Professor Jamieson found that soluble mealdew , a species of oidium . phosphatic manures always increased the It is usually most injurious in dry number of diseased bulbs, and, after seasons, but even very dry weather does many careful trials, he holds the opinion not always lead to attacks of mildew .

that sulphur in any form aggravates the In some seasons the atmosphere seems to disease. Dung that has lain some time in be in a state highly favourable to the water , and urine applied with a water- development of the oidium . In Scotland, in 1852, most of the tur cart direct to the drills, have been known to produce it. nip fields assumed a white appearance in Varieties of Turnips and the Dis. September, the leaves rotted off, the

ease . — The seed seems to influence the bulbs, in most cases a fair size, ceased disease ; but whether the spores can at- to grow , and after a time put out new tach themselves in any way, or whether

leaves.

In that season the growth of

some seeds produce more vigorous plants turnips was rapid and the weather dry, than other seeds, and thus escape the hazy , and dull. In 1865 turnips in attacks of this fungus, is unsettled. many parts were badly mildewed in Many instances are on record where the August, during a period of dry, hazy plants from one kind of seed succumbed weather. Wherever a plant had much to the disease, while those from another extra space, it was not affected, but kept variety escaped uninjured . When dis- green the whole season . ease exists in a field sown with several

There does not seem to be any prac

varieties of turnip seed, it is always more tical method of checking the oidium , · virulent in some of the kinds than in others.

once it has fairly set in, as the crop is not usually of sufficient value to admit

Its virulence may be further influ- of the application of sulphur, which is enced by the weather during the work- so effective in the vine disease. Fortu

ing of the land, sowing, hoeing, or at a nately the disease is only now and then particular stage of growth.

injurious.

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER.

430

known for mould. Finely powdered sul phur is blown on to the plants by

HOPS .

Mildew.— The hop mildew, Spoero- means of a machine called a hop-sulphur theca castagnei, is the most destructive ator, drawn by a horse between the rows

of several kinds of fungi which attack of hops.

A fan revolves quickly in a

hop plants. It is commonly known as trough containing the powdered sulphur, “ mould ,” and is in many respects similar throwing it up in clouds all over the to the much -dreaded potato fungus, the plants. From 50 to 80 lb. of sulphur are Peronospora infestans . The mould first applied per acre at one operation. It is appears as whitish , mouldy blotches on found that the best time to sulphur hops

the leaves, soon becoming discoloured is on a calm , sunshiny day. Sulphuring and developing the black receptacles on hops is now a regular process upon many the surfaces of the leaf.

These mouldy farms whether mould appears or not, and

patches appear on the plants where they then if the mould should happen to ap have formed burrs or cones, and soon after pear, the sulphuring is repeated. Ex they will blacken and decay.

perienced hands must be employed in

As means of prevention, Mr Whitehead sulphuring or syringing hops. Another fungus which attacks the hop says that it is most important to destroy

every particle of bine by burning, and to plant is an imperfect fungus belonging to remove all rubbish and refuse from the the group of parasitic fungi known as Uredinec. Sulphuring is equally effec Sulphur is the most effectual remedy tive in combating this enemy.

proximity of the hop grounds.

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER .

During the months of summer the inspect the state of the fences, in order farmer bestows a large share of his at- to put them into such repair as to pre tention upon live stock . Animals on vent the stock scrambling through gaps, pasture usually give comparatively little to the injury of the fence and themselves. trouble, yet it is desirable that they

Removing Surface

Stones .

On

should be carefully observed and promptly every kind of soil, any stones incon attended to in any matter affecting their veniently large which are lying upon health and progress.

pasture should be gathered by the field

It is the rule in this country for all workers, and carted away for use on

kindsof farmlive stock, excepting horses the farm -roads. It may happen that the in daily employment, to find their subsistence on the arable pasture fields and natural grazing lands. In many instances, however, cattle, such as dairy cows and fattening cattle, are housed and fed under cover in summer as well This latter method of as in winter. summer management will be noticed later on . We will first deal with the animals on the pastures.

PREPARING PASTURE FOR STOCK.

pressure of other field -work may prevent horses and carts being given for this purpose. In that case the stones should

be gathered in small heaps upon the fur row -brow of every other single ridge. But it should be remembered that heaps of stones occupy much ground, and prevent the growth of as much grass ; so that they should be carted away as soon

as possible. When carts are used, the stones are thrown directly into them whereas heaps require to be carefully piled up, which wastes time, and they have to be removed after all.

Some

Before giving the stock possession of farmers are regardless of gathering stones the pasture fields, it is advisable to at- from pasture fields, while all acknowledge tend to some preliminaries, such as stone that stones ought to be cleared from grass

gathering, rolling ; and in particular to intended to be cut for hay.

In wet

PREPARING PASTURE FOR STOCK .

431

weather no cart should be allowed to go thorn plants filling it up. A wide gap upon, or stones be gathered from, new should be filled up at once with living grass on any soil. plants, or with young stems from the Rolling Grass Land.Every field of hedge on both sides. grass that is new , or that is loose and Stone Fences . – Stone

fences should

spongy on the surface, should be rolled be repaired by a dry-stone mason , by with the smooth roller some time before replacing copestones, or rebuilding part the stock enter upon it ; and unless the of the wall where it has crumbled down. ground be cleared of stones, it cannot It is seldom that the stones driven or receive the full benefits of rolling.

The fallen down can repair a wall, so that

best time for rolling is when the surface is fresh ones have to be provided. The dry, and not hard ; forwhen young grass stones left on making repairs should be is rolled with the land in a hard state,

immediately removed .

In making re

it is bruised and blackened ; and when pairs in all sorts of fences, a means

the grass is wet, it is too much pressed should be provided for allowing the and flattened ; and when simply dry, its cattle-man or shepherd to go from field

elasticity causes it to spring up after to field when looking after his flock . the pressure of the roller.

Light land

This may be in the form of a passage

bears rolling at any time when the sur- through the fence, or of steps leading face is dry, the clods being easily over the top of it.

crumbled down ; but grass is bruised

Repairing Gates.

between the roller and hard clods on

clay land, and rolling causes soft clay

Besides the fences, the gates of grass

to become encrusted on drying. Rolling fields require inspection and repairs. A

clay land thus requires consideration ; broken post or bar should be replaced and the iron -work re and the only criterion of its being in à by the carpenter, fit state for the roller, is when clods paired by the smith. The most con crumble down with pressure of the foot, venient position for a gate, for easy not merely become flat on account of entrance into and egress from a field , is their toughness, or enter whole into the at the end of one or both head -ridges. soil. Rolling is done across the ridges. Field -gates should fold back upon the After rolling, grass grows rapidly if the fence, and should not shut of themselves . weather be favourable ; but if frosty, it when they shut of themselves, they are assumes a brown tint. apt to catch the wheel of the passing cart, and be broken, or the post snapped Repairing Fences. asunder. People pass through self-shut While the surface of the field is thus ting gates without fastening them, and

being prepared for stock, the fences young horses take delight to loiter about should be repaired.

gates, and escape through such.

Young horses rub against gates ; a thorn or whin-branch, wattled through sisted by the shepherd ; and where there the bars, prevents them. So does barbed is no hedger, the shepherd or cattle-man wire, but it is liable to inflict serious in Hedges . — The hedger repairs the

thorn fences.

In this he is often as-

undertakes the duty. The repairing of jury on both man and beast in exposed hedges consists in filling up gaps. Gaps occur in hedges by death of plants, or by trespassers. Gaps are made fencible by drawing a strong thorn branch across the hedge roots, or by driving 2 stakes iïn the face of the hedge-bank behind the gap, and nailing 2 or 3 short rails on them , or I or 2 pieces of plain or barbed wire, or

situations. Fixing Gate -post.We have found

a good plan of fixing a hanging post for a gate to dig a narrow hole, 3 feet deep, and lay a flat stone of about 15 inches square, and 7 or 8 inches thick on the

bottom , at the centre of which is cut a hollow 8 or 9 inches in diameter, and 3

by wattling the stakes with branches of or 4 inches deep, to take in the lower

trees or thorn, or by setting a dead hedge end of the post, dressed with the axe to upon the hedge-bank.

fit the hollow . On setting in the post

Nothing should be placed in the gap, perpendicularly, earth alone is put in as it prevents the lateral shoots ofthe spadefuls in the hole around the post,

432

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER .

and rammed hard up to the surface of the ground. Fig. 400 shows the hole into which the post is sunk, as also at the bottom the stone in which the end of

classes of farm animals require for their daily wants on pasture varies greatly, according to such influences as the suc culence of the pasture, the heat of the

the post is inserted . The lower end of sun, and the amount of exercise. It has the post has the bark on and smeared been estimated that on pastures in dry

with coal-tar, and the upper part is weather horses and cattle require about planed and painted. Earth, hard rammed, five gallons of water each per day, and sheep about half a gallon. The aim of the owner should be to let the animals

have access to pure water when they feel in want of it , and there will be little

danger of the animals drinking more than is good for them. That is,if they have had no undue exercise or other

stimulus to excessive drinking. Running Water. — Running water is the best of all, for with ordinary care it

is most likely to be pure and fresh . If there is no open stream which can be diverted into the field, it may be possible to draw in a supply by a pipe from some adjacent stream

Pump Water. - Failing this, a pump may be sunk and worked either byhand

or windmill. When a trough is employed HEROKEE

to hold the field supply of water, the

trough should be thoroughly cleaned out Fig . 400. - Secure mode of fixing the hanging - post of afield -gate . ab Hole for the post. c Stone at the bottom of the hole. e Insertion of the post in the stone.

ſ Stone for heel-post of gate. d Crook for gate.

at least every week. This will cause little trouble if the trough is made with a plug in the bottom , so that it may be washed out.

Rain -water Ponds. — If this, again , should not be practicable or sufficient, then means may be employed for collect

holds a wooden gate -post more perma- ing and preserving for drinking purposes nently firm than the small stones com- the water of the rainfall. For this pur

monly used, however compactly jammed pose ponds are formed. These ponds in round it. Part of the hedge- fence of are generally circular in shape, 4 or 5 the field is also shown, and the crook on feet deep in the centre, rising towards which the gate is hung. the edges, and from 30 to 60 feet in diameter, according to the number of Water on Pastures.

stock to be supplied .

The bottom of

The importance of having pasture the pond is lined with about a foot of fields well supplied with fresh, pure moist clay, trodden firm , and it is a good

water for stock can hardly be overesti- plan to prevent damage from worms to mated. This has more to do with the lay on the top of thisa layer of quick

progress of grazing stock than is gener- lime, fully aninch thick , and then follow ally imagined. It is indeed one of the with another layer of clay, perhaps not conditions which are absolutely essential quite so thick as the first layer, but pounded tolerably firm . This should

to the profitable grazing of stock .

Assuredly in every field in which form a pond which will be sufficiently horses, cattle, or sheep are grazed day water-tight. In some cases ponds are and night, or even for a whole day, there made with one layer of clay and mixed should be a supply of water. with lime to prevent the depredations of Quantity of Water for Stock . — The worms, with a layer of straw on the top

quantity of water which the different to prevent the sun from cracking the

PREPARING PASTURE FOR STOCK .

433

clay, and then over all a coating of These should stand about 6 feet in height.

small stones.

The surface should neither be

Reliability of Ponds. — It is really so rough as to injure the skins of the surprising how faithfully ponds so made animals, nor so smooth as not to afford a

retain a supply of water. It is perhaps satisfactory scratching. Perhaps the best still more surprising how, in some cir- material for a rubbing-post is the trunk cumstances, they collect thewater which of a spruce-tree, with the branches sawn they constantly contain. High up on off, not too close to the trunk. the downs in the southern counties of Salt on Pastures. England there are artificial ponds which are so situated that they cannot possibly A little salt is relished by stock on be fed from springs in the soil, and which pastures and is beneficial to them , espe

have nevertheless for many years main- cially in the case of cattle and sheep. A tained a constant supply of drinking convenient way of giving this is in the water for the flocks that feed around form of lumps of rock -salt placed here them. The old idea that the supply was and there over the pastures, either upon kept up by the condensation of dew upon a close piece of

the cool surface of the water (hence the grass or in a name dew ponds) has been shown to be shallow wood erroneous.

SALT ROLLER

The source of supply is un en box.

questionably rainfall, and thisis so abun-

A very use-

BRORSESERSLEEP 。

dant in all parts of the United Kingdom, ful contriv that if proper ponds were formed for the ance for hold

conservation of rain -water, there is no farm or field in the country which could not thereby be well supplied with drinking water for animals. Care of Ponds. — When these ponds have to be depended upon for drinking

ing rock - salt within reach of stock, and yet preserving

Fig. 401. - Salt -roller.

it from becom

ing filthy by rolling on the ground is

water for animals, the farmer must take shown in fig. 401 (Spratt’s patent). It care to see that they are kept clean and is attached to a post at a height to suit in good order. As a rule, itwill be suffi- the class of stock in the field. cient to have the pond cleaned out once a

year fora couple of yards or so round the edges where the animals may leave drop-

Weeds on Pastures.

Sufficient attention is not given to

pings. The pond should be carefully ex- clearing weeds off pastures.

Upon

amined now and again, to ensure that arable farms all obnoxious weeds in

its water may not be contaminated by the pasture fields should be most care any animal matter decaying in it. It is fully cut down or pulled up by the

by no means rare to see the body of a root, according to the nature of the dog orcat decaying in drinking -ponds. weed. As a rule, one timely cutting will This should take place early

Can it be healthful for animals to drink

suffice.

water so tainted ? It must indeed be positively injurious to their health. These ponds should be placed at corners where each pond might supply two, three, or more fields, and where they

in the grazing season, so that the weeds may not be allowed to run to seed .

With some weeds, such as thistles, a

second cutting later in the season may benecessary.

would also be out of the way of tillage There is usually a plethora of weeds by the sides of roadways, hedges, and operations.

Carting Water. — Carting water to other divisions, and these should also be pasture fields is a serious affair, yet in ruthlessly cut down. many cases it has to be done daily during Permanent pastures should likewise the entire grazing season . have attention in this matter ; while on

pastoral farms there may be green patches on the lower parts which would repay Every pasture field should be provided the trouble of clearing them of weeds. with two or three good rubbing -posts. “ Weeds,” wherever they appear, are Rubbing -post.

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER .

434

enemies to the farmer, and should have doubles or any weakly single lambs (with no harbour.

their mothersof course) on the new grass.

This gradual transference not only pro SHEEP IN SUMMER .

longs the supply of young grass to the animals most in need of it, but also allows time for the permanent pasture to

The important question as to what sheep should be disposed of for slaughter and what retained for grazing when the supply of turnips has been exhausted,

obtain a satisfactory start. After this, in average seasons, there will likely be little difficulty as to food. Let the new grass be moderately cropped, but not too

will depend upon circumstances which closely eaten. See p. 78, Divisional vol. are liable to almost infinite variation ; iii. Scarcity of Grass. — It may often such, for instance, as the price of mutton

at the time, and the prospects of a rise happen that in a backward season the or fall in the near future, the condition grass, old and new , but especially the

of the sheep — whether well prepared for old, comes up so slowly as to make it difficult for farmers to carry their flocks successfully through the earlier weeks of the grazing period. In this event it will probably be the better plan to keep the also the general plan of management on ewes (with their lambs) for a time on

killing or not ; the class of sheep — whether of a kind likely to be in demand later in the season, or to be useful and required for breeding on the farm ; as

the farm , and the probable supply of artificial feeding with a run on the new All these and other circum- grass, turning them out to the old pas stances tending to regulate the actions ture in the evening Linseed -cake and of the flock -owner are subject to so many bran mixed - 1/2 to34 lb. each daily, ac pasture.

variations that each farmer must be left cording to the supply of grass — will be to decide for himself at the time. Only found good food for ewes in milk . On hogging farms the difficulty is more this general advice will be ventured upon

—it is prudent to sell fat stock when easily overcome, but with them alsoit of prices are fairly satisfactory ; better a course involves additional outlay. Until fair price in hand than the prospect of a the grass has become plentiful the hoggs big price in the uncertain future !

or non -breeding sheep may be kept on winter fare, minus the turnips, which

Pasturing Sheep on Arable Farms.

may have been exhausted longago. Up

The method of pasturing sheep on on cake, bran , bruised oats, and chaffed

arable land will be regulated according hay, with access to water and rock -salt, to the class of stock kept and the nature these sheep will thrive admirably. and management of the farm . The stock Attention to Ewes and Lambs . may be a breeding or flying (hogging) The duties of the shepherd, after he has one, or a certain modification of either, placed his flock on the pasture, are com

or both these recognised classes. A ewe paratively light. . Still there are a few stock is generally found where the farm is largely under rotation grasses or permanent pasture. The hogging system , on the other hand, prevails where the farm is worked in rotation, and the soil

matterswhich require attention from him. He must carefully observe the ewes, to see that the lambs are sucking properly. Many ewes, owing usually to sore teats, refuse to allow their lambs to

adapted for turnip culture.

continue sucking ; and, if neglected , gar

or udder-clap may set in . The ewe Ewes and Lambs. — In the spring get must be held till sucked, and the teats

division of this work we left the ewes

and lambs on the new grass. To lighten anointed with some healing lotion. If a lamb does not seem to care for its the demand on the young grass the earlier

lambed ewes with their lambs may be mother, it will generally be found that drafted away to the more distant and the ewe has little or no milk . In this perhaps less sheltered fields of older case the lamb, now likely able to forage

grass. Gradually they may be followed for itself, should be put on some extra

by the single lambs and the stronger food, and the ewe turned out to the poor doubles, thus leaving only the weaker est pasture on the farm .

SHEEP IN SUMMER .

435

Summer Treatment and Disposal. evenly with the “ tops ” at the time -The kind of treatment as to food which of selling. the various classes of sheep will receive The wether hoggs will most probably

during the summer will be regulated to be disposed of after clipping , and then suit the end for which they are intended the ewe hoggs, which may hitherto have —when and for what purpose they are had the poorest of the pasture, can be to be disposed of. Sheep intended to be promoted to better grazing. fattened and sold for slaughter during Shifting Sheep on Pastures . — When the summer and autumn, or early in sheep are enclosed on fields, it is very

winter, will of course be treated differ- desirable that they should be frequently

ently from those to be carried on in shifted on to fresh pasture. The change store condition.

will be beneficial both for the sheep and Summer Fattening . – Sheep intended the pasture. It will be all the better for to be fattened on the pastures during the sheep if the changes can bearranged summer are usually graded in lots, ac- from poorer to richer food. Where the cording to the conveniences on the farm

fields are large they should be divided,

in the way of separate fields. And it is perhaps by a temporary fence of wire or a matter of great importance on grazing iron hurdles — iron hurdles on wheels farms to have a good many fields of being specially suitable for this purpose, small or moderate size, rather than fewer although rather expensive. Certain fields, fields of greater area . Of the sheep or portions of fields, should be allowed to

to be fattened a draw of the best is made, and these are put into the best piece of pasture. With plenty of good sweet pasture, and perhaps a little cake and grain, they will now fatten rapidly.

grow up well for a short time, and when the sheep are removed to these preserved portions, the pastures they have left will make headway, and afford another fresh change when it becomes desirable. Bruised oats are much in favour for fatAnimals are fond of changes in this tening sheep on pasture. way ; and by being thus cropped and

The remainder of the sheep for fatten- allowed to grow alternately, pastures ing may be still further graded or kept produce more food than if cropped con together as will best suit the arrange tinuously throughout the season. Many ments of the farm and the objects in

flock -owners change the stock from field

It is usually advantageous to to field every three weeks, taking care have the fattening sheep coming into a never to allow the grass on any one field fit state for slaughter at different times either to grow too rank or be too closely view .

In this way they eaten . Water for Sheep.— There is a pre can be sold in small lots, as the condition

instead of all at once .

of the market may dictate. The plan of vailing idea amongst many farmers that gradingin the feeding is therefore agood there is little or no necessity toprovide one, and should be carried out as far as

water for sheep on pasture. This is a

possible.

serious mistake, which is responsible for

When the first lot has been disposed greater losses to flock -owners than would of, the second is taken in hand and simi- be readily imagined. Much of course depends upon the larly pushed on till ready for the market;

and so on till the entirestock of feeding sheep has been disposed of. Store Sheep in summer. — The sheep to be kept simply in good store condi-

pasture and the weather. On succulent pasture with heavy dews sheep may re quire no further supply of water ; but in dry weather and on dry pasture they tion during summer are of course treat- cannot thrive and maintain good health ed less sumptuously than the fattening without access to water. sheep.

A common plan with a flock of

For ewes and lambs in particular water

hoggs is to select the leanest and small- should invariably be provided.

It is

est, and assign these to the best of the especially necessary if artificial food is pasture available for the store sheep, given. For sheep as well as other ani

so that upon this (and perhaps a little mals running water is best ; and if it is extra food in the shape of oats) they supplied in ponds, see sthat these arelekept

may so develop as to “ match

more

clean .

Many disease are traceab

to

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER .

436

the drinking of impure water. It is a feet. Shepherds cannot be too alert in fertile source of blood - poisoning and visiting sheep on pasture at this season . Ravens Injuring Lambs.- Lambs dysentery. Salt for Sheep. — This is especially are subject to serious and even fatal

necessary for sheep. It gives tone to injury on farms situate on the rocky the system , and should always be within cliffs of the ocean , from the raven, their reach. Common salt may be given Corvus corax. This formidable bird to them in partially covered boxes on comes upon lambs asleep, pecks a hole in the fields, or rock -salt may be put within the abdomen, and draws out the entrails. their reach . Should the lambs be awake, it dabs out

Maggot -fly . - During warm weather, their eyes.

Even hoggs, when fallen

the shepherd should have his eye upon awkward, have had their eyes picked and every sheep on the farm at least twice their entrails pulled out by these birds. a -day. At this time they are liable to be attacked by the " maggot-fly .” If

Pasturing Sheep on Hill-farms. We will now describe briefly the sys any animal is seen to be restless, twist ing its body, shaking its tail, and run- tem of management pursued on hill

ning forwards with its head bent down, farms in carrying on the flocks from the shepherd should catch it, and most likely on close examination he will find

spring until weaning-time. Stocking on

Hill - farms.

The

a colony of maggots located about the classes of sheep kept on hill - farms are In hot weather the shep- arranged to suit the character of the

hind parts.

herd should never go to the fields with-

land, the nature of the pasture, the alti

out having in his pocket a bottle of dip- tude and exposure of the farm . A com mixture or fly-oil. With this he anoints

mon plan is to maintain a stock of ewes

the part attacked, and shakes out the on the low ground attached to hill-farms, maggots from the wool. This simple or where the heath is well mixed with treatment will be quite sufficient. green ground, or interspersed by stream

After lambs have been weaned, and lets with green banks. Young sheep are the summer dipping having taken place, placed on ground similar in character, there will be little further trouble from but with a less admixture of green pas this pest. ture. Older sheep and wethers generally Unclipped Sheep Falling: - Long- occupy the higher grounds, where the ex

woolled sheep, hoggs especially, before posure and cold would be too great for

being clipped, areso loaded with wool ewes and lambs and young sheep. Ewes and Lambs . — The handling of a typical hill-flock of breeding sheep in

that, when annoyed by the ked, they are apt to roll upon their backs ; and when

that happens in the hollow of a furrow, the lambing season is described on page they cannot get up again.

They then

73, Divisional vol. üi. We have seen that

lie awkward or awald . Should they lie for some time with their head down the hill, with the stomach full of food, they may die of apoplexy. A careful shepherd will not allow any sheep to die thus. He cannot prevent them falling awkward, but as long as sheep are rough, he should visit them frequently. Sheep are not easily discovered lying awk-

the large “ hirsel ” there, 500 head in charge of two shepherds, has passed through the lambing ordeal, and been turned on to the usual run of pasture. There is less work here in the changing of pastures than on arable farms with small enclosures. The shepherd , how ever, must be daily amongst the flock, and see that, by now and again moving

ward in

furrow , so he should cross them from one part of the ground to

the ridges and view the furrows in another, the ewes and their produce are length. An accustomed eye can detect kept in good thriving condition. the hind -hoofs in the air at a consider-

The ewes and lambs are turned on the

able distance.

higher and blacker ground for a change

Many collie dogs are quick in observing sheep in this state, and some will run and take hold of the wool near the ground, and pull the sheep over on its

towards evening, and admitted again for a run of the green pasture during the earlier part of the day. A careful and intelligent shepherd soon learns when to

SHEEP IN SUMMER .

437

give his flock a turn from one part of the it has then reached i foot in height, which ground to another. is tall enough for grouse. The first portion Pasture Plants on Hilly Ground . is burned in the first year, the second The intelligent shepherd observes care portion in the second year, and so one por

fully the different kinds and succession tion every year,until the eightyears have

of pasture plants suitable for the feeding gone round. Every year the plants which of sheep , and as these attain sufficient were first burned will be putting forth

growth he gives his flock a turn upon fewer shoots as the expiry of the eight

them . Forinstance, in most partsdur- years approaches ; bywhich timethe first ing January and February, “ mossing

portion is burned again, as the commence

is usually plentiful; in April and May, ment of a new series of years. In winter “ deerhair ” becomes a standard plant ; the snow covers the youngest shoots and

in June, July, and August, green banks, protects them under it, while the older “ haughs,” and old pasture land are at plants being above the snow , both grouse their best ; in September and October, and sheep feed upon them ; and in spring, “ prie ” and “stool bent " come up ; and on the melting of the snow, the young

in November and December, “moss leek” shoots, tender and nourishing, areready and coarse bent and heath come in for for use. It is remarkable that the young plants of heath bear the frost better than

use .

There is thus upon hill-farms, embrac- the old. ing high and low ground, a wonderfully

Old Method of Burning. — The old

complete succession of pasture plants. mode of burning was to set fire to the

It is the object of the careful shepherd heath on the windy side, when the blaze to take advantage of these as they come soon towered to a great height, and was up in turn ; and the flock -owner's bal- seen at a great distance, and the plants

ance-sheet may be largely influenced by crackled amidst the scorching heat; but the manner in which these successional the heat which produced the crackling growths are observed and utilised.

Heather -burning.

destroyed the plants by the roots, and the flame, fanned by the gale, ran along

the ground, catching every bush that pre

As heath constitutes a large ingredient sented itself, until a much larger space of in the food of mountain sheep, it is im- ground was set on fire than was desired. portant that heath - burning should be The conflagration, indeed, often became carried out systematically, so as to have so extensive that the shepherd and all

at all times a succession of young and his family could not extinguish it. The old heath. Sheep -farmers have long been flame went wherever the wind listed, till

in the habit of burning a portion of the there was no more heath to consume, or heath on their farms every year, with the until the wind lulled, or the rain fell. view of allowing it to grow again, that Modern Method.— The burning of

its young shoots may support sheep in heather nowadays, being controlled by those parts of the grazing where there is the regulations of the property, is done little grass. Burning causes an abundant at the sight of and with the assistance of

growth of young shoots ; it is therefore the gamekeeper and his gillie ; the shep the interest of both landlord and tenant herd helping and pointing out the most that the heath should be so burned as to suitable parts. On large hill - farms, produce the greatest growth of young heather-burning must be done on the ground of the separate hirsels. Where shoots. Method in Burning. The question streams run through the hill ground

of burning being thus established on strips of heather are burned from 120 to principle, the difficulty at first was to

200 yards in breadth, running from the

discover a mode which would produce the best results. At length a good plan was discovered, and it is this : Let that part of a hill-farm which bears heath be divided into eight equal parts, because beyond that number of yearsthe heath plant grows so rigid as notto afford many new shoots, and

bank of the stream through the hill, often a mile in distance, when suitable ground exists. Heather takes at least three years before it sprouts after burning, but often on the burned ground other plants come up soon which are useful to sheep.

VOL . II .

2 F

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LIVE STOC

438

MER

IN SUM

.

should be constructed in a large ditch having a command of water, and both There has from time to time, and more bankslined with a clean sward of grass. SHEEP -WASHING .

particularly in recent years, been much A damming should be made across a discussion as to the utility of washing rivulet even if it have a pool of suffi sheep before clipping them . cient depth of water, as the water will

Objects in Washing.There is a two- flow quicker and be cleaner in an arti fold object in washing sheep—to free the ficial dam. The bottom of the river or wool from earthy material and improve ditch should be hard and gravelly, and its lustre, and cleanse the skin of the the water pure, or it will not answer the sheep from incrusted matter.

purpose. A soft and muddy bottom and

Opposition to Washing. It is maintained by many flockmasters that any depreciation in the price per pound for unwashed wool is fully compensated by the greater weight of the fleece. It is

dirty water will soil instead of cleanse wool. A damming is best made with an old

door or two, or other boarding, supported by stobs driven in the rivulet, and the

better, the opponents of washing contend, chinks at bottom and sides stopped with that the cleaning of the wool should be turf in the inside. When the water ac left to the manufacturer who has appli- cumulates, it falls over the boarding at ances which enable him to do the work the centre with such a current as to carry

in a more thorough and satisfactory man- off quickly every impurity-as earthy ner than could be done on the live sheep and greasy matter, small locks of wool, on the farm .

Then, again, it is argued and scum.

that the advantage to be derived from having the skin of the sheep cleaned by washing may be more than counterbalanced by the risk and trouble arising after washing ; and that after clipping

A damming in a ditch is

made of the same construction, and with the same materials and depth of water. One side of the pool is occupied by

the unwashed, and the opposite by the

the skin of the sheep will be sufficiently washed sheep. They are confined in their respective places by hurdles or nets . cleaned by the natural rainfall.

The opposition to washing has pro- To prevent the sheep leaping into the bably been gaining strength, yet the water of themselves, which they are apt

practice is still largely pursued in this to do when they see others in before country.

them , the fence should be returned along Study the Market. — Perhaps the best the sides of the pool as far as the men

guide as to the expediency of washing who wash the sheep take up their sta sheep will be the tendency of the wool tions. Fig. 402 shows a damming with trade

whether washed or unwashed doors and stobs, and the overflow of

wool finds the greater favour, or brings water in the centre. The net on each relatively the higher price. Farmers side of the pool is returned far enough on

must consider these points carefully from both sides. The water is at the proper time to time

such matters, indeed, depth for the men.

should be their constant study — and

Everything is now ready at the pool,

it will be their object to arrange their the sheep having been separated for the method of management to suit the spirit washing. of the age.

The tups are washed first,

then the hoggs and wethers, and lastly

Methods of Washing.—There are the ewes.

Hoggs and wethers are gen

different methods of washing sheep. erally shorn in May, while ewes are left

Plans often adopted are here described.unclipped until about the middle of A pool of about 3 feet deep of water is made across a natural rivulet having a slope on each side, and both margins clad with grass, the slope for the egress

June, the exact time being dependent on the character of the season .

Cold

weather after the ewes are clipped will make the milk supplyvery scanty, if it

of the sheep being the easiest, so that does not stop the supply altogether. It there be no struggling to get upon the is thus advisable that the hoggs and wethers should be washed 2 or 3 weeks When a rivulet is awanting, a pool earlier than the ewes. Lambs are not

bank when the wool is loaded with water.

SHEEP IN SUMMER.

439

washed, and are kept apart when their 402 are the shepherd (who is the last mothers are being washed .

man to handle the sheep, and is farthest

Force Required . — The men who wash up the pool) and two assistants. Two cast their coats, roll up the sleeves of men are required to catch the sheep for their shirts to the shoulders, and have the washers. old trousers and shoes in which to stand

On this occasion the men receive bread

in the water. Long fishermen's boots, and cheese and ale, and also a dram of or india -rubber leggings, would provide spirits, as a safeguard against a chill while standing for hours in the water. good protection to the men. The shepherd and two ploughmen are The collie keeps watch, and is ready in usually sufficient to wash a large number case of an outbreak.

1

Process . — The washing is performed of sheep thoroughly ; but should the stream be broad, a third may be re- in this way : While the three washers

quired, to save time in handing the sheep are taking up their respective positions

from man to man . The three men in fig. in the water, the two catchers are captur

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Fig. 402. - Washing -pool and sheep-washing a a Damming with doors and stobs, the surplus water d Second washer, mid -way in the pool. pouring down in the centre. e Shepherd , farthest up the pool and last washer. 6 Man catching an unwashed sheep for the first ſ Washed sheep going out ofthe water. washer.

c First washer, who stands lowest down the pool.

g Washed sheep within the enclosure. ħ Collie beside the provisions.

ing a sheep. The catching is fatiguing even a heavy sheep feeling light in the work , and , to make it easier, the enclo- water.

During the operation the water

sure should be small, to contain the becomes turbid about the sheep, and he sheep closely. A sheep, being caught, continues the agitation till the water is presented to the first washer, who, clears itself, when he hands the sheep to

on taking it into the water, allows the the next washer in the middle and higher wool to be saturated, then turns the up the stream . Whenever he gets quit sheep over on its back, holding up the of one sheep, another should be ready by head by seizing the wool of the near the catchers for him to receive into the cheek with his left hand, and grasping water. the arm of the off fore-leg with the right. The second washer, on receiving the

With this hold he dips the sheep up and sheep from the first washer, holds it and down — pushes it to and from him — turn- treats it in the same manner, and then ing it from one side to the other slowly, hands it to the shepherd a little higher

and causing the wool to wave backwards up the stream , and is ready to take and forwards, as if rubbing it against the another sheep from the first man. water. These motions areeasily effected ,

Duty of the Shepherd . — It is the

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER .

440

AfterWashing .– After washing, sheep skin of the sheep is cleansed , and every should be driven along a clean route,and impurity removed from the wool. The be put into a grass field having no bare sheep on its back is in a favourable earthy banks, against which they might

duty of the shepherd to see that the

position for the rapid descent of earthy rub themselves . They should be kept matter from the longer part of the wool. perfectly clean until their fleeces are Wherever he feels a roughnessupon the taken off. skin, whether on the back or belly, groin, Interval before Clipping. — How

breast, or round the neck , he scrubs it long the fleece remains on after the off with the hand. Being satisfied that washing depends on the state of the the sheep is clean, he dips it over the weather.

The wool must not only be

head while turning it into its natural thoroughly dry, but the yolk, the natural position, when it swims ashore, and gains oil of the wool, must return into it again ; the bank.

On coming out of the water and further, the new wool should have

it walks feebly, its legs staggering under the weight of the dripping fleece ; and in a little frees itself from the remaining water by twirling the fleece like a mop. In the echelon position in which the men stand in the water, the sheep in its dirtiest state is in the hands of the man

farthest down the stream, where the impurities flow away, and come not near the other men.

The sheep being in a

risen from the skin before the old is taken off. Disregard of this particular renders clipping difficult, and certainly deteriorates theappearance of the fleece. Perhaps eight or ten days may suffice for these effects. No apprehension need be entertained of the fleece falling off when the new growth commences, for wool will remain for years upon the sheep's back if not

comparatively clean state when it reaches clipped off, and the sheep be free of the second man, the water cannot much disease.

dirty that which runs past the first man,

Another Method . — Another method

and still less the water from the shepherd of washing sheep, often pursued on soils that near the other two men.

pastoral farms, is as follows : A deep

Hours for Washing .— The afternoon pool in a river is selected, or, failing is generally chosen by shepherds for this, a damming is made in the gully of washing sheep, but the morning is a a rivulet ; and where no river exists, a

better time, inasmuch as the fleece will have become much drier during the day than in the night when the sheep are washed in the evening, when they must feel uncomfortable with a wet fleece. Effect on the Sheep . - Sheep are differently affected in the time of washing. Some disregard the plunges, and seem to enjoy them , giving themselves

suitable part of a lake is selected. A small space is enclosed with hurdles near the edge of the water ; a narrow passage,

fit to contain two sheep and two men in breadth, is made from the hurdles to a rising -ground or rock , which projects into and is 5 or 6 feet above the water ; and from this the sheep are made to leap into the water one by one. On leaping from

up entirely to the will of the washers ; that height, the sheep go over the head, whilst others are in a state of great and on swimming reach the dry land, terror, struggling against every new mo-

tion, and groaning in anticipation of greater danger. Some are very expert in turning their backs upwards should the washer be off his guard and dip them too perpendicularly down; and when turning themselves quickly, they are apt

where another enclosure of hurdles is

ready to receive them . They are thus

treated several times till they are clean. Bath Washing:—Where there is no

stream or suitable pool at hand, and where the flock is small, a large bath or tub may be made for the purpose. Many

to injure the bare arms of the washer contrivances are in use, some very primi with the hoofs of the fore-feet. tive, yet efficient enough, if not very

Speed. — In this way from two to speedy. Hungarian Method . — In some parts three scores of sheep may be washed in an hour, according to the size of the of Germany great pains are taken with sheep, the activity of the washers, and the washing of sheep. At Alcarth, in the supply of water.

Hungary, the washing is done under roof

SHEARING OF SHEEP.

441

they are well crutched. At the end of in the following manner : operation is to dissolve and loosen the this tank there is a movable floor, which dirt in the fleece. For this purpose a is raised by a lever, so that the sheep The first

soaking vat has to be

put up, which is leavea steep thetank without having tostruggle covered and tightly put together of up incline. The water is heated strong planks or boards. It is filled to about 108° or 116° Fahr., and bar soap with hot water, equal to 84° Fahr.; the is used to soften it, and render the pro sheep are then placed in two lines, and cess of cleansing the wool more easy .

constantly handled until the yolk and After draining for a short time, they are dirt are dissolved, which ordinarily takes passed down shoots to the men at the from fifteen to twenty minutes. The spouts, where, on Sharp's patent sheep solvent effect of the water is increased rollers, they are well spouted ; and when by adding a few pounds of potash, and the hot water has been fairly driven out

also by the lye arising from the natural of the wool, they go on to the landing oily matter of the wool. The sheep, after stage, where they drain for a time, and being well soaked, are placed under shel- are then allowed to walk on the grass by ter, where they have to wait their turn a long battened stage. The water for the

of the shower-bath, in order that the wash is drawn from a large dam , which animal, now too much heated, may not is kept constantly full by a stream from pass immediately from the hot soaking the spring in front of the house.

vat into the shower-bath , this being from trifugal pumps are used to throw up 61 ° to 63º Fahr. The water is let upon the water to a height of 12 feet, and the sheep through a hose with a strainer one spout will wash about 500 sheep at the end . It falls with considerable a -day.” 1 velocity, and is brought to bear upon all Lambs . — The lambs are restored to parts of the sheep until the wool is of a the ewes immediately after the washing.

snowy whiteness. The sheep are then Some advocate washing lambs as well as driven to a warm dry shed, and shorn as the older sheep, but this is not advisable .

soon as the wool is dry, generally about When still on milk they are susceptible

the sixth day. On an average forty sheep of changes, and a chill then arising from are thus washed in an hour. Australian Methods. To suit the enormous flocks in the Australian col-

a wet state of their body might engender serious disturbance throughout their sys No possible good can accrue to tem.

onies, elaborate washing appliances have them from washing. to be provided. There, from £ 1000 to £ 2000 has been spent by somesheep-far mers for steam -engine and washing-gear.

SHEARING OF SHEEP.

In Scott's Practice of Sheep - Farming

there is the following description of the

This is an interesting event on sheep

very complete arrangements for sheep- farms. In most parts the sheep -shearing washing on an Australian farm (Mount is regarded as a joyous occasion — a sort Fyans): " The plan adopted is to pass of harvest-- in which a liberal allowance the sheep through a cold -water tank over of beef and broth and ale is dispensed

night, which washes a good deal of the to the clippers engaged in the laborious loose dirt off the bellies and legs, and work. It is a point of great importance They to have dry settled weather for this thoroughly saturates the fleece. They are then packed pretty closely in a operation ; and as the time approaches, sweating-house, with numerous subdi- flock -owners watch the weather indica visions in it to prevent the sheep from tions with some anxiety . being smothered . By this means the Time of Shearing. – The exact time

points of

the wool the are fleece softened, and the classshearing variesand withthetheseason locality,the work of cleansing is rendered of of sheep, . The very much easier than it would be if the clipping season may be said to extend sheep were taken into the wash without from the middle of May till the end of this preparation. The hot- water tank July. The new growth of wool should into which the sheep are put next morn ing has three divisions, in each of which

1 Prac. of Sheep -Farming, 134.

442

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER .

Wool-shears. — The implement with be well started before the clipping which the wool is clipped off sheep is begins.

If the sheep have been washed, they made of steel, in the form of shears, may be clipped about eight or ten days whose broad blades are connected by an thereafter. elastic ring, as in fig. 403. The elas

The tups are first shorn, then the hoggs ticity of the ring acts as a spring to keep the blades separate, and the pressure of

and wethers, and lastlytheewes. Clipping - place.

On Lowland and

mixed husbandry farms a covered place is generally selected for clipping. The straw -barn may be used for the purpose. The end next the chaff-house, between

the two doors, is a good site for the Fig . 403. - Wool-shears. a Spring-bowl of shears.

clipping-floor, while the rest of the barn contains the sheep cool under cover.

b Rounded handles of shears.

Clipping - floor. - A clipping -floor is

c Flat broad blades of shears .

sometimes prepared in this way : Let

clean straw be spread equally two or the hand upon the handles overcomes the three inches thick, and then spread the spring andbrings the blades together. large canvas barn -sheet over it, with its

Some wool - shears

have additional

edges nailed to the floor. Thus a soft springs between the handles to separate

cushion is made for clippers and sheep. the blades more forcibly, but are oppres A broom sweeps the barn-sheet clean . sive to the hand, which requires relief The barn - floor and walls, as high as from a piece of cord wound loosely round

the sheep, should be swept of dust, and the handles. Strong -springed shears are straw strewn upon the floor for them to most easily worked if held at the blades ; lie upon .

but the sharp backs of these soon hurt Upon large sheep-farms facilities are the hand. When not in use, and when provided for clipping at the sorting-pens, carried, the blades are held together at where there is usually considerable shed their points by a ring of leather. accommodation.

Sharpening Wool-shears.

The best

In case of dew or rain in the morning, method of sharpening is by the use of as many dry sheep are brought into the an oilstone, such as joiners commonly barn on the previous evening as the num use. The operator springs open the shears ber of clippers will shear on the ensuing day.

until the blades will pass each other back

Force at Clipping. — It is customary to back ; then, gripping them firmly, he for neighbouring shepherds to assist each places the edge on the stone, holding the other. The emulation amongst a num- blade at a slight angle, and proceeds by

ber of men clipping together not only a curving or circling motion to rub up expedites the shearing of the individual the cutting edge. Simple as this opera flock, but makes the work cheerful, and

tion seems, it demands considerable care

calls forth the best and quickest speci- and practice to do it really well. A mens of workmanship from each clipper. good sharpener will not on any account Many additional hands have to be hired allow another person to sharpen his or transferred from other farm -work for shears.

the occasion, the number required varying with the size of the flock.

A shepherd requires two or three pairs of small shears for trimming, and uses

The steward has no time to clip sheep, only large shears for shearing. but the art is known by the hedger ;

Avoiding Injury to the Sheep . — The

and if the cattle-man has been a herd, he shears are used in a manner not to injure

lends a hand. Clipping being dirty and the fleece or the skin of the animal. The heating work, the coat is stripped, and particular to be attended to in clipping the oldest trousers put on, whilst some is to keep the points clear of the skin by

throw aside the hat, vest, and cravat. gently pressing the blades uponthe skin; In some parts of the country women assist at the clipping.

for whenever the points are allowed to touch the skin, they will either run into

SHEARING OF SHEEP.

443

or make a large gash in it before the points thread themselves through the clipper is aware of the mischief he is wool and never come quite close to

doing. This is an error committed by gether, the blades at their centre in the new clippers, and it is done by holding meantime shearing the wool with moder the hand too high above the skin, and depressing the points of the shears into it. The sure way of avoiding this serious injury is to keep the hand low, and to rest the broad part of the blades upon

ately long and frequent clips. The round form of the sheep's body

favours the action of the blades, in not admitting the shears to make long clips, and in keeping their points asunder,

the skin ; and on drawing the skin a which, if not so kept, would clip the

little tight by the other hand, the shears wool at an elevation in advance of the slide, as it were, upon it, while their blades clipping the wool next the skin . 1

d

CE

Fig. 404. – First stage ofclipping a sheep. a Left leg of the clipper. 6 Fore -feet of the sheep under the left arm of the clipper. cLeft arm of the clipper holding down the fore -legs of the sheep .

d Points of the small shears clipping the short wool off the belly. e Left hand of the clipper keeping the skin of the sheep tight for

ſ Scrotum ofthe sheep. gg Inside of the thighs of the sheep. h Tail of the sheep.

the action of the shears .

The wool would thus be clipped at two

marking purposes, is always at hand at

parts at the same time. Very short clips the clipping process. make slow work, but slow work safely

The object of washing sheep becomes

done is preferable to hasty slashing, with apparent at shearing ; for if the skin and

injury both to the animal and the fleece. wool are not clean, the shears grate upon Experience makes longer clips effective, the dirt and make bad work . Method of Clipping. — A common but at all times short clips are the safest mode of using the shears. method of clipping is described as fol

Shear- cuts. - Careless or inexpe- lows: On catching a sheep, twigs on rienced shearers are very liable to make cuts in the skin of the sheep with the shears. Every cut, however small, should be at once dressed with tar, which, for

the wool and dirt on the hoofs are picked off by the clipper or shearer, as he is variously called . The first stage of the process is shown in fig. 404. After set

444

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER.

ting the sheep on its rump, the clipper stands and leans its back against himself. Taking the shears in his right hand, and holding up the sheep's mouth with his left, he clips the short wool on the front and each side of the throat, round the

down where the skin is naturally loose, the palmof the left hand pulls the skin tight. The scrotum is then bared, then the inside of the thighs, and, lastly, the sides of the tail. These are all the parts that can be reached in this position.

neck and across the breast to between

For the clipping of these parts, small

the fore-legs. Then resting on his right shears suffice ; and as the wool is short, knee, placing the fore-legs under his left and of a detached character, it is best

arm , he shears the bellyacrossfrom side clipped by short clips of the points of to side down to the groin. In passing the shears. The sheep is somewhat un

$

‫از مزار اودر رو "وزدار‬ ‫بهما در این‬ ަ‫އޭ އަކީ ދިހ‬ ‫یهپسر ما یا الله‬

Fig. 405. - Second stage of clipping a sheep. a Bared neck of the sheep.

c Fore-legs of the sheep.

b Left hand ofthe clipper keeping the skin of the sheep tight.

d Tail of the sheep.

clipper with thelarge shears. f Rightarm of theclipper.

e Right or clipping hand of the

ģ Left arm of the clipper.

easy in this position, and many attempt

It should be borne in mind that, in shifting from one position of a sheep for The second stage in the clipping is another in clipping, a firm hold of the shown in fig. 405. Its position forthe animal should be retained, else, on find

to struggle.

sheep is gained by relieving its fore- legs ing itself half released from constraint, from the first position in fig. 404, and, resting on both knees, the clipper firmly turns the sheep upon its far side, supporting its far shoulder upon his lap.

it will attempt to start to its feet and be off. In such a burst, before the sheep can be caught and laid down again in its position, the clipped part of the fleece

The sheep now feels at ease, and will lie may be very much broken and ravelled.

quiet to be clipped.

Confining its head with his left arm ,

SHEARING OF SHEEP.

the clipper first removes the wool from below the neck, and around the back of the neck to the shoulder-top, with the large shears. He then slips its head and

445

flat, keeping the skin tight ; while the right handholds the shears at the right part, and in the right position. The clipper thus proceeds over the thigh and

neck under his left arm , and thus having the rump to the tail, which he entirely the left hand at liberty, he keeps the bares at this time. skin tight with it, while he clips the The third stage - according to this wool with the right, from where he had method — is shown in fig. 406. It is

just left off to the backbone, all the way attained by clearing the sheet of the down the near side to the tail.

In the loose parts of the fleece: the clipper,

figure, the fleece is removed about half holding by the head, lays overthe sheep down the carcass ; the left hand lying on its clipped or near side, while still on

Fig. 406.- Third stage ofclipping a sheep. b Right arm of the clipper a Right ankle and foot of the clip. per keeping down the head of the sheep.

clipping. c Left arm of the clipper

his knees,and puts his right ankle over its neck, the ankle and foot keeping the sheep's head down upon the ground, the sheep, lying quietly. The wool having

keeping the skin of the sheep tightwith the left hand .

d Freed fleece.

assisting the sheep to rise, care should be taken that its feet do not get entangled with the fleece, otherwise, in its eager ness to escape from the unusual treat

been bared to the shoulder in the second ment it has just received, it may tear

position, the clipper has now nothing to the fleece to pieces. do but to commence where the clipping

Clipping with the Left Hand.

was then left off, and clear the fleece off Others proceed quite differently in this the far side from the backbone to the last stage of the process. They would belly, the left hand still keeping the skin hold theshears in the left hand, and clip tight. The wool has to be taken off the from the belly towards the backbone. far hind-leg onwards to the tail. The Expert clippers can clip with either hand, fleece is now freed from the sheep. In and this plan makes neater work .

R LIVE STOCK IN SUMME .

446

Another Method.— Another method, upon its rump, while he secures its head which is common in some parts, is more between his legs, and tightens the skin irksome both to the clipper and the of the near side by bending it over his animal than the system illustrated. In knees. The skin is tightened at the

this other method the practice, in the first stage, is to place the sheep upright on its rump, while the clipper standson his feet, supporting its back against his legs, and clips around the cheeks, neck, breast, belly, scrotum , to the lowest part of the animal, the tail. Standing all the time and bowing low, he puts himself as well as the sheep in an uncomfortable position. In the second stage, the clipper still stands on his feet, and the sheep

expense of the ease of the animal, whilst bowing down low and long cannot fail to pain the back of the clipper. In the third position he keeps the left leg bent, resting on its foot — a more irksome posi tion than kneeling on both knees. Differences in Fleeces. — Somefleeces

are much more easily clipped than others. Thin watery wool is not fit to be clipped in broad courses — the shears easily pass ing through it induces the clipper to

0

a Shoulder-point of sheep. 6 Round rib of sheep. c Hind -quarter of sheep.

Fig. 407. - New -clipped sheep. e Fore-leg of sheep. g Neck of sheep. a to e Shoulder to fore -leg.

a to g Shoulder -point to top of shoulder.

c to ſ Hind - quarter to hind-leg.

take too broad a clip. Thick wool requires the shears to be employed mostly at the points, as these cannot penetrate it so far in advance of the blades as with

shepherds who can do more. A fat sheep is more easily clipped than a lean one. As soon as one lot of sheep is clipped, another is brought to be ready to com wool in the ordinary state . Certain mence onthe following morning. fleeces are so thick as to be coated—that New -clipped Sheep . - A new -clipped is, felted on the sheep's back . These can sheep usually looks like fig. 407. The

be taken off only with the points of the shear-marks,it will be seen, run in par shears in minute clips. Such fleeces are allel bands round the body, from the

most easily clipped after a fresh growth neck and counter along the ribs to the of wool has taken place. Number Clipped per Day. — To

rump, and down the hind-leg. When pains are taken to round the

shear 25 to 30 sheep is a good day's shear-marks on the back of the neck, work for any clipper, though there are connecting the space between the counter

SHEARING OF SHEEP.

447

and the top of the shoulder; to continue shorn sheep . Too early shearing is the marks from the shoulder down the therefore undesirable ; and when any fore-legs; to continue them from the sheep, such as rams, are shorn unusually hind -quarters, in the shape of the hind- early, they are kept in the house or leg, as far as the wool reaches ; to make where they have access to shelter till the them run straight down the tail ; to weather becomes warmer. When cold

cause them to coincide from each side wet nights follow immediately upon the across the back , -a newly clipped sheep clipping of the general flock , it is a good in good condition is a beautiful object, plan to place them under a roof or in artistically treated. some other dry and well-sheltered spot A sheep clipped in a state of perfection overnight. these Shearing Lambs.-In the extreme

should have no shear -marks at all

marks being small ridglets of wool left south of England, notably in Cornwall, between each course taken by the shears. the practice of clipping lambs has long

But such a nicety of clipping is scarcely been pursued.

It is by degrees spread

attainable, and not worth the sacrifice of ing northwards, and is considered by time in doing it.

It should be borne in

many flock -owners to be decidedly bene

mind that the closer wool is clipped to ficial to the progress of the lambs. In the skin the better it is for the next

the case of lambs which are to be fat

fleece, while a larger and heavier fleece tened off in the course of their first

with a longer staple of wool is obtained winter or following spring, it is specially from each sheep.

advantageous to clip them as lambs.

Clipping on Hill-farms.In most Lambs' wool is usually in request at a

purely pastoral districts where the flocks comparatively high price. It is generally

is past midsummer before lambs are shorn. of clipping large, the methodThere are the old- The practice, however, is still quite the slightly different. fashioned practice of tying the legs of exception in this country. Sheep -shearing Machine.—A ma the animal together, on the greensward in the open air, is still extensively chine for shearing sheep, which promises practised . After the sheep is thus to be of service where large flocks are placed in a helpless state between the kept, has been brought out in Australia

legs of the clipper, who sits on the grass byMr Wolseley. It consists of a cutting with the head of the sheep towards him , wheel geared to the shaft of a small the shears are made to ply, from the steam-turbine, which is worked by a neck to the tail, in long slashes, so that current of steam conveyed from the the fleece may be snatched off in the boiler in an india - rubber tube. A shortest time. The legsare then loosened comb moves in front of the cutter, effec

and the sheep set at liberty. Women tually preventing injury to the sheep. are frequently employed at this work, The shearing apparatus, which is made to which there is no objection, provided of brass, and is in shape similar to a they do it well; but it must be said that in this method the work is sometimes

small trowel, is held in the hand, and directed over the body of the sheep just as is the wool - shears. The clipping,

rather imperfectly done. In some cases, where there are no sheds however, is done much more rapidly, or other houses available, tents of canvas more cleanly and evenly, and with per are erected . In average seasons, how- fect safety to the sheep . ever, there will be little need for this. Tar -brand. — As the sheep are clipped,

Than a thoroughly close, dry greensward they receive the distinguishing brand, there can be no better place for sheep- “ buist,” or tar-mark - noticed more fully under the heading of “ Marking Sheep.' shearing Few pastoral farms are without a Mothering Lambs after Clipping. steading or sheds of some kind, and in -There may occasionally be difficulty wet weather these are available for the in getting lambs to take to their mothers after clipping, especially if the two have sheep-shearing

one day.

cold been kept apartlonger than When Risky.there Shearing Early follows clipping weather is con- This occurrence will be referred to in deal siderable risk of injury to the newlying with the weaning of lambs.

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER .

448

other similar substance adhering to the fleece to fall through in the process of Wherever sheep are shorn — in the rolling and folding. This rack -like fold straw -barn, in a shed, or on the green- ing door is placed upon tressels, as shown ROLLING AND WEIGHING FLEECES .

sward — a board is erected for rolling the infig. 408. Keep Fleeces Clean . — The farmer fleeces upon as they are shorn. Method of Rolling . - In many cases should be particular in giving instruc

a smooth plain deal door is used for tions to have every fleece as clean as winding fleeces upon, and it should stand on tressels 2 feet above the ground, and 3 or 4 feet from a side-wall, near the clippers. A chaff-sheet should be spread

possible. The purchaser cannot unloose every fleece he buys ; and should he find as much filth in the fleeces, after pur

chasing them, as to warrant the belief

on the floor close to the wall to pile the that it had been purposely made foul, he rolled fleeces upon until they are taken may either relinquish his bargain, or to the wool-room , at the end of the day's work. The person appointed to roll the fleeces must be accustomed to the work, for it has to be done carefully and neatly

make a large deduction from the price —in the former case implying fraud on the part of the farmer, and in the latter diminishing his profits.

Whenever a fleece is separated from the

Details of Folding . — The winder be

sheep, he or she lifts it carefully and

ing satisfied of the purity of the fleece,

unbroken from the shearing - cloth, and folds in both its sides, putting any loose spreads it upon the board upon its locks into the middle, and making the clipped side, with the neck end farthest breadth of the folded fleece from 24 to

off. The folder then examines the fleece 30 inches, according to its size. She then carefully, and removes any extraneous rolls the fleece from the tail towards the substances such as straws, thorns, whins, neck, tightly and neatly ; and when ar burs, or lumps of dung. Fig. 408 shows rived atthe neck, puts a knee upon the

the mode of rolling a fleece, where a board fleece, while she draws out and twists the neck -wool in the form of a rope with both hands, of such length as will go round the fleece ; and then holding the fleece tight at the lower end of the rope with one hand, removes the knee, still holding the end of the rope in the other, winds

the rope tight round the fleece, making its end fast under the rope. The fleece, as a bundle, is easily carried about, hav

ing the clipped surface outside, which, being white wool saturated with yolk, has a silvery lustre. It is laid asidenext

the wall. Fig. 409 is a fleece of wool rolled up in the proper manner . Fig. 408. - Rolling afleece of wool. a Board .

b c Tressels supporting the board . d Field -worker rolling a fleece of wool. e A fleece of wool placed on the board .

Where there are eight or ten clippers, with one person to catch the sheep , two women will be required to roll up the fleeces ; one rolling and the other twist ing the band , and keeping the floor tidy and clean.

is supported upon the tressels, and a

Assorting Fleeces. — All fleeces are

field -worker is in the act of winding a not alike, either in structure or colour. fleece. Those of ewes are thin and open in the Folding Rack. — Preferable to the locks, of pale colour, and feel light in the close door for folding fleeces upon is a hand. Hoggs' fleeces are close, long in door or rack, made of narrow strips of the pile, of a rich colour, bulky, andfeel wood attached on cross spars, and having heavy in the hand. Fleeces in all parts an opening of about one inch between have not the same completeness ; one every two. This allows any dust or part may have been shed off in the field ;

SHEARING OF SHEEP.

449

another coated, having the appearance of

Wool-moth . - In spite of every pre thick cloth ; whilst several parts may have caution, the white-shouldered wool-moth, a dusky hue. Whenever such differences Tinea sarcitella, fig.410, may come into are observed , fleeces should be assorted the wool-room in ashort time. This, as

and each class or grade sold separately.

observed by Curtis, “has long been re

Coarse stray locks, clotted with dirt, corded as a most mischievous little moth which are known as foot-locks, are thrown in our dwelling -houses, where it is com mon the greater portion of the spring,

... The female deposits her eggs upon cloths, blankets, curtains, carpets, or any woollen articles, on which the larvæ feed, living in cylin

summer, and autumn.

drical cases which they form of the ma terials on which they subsist covered with

their excrement, and in which they change to pupa . The caterpillar is a lively wriggling animal, about 12 an inch long when full fed ; it is soft and white, with

a yellowish tint, and sparingly clothed with fine longish hairs, sometimes having Fleece ofwool rolled up. Fig. 409.a Centre of fleece, consisting of the wool from the breech of the sheep. c Rope of wool from the neck of the sheep twisted round the body of the fleece. Body of fleece of wool.

a slate-coloured stripe down the back, arising from the food ; the head is horny, of a chestnut brown, and furnished with little strong jaws and minute horns.” 1 Wool is an unsafe article for a farmer

to keep long.

For a short time it be

comes heavier in the room , absorbing moisture from the walls, floor, and air,

under the rolling rack, and afterwards which it probably does as long as it re sold to one of the farm hands, who will tains its vitality ; for, being a living body wash and clean them for the wool.

Wool-room . - Each day's clipping is carried into the wool-room .

Previous to

being occupied, the room should be swept clean of dust from its plastered walls, and

its wooden floor washed and dried . The fleeces are piled upon the floor at a dis tance from the walls, the hogg and ewe and other distinctive fleecesbeing kept apart, as assorted. Each sort is covered with a cloth, and the shutters of the window closed .

Fig . 410. - White -shouldered wool -moth ( Tinea sarcitella ).

The

reason for these precautions, which are when shorn, some time must elapse before not always attended to by farmers, is, it loses life. After life is gone, wool that the cloths serve the double purpose

of keeping off dust and preventing too quick evaporation of the yolk of the wool and the consequent diminishing of its weight, while the exclusion of light pre-

soon loses its natural moisture in a dry room , and the staples become curled and

harsh ; and in a damp room , after loss of vitality, the fleeces compress and feel clammy. The wool-moth then appears,

serves the bright lustre of the wool. A and breeds numerous larvæ, which subsist

damp wool-room causes the wool to clap on the staples, and cut them in pieces. together and to mould. A hot dry room Many farmers have no wool-room , but scorches the wool. keep their wool in a granary or outhouse, Coated fleeces and locks of wool should where these evils are aggravated . not be brought into the wool-room at all. The coated feeces should be sold at once, and the locks cleaned for use .

Preserving Wool. — The best way of 1 Jour. Eng. Agric. Soc., vii. 429 .

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER.

450

preserving wool for a length of time is to wool-stone of 24 lb. avoirdupois, and is have it in a cool dry room with a wooden

weighed out in double stones of 48 lb.,

floor, and packed in sheets, in which it each being called a weigh. In England will be out of the reach of dust, light, wool is sold by the lb., and weighed out by the tod of 2 stones of 14 lb. each , or

and moths.

Disposing of Wool. — The safest plan 28 lb.

In weighing out, fleeces maynot

for the wool-grower is to sell it every exactly weigh the double stone ; and as

year at the current prices , which are de- fleeces are never broken to equalise the termined at the great wool fairs in sum- scales, a few small weights are in use to mer in every part of the country , either balance the scale on the side of the wool

to wool-dealers at home ; or to consign the entire clip to the wool-brokers( whose name is legion ), to dispose of to the best advantage,at the proper time. When a wool merchant purchases wool from a farmer, he sends his own people to pack

or weights at each weighing. In this way the weight of the number of weighs required tofill each pack is correctly

it in his own pack -sheets.

the fleeces from the pile, and, after weigh

noted .

1

In fig. 411 are shown the large scales

and beam weighing wool. A man takes

Weighing Wool. — Wool is weighed ing a double stone, places the fleeces in

in this way : It is sold in Scotland by the a heap on the floor.

If the wool-room

t

woo

1 WOL 2

Fig. 411. – Weighing and packing wool. a a Pack -sheet suspended by the corners .

b Man tramping fleeces in the corner of the sheet .

c Man placing a fleece in the

corner of the sheet. d Pack -sheet.

e Worker carrying weighed fleeces to be packed.

Completed pack -sheet.

g Unweighed fleeces. h Beam - scale for weighing fleeces.

i Man weighing fleeces. k Weighed fleeces.

has a ceiling high enough to suspend the suspended from the ceiling, the stones

beam and scales from a hook, and large form knobs which prevent the ends of the enough to pack the wool in the sheets, so sheet slipping through the tyings of the

much the better ; but if not, the wool ropes. The sheet just swims above the must be removed to a spacious enough floor. Two men get into the sheet, one place to be weighed and packed, and at each end, place the fleeces, handed to placed on clean barn -sheets . them by a worker from the heap, length Packing Wool. — Wool is packed in ways across its bottom , as the man on

this way: Pack -sheets are made of thin theright is doing ; and they trample them canvas, doubled, of the shape of an oblong rectangle, about 8 feet long when empty, and open along one side. A small stone is placed in each end of the opening of the sheet, and a rope for each end being

down with force, especially at the ends, with both feet together ; while both hands hold firmly by the end of the sheet under the tying, as the man on the left is doing. The second layer of fleeces is laid con

SHEARING OF SHEEP.

451

trary to the first, along the sheet, two or lock ; choice -lock ; picked -lock ; super three fleeces being placed parallel in the head ; head ; downrights ; second abb ; breadth of the sheet ; but the ends of the livery ; short-coarse or breech -wool. It sheet are filled with fleeces placed across would be well for wool- growers to have as at first.

The sheet is thus filled with alternate layers of fleeces till it is full, when the packers come out, loosen the ropes, and, reserving the small stones for the next

lessons from wool-staplers on the quality of the wool on different parts of the fleece, in order to be able to estimate the value of the fleece. According to present practice, wool-growers grow wool

sheet, at once close the mouth of the without knowing what it is fit for, and must take such prices as are offered.

pack. Sewing Packs.

If the mouth of the

pack were left open for a time, the elasticity of the wool would cause the fleeces to rise up above it and render the closing impracticable, unless a few of the fleeces were taken out. With the aid of handcramps, the two men at opposite sides bring the mouth of the pack - sheet together, and hold it closed with iron skewers.

When a farmer is packing

wool on his own account, common iron kitchen table-forks answer for bringing the mouth of a pack -sheet together,and

Properties of Wool. — Good wool

has these properties : The fibre is of uniform thickness from root to point, when it is said to be true ; the finer the wool, the smaller the diameter of the fibre ; the fibre is elastic on being stretched lengthways ; tough, not easily broken ; of great density, having a shin ing silvery lustre. As to staple — the staple being any lock that naturally sheds itself from the rest —all the fibres should be of the same length, otherwise the staple will be

keeping them close. Thus closed, the pointed ; the end of the staple is as mouthis sewed up with packing-needle bright as the bottom , and not composed and strong twine, the skewers being re- of dead wool ; the entire staple is strong. moved as the sewing proceeds.

The strength of the staple is tested in

Contents of a Wool-pack . - A pack

this manner: Take the bottom of the

that is,

240 lb.

staple between the finger and thumb of the left hand, and its top between those

Wool, as it is sometimes packed, is not placed regularlyin the sheet — thefleeces being crammed in and trampled down as they happened to come into the hands of the packer. This is an objectionable

of the right, and, on holding the wool tight between thehands, make the third finger of the right hand play firmly across the fibres, as in staccato across the strings of a violin, and if the sound be firm and

of wool contains 10 stones

method, for the staple of the wool may sharp, and somewhat musical, the wool be broken by the treatment. Peculiarities of the Fleece.

is sound ; if the fibres do not break on repeatedly jerking the hands asunder

spection, be seen to consist of different

sound. It will most likely break at the

with considerable force, the staple is The wool on a sheep will, on close in- sound ; if they break, the wool is un

qualities. The coarser is found on the place which issued from the skin of the under, and the finer on the upper part sheep when the animal was stinted of of the body. The finest wool is upon food or had an ailment; and the greater the shoulder and along the top of the the illness, the easier the staple gives

back to the tail -head ; the next finest way. Pliability is a good property in

below the shoulders, along the ribs to the staple ; inflexibility and brittleness the rump ; the coarsest on the haunches bad qualities. and breast ; and below the belly it is Good Fleeces.—A good fleece has the often so short and detached that it can points of all its staples of equal length, not be classed with the rest. Subdivisions of the Fleece .

otherwise it will be pointy. The staples

are set close together, and the fleece of these parts is divided into different clean. qualities, which wool - staplers classify. A pointy, watery, or dirty fleece cre Each

These subdivisions of the fleece by wool- ates much waste to the manufacturer,

staplers are technical — such as prime- in bringing the wool to a proper state.

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER .

452

A good fleece has great softness to the woollen rags, analysed by Nesbit, is as feel, which does not depend upon fine- follows : ness of fibre, but upon a delicate elas ticity which yields to the touch at once, and quickly recovers its form .

Organic matter

89.9

Ash

IO. I

100.0

Hair in Fleeces . — There should be Nitrogen

no hairs in wool — the long ones are easily distinguished, and give the name of bearded to the fleece ; short ones,

Ammonia

soft and fine, are not easilydistinguished,

Potash Soda Lime

.

Sand and silica

11.4 13.8

16.9 4. I 2.0

and are named kemps. Long hairs are of a different colour from the wool, but kemps are of the same colour ; and of the two, the kemps are the more objec-

Magnesia Oxide of iron Chloride of sodium

20.0

tionable, as being less easily detected .

Phosphoric acid Sulphuric acid

15.6

Injuring the Clip.— With all these

properties in view , it would follow that the farmer who breeds sheep having fleeces with pointy staples, thinly set on,

15.1 1.5

.

11.9

12.9 100.0 ?

Ileaning Lambs. The time of the year for the weaning

and of unequal lengths - who stints his sheep of food at times, producing wool of lambs, like that of the lambing itself,

of unequal size and strength - and (as

is subject to great variation throughout

many contend) who does not wash his the country. June, July, and August sheep clean - or, having washed them are the weaning months, southern arable clean, allows their wool to be dirtied farms coming first, and northern hill

before being clipped , and clipped before farms last. The most general timewould the yolk has returned to it - injures his be from the roth of June till the ist of August. clip of wool to a serious extent. Voluntary Weaning.-- As mentioned Composition of Wool. — The composition of wool, analysed by Way, is as in speaking of wool-shearing, it some

times happens that the older lambs do

follows : Organic matters Ash

63.1

not take readily to their mothers after

36.9

the latter are shorn. The change in the garments of the mother must no doubt surprise the youngster, and not a few of the stronger lambs that have learned to forage for themselves may absolutely de

100.0

Nitrogen

4.3 5.2

Soluble .

Ammonia Potash Soda

0.3

Chloride of potassium Chloride of sodium .

Lime .

15.4

Carbonic acid

12. I

Sand and silica matter .

Total inorganic

Sulphuric acid with salts

Salts of potash and soda

61.8 0.3

Lime .

17.3

Alumina and oxide of iron

6. I

Phosphoric acid

keeping the ewes and lambs apart only as short a time as possible. In stubborn cases the weaning may be regarded as

finished, yet both the ewe and the lamb will require attention. Good pasture is all the lamb will require, with access to pure water and a lump of rock -salt. Treatment of the Ewes.— When ewes are forsaken in this way indeed, at

Chloride of potiusnym, } with salts 2.4

Sulphuric acid , with salts Carbonic acid

cline to have anything more to do with their maternal parents. The tendency to this estrangement will be lessened by

weaning-time, at whatever date that may occur—the shepherd should observe the

I2, I

ewes carefully, lest any of them should 100.01

suffer from a persistent supply of milk .

If they are removed to close -eaten dry Woollen Rags . — The composition of pasture, there will, as a rule, be little 1 Jour. Eng. Agric. Soc., xiii. 498.

2 Ibid

WEANING LAMBS.

453

danger ; but in extreme cases it may be mon artificial food before being weaned . advisable to relieve the udder by drawing If not, they are taught this now — receiv

away a little milk by hand, taking care not ing a daily allowance of cake and grain to empty, but merely to slacken the udder. Weaning on Arable Farms. -

A

on good pasture land. Training Lambs to Artificial Food.

There is often great difficulty in get away from the lambs, leaving the latter ting newly weaned lambs to begin eating on their own pasture, and removing the artificial food. A good plan is, when the ewes to the barest and driest pasture on “speaning brash " is off the lambs, to

common practice is to take the ewes

the farm , where they remain until the confine them , in lots of, say, fifty in a supply of milk has disappeared. When fold, where they will have access to

the lambs are left on their old pasture water and artificial food, the latter being they do not fret so much or so long as placed in boxes. After the first day they when put to strange quarters. Still it will begin to eat, and they then may

is desirable, for the sake of pasture, to have a run for some hours on pasture, shift both ewes and lambs, placing the and be again taken to the fold. In a youngsters on some piece of fresh succu- few days every lamb will readily take to

lent pasture specially preserved for weaning - time — neither new nor rank, but fresh, sweet, and succulent.

the boxes.

Fattening Lambs. — The rate at which

This pre- the lambs are forced will, of course, be

vents the lambs from falling off in con- regulated to suit the time at which it is

dition , and lessens the first great wrench desired to have them ready for slaughter. their little hearts have met with.

In Hampshire and other parts in the Hill-pasture for Weaning Lambs. south of England, where the fattening -Some flock -owners think it a good plan of lambs for slaughter at nine to eleven to send their lambs at weaning -time on months old is extensively pursued, the

to some rough hill-pasture for a week or system of feeding is most liberal and

two, their idea being that the astringent highly forcing. Until early turnips are properties of this pasture acts as a useful ready, the youngsters have frequent tonic. Rough hill-pasture is often hired changes — perhaps weekly — upon rich for the purpose, and the youngsters may pasture, lucerne, and clover aftermath,

be all the better of the change if it is of with all they can well consume of cake short duration.

and grain. Then on turnips they have Milking Ewes . — In former times it artificial food and hay.

was customary in many places to milk Store Lambs.— The lambs to be kept the ewes in order to make ewe-milk for breeding purposes or for fattening at cheese, which, when well made, is very a later time,are treated more moderately.

nutritive (vide Roquefort cheese, p. 517 ). When they have been weaned, and had Then, when smearing was common, milk a week or two on good pasture to get was sometimes drawn from the ewes to thoroughly on their own feet, as it were,

make a low -class butter to mix with the tar for smearing. The practice of milking ewes, however, has been discontinued in this country. It was injurious to the ewes. It hindered them from storing up the fat in the system, so very essential

they may be turned on to some poorer pasture,where they will have sufficient food to keep them growing at a full pace, yet not such feeding as will tend to fat ten them. In feeding of store lambs a medium course should be steered. Forc

for ewes that have to face the storms of ing, as with the fattening lambs, would be injurious to the afterthrift of lambs

winter in upland situations. After -treatment of Lambs.

The intended for breeding purposes. Pinched

treatment in the way of feeding given feeding, on the other hand, would be to the lambs after weaning, will depend equally mischievous, for it would lead mainly upon the purpose for which the to stinted growth and to slow maturity youngsters are designed . If they are to in the produce. There is need for good

be fattened off early on the farm , or sold judgment at every turn in the manage highly all along. Most likely they have than in deciding as to the methods of to others for this purpose, they are fed ment of live stock—at no point more so been learned to eat all kinds of the comVOL. II .

treatment for the various classes of stock 2 G

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER.

454

to be used for the widely different pur- them from keds, and also prevents the poses of fattening at an early age, and maggot-fly from injuring them . breeding with fattening at an older The dip used is almost always arsenic in one form or other, diluted with certain

age.

Weaning on Hill -farms. - At wean- proportions of water. As thewater evap ing-time on hill - farms the ewes are re- orates, the skin and fleece become im

moved to higher ground and barer pas- pregnated with the crystals of arsenic, ture, where for a week or ten days they so that even if the lambs should be are watched constantly. In many cases attacked by the maggot-fly the mag

the lambs are also put to the heath or gots may develop, but will be poisoned high ground, where they can have access by the arsenic in the skin and wool to water, for a week or so- care being before they have been able to do any

taken not to leave them longer there appreciable harm . The dipping of sheep than seems necessary to break them into will be treated of more fully in a later Many farmers, section. Care should be taken that lambs (or on the other hand, disapprove of putting their new order of life.

newly weaned lambs on to heath, moory, sheep either ) should not be heated or high ground, for the reason that, if or fatigued immediately before being left for any considerable time there, they dipped. Many deaths have occurred

may sustain a upcheck to their progress from summer dipping in a heated con on them for longafter. dition. A good plan is to allow the which may tell

On many farms a specially good part lambs, after being brought down for of the pasture, green or well mixed, well dipping, to lie on their pasture undis sheltered, with access to running water, turbed for a fortnight or so, and then but free from dangerous “ holes,” is pre- take them up in lots and run them

served for a few weeks to be used as a through the dipping-bath. “ weaning -ground .” Here the young sters are kept for two or three weeks

MARKING SHEEP .

most probably until they can be replaced Sheep are marked for the purposes of The usual plan where there are two indentification and classification, in vari

upon the ordinary run of the flock .

“ hirsels " of ewes on the farm, is to ous ways and at different times.

There

place the lambs of “ hirsel ” No. I on are the farm or flock mark, the age

the ground of “ hirsel” No. 2, and those mark, and the pedigree or breeding of No. 2 on the ground of No. 1 ; so that mark.

To provide these, four distinct when the ewes come back to their old systems of marking are in use — ear

ground, in the course of perhaps about a mark, tar -mark, keel-mark, and horn month , the ewes of the one lot run with brand. By different ways of impress the lambs of the other.

ing one or more of these marks, all

Drafting Lambs. - After weaning the the distinctions required may be easily lambs are drafted, so that the various secured. classes may be assigned to the intended

Ear -marks.

These consist of small

purposes.

Most probably the stronger of the wether lambs and the greater number (the best) of the ewe lambs will be retained to run on the farm along with the old sheep until later in

pieces punched out of the fore or back margin of the ear, a slit in the tip with a sharp knife, holes made with punching nippers, or a combination of these marks,

The others may be sent to arable farms to be wintered on grass

ner of cuff -studs.

the season .

and turnips.

or studs fixed in the ear after the man

One form of the punching -nippers is

Those kept behind are shown in fig. 412.

An inverted hollow

drafted to the low country, as the pas- cone, having its small end sharpened to ture becomes scarce on the high ground, an edge, is employed to cut the hole of and as the winter approaches. any form , round, square, or triangular out of the ear ; and, to save bruising the Dipping Lambs. ears in punching, a pad of horn is in

As soon as practicable after weaning, serted into the straight under-arm , the the lambs should be dipped. This keeps pieces nipped out rising out of the orifice

MARKING SHEEP.

455

of the hollow cone. Someprefer a clip- very serviceable. Green keel is some ping-tool to the punching-nippers for ear- times used for “ hirsel” marks.

marking.

Horn - brand.

Horned sheep are

Tar-mark . — The tar-marking, or buist- marked on the horn with the owner's initials, or some other dis

tinguishing letters, and perhaps also the year of birth and number in the flock register. A tool

used for this purpose is shown in fig. 414. It is made wholly of iron, and on the upper face of the block is cut out as a die

the capital letter to be Fig. 412. - Punching -nippers for sheep.

used, as S. The length

a Hollow cope . 6 Horn pad . c Orifice of hollow cone.

of the implement is about 18 inches.

It is heated

in the fire, and the letter

ing, consists simply of stamping a letter burns its form on the

Fig. 414. – Brand . ing-iron for sheep and cattle.

or letters, expressive of the initials of the horn . If heated high, it

name of the owner of the farm , or of but may the brand several sheep before it cools, most uniform

both, on different parts of the body. The buist is made witha simple instrument such as that shown in fig. 413,

brand is made

when the iron is heated for every sheep.

To carry on the work expeditiously, two or three brands should be used - one to

made with a wooden handle,

an iron shank, and a flat capital letter, as S, cut out of some kind of stiff metal,

be in use while the other is heating in a fire hard by, to and from which a person carries the brands for the operator. Branding is also sometimes done on

as copper or iron. The length of the implement is about

to the sheep, and may slightly disfigure

two feet.

the countenance.

the face of the sheep, but it is painful Cattle are similarly branded on the

The liquid for buisting is tar, made viscid by an addi tion of a little pitch, the two

horn and hide.

being boiled together in a

receive the buist or tar-mark at the time of castration . In some cases they are then also ear -marked . In other cases

Marking Lambs. - As a rule, lambs

metal pot. As a rule the tar-mark is

made high on the rib, so as to be easily seen -perhaps on the near side for female

Fig . .413.7 Buisting :

the ear-marking may be delayed till a later time, perhaps till being sold , if for iron sheep. they are to be sold as lambs, or until

sheep, and on the far side on male sheep. being sent away to the wintering ground. Sometimes, for purposes of classifying The wether lambs may not be ear-marked the stock of different ages, breeding,&c., at all, but ewe lambs to be kept on the on the farm , the tar-mark on one lot is farm are always so marked. On some

on the shoulder, on another on the fore- farms the female stock are marked on rib, and on another lot on the hip or the near ear, and the male on the far. hind quarter. Thus, a single round hole is punched Keel-mark . — The keel-mark is made through the near ear of the ewe lambs, by red ochre mixed with oil, and, as with and a similar hole through the far ear of the other marks, it is put on at various the wether lambs ; and should any ewe

spots on the wool on different farms, and lamb be considered fit for breeding-tups, to distinguish the one class from the it either receives an additional hole

other. The keel-mark, if well put on, is through the near ear, or a bit punched more easily seen at a distance than any out of either margin, corresponding to a of the other marks, and is therefore often similar mark on its dam or sire, to dis

456

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER .

tinguish its descent in blood.

Twin large pastoral districts where there is

ewe lambs receive a hole through both

little fencing.

ears .

Tup lambs in many cases receive no ear-marks of any kind. Individual tups are so easily identified, and their descent so well known by the shepherd, that they

DRAFTING SHEEP.

When the ewes are dry or the milk leaves the udder, the flock are taken to

may require no marking ; yet it is far the folds and “ drafted " ; that is, all the

the better plan to have the distinguishing ewes which have attained a certain age, mark in all cases.

At weaning-time ewe lambs for sale are

or are deficient in form or fleece, or have sustained any of the mishaps incidental

often keeled, perhaps on the neck, to dis- to a breeding flock , or which are for some tinguish them from the others. Marking Older Sheep.— These receive the tar-mark at the clipping-time, each animal being buisted as it is relieved of its fleece. Later in the year, when

other reason to be sold, are separated from those which are to be kept.

Breeding and Selection. — The man. ner in which this work is accomplished the care and judgment exercised in de

the wool has dried sufficiently after dip- ciding which animal to sell and which to

ping, the hoggs, wethers, and ewes may keep-makes all the difference betwixt a be keeled, the marks being differently breeding flock of high quality which give placed so as to distinguish at a glance character and similarity to their progeny, the different classes, such as draft ewes and a flock composed of all sorts and intended to be sold. Draft ewes are sizes, with no family likeness. The

often also distinguished by a different maintaining a flock, or the raising of it to tar-mark, perhaps merely a spot of tar a high standard , require great persever

put on with a round stick instead of the ance, patience, and firmness. Although the flockmaster may be aware of the When a farmer purchases a lot of sheep general principles which underlie success it is the usual practice for him to stamp ful stock -breeding, he will most likely them with his own mark before placing have to face many disappointments.

ordinary letter brand .

them on the pastures.

This he must do with courage and perse

Method of Tar-marking. – The fol- verance, remembering that eventually like lowing method of tar-marking or buisting will produce like, without much variance, sheep is often pursued : The sheep to when his flock , by hereditary influence,

be buisted are put into a convenient asserts its fixity of type. The best to the apartment of the steading, and handed best is a safe rule, and the results arrived out of a door, one by one, by a man, and at from this cause may not only lead to

held steady by another man holding the fame, but are also the most likely to lead

head and rump with his hands, and bulg- to fortune. This cannot be attained in the early ing out the side to be marked by pressing one knee against the side next him. The development of a flock. The owner may buisting-iron is dipped by a third person have to wait years for the attainment of in the melted tar in the pot, lightly, to prevent dripping ; and to make the buist vivid, he uses the buist with a considerable pressure equally upon the entire surface, flat upon the clipped wool, and

withdraws it quickly.

his ideal; but by a judicious selection of gimmers (shearling ewes) to make up his stock, his flock will always be getting nearer to the desired excellence.

Another point which ought to be al

The wool must ways kept in view is, that any deficiency

be quite dry, otherwise the tar will not in form or fleece will most likely assert adhere to it. itself with greater intensity in the off Registering Marks. - To facilitate spring, so that the breeding flock must

the recovery of strayed sheep, the flock- be as nearly faultless as it is possible to masters in several counties and districts

have it.

have introduced the system of registering Principles of Breeding.-- The gen their respective marks, and of publishing eral principles of stock -breeding, thus these in a book or pamphlet form . This briefly hinted at here, will be more fully is an excellent plan, especially useful in treated of in another portion of this work.

DRAFTING SHEEP.

457

A careful study of these principles will may become as good ewes as any on the repay every flockmaster.

Here it will farm , while they do not generally break

suffice to say further that each flockmaster down so quickly as those which are keeps in view the perfect sheep of the tupped in their second year. T'up-yield ewes, or those which have particular breed he owns, and retains for breeding only such of his young stock as aborted, are all disposed of in early come near to this type, aiming always at summer. a higher and higher standard . Age for Drafting Ewes.—The age It is not meant that no young ewe, at which ewes ought to be taken from unless perfect, should be admitted into the flock has been a subject of much the ewe- flock. The object of the flock- controversy. No hard -and -fast line can master should be to get his shearling be drawn. Much depends upon the

ewes as free from faults as possible, and

character of the pasture on the farm ,

no animal should be taken into the breed- which influences the state of the teeth of

ing flock which may have very marked the sheep. The difficulty or otherwise defects. A faulty head or a weak neck of obtaining young sheep to make up the may be corrected by placing the animal place of the draft must also be considered, to a male having these points strongly while the class and management of the developed. There can be no doubt that farm are likewise leading factors. On faults of form or constitution in the most arable farms the flockmaster rears

parents are liable to crop up in the off- his own ewes, and consequently is so spring ; if not the first, very often in the far independent of outside influences. succeeding generation.

In a flock of say 500 ewes, he would Treatment of Draft Ewes. — The require to have 130 suitable shearling draft ewes on many farms are placed on ewes to keep his flock always up to a the best grass available, which, with arti- fixed standard. ficial food, quickly fattens them , so that Keep the Flock Young. - It is

they are generally all cleared off before better, as a rule, to keep the flock young . the autumn.

But when ewes are regu- There can be no loss in this, as the owner

larly cast from hill-farms at four years can obtain as much money for his draft old, they usually find their way to lower- ewes as he could procure for shearling lying farms, and another crop of lambs ewes ; that is, when he regularly cast. taken from them before they are fed off at a certain age.

A customer is never

-generally from rams of some of the awanting for stock of this kind or earlier maturing Lowland breeds, such as

character.

Border Leicester, Shropshire, or Half bred, the half-bred rams so largely used the south of Scotland being crosses

General Hints.

Lodging for Sheep. — Where the

between the Cheviot and Border Leicester green land is limited, it is advisable to turn the sheep off this during the night. Breeding Ewes.—The keeping ewes, Indeed of their own accord sheep-that old and young, are put on fair pasture, is, the breeds accustomed to high land breeds.

so that they may retain their condition, -will gravitate towards high and dry and so remain until within a month of ground for their lodging, turning their putting them to the ram , when they are heads down -hill again early in the morn changed to better pasture, with the ob- ing. This prevents the low and green ject of flushing them before service. This land from becoming so foul as would be flushing, if judiciously done, will ensure the case if the sheep spent the night a larger crop of lambs. upon it. Hill Flocks. — On pastoral or hill Exhausting Green Land . — But the farms the flocks are treated in a similar pasturing of sheep all day upon one por

manner, except that often the draft gimmers which are deficient in size, but have all the other qualities, may be kept for another year before they are put to the ram . By this method of treatment they

tion of the ground and lodging them on another overnight, has also the effect of tending to seriously exhaust the fertility in the former. The greater and richer portions of the droppings of the sheep

usually attain to a satisfactory size, and

occur during night and early in the

458

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER .

morning. The low ground pastured dur- moist weather ; that there is little danger ing the day is thus being impoverished and the high ground enriched. Where this has occurred to a great extent, measures may have to be taken to re-

upon dry land ; that salt is a useful remedy ; and that after the first severe frost the whole of the farm , high and low , may be grazed with impunity in

plenish the fertility of the deteriorated

so far as the liver-fluke is concerned.

ground. Saving Hay for Hill -farms. — Care has to be taken during summer to pro

PASTURING CATTLE.

vide sufficient hay for the requirements of the flock in snowstorms. A general

The cattle which have been fattening

practice is to save or hain the enclosed during winter will be gradually drafted park which had been used early in spring away for slaughter, so that by the end for weak ewes and lambs. There is of April there will be few animals of the usually an enclosure of this kind, ex- cattle kind on the farm except those

tending to perhaps 6 to 10 acres for which are to be grazed at least for some hirsel ” of ewes, and sufficient part of the season. At this time — the

every

hay should be obtained here for a flock time of transition from the winter to

of 500 ewes during an average winter. the grazing season — the farmer has to It is the duty of the shepherds to cut consider and decide as to the stocking and secure this hay, and it is important of his farm during the coming summer

that the work should beproperly and —what stock he is to carry on to the seasonably attended to. The shepherds grass, and what should be disposed of. also provide hay for their cows in win- The chief conditions to be considered are

ter ; this they generally obtain by saving the probable supply of summer pasture, some " haughs” or green patches during the present and prospective prices of lean summer .

and fat stock, and the probable prices of

“Pining” on Hill - farms. — In the extra food, in case such should have to

pasturing of hill -farms, especially in a be procured to supplement the supply on dry season, care should be taken not to keep the stock there too long without

the farm .

Study the Markets. It is especially

a change. Hill sheep in such circum- important that the farmer should care stances are liable to acquire a very de- fully study the tendencies of the market structive disease known as “ pining " or at this time. If beef should happen to be

“ vanquish .” This malady, which ismost cheap and store cattle dear, he may find prevalent on soils overlying the granite it advantageous to hold on a number of

formation, and in seasons of drought his partially fattened cattle to be finished when the vegetation becomes very dry, on the grass, and sold perhaps in the

is supposed to be caused by alkaline month of June — that is, instead of sell poisoning arising from there being too ing these when the winter food is ex great a proportion of potash and soda in hausted, and buying lean or store cattle the soil. The best remedy is an im- when the supply of pasture becomes mediate change to soil and pasture of plentiful. a different character - to low ground, if It very often happens that beef is a sufficient change cannot be had on scarce and dear in the first five or six high ground. weeks of summer . The winter-fed beasts Care against “ Rot.” — But in send- are pretty well cleared out by the end of

ing sheep from high ground to escape April, and grass-fed animals are seldom " pining , and in grazing all flocks on ready for slaughter before the advent of low ground, care must betaken to guard July. It will therefore often pay a far against the acquiring of that still more mer to hold over a few of his partially

deadly disease known as “ rot.” . This, fed cattle to be finished on the grass with with other ailments, will be dealt with cake and meal, and sold in the month of subsequently in a special chapter. Here June. it will suffice to say that the flukes which But in this as in other farming mat 2 cause the “ rot are most liable to be ters, the ruling conditions vary with every picked up on low, damp land, in wet or season, and no prudent farmer would

PASTURING CATTLE.

459

follow hard -and -fast rules in a blindfold allowed to mature and produce seed, for both the land and the plants will be

fashion .

Keep Stock Progressing.There is thereby impaired in their productive one point which demands most careful powers. Pastures do best when grazed attention about the end of spring and be- for about two weeks, and rested for a ginning of summer. It is this — to see similar period all through the season. that the animals are carried from the

All kinds of stock thrive best on mod

one

season to the other in a steadily erately short pasture. Rough bunches progressing condition. Do not on any of grass should be regularly cut down account let the animals fall off towards by the scythe. the end of the house-feeding season. If In some cases, in a good growing sea the supply of turnips and other home- son,it may be advisable to buy in more grown food becomes scarce, buy in food, stock to keep down the pasture. Others, or reduce the stock by selling. Then if especially when cattle are dear, save a

the supply of grass should be deficient portion for hay, and thus curtail the at the outset, supplement with other grazing area . food — with purchased corn and cake, if In some cases the droppings of the need be. In the period of transition cattle are daily collected into heaps, and from one season to another, cattle are in the autumn spread upon the inferior often allowed to fall back in condition. parts of the field. Others merely scat This is very detrimental to the interests ter the droppings over the field , once or of the stock -owner, and should be avoided twice a -week . Grass as Food for Cattle . - In con by hook or by crook. Give the Pasture a Good Start. finement cattle thrive better on a variety -Do not be impatient to turn the cattle of food ; whereas on grass they require from the winter quarters to the summer no further variety than nature supplies

grazing. Let cattle of all ages remain in good pasture, and they thrive the

in the steading until the grass is quite better the longer they live upon it, pro ready to receive them, and able to main- vided they are changed frequently to tain them in a satisfactory condition. In a fresh pasture. Grass is evidently the late seasons, when the turnips and other natural food of the ox, and his anatomi winter foodare exhausted before thegrass cal structureis peculiarly adapted for it. can afford them a bite, the animals should Whatever kind of food he receives in

be partly supported upon extraneous food winter, partakes of an artificial character ; as oilcake, beans, oats ; or those in and being only a substitute for grass, fairly good condition should be dis- artificial food should be made as palat

posed of, to leave some turnips for the able as circumstances will allow, whether young cattle and cows until the grass in variety or superior quality. grows up. This consideration prompted Boussin The cattle are let out in relays as the gault to adopt hay - grass deprived of its grass grows up. It is a good plan at the superfluous water — as the standard for first of the grazing season to take up the comparing the nutritive properties of cattle at night, and give them dry fodder. This tends to counteract the laxative

different sorts of food . Changing Stock on Pastures.

influence of the fresh grass. Grass -land requires skilful management Cattle should not be let on to pasture to make it most available as pasture in while there is frost in the soil, as they every sort of season.

The circumstances

are then liable to injure the grass with under our own control which most in their feet. jure grass are overstocking and continual Overgrowth of Pastures Injurious. stocking. To avoid overstocking, there

-An important point in the successful should be no more stock upon the farm grazing of land is to keep the pastures from growing too rank. In the earlier part of the season, in particular, they should be well eaten down, cropped

than its grass will maintain in good con dition ; and to avoid continual stocking, the stock should not be allowed to remain too long in the same field .

frequently, but not so as to injure the

The safest way to treat each graz

plants. Pasture-grasses should never be ing-field is to stock it fully at once, in

460

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER.

order to eat it bare enough in a short have one young steer to twelve sheep ; time, and then to leave it unstocked for the bullock -pastures, one horse to every

two weeks orso, that the grass may grow twelve beasts. The sheep-pastures should up to a fresh bite. One advantage of be kept comparatively bare ; but the this plan is, that it provides new -grown grass ; and another is, that the grass ecomes foul by being constantly never trodden upon. Stock delight to have fresh -grown grass : and they loathe grass which has been trampled and dunged upon , times out of number.

bullock -lands must have a good bite, so that the animals may quickly feed and soon lie down to rest and ruminate. An old grazing rule is, that grass should be twenty -four hours old for a sheep, and twelve days old for a bullock.” 1 Stocking.- A disturbing element in

To facilitate the frequent changing of reckoning the number of animals that stock to fresh grass, many farmers run a may be kept during the summer is the

uncertainty as to the suitability of the temporary wire - fence across a pasture field, letting the animals crop first one season for the continued growth of grass. division and then the other.

The usual plan is to reckon upon an

Mixed Stock on Pastures. — Another average, and to arrange the number of principle affecting the treatment of pas- stock accordingly. In the event of a

ture-land, is the different way in which bad grazing year, the stock may either different animals crop grass : cattle crop haveto be reduced by sales, or hay and high, sheep nibble low , while horses bite artificial food may have to be purchased. both high and low .

This is a wise On the other hand, superabundance of

distinction between the two classes of grass does no harm ; for besides main ruminants, sheep being suited to short taining the stock in high condition

mountain-pasture, which their mobile lips during the grazing season , it will afford hold firmly while it is severed from the rough aftermath for the sheep in winter. ground with the incisors of the lower jaw On farms where stock are purchased with a twitch of the head aside ; whereas every year, the number

may be regu

the ox is as well suited to the plains lated by the state of the grass ; but even and valleys, where grass grows long, and then the season may turn out better or which it crops with the scythe-like opera- worse than expected. tion of its tongue and teeth.

Seeing that no one can foretell the

From these different modes of cropping future supply of pasture-grass, the pru grass, it is inferred that the horse or dent plan is to keep the number of stock sheep should follow the ox in grazing, or under the mark which the farm can well

accompany him, but not precede him. support. An obvious lesson is to have On pasture eaten bare by horses or the land always in good heart, as it sheep, the ox cannot follow them ; and will be the less affected by an adverse when all are in company, the horse and

season.

sheep will eat where the ox has eaten Water and Salt. — The importance of before, or the horse will top the grass having pure water within the reach of before the ox, the horse being fond of stock on pastures has already been re seizing the tops of plants by his mobile ferred to (p. 432). The opportunity of

lips, and pinching them off between the licking rock-salt is also relished by stock upper and lower incisors. The accom- (p. 433 ). paniment of them all in the early part of Shelter on Pastures . — The want of a the season is a good arrangement, be- shed in a pasture-field is a reflection upon cause all have the choice of long and the sagacity of our farmers. In summer, short grass ; but the horse should be where a tree spreads its branches over

separated from the sheep in the latter the grass in a lawn, how gratefully cattle part of the season, as both bite close.

resort to the shade, wherethey know that

It is curious that horses, and work- the stirring breeze will cool their hides, horses in particular, have a great dislike and afford them a refuge from flies ! In to sheep and not to cattle.

cold weather, cattle crowd to the wooded

Rules for proportional pasturing of corner of a field, and in a rainy day take stock are thus given by the Rev. Mr

Beevor : “ The sheep - pastures should

- Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng. , xviii. 334.

PASTURING CATTLE .

shelter behind trees and hedges. Such indications by our animals should teach us how to treat them. We dislike hedge-

461

Fattening on Pastures. Animals to be fattened off early will,

row trees on account of the injury they of course, have the best pasture — not do to the crops and fences near them ;

perhaps the rankest, but pasture which

to afford a full and still more dislike large trees in the is sufficiently wellis grown known to possess the middle of a cultivated field . There are bite, and which many fields well sheltered on one side best fattening properties. Here the cat by trees, but this is not enough . tle will most probably also receive arti

A shed should be erected at a suitable ficial food — the giving of extra food and part to afford shade in the hot days, and the quantity being regulated by such shelter in a rainy or cold night. Such conditions as the quality of the pasture,

an erection would cost little where stone whether capable of fattening by itself, and wood are plentiful on an estate.

the condition of the cattle, and the time

It should be placed on either side of a they are to be finished for slaughter. fence when a field is in grass.

No mat-

There are few pastures capable of fat

ter what it costs, it should be provided tening cattle without the aid of cake or when the health and comfort of stock are grain - only some of the choicest pas concerned. Its cost would be repaid by tures of Ireland and the south of Eng the healthy state of the stock in the first

land.

By the aid of cake and grain,

or second year of its erection , and it however, cattle may be fattened upon all would stand, with slight repairs, for the average pastures of our goodarable many years . Let it be roomy, and its farming districts. Whether it will be

structure light, with a roof of corrugated more profitable to fatten on the pastures than to merely keep the grazing cattle

iron or tiles.

It is troublesome to carry straw for in good progressive condition , to be fin litter from the steading to a shed situate ished by winter fattening, will depend at a distance. There is little need for upon conditions which must be con

litter in summer, however, and the rough sidered in each individual case. As a rule, fattening pays on the rich grass from anadjoining wood or ditchis good enoughfor the purpose. The dung est grazing land, known to possess high can be shovelled up and removed before fattening properties. On the other hand, it accumulates to the discomfort of the upon mediumand poor land it is usually animals. safer to simply graze the animals well,

Apportioning Pasture.

The first and not attempt the more expensive plan

point is the judicious distribution of the of finishing for the pole-axe. pasture amongst the various classes of

For fattening cattle in particular, fre

stock to be grazed. In this matter there quent changes to fresh pasture is highly is scope for good judgment, for the re- beneficial. turns from the grazing season may be Artificial Food on Pastures. — The largely affected by the manner in which artificial food given to cattle on pastures

the pasture of the different ages and consists largely of linseed and decorti qualities has been allocated to the vari- cated cotton cake. It may often be ous classes of stock .

Beginning Cattle on Pasture.-

found cheaper and better to use a mix ture of cake and grain, the farmer

When cattle are first turned out to grass, taking care to buy whichever variety they may so gorge or over-eat themselves of food happens to be cheapest at the as to become blown or hoven - an ailment

time.

For fattening stock on pasture, from 4 6 lb. per day of cake and corn are gen to begin to is To avoid this, the best plan

which demands immediate treatment.

the cattle gradually with the succulent be effected by giving the cattle a feed of some dry food daily for a few days before turning them on to the pasture, or by allowing them only a pasture, which may

eral quantities. Decorticated cotton -cake is largely used. It is difficult to feed meal to cattle on pasture without some portions of it being lost. The size of the cattle and the supply of pasture must be

partial feed of the pasture for the first considered in deciding as to the quantity . day or two.

It may be sufficient to begin with even

462

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER .

less than 4 lb., and increase as circum- morning before being sent to the field. If they are milked at mid -day as well,

stances seem to indicate.

The artificial food should always be this intermediate milking is done by given in shallow boxes which cannot be some in the field and by others in the easily turned over. It is a bad plan to house. As a rule, in dairy districts cows scatter cake upon the grass, as is some- are milked twice a-day - morning and times done. The boxes are shifted every evening ; and in breeding districts three day, so as to ensure, as far as possible, the times a -day - morning, noon, and night. Night and Day on the Field . — After even manuring of the land by the drop-

pings of the cattle, and to prevent the the nights become warm , we have found

grass from being spoiled by frequent it conducive to health in breeding cows treading on any one spot.

to have them in the field all night—the

By the consumption of artificial food on land, the fertility of the soil is enriched ; and in many cases this system of manuring land is extensively practised.

shepherd or cattle-man bringing them to the most convenient part of the field to be milked. Milking in the field imposes more labour on the dairy -maid and her

Most people give the artificial food in assistants, in carrying milk to the calves, the morning, some early in the after- and to the dairy ; nevertheless, many consider it an excellent system for the noon, and some in the evening. It is a good plan, to prevent stock health of the cows. from falling off when put out to grass

The cows rise from their lair at day

at the first of the season, to continue break, and feed while the dew is still on for a week or two, according to the sup- the grass ; and by the time of milking

ply of pasture, a portion of the artificial arrives — 6 o'clock - they have partially food they had been receiving in the filled themselves with food, standing con house. Many farmers thus give their tentedly chewing the cud, while the milk young store cattle a couple of pounds of ing proceeds. By 9 o'clock they lie cake, or cake and grain, daily for a fort down in a shady part of the field , and

nightor so after they are put on the pas- chew theircud until milking-time arrives ture fields. When the supply of grass is at noon, when they are again brought to plentiful, this, of course , is unnecessary .

the same spot to be milked. Feeding

again, they go in the heat of the after Summering Cows. noon to the coolest part of the field, Cows in milk must also have good whisking away the flies with their tails pasture. Indeed, where no cattle are and ears. As the sun wanes, they walk

being fattened, the cows giving milk about picking up a mouthful till the will probably have the best pasture on evening milking takes place about 6, the farm .

Cows in summer are treated in an

opposite manner by different people— one putting them into the byre at night, and milking them there in the day; another causing them to lieout all night, and milking them in the field. Whichever mode is adopted, it should be borne

after which they feed industriously, and

their lair about sunset, chewing their cud, and at daybreak rise and re

take up

sume the daily round. Does Dew - laden

Grass

injure

Cows? -Apprehension does exist that cows injure themselves by eating grass wet with dew. Yet it is a fact, which is

in mind that cows are peculiarly suscep- not so well known as it should be, that tible of injury from sudden changes of bedewed grass before sunrise, and grass temperature — their produce of milk being after it is dried by the sun, are alike suddenly reduced by exposure even for a good for cows. It is only when the dew few hours to an outburst of cold, wet is being evaporated, after sunrise, that weather. On the approach of unfavourable changes in the weather, the cows should be brought under cover. At any rate, for some time after they

grass proves injurious.

Cows which lie

out all night eat the grass while it is yet wet with dew ; whereas those in the

byre, after being milked, are let out just

are put out to grass, they should be at the time the dew is being evaporated

brought to the house at night, where by the sun, when the grass is in the cold they are then milked, as also in the est state. Hence cows kept in the byre

PASTURING CATTLE.

463

at night are more liable to be injured of food for the cows all the year round.

by eating dewy grass than those lying The cows have the best of the pasture in out overnight. Being hungry when let summer, and will also most likely receive out, the former eat the cold damp grass additional food in the shape of linseed with avidity. cake, bruised oats, and bean - meal, or Consider the Climate and Weather. green forage, such as vetches, clover, -Locality, the character of the weather, and grasses, grown for successional cut

and the local conditions as to shelter,

ting . In some cases they get the cake

should rule the custom of lying out or and grain on the pastures, but more fre

housing at night. In cold upland dis- quently when taken to the house to be tricts, or exposed situations devoid of milked. shelter, so susceptible creatures as milkDairy cows are fed with great liber

cows should not lie out at night ; and in ality, the foods known to encourage milk the very few really warm nights in such production forming a large portion of the situations, the byre might be ventilated daily allowance. In favourable situations, this circum-

Water for Dairy Cow8.-Access to

stance is worthy of attention in determining between lying out and housing, that housing causes the providing perhaps of supper, and certainly of litter, for the cows ; and the provision implies cutting and carrying the forage, and

fresh pure water is a matter of great im portance to dairy cows. Cold spring water is objected to by many for this purpose. Running water which has been mellowed by exposure to the air, just cool but not chilly, is considered best for

rearing the plant in the field , and storing cows giving milk . up straw for litter.

Avoid over - exertion for Cows.

In warm weather, with strong sun- The milk -production of cows is liable to

shine, it is a good plan to keep dairy be seriously impaired by over-exertion , cows in the house during the day, feed- as well as by imperfect feeding or ex

ing them on green food, and turning posure to cold. They should be walked them out to the pastures overnight. leisurely between the house and the pas Excepting a change of pasture — and tures, and the shorter the distance they the change should be to a better one have to walk the better it will be for the —the treatment of cows is the same

COWS. In warm weather insects greatly throughout the summer, and until the disturb cattle on pastures, and to avoid advent of the cool evenings at the end these, many farmers take their cows to

of autumn.

As the milk falls off, the the house for a few hours in the hottest

noon milking, where such takes place, is part of the day. dropped ; and when the eveningsbecome

Mr Gilbert Murray on Grazing

cool, the cows are brought into the byre Dairy Cows. — On this subject Mr Gil

at night, milked there evening and morn- bert Murray, Elvaston Castle, Derby, ing, and grazed during the day. When- writes : “ There are few farms on which ever housing takes place, supper must be dairy cows are kept where artificial foods

provided for them after the evening milk- of one kind or another are not used. ing is over, as also litter.

Should the

Meal and a mixture of cut hay or straw

straw be exhausted, many light materials are fed in the stalls at milking-time morn answer the purpose of litter — as coarse ing and evening. This counteracts the grass from plantations and bogs, ferns, watery character of the grass, and keeps sawdust, or peat-moss litter. up the quality of the milk. Dairy cows Serving Cows. — The cows of a breed- are especially susceptible of injury from

ing stock will mostly have been served sudden changes of temperature and over by the bull before going out to grass. exertion or ill-usage of any kind. For The cattle - man should attend to this them an even temperature and quiet

matter, and enter the date of the service kindly treatment are of the utmost im portance . An acre of good grass land Dairy Farms. — On farms where dairy- will produce from 1500 to 2000 lb. of

of each cow in his note -book .

ing is the chief or a leading feature, the milk, and by the use of artificial food whole system of cropping is arranged this may be considerably increased .” Town Dairies . - In and around towns with the view of providing abundance

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER.

464

it is the common practice to keep dairy

the residue of the food in the droppings,

cows in the house all the year round. enriches the soil. Without the assistance

Their food in summer consists largely of fresh grass and other forage, which is cut daily and given to them in a green, succulent condition, along with cake,

of artificial food, young growing stock impoverish the soil. This is well known to experienced graziers, who affirm that by storing the best fattening pastures

bean-meal, and brewers' grains and bran . for a few years they may be reduced to

Many of these dairymen, however, knowing the benefits tocows of a turn on pasture, rent small fields, and put their cows on them for a few hours daily, or perhaps overnight in warm

the level of ordinary store pastures ; while, on the other hand, store pastures situated on suitable geological forma tions, may, by good management, be raised to the position of feeding pas

weather.

tures. It is needless to say how import

Carse and Suburban Farms.- Graz- ant it is to keep the young animal in a ing cattle in the ordinary sense of the state of steady progression . When young term rarely forms part of the system growing animals are kept on food which pursued on carse farms farms ir is not sufficiently nutritious, or which is large towns. The grazing on these farms deficient in quantity, their organs of di

is confined mainly to the work - horses gestion and assimilation are liable to be so impaired that no after-treatment, how ever skilful and liberal, will fully repair grass is, as a rule, kept only one year, the injury.

and the milk -cows of the farmer and the

farm - servants.

On carse farms the new

and is chiefly used for forage and hay. " A healthy animal of a good class On farms near towns the grass is sold should, at the age of from one to two for forage to cowfeeders and stablers.

years, on pasture increase in live weight

Pasturing Young Cattle and Calves.

at the rate of from 1/2 to 2 lb. per day. This rate of increase, however, will sel

Young store cattle require little tend- dom be attained without the aid of ing while on grass. Nevertheless the artificial food. For growing stock we cattle-man, on going his daily rounds, prefer a mixture of meals of the home

should see that the young beasts are in grown cereals, including a small propor good health, have plenty of food, plenty of water, and are in security within the fences. Like the other stock, they should have frequent changes to fresh pasture— every three weeks if possible. After a change to fresh pasture, they will thrive

tion of linseed. The main difficulty is in feeding these meals on the pasture without losing any portion of them . The best plan is to give them mixed with cut hay or grass. The hay, although

not always palatable to the animals on

much faster, while the grass itself “ goes pasture, is nevertheless a valuable cor further ” by being cropped and rested rective to the laxative tendency of the alternately for two or three weeks at a succulent grass. The quantity of the time. meal may vary from 1/2 to 4 lb. per day. The young cattle, mostly into their Decorticated cotton - cake may be used second year,usually get the poorer pas- with less trouble, but with it there is a tures ; yet they should have abundance certain amount of danger, owing to the

of food, to keep them at full and steady hard cake impeding the action of the progress. Shelter (from sun and wind), digestive organs, and resulting in inflam

rock -salt, and pure water must also be mation, not unfrequently in death .” within their reach . Artificial Food for Store Cattle.-

Calves on Pasture. — Calves are put on grass at the same time as the other

In reference to the use of artificial food cattle, whether weaned or not. By that in the grazing of young store cattle, Mr time the oldest ones will be ready for Gilbert Murray says : “ Store cattle are weaning ; but although ready, the herd

usually grazed on second-rate pastures, of calves should be kept together at first, and in no case is artificial food more pro- in a paddock of grass near the steading,

fitably employed than for these on the where the younger ones are still served grass. This not only hastens the growth with milk or other liquid food, while the of the animal, but at the same time, by older eat the grass, and both are put into

PASTURING CATTLE.

465

the shedded court at night, until the ing of " Calf -Rearing,” in Divisional vol. weather becomeswarm enough to permit iii., and referred to more particularly on them to lie out all night. page 44. Calves are very susceptible of cold, When a number of bull - calves are

especially when on milk ,and receive more brought up together ( after weaning) injury from exposure to it and to wet they should be grazed by themselves on than most breeders seem to be aware of.

the best grass the farm affords, or with

Weaning Calves.— This important the ox-calves, while the heifer-calves go work in breeding stocks has already been with the cows. dealt with.

See Divisional vol. iii. p. 45.

Anyhow, they should never accompany the heifer -calves. A

Pastoral Farms. — On cattle-pastoral single bull - calf may go with the cows farms, the calves go with their dams, and or with the young oxen . partake besides of grass. Calves thrive Ringing Bulls. — Bulls should have a

well in this way, and attain to a large But if the cow does nothing more than breed and rear the calf, the system is not likely to be profitable. The young cattle on pastoral farms size.

ring put into their nose before they are a year old . This instrument is useful not only in leading them , but of keeping their temper in subjection, and affording a more complete command over the most

graze on thelow and sheltered parts till ungovernable bull than any other con In case a bull becomes irri

the weather becomes less stormyand cold

trivance.

in the upper parts, when they stretch their walks by degrees until the highest points are attained. Purchasing Young Cattle. — Young cattle are purchased from the pastoral

table and troublesome as he advances in years, which is often the case, the ring furnishes the means of curbing him at once. The ring also affords an easy means

and breeding farms for the arable districts where few are bred, just before the grass is ready to receive them . Not unfrequently arable farmers hire grass parks for the season , and stock them with

ground, upon which the bull tramps whenever he runs towards a person, and by thus suddenly jerking his nose he checks himself. A young bull may fol low a person in sport, which he should

young cattle on speculation. Young cattle for grazing should have all the symptoms of health and constitution -- a clear eye, dewy nose, large frame, glossy long hair, although low in condition. A low condition is likely to be a

may terminate in a run in earnest. It is best not to go in the way of a bull in a field, especially when he is with cows. He does not mindthe dairy

greater loss to the breeder who has half-

maids

of suspending a light chain from it to the

not be allowed to do, as the following

when

starved them, than to the purchaser who they come to puts them upon good pasture on sound milk the cows, feeding land . Many requisites are to be nor the cattle attended to in purchasing young cattle.

man,

or

the

To be a good thriver and attain condition, shepherd and the hair should feel mossy , and the touch his collie, for of the skin mellow.

The skin should not

he

becomes Fig. 415. - Opened bull's ring.

be too thin, nor feel hard and tight, and familiar with it should be covered with abundance of

them.

a Joint with rivet.

6 Lapped joint for the screws.

Rings for hair. Each lot of young cattle should be of the same or similar size and ap- Bulls . - A common form of ring for a

pearance. This uniformity is an enticing bull is shown in fig. 415. The opened property in every lot of cattle. It is a ring is passed through the hole in the lesson to the seller, in preparing cattle bull's nose, and then screwed close as for the market, to assort them in lots of a round ring. Fig. 416 shows the ring screwed together as it hangs in the bull's equal levelness. nose—the joint closed , and the lapped Treatment of Bulls. The rearing of calves intended for

ends also closed, with the countersunk screws flush with the surface of the ring.

bulls has been dealt with under the head . The ring is of quarter-inch rod -iron or

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER .

466

brass, and its diameter over all is 272 the orifice of the nostrils, so that the hot inches. The surface is smoothly filed and polished Process of Ringing. — The ringing of bulls has to be carried out with great

iron may pierce clear through the cartil age without touching the skin of the

nostrils or his own fingers, the operator taking care to pass the iron in a direction

SO as to excite the animal as exactly parallel to thefront ofthe nose, little as possible. Formerly the hole otherwise the hole will be pierced ob for the ring was generally made by a liquely. Immediately after the taper care,

hot iron, and with

ing rod has been passed as far as to

that system the make the hole sufficiently large for the

O

d

process was de- ring, and the wound seared enough, the scribed as follows, operator removes the rod and takes

in the former editions of this work : - The operator is provided with an

the ring opened, still holding by the bull's nose , passes one end of it gently through the hole, and, on lapping the two ends together, lets go the nose

with the left hand, and taking hold foot long, tapering of the ring with the same, still to com to the point, and mand the bull, puts one screw in, then

iron rod about a Fig. 416. — Closed bull's ring . a Rivet joint.

0 Lapped jointwith 2 screws. rather thicker than the other, securing each in succession the rod of the firmly with the screw -driver. He then

ring. Let a fire be near to heat the turns the ring round in the hole, to point of this rod. The operator should feel that it moves easily, and to see also be provided with a small screw- that it hangs evenly, after which the

driver. Let a long strong cart-rope be bull is released. provided with a noose hitched upon

the middle, just large enough to takein the bull's neck, like a collar. Put the bull into any outhouse that has a window sufficiently low to allow his head to reach through it, though it is safer for his knees

The ringing may be done more quickly and simply without the use of a hot iron, while improved rings are now made to save trouble in screwing.

Substitute for the Ring. – Although it is prudent to have a ring fixed per

against the wall to press his counter manently in the nose, many now prefer Slip the an instrument such as is shown in fig. top of the loop of the rope over his head 241, Divisional vol. iii., which can be down to the counter, bring his breast tightened to grip the nose, as a person

against a strong bar of wood.

against the window , pass the rope from would grip it with his two fingers, and the lowest part of his neck along the ribs can be slackened again and removed

on each side round his buttocks, like a at will. This indeed may and often breeching, and bring an end through the is entirely substituted for the ring fixed window on each side of the bull, where a through a hole in the nose ; yet the man or men hold on to each end of the ring through the hole is an additional rope, to prevent the bull retreating back- safeguard. wards from the window . A man stands Leading by the Ring. - The ring on each side of the bull's buttock, to pre- should not be used until the wound of vent him shifting to one side or the the nose has had time to heal, though other. A man also stands on each side it is not uncommon for the ringing of of the bull's head , holding on by a horn, a bull to be delayed until the time he or by an ear if he is hornless, with one is led to a show , when, the nose being

hand, and keeping up the nose by sup- still tender and sensitive, the poor animal porting the lower jaw with the other. is unnecessarily tortured. So alarmed

The operator having the iron rod given do bulls become by this operation, that him by an assistant, heated in the fire they hang back at the first attempt to

just red enough to see the point in day- lead them , and sometimes the leader light, takes the bull by the nose with his left hand, and feeling inwardly with his fingers, past the soft part of the nostrils, until he reaches the cartilage, distends

thoughtlessly holds on by the rein -rope untilthe ring is torn through the nose. He should slacken the rope whenever the bull hangs back, as often and until he

PASTURING CATTLE.

learns to yield to the slightest motion of the rope .

467

Grazing Bulls and Cows together.

-A bull is never in a better position for

Care in Leading . — The cattle-man serving cows than when in charge, and in whom the animal has grazing with them in the confidence, should lead the bull for the field. We believe it to be first time. He should never pull the ani- a fact, that a bull which

mal along after himself, but allow him is constantly amongst cows to walk on while he walks at his side, in a field rarely teases or or goes behind, with the rope in hand. abuses them, as would be While so following, to relieve the animal done by one taken to them

a

of the weight of the rope upon the nose, for the occasion out of his the man should throw the rope over the own house . But a bull can bull's back , and retain a hold of its end. be left with the cows in the d

bull offer to step backwards, field only when he has to Should the tap on the shank with a stick serve all the cows. When

a gentle

will check him ; and should he run forward, a gentle pull of the rope will make him slacken his pace. On no account should the man struggle with the bull on the first occasion ; on the contrary, he should soothe and pacify, and convince

a bull is with cows, he is usually safe to approach, and quiet within the fence ; but a bull is often trouble

some by himself in a pad dock or field , or even

the bull that he will receive no hurt if amongst oxen.

he will but walk quietly along. A bull soon learns what is intended for him when he is properly dealt with ; but if tormented merely that the man may show his power over him, it will be a long

He is con

stantly restless, often bel lows, especially when he snuffs the wind from the direction of the COWS . Hence he should either be

8

time ere he will learn to behave quietly confined to his hammel or

when led, and in the meantime may byre, and supported on cut become vicious.

forage of some kind, or al

Spring - hook . — The leading - rein is lowed to be with the cows best fastened to a ring or holder by means he is to serve in a separate

Fig . 417. -

Swivelled spring. of a spring-hook swivel, such as is shown field from the rest. hook. in Bulls Summering in fig. 417. A movable part is jointed, a Movable part

and kept in its place by the spring be- the House . — When it is

of hook .

hind it. When the hook is desired to necessary to confine a bull d Jointe vermov be attached to the ring, the thumb presses to a byre or loose -box dur- c Swivel-jointof

on the movable part which yields, and ing summer, he should have v Spliced end of allows the ring to be taken into the cir- exercise once every day, and

rope.

The rein -rope is receive a full allowance of spliced on the ring of the hook , which, green food, such as grass and clover, and cular void of the hook.

turning upon a swivel, prevents the rope perhaps a pound or two of bruised oats twisting. Such a hook can be attached and linseed -cake. With plenty of fresh and released from a bull's ring in much grass he will need little else, unless he is less time than any sort of tying.

hard worked in the service season , or has

Leading - stick .- A leading-stick, as become low in condition . He will most well as a leading -rein, should always be likely relish a little dry hay amongst or used in handling adult bulls. The lead- alternately with the green succulent food . ing-stick is a strong pole, similar to the He should have access to water at least shaft of a hay -fork ,with links and hook once daily, and be groomed once or twice attached to one end for fixing into the ring in the bull's nose, or into the nose

a -week .

Temper of Confined Bulls.— When

itself. By this stick the attendant has confined, bulls, like watch-dogs on the much better control of the bull than by

chain, dislike the approach of any one

a leading-rein alone. When twomen are but their keeper ; and even a keeper has required to lead a bull, one holds the been known to fall a victim to their stick and the other the rein.

caprice.

Some bulls become then so

LIVE STOCK IN SUMMER .

468

prone to mischief that they will attempt thrive better, because they are protected

to run at every person when brought out from extremes of temperature, from the of the house. Air and daylight together teasing of insects, and from undue exer seem to have an intoxicating effect upon cise ; and (5 ) that a greater quantity of them .

manure is made upon the farm .

Curbing a Savage Bull. — Several

More Food Better Used . — It has

plans have been adopted for preventing been asserted by the more enthusiastic a savage bull from doing harm, such as advocates of “ soiling ” that one acre

attaching a stick to his nose by a chain,

“ soiled ” is equal to three acres pas

or fixing a board in front of his eyes.

tured.

This, we think, is overstating

A method which causes less inconveni- the case; yet it is unquestionable that ence to the bull when not in the act of by the frequent and systematic cutting mischief, consists of an apparatus at of the grassesas they grow up, a greater tached to the point of one of the horns, weight of food will begrown during the which, when the bull touches anything season than when the pasture is cropped with this horn, pulls the string so irregularly by stock in the ordinary tight in the nose, by means of a short method of grazing. Then with careful chain, that he immediately desists. The display of bad temper in bulls is more frequently occasioned by an improper upbringing in calf-hood than a natural propensity to vice.

cutting and carting, every particle of the

food is placed before the stock in a pal atable condition, so that the material

grown is more fully utilised than when The train- it is trodden upon and unevenly eaten

ing of young bulls should therefore be by cattle. carefully attended to by the cattle -man, Animals Thriving Better . — Provided

and not intrusted to boys or other inex- the animals are kept in comfortable, well perienced persons. ventilated compartments, with plenty of Number of Cows for a Bull. — Bulls fresh air, they will most likely give a can serve a large number of cows in a better return for the food, in yield of season, perhaps as many as 60, or even milk or in accumulation of fat, than they more . Where a bull is confined to the would on the pastures exposed to sun service of cows on the owner's farm , he and wind and to the teasing of insects.

has usually a smaller number ; but it is a common practice to give the use of the bull to neighbours' cows at a certain charge per head. SOILING.

That young animals would develop bone and muscle more rapidly is very doubt ful; but it has been abundantly proved that adult animals will accumulate fat more quickly in this confinement than upon pasture fields. More Dung made. - The gain in this

The system of “ soiling ” might be point is not so very great as many have humorously described as grazing cattle contended. The heap of dung at the in the house !

It consists of retaining farm -steading will, of course, be largely

the animals in the house,-the byre, augmented ; but it has to be remem hammel, or cattle-court, —and cutting and carting the green food to them, instead of allowing the animals to browse overthe pastures and pick up the grasses

bered that it has been augmented mainly at the expense of the pasture field, which would otherwise have been enriched by the droppings of the animals grazing

for themselves.

upon it.

The only gain in manure will

Advantages of Soiling . - Several ad- arise from the treading down of the litter vantages are claimed for this system spread below the animals, and from the over the older and more simple and residue of any artificial food given in the

natural method of grazing. The chief house along with the cut grasses. It is of these are— (1) that a given extent of doubtful, indeed, if any gain in the quan land will carry a heavier stocking of tity and quality of the manure would be cattle ; (2 ) that more actual food will more than sufficient to repay the cost of

be produced during the season ; (3) returning the dungto the land . thatthe quantity of food grown is more

By the earlier advocates of “ soiling.”

fully utilised ; (4) that the animals it was argued that the droppings of the

HORSES IN SUMMER .

469

cattle on pasture land were in great part it, the system of “ soiling " cattle is not

lost to the soil by exposure. It is now gaining ground in the British Isles. known that this was a mistaken idea , and that there is perhaps no better way of utilising farmyard dung than spread

HORSES IN SUMMER .

ing it upon grass land. Disadvantages of “ Soiling.” — But

From the beginning of the spring work

while these important advantages may until the sowing of turnip -seed has been be urged in favour of “ soiling ,” it has completed , the farm-horses have enjoyed to be pointed out that there are certain no rest; and in the long hours of labour disadvantages which must also be taken during a period from 15 to 18 weeks, into account. “ Soiling ” is altogether a they require a liberal allowance of good more artificial system than ordinary graz food to maintain their strength and con ing. It necessitates the employment of dition. A little green food may be ob more money per acre, not only in the tained for them before the sowing of the larger head of stock, but also in provid- root crops is finished ; but with this ex

ing the necessary house accommodation, ception, the farm-horses, until the com and the considerably larger force of pletion of the hard work of root-sowing, labour.

are fed just as they were fed while work

It will at once be obvious that the ing hard in winter and spring. With the

cost of labour is very much greater than

Summer Leisure.—

conclu

sum with grazing. There is the cutting and sion of the root-sowing comes the som carting of the grass, the tending of the

mer holiday for the horses.

In

e

cattle, the carting out and spreading of parts they spend this time of leisure in the dung, all of which must be regarded the cattle - courts and in others on the as extra work due to the system .

The pasture fields.

heavy labour bill is indeed the greatest Pasturing Work-horses .-On many disadvantage of the system as opposed farms, especially in Scotland , the rule is to grazing. still to graze the horses. As soon as the Then, again, there is this further con- warm weather of summer has fully set sideration, that substantial outlay may in, the horses lie out in a pasture field be incurred in providing food to the all night, and get cut grass between the animals in the house before the grass is yokings in the stable. When the first

sufficiently grown to admit of being cut. yoking is over, they are put on pasture Successional forage crops are grown for until taken up for the afternoon yoking this purpose, as well as to supplement at 1 o'clock, which saves the trouble of the grass at other times. All this in- cutting grass. Work - horses are liable volves additional outlay, employing more to suffer much from chilly nights, cold often laying the foundation of dis capital per acre. Utility of the System . - Still there eases—such as rheumatism , costiveness,

are many circumstances under which the system may — especially with fattening cattle and dairy cows — be pursued with excellent results. It is specially suitable for warm climates, where forage crops

stiffness of the limbs. The aftermath is good pasture in the interval of work at noon, and the second cutting of clover may last for suppers until the time to betake to the stable altogether.

may be easily grown, and where cattle Soiling Horses . — Many farmers dis would be disturbed by the excessive heat approve of pasturing farm -horses, and in the open fields. Then , where the support them at the steading upon for

supply of water for fields is insufficient, age. Where there are hammels or courts house-feeding may be followed in prefer- which could be easily divided , we would ence to grazing.

adopt this plan at once, but we are doubt

It is not likely, however, that in the ful of its advantage in a stable. The best grazing districts, or in the colder heat of a stable in summer — and the parts, it will ever displace the long-estab- doors cannot be left open

with the

Iished system of summering stock on the evaporation of the increased issue of open fields. Indeed, it has to be noted urine from the green food, cannot fail to that with all the advantages claimed for vitiate the air . The cattle - courts are VOL . II .

2 H

DAIRY WORK .

470

more open ; and if they can be divided so that each pair of horses may have a compartment to themselves, they will thrive admirably here. In the tillage districts of England this system of sum-

ing.

It is surprising with what con

stancy a work -horse will eat at pasture.

His stomach being small in proportion to the bulk of his body, the food requires

to be well masticated before it is swal mering horses in the cattle-courts is ex- lowed ; and as long as that process is

tensively pursued.

Many farmers, in- proceeded with while the grass is cropped,

deed, maintain that there is no better no large quantity can pass into thesto

or cheaper method of keeping draught- mach at a time. The horse, like all her

horses in summer than in the courts, bivorous animals, grazes with a progres fed with green vetches or other similar succulent food, and dry hay, with perhaps a little bruised oats. Very often the grain is omitted. Still it is a good plan to give the horses a week or two of the fresh air in an open pasturefield. Pasturing Young Horses. — Young horses are put to pasture during the day as soon as they can obtain a bite. They should be brought at night into their

sive motion onwards,and smells the grass before he crops it. His mobile lips seize and gather the stems and leaves of the grass, which the incisors in both jaws bite through with the assistance of a lateral twitch of the head . When grass

is rank, he crops the upper part first; and whenshort, bites very close to the ground. Horsesshould notgraze amongst sheep, as both bite close to the ground ;

hammels until the grass has passed and work -horses often injure sheep that through them ; after which they should come in their way, either by a sly kick lie out all night in a field which offers or by seizing the wool with their teeth. them the protection of a shed or other It is proverbial that horses do not shelter. Work-horses do not care for a graze well upon many of the very best

shed on pasture, being too much occu- bullock pastures. Horses often do better pied with eating during night to mind it.

on rough pasture than on land which has

In rainy weather young horses should be been altered in its herbage by thorough kept in the hammel on cut grass, and drainage. not exposed to rain in the field overHorses Injured by Green Food. night. Care must be exercised in beginning The farmer's saddle -horse should have horses with green food every year. If

grass in summer, as the best course of allowed to gorge themselves too freely at physic it can have. But it is more con- the outset, serious illness may follow . venient to give it cut grass in a court or Begin them sparingly with it, and if it hammel than to send it to pasture, in should be wet or very succulent at any

which it may be with considerable diffi- time during the season, it will be all the better to be accompanied or mixed with

culty caught when wanted.

Peculiarities of the Horse in Graz-

DAIRY The breeding, feeding, housing, and general management of cows and their live produce are fully discussed and described at convenient points in other sections of the work. Here we are to

a little dry food such as hay.

WORK. which, although universally familiar to the eye and welcome to the palate, is neither so well understood nor so skil fully manipulated and utilised as might be reasonably expected in the enlighten

deal specially and at considerable length ment of the present day.

What, then,

with the manipulation and utilisation is this fluid ? and what shall we do of milk and its products. with it ? The cow—the best friend to man of The notes in the following pages, the entire animal creation — gives a intended to elucidate these two compre

bountiful yield of a delicious fluid , hensive questions, are not addressed in

DAIRY WORK .

any exclusive sense to those who are

471

Upon holdings where dairying bulks

usually described as " dairy farmers ” - largely, the manipulation of the milk those who make dairying their sole

and its products requires a distinct

object, or the one great, all-absorbing building of considerable dimensions. feature in their farming. Our notes are

Be the extent of the dairy what it

designed for all who have milk to manipulate, in large or in small quantities. Whether it happen to be the milk of the crofter's one cow , the stinted produce of the breeding herd, or the

may, there are some important condi tions which should be common to all. Leaving individual farmers to provide the dairy capacity required for their re spective holdings, and also allowing them

fuller flow of the heavymilkers on the the fullest freedom in what may be called

large dairy farm , the object all through the embellishment of their dairy build

should bethe same— to turnthe milk to ings, we would press for general adoption the best possible account.

Whether this only such conditions and arrangements

will be as food for the residents on

as are known to be essential for the

the farm , for calf rearing, for sale as successful handling of milk, butter, and whole-milk , skim-milk, cream , butter, or

cheese, will depend upon circumstances

cheese. Some further reference will be made

too numerous, involved, and variable to to the dairy when we come to speak be discussed here with advantage. What- of the construction of farm -buildings. ever thc destiny of the milk may be,

Situation of the Dairy. — In the

it is important, in order to ensure the first place, the milk compartment or

best possible results in its utilisation, dairy should be so situated as to be that the operator shall be acquainted free from strong or unpleasant odours. with the characteristics, the inherent Unless it is kept perfectly sweet, airy,

properties, the weak points and the and wholesome, successful dairying is strong, of the commoditywhich he or she out of the question. is handling. It is thus desirable that all Milk- room in Dwolling - house.

farmers who keep cows, whether few

The “ milk-house ” in the body of the

or many, should make themselves famil- dwelling-house is therefore not a desir iar, not only with the characteristics able arrangement. Odours from the

and properties of milk, but also with kitchen, scullery, and pantry are liable

the best methods of preparing it for to find access into this compartment, the various purposes for which it may and play havoc with the milk, cream , be employed and butter. If the dairying interests The milking of cows has already been of the farm are too small to justify dealt with, page 24, Divisional vol. iii. the erection of a separate dairy, make Here we take up the milk as it comes a point of having the milk compart from the cow-house to the Dairy. ment as far removed from the kitchen, THE DAIRY.

scullery, and pantry as possible. Let it be in a cool, airy position, on the north side of the house if possible. Keep

The special apartment designed as nothing in the milk compartment except the dairy will, of course, be regulated milk - above all, nothing that gives off in its capacity and equipment in accord- a strong or unwholesome smell. ance with the extent and nature of the

A Medley in the Milk -room .--An

dairying operations carried on upon the arrangement by no means farm .

uncommon

upon farms where little attention is

Upon mixed husbandry farms, where given to dairying, is to have the milk dairying is quite a subsidiary interest, house and pantry combined in one com or where, indeed, only as many cows

partment. Here, in close proximity, per

are kept as will supply the wants of haps on one shelf, are milk , butter, the farm itself, the dairy or “ milk- cheese, old and new ; cold meat from

house ” is often merely a small compart- the table, dripping, fish, fresh and ment opening out of the kitchen or from cured, and such odorous, savoury and the passage between the kitchen and the unsavoury articles. A worse arrange ment for the milk and butter could main dwelling -house.

472

not be conceived.

DAIRY WORK. Those who desire

Dairy Sink and Wash -tank . — There

to have first - class, good -keeping dairy should be no sink or fixed water -tank with produce, must protect it from all such in the milk -room or churning-room . A contaminations .

water-tap is convenient in both, but there

Separate Dairy . — A convenient posi- should be no sink underneath the tap

tion for the separate dairy is right back at most only a slight indentation in the from the kitchen on the north side of floor, which will carry off any stray water

the house. It is a good plan to have from the tap, and which may be easily the kitchen and dairy connected by a cleaned with a sweep of the brush. The washing - tank and sink for the covered passage, leading through a yard

perhaps from 5 to 10 yards wide. It is cleaning of the dairy utensils will be desirable, of course, that the dairy shall either in a compartment by themselves be within easy access from the cow -house,

or in the kitchen scullery . All under

yet not so close as to endanger the taint- ground drains should be provided with ing of the milk with smells from the bell-traps. Many think it desirable to avoid underground drains. Surface farmery or piggery.

Compartments in the Dairy . — With drains are more easily kept clean. a small number of cows one compart-

Milk Shelves. — Shelves for holding

ment, perhaps about 12 feet by 14, may milk - pans are usually fixed round the be sufficient for all the dairy work. In walls. The shelves should be formed of other cases there may be three or more some non -absorbent material such as slate compartments, a milk - room , churning- or flag - stone. Some prefer movable

room , cheese -making room , with a shelves, such as shown in fig. 428, to

cheese-store above. Two compartments fixed shelving. for active work, and one in which to ripen

Temperature of the Dairy.- It is

cheeses, are usually considered sufficient.

a matter of great importance to have the dairy kept cool, sweet, and fresh. Many consider an equable temperature so essential that they employ artificial means of regulating it — by hot -water pipes or a fire in winter, and by shading

Verandah.—It is a good plan to have a covered way or verandah along the south front of the dairy. This provides a shade from the noonday sun, and permits the dairy utensils being dried and

aerated in rainy weather. from the sun and flushing with cold Finishings of the Dairy . — There is water in summer . no need for elaborate or costly buildings One of the most perfect dairies we for dairy work . They should be fairly have ever known of was one in the State

roomy, not less than 10 feet in height, of New Jersey. Right in the centre of well ventilated and thoroughly dry, with it there is a strong spring of delightfully

a subdued rather than bright light. The pure water bubbling up from the rock, ceiling should be lathed and plastered, keeping the compartment almost equal and the flooring formed of some mate- in temperature all the year round. rial which will be hard, proof against To secure, as far as possible, a cool, damp, and easily cleaned . Encaustic or even temperature, the dairy is sometimes

enamelled tiles and polished pavement sunk partly into the ground on a hillside, are often used, but there is nothing great care being given to the drainage ; better than well-formed concrete with a

while walls and roofs are made double,

smooth surface. The concrete floor is with an air-space between. In summer rounded at the edges and corners, and the windows and doors are well shaded declining towards the door or other exit, from the sun, and it is considered that so that with a hose-pipe and a good sup- a subdued is preferable to a bright ply of water it can, with little trouble, light in the dairy. Specky or streaky butter is sometimes attributed to ex be thoroughly flushed. Dampness to be avoided . — Damp- posure to strong rays of light. ness is very injurious in the dairy. If Precise limits need hardly be laid down the situation is of a damp nature, special as to the temperature of the dairy. The precautions must be taken in construct- object to be aimed at is to have the ing the dairy to ensure that its floor and atmospheric temperature of the milk walls shall be proof against damp. room lower than the temperature of the

MILK.

473

milk itself. The tendency of milk to dogmatise. In recent years vast ingen become contaminated by offensive odours uity and enterprise have been employed is much increased when the surrounding in the bringing out of “ new and im proved ” dairy appliances. We heartily Hot air coming into contact with colder acknowledge the benefits which have thus

temperature is warmer than the milk.

milk becomes condensed and deposited been conferred upon the dairy interest, upon the milk with all its impurities,

for it has been established beyond ques

whatever they may be. On the other tion that many of these modern contriv hand warm milk placed in a colder room ances for use in the dairy are possessed with pure cool dry air coming into con- of merits of the highest order. tact with it, is more likely to be purified Still it is not necessary that in order than contaminated. The cold aircoming to ensure first- class dairy produce the

within the influence of the warm milk is dairy farmer should discard all his old

expanded, and rising, may carry with it appliances and adopt new ones.

He will

volatile impurities from the milk.

do so only as far as his experience, ob Professor Sheldon remarks that “ milk servation, and means seem to dictate and

that has been cooled by water or ice justify.

This is pre-eminently one of

should not be exposed to an atmosphere those points as to which the dairy 10 ° or 20° warmer : for it then becomes farmer may, with ample justice to the a facile condenser and absorbent. While produce of his dairy, give considerable the air is seldom pure enough not to scope to his purse and his fancy. injure milk that is 10° colder, it is seldom Three important points to look for in so impure as to vitiate milk that is 10°

all dairy appliances are simplicity and

warmer. ” 1

economy in working, facility in cleaning, There is thus good reason for keeping and durability. Cheapness is, of course,

the atmosphere of the milk -room cool, also to be kept in view ; and the greatest fresh, pure, and dry. Importance of Temperature.

At

consideration of all is efficiency. In the course of our detailed notes

every step in dairy work, no matter what upon the various operations in the dairy, branch of dairying may be pursued, the numerous appliances which are well guidance of the thermometer must be thought of will be mentioned and illus

constantly resorted to. Temperature is a controlling influence in all the operations of cream -raising, butter -making, milk

trated .

Power for the Dairy.

ripening, and cheese-making ; and with-

In tolerably large dairies, where hand

out due attention to this influence, success

power would be insufficient, a small

cannot be reckoned upon. Guess-work steam - engine is very often employed. is quite unreliable, both as to the tem- A vertical boiler and engine similar to perature of the room and of the commo- that shown in fig. 49, page 135 , vol. i.,

dities under manipulation. But there is well suited for this purpose.

It should be so placed as to be useful for other the common thermometer — which may farm- work as well, such as preparing

is a simple and efficient guide at hand-

be had specially adapted for dairy work cattle- foods. Horse and water power at from is. to 3s. each. Glass or porce- are also utilised for dairy work . A use

lain thermometers are required for in- ful form of horse-gear for working dairy serting in and marking the temperature appliances is illustrated in fig. 132, Divi of milk, curd, &c.

There should also be

a wall -thermometer hanging in every

sional vol. ii.

The steam -engine is best adapted for

compartment of the dairy, so that the working the centrifugal separator. temperature in each may be seen at a glance. Dairy Utensils.

MILK .

In regard to the kind of dairy appliMilk, the most perfect of all foods, pos ances to use, it would be imprudent to sesses characteristics which should be 1 The Farm and Dairy, 62.

carefully studied by those who have to handle it and manufacture its products.

DAIRY WORK .

474

Lb.

Breed .

of Milk .

Composition. 119 Shorthorns

The composition of cows' milk varies greatly. The following may be taken as fairly representing ( 1) the analysis of

31

14 26 Crosses 11 3

Water . Casein . Butter - fat

Milk -sugar Albumen Ash

.

Analyses.

Ingredients.

87.40

81.00 to 91.00

3.30 3.40 4.55

3.00 11

0.60

0.75

44.8

12.89

27.87

14. 36

28.41

1 28.30

14.94 14.00

131.15

14.46

39. 12

12.91 12,28

43

49 Guernseys

Extremes of

12.87

118 Jerseys

extremes in milk -analyses : Arerage

ſ 43.130

11

an average sample of milk ; and (2) the

51.86

7 Dutch 13 Ayrshires

3.00 !

4. 10

1.85 "

9.50 5.00

2 Devons 3 Red Polls I Welsh

0.30 11

1.20

3 Kerries

0.70 11

0.80

Total Solids.

43.31 34.26 30.12 43. 10

46.00 23.50

Fats .

3.73 3.81

4.56 5.47 4.77

5.03 3.69

13:43

3.23 3.26 4.15

14.34

4.90

12.72 12.74 14.22

3.60 4.16 4.40

I 2.II

432

The range of solid matter in milk is as

great as from 9 to over 19 per cent. AA comparison of the figures corroborates good sample should contain at least 12 many points with which we are already per cent . Different breeds vary greatly familiar. Thus Shorthorn milk is not

in the standard percentage of solids in Dutch cows would rank lowest, and Jersey cows highest, shorthorn cows being about the average.

very rich in total solids orfat ; Jerseys and Guernseys are very high in fat and total solids ; Dutch very poor in fat and solids ; and othersmedium . If the solids

Even with the same cows there will be

other than fat are worked out, it will be

their milk.

marked variations under good and bad found that they vary only within a half treatment.

per cent, not only within the limits of

Butter -fat. - It will be observed from the figures given above that the greatest variation occurs in the butter-fat. In many samples of milk from Jersey cows, analysed at the London Dairy Show by Mr F. J. Lloyd, the percentage of total

the breed, but between the averages of all ; that is, they exist in the proportion of from 9 to 972 per cent, no matter how much the “total” solids may differ,

though, of course, the highest in one is also highest in the other. The exceptions to

solids ranged from 13 to over 19 per this only occur with the Dutch and Welsh cent, and this variation arose almost entirely in the butter-fat. The percentage of butter-fat ranged from about 4.10 to about9.50 per cent, while total “ solids

in the above table, which fall below 9 per cent, where, however, the total solids are fair. Under the headings of Shorthorns, Jerseys, Guernseys, and Crosses, the aver

other thanfat ” showed only very slight ages of the last two years are given by variation, at most considerably under i themselves, showing that the general per cent. With the milk of shorthorn quality of all kinds as dairy animals is cows analysed on the same occasion, improving. There is an increase in every

exactly similar results were obtained- item right through , with the exception that is, in regard to the variableness in of the quality alone of the “ Cross ” milk the percentage of butter - fat, and the apparently due to an extra number of comparative fixity in that of the other Dutch half -breds.1 solids. The total solids in the shorthorn It is thus established beyond question milk ranged from 11 to 15 per cent, while that by far the most variable ingredient

the solids other than butter-fat did not in milk is fat. It is the commodity vary more than about one-half per cent.

which is most within the control of the

Composition of Milk from Different farmer, and which will be chiefly in Breeds.—The following table, arranged fluenced by the feeding and general by Professor M'Connell, gives the average treatment of the cow. The fat, of

daily yield of milk in pounds, with the course, is the ingredient from which fat and total solids in the milk, calculated

the butter is derived.

out for each breed from the results of the

Testing Percentage of Cream .

trials with 432 cows at the London Dairy Shows in the ten years of 1880-89:

1 Ag. Gazette, 1889, 493.

MILK .

475

This is not easily done with absolute and keep down the fat — that is unless a accuracy . The ordinary test-tube- a rich cheese is desired, when more albu

glass tube with graduated lines at the minoids are given in the food to increase top to mark the percentage of cream as the fat. Some practical dairy farmers,

it rises — isuseful, but not quite reliable. however, contend that, by changes in The milk is put into this tube as it is feeding, they have been able to alter the drawn from the cow, and when the casein contents of the milk. cream has risen, it shows on the gradMilk -sugar.- This is usually present

uated scale the percentage of the bulk

in a larger quantity than any of the

of the cream . But the cream of different other solid ingredients.

It is the most

cows varies so much in the size of the butter - fat globules and therefore in specific gravity, that this test will not always show the entire and exact comparative quantities of butter -fat in samples of different milk. For mixed samples of milk from a number of cows it is fairly reliable, and is a ready means of testing much used in the new -milk trade. Every farmer should, for his own information, test the percentage of cream from his

active agent in the decay of milk, as by the action of germs, Bacterium lactis, it is transformed into lactic acid, pro ducing sour coagulated milk.

COWS.

value it has been shown to possess (page

Albumen .

This nitrogenous sub

stance is very similar to casein. Yet the two are so different that, while the ren net precipitates casein in the form of curd, the albumen passes off with the whey. It is this albumen and the sugar of milk that give to whey the feeding

The Lactocribe is a most useful inven- 41 , Divisional vol. iii.) This albumen tion for ascertaining the exact amount of coagulates on boiling the whey after the butter-fat in milk. It is worked simi-

removal of the casein .

larly to the De Laval separator, and

skin which appears on boiled milk.

tests the milk by centrifugal forcemaking as many as twelve tests at one time. This is a very useful appliance factories or creameries, where in dairy cream is purchased from the farmers. Fat - globules. — The butter-fat may

It forms the

Weight and Specific Gravity . - A

gallon of whole-milk weighs as near as might be from 10.25 to 10.35 lb. For

calculation, it is a common prac simple tice to reckon 10 lb. of milk to the gallon. The specific gravity of whole

be seen by the microscope to be in milk would vary from about 1.025 to suspension in the milk in tiny globules. 1.032, as compared with 1.000 for water These globules vary in diameter in the as the standard. The higher the per

milk of different breeds and different centage of cream , the lower the specific cows from a doo to godoo of an inch, and gravity of the whole -milk. The specific it has beenestimated that there are over gravity of cream itself isabout .90. forty thousand millions of these fat-glob-

Milk Statistics . — Taking the stock

ules in a pint of milk containing 4 per of cows in this country as a whole, the cent of cream . average yield of milk would probably be Casein. - This useful ingredient of somewhere between 430 and 450 gallons milk, so important in the manufacture of of milk each per annum . Good average

cheese, is described by Professor Sheldon dairy cows of the heavier milking breeds as existing in the milk in the form of —shorthorn, cross-bred, Ayrshire, Dutch, an extremely attenuated jelly, owing to and red polled — should give from 700 to

lavish absorption of water.

There has 900, some of them even 1000 gallons each

been much discussion as to how far the in the twelve months. The produce of percentage of casein can be influenced by butter for a given quantity of milk varies the food given to the cow . Mr F. Š. greatly. The choicest butter cows, such Lloyd says he is sure every chemist who as Channel Island cows, often give i has analysed milk will confirm his state- lb. of butter from rather less than 2 ment, that e

we cannot by feeding per- gallons of milk, and average dairy cows ceptibly increase the casein contents of in a butter dairy should give a pound milk ; ” and he adds, that therefore the of butter from 25 to 30 lb. of milk.

object in cheese -making should be to Cheese-makers expect to get about 1 lb. feed so as to increase the flow of milk of hard cheese, such as Cheddar, from

DAIRY WORK .

476

each gallon of milk ; and a little less only bad odours, but also living organ in Stiltons.

isms (minute vegetable growths), which Weighing Milk . — It is very desir- are continually floating about, and which

able that the product per day of every accelerate the souring and decaying of milk . The actionof these organisms

is very much impaired by cooling the milk to about 50° or 55 ° Fahr., and

this is frequently done as soon as the milk is taken to the dairy. It is also RE DAI RY

CO

RD

RD

EM

HE

8

believed that by heating the milk to at least 170° the most if not all of these living germs are killed. In hot

weather, therefore, when it is diffi

30THE SA DRINCHAN PAT ENT NE

20

cult, mainly on account of the activity

of these organisms, to keep the milk sweet for any length of time, it is the custom in some dairies to heat the milk up to 170°, and then rapidly cool it to below 50°. Heating and Cooling Milk . — There are numerous methods of heating and cooling milk . Where

there are small quantities to deal DOPPS LENSO

with, it may be done by filling a tin can (such as shown in fig. 419) with hot or cold water as the case

may be, and dip ping it into the milk . Where there

are large quanti

ties to manipulate, Fig . 418. – Sandringham dairy herd recorder.

methods have to be adopted . other

cow in milk should be tested by weight In fig. 420 (Lawrence's at least once or twice every week. Use- patent refrigerator, for ful information will thus be obained as

the illustration of which

to the return each individual cow is giving for the food she consumes. In the

we have to thank Messrs Bradford & Co. )

absence of precise facts as to the yield, is shown a very effi unprofitable cows may be occasionally cient appliance for this kept on longer than would otherwise be purpose . A is the milk the case .

A convenient appliance for receiver on top, and

weighing and measuring milk is repre- B the refrigerating part, sented in fig. 418 ( Dairy Supply Co. ) This latter is formed The dial shows the weight of the milk of two thin corrugated in pounds and ounces, and the measure sheets of tinned copper, or quantity in gallons and pints. Purifying and Preserving Milk.

Fig. 419.- Tempera . ture can .

placed side by side, with the flutings of the one sheet fitting into those of the other, the whole

There are several processes by which soldered to ends and made watertight.

milk may be to some extentpurified and Athin stream of milk is allowed to preserved sweet and wholesome for a trickle down over B and collected at o As soon as milk is exposed to again, while cold water is led in between the atmosphere it is liable to absorb not the sheets from D, and up and out at time.

MILK .

477

exit E. By this means the milk is sud- the medium of milk . Some indeed go denly reduced from a temperature of the length of saying that all milk should about 90 ° Fahr. to nearly 50° Fahr., be boiled before using. Preserving Milk . — In Norway a being thoroughly aerated at the same

This cooling is the more effica- system of preserving milk by sterilising ceous, because it is sudden , in nullify- it, and enclosing it in sealed tins, has ing the action of the souring germs, so been introduced with apparently some is taken The

time.

that the milk remains sweet longer, while measure of success.

milk

direct from the cow, and, in the first place, is cooled down to ordinary tem perature, about 50° or 60° Fahr., and

then hermetically sealed up in tins. In this state it is exposed to a temperature

of about 160°, and kept at this for one hour and three -quarters or thereabout, after which it is allowed to cool down to

100 °, at which it remains for some time. B

It is then quickly heated up again to the former temperature of 160 °. This alter nate heating and cooling is repeated in the same manner severaltimes, and then finally the temperature is raised to the

boiling -point of water, or about 212°, after which it is cooled again to ordinary temperature, when it is found to be com

pletely sterilised, not a trace of any organism or germ being left. It is therefore in a state in which it is said

that it can be kept for an indefinite length of time without undergoing any change. Boracic Acid as a Preservative. MEM

Fig. 420. — Lawrence's refrigerator.

!

It is well known that milk may be kept

sweet for a longer time than usual by adding to it a little boracic acid or borax,

noxious gases and flavours are removed which is in itself quite harmless in the by the aeration. By hot water ( instead milk . of cold) being run through between the Saltpetre in Milk . — Many farmers sheets the milk may be raised in add to milk a little saltpetre dissolved in water. Professor Sheldon regards the A more elaborate arrangement of the use of saltpetre in moderation as a good

temperature.

same apparatus, designed to at the same thing. “ In summer,” he says, “ it will operation scald and cool the milk, is rep- helpto preserve the milk, and in winter resented in fig. 421 (Dairy Supply Co.) neutralise the bitter taste which is too The milk from c runs over A , which is commonly found in butter . "

fitted with an arrangement for circulating Condensed Milk. — The preparation boiling water internally, then flows over of condensed milk is now quite an im the refrigerator B, and becomes cooled portant industry. The process consists of evaporating the water of the milk and and ready for use .

Milk in Sealed Bottles. - As a simple preserving the solids (mixed with sugar) plan for keeping small quantities of milk in sealed tins. The nourishing elements sweet, Professor Long recommends that in the milk may be thus preserved for it should be sealed in bottles, and these any length of time, but the natural submerged in boiling water for a few flavour has been to a large extent minutes. He adds that if this plan were dissipated.

universally adopted there would be no danger of attack from disease through

1 The Dairy Farm , 7.

DAIRY WORK .

478

sumption as milk upon the farm - as Destination of the Milk.

human food, and for calves, (2 ) for sell

The treatment of the milk, from the ing as whole-milk, (3) selling as cream very moment it leaves the cow - house, and skim -milk , (4) butter-making, or (5 ) will to some extent vary in accordance for cheese-making.

BREVE LILLE DNCE LIMITE C& º LAWRE

TE S.S.C.O BREVE

We do not intend to discuss here the with the purposes for which the milk is to be employed — whether ( 1 ) for con- relative advantages or disadvantages of

Hill

Fig . 421. - Scalder and cooler.

these various methods of utilising milk to decide for themselves, after due con and its products. Circumstances as to sideration of the circumstances of the

supply and demand, and other condi- particular timeand locality, as tothe tions, may so vary in a comparatively method of utilisation that will afford short space of time as to completely up- them the best return for the milk , we set former reasoning, and warrant farmers devote our attention here solely to de

in altering their plans. Leaving farmers scribing the details to be gone through

MILK .

479

in each of the methods of utilisation

is carried out has much to do with the

pursued .

success of dairying, more perhaps than is

Consumption and Selling of Whole-milk. generally recognised. Principles of Cream-raising.

When the milk is to be consumed on the farm ,or sold as new milk, very littlemanipulation in the dairy is required. In the former case it may be measured out to the consumer just as it leaves the cow -house. In the latter case, the milk should be run through the refrigerator as soon as

The

term cream -raising, which is extensively used , affords in itself an indication of the theory of the process of separating cream from milk. The factors involved are specific gravity and temperature. Cream is the lightest ingredient of milk, and

therefore rises to the surface. The period it is taken to the dairy. In view of a of time which the cream requires to

journey by road or rail, the immediate make its way to the surface depends cooling process, down to 50° or 55°, is largely upon the influence of tempera very desirable. In fig. 420, the refriger- ture. Water is the largest element in ator is shown standing upon a railway milk, fat the chief ingredient of cream. milk -can , into which the milk runs as it

Water is a better conductor of heat than

leaves the refrigerator, and in which it fat — the former expanding with heat and is then removed to its destination .

contracting with cold rather more quickly

Milk -selling Trade . — The selling of whole - milk for consumption in towns and villages has grown into a business of very large proportions. And as the taste for milk -food grows amongst townspeople — it is growing fast, and will surely enough continue to do so for many years

than fat. Thus it happens that with a falling temperature, and the water in the milk cooling and contracting - increasing in specific gravity - more rapidly than the fat in the cream, the latter is more

quickly forced to the surface. On the other hand, when the temperature of the —the milk -selling trade will go on in- mass is rising, the difference in specific

creasing.

In some cases the milk is con- gravity between the milk and cream be

veyed from house to house by the farmer. comes less,and collecting of the cream on The general custom, however, is to con- the surface therefore slower. sign the milk and deliver it by road or The discovery of these facts has been rail to extensive milk -sellers, who con- of great service to dairy farmers, for it

tract with farmers for a certain supply has enabled them to so manipulate the during the year or season . Cleaning Dairy Utensils .

forces of nature as to raise the cream

With much more speedily than was attainable

this system of disposal no other dairy work is involved, excepting, of course, the cleaning of the vessels used in conveying the milk . This latter is a most important matter, which should be at

in former times. In practice it is found that the sudden

cooling of milk, as soon as it is drawn

from the cow, retards the rising of the cream, while the setting of the milk, tended to with the greatest care. Wash while it is warm, hastens the process. Methods of Raising Cream . — At and scald the utensils thoroughly as soon as they come into the dairy empty. one time the setting of milk in shallow

Upon no account leave any dairy utensil pans was almost universal in this country. Now, however, several other methods of Milk for Calves. — The system of feed- raising cream are in use, and some of ing whole and skim milk to calves is so them have unquestionable advantages in fully dealt with in the chapter on calf- their favour. The deep -pan system has

dirty over -night.

rearing, pp. 30-46, Divisional vol. iii., that many advocates, and so likewise have no further reference need be made to the the centrifugal separator, the “ Jersey creamer," the " Speedwell ” cream -raiser,

subject here.

the CREAM-RAISING.

An important piece of dairy work is the separating of the cream from the

66

>

Dorset

system, and the Devon

shire scalding system . Shallow -pan System . This system, the oldest of all, is still

milk . The manner in which this process pursued by many successful farmers.

DAIRY WORK .

480

The theory of this plan is that by setting ture : the lower it is the deeper the milk the warm milk in pans from 2 to 4 inches maybe set ; the higher, the shallower it deep in a cool milk -room , the tempera- should be.

Milk should never be set

ture of the milkwill rapidly fall, and thus shallow in a low temperature nor deep accelerate the rising of the cream . With in a high one." a steady temperature of about 58° to Then if it should happen that the milk

room is unusually cold, under 50°, setting gives satisfactory results, raising the milk may have to stand for 48 hours,

60° in the milk - room, this shallow

almost the whole of the cream within from 24 to 30 hours.

and even then the whole of the cream may not have risen .

The loss of a

Airing Cream . — It is believed that certain percentage of cream is not the the butter made from cream raised on these shallow pans is rendered superior to what it would otherwise be by the cream being brought freely into contact

only result of this slow rising of the cream . A great deal of shelving space must be provided for the milk, and this on a large dairy farm might involve con

with a pure cool atmosphere in the pro- siderable expense. Then the skim -milk cess of rising. This was confirmed by will not keep so long sweet as if it had the late Professor Arnold, who stated been separated sooner, while the labour that “ cream makes better butter if raised in skimming and cleaning so many pans

in cold air than in cold water. : : . The is also an item worthy of consideration . Shallow Pans. — The pans in which deeper milk is set, the less airing the milk is set in the shallow system consist cream gets while rising.” Disadvantages of the Shallow -pan of either stoneware, tinned iron, or wood. System . — The chief disadvantages of Common stoneware is the least durable this system are— ( 1) that it is liable to

be rendered unsatisfactory by changes of temperature in the milk-room, (2 ) that it requires a great deal of shelving space for the setting of the milk, and ( 3) that it also involves much time and labour. Temperature and Shallow Pans.

In the first place, if the temperature of the milk - room rise to unusual height, to anything over 60°, the milk is liable to become sour very rapidly, per haps before all the cream has risen. Then by exposure to a temperature

Fig. 422. - White Wedgewood -ware milk -disk .

warmer than itself the cream is liable of the materials employed, and is not now to absorb impurities.

The importance so extensively used as in former times.

of this latter point was enforced by The harder and better finished varieties the late Professor Arnold, who wrote: of stoneware are preferable. “While milk is standing for cream to Fig. 422 represents an excellent milk rise, the purity of the cream , and conse- pan made of white Wedgewood ware,

quently the fine flavour and keeping of oval in shape, 16 inches long and 3 inches the butter, will be injured if the surface

of the cream is exposed freely to air much warmer than the cream .

When EKON

the cream is colder than the surrounding air, it takes up moisture and impurities from the air. When the air is colder than the cream , it takes up moisture and whatever escapes from the cream . In the former case the cream purifies

BRADIT

IORDLC

LONDON

Fig. 423. — Enamelled iron milk -pan

the surrounding air ; in the latter the deep inside measure. Milk - dishes of air helps to purify the cream ." this material are wonderably durable,

The depth of setting, Professor Arnold nice-looking, and easily kept clean. added, " should vary with the tempera-

The form of milk - pan now most

MILK .

481

common, and perhaps on the whole the

fallen into the milking - pails from the

best, is shown in figs. 423 and 424. The

cows in the act of milking.

The gauze

former has a mouth to facilitate pouring. is of brass wire, and, when kept bright, is safe enough ; but silver wire is less likely to become corroded.

The straining of the milk through a sieve such as this, should in all cases be the very first operation after the milk is drawn from the cow.

A very

useful strainer is made for attach

ing to the side of the milk - pail.

WE

Skimmer. — The creaming-dish, fig. 426 (Dairy Supply Co.), also

Fig. 424. - Iron milk -pan.

of tin-ware, skims the cream off

This pan is made of tinned iron, and simi- the milk. It is thin, circular, broad, lar tins are made of block tin stamped in and shallow , having on the near side a

one piece, or of iron with enamelled in- sharp edge to pass easily between the terior, and with or without a lip to pour cream and milk, and a mouth is formed out the milk by.

This material admits

of perfect cleanliness, while it is practi cally unbreakable. Zinc Unsuitable.—Zinc or galvanis ing should never be used on dairy uten sils, except perhaps on outside parts, where the milk or its products do not come into contact with the metal.

Milk Fig. 426. - Cream -skimmer.

always tends to sour, the souring being

due, as we have seen, to the formation for pouring the cream into any vessel. of lactic acid from the milk -sugar by

At the bottom are a number of small

the fermentive action of a particular holes for milk to pass through. germ — the Bacterium lactis — which is Cream -jar. — In small dairies the always present. The acid so formed cream , until has a great affinity for zinc, forming churned, is usu

zinc lactate, a substance which is highly ally kept in a poisonous, giving rise to nausea and jar of stoneware, vomiting.

such as is shown

Milk - sieve.

Another

utensil

re

in fig. 427, which

quired in a dairy is a milk -sieve, fig. is about

18

425, which consists of a bowl of tin- inches in height and 10 inches in

diameter, with a movable top , having an open ing in its centre, covered

with

muslin to keep out dust and let in air. Shelves.

The shelves in Fig. 425.- Milk - sieve.

dairies should be made of materi

ware, 9 inches in diameter, having an als easily and orifice covered with wire gauze in the

Fig. 427. - Cream -jar.

quickly cleaned.

bottom for the milk to pass through, Wooden shelves are easily cleaned, but and to detain the hairs that may have are too porous and warm in summer.

DAIRY WORK.

482

Movable Milk -stands. — In many ished , otherwise they cannot be cleaned dairies movable milk -stands have taken the place of fixed shelving.

Stone ones are better, but must be pol-

These stands are made of iron, and are in various

shapes.

Fig. 428 repre

sents a very convenient

stand, in which the discs revolve, so as to facilitate

the turning of the pans for skimming

Deep Setting. The earliest departure from the old - fashioned

shallow - pan system was the setting of the milk in deep pans. The Swartz System. In the Swartz system , rep

resented in fig. 429, deep cans of milk are set in a

trough filled with cold

Fig. 428. - Movable milk -stand .

water, the water being kept continuously running through the trough. By these means the milk , set at blood - heat, or even

without being rubbed with sandstone. warmed up higher, is rapidly reduced in

Marble or slate shelving is the best for temperature, and, as already explained 0125

(page 479), this falling temperature hastens the rising of the cream to the surface .

The Cooley System . - In 0.125 2.5

the

Cooley system , somewhat similar to, but in most respects an improve

ment upon the Swartz plan , a lid is fitted to each can on the principle

a

of the diving-bell, so that the cold water is allowed to rise over the top. Slips of glass are fixed into

the sides of the cans to show the

THSU (OAMIRITE PPLY

TED

depth of the cream , and taps are provided to run off the milk . Fig. 430 (for which we have to thank the Dairy Supply Co. ) indicates the arrangement of the Cooley system . Swartz and Cooley Systems

Compared.—The main principle

in the working of these two sys

EB

tems is the same — the accelerat

ing of cream -raising by a falling

6

Fig. 429. - Swartz system .

a Trough with pans immersed in water.

b Empty pan .

temperature in the milk . The pans are about 20 inches deep, and in both the cream will have risen

coolness and cleanliness combined, and in about 12 hours. The main differ now neither is expensive. ence is in regard to the exposure and

MILK .

483

enclosing of the cream and milk, as the cream from impurities and changes to which there is some difference of in the atmosphere. Disadvantages of Deep Setting. opinion.

Atmospheric Influence on Cream . The appliances are more costly than for - In the Swartz system , as we have shallow setting, and the providing of the seen, the pans are open at the top. necessary supplies of water (and ice in summer) may be troublesome and costly. The improvement imparted to butter by the free exposure of the cream , when

rising to a pure, cool atmosphere, cannot TART

be so fully obtained in the deep as in the shallow pans.

GREAM

Devonshire Scalding System . The Devonshire system of raising cream by scalding is of long standing. Fig. 431 (Dairy Supply Co.) represents the appliances employed in this system . Method of Working. — The milk is

first set in the ordinary way in pans in a cool dairy (temperature about 60°), and

at

the end of

about

twelve

hours the pans are placed on a stove, as shown in the figure, and the milk scalded to a temperature of about 180° Fig. 430. - Cooley system .

—until the surface of the cream becomes

wrinkled — when the pans are removed.

Some regard this as an advantage, hold- The milk and cream are allowed to cool, ing that the exposing of the cream to

when the cream is removed and put into

the air has an influence which improves crocks or jars, in which it becomes thick the butter.

Others, again , prefer the and clotted.

Cooley system , mainly for the very

Merits of the Scalding System.

reason that in it the pans are closed

and submerged, so that atmospheric impurities and changes are entirely prevented from coming into contact with the milk and cream .

The con

dition of the atmosphere immedi ately around is the regulating influ ence. Exposure to a pure, cool atmosphere is beneficial to cream ; contact with impure, hot air is dis tinctly the opposite. It is therefore claimed that the Cooley system is

more to be relied upon in securing uniformly good results, in spite of impurities and changes in the atmo sphere. Ice used in Summer.For these

two systems, especially in the open Fig. 431.- Devonshire cream stove. Swartz trough, ice has to be em ployed in summer unless cold spring This method of scalding raises more water is available .

cream than would be obtained in the

Advantages of Deep Setting. The setting of warm milk in deep pans in cold water economises time, labour, and space, and lessens the risk of injury to

ordinary setting system . The butter is very easily made, and the scalding has the effect of purifying the cream and making it keep longer sweet.

DAIRY WORK .

484

the cream . They will allow all gases to escape; but at the same time prevent

Jersey Creamer. One of the best known and most use-

dust, flies, and every animal coming into

ful of modern contrivances for the speedy contact with the milk . and effective separation of cream from Merits of the Jersey Creamer.

milk is the Jerseycreamer, shown in fig. The Jersey creamer is admirably suited 432. This provides an ingenious and foraveragedairies, on a small or moderate admirable combination of the old shallow

WATER

scale.

It is inexpensive, simple, and

thoroughly efficient. The whole of the cream is obtained by this plan - perhaps from 10 to over 20 per cent more than by the ordinary method of setting and hand -skimming. Speedwell Cream -raiser. This is an ingenious and most valu able invention , which raises cream in a

remarkably short time— in from 2 to 3 hours. Its construction is shown in fig. Dua

MILK

FOC

CREAM

433 .

Method of Working .

The warm

milk is put in to cover the series of cells, marked c in fig. 433. The whole pan is then set into a bath of water as

Fig. 432.- Jersey creamer.

cold as can be got, and milk is poured in till the surfaceof milk rises to the upper

pan system and the modern idea of ex- line of the slip of glass at A. posing the milk to a cooling current of Method of Skimming. – When the The pans have double sides, cream has risen, it is removed by a skim

water.

ends, and bottoms, with intervening spaces to permit the circulation of hot or cold water.

Method of Working . — The milk is put into the pans as soon as drawn from the cow. If it is not below 90 ° Fahr., it may be at once submitted to the

cold current ; but it is a speedier method

NO

B

to first run boiling water through the spaces around the pans, and thus raise the milk to about 110°.

The hot water

is then drawn off, and cold water run through until it is found that the milk has fallen to about the temperature of the water.

Fig . 433. - Speedwell cream -raiser .

The water should not be

higher than 58° or 60°, nor lower than mer, as shown in fig. 434. A careful about 45°.

hand will remove thewhole of the cream

By this method of first heating the at one course of the skimmer. When it milk , the cream will rise in from 12 to is desired to leave some portion of the 15 hours. Each pan is fitted with a cream in the skim -milk, a little of the

tube, having at its lower end a very skim -milk is drawn off through the pipe fine sieve, through which the skim -milk

passes, leaving the cream in the pan,

at B before the skimming takes place. Merits of the “ Speedwell ” System .

from which it is taken by removingthe — The rapid fallingof thetemperature tube and stopper, or by simply tilting the of the milk is the stimulating influence in raising the cream here also. This in pan forward on its hinges. The lids are constructed to act as ven- genious dairy appliance is both simple

tilators, and greatly assist the raising of and efficient, and is a wonderful econo

MILK .

485 miser of time in the raising process. It In fig. 435 the De Laval separator is is made in different sizes, a small one of shown at work .

The new milk fresh

I gallon capacity being provided to suit from the cow is fed in at the top in a the single-cow dairy. By the use of this regulated quantity by the tube shown, appliance and the “ Speedwell ” crystal and falling into a chamber which re volves with great velocity - from perhaps

2000 to 4000 revolutions per minute the cream , because of its lighter weight than that of the rest of the milk , is

thrown to the inner surface, and escapes by the higher of the two exit-tubes

shown.

The skim -milk, thrown to the

outer part of the drum, passes out through

the other tube. The separation of the

Fig . 434. - Speedwell method of skimming.

churn ( fig. 444), cream may be consumed as butter from 3 to 4 or 5 hours after it leaves the cow. Similar other Methods.

There are some other useful appli ances for raising cream rapidly, all work ing on principles similar to those al 1

ready described. The “ Dorset " and the

Fig. 435. - De Laval separator.

cream from the milk is practically per

“ Richmond ” cream -raisers are both well of ,the former, in particular,being fect,and is performed withremarkable spoken

rapidity. The machine illustrated in fig. 435 will separate 150 gallons of milk per hour. Bya form of the Danish sep Centrifugal Separator. arator made for very large dairies, over But the most remarkable and most 200 gallons may be separated within an

very largely used with excellent results .

useful of all the modern contrivances

for separating cream from milk is un-

hour of the time the milk has been drawn from the cows.

questionably the " centrifugal separator.

The cream and milk coming from the

By the use of this admirable invention

separator are usually quite pure, dirt

the cream and milk can be separated immediately upon leaving the cow. Method of Working. There are several patterns of this machine, all working upon similar principles. They were first manufactured on the Continent, but they are now made in this country by Mr John Gray, Stranraer, N.B., Messrs Freeth & Pocock, London, and others. VOL. II .

and other impuritiesbeing found adher ing to the side of the bowl when the

separator stops. Power for Separators. — For the

working of these larger separators, horse, water, or steam power is necessary. Regularity in speedis essential for per fect separation, and with horse - power this is difficult to obtain . A water tur 2 I

DAIRY WORK.

486

bine-wheel is fairly suitable, but steam- and this is assuredly a consideration of power is most largely used. The De Laval separator is made with a steam turbine arrangement, with which only a steam -boiler is required to complete the

great importance — the separation is so thorough, that, while practically no cream

means of separating.

the cream . The latter point is one of especial value, for it is well known that

The “ Baby ”

Separator. -An in-

is left in the skim -milk, only the smallest

percentage of casein is thrown off with

genious form of the De Laval machine the presence of casein in butter tends is the “ Baby ” separator, which was to impair its quality and keeping pro introduced into this country by the perties. One of the chief merits of the centrif

ugal separator therefore is, that by its use the maximum quantity and highest quality of butter may be obtained . Selling Cream and Skim -milk . Since the introduction of the centrif

ugal separator a large and growing trade has arisen in the selling of sweet cream and sweet skim -milk . Separated Cream . — The inhabitants

of towns and villages have a keenrelish for sweet cream for tea, fruit, and pud dings, and the separated cream is admi rably fitted to supply this demand . The cream removed by the centrifugal sep arator is of course thinner

-

as indeed

is the cream in all the rapid systems,

whether by centrifugal force, or a fall ing temperature — than is the thick cream , which is obtained in the old

method of setting and skimming, but it is much fresher, more wholesome, and Fig . 436.— “ Baby " separator.

will keep longer sweet. “ Speedwell ” Cream . — The “ Speed well cream -raiser is also likely to in crease the use of fresh cream , as by it >

Dairy Supply Co. This most useful the cream can be obtained in a perfectly little machine, which is shown in fig. sweet and most palatable condition. Fig. 436, is adapted for hand -power. Driven 437 shows an excellent contrivance for

steadily, by a strong girl or lad, it will cooling and aerating the cream , provi separate from 12 to 20 gallons of milk

in an hour. It is a valuable acquisition for small dairies. Advantages of the

Separator.

The advantages which may be derived from the use of the centrifugal separator are of great importance. In the first

place the work of the dairy is facilitated and simplified, for the setting and skim ming are done away with. The cream and skim -milk are obtained separately

Fig. 437. - Speedwell cream -cooler.

in a perfectly sweet and fresh condition, sion being made in the bottom for draw

and thereforemore suitable for marketing ing off skim -milk . than if the slower system of setting and

Preserving Cream . - One difficulty in

skimming had been followed . Then , the sweet cream trade is that of prevent

BUTTER-MAKING.

ing the cream from getting sour. Vari

487 BUTTER -MAKING .

ous methods are tried with the view of

The intro-

The next steps to the separating of the

duction of a little boracic acid into the

cream and milk are the ripening of the cream and the making of butter. In some parts of the country, as will be afterwards mentioned , the whole mass of milk and cream is churned, but the pre vailing custom is to churn the cream only.

overcoming this difficulty.

cream has the effect of keeping it fresh longer than would otherwise be the case .

Others adopt the more troublesome expedient of enclosing the cream in hermetically sealed tins of various sizes, containing quantities suitable for family and hotel use. Devonshire Clotted Cream . - The

Ripening Cream . -No matter how

the cream may be raised and removed system of scalding the whole-milk , which from the milk , it should be “ ripe

has been so long associated with the before being churned. This condition county ofDevonshire, tends to strengthen of “ ripeness ” in cream is rather in the keeping properties of cream . The definite. Widely prevailing opinions scalding destroys or impairs ferments in among high authorities are to the effect

the whole-milk, and this followed by the that the proper ripeness consists merely

cooling of the cream to a low tempera- in the mellowing of the cream by expos ture, perhaps 40° to 50 °, tends to pre- ing it for a few days to the oxygen of serve the cream .

This scalded cream

the air ; that the cream should be churned

becomes unusually thick and clotted , and before it becomes decidedly sour ; that is largely sold for family use in London after it has become sour, further ripening and elsewhere. It is retailed in sealed deteriorates the cream ; that butter from tins, or small or large jars, which should sour cream is not usually of the highest

be kept, in the shops, in suitable refriger- quality, because of the acidity in the ators . The system of scalding cream in cream injuring the delicate and volatile Devonshire is described on page 483 of flavouring oils ; that churning should this volume.

take place the moment the slightest Separated Milk . — The milk which is indication of acidity becomes apparent,

deprived of its cream by the centrifugal indeed just before that, if this fine

separator isno doubt poorer in a sense point - theapproach of acidity — could be determined .

than milk skimmed in the old way, for,

as a rule, by the latter system, less or In practice it is very common to find more of the butter-fat is left in the milk. the cream quite sour before being churned. But if the separated milk loses in fat it The fact that sour cream needs less churn gains in freshness. It is in a better con- ing than sweet no doubt favours the prac

dition for selling, and for consumption tice of letting the cream become sour. both by man and beast, than if it had

At any rate, it is true that the main

sat perhaps till acidity had begun. And bulk of the butter of commerce, even if it is desired to have the separated milk those Continental brands most highly enriched with a little of the butter-fat,

the separator can be set to provide for this. But it should be remembered that, after all, the most nourishing and strength -giving ingredients of the milk , as it leaves

esteemed in the London market, is made

from cream which is allowed to become less or more sour before being churned.

The ripening is, indeed, the first stage in the souring process. As to the exact point in this process at which the cream

the cow, remains in the milk after the should be transferred to the churn, expe What it has rience will be one's best guide. Keeping lost in the butter-fat can be easily made in view the consideration as to the effect

cream has been removed.

up by other articles of food, and assuredly of over - ripening here mentioned, one there is no more healthy ormuscle-making should watch the results carefully, and

food than plenty of fresh skim - milk . regulate the practice so as to obtain the Happily its consumptionamongst towns- maximum production of the choicest people, to drink by itself, and for use in butter. puddings and other food, is decidedly on Period of Ripening. – Cream ripens the increase . more quickly in summer than winter aа

DAIRY WORK .

488

high temperature exciting the activity of the organisms (“ bacteria ”) in the cream , which give rise to fermentation. In a temperature at about 60°

both the greatest quantity and the choicest quality of butter. The reason is not far to seek. Ripe cream passes into butter more quickly than fresh quickly, and cream . Then with a quantity of ripe

Fahr., cream ripens may be ready for churning in from and a quantity of fresh cream in one 12 to 20 hours. In a temperature as churning the former would be over low as 45°, double that time may not churned before the whole of the butter be sufficient without assistance to the

fat in the other would be transformed

souring

into butter. The result is usually a com

Cream which has been raised slowly promise, a little over-churning of the ripe

in the open -pan system needs very little cream and a slight under-churning of the after ripening, and yet many leading fresh cream . Avoid the evils of this

dairymen consider that even this cream compromise by attending to the proper gives better butter and more of it by mixing and uniform ripening of the being kept mellowing in a cool tempera cream , Artificial Ripening . - When it is ture for a few days. Cream which has been removed from desired to hasten the ripening of cream, the milk by the centrifugal separator or this may be done by the addition of a some of the other speedy systems, neces- small quantity of sour cream or butter

sarily requires longer to ripen, unless milk. The precise quantity of this sour some artificial souring is introduced. matter to be added cannot be stated This fresh separated cream is usually with safety for all cases, the lower the

exposed in a temperature of from 55° temperature the fresher the cream , and to 60 °, with a muslin rag thrown over the milder the sour cream or butter the mouth of the jar or vessel holding milk to be added the more will be

the cream, to keep out impurities and required to make the ripening process secure ventilation. Cream set to ripen goon rapidly . In Danish and Swedish should be stirred frequently, perhaps dairies, where large quantities of excellent three times a -day.

butter are made with admirable unifor

Uniform Ripening of Cream . — It is mity, a general practice is to add about very important that the mass of cream 3 per cent of buttermilk to the cream , to be churned at any time should be as raise the cream to a temperature of about

uniformly ripened as possible. This is 63° Fahr., and churn after an interval most easily secured of course where the of about 19 hours.

churning takes place daily or frequently.

Salt in Cream . - In some instances

It can be fairly well obtained however salt is put into the cream before churning. by care in the mixing of the cream as Mr Thomas Nuttall, Beeby, Leicester it is removed from the milk . Each shire ( Lecturer on Dairying at the Royal

“ creaming ” should not have a separate College of Agriculture at Cirencester), vessel to itself unless it is to be churned puts in 1 lb. of salt to every 10 lb. of by itself.

The better plan is to have a cream , and he considers that when the

cream - holder sufficiently large to hold cream is ripened and treated in this way all the cream to be churned at one time, he gets better butter and a bigger yield and as each quantity of fresh cream is -10 lb., where only 9 lb. would have added, the whole should be thoroughly been made in the usual way. The salt stirred, the stirring being perhaps re- passes out in the buttermilk, which has

peated once or twice between thetimes to be sacrificed, as it is found useless even for pig - feeding. This practice,

of creaming.

In large dairies, where there is more however, is quite exceptional, and is cream to handle than could be conveni- contrary to the experience of others. ently kept in one vessel for each churn-

Sweet - cream Butter . — For immedi

ing, the cream may at each creaming be ate consumption, butter made from sweet, evenly divided over any number of imperfectly ripened cream , is by many

preferred to butter from sour or well This uniform ripening of all the cream ripened cream . But it does not keep

vessels.

in one churning is essential to obtain

so well as the latter, and the weight

BUTTER -MAKING .

489

of butter from a given quantity of sweet all teachers of dairying invest with much cream will be less by from 3 to 6 (per-

haps even more ) per cent than fromthe same quantity of sour cream .

importance. In Denmark the cream is usually churned at a slightly lower temperature

Keeping Cream Sweet. - It has been than in this country — from 50° to 56°. Churning Whole-milk. fully ripened or mellowed for churning, The old -fashioned system of churning ordinary is still sweet to the palate . That is, it is not appreciably sour. To pre- the entire milk as it comes from the cow, serve this sweetness in the cream while still holds a strong footing in several stated that cream , which has been care

it is ripening, the cream should be kept parts of the country , notably in the in a cool place, and some add a little north of Ireland and south- west of saltpetre or other preservative prepared Scotland. for the purpose . Advantages. The chief advantages Times of Churning . - It is a common claimed for the churning of the whole

practice to churn only once a - week . milk are, that less dairy space and milk

Others think it preferable to churn setting appliances are required, that in twice, and many do so three or four certain districts more money can be times a - week, or even daily. In the obtained for the buttermilk than for

majority of cases of churning once or skim-milk, and that more butter is ob twice a -week, the whole of the cream tained than where the milk and cream

then in the dairy, excepting that taken are separated, and only the latter

off on the previous day and day of churn- churned. There is, no doubt, a saving ing is well mixed together and churned. in outlay for buildings and utensils, but The fresh cream is usually held over till the last advantage claimed is not now the next churning. The times of churn- of universal or even general application. ing must of course be regulated by local In all probability a little more butter

circumstances, such as the quantity of may be obtained by churning the whole cream to be handled and the demand for

milk than when the cream is skimmed

butter.

off by hand, as by this latter system some small portion of the butter - fat

Temperature of Cream for Churn-

ing. — There is not a little difference of may be left in the skim-milk, and thus opinion, amongst both theoretical and escape the action of the churn. But practical butter-makers, as to what should with the more effective methods of rais

be the temperature of cream whenputingand removing cream , such as the into the churn. Fortunately, it would “Jersey creamer and the " centrifugal seem that upon this point some latitude separator" (which practically separate may be allowed without seriously injur- the entire quantity of butter-fat in the ing the produce. Much, of course, de- milk ), the churning of the whole -milk pends upon the temperature of the will not compare favourably, even in churning -room . From 55° to 58° in regard to weight of butter, while as to summer, and from 58° to 63° in winter, quality, it is as a rule inferior. are common ranges of temperature for The improved contrivances for more

the cream just on being put into the speedily and effectually separating the churn — 56° to 58° in summer, and cream from the milk have removed the 60° to 62 ° in winter, are perhaps most strongest argument in favour of the

general. Some prefer to keep the dairy churning of the whole -milk. at the same temperature — about 58° Disadvantages . - Amongst the reasons to 60° — in summer and winter, and urged against the churning of the whole so churn the cream at the same tem- milk are, that it involves a great deal perature all the year round. of labour in churning such a large quan A high temperature hastens churning tity of fluid, that the skim -milk is all —the “ coming ” of the butter—but it in the form of very sour buttermilk, tends to make the butter soft. A low for which in many parts there is a poor temperature prolongs churning, with no demand, and that the butter is liable to appreciable benefit to the butter. There- be injured in quality by containing too ‫ܙܙ‬

fore seek for the “ happy medium ,” which

much water.

The butter made in this

DAIRY WORK.

490

way is more difficult to work, so as to makes bad butter. If the temperature effectually remove the water and the of the room rises higher than 59° Fahr. casein of the milk, with which it has the milk should be cooled, and if it . been in close contact in the churn.

In

should be too cool the milk must be

deed, it is undeniable that it is more heated, otherwise there will be imperfect

difficult to make first-class keeping butter ripening and consequent loss of butter. in this way, than where only properly In about thirty -six hours the milk will ripened cream is churned .

likely have attained the proper degree of

The buttermilk finds a ready sale in ripeness, and then, before being put into large towns for human food, but in the the churn, it is thoroughly mixed, so as

country districts the demand for this to be rendered quite homogeneous.1 purpose is of course very limited . It is useful for feeding pigs, but not suitable There is this difficulty in profitably utilising large quantities of

CHURNS.

for calves.

buttermilk .

It has been facetiously remarked that the dairy farmer may now have almost

Method . — In preparing the whole-milk as much scope and freedom in selecting for churning it is necessary that it should a churn as in choosing a wife ! By this be well soured.

If churned while sweet of course is meant, that, as with those

a good deal of the butter-fat may remain who would be helpmates to the dairy in the buttermilk .

A little buttermilk

is often poured in amongst the fresh whole-milk to hasten its souring, but this is not a good plan, as the buttermilk is liable to contain organisms that

farmer in all his affairs of life, there are very many patterns of churns, the

majority of which are almost all equally well qualified to perform the important and delicate duties devolving upon them .

would be detrimental to the butter. If How many first-class churns there are any artificial aid to ripening is neces- in the market at the present day we do not enture to say ; and to carry sary, it should be introduced in the form

of a little whole -milk, which had been the above comparison a little further, it would perhaps be almost as unsafe set aside to ripen for the purpose. Continental Method. - By carefully and invidious in the one case as in the

regulating the temperature of the dairy other to attempt to place in order of and the depth of the milk in the butts, merit the claimants to the favour of Continental dairymen, who churn the the dairy farmer. With this additional whole-milk, secure the proper degree of remark we let the simile drop — that

ripeness without introducing any fer- it is well for the dairy farmer that his ment. For this purpose they keep the wants are thus so admirably provided temperature of the milk -room somewhere

between 45 ° and 59° Fahr.

If the tem-

for. But while we should not presume to

perature is low, say between 45° and 50° draw up a list of the first-class churns Fahr., the milk should be filled into the in order of merit, we think it may butt to a depth of about 24 to 28 inches. be useful and interesting to illustrate

If the temperature is higher the milk and indicate the working of two or should be set shallower, so that when three of the well - known churns. the maximum temperature of 59° Fahr.

Types of Churns. — In general use

occurs the depth of the milk should not throughout the country there are three be more than from 12 to 16 inches.

types of churns less or more distinct :

The milk should be put into the butt just as it comes from the cow. No previous cooling is necessary , nor is it advantageous, as it retards the ripening too much . Should the butt not be big

(1 ) those in which the fluid and the containing vessel with its agitators ( if it has any) are in rotative motion ; (2 ) those in which the containing vessel is at rest, and the agitators in rotative motion

enough to hold an entire milking, the horizontally; and (3) those in which the milk should be divided between two containingvessel is at rest, andthe agi butts, but quite equally, so that the tators in rotative motion vertically. ripening may go on at the same pace in both, for unequally ripened milk i Dr A. P. Aitken on " Butter-making."

90

BUTTER -MAKING .

491

Churn .. This very

The old - fashioned plunge - churn, in End -over - end which the agitator is worked by hand efficient churn, shown in fig. 440 (John

upwards and downwards in a stationary Gray, Stranraer ), provides the great con cylinder of cooper -work, is never seen venience of easy access into its interior. now in a well-equipped dairy. It is still employed on some farms where dairying receives little attention, and where few dairy improvements have been intro

duced. It is heavier to work, and al

TRE

ROYAL SOCIETY

together inferior to the modern barrel

ENGLANOS

BURSURIZE

62898

Fig. 439. - Barrel churn .

One of the ends of the churn is made so

that it may be entirely removed, and the freedom which is thus afforded the

worker is of great importance, not only in the cleaning of the churn, but also in

Fig. 438. — The “ ladies'"' plunge-churn .

Z 2

churns. A modification of the plunge churn, designed for easy working, is shown in fig. 438 (Dairy Supply Co.) Barrel Churns.

The barrel churn in one form or other is now the most largely used . It may be formed in the actual shape of a barrel, hooped with iron, as shown in

EXCENTRIC

figs. 439 and 440, or in an octagonal box shape, as in fig. 441. Ordinary Barrel with Beaters. —

ENCH

VERLICHUBN

This popular churn, fig. 439 ( Dairy

Supply Co. ), has fixed beaters, secured in an oblique direction and perforated, so as to produce the maximum amount of butter, and also be easily driven.

Fig. 440. - End -over end churn ,

One drawback to this pattern is that removing the butter. The axles are the opening to admit of the removal of fixed so as to give the barrel an eccentric the butter and the cleaning of the churn end -over -end motion. is usually too small to be quite convenient. Churns of this pattern have usually

DAIRY WORK .

492

been made to work without any agita pect that any system of beaters or tors inside.

In this case it is found dashers or mixers will ever be invented

that while the working is almost perfect to supersede the ‘ Diaphragm .' when the churn is not more than about Inthis churn, also, the opening is not one -third to half full of cream , it is diffi- so large as could be desired.

cult with a larger quantity of cream to

A better

form of churn, in so far as concerns the

obtain sufficientagitation throughout the opening ( for convenience of manipulating entire mass to transform the whole of the the butter and cleaning the churn ), is that shown in fig. 442 — Bradford's im Dashers. — Upon proved “ Victoria ” end -over-end churn , this particular point as to the advantages known as the “ Charlemont Diaphragm

butter -fat into butter. Dashers or no

or disadvantages of internal “ dashers,” churn,” to which a one-hand butter “ beaters, " or " agitators," there has been worker is conveniently attached. The a good deal of discussion. It was argued , “ Charlemont ” churn is made so as to

on the one hand, that the dashers in- work with or without the Diaphragm ; jured the grain of the butter, and, on the other, that without agitators the full produce of butter could not be obtained.

There is still difference of

opinion, but, while it is conceded that the end -over-end eccentric churn with out agitators makes excellent work

E

when under half -full of cream , yet

in general practice the dashers are

more than holding their own.

BRADFORD S PATEN

B

INDEX DIAPHRAGNE

In the

CHURN

improved churns the dashers are de signed so as to minimise or avoid injury to the butter. Mr Somerville of Sorn states that

he has found that any danger of hav ing the butter -grains injured by the dashers is averted by using in the

Holstein - an upright stationary barrel a dasher which does not extend He

quite to the top of the churn.

i LARSTEUS

mentions that the butter particles rise to the surface as they form , and the dasher as it works below in the

Fig. 441. — The " Index Diaphragm " churn . A “ Diaphragm " dash as placed when not in use. When slid into the churn groove, it indicates the quantity

buttermilk, driving. upWith anydashers butter -fat not yet granulated of

B New patent spring handle.

this form he prefers a stationary to a revolving churn.

c Rest for left hand while churning with the right hand. D Lid ,which is turned hollow to receive the butter from the churn . E Plug (when not in use) in socket rest.

thus do not come into contact with

of cream in the churn .

Diaphragm Churn . — The introduc

tion of Bradford's “ Diaphragm ” into but the makers remark that the experi barrel churns has been attended with ence of a week or two always shows con very satisfactory results. The “Dia- clusively that it makes a better quality

phragm ,” which is seen hanging upon of butter with the Diaphragm . the churn, a in fig. 441, forms a sort of central division in the churn, removable for convenience, but stationary in the

Other Forms. Box Churn .

Box churns, such as

churn . This central division neutral- that shown in fig. 443 (Bradford & Co.), ises the centrifugal force, and ensures represent the second class referred to. the equal and thorough agitation of the They are provided with agitators, and entire mass of fluid .

Professor Sheldon

speaks highly of the action of the “ Dia-

are well suited for small dairies. Holstein Churn . — The Holstein churn

phragm ,” remarking that, “ I do not ex is an example of the third class of churn

BUTTER -MAKING .

It is an upright barrel, with agitators which revolve horizontally while the churn is at rest. The Holstein churn is extensively employed in large

mentioned .

493

churn , shown in fig. 444, consists of one or more glass jars or cells, mounted in a revolving frame — a frame adapted for sitting upon a table, or a wooden frame as in the figure — which is easily trans formed into a butter working table. This churn is very con

venient for churning small quantities of BRAOFORD'S

PATENT TNOOBRADEORD X09

cream

dairies.

in

private

A form of

this ingenious churn is made in which the

glass jars have a SHAR

double casing, SO that the temperature

LERO NT ARAQ

DLAP

of the cream may be

LONDON

CANCHESTER

raised,

lowered , or

kept stationary in the process of churn

ing by the vacant Fig. 442. - Charlemont churn and butter - worker .

space between the two casings being filled with hot or

factories and creameries, where a number cold water. This is a valuable provision

of churns require to be driven separately for churning in a high temperature. from one shaft.

Swing Churn. There is still another Streamlet Churn . — This churn, made sort of churn. It is in the form of a box

of fire-clay enamelled, is extensively used or child's cot, and effects the churning for churning the whole-milk in the south- by oscillation. It is used in a good west of Scotland. It is usually made in many small dairies. large sizes, with dashers.

It is rather

Important Features in a Churn.

While the farmer may exercise abundant freedom in the choice of the pattern of churn , there are a few important fea tures which he should look for and in

sist upon. Amongst these are, that the churn should be easily cleaned , with BRADFORD'S DECLIVITY

PATENT CHURN .

TD.EBM.ARK

TRA

no crevices wherein dirt may lodge and escape observation ; that it should

afford ample facility for removing the butter ; that the churn may be easily ventilated ; and that means should be

provided for seeing the cream and ascer taining its temperature during churning.

Light working as well as efficiency, should, of course, also have due con sideration.

It is a good plan to have a small pane

of glass in the churn through which to Fig. 443. — Box churn .

note the progress of the churning.

And

to permit the escape of gases evolved in

difficult to clean out, and for this pur- the process of churning, there should pose steaming is most effective. be a ventilation valve in the lid of all “ Speedwell ” Crystal Churn . — This churns.

DAIRY WORK . 494

Churning.

We now come to the details of churn-

The object of this is to counteract any

taint that may possibly be present. Accelerating Churning.— “ It is a

ing. These require little explanation. good practice," writes Professor Sheldon, Preparing the Churn . — Theprepara- “ to pour acid buttermilk, say a pint to a

tion ofthe churn for the reception of the gallon, into the churn along with the cream requires careful attention. It may cream — buttermilk kept over from a be assumed that, after the previous churn- previous churning. It has the effect of

ing, it had been thoroughly cleaned— making the cream churn sooner, of pro scrubbed with boiling water, and again the butter, and clearing the colour of it.

first rinsed with cold water, then well ducing more butter, and of hardening

rinsed with cold.

If it has not been in The finest sample of butter I have ever

use for a few days, the churn may be seen was produced in this way, in Ire scalded with hot water the day before land.” ] Others maintain that this ad churning. Some heat the churn with mixture of buttermilk would be liable to injure the butter.

Straining Cream . — To prevent, as far as possible, impurities getting into the milk, the cream is run into the churn

through a strainer, perhaps a coarse linen cloth , well known as cheese-cloth. This cloth is dipped in clean water, and held over the mouth of the churn while the

cream is poured into it. The thickest of the clotted cream will be held back, and impurities, such as dust and flies, will be prevented from getting into the churn.

The straining-cloth is washed without soap, and kept sweet by exposure to air. Speed ofthe Churn . — The churning

has now begun. The speed at which the churn should be driven has been the sub

ject of much difference of opinion. In practice there is also considerable varia tion. The rate should vary with differ ent churns, but should begin slowly and end slowly. From 40 to 6o revolutions Fig. 444. - Speedwell crystal churn .

per minute are common after the first

few minutes, until the butter appears in granules. Mr Thomas Nuttall, using Llewellyn's three - cornered churn with out dashers, does not go beyond 35

hot water just before putting in the cream . Others consider this a bad plan, and prefer to rinse out with water about the same temperature as the cream , or perhaps even two or three degrees lower than the cream . In cold weather the churn is frequently heated, and in hot

lower than that for a few minutes at the outset until the gas has evolved and escaped through the ventilator. Pro

weather cooled .

fessor Sheldon considers that from 45

revolutions

per

minute, driving even

Upon the whole, perhaps the safest to 50 revolutions per minute should be plan is to have the temperature of the the top speed with the ordinary barrel churn just about the same as that of the churn containing dashers ; and that in cream to be churned, or a trifle below it, hot weather seldom above 40, as the as the temperature of the cream rises a faster the speed the more the tempera

little, about 3° or 4', with the friction in ture of the cream will rise in churning, churning and in summer this should be avoided. Some sprinkle a little salt in the churn With the Holstein vertical churn the rate before the cream is put into it, and others put salt into the water used in rinsing. 1 The Farm and the Dairy, 76.

BUTTER -MAKING .

495

is often as high as 150 revolutions per should be stopped . The butter, indeed, minute after the first few minutes, and is already formed . It has now to be until the granules appear. separated from the buttermilk and col With veryslow churning the butter is lected into a solid mass of pure butter

long in coming. With rapid churning a process quite distinct from churning. the butter is liable to be soft and oily.

Time Churning . - The churning will

With every individual churn, and in the probably have occupied from 30 to 40 varying circumstances of temperature minutes. With less time, there is a and condition of the cream , the operator liability to softness in the butter ; with must exercisecarefuljudgment as to the much more the flavour is apt to be in jured. During the time of churning, rate of speed in the churning.

Variation in Speed . It is very im- the agitation will raise the temperature portant that for a few minutes at the by perhaps 3° or 4°. outset, until the cream is broken and

Sleepy Cream .

Occasionally the

well mixed, the churning should be done complaint is heard from the dairy that slowly. After the first five minutes, the butter won't come,' « the cream is until the butter -fat appears in the tini- sleeping ." Most probably the cause will est granules, there will be little danger,

be that the cream is too cold.

Test the

with a proper churn, of the fat-globules temperature with the thermometer, and being injured by bruising, even although if it is below 55 ° in summer, or 58° in the rate of speed should be high. But winter, raise it to slightly over these

the moment small granules are observed points by immersing a vessel filled with on the window of the churn, the rate should be slackened , and the churning completed at any easy speed . With hand-worked churns it is easy to regulate the speed. Where horse or other power is employed to drive the

hot water ( fig. 419). But the temperature may be high enough and still the butter, or a por tion of it, may refuse to come. In this

case also, scalding the cream may be effective.

If not, the use of a little

churn, à difficulty has been encountered churning powder, which it is well to in varying the speed while the churning have at hand, will most likely make the goes on. This difficulty has been over- sleepy, frothy cream give up its butter. come by the De Laval steam-turbine, and Dr Aitken considers a little bicarbonate cone and friction pulleys are now ar- of soda (baking soda) as efficacious as ranged to give different rates of speed any butter-powder,. to the one churn. This difficulty is most liable to occur

Ventilation . — This must be carefully in the cold months of the year, and may attended to in the first 8 or 10 min-

be due to various causes besides cold

utes' churning. In the stirring of the cream , such as the feeding of the cows cream at the outset, some gas is evolved, on unwholesome or over - dry food, a

and the ventilator in the churn should sickly cow, dirty milk -vessels, or to 10 minutes, to provide the desired ven- constantly giving milk.

be opened frequently during the first cream from cows that have been long tilation .

Stop Churning. — The speed is les sened, we have seen, as soon as the

Butter -working.

The working of the butter is an im butter - fat appears in tiny granules. portant part of the operation . This is a critical moment in butter-mak-

Object of Working . – The object of

ing. The old -fashioned method of plung- working is the complete removal of the

ing or grinding away with little varia- superfluous water or buttermilk, as the tion , until the butter has collected in

case may be, the working-in of the salt,

large lumps, is very injurious to the and the consolidation of the butter into butter. The more tenderly it is manip- a solid mass. This should be done by

ulated while it is gathering, the better pressure, not by rubbing, in order to the butter. avoid injuring the “ grain ” of the butter.

As soon as the butter-granules attain If any portion of casein is left in the the size of pin -heads — in no case larger butter, it will speedily ferment and spoil than the grains of wheat — the churning the butter. Good keeping butter must

DAIRY WORK .

496

3

be free from casein ; and, to obtain this, the butter when the buttermilk has been butter-makers cannot be too careful. removed . In other cases, the dry salt Process of Washing. — It is only and cold water are put separately while the butter -grains are small that into the churn, which is then turned a

the buttermilk canbe entirely separated. few times to mix the commodities and When the churning is stopped, the plug- dissolve the salt. With the mouth un hole is opened, and nearly all the butter- covered, the churn is then allowed to lie milk allowed to run out through a sieve untouched from 10 minutes to 3 hours

or piece of muslin cloth, which holds or even longer, according to degree of Clean cold saltness required. Ten minutes will give

back the grains of butter.

water — in quantity about equal to the very slight salting. If it is found that

buttermilk withdrawn — is then poured the salting has been too heavy, it may into the churn, which is oscillated or be lessened by gently washing the butter turned gently a few times. The liquid in pure cold water. By adding the dry is again strained out, and this process salt when the butter is in the worker,

is repeated several times — just until the exact quantity is most easily given. the water comes away from the churn Professor Long points out that the almost as clear as it went in. By this same brine may be used over again three system every small grain of butter is or four times, care being taken to add

separately exposed to the washing, and sufficient salt each time to balance the by no other method can the removal water which fresh -made butter always of the buttermilk be so thoroughly or contains. There would probably be

simply effected. No more washing should about half a gallon of water in every 10 be given than is really necessary to sep- lb. of butter, just after the buttermilk arate the buttermilk, for over -washing has been strained from it; and accord may injure the butter.

ingly, for 50 lb. of butter he would use 6

Salting. — There are three methods of gallons of cold water and 17 lb. of salt. 1 salting- (1) putting the salt into the cream be

fore churning; (2 ) by using brine, instead of pure water, to wash out

the buttermilk ; and (3) by mixing dry salt with the butter after it is washed .

The first is

a good plan for the butter, but it renders

THE ALBANY BRADFD RO

S.

PATEN

T

the buttermilk useless.

Many eminent butter makers continually use dry fine salt, as pure as can be obtained, worked into the butter after it

has been washed . The brine system is perhaps most generally com mended.

It facilitates

the thorough incorpora tion of the salt into the

butter, and by it the de gree of saltness in the

Fig. 445. — Butterworker.

butter may be easily The The quantity of dry salt used for in brine is prepared by dissolving about i corporating with the butter is rarely more or 2 lb. of pure saltin a gallon of water, controlled - added to or decreased .

this being poured into the churn amongst

1 The Dairy Farm , 22.

1

BUTTER -MAKING .

than 1 oz. per pound.

497

Centrifugal Butter - drier.— This is

This, indeed, is

heavy salting, and should preserve the an ingenious and most serviceable inven butter for many months. Even when it tion, in which centrifugal force is em is to be used as fresh butter, a very lit- ployed to remove superfluous moisture tle salt will improve the flavour of the from the butter.

It is named the “ Nor

butter.

Details of Working. — When the

washing, and perhaps the salting, in the

churn have been completed, the butter is removed to the butter-worker. In fig. 445 ( Bradford & Co. ) is represented a convenient form of butter-worker.

The

function of this article is to consolidate the butter, press out the water, and, if dry salt is to be introduced, incorporate this with the butter. The fluted roller alternately flattens and rolls up the butter, the backward and forward movement being continued until the objects of the working have been thoroughly attained .

1

Fig. 447. — Butter-beaters or boards.

Yet the butter may be easily enough mandy Délaiteuse ” and is represented in spoiled by over - working, so that good fig. 446 (Dairy Supply Co. ) The butter, judgment and careful attention are ne- after leaving the churn, is, while still in

cessary on the part of the operator. Fig. a granular state, placed - about 16 lb. 442 represents a novel and useful com- at a time — in a canvas bag. bination

-

Bradford's Charlemont Dia-

This bag is

then placed in a metal cylinder, perfor ated with holes, like a colander, which, from motion communi

cated by the horizontal spindle, is madeto revolve rapidly — 700 to 800 turns per minute. The

buttermilk, and any other moist ure the butter may contain, is driven off to the circumference,

and thence through the holes into the outer case , whence it

passes out by the pipe into a receptacle underneath, the but

ter remaining in a perfectly dry condition, in immediate readi ness for being worked up into

pats of whatever shape may be required. The whole operation only takes four minutes, and directly one lot of butter is dealt with another may be put in . Butter Rolls and Pats. When the butter is removed from the “ Délaiteuse " it may

be kneaded and compressed in Fig. 446.— " Délaiteuse " centrifugal butter-drier.

the butter-worker, fig.445, or by “ Scotch hands ” . very useful

phragm churn and a one-hand semicircular dairy appliances similar to the beaters, butter -worker. This combination is so

shown in fig .447. These are usually made

arranged that by slanting the churn the of box -wood, and are much used through butter will roll into the butter -worker.

out the country in working butter into

DAIRY WORK .

498

rolls or pats for homeuse or sale. These proceeds. A person with hot clammy rolls and pats should be made with care hands is not suited for dairy work. and good taste, not only for the sake of Packing into Crocks .If the butter

ornament on the table, but also for good is to be kept for a considerable time,it is effect in the market. Butter-boxes suit- packed into crocks. And the packing

able for the conveyance of butter-rolls process requires both skill and care. are shown in fig. 448. The rolls are The object is to thoroughly exclude wrapped into thin damp muslin cloths, the air, and this will be effectually

and the boxes may be lined with white secured by packing the butter in shallow layers, not much over an inch in thick

ness. It is a good plan, after placing the first layer in the bottom of the crock , PRESTON ROYAL TORTO

BUTTER BOX

to line the sides with a similar layer as high up as it is intended to fill the

vessel. Then proceed to press in one

VOX

layer after another.

Over the butter

place a muslin cloth, and cover this

with fine salt to the depth of about PRESTON ROYAL BUTTERBOX

1 inch .

To this covering some prefer to have

about an inch deep or more of brine float ing on the top of the butter.

By this

TORRONDADESH

method, always taking care to keep the surface of the butter covered with brine, the writer has kept butter, which had Fig. 448. - Butter-boxes.

been given merely a trace of salt in the

working, quite fresh, from the begin paper.

The boxes should be kept in a

ning of October in the one year till

cool place until despatched to market, in into May of the following. Even at the which there should be as little delay as very last the butter was perfectly free possible. from any rancid or undesirable flavour, Hand - working Objectionable. and was so slightly salt to taste as to Many eminent authorities state emphat- almost pass for fresh recently made but ically that in all the process of working, ter. But this butter was made by a butter should never once be touched by

skilled hand, who was careful to leave

the bare hand. Thetemperature of the in it the least possible traces of casein, hand is usually so high as to have a which is so destructive to the keeping tendency to make the butter soft, while properties of butter. there is also some risk of the flavour

of the butter being slightly injured by contact with the hand. It is no doubt true that a great deal of first-class butter is worked by the bare hands of the operator, yet the safest plan, unquestion-

Prepared

Preservatives .

-

Some

useful preparations are now sold for pre serving butter. But care should be taken to use only such as have been proved to be harmless and effective. Fresh Butter . — If butter is proper

ably, is to avoid this practice, and use ly made from well-ripened cream , well some of the modern butter - workers washed in the churn , and worked so as

which we have referred to and illus- to have the surplus moisture removed, trated . With one of these and the it may be kept sweet and fresh for sev deft use of the “ Scotch hands” there eral weeks without any salt whatever.

is no need to let the bare hands touch Care should be taken to keep fresh the butter.

butter in a cool temperature.

In warm

If in any case the bare hands are to weather the farmer should have the come into contact with the butter, they butter made and conveyed to market

should be first washed with warm water at night or early in the morning ; and water, and this rinsing should be done provided for holding the fresh butter

and oatmeal, and then rinsed in cold in retail shops, refrigerators should be frequently while the hand - working in summer .

BUTTER -MAKING .

499

If the housekeeper find that her supply centrifuge, by turning a graduated handle of fresh butter is likely to become rancid this way or that. before being used, she will find it a good “ A circular cage, composed of half-a

plan to pack the butter firmly into some dozen thin vertical wires, is supported

fine glazed stoneware vessel and pour from, and free to turn around, the axle in some strong brine over it. question : while the milk -drum is pro Colouring Butter. - A rich golden vided with a second and smaller annu

colour is most esteemed in butter . When lar chamber, which , as the spinning pro it is naturally pale or not sufficiently ceeds, becomes entirely filled with the “ gilt-edged " it is a common practice to cream -ring, whose internal diameter, de

colour it artificially. This may be done termined by the position of escape-ducts by introducing a little liquid annatto into the cream just before churning is Experience is the best commenced. guide as to the quantity required to give the required tint to the particular make of butter.

in the floor of this chamber, is very slightly greater than that of the ' agi tating cage.' The latter is made to touch the

cream -ring at one point in its circum ference by turning the handle governing

But artificial colouring is an objection- the eccentric spindle, and can thus be

able practice, and where high-coloured more or less deeply immersed in the cream . butter is desired, the better plan is to The cage is setrevolving by contact with have on the farmone or two cows known the cream -ring, just as a pinion is turned

to produce high -coloured butter. Jersey by a wheel ; but it fails to attain quite and Guernsey cows are noted for this the same speed as its driver, on account property, andone of these will most likely of its own inertia. Its wires, which pass give sufficient " colouring ” to the butter vertically down from top to bottom of of ten or twelve other cows.

the cream -ring, thus create a considerable

agitation among the superficial layer of Butter Extractor .

fat-globules, and, it is claimed , convert

At the Royal Show at Windsor, 1889, them into butter, which, as milk flows the Aylesbury Dairy Company exhibited into the centrifuge, passes away contin the Swedish Cream Separator and Butter uously through ducts provided for that

Extractor, “ which constitutes a complete- purpose in the floor of the inner cream ly new departure in butter-making --and chamber. may, if it should prove successful in “ A greater or less agitation follows on prolonged practice, possibly abolish both setting the cagemore or less eccentrically the churn and the dairymaid .” So says with the milk -drum , and creams of dif

the reporting judge in theJournal of the ferent character or density are dealt with Royal Agricultural Society ( Part ii., in this way. 1889 ), where he thus further refers to “ It was arranged that this machine

this very ingenious appliance :

should be tried on Wednesday, June 26.

“ The operation ofchurning, as is well Two hundred pounds of milk were known, consists in agitating cream , which weighed out and all put together, and

is itself only a mass of separate fat-glob- carefully mixed in a can and samples ules interfused with milk , until such taken. I should state that the inventor

globules cohere, and the freed fluid origi- wished to reduce the milk to 60°, but

nally entangled among them passes away time would not permit, and the milk as ' buttermilk .'

used for the trial was 65º.

“ It recently occurred to Mr C. A. Johansson, a Swedish inventor, that the The machine was started at agitation necessary to bring about this Skim -milk cameat . result might be given in the centrifuge Commenced churning at .

itself, and while the separation of milk and cream was going on.

Butter came at Finished at

h.

m

5 5

23 30

5 5

322 3312

5

47

.

With this end

in view, he furnished the milk -drum with On completion

Ib.

a cover, from the centre of which there

skim -milk was hangs a vertical axle, which becomes con Weight of butter and buttermilk butter made up centric with, or slightly eccentric to, the 11

.

was .

18374 1694 7

DAIRY WORK .

500

Dr Voelcker certified as follows : 12.41 per cent Total solids Original milk fat . 3.45 .

11

11

.

( Butter -fat

Skim-milk

( Solids (total)

0.30 .

11

IO.IT

if uniformly good results are to be ob tained .

Apartments for Cheese -making.

In well-equipped dairies there are at least three separate compartments for

“ The butter was lumpy rather than cheese-making- (1) the milk -room , ( 2) curd and pressing room , and (3) the granular, somewhat soft and pale - col- the drying - room . In Stilton dairies there oured , and would not have passed muster

with the butter made by Miss Maidment are generally three but sometimes four [winner of the Queen's gold medal for compartments. A convenient arrange

butter-making) in the dairy, though it ment is to have the store over the other tasted better than a great deal of the compartments, or perhaps over the curd butter sold throughout the country .”

or cheese - making room only.

Some

The judges awarded a silver medal for prefer to have the store in a cool dimly

the Extractor, although they were not ſighted ground -foor room . prepared to say that its complete practical An important point is to have the success had yet been demonstrated. compartments as much as possible pro tected from variations in temperature, -

so arranged that the temperature may CHEESE -MAKING .

be artificially controlled independently of the season of the year.

The systems of cheese-making pursued in this country are numerous. It is a more intricate process than butter-making, affording scope for the exercise of greater skill in manipulation , and of more ingenuity in producing differences

And , as in butter-making, the apart ments and vessels must be kept perfectly clean, sweet, and fresh. Bad smells and impurities in the milk are fatal to suc cessful cheese-making. Utensils. — The utensils required in

in the manufactured article .

cheese-making are numerous, but they

In making the hard cheeses of this need not be costly. They usually con country the entire milk as it comes from

sist of a milk vat or tub, strainers, curd

the cow is dealt with. In making Stil- knives, curd -mill, curd-shovel, curd -rake, ally, and ought always to be added . The

cheese moulds or hoops, cheese racks or shelves, cheese -presses, pails, and pans,

cheese-maker has thus a bulky article to

&c.

handle, and one which requires to be

Vat. - The vessel in which the milk is collected to be coagulated by rennet is

ton cheeses a little extra cream is usu-

treated with the utmost skill and care

Fig. 449. - Milk - vat.

commonly called a vat or tub.

It may made of many sizes to suit different

be oblong, as shown in fig. 449, about dairies. This is the most modern vat. It 20 inches deep, and 30 to 32 inches has a double casing, so as to admit be

wide, and mounted on 3 or 4 wheels so tween the two cases cold water for cool as to be easily moved about, and from ing and hot water for heating the milk

one apartment to another. The vat is and curd. The inner case should be made

CHEESE -MAKING .

of the best tinned steel ; and the vat is provided, as shown, with brass taps, as well as with draining cylinder, siphons, covers, and draining racks, on which last the curd is placed to strain.

501

a quantity of the whey, scalding it to a high temperature, and pouring it over the curd. This has to be frequently re peated, and is a troublesome process. Curd -mill. — The frame of the curd

Circular Cheese-tub. — Formerly the mill, fig. 450 ( Dairy Supply Co.), is milk -vat was in the form of a circular usually made of wood, consisting of two tub.

In very small dairies these tubs bars supported on four legs.

On the

may still be convenient for the handling top is fastened the hopper with movable of small quantities of curd . Indeed pins and hinges, and at the bottom of this runs an iron axle armed with pins or teeth fixed on it spirally, and below this again a metal grating. A handle drives the toothed axle, and the teeth

pass through the bars of the grating, so that slices of " green

2)

curd when put

into the hopper are cut and broken through the grating, and fall into a re ceiverbelow . The metal working parts are tinned over ; and the wood must be

Fig. 450. - Curd -mill.

there are not a few noted cheese -makers

who still prefer the circular tub. With either the round or oblong vat first-class cheese may be made ; but the modern oblong vat, with the double casing for heating or cooling the contents, is un questionably the most convenient. Heating Curd .

In the modern vat

with double casing the curd may be

heated as desired by circulating steam or hot water between the two cases,

which are usually about 2 inches apart. The perfect control which this givesover the temperature of the contents of the vat is regarded by most modern cheese makers as of the very first importance.

NAR

E

Fig. 451. - Single cheese -press.

There are some who contend that this

system is liable to injure the cheese by of some close -grained variety, and well

over-cooking the portions of curd which seasoned, while the framework is some come into contact with the hot sides of

times made of iron .

the vat. This risk may be avoided by raising the heat slowly.

Presses.— Of the cheese - press the In the round varieties are numerous. Those most in

tubs the curd is heated by withdrawing use may be classed under two kinds, 2 K VOL . II .

DAIRY WORK .

502

with and without levers. Of the lever- fig. 451 ( Dairy Supply Co.) and fig. 452 press the varieties are most numerous, (John Gray). Shelves.These are arranged in vari passing from the single lever, through the various combinations of simple levers, ous forms. The most convenient are the to the more elaborate one of the rack self-turning shelves, those made so that and levers.

An essential characteristic

two or three shelves turn round on an

of each is that the load, when left to axle with their contents of cheese. itself, has the power to descend after the Rennet. -Rennet, the agent em

cheese which is pressed, and which sinks ployed to coagulate milk, is an extract as the whey from the curd is expelled. from the mucous membrane of the fourth None but such should be used in any stomach of the calf. It is indeed the agent which digests the food of the calf,

dairy.

Convenient lever-presses are shown in and it is remarkable that no perfect MASHITALE

CALAMI

Fig. 452. - Double cheese-press.

substitute has yet been found for the whey, coagulate 100 gallons in an hour. natural calf - rennet in cheese - making. The rennet is prepared in the following manner : Good clean vells or stomachs are selected and put into salt brine

Where cheese are intended to ripen quickly, however, more must be used. and it is customary to put in nearly double this quantity .

which has been made strong enough to

In some cases the hard dried skin or

float an egg — at the rate of four to every vell of the calf's stomach prepared in gallon. To this is added half an ounce brine is cut in small pieces, macerated in of saltpetre and half a lemon sliced. water,and the liquid put into the milk.

The whole is put into a covered jar, and This, however, is not a good plan, for allowed to soak for a month, when it it is difficult in this way to regulate the will be ready for use. Half a pint of amount of rennet applied . this will, with the help of a little sour

Testing Rennet. — The proper use

CHEESE -MAKING .

503

of rennet is a critical point in cheese- flavour characteristic of the well - made making. Mr Joseph Rigby says— “ It article. is most important to have it of uniform Mr Nuttall, Leicestershire, the well strength, to know what that strength is, known Stilton maker, condemns the and to use the right quantity. The ripening of the milk before the addi

most practical and reliable way of as- tion of the rennet, maintaining that it certaining the strength is to take a should be coagulated while it is still drachm of the liquid, or a fixed portion warm with the animal heat. But while of the powder, and mix it with five this system may be advisable for Stilton

gallons of milk at the temperature it making, it is not approved of in making is usual to make the whole of the milk

Cheddar and other hard cheeses.

No doubt too much acidity is injurious notice how long it is before it begins to to the cheese. It will spoil the texture

when putting together for cheese, and to

thicken, as the curding power of the and make the flavour too sharp. milk often differs.

But

If this occurs in without a certain amount of acidity de

twenty or twenty -five minutes, the right veloped at one stage or other the cheese

proportions will have been found. If it will be weak - flavoured, perhaps even

takes a longer time, more rennet is re- insipid. In poor milk less acidity should quired ; if a shorter time, a less quantity be developed than in rich milk . For should be fixed upon. The exact quantity this reason the acidity is kept more can only be fixed upon by repeated care- moderate in spring than in summer and ful tests in individual dairies . Too much early autumn. rennet causes the curd to become dry Acidity, Ripening, and Keeping .

and brittle ; too little leaves it soft and —Acidity has much to do with both " 1 the rate of ripening and the keeping spongy . The more general plan now is to use properties of cheese. If a considerable some of the prepared extracts of rennet, amount of acidity has been developed, which are sold at moderate prices, of the cheese will ripen quickly, but will

uniform strength, and with useful direc- not keep long. With little acidity the tions as to application.

Action ofRennet. — The rennet acts on the milk by coagulating the casein, in which the butter - fat thereby becomes imprisoned . Both are thus preserved for use as food . Rennet also co -operates

cheese ripens slowly, but has good keep ing properties. Too much acidity will make the cheese dry and “ crummy, and prevent mellow ripening. Artificial Souring of Milk . - The

plan, once common , of souring milk by

with acidity in softening the fibre of mixing with it a little sour whey before

the curd, assimilating moisture, and in putting in the rennet, has lost favour ripening the cheese, but its entire action with many cheese -makers. Mr Drum is still imperfectly understood.

mond, instructor at the Kilmarnock

Acidity. - A much -disputed question Dairy Institute (one of the specialists in cheese-making is the amount of acidity brought from Canada to teach the im which should be developed in the milk proved methods of Cheddar cheese-mak and curd during the various stages of the ing in the south-west of Scotland ), says he In the Cheddar system a cer- has no doubt that in the old system whey

process.

tain amount of acidity is regarded as was often added to the milk when the lat absolutely essential to bring out the full ter was already acid enough, thus result nutty flavour which is so much desired ing in a spoiled cheese. He considers a

in Cheddar cheese ; and unless the milk certain degree of acidity or ripeness in the rennet is added to develop in the the rennet, but this acidity he prefers to curd the necessary degree of acidity in develop naturally in themilk by con

were allowed to ripen sufficiently before the milk as quite essential before adding

from five to seven hours, the curd would trolling its temperature — by having the be liable to be injured by having to lie evening's milk cooled so that enough heat too long in the whey — engendering, per- will be left in it to develop by morn haps,

a bitter flavour instead of the rich ing the slight acidity required.

The

warmer the milk the more rapidly it be 1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng ., 1889.

comes sour.

He generally found that

504

DAIRY WORK .

sufficient acidity had been developed ing day, markthat cheese, and watch the when the evening's milk had a tem- result. In this way a most valuable perature of from 64° to 68° Fahr. next secret was discovered, for the truant bit of curd, which had become acid in the morning.

Professor Primrose M'Connell favours night, kept as it was without salt, com the use of whey, if it is employed with municated acidity to the cheese with proper skill and care. He says: “ The which it was mixed, and that particular

use of sour whey is one of the points cheese was the best in the whole dairy ! which requires experience such as cannot Afterwardsall the cheese was made with be taught by books. It greatly aids the a portion of old curd , and became a first action of the rennet, and improves the class dairy, the entire make of one year, quality of the curd if a little is used. about seven tons, realising 875. per cwt. ! One pint to every 30 gallons of milk is Acidity, therefore, accidentally hit upon

the average : ' more must be used in cold in this case, improves the character of weather, or where the milk was pre- cheese, making it firmer, and improving viously cooled, and less in a hot season. the flavour, as well as regulating the

Some of the best cheese-makers condemn ripening. In point of fact, most of the the use of sour whey, on the ground that the milk will ripen itself if given time, but nevertheless it appears to be sound both in practice and theory. It certainly expedites matters by hastening the development of acidity; and as this acidity is due to the presence of the

and winter cheese is inferior in warmth

lactic or other ferments which we find in

and mellowness of flavour and texture,

mischief incidental to cheese-making is fairly attributable to the want of acidity as a feature in the process, though it does

not necessarily follow that sour curd is the best way of introducing it. “ It is generally found that late autumn

it, it appears good practice from a scien- and this may be said to be owing to the tific point of view . Of course the prac- evening's milk becoming too cold through tice must be carried out in a cleanly the night, and therefore not ripening as

fashion, so as to prevent the introduc- it ought to do. The most intelligent tion of any taint.”

cheese -maker I have talked with, told

Mr George Gibbons, Tunley Farm , Bath, says that in the earlier and later months of the year a little sour whey may be added, but its regular use cannot

me that he overcame this difficulty by warming the evening's milk , the follow ing morning, up to 80 °, and letting it ripen for several hours before making it

be commended .

into cheese.

In this way the autumn

Artificial Souring Curd . — Some dairy cheese acquired the mellowness of the authorities consider that, in the event of summer cheese, and sold for as much

deficient acidity, it is a better plan to money. The milk of autumn is richer

introduce the artificial souring into the than that of summer in solids, though curd than into the milk. This is done by less in quantity, and this may be an ad keeping a portion of curd of the previous ditional reason why it needs the ripening day's making, and mixing it with the artificially that summer milk obtains

new curd while it is being manipulated naturally. It is, in fact, a question of is all-important in – before it is put through the curd- temperature, which 1

mill. Professor J. P. Sheldon mentions a

cheese -making .' Measuring Acidity . — The controlling

curious and interesting instance of the of the acidity is unquestionably one of influence of acidity upon the character the most important as it is one of the and quality of cheese. His father's farm , most difficult points in the entire process

although made rich enough by improve- of cheese - making. There is need for ments , somehow would produce only a more exact knowledge not only of the second -rate cheese from the sweet-curd part which acidity plays in the making

system pursued. “ One day it happened and maturing of cheese, but also of the that a few pounds of curd were mislaid means by which it may be developed and until too late to include them in the

controlled.

The chief hindrance to the

cheeses of the day, and it was decided to put them into one cheese on the follow-

1 The Farm and the Dairy, 101 , 102.

CHEESE -MAKING .

505

proper elucidation of these matters is the solids of the milk in the best possible want of some ready, precise, and reliable form for human food . A perfect Cheddar cheese should have means of measuring the exact progress

and strength of the acidity as it is being in its composition 32 per cent of water,

developed.

Gray's Acidometer, a new 36 per cent of butter - fat, 27 per cent of

invention, promises to be of much use casein, 2 per cent of carbohydrates, and for this purpose .

3 per cent ash.

A cheese thus com

We will now notice in detail the posed should have a sweet, nutty, pleas methods pursued in making the differ- ing flavour. In quality it should be rich ent varieties of cheese. CHEDDAR CHEESE .

and mellow, withconsistency of body, of close silky texture, true and even colour, and of prepossessing appearance and

finish. To convey a still clearer idea of The Cheddar variety of cheese, which what a fine Cheddar cheese should be, I takes its name from the village of Ched- will define the meaning of each of the

dar in the county of Somerset, hasbeen aforementioned qualities when applied famed for centuries. It was introduced into the south - west of Scotland by the

to cheese, taking them as they rate in importance.

Flavour in perfect cheese I would late Mr Joseph Harding, Marksbury, Bristol, who is said to have been the define as the particular quality that has first to establish the practice of Cheddar the power of pleasing the taste or smell;

making upon a regular system . It is and we speak of the flavour being good now extensively made in that part of or bad, just as the cheese possesses or Scotland, as well asin Somersetshire and lacks the quality to please the taste or other districts in England. It is also smell. Quality in cheese I would define as the manufactured in verylarge quantities in Canada and the United States. nature of the inherent properties, rela The making of Cheddar cheese has tively considered ; and we speak of a rich received very special study in Canada, mellow cheese as having good quality, and it is remarkable that by the employ- and of a hard dry one as lacking quality. ment of Canadian specialists as teachers, Texture is the arrangement or combi

the system of Cheddar cheese-making in nation of the parts composing the cheese ;

the south -west of Scotland has since 1885 and we speak of a cheese being either been radically altered and vastly improved — a result proved by the high position which Scotch Cheddars have taken in recent London Dairy Shows, and by the higher price obtainedfor thecheese made

silky, raw , or open in texture, as the different component parts are combined to form a smooth or grainy body of cheese, and the texture as open when thepieces of curd when pressed together do not

upon the new methods.

form a completely solid mass in the One of the Canadian experts employed cheese. Colour of cheese might be defined as as a dairy instructor in the south-west of Scotland was Mr John Robertson, a the quality that affects our sensation with

Scotsman whose family have settled in regard to its hue or tint. We speak of Canada. To him we are indebted for the the colour of a cheese being true when

following account of “ How to make first- the body of the cheese when cut appears class Cheddar cheese. "

of the same tint throughout, and of the

Character and Composition of colour being untrue when the body of Cheddar Cheese. — Mr Robertson says : the cheese has a mottled or streaky Before giving the details of the operation appearance. of Cheddar cheese-making, I wish to de-

The appearance and finish is seen on

fine, as clearly as I can, what a Cheddar the outer surface. In a cheese this would cheese should be, and in as few words as be considered good or bad as it is sym possible. Cows' milk, with which we metrical in shape with a smooth clear have to deal in cheese-making, usually skin, or unshapely and with a surface has 13 per cent of solids and 87 per dirty and cracked open like baked clay. cent of water.

Cheese - making is the

Scale of Points in Judging Cheese.

process of preserving the valuable food I would give the following scale of

DAIRY WORK.

506

points of merit to each particular quality float on the milk. The motion given to Points.

it by stirring the rennet in the milk for a few seconds will be stopped as soon as

35

the milk thickens. In spring months, from fifteen to twenty seconds is a very

in a perfect cheese : Flavour, or particular power of pleas ing the taste or smell

Quality, or properties as to richness with consistency of body Texture, or combination of parts Colour, or evenness of hue or tint Appearance and finish, or impression .

25 15

good time to have it thicken in ; and in the summer months from twenty-five to thirty -five seconds. A standard tested

15

rennet extract should be used .

But a

careful watching of the temperature of the evening's milk in the morning will Milk . — With this knowledge of the give one quite as accurate an idea of the produced at sight .

IO

article we desire to produceborne in ripeness ofthe milk as any method known, mind, we will now consider the milk from provided the milk is always set nearly which it is produced. Besides its in- the same depth. herent tendency to decay, milk furnishes

In testing the ripeness of the milk with

a favourable condition for the propaga- rennet see to it that the milk used is tion of foreign ferments and parasitic always at the same temperature , as heat fungi that are readily introduced where is a favourable condition for rapid rennet

all of the surroundings and dairy uten- action, and cold an unfavourable condi sils are not kept scrupulously clean ; tion. When the evening's milk is too and as the introduction of impurities in cold in the morning, it is advantageous this way is sure to affect the flavour and to heat it a few degrees warmer than other valuable properties of the cheese, usual, and allow it to cool again, the too much care cannotbe givento keeping heat facilitating the development of the the milk free from all impurities. Keeping and Treatment of the

souring before the rennet is added . Cream.— The thick cream should be

Milk - In Cheddar cheese-making the removed from the evening's milk , and evening's milk should be kept in the vat warmed by pouring a portion of new fig. 449, to mix with the new milk in the milk amongst it, and left to dissolve

morning . Besides keeping it where the again, till fifteen minutes before the surroundings are sweet and pure, it is rennet is added. In this way it is important that it is not allowed to get more thoroughly incorporated into the

too cold. When the milk is cold, the body of the milk again, when poured lactic acid or souring principle in the through the strainer and thoroughly milk develops very slowly, and the de- stirred in the milk. velopment of that acid to a certain extent Colouring - When colouring is to be

is considered essential in the making of fine cheese. When the milk can be kept at such a temperature and depth as to gradually cool down from its natural heat to 68° Fahr. in the morning, it should be

used, it should be added as soon as the whole quantity of milk is together inthe vat, fig. 449. An ounce and a half of annatto per 100 gallons of milk gives a medium bright colour. From 1 to 2 in good condition to mix with the new oz. per 100 gallons are commonly used , milk ; and when kept warmer than 68° according to brightness of colour desired.

or 70° Fahr., the lactic acid would, in The colouring should be diluted in not most places, be too far developed to allow

less than five times its bulk of pure

sufficient time for the proper working of water, to facilitate its thorough incor the curd .

poration into the milk. The practice of Testing Ripeness of Milk . — An idea using artificial colouring is being very of the ripeness or development of the properly discouraged. lactic acid in the milk may be had by

Adding the Rennet. — From 84° to

using 4 oz. of milk, or an ordinary tea- 88° Fahr. are good temperatures at which cup about three -fourths full, and adding to add the rennet; 88° in the early spring a teaspoonful of rennet extract, noting and autumn months, when the milk is

the number of seconds that it takes to likely to be very sweet ; 84° in very thicken . This can readily be seen by warm summer days ; and 86° in mod allowing a short bit of straw or mote to erate weather.

CHEESE -MAKING .

507

Pure rennet of known strength should Heating. – Heat should then be ap be used, and that also should be well plied very slowly, where steam is used

diluted with pure water to ensure its for that purpose, the temperature being rapid and even distribution throughout raised at therate of one degree in from four to five minutes. Rapid application Quantity of Rennet. - In spring of the heat at this time forms a skin on months sufficient rennet should be used the pieces of curd, and thus prevents the to thicken the curd ready for cutting in proper expulsion of the whey from the

the milk .

-

thirty minutes, and in the summermonths curd that the heating is intended to ac When the rennet complish. The heat in the modern vat is added, stirring of the milk should not is applied, as we have seen, by circulating

in forty -five minutes.

exceed five minutes, as the milk should hot water or steam between the two cas

be quite still when coagulation begins. ings of the vat ; and in the old -style cir The surface may advantageously be cular tub by heating whey and pouring slightly agitated by passing the bottom over the curd. of the dipper lightly over it, to prevent

In spring months the heat should be

the cream from separating till coagula- raised to from 98° to 100° Fahr., and in tion has commenced . From 4 to 5 oz. of rennet

summer and autumn from 100° to 102 °.

oz. in the summer months.

a half-hour after the heat is raised .

extract per Gentle stirring of the curd should be 100 gallons of milk is usually sufficient continued during the process of raising in the spring months, and from 3 to 4 the heat, and from twenty minutes till The Curd.

Firmed or “ Cooked .” — The curd may then be allowed to settle, and if not firm

Cutting. — The curd should be ready enough to spring apart when slightly dis for cutting when it splits clean before turbed after having beensqueezed firmly

the finger, when inserted at an angle in the hand, it may with advantage be of about 45 ° ; or, if note is taken stirred up occasionally, until that degree of the time at which the rennet was of firmness has been attained .

It is im

added, till coagulation is perceptible, portant in the making of a good -keeping, and the curd is left as long again and a sweet-flavoured cheese, that the curd is

half. Coagulation should by that time properly firmed or “ cooked," as it is com be complete, and the curd ready for cut- monly called, before there is any sourness ting. Horizontal and perpendicular curd- or acid perceptible to the taste or smell.

knives (fig. 453) should be used, and the When the curd is properly “ cooked,” the whey should not be drained off till acid is quite perceptible. Testing Acidity . - A good test of the

aciditymay be obtained by squeezing a handful of the curd as dry as you can,

take a piece of it as large as a walnut, and apply it to a hot iron just warm enough to roast it without burning.

When applied with light pressure, and when removed slowly from the iron , if a number of fine silky threads draw out a Fig. 453. - Curd -knives.

fourth of an inch, the whey should be removed at once, and unless the curd is

cutting should be done very gently and firm and well cooked, the whey should slowly, taking at least half an hour to re- be removed when the silky threads draw duce the curd to pieces as small as peas. out an eighth of an inch. With the The cutting of the curd is done to milk in good condition the time of cook

facilitate the escape of the whey, and ing, from the time the heat is raised till allowing the curd to settle for fifteen

the acid should show as above, varies at

minutes when the cutting is completed, different places from one hour to two is another help to expel the surplus hours. whey from the structure of the curd . Draining . – As soon as the whey is

DAIRY WORK .

508

drained off, the curd should be removed applied to the curd in the chesset very from the tub or vat, and placed on racks lightly at first, just sufficient to start the or drainers covered with a cloth through whey running being enough, and gradu which the whey may readily escape. Un- ally increased to 2 or 3 tons weight, that less the curd is very firm and dry, it the curd may be made a completely solid should be gently stirred for a few minutes to prevent it matting at once, thus facilitating the escape of the whey. Packing . — The curd should then be

packed to a depth of 5 or 6 inches, and well covered to maintain the heat.

In

twenty minutes after packing it should be cut into pieces about 6 inches wide, and 8 or 10 inches long, and turned, care being taken not to allow the curd to cool

very much. After turning three times at intervals of twenty minutes or half an hour, the curd may be piled up deeper to maintain the heat throughout the whole alike, and thus develop the acid equally throughout the entire mass of curd .

0 Fig. 454 : -Metal chesset or cheese m- ould .

But in cases where the sour

ing is developing rapidly, it is best not mass , It should be kept in press for 8 days, and should be turned each day, topile the curd deep. Milling. — When the acid has devel- and a dry cloth exchanged for the one it

oped so that fine threads from 1/2 inch is pressed in . to 2 inches draw out on the curd when

Smooth Skin . - Turning the cheese

applied to the hot iron, the curd should the same day on which it was made be put through the curd -mill ( fig. 450). helps to secure for it a smooth skin , and That much of the butter-fat may not be care should be taken that the cheese

bruised out in the milling process, it is advantageous to spread the curd to allow it to cool before milling.

But the cool

ing should not be below 80° Fahr. The curd at this stage of the process should have a smooth velvety feel, with

a flavour like well-ripened cream to the smell.

The length of time from placing

the curd on therack till milling varies from 12 to 272 hours.

Salting.-- After stirring the curd well

Fig. 455. — Wooden chesset or cheese -mould .

for a few minutes, salt at the rate of 2

lb. per 100 lb. of curd should be thor-

cloths are not greasy, thus preventing

This

the pieces of curd from sealing closely

oughly stirred into the curd.

quantity is best suited for the early together to form a skin that will not months, and after the month of May readily crack .

Hot Bath . — After pressing overnight, 274 lb. salt per 100 lb. of curd should be used. After salting, the curd should the cheese should be treated to a warm be left 15 or 20 minutes to allow the bath in water about 120° Fahr., to ensure salt to thoroughly penetrate the curd giving it a smooth rind. Curing. — The cheese, when taken out before putting it in the chesset, mould,

or hoop, as it is variously called ( figs. 454 of the press, should be carefully ban and 455, John Gray ).

daged, and the ends well rubbed with

Pressing. — Unless the curd is very fresh fat before being put away in the soft and buttery it should not be allowed curing-room . Allowing the surface to to cool below 78° to 80° before packing get exposed and dry tends to crack the into the chesset.

Pressure should be

cheese .

CHEESE -MAKING .

Curing - room .

- The curing - room

509

for the purpose of letting out the whey.

should be kept dry and well ventilated, When the curd has been cut by repeated and a steady temperature of about 650 stirring into pieces as big as beans or Fahr. should be maintained.

A warmer peas, and begins to become firm , the tem

temperature than the above will ripen perature (which should not be allowed to the cheese quicker, and a lower one fall below 8oº Fahr. ) is The cheese should be turned gradually raised to 100 °

slower.

each day in the curing-room , and the apartment as well as the cheese should be kept bright and attractive. Carelessness in thisparticular very often gives a merchant a bad impression ofthecheese,

Fahr. (or 98 ° in hot weather), and the whole kept stirred with the curd - stirrer, a utensil similar to the cutter, but

and makes him indifferent in buying.

made with round wire,

Cheese carefully made and kept in this way should be ready for use infrom 2 to 3 months, and it should keep well for months afterwards, if required.

instead of thin steel blades. The stirring is continued until the curd attains a certain degree

of firmness, which re quires practical skill to Professor Primrose M'Connell thus know, but cannot be de Other Methods.

describes briefly a method of preparing the curd pursued very largely in this country in Cheddar making : Where there is a daily making of cheese, the

scribed . From beginning to end, the cutting and stirring occupies about 12 to 2 hours. At the

evening's milk is set in the vat or in end of this time, the curd coolers, so as to ensure that it will fall to is allowed to settle and

a temperature of 66° Fahr. by morning lie till it is sufficiently —or it may be passed over the aerator.

“ cooked ” in the whey.

Fig. 456. - Curd. breaker.

In the morning the cream is taken off, A good judge knows by the morning's milk mixed with the pre- the feel when it is ready; others use a vious milking, and the cream warmed hot iron to which a piece is applied , to 75º Fahr. and returned to the mass and if it melts and draws out into

through a sieve, for the purpose of ensurThe whole is then heated to 90° Fahr. in spring, or 84° to 86° in summer (according totemperature of the air - a lower temperature requiring the higher heating), when it is allowed to rest for some time to acquire a certain degree of acidity or “ ripeness.” After this the rennet is

ing thorough mixing.

threads, it is considered " ripe." The whey is then run off by a tap or siphon, the curd taken out, placed in an oblong

trough with a sparred false bottom, on which a cloth has been spread, and then broken down by hand, turned, and allowed to lie in a heap to drain and develop acid. The curd is then put into a large

added , when it has cooled down to 82° chesset, known as the dripper or drainer, to 84° Fahr., and well stirred in. About put into the press and subjected to a i pint to 400 gallons of the “ artificial ” pressure of 1/2 ton to get rid of the whey. varieties being required , or I pint to It is taken out of the press, sliced-up 100 gallons of the old home-made kind. with a knife, put through the curd-mill, When the milk is sufficiently coagu- salted with refined dairy salt — usually at lated, which it ought to be in from 30 the rate of 1 lb. of salt to 50 lb. of curd minutes to 1 hour, the curd is cut with

-and it is then ready for packing in the

the curd -knives ( fig. 453), one of which chesset for final pressing. should be for horizontal and the other The system thus described by Pro for vertical cutting ; or it may be cut by fessor M'Connell prevailed in Ayrshire the curd -breaker ( fig. 456 ). This latter prior to 1884, but it has now been largely is made with tinned steel blades, either superseded by the method detailed by vertical or horizontal, and with a long or

Mr Robertson.

Mr Gibbons's System . — Mr George break, the curd slowly into small pieces, Gibbons, Tunley Farm , Bath, a well

short handle.

The object is to cut, not

DAIRY WORK .

510

known authority on dairying, describing Cover and keep it warm with cloths until the system of making Cheddar in small it has become sufficiently solid to cut into or medium dairies (where there is no large pieces which can be turned over

arrangement for heating the curd in the without breaking. When this has been vat by circulating hot water or steam done, the whole should be again piled and between the casing of the vat as already kept covered for thirty minutes longer, as described ), says: before ; after this it may be removed to

“ This done [the first cutting of the curd in the tub ], it should be left to harden a few minutes and for the whey to separate, when, by the use of ashovel

the curd -cooler, cut into smaller pieces, and again piled and covered for thirty minutes. This cutting, changing, piling, and covering is continued until the curd

breaker, the splitting of the curd in its presents a rich, dry, mellow , solid ap This at first pearance, and a perceptible amount of must be done with the greatest caution, acidity has been developed. This is

own grain commences.

or the whey will get white and loss of

easily ascertained by taste and smell.

quality ensue ; but the speed should in- It is now ground, and should present a

crease asthe curd hardens — always taking ragged solid curd, dry, but greasy; and care that it is regularly broken, and not smashed, until it is the size of a pea, and the whey of a greenish hue ; the time of this operation depends somewhat upon the quantity dealt with, but it should

if several pieces are pressed together by the hand, the fragments should easily fall apart. Fine clean dry salt should be used at the rate of 24 lb. per 112 lb. of curd, and thoroughly mixed with it.

take from fifty to sixty minutes. The At this point the temperature of the mass should now be allowed to settle for curd should not be below 70°, and it

ten minutes, when with a siphon suffi- should be put into the vat or mould , cient whey may be drawn off, which, lined with a thin cloth large enough to when heated to not more than 130°, cover the cheese, placed in the press,

would raise the whole to 90 °. During where it has a pressure of about 20 cwt., the application of this whey the curd and allowed to remain there until the should be well stirred and mixed .

A next morning, when the cloth should be

further rest of ten minutes takes place, changed, the position of the cheese in

when enough whey should be drawn off verted, and replaced in the press until for heating to 130 °, and the whey in the the following morning.

A little fat

tub lowered till it only covers the curd rubbed over it softens the surface, and

by about two inches. The heated whey is useful in preventing cracks, a square should now be poured in a small stream piece of muslin being placed on its top over the curd , the operator taking the and bottom , and the sides also completely utmost care that the whole mass is covered with the same material, of suffi

thoroughly broken up and incorporated cient width to draw over the squares 12

with it, the thermometer being frequently inch, to which it should be neatly sewn. used, until it stands at 100 °, the limit Replace the cheese in the press, where desired ; but the stirring must be con- it should continue two days longer.

It

tinued until the curd becomes shotty should then be stoutly bandaged and re and is disposed to sink, the whey showing above it clear and green. “ This operation may take from ten to thirty minutes, but should the curd not

moved to the warm cheese-room , whence, after being turned daily for six weeks, it

should be taken to the cooler room , and turned every other day until three months

hardensufficiently fast, and the tempera- old, after which, turning once every four ture fall quickly, it would be well to add or five days is sufficient.

Much trouble

more hot whey, so as to retain the heat and damage to the cheese is saved by the at 100°.

The curd may now rest thirty

use of vats which open with a key.

minutes (or, if it is sufficiently acid, a “ Some successful makers scald at a shorter period will do), when all the whey lower temperature, only raising the first

may be let off, and the curd piledas high scald to 86 ° or 88° by whey heated to as possible in the centre of the tub. 120°, stirring the curd to assist the har Carefully wash down all crumbs, strain, dening fifteen or twenty minutes. The and place them on the top of the mound. temperature of the second scald should

CHEESE -MAKING .

511

be 98 °, by whey heated to 130°, and it with it " at the expense of half-a-crown should be stirred until the curd is shotty. a pound,”-So we are told in Marshall's It should then be left for twenty minutes,

Rural Economy, which was published

or less, if acidity develops fast. In this

in 1790. It thus received the name of

Stilton cheese” ; and the place where, case no whey is removed from the curd previous to scalding, except what is re- as well as the method on which , it was

quired for heating. After the expiration made, was kept secret for some time. At of the time of rest, let all the whey run length, however, the place and the method off ; then the usual course is to place became known, and it was then made at

the curd in the centre, cutting, turning, various farms in the counties of Leicester

covering, and keeping warm, putting it and Rutland, while in modern days it on a rack to drain, placing a board and has been produced in many parts of Eng heavy weights on it to facilitate separa- land, in the United States of America, tion of the whey, promote acidity, and in Canada, and elsewhere. produce a solid curd .” 1 Characteristics. The distinguishing To obviate the laborious work entailed

feature in the old-time Stilton method

in lifting and carrying the whey to be of cheese-making was the presence in the heated, Mr Gibbonsrecommends for large milk of a double quantity of cream dairies the use of improved appliances that is, the cream of the evening's milk

made by E. S. Hindley, Bourton, Dorset, was added to the morning's milk, which whereby the quantity of milk or whey was then made into cheese. Hence, in required for heating is raised by a small centrifugal pump to a tin or coppertinned vessel called the heater, placed on a level with the top of the tub, and partly overhanging it. The heater has

deed, its superior quality, and the price it used to command . True Stilton cheese is still a double-cream cheese, wherever it may be made ; but in modern times its reputation has suffered, because a great

à double bottom to admit steam underneath to heat the whey or milk, which, when a tap is opened , runs back into the tub to heat the mass of milk or curd and whey to the desired temperature.

deal of so -called Stilton has been made from milk without the added cream , in which event it has no higher quality than ordinary cheese made on other

methods, though the Stilton method gives a different character to the product.

STILTON CHEESE.

Climate and Soil .

It is said that no

other county can produce Stilton cheese

Professor J. P. Sheldon gives us the equal to that of Leicester and Rutland, following notes regarding this famous soil and herbage having so much to do cheese : In appearance and character with the result. It is probable, however, quite distinct from any other kind of that this claim cannot be sustained, and

British cheese, save the Yorkshire Cother- that the finest qualities of Stilton can be

stone, which resembles it more in looks produced elsewhere, on the same method, else, Stilton cheese is at with a double quantity of cream, and than anything once one of the most modern and per- from rich old pasture-land. It is also haps the most famous of all the many said that really fine Stiltons can only be

different kinds that are produced in the made in the five months beginning with

British Islands. A hundred years ago May and ending with September. This it had a local reputation in the district is probably correct, but the statement around Melton Mowbray, chiefly be- is equally applicable to other kinds of cause the well-known Cooper Thornhill, cheese. who kept the Bell Inn at Stilton, on the

Method . — The Stilton method is as

Great North Road between London and follows : The evening's milk is put into

Edinburgh, had it always at hand to shallow " leads,” or pans, and is skimmed regale travellers in the old coaching days. next morning, the cream being mixed It was first made by Mrs Paulet of Wy- with the fresh milk of the morning. The mondham , a relative of Thornhill's, whose rennet is added when the milk has been

customers were sometimes “ gratified ” raised to a temperature of 83° Fahr., and 1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng ., 1889.

coagulation is perfected in an hour after wards. The coagulum is then broken a

512

DAIRY WORK.

little and very gently, after which it re- vour of the cheese. The measure of the

mains at rest for a quarter of an hour ; operation is governed by temperature, it is then put into the “ leads,” over in respect of which, as of the whole pro which cloth strainers have been spread cess of manufacture, the Stilton cheese

to receive it, and the whey drains slowly makers do not appear to have laid down out of the curd. As the draining pro- any general or definite rules. ceeds, the corners of the cloth are tied closer and closer, until the curd becomes CHESHIRE CHEESE . tolerably firm and dry. The curd is then put into a tin strainer and cut into The system of cheese -making pursued

squares, remaining so until it is ready in Cheshire corresponds pretty closely for the hoops, at which stage it is care- with the Cheddar method. fully broken into small pieces. A layer Four processes differing in minor de of curd is then put into the hoop, and on tails are here practised - an early ripen

it a sprinkling of salt, care being taken ing process, medium ripening process, not to let the salt get too near the out late ripening process, and the Stilton side ; then another layer of curd , and on Cheshire process. The difference in the it salt as before, and so on until the hoop first three lies mainly in the amount of

is full, when the mass of curd is lightly acidity developed, and the amount of pressed down in the hoop. pressure applied. The hoop is a cylinder of perforated In the early ripening process about

tin, but without bottom or top, and it is 50 per cent more than the usual quantity placed on a shelf over which a cloth has of rennet is added, while more acidity been spread, and where the whey may is developed and less pressure employed still drain away. The hoop is turned than in the other methods. In the

medium ripening process a moderate day, until the cheese is firm enough to be amount of acidity is developed, to en 6 other end down ” two or three times a-

taken out of it, the time required being sure the draining of the whey from the from five to ten days, or even longer, ac- curd under pressure. In the late ripen

cording to the temperature. The cheese ing system acidity is as far as possible

is then bound tightly round with a cloth, prevented , the whey being drained by which is repeatedly changed for a dry breaking down the curd more finely, and one, until the crust of the cheese has skewering under press, while the milk

firmed, and the shape can be maintained and curd are raised to a higher tempera without the aid of cloths.

The cheese is

ture in this method.

In the Stilton

then placed on a shelf in the cheese-room , Cheshire system a large quantity of where it ripens, and the blue mould so rennet is used, and little pressure is

highly prized is developed — a process, as employed. An open flaky curd with a rule, occupying a good many weeks.

little acidity is desired for this cheese.

No curd -mill is used in the Stilton

method, and the cheese is not put into press. Grinding the curd, indeed, would liberate the cream, a portion of which

OTHER ENGLISH VARIETIES.

Many other varieties of cheese are

would be lost in the draining, and pres- made in different parts of this country. sure would cause more of it to escape.

In few instances, however, has a clearly

In a double-cream cheese, the danger is obvious ; and even in single-cream cheese there is always a loss of butter-fat through grinding and pressing. In the Stilton method , the curd is a good deal exposed to the air. This oxidises it and causes

defined or recognised system of manufac ture been established, as in the case of Cheddar cheese. The most widely known of these other

English cheeses are the Leicestershire cheese, “ single” and “ double ” Glouces

a little acidity to develop, which facili- tershire cheeses, Cotherstone cheese, tates the escape of the whey, the ripen- Wensleydale cheese, and the cheeses ing of the cheese, and the development of Derbyshire, Lancashire, Wilts, and of the blue mould-Penicillium crusta- Dorset.

In Scotland the Dunlop cheese

ceum — which has its influence not only still maintains a local habitation, and a on the consistency but also on the fla- name more than local.

CHEESE -MAKING .

513

Cotherstone cheese is a copy of Stilton, Ordinary cream cheese is made with little used outside Yorkshire, where it is one part of cream to two parts of milk, made. The Wensleydale cheese, also a rennet being added to curdle the mass Yorkshire article of only local repute, in from six to eight hours. is made at a high temperature, so that

Skim - milk

Cheese.

-Skim -milk

coagulation takes place in from thirty to forty minutes. The process is short and simple, but the cheese is not of a high class. After being pressed for twenty - four hours, the cheeses, which

cheeses are made in several parts of the country, chiefly in Scotland, but without the addition of some portion of cream the cheese is dry and rather tasteless.

are usually under 15 lb., float in brine

An attempt has been made, chiefly

for three days, and are salted by that in America, to replace the fat removed C6

The Glo'ster single and in the cream by the introduction of lard “ double ” cheeses are flat and level, the or other animal fat into the skim-milk.

means .

latter being double the thickness of the But the oleomargarine cheese thus pro They were at one time more duced is an inferior article, which has

former.

widely esteemed than now .

been very properly classed as a “dairy

This is a fancy abomination .” cheese, relished by many people. As Keeping Milk for Cheese-making. indicated by the name, it is made from cream , and is of course the richest cheese The general plan , we have seen, is to made in butter -fat. make cheese every day. But on many Cream

Cheese.

Professor Sheldon thus describes the small and mixed husbandry farms a suffi making of cream cheese : “Cream cheese cient quantity of milk is not available to is easily made by pouring thick cream make a cheese daily. In these cases the

wood, which is milk may be kept over one or two days, into a perforated box of lined with muslin . The box may or and a cheese made every second or third it has to be kept for this bottom, and it should day. When may not have amoisture the cream purpose, the milk is cooled as soon as stand where the

can drain away .

from

As the wet leaves it,

drawn from the cow, and kept in a cool

the cream gradually hardens and becomes place. When the cheese is to be made, fairly solid , when it may be taken out of the cream is taken off the stale milk, the mould and placed on straw exposed some fresh milk added, more fresh milk

to the air. A blue fungus soon appears is heated up to perhaps 150° Fahr. (not on the crust, and the cheese is ready for to boiling-point ), and added, and the cream which was taken off mixed with

eating.

“ It is made in a cool room , andshould itsown bulk of milk , and heated to 98° become slightly sour. Though there is Fahr., and also added,-the whole being less art and work in making cream well stirred, and the rennet then put in . If the milk has to be kept longer than cheese than in making any other sort, success is not always attained at the one whole day and night, it is difficult

outset, and it must be remembered that to make really good cheese from it. Yet in many cases it has to be kept over two cream cheese will not keep long. “ The cooler the room the slower the days in order to collect a sufficiency for cheese will ripen, and indeed it should cheese-making. Different Makings of Curd .— Ched not ripen quickly. A room whose nor-

mal temperature in summer is 60° to 65° dar cheeses usually weigh from 80 to 90 Fahr. will serve the purpose well enough, lb. each. Mr Robertson, Dairy Instruc and in winter the temperature may be tor, Wigtownshire, gives the following artificially raised if need be. directions for making an 80 lb. Cheddar “ The demand for cream cheese is cheese with 40 gallons of milk to make

limited and irregular, and the price at into curd at one time : which the producers will find a profit

“ Let the curd of the first 40 gallons of

is one which will not encourage a large milk be put into the chesset or mould, circle of consumers.” 1 and pressed as if the cheese were finished, and then when the curd of the next 40 i The Farm and the Dairy, 86.

gallons is ready, scratch the surface of

DAIRY WORK.

514

the curd in the chesset with a dinner size, weighing from 100 to 150 lb., and fork, or anything that will make the often being more than 2 feet in diameter surface quite rough, gather the loose curd and 6 inches in thickness.

It is a cheese

thus broken up towards the centre of the which, at its best, is mellow , melting on chesset, and pour a little warm water the tongue, homogeneous, a light yellow around the edge of the chesset on the in colour, without cracks on the crust, inside, and pack in the fresh curd and with a number of small holes which press as usual.

The splice thus made should not exceed three- eighths of an

will most likely be complete, without inch in diameter. The interior of these

any danger of cracking, or the cheese holes is moist, and the walls glazed, Of course this and they usually contain a little brine. method should not be pursued except The flavour is at once rich and nutty,

parting into halves.

where there is not a sufficient quantity somewhat resembling the very best of milk to make enough curd at one time Cheddars. Gruyères are made in three qualities, “Where there are smaller quantities —fat, half-fat, and lean, or from full of milk to be handled daily, I would milk , half skim -milk, and skim -milk re consider some method of making soft spectively. Most of the cheeses aremade cheeses preferable to an attempt to make at factories or fruitières, to which the

for an ordinary -sized Cheddar cheese.

Cheddar.” 1 milk is delivered by the small pro It is a better plan to make small ducers. It is warmed to 93', and the curd cheeses frequently from fresh curd, than

larger cheeses more seldom from mixed brought by means of rennet in from 25 stale and fresh milk or curd.

to 35 minutes.

It is then cut with a

long wooden knife, and subsequently FOREIGN CHEESES SUITABLE FOR BRITAIN .

stirred until the pieces of curd are no

larger than peas. The following notes regarding foreign The operation takes place in a hand varieties of cheese capable of manufac- somely made vat, or kettle of copper, ture in this country, were prepared for frequently 5 feet in diameter. This this edition by Professor James Long :kettle hangs upon a crane, and is swung The varieties of cheese made upon over a wood -fire in the floor. Sometimes the Continent of Europe is much greater it is fixed, and the fire, made in a mov

than can be realised by those who have able grate upon wheels, is run on a pair not examined the subject. Those cheeses of rails from kettle to kettle. The curd is next heated up to 135°, which are suitable, however, to British

trade and taste are not numerous, and the stirring continuing until it has reached tails of the manufacture of which are ascertained by experience. The whole given below. France claims the longest is then allowed to settle, and the cheese

are practically included in the list, de- a proper consistence, which can only be

maker skilfully passes a cloth beneath record, after which come Italy, Switz- the curd, which has settled at the bottom In Germany

erland, and Germany.

there is no specially leading variety, of the vessel, brings up the ends on the such as is universally recognised as a other side, attaches the four corners to a

leading cheese, as in the case of the Gruyère for example. Nor do we find any important cheeses in suchwell-known dairy countries as Sweden , Norway, or Denmark .

hook hanging from a pulley, and in a few moments the curd is swung over a table and dropped into a mould waiting to receive it. This mould is open at the side, and can be tightened at will.

When once within

Gruyère.

it, the curd is carefully wrapped up with This cheese, which is made chiefly in cloths, and after standing for a short Switzerland, and in thosedepartments in time, it is put under a press for the re France bordering upon that country, is moval of the whey. well-known in England. It is of great It is salted the next day, the salting 1

Farming World Year -book , 1890.

continuing from day to day for a con siderable period, two men being required

CHEESE -MAKING .

515

to move the cheeses, which are placed and pressed for a short time. This pres sing continues until sufficient whey is upon shelves in the ripening room . Here three temperatures are, if possi- removed, when the curd is placed in a ble, introduced, at the lowest, middle, and trough in an egg-cup-like mould, witha top shelves. These temperatures vary be- lid which givesit its circular form . In

tween 52 and60°. Poor,or skim -milk, this it is placed under a unique lever is set at a lower temperature than that press, · which is given.

common

in

Dutch

What art there is in making dairies.

Gruyère is chiefly displayed in the judgNext day some salt is placed upon the ment in removing the curd from the vat top, but the cheese is reversed from time at the right time, and in properly pres- to time, while always being salted from the same point. This continues for from sing, salting, and ripening it. The other cheeses made in Switzer- 8 to 10 days, when it is put into a vat of

land, but all of which are unknown in thick brine for from 12 to 24 hours, being the ordinary markets of this country, are subsequently washed and removed to the

the Spalen , the Bellelay, the Battelmatt, ripening room , where it stands upon a the Vacherin, the poor man's cheese, and shelf, as near as possible at 70° The the Schabzieger, in which the sugar of cheese is turned daily until it is fit to milk plays an important part.

This

sell.

cheese resembles the Myseost of the It is well rubbed with linseed oil and Scandinavian countries, and is not likely coloured yellow or red, in accordance to become an important article of com- with the market to which it is destined, the surface being scraped smooth and

merce,

fine. Dutch Cheeses.

This cheese is made to an enormous

The two important cheeses made in extent in the provinces of North Holland, Holland, both of which are sold in the the chief markets being Hoorn, Edam ,

English markets in very large quantities, and Purmerend, all of which are within are known as round or Edam , and flat a convenient distance of Amsterdam . or Gouda Cheese. We have seen these Gouda . — The Gouda, or flat Dutch

cheeses made in various districts in Hol- cheese, when at its best closely resembles land, and have found that, although the the fine flavour of English Cheddar. It systems adopted are similar, they vary in is much larger and heavier than the minute details, such as temperature. Edam , and although flat, has rounded Edam . — A round Dutch cheese weighs sides. It is generally possible to pur about 5 lb. The milk is sometimes par- chase cheese of prime quality in Amster

price pre re- dam, although its very high tially skimmed, but the best makers are vents any considerable sale in this move no cream from it. The cows milked in the meadows, and the milk-

country. The milk is set at 92', suffi

placed in round wooden tubs, which are cient rennet being added to bring the taken to the cows by boat along the curd in 25 minutes. It is then cut dykes which divide each farm-is ren- either with a knife or a lyre-like imple neted before starting for the dairy, at ment common among the Dutch. As the whey exudes, it is removed from from 85° to 90 °.

The curd usually forms in from 15 to the tub, and the curd carefully and grad 30 minutes, in accordance with the cus- ually broken up into fine pieces with tom on the farm , and it is slowly cut the hands. It is subsequently pressed

with a wire cutter during 10 minutes, and squeezed in a large perforated basin like mould, in which it is again pressed The colouring is added with the ren- for the removal of the whey.

when the whey commences to separate. net, if it is used .

The cheese afterwards goes into the

After manipulation with the hands, the mould which gives it its shape, and in

whey is baled out with a ladle, and the 24 hours is salted, salting continuing curd gathered together and again worked, from day to day until it is fit for the As no mill is used, it is broken in the brine-vat, where it sometimes happens tub, and more whey removed, after which that hot water is added to the curd after

it is gathered together in a round mould the withdrawal of the whey, in order to

DAIRY WORK .

516 harden it.

This is a rougher plan of long staff with wire -work bound around

heating up than the operation as per- its head, and the other a rod with a disc formed in England. at the end. Stirring is continued until The Dutch cheeses are undoubtedly a the grain is almost as fine as large shot ; boon to the working classes, who prefer some cold water is then sprinkled over them to inferior home-made cheese at the surface, the kettle is swung over the

similar prices.

fire a second time, and the milk heated

to from 104° to 110°, stirring being con tinued the while. Parmesan cheese is manufactured in When the Grana, which is continually Parmesan .

Italy, chiefly in Parma and Emilia .

It

tested , is fit, the whey is dipped out, and

is generally known as Grana, on account the curd, which has been pressed into of the fine grain into which the curd is the bottom of the kettle, is removed into brought during manufacture. In size a cloth by two men, and placed in a large and shape it resembles Gruyère, but vessel for half an hour, after which it is removed into the mould. Here it is often weighs more than 150 lb. Parmesan requires keeping for a con- wetted with whey two or three times, in siderable period, sometimes three years, order to keep it sufficiently flexible; but

until it is fit for the market, and for it is also pressed by lying between two this reason the export trade is in few boards, and having weights placed upon hands, the makers being obliged to sell the top. to the dealers while the cheese is new,

The cloths are removed from time to

for they complete the process of ripening time, when the cheese is covered with

in the marvellous caves which are built buckram, which gives an imprint to the beneath their premises. skin. The buckram is subsequently cut, The true Parmesan is full of minute and the cheese is salted and again pressed.

This process continues every other day sticky sweet substance, which has caused for a fortnight, when the cheese is cleaned the term “ honeyed ” to be applied to and scraped and taken to the ripening

holes, and when cut in halves emits a

cheeses of the finest quality.

The flesh

room, where it is greased and turned

of the cheese is a pale straw colour, but the crust is often almost black from its age and the colourwhich has been applied to it. Like the Gruyère, the Parmesan is made in factories, where the milk is carried by small farmers, as in Switzer-

from time to time at suitable tempera tures until it is ripe. In the ordinary way, however, it is sold to the dealer while it is yet young and green, very few of the makers venturing to complete the ripening process.

land. In one of these establishments, where we were enabled to learn the pro cess, as many as eighty persons brought

Gorgonzola. This blue-moulded cheese, which some

in their milk, varying from 4 to 60 litres what resembles Stilton, is made chiefly The work was done by two in Lombardy, in moulds which are 12 men , inches in diameter by 12 inches high. The milk is put into a kettle of solid The curd is chiefly prepared byowners brass, and resembling in shape an in- or drivers of cattle, and sold to the mer verted bell. This hangs from a crane chants when it has become solid , and over a fire in the floor. The milk is formed into a cheese to ripen. The heated to 92 °, when the cheese-maker practice is to add the rennet to the even apiece.

takes a piece of solid rennet, the size of ing's milk while it is from 85 ° to 95 °, so a walnut, which he places in a cloth, and as to bring the curd in fifteen minutes.

dipping this into the milk, wrings it for It is then cutand broken up and ladled some minutes, until its virtue has passed into cloths, which are hung up to drain into the milk. The strong -smelling ani- in a cool apartment until the following mal matter is then thrown away. morning The curd is sometimes brought in fifThe milk of the morning is served in teen minutes. It is then roughly cut, a similar manner, except that the cloth

and subsequently broken up with two holding the curd is placed into a bucket implements - one called the rotilla, a or vat to drain for some ten to fifteen

CHEESE -MAKING .

minutes.

Professor Kinch's Analysis.

At the end of this time the

curd of the evening, which is cold, and the warm curd of the morning are placed

517

Water Fat Casein Salt

White.

Blue.

48.99

24.96

26.50

26.10

21.II

43.46

3.40

5.22

in the cheese-mould, care being taken that the top and bottom , as well as the sides, are composed of the warm curd.

Sugar

The middle of the cheese is built up of alternate layers of cold and warm , the

The analyses by Professor Kinch were

.26

maker plunging his fingers occasionally of cheeses made under the direction of into the mass to amalgamate them . the writer, at the Royal Agricultural

When filled , the cloth which envelops College, Cirencester - 10 gallons of milk the curd is folded over the surface, and made from 14 to 15 lb. of cheese. the cheese is allowed to settle until it has sunk into the lower half of the mould

for it is divided into two pieces ; the top

Roquefort. This cheese, also somewhat popular in

portion is then removed and the lower this country, ismade in the Aveyron, in one reversed, that the cheese may drain France, from the milk of the ewe, some half-million of these animals being kept

and face better.

At the end of twelve hours it is again in one district alone for the purpose. turned , and the mould tightened . Next The Roquefort is a small, round, flat day the cloth is removed , and the cheese cheese, weighing about 5 lb., and, like begins to take its form . Gorgonzola and Stilton, it is veined with It is then removed into an apartment blue mould. This, however, is obtained of 65°, where it remains for three or four in a different way, as will be seen . The evening's and morning's milks are days, at the end of which time the mould is removed altogether, and salting com- mixed together, and brought to a tem mences.

One-half of the cheese, and that always

perature of about 90° ; the rennet, which is made from the stomach of the lamb, is

the top, is daily sprinkled and rubbed added, and the curd brought in a short with salt, being reversed the following time. morning.

This salting continues until,

It is then cut and broken down, and

in the judgment of the maker, sufficient much of the whey removed . The curd has been given ; brining then goes on is afterwards conveyed into the mould in for a few days, and the cheese is next three layers, between each of which a

taken to the cave, which must be cool quantity of specially prepared mouldy and moist, and is preferable if a damp bread crumbs are sprinkled, the bread being made from a mixture of wheat draught is passed through it. By this time a red mould has com- and barley flour. menced to grow over the surface, and After pressure, and when the cheese the cheese now requires great care in has attained a distinct form , it is re

management and frequent turning. In moved to the drying-room for two or for the market, and will be veined through- celebrated caves which have made the out the interior with green mould . district so famous, and which are ex The following analyses of Gorgonzolas, tremely humid, the temperature being some of which,it may be mentioned, are about 46°. Here it is from time to time made without any mould, for the higher scraped, as mould grows upon it, salted, from four to five months it will be ripe three days, when it is carried to the

Italian classes, many of whom prefer it,

and ripened.

Machines, however, are

as the green fungus has been at times now used in some instances for brushing

produced by artificial means, which are the rind instead of scraping it, and also objectionable :

for piercing the cheeseswith needles, in

order to encourage the growth of the

German Analyses.

fungus within . Soxhlet.

Water

Fat Casein Salt VOL . II.

36.72 33.69 25.67 3.71

43.56

Cantal.

27.95 24.17 4.32

tremely important one upon the Con

The Cantal cheese, which is an ex 2 L

DAIRY WORK .

518

tinent, and which is probably destined to make its appearance in this country, is chiefly made in the Auvergne, and varies in weight from 40 to 100 lb. It

made of rush or reed, upon benches of cement or galvanised metal. Each mould is nearly filled with each batch of curd, and by the time the next curd is ready,

is of piquant flavour, has a solid con-

the first will have sunk in the mould

sistence, and may be termed a hard by reason of drainage, when it is again filled. cheese. When the second curd is sufficiently Cantal is made from milk at a temperature of 75 ° ; the curd is broken up low the mould is skilfully reversed, and

in an hour, the whey removed, and kept upon the cheese until it is firm the solid remnants gathered together in

enough to handle ; it is then salted upon

fifteen minutes, when they are kneaded one side, and left until the following day and further drained. The curd is then to be salted upon the other. After salting it rests upon shelves for put into a vessel pierced with holes,

and again pressed with the hands, and a few days, when it is carried to the indeed with the body, the maker fre- séchoir, or drying - room , an apartment quently getting on to the top of the through which currents of air are in mouldand pressing with his knees. The duced to travel in all directions. Here mass is ther reversed, and left under

a white mould appears ; and when the

heavy pressure for twelve hours, being pile is at its best the cheeses are con kept warm the while. Each lot of curd veyed to the cellar, which is usually dark, manipulated in this manner is called a damp, and free from draught. It is turned daily until covered with tome — a full-size cheese requiring from a green mould . During the growth of three to four tomes in its manufacture. When the real cheese-mould is about this fungus the flesh of the cheese will to be filled, the masses of now solid curd have gradually changed its condition, which we have called tomes are broken

and in from five to six weeks it will be

up with the fingers into small pieces, the fit for market. whole salted, and finally put into the moulds in cloths, and sent to the press. Here the cheese obtains its final form,

Brie.

This cheese, which is the most popular

and when sufficiently solid to be removed in France, is chiefly made in the depart from the mould, it is taken to the cave ment of Marne, not far from Paris, and to ripen. sent to the Paris markets, where it ob The Cantal is ripened in about two tains high prices. It varies from an inch

months, and when made of full rich milk to an inch and a half in thickness, and is of very fine quality. Camembert.

from 9 to 12 inches in diameter. Its character very much resembles that of

Camembert, although it is differently

This is the most popular of the small made. cheeses of the Continent which are sent The new milk set at 83° is brought to to this country. It is made upon one a curd in from three to four hours, al

principle, under various forms, in the department of Calvados and in the neighbouring districts of Normandy. In a general way the evening's milk is

though details differ upon various farms. The mould is made in two parts, the top portion fitting into the bottom . This is

placed upon a mat and a beech board, and

skimmed and added to that of the morn- the curd is laid within it in large, thin , ing, and heated to from 80° to 85 °, some- unbroken slices until it is full. It re

times higher. There are makers, how- mains to drain until the top portion of ever, who make three batches daily from the mould can be removed ; the cheese is

three several milkings, thus preventing then reversed by the aid of a clean mat the necessity for heating the milk. and board, and in time becomes firm , The curd is brought by the use of when the mould is removed altogether. rennet in from one and a half to four

It is then salted, as in the case of the

hours, according to the custom on the Camembert, and finally taken, first to the farm . While still warm it is ladled into drying- room, and subsequently to the cylindrical moulds, placed upon mats cellar, an apartment which, as we found

ASSOCIATED BUTTER AND CHEESE MAKING .

519

in the Brie district, was not only ex- East End purchasers of sour or stale tremely dirty, but positively reeked milk ; but it is sold to the public in a with fungoid growth upon the walls white or new state. and shelves.

The cheese is speedily covered with white mould, with specks of blue here ASSOCIATED BUTTER AND CHEESE MAKING .

and there ; it then goes to the cellar, and is soon covered with blue mould, upon

which patches of a vermilion mould commence to grow . This blue mould is known

An important development of the dairy industry is the organising of establish

as Penicillium glaucum , the red as Oidium ments in which the milk produce of the aurantiacum, without which it is believed

cows on several different farms can be

by French experts that the highest type collected together for united manipula of Brie cannot be obtained .

tion.

These establishments are of dif

There is no more delicious cheese than ferent kinds, with different yet similar

the Brie, not even excepting the Camem- aims and objects. bert. Creameries. — There is the “ creamery ,” in which, as a rule, only the cream is re The Neufchatel.

ceived from the farmer.

In some cases

This cheese, sometimes called the Bon- the farmer is paid for his cream by its

don, is largely made in the department weight or measure. of Seine Inférieure. It is a small loafshaped cheese, about 3 inches high, and 172 to 2 inches in diameter, and is properly made from new milk, although the

In others, each

farmer's cream is churned separately, and the payment made according to the pro duce in butter. The former is themore convenient to the creamery, the latter

majority of makers, many of whom we usually the more satisfactory to the have visited, in this department use milk farmer whose cream is of choice quality. which has been partially skimmed. For A third plan, which has certain points to such cheeses the makers obtain only a commend it, is for the farmer to bring penny apiece in the Paris markets. the whole milk to the creamery twice a

The majority of the makers are farmers day — just after it is milked and run of the smallest class, who have not suffi- through a refrigerator to cool it and pre cient milk to make large cheeses.

vent it spoiling on the journey - get it at

The milk is set directly it comes from once separated by the centrifugal separa the cow, and sufficient rennet is added to tor, and take back with him the fresh bring the curd in twenty-four hours. It is then ladled into a cloth , stretched by the four corners over a draining-tub, and left to drain for twelve hours ; the partially solid curd is then removed to a

skim -milk, which he can usually turn to better account on his farm than could be done by the creamery. In the creamery the cream is made into

butter in large quantities at a time, thus press, in which it remains for some hours, securing a product of uniform character

until in the judgment of the maker it is and appearance, which is so important fit for moulding. At this moment it is in the sale of butter. In some cases worked up with the hand, and each creameries also do a considerable trade

cheese is moulded separately in a small in selling fresh cream for table use in brass cylinder, and placed upon a strawcovered shelf to dry. Here it becomes

towns.

Butter -blending House.

This is a

covered with white mould , which subse- sort of modified butter factory, in which quently changes to blue, the apartment butter is collected in small quantities being maintained at 60°, or a little less.

The cheeses are turned daily ; and when

from farmers, graded according to quality,

and submitted to a certain amount of re

a second lot of white fungus has covered making. The object here is to rectify the blue it is ready for the market, and the home defects in the " working ” of will keep a long time.

the butter, to grade, blend, and remake

This cheese is salted after it has been it, so that it may be presented in the dried upon the shelves for a day. market in large quantities of uniform The Bondon is imitated in London by

character and attractive

appearance.

DAIRY WORK.

520

This system has been highly successful Longford, a purely rural district. At

in France, especially in Normandy, and is Derby a warehouse was improvised and being carried out at various centres in fitted with the necessary machinery and this country with results which seem to plant. At Longford a new building was erected. be fairly satisfactory. During the first two years, or what was Dairy Factory .— Then there is the lairy factory, which, known perhaps by then the experimental period,

different names, embraces all the branches of dairying (excepting, most likely, the keeping of cows) —buying in new milk from many farmers, selling some of it as fresh whole - milk, making cheese of various kinds, separating the cream from

fixed

price was guaranteed to the suppliers of milk . After this the farmers undertook the management themselves, conducting the factories entirely on co -operative

principles, and this system has since continued at the Longford Factory. the milk by the centrifugal separator, The object of the organisers of the new

making butter, selling fresh cream, sell- departure wasto bringup thewhole make ing the skim-milk back to the farmers of a district to a uniform point of excel

or through towns and villages, and per- lence. This they attained , and continue haps feeding part of it to cows, calves, to do, though meeting with considerable and pigs. opposition from persons interested in the These latter are generally establish- trade. ments of considerable size, and, like the For several years the factory system

creameries and butter-blending houses, are made slow progress, but subsequently conducted in some cases as distinct factorieswere planted in different counties.

businesses, and in others in co-operation The reports and discussions to which the with the farmers who produce and supply new departure gave rise and the authentic the raw material.

data as to the value of milk , were the

means of enlisting public interest in dairy Origin and Development of Dairy

matters.

Factories.

The cost of erecting and fitting up a The origin and development of this cheese factory will run on an average to peculiar outcome of dairying in this from 30s. to £2 per cow . The economy

country are explained in the following in working is very considerable. Large dairy factories are now being Castle, Derby : established in different parts of the Since 1869 the dairy management of country on entirely new lines. These this country has undergone a complete are manufactories on a large scale, skil revolution. In that year the landowners fully carried out on strictly commercial

notes by Mr Gilbert Murray, Elvaston

and farmers of Derbyshire originated a principles. The output embraces every movement for the improvement of cheese product of the dairy, from the raw making

American cheese were then material to the manufactured articles of

taking the lead in our markets (to the all kinds. Some arecarriedon as limited

great injury of the home maker) and liability companies, in which the farmers were realising higher prices than the are shareholders. average prices of our home dairies.

The

The milk is delivered to the factory

great advantage of the foreign article twice a -day from all distances up to four was the uniform quality which it derived

miles. As soon as the milk is drawn from

by being made in a factory, while in no

the cow ,

it is passed over a refrigerator,

two dairies in this country was the pro- figs. 420, 421, and the temperature re duce alike in quality — there was scarcely duced to about 60° Fahr. : in hot weather

one indeed in which the quality did not this prevents the milk from souring in transit. On arrival at the factory it is vary from day to day. After much deliberation it was at last weighed and credited to the producer in determined to introduce some skilful thedelivery book — the imperial gallon

American makers, in order to give the being reckoned at ten pounds. factory system a fair trial on its merits. The payments are monthly, with one

Two factories were started ; one in month's money kept in hand to meet the town of Derby, and the other at any case of emergency. Advances are

ASSOCIATED BUTTER AND CHEESE MAKING.

521

made to suppliers on payment of a dis- couraging and extending the system of

associated dairying. Itis veryproperly The great difficulty in the making of contended that itis in itself an undesir

count at the rate of 5 per cent.

butter on an extensive scale is that of able thing that the dairy farmer should

disposing of the bye -products — the employ others to perform work which separated milk and buttermilk.

On should be done by himself and his family, these chiefly depend the financial success or at any rate on his farm under his own of the undertaking. eye. On the other hand, where the

Much to their own disadvantage the farms are small, or where few cows are farmers are chary of having anything to kept, the small quantities of milk and do with these establishments.

cream may be turned to better account

A butter dairy can only be successfully by being collected and manipulated in carried on near to a first -class station on large quantities in associated dairies, than if each farmer were to prepare a main line of railway.

There is much need for better organisa- and market his dairy produce indepen tion and more extended use of separated dently. milk, and this must take place before

The factory system is assuredly very

dairy farming can be developed to its useful in its own way, and it has al fullest extent in the British Isles.

ready done good service in this country.

Yet it is by the extension and improve ment of home-dairying that the lasting There is considerable difference of interests of the general body of farmers opinion as to the advisability of en- will be most effectually promoted. Utility of the Factory System .

END OF THE SECOND VOLUME .

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The Haigs of Bemersyde. A Family History.

RUSSELL.

By

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21

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22

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23

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THOMSON. A Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the Grape Vine . By WILLIAM THOMSON , Tweed Vineyards . Tenth Edition, 8vo , 58.

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24

LIST OF BOOKS, ETC.

WERNER. A Visit to Stanley's Rear -Guard at Major Bartte lot's Camp on the Aruhwimi. With an Account of River -Life on the Congo .

By J. R. WERNER, F.R.G.S., Engineer, late in the Service of the Etat Inde. pendant du Congo. With Maps, Portraits, and other Illustrations. 8vo. 16s.

WESTMINSTER ASSEMBLY .

Minutes of the Westminster As

sembly, while engaged in preparing their Directory for Church Government, Confession of Faith, and Catechisms ( November 1644 to March 1649). Edited by the Rev. Professor AleX. T. MITCHELL , of St Andrews, and the Rev. John STRUTHERS, LL.D. With a Historical and Critical Introduction by Professor Mitchell .

81c , 158 .

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History of France , from the Earliest Times . Sixth Thou . sand , post 8vo , with Index, 68 .

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Crown 8vo , 58 .

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8vo , 28. 6d .

WILLIAMSON .

Poems of Nature and Life.

By David R.

WILLIAMSON, Minister of Kirkmaiden . Fcap. 8vo, 38 .

WILLS AND GREENE . Drawing-room Dramas for Children. By W. G. Wills and the Hon . Mrs GREENE . Crown 8vo , 68 .

WILSON. Works of Professor Wilson. Edited by his Son-in-Law, Professor FERRIER . 12 vols. crown 8vo, £2, 88. Christopher in his Sporting-Jacket. 2 vols. , 8s . Isle of Palms, City of the Plague, and other Poems. 45.

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Homer and his Translators, and the Greek Drama. Crown 8vo , 48 .

WINGATE.

Lily Neil.

A Poem .

By David WINGATE. Crown

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WORDSWORTH .

The Historical Plays of Shakspeare.

With

Introductions and Notes . By CHARLES WORDSWORTH , D.C.L., Bishop of S. Andrews.

3 vols. post 8vo, cloth , each price 7s . 6d . , or handsomely bound in

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WORSLEY .

Poems and Translations.

By PHILIP STANHOPE

WORSLEY, M.A. Edited by EDWARD WORSLEY. Second Edition , enlarged . Fcap. 8vo, 6s .

YATE . England and Russia Face to Face in Asia . A Record of Travel with the Afghan Boundary Cominission . By Captain A. C. YATE , Bombay Staff Corps . 8vo , with Maps and Illustrations, 218.

YATE .

Northern Afghanistan ; or, Letters from the Afghan

Boundary Commission . By Major C. E. YATE , C.S.I. , C.M.G. Bombay Staff Corps, F.R.G.S. 8vo , with Maps. 188.

YOUNG. A Story of Active Service in Foreign Lands, 1856-1882. Compiled By from letters sent home from South Africa, India, and China, Surgeon -General A. GRAHAM Young , Author of Crimean Cracks.' Crown 8vo, Illustrated , 78. 6d .

YULE . Fortification : for the Use of Officers in the Army, and Readers of Military History . By Col. YULE, Bengal Engineers. 8vo, with numerous Illustrations, 108, 6d.

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DEC 13 1928