The Book of the Farm [3, 4 ed.]

Table of contents :
Front Cover
CONTENTS OF DIVISION
PRACTICE-SPRING
season
manure
220
Field operations and spring weather
Oilcake for calving cows
Flooding
The milking side
Details of calf-rearing
246
Permanent lambing-shed
Removing ewes and lambs
Hampshire customs
Hill shepherds
Produce of lambs
ures
Dried blood,
Forms of bone-manure
Thomas slag
Economical purchasing of manures
206
102
32
CATTLE IN SPRING
63
Ash constituents plot drainage
207
The calving season
Do drain-pipes increase the loss
MANURES AND MANURING
Experiments of subsequent years
47
Exhaustion and restoration of fer-
Abstraction of fertility
SEED-TIME
115
Their origin
Turning pickled wheat
Harrowing on incline
Scientific character of the trials
Deferring exhaustion
Ploughing for beans
Harrowing before sowing
Excessive dressings un profitable
System of cross-ploughing
Variety in the quality of dung
Poa trivialis
Ammonia salts alone
172
Grasses and clovers for permanent
198
107
174
141
Depth for grass seeds

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Sheriff John ARSA

The book of the farm Henry Stephens WS

University of Wisconsin LIBRARY

No. 22.097

THE

BOOK

OF

THE

DIVISION

III.

FARM

Wherefore come on, O young husbandman !

Learn the culture proper to each kind. VIRGIL .

THE

BOOK OF THE FARM DETAILING THE LABOURS OF THE

FARMER, FARM -STEWARD , PLOUGHMAN , SHEPHERD, HEDGER, FARM -LABOURER , FIELD-WORKER, AND CATTLE -MAN

BY

HENRY STEPHENS , F.R.S.E. CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL AND CENTRAL SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURE OF FRANCE ; OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF GALICIA ; OF THE AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE OF GOREGORETZK IN RUSSIA ; OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF

SWEDEN ; OF THE ROYAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY OF NORWAY

FOURTH EDITION

REVISED, AND IN GREAT PART REWRITTEX, BY

JAMES

MACDONALD

OF THE ' FARMING WORLD ' ; AUTHOR OF ' FOOD FROM THE FAR WEST ' ; JOINT AUTHOR OF 6 POLLED CATTLE ,' ' HEREFORD CATTLE ,' ETC. , ETC.

IN SIX

DIVISIONS

DIVISION III.

WILLIAM

BLACKWOOD

EDINBURGH

AND

LONDON

MDCCCLXXXIX

All Rights reserved

AND

SONS

ト

CONTENTS OF DIVISION III.

PRACTICE - SPRING . PAGE

PAGE

Field operations and spring weather Early rising and the joysof spring The morning of life

I

Cares ofstock -owners in spring

2

Field -work in spring

.

15 3 1

The farmer's duties in spring

I I

2

Weather in spring

3 3

East wind

3

Spring winds Snowin spring Clouds in spring Rain in spring Evaporation in spring Prognostics of spring Weather proverbs Birds in spring storms .

3 4

Feeding in - calf cows Medical treatment of in - calf cows Critical period in pregnancy Oilcake for calving cows Over - leanness to be avoided .

II II

12 12

12

Abortion . Causes of abortion

12 12

Ergot and abortion

12

Bad smells and abortion

13 13 13

4 4

Symptoms of abortion . Preventing abortion Mr C. Stephenson on preventive

5 5

Hemp-seed as a preventive

means

Fat cattle

7 Calving

Grass parks Selling wood

7 7

Attendance at calving

13 13 13 14 14 14 14 14 15

7

Preparation for calving Progress of calving Assistance in calving

15 15 15

After - risks from abortion

Preventing recurrence of abortion

Cottage gardening

Coarse pasture causing abortion

The farmer's garden

Is abortion infectious ? .

Advantages of having field - work well advanced . Keep the plough going. Neglected work inefficiently done Subdivision of farm -work

Advancing field -work . Spring preliminaries . Evils of procrastination

7 8 8 8 8 8

Symptoms of calving

The calf

Reverse presentation Restless cows in calving Reviving calves Dead calf

Difficult presentations Extracting a dead calf

CATTLE IN SPRING.

Twin calves .

The calving season

.

Risks of the calving season Symptoms ofpregnancy Yonatts methodof testing preg

9 9

9

Desperate cases Veterinary advice in calving Isolation in difficult cases Mistaken idea

IO

Quietness for cows at calving

Cow's womb .

10

Afterbirth

The fætus Indication of twins

1ο

nancy

JO

Refreshing the cow Barley fornewly calved cows

Reckoning time of calving

IO

Immediate milking

Indication of bull - calves Calf - bed coming down .

II

nnom

II

.

The udder

.

Attention to the cow

16 16 16 17 17 18 18 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 19 19 19 20

CONTENTS.

vi

Flooding

20

Suckling with heifers

36

Protruding womb

20

Hand -rearing

36

36 36 37

Inflammation in the womb

20

Prevalent methods

Uterine discharge

20

Skim -milk for calves

Coming in

32

season

20

Professor Stewart on skim -milk

20

Scalding skim -milk

21

Artificial food for calves

Too early bulling unwise Fatigue affecting pregnation Cows record of character

21

Preparing foods for calves

Attention in serving

21

Quantities of milk for calves

Conception completed

21

Allowances of other foods

In -calf heifers

22

Reckoning table Leading cows Detecting pregnancy

22 22 22

Milk -fever

Prevention of milk -fever. Red -water

Milking cows Structure of the udder . First milk

Theory of milking Hefting

Indications of milking properties.

23 23 23 24 24 24 24 25 25

Mr W. T. Carrington's system A common plan with whole milk A Gloucestershire practice Mr Bowick's plan General rules

Devonshire custom

40

A Perthshire example A useful dietary American example

40 40 40 41 41 41 41 41 42 42 42 42 43 43 43 44 44 44 44 44 44 45 45 45

Late calves

25

Artificial means of milking . Milking-tubes

26 26 26 27 28 28

Sore udder

29 Calf-rearing in pure-bred herds

Milking period

29

Spaying cows

29

Advantages of spaying .

30

A Northumberland shorthorn herd

30 30

Scotch shorthorn herds Systems in Irish herds .

30

Hereford herds

Preventing udders from running .

Importance of calf-rearing Aversionof farmers to calf -rearing Calf-rearing on large farms

30 31

Deficiency of store cattle

31

Home-breeding, not importation , the remedy

Whey for calves

Supplementing whey Care in use ofwhey

Hay -tea for calves Experiment with hay-tea Making hay -tea .

A Gloucestershire shorthorn herd

A Norfolk system

Feeding calves for veal Rearing bull calves Danger ofgorging calves Does sucklinghinder breeding ? Licking and rubbing beneficial Weaning calves

31 31 31 31

Are calves nuisances ? .

32

Diseases of calves

Milk substitutes

32 32 32 32 32 33

Eggs for calves

Details of calf-rearing Housing calves Calf -crib

Care in letting out calves

.

Polled herds General notes

Rear more calves . Breedlonger fromcows Breeding from heifers

Rearing or selling calves

38

Daily allowance

Liberal treatment desirable

Mr E. Bowly's system .

Milk -pails

Calf-rearing

38 38 38

39 39 39 39 40 40

Spare dietary for calves

Cows holding back milk The milking side . The operation of milking Cows troublesomeat milking

37 37 37 37 38

Setoning Castrating

.

46 46 46

SHEEP IN SPRING .

Navel-string

33

Sheep in spring storms

46

Calf's first food

34

The lambing season .

47 47

Teaching calves to drink

.

34

Poetry ofpastoral life A good shepherd .

34

The modern shepherd Skilful and attentive shepherds

Another method of teaching to drink

Reform in calf-feeding . Composition of biestings Suckling

34 .

Suckling two or more calves

Suckling and milking combined Decrease in suckling

.

.

35 35

35 35 35

A perfect shepherd

Preparations for lambing Classifying ewes for lambing

48 48 48 48 48

Lambingfolds orpens .

48 48

The old -fashioned shed

49

CONTENTS .

Permanent lambing-shed Lambing shelter on hill farms

Lambing hospital . Accessories to the fold . Supplementary shelter . Shepherd's hut Shepherd's medicine-chest Symptoms of lambing . Assistance in lambing A second lamb

False presentations Assisting in lambing One fore-leg presentation Cæsarean operation

Inflammation after lambing . Rotten turnips causing inflamma tion

Inflammation infectious After lambing Cleansing The lamb Assisting lambs to suck Hand-feeding lambs Removing ewes and lambs Mothering lambs . Risk of over-forcing lambs

Protecting lambs from foxes Unkindlymothers Introducing a strange lamb to a ewe

“ Stocks " for refractory ewes Changing ewes and lambs The newly -born lamb

Reviving weak lambs Stimulants for weak lambs Pet lambs Cow's milk for lambs

49 | Suffolk flocks . 49 50 50 50 51

51 51 51

51

68

Castration

54

Weaning

68 68 68

Dipping lambs Scotch flocks

68

54

Early lambing risky South of Scotland flocks

69

55 55 55 55

68

Orchard Mains flock

69 69

Park sheep Lambing Inflammation

.

69 69 69

56 Lambing in a storm 56 | A Perthshire flock

57

Inflammation of the udder

70 70 70 71 71 71 71

58 58 58

Sore teats

71

Castrating

Shelter on hill farms

72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 73 73

Typical hill flocks

73

56 56

General management

57

Rupture

Abortion Shelter .

57

59 59

59

60 61 61 62 62 62

The lambs' corner

63

Lord Northbrook's flock

63

Treatment of ewes and lambs

63

Forcing young lambs .

Treatment of the lambs

63 64 64 64 64 64

“ Flushing " ewes

65

Lambing

Fat lambs

Lambs for breeding Diarrhea Clipping Weaning Hill flocks

Early lambing undesirable Hardiness ofhill sheep

Hand-feeding for ewes . Shepherds' duties at lambing-time Reviving hill lambs After lambing . Castration

Docking

Risks from castration and docking A preventive Rig or chaser Lambing risks Bad weather and lambing .

Look to the pastures Rest beneficial to pasture .

Caution in changing ewes on pas ture .

No lambing on carsefarms Shepherding on arable farms Shepherding hill sheep

.

74 74 75 75

仍 % 刀 刀 刀 刀 刀 %%%%%%

61

Feeding of ewes

Condition of ewes at mating-time

54

Fatteningewe and lamb together

Summersbury Southdowns

and lambs

66

54

Dorset flocks

Lamb- hurdles

66

Preparation for lambing Mr Carrington on the care of ewes

68

60 60 60 60

Various English methods

Ram lambs

Lambing -time

Carrying lambs . Cleaning ewes' udders . Catching ewes

Hampshire customs . Lambing on the arable farms

66

66

After lambing

Scour in lambs

Lamb for Christmas dinner

Losses of lambs

Shropshire flocks

Ewes in winter

59

Early market lambs :

Feeding of ewes

Feeding of lambs

54 54

59

Lambing period - Details of man agement

65 65 65

Lambing -yard

67 67 67

Heating milk for lambs

Shepherd's crook

65

Lambs dropped

51 53 53

anununun aa

The modern fold . Fold for 300 ewes

vii

viii

CONTENTS .

Hill shepherds

79 | Character and uses of farmyard dung

Abortion among ewes

80

98 98

A complete manure

Great outbreak in Lincolnshire

80

Mechanical uses of dung

98

Causes of the outbreak

80 80 81 81 81 81 82 82 82

Dung heating soil Lasting influence of dung

99 99

Unripe roots and abortion Foot-rot and abortion . Twins and abortion Preventive measures

Mr Henry Woods on abortion

Mr Woods on preventing abortion Youаtt on abortion Ailments among lambs Inflammation in ewe's udder Ewe and lamb box

83

An old customquestioned

99

Loss of residual manure

100

Soil an unreliable custodian of 100

manure

Superiority of dung questioned

.

Practical conclusions

100

Vegetation preventing the loss of nitrates

Cold weather and loss of nitrogen Making dung or selling crops . 85 Farmers now less dependent on dung 85 Dung not likely to diminish in 84

Preparing ewes for railway travel ling

Snowin lambing Snow-plough Snow -harrow Hay - rack for storm

86 Professor Wrightson on dung .

Sheep on turnips .

86

85 86

100

production A word for dung

!

IOO

1

IOI

1

IOI IOI

IOI IOI .

IO2

86

Artificial manures.

Single and twin lambs

86

Artificial and special manures

102

Crop of lambs

86

Classification

IO2

How to obtain a big crop of lambs Flushing

87 Peruvian guano 87 Composition of guanos

Prolific ewes

87 87

Produce of lambs

Lambing table MANURES AND MANURING.

Abstraction of fertility Deferring exhaustion Restoring fertility

Ingredients removed bycrops Removal and return of plant-food in different sytems Exhaustion in a Norfolk rotation

102 1

103 103 104 104 104 104 104 104 104

Fish guano

Composition of fish guano Frey Bentos guano Composition Dissolved guanos

Composition

Exhaustion and restoration of fer

tility

.

89 Dried blood, &c. 89 Nitrate of soda 89 | Nitrate of potash 89 Forming nitre-beds 89 Nitrification

105 105

105

Theory of nitrification . 90 90

105

Conditions which favour nitrifica tion

105

Sum and substance of successful manuring

90

Sulphate

Resourcesof the soil to be reckoned

91

Characteristics of nitrogenous man

theory Hellriegel's of ammonia

106 106

ures .

Chemical analysis unreliable Evidence of the crops

91

Method of test experiments Farmers' experiments Law of minimum Varieties of manure

Essential points

92

Slow and active manures

93 94 94

Assimilation of ammonia by plants Action of nitrate of soda

Action of sulphate of ammonia

106 106 106 107 107 107

Nitrate of soda and sulphate of Farmyard manure. Variety in the quality of dung

94

Manurial valueof straw

95

Composition of dung

95 96

forslow crops Slowmanures Action of guano

96 96

Conserving manures in soils

97

Action of nitrogen greatest on

Fresh dung

Fresh and rotten dung Open and covered court dung . Fixing ammonia Dr Anderson on dung Fertility in a ton of dung

97

97

Produce of dung per head of stock

Fresh and rotten dung :

O

.

ammonia compared Excessive nitrogenous applications

Power of soils to retain manures

young plants Phosphatic manures Bones

98 98

107

107 108 108 108 108

109 109 109

.

Early use of bone-manure Fame of bone -manure

1

.

109 .

109

[

CONTENTS.

Organic matter

I21

109 109

Nitrogen and ammonia

I21

Alkaline salts

I 22

109

Lime and sulphuric acid

122

109

Moisture

IIO

I 22 122

IIO

The cheapest source Valuable ingredients of manure

I 22

IIO

Unit value

I 22

IIO

Estimating the value of a manure

123

Benefits from the use of bone manures

Forms of bone -manure . Raw , broken, and bruised bones Organic matter in bones Preparing bone-manure Fineness ofdivision appreciated Fermented bones . Bone- ash and bone- flour

•

ix

Fat in manure disadvantageous

IIO

Burned bones

III

Analyses of bone -manure Dissolved bones

Dissolving ofdoubtful advantage .

INI

Bones and mineral phosphates

II2

Safe mixtures

Analysis of dissolved bones .

112 112 112 113

Method of mixing Another method ofmixing Mixtures injured by lying long Compounding mixtures and char

Coprolites

Origin of themanure-trade Cambridge road-scrapings Origin of coprolite Sources of coprolite Dissolving or grinding : Composition of coprolites Apatite, phosphorite, and phosphatic layers

Composition of phosphorite Sombrero or rock guano “ Redonda " and " Alta Vela ” phos phates

Composition of Sombrero, Re donda, and Alta Vela

Guide to analysis . Mixtures and mixing

123

u

Dangers of careless mixing

123

In

Chemical processes in mixing man

113

Source ofThomas slag Manufacture of Thomas slag

Solubility of slag Oxide of iron inslag

Composition of slag Soluble phosphates or superphos phates

113

115 115 116 116

116

Biphosphate .

Bone or mineralphosphate : Composition of superphosphates

.

Lime-shovel .

Turning and putrefaction Symptoms of putrefaction Turning court dung Less necessity for turning Time of application Southern practice without drills

129 129 129 129 129 129 1 30 130 130 130

Supplemental manure Dunging light soils

Northern practice Dung for wheat

Dung for grass lands

117 117 117 118 118

Quantities of dung per acre . Dunging often and lightly

118

Economical use ofdung

Activity of phosphatic manures

Surface -manuring

Unsatisfactory results from exces .

118 Application of artificial manures

Potassic manures

119

Sources of potash

119 119

Elements to be supplied in man

Elements absorbed by crops

.

Use of potash Gypsum : Sources of gypsum

I 20

Character of soil and manuring

I 20

A knowledge of geology useful

Use of gypsum

I 20

Manures for different soils

Gas-lime

120

Form of application for different

Use of gas-lime Compound manures

I 20

Disadvantage of compound manures

120

Caution in applying bones

Economical purchasing of manures . Analysis explained

121

Tillage and manuring .

.

Insoluble andsoluble phosphates

120

121 I21

126 126 126 127 127 127 128 128 128 128

129

Characteristics of phosphatic man ures

125

125 125

With drills or ridges

Solubility of phosphate of lime .

123 124 124 124

125

manures

Application of manures. 114 114 Application of dung Turning dung -heaps 114 Carting out dung . Process of turning 114 Intermixing

116 116

Dissolving of phosphate of lime

acter of manures

113 Home mixing preferable :

Compositionof phosphate of lime Precipitated, reverted, or reduced phosphates

ures

113 Uncertain character of compound

115 115 115

Thomas slag

123

ures

.

.

soils .

130 130 130

131 131 131 131 131 131 132

Evidence of the soil .

132 132

Return of manure on exhausted land .

132

CONTENTS.

X

Manures for different crops

Limited guidance of experiments Value and uses of experiments Manures for slow and fast growing crops

.

More frequent manuring

Ratio of different ingredients Time of application Sowing manure in drills

132

.

Another method .

Sowing manures by machines

Farmers to judge for themselves

Nitrate of soda excels ammonia salt

145 145

Influence of rainfall

146

Practical conclusions 133 133 133

Soil, Climate, and manuring . Rainfall and artificial manures Manures for different rotations

132 132

Proportion of corn to straw

.

Diminution in produce Influence of season

133

Influence of lightand heat :

147

133 134 134 134 135 135 135

Autumn and winter weather

148

Conditions favourable to large

148

crops .

Hightemperature Bad seasons

.

Ash constituents and the seasons . Effect of residues of manures

Residues of ash constituents Residue of ash and ammonia salts

Rothamsted experiments. Their origin The soil

135 136

Scope of the manurial experiments

136

Soil and drainage -water investiga tions Scientific character of thetrials .

Experiments on the growth of wheat .

137 137

continuous 137 137

With farmyard manure Plant -food in dung

138 138

Mechanical influence of dung With ash constituents

138 139 O

.

Mineral theory

Excessive dressings un profitable High manuring and wet seasons

.

.

.

.

stituents

Spring sowing preferable .

With nitrate of soda

.

Nitrates in the drainage .

153 153 154 154

155 155

156 156 .

Sources of the nitrates in the soil

156 156

Losses by autumn and winter

drainage

141

the soil

141 141

Rain -water

142

156

.

156 156

The drain - gauges

157 157 157 157 158 158

Evaporationand drainage Periods of drainage Chlorides in drainage

Nitrates in drainage Nitrification and bacteria

142

Discharge of nitrates in different

142 143

Total production of nitrates in the

months

158

158

soil

Loss per acre

158

143

The nitrates in fallow soils

143

The nitrates in cropped soils The drainage -waters of Broadbalk

.

field .

158 159 159

144

Run of water in different months

159

144

Heavy crops and drainage Farmyard manure and drainage 1. Ash constituents lost in drainage Unmanured plot drainage

159

Rainfall and time of sowing man . ure

3. Contents in nitric acid

153

Drainage-waters and the nitrates of

Relative importance of the ash

Effections mn and spring applica t of autu of ammonia salts

152 .

Nitrogen in the subsoil Soil-nitrogen unsuitable for wheat

Nitrates from farmyard manure

Soils better supplied with ash than with nitrogen Importance of ash constituents Ammonia with individual ash con

heavy crops Effect of exhaustive treatment Residue of dung

ous manure

Natural supplies of ash and nitro gen

152

Nitrates,where ammonia applied

142 142

Ammonia salts alone

ammonia or nitrates .

140

Corn and straw from high manur

ing .

152 152

Nitrates in soil without nitrogen

Artificial supply of nitrogen es sential for wheat Manures best for cereals

149 149 151 151 151

Small increase of soil -nitrogen by

139

140 141 141

manures unnecessary Organic Silica unnecessary

.

Nitrates in the soil and subsoil

Ammonia salts with ash constitu ents .

1. Contents in cinereal plant-food Slow exhaustion of soil-nitrogen

2. Contents in total nitrogen

139 139

Nitrogen of the soil and atmos phere insufficient.

Practical conclusion Examination of the soils .

148 148 148 148

Soils enriched in nitrogen by

Without manure

Limits to high manuring Nitrogen in dung .

147 147 147

144 145

159 159 160

CONTENTS.

Ash constituents plot drainage Ammonia salts and drainage

Ammonia salts robbing a soil of lim e .

Nitrate of soda and lime

160 160

age

Potash in drainage Soda in drainage

Drainage from dunged plot 2. Nitrates lost in drainage Ummanured plot Loss of nitrates checked by crop

161

Manures for cereals .

176

1.Resultswith phosphatic manures

177

161

Produce of dry matter from Pum

161 161

Conclusions

pherston 161 162 162 162 162

Ammonia salts

163

Relation of manure to loss of nitrates

164

0

165

Nitrogenous organic manures Nitrogen evolved as gas

166

3. Do drain -pipes increase the loss ? Influence of subsoil nitrates

Nitrates in deep -wellwaters

177

Bone-meal

Soluble phosphates Fine powdery condition essential More vigorous growth from soluble phosphates Harelaw results Insoluble phosphates for mossy land, & c.

.

.

2. Nitrogenousmanures. Produce of dry matter at Pum pherston

166

166

167

177 177 177

178

178 178

178 178 178 178

Nitrate of soda

178

Sulphate of ammonia

179 179

166 | Insoluble nitrogenous manures

Nitrogen statistics — the supply, and what becomes of it

177 177 177

Insoluble phosphates Fineness of grinding Phosphatic guano

Bones and fineness of grinding 165 165 165 165

Practical conclusions Nitrate of soda

175

176 176 176

161 161

Dung plot

Excess nitrogen lost in drainage Winter ruino application of ammonia salts us

175

Cropping : Manures for turnips and beans

Loss resumes when crop is re moved

excperiments.

160 The stations 160 | Manures tried .

Chlorine and sulphuric acid in drainage

Highland and Agricultural Society's

Their object

Lime and magnesia lost in drain

Phosphoric acid in drainage .

xi

Rape-cake dust Dried blood, horn -dust, &c. 3. Potash manures Manuring turnips

179 179

179 180

Wheat without nitrogenous manure

167

Effects of manures on turnips

180

Wheat with ammonia

167 General observations on turnips

180 181 181 181 181

Wheat annually dunged Nitrogen disappearing

Forced turnips of bad quality Manures for rich crops of turnips. 168 Manures for the barley crop Nitrogenous manure for barley Phosphatic manures for barley Potash for barley .

167 .

Practical conclusions

Aberdeen and Sussex experiments. Experiments on phosphatic manur

167

169

Their history, development, and re sults

170

The experimental stations Size of plot

170

Discussion as to sizeof plot First year's conclusions Condensed results

The bearing of the new doctrine Experiments of subsequent years

171 171 171 171 172 172 172

173

Relative value of phosphates and nitrogen

periments Potash alone

170 An experiment for farmers

Insoluble phosphates as plant food

182

182 182

169 Lessons from incomplete manure ex

Aberdeenshire experiments

Duplicated plots Adjusting the manures

Manures for oats Manures for the bean crop

182

Final conclusions

173 174

Duplicate trials in England

174

Manures for different crops

183

183 183 183

Relative importance of the con stituents

183

Forms of manures for turnips

184

Forms of manure for cereals Forms of manure for beans .

184

184

Dung for turnips, cereals, and beans

Organic matter Consider soil as well as manure and crop

Function of organic matter Quick -acting manures and organic matter

Outside confirmation

175

Scope of the Sussex experiments

175 | Other experiments

184 184

184 185

185 185

CONTENTS.

xii

Sowing spring-manured beans .

SEED-TIME.

Seasonable working of land Selecting seeds Improvement in seeds . An extensive seed firm .

Change of seed New varieties of farm plants Testing seed . .

.

Harrowing drills 186

Beans and peas mixed Botanical character of beans

186

Ancient notions regarding beans

185

205

.

205

205

186 Peas.

187

189 Sowing peas 187 Tillage for peas Sow

205 .

ing peas

Wheat.

Sowing spring wheat Good land for wheat

Sowing barley

188

Tillage for barley

Double -furrow plough Advantages of the double - furrow plough . Sowing .

189 Sowing Quantity of seed

Seed carrier

189 Germination of barley and the weather 190 Harrowing for barley 190

Finishing

191

Soil for barley

191

Varieties of barley

191

Uses of barley : Manuring barley

191 192 192 192 192

Seed -basket The seed - sacks

One-hand sowing

Two-hand sowing Art of sowing : Sowing -machines Broadcast sowers Hand broadcast sowers Drill sowers

Width of drill

207 207 208 208

190

191

209 209 209 209 209 210

.

Rothamsted barley experiments

210 210

No manure

210

Farmyard dung

210

Mineral manures

210

193

Nitrogenous manures Nitrogenous and mineral manures

194 194

Practical conclusions

195 195 195

206

Barley.

188

Turning pickled wheat Seed -dressing to ward off birds Placing sacks in the field Where tobegin sowing

206

206

Transplanting turnip bulbs for seed 188 188

Date of sowing Tillage for wheat

Quantity of seed Pickling wheat

204 205

combined .

210

210 .

Barley after corn .

2II

211

Oats .

Hand seed -drill Harrowing

196

Sowing oats

211

196

Varieties of oats

21I

Iron harrows

196 Sowing

Process of harrowing Harrowing on incline

196 197

212

Harrowing before sowing Quantity of seed

Cross-harrowing

198 Narrowing after sowing

Efficient harrowing

198

Water- furrows ,

Under-drainage v . water-furrows

212 212

Water-furrows .

212

198 Machine- sowing 198 Improvements in oat-culture 198 Ploughing for oats .

Wheat after grass Presser-roller

199

Thick and thin sowing

Use of the land - presser Spring varieties of wheat

200

Sowing mixed varieties

200

212

212

213 213 213 214 214

Oats and barley mixed

Manuring for oats

Spring wheat-seed from early dis tricts

212

.

201

Late varieties of wheat

201

Manuring wheat

201

Beans.

Sowing beans

201

Varieties of beans

202

Quantity of seed

202

Manure for beans

202

Beans and nitrogenous manure

202

Ploughing for beans Spring tillage for beans Sowing autumn -manured beans

203 203

Rolling land, dc. Construction of the roller

Diameter and weight of rollers

214 215

Divided roller

215

Water-ballast roller . Process of rolling

215

215 216 216

Speed in rolling Time for rolling General principles of corn culture Cross-ploughing land Preparing turnip-land

204 Harrowing before cross-ploughing

216

.

217 217 217

CONTENTS.

System of cross-ploughing Ploughing irregular fields Ploughing ridges and feerings . Depth of cross- furrow

218 .

218 219 219

Gerniination of seeds

Moisture and germination

Changes incident to germination

Sowing grass seeds

219

Varieties of grasses

220

Agrostis alba — var. stolonifera Alopecurus pratensis

220 .

220

Anthoxanthum odoratum

221

Avena flavescens

221

The embryo :

The young plant Seed dissected

Multiple stems or “tillering" Different methods of sowing and germination

Avena elatior

222

Disadvantage ofbroadcast sowing

Cynosurus cristatus

222

223

Advantages of drill sowing . Dibbling

Dactylis glomerata Festuca pratensis .

.

223

Waste of seed

Festuca elatior

224

Waste of seeds by different methods

Festuca heterophylla

225

Festuca ovina

225 225 226 226 226 228 228 229 229 230 230

Festuca duriuscula Festuca rubra

.

Glyceria fluitans Lolium perenne Lolium italicum

Phleum pratense Poa pratensis Poa trivialis ,

Poa nemoralis sempervirens Poa aquatica Varieties of clovers

231

Importance of the clovers

231 231

Soils and climate for clovers Clover seed

Produce from different methods of sowing

Importance of economising seed : Thick and thin sowing Different methods of sowing com pared

Meadow trefoil

White clover Alsike clover Trifolium incarnatum

Impurities in clover

233 234

Varieties of grasses sown . Seeds for rotation grasses

234 234

246 246 246 247

Deep and shallow sowing

249

251

Depth of sowing turnip-seeds Tillering Destruction of seed

252 252 253 253

Vetches

Winter vetches Spring vetches

254

254 254

255 255 255

255

235 235

Seed

256

235

Cutting vetches

256 256

236 236

Manuring vetches Vetches and cleaning land

256 256 256

Lucerne

The crop for dry seasons Sainfoin

Grass -seed harrows

238 | Rye .

Sainfoin hay

257

257 257

258

.

239

Cabbages Utilising cabbages Transplantingkale Consuming kale

.

239

Rape

259

239

Mustard

239

Other forage plants ,

260 260

238

Working wide harrows Harrowcarriage Rolling for grass seeds Sowing with spring crops Frost injuring clover seeds

246 246

Depth for grass seeds

Speed of the sowing-machine

Crops accompanying grass seeds Harrowing the wheat-braird

244

248

237 238

.

243 244 244

255

237

Machine-sowing

242

Vetches for horses Land for vetches

237

.

242

Use of vetches

Grasses and clovers for permanent pasture Grasses for different soils Standard seed mixtures Mr De Laune's mixtures .

240 241 241 241 241 242 242

Dibbling machines

Transplanting Forage crops. 233 Importance of forage crops 233 Forage crops as substitutes for turnips 233 | Forage crops for heavy land

Creeping trefoil

Time of sowing Methods of sowing Hand -sowing.

of sowing

Tillering Quantity of seed

231 231 232

Perennialred clover

239

Conditions essential for germination 240 240 Air and germination Composition of seeds

Grass seeds.

xiii

238

238

258 259 259 259

1

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN DIVISION III.

ANIMAL PORTRAITS . PLATE

DRAUGHT STALLION

5

SHORTHORN OX

II

DEVON BULL

14

18

GALLOWAY BULL .

HAMPSHIRE DOWN WETHER CHEVIOT RAM

29 35

.

.

MIDDLE -WHITE BOAR

37 TAMWORTH BOAR

GENERAL ILLUSTRATIONS. SPRING. FIG.

PAGE

FIG.

PAGE

258. Sowing-sheet and hand - sowing corn

240. Head of timothy with numerous ergots 241. Bullock -holder

12

259. English sowing -basket

22

260. Broadcast sowerready for work

242. Milk -pail

25

243. Milking-stool .

26

261. Broadcast sower in transit 262, Horse hoe

244. Milking- tubes

28

263. Broadcast hand -sower

245. Calf's- crib wicket

33 51 60

.

192 193 194 194 194

195 195 195 196 196

Corn and seed drill “ Excelsior " seed-drill Hand seed -drill English iron harrows Scotch iron harrows Presser -roller .

249. Ewe and lamb house

76 84

264. 265. 266. 267. 268. 269.

250. Mountain turn -wrist snow-plough

85

276. Action of the edge of presser -wheels 200

246. Shepherd's house on wheels 247. Shepherd's crook 248. Mode of holding a lamb for castra tion

251. Mountain snow -harrow

86 127 128 135

252. Frying -pan or lime shovel 253. Steel graip

254. Broadcast manure-distributor 255. Fowler's double-furrow plough with single lever

256. Cooke's double - furrow plough 257. Apparatus for pickling wheat .

.

271. 272. 273. 274.

275. 189 276. 189 | 277. 190 278.

196 199

Clay's cultivator Broadshare cultivator Saddle drill-harrow Acme harrow

Cast-iron land -roller Water-ballast roller Field feered for cross-ploughing Fiorin, or creeping bent grass

203 203 205 208 215 216 .

218

.

220

ILLUSTRATIONS IN DIVISION III.

ху

279. Meadow foxtail

220

302. Cloddy and stony soil

.

280. Sweet -scented vernal

221

303. Soil with water and without air

.

221 222

304. Soil with air and without water 305. Soil with water and with air

281. 282. 283. 284.

Yellow oat-grass Crested dogstail Rough cocksfoot Meadow fescue

.

289. 290. 291. 292.

Italian rye - grass Timothy Smooth -stalked meadow -grass Rough -stalked meadow -grass

293. 294. 295. 296. 297.

Evergreen meadow - grass Perennial red clover Red or broad clover Perennial white clover Alsike clover .

223 224 .

.

.

298. Common yellow clover or trefoil and swing-trees

241 241

307. Wheat plant in the state of germina tion

225 308. Well-ploughed regular furrow -slices 242 225

309. Positions of seeds on regular furrows 243

226 228 229

310. Irregular braird upon regular fur

311. Ill-ploughed irregular furrow -slices

243 243

229

312. Irregular positions of seed on ill ploughed furrows

243

230 230 231 232 232 233 233

rows

313. Irregular braird on ill -ploughed fur row 243 314. Regular depth of seed by drill-sowing 243 .

315. Regular braird from drill-sown seed 244 316. Newberry's one -rowed dibbling machine

248

317. Newington's 6 -rowed dibbling-ma

299. Grass -seed iron harrows, with wings 300. Chain harrows

.

240 240

223 | 306. Component parts of a grain of wheat 242

285. Tall fescue 286. Sheep's fescue 287. Hard fescue 288. Perennial rye - grass

.

237

238

chine .

318. Double roots of deep -sown wheat

301. Carriage forconveying harrows, &c. 238 | 319. Rootsof shallow -sown wheat .

249 250 250

1

I 1 5

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DRAUGHT S ,- TALLION

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PLATE V

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ARSA Steel Gorrlay

AL

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Groll Franck

PLATE XI

DnOnODTI TUTni

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PLATE 14

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And

PLATE 13

C .,B AMBRIDGE LAMBERT E SQ ABRAHAM HENRY OF PROPERTY THE

. WETHER DOWN HAMPSHIRE

PLATE 29

. RAM CHEVIOT ESQ ROBSON JOHN OF PROPERTY THE N .,B ELLINGHAM EWTON

PLATE 35

PLATE 37

E

US

MIDDLE - WHITE

BOAR.

BRED BY SANDERS SPENCER , ESQ. , OF HOLYWELL MANOR , ST IVES, HUNTS.

TAMWORTH

BOAR.

THE PROPERTY OF THE AYLESBURY DAIRY COMPANY, HORSHAM , SUSSEX.

THE

BOOK

OF THE FARM.

SPRING . of the newly risen sun are nearly level

FIELD OPERATIONS AND SPRING WEATHER .

with the surface of the earth ; and this is

the time when the morning birds are in In the vegetable world winter is the their finest song, when the earth and the

season of repose, of passive existence, of air are in their greatest freshness, and when all nature mingles in one common on the contrary, is the season of returning morning hymn of gratitude. There is dormancy, though not of death. Spring,

life, of passing into active exertion, of something peculiarly arousing and streng

hope, and of joy; of hope, as the world thening, both to the body and the mind, of life springs into view immediately in the early time of the morning; and were we always wise enough to avail our the seed upon the ground — and of joy, in selves of it, it is almost incredible with contemplating with confidence the repro what ease and pleasure the labours of the

after the industrious hand has scattered

ductions of the herds and flocks.

It most diligent life might be performed .

would be vain to attempt to describe the When wetake the dayby the beginning, emotions to which this delightful season we can regulate the length of it according

gives birth. It is better that the pupil to our necessities; and whatever may be of agriculture should enjoy the pleasure our professional avocations, we have time

for himself ; for “the chosen draught, of to perform them, to cultivate our minds, which everylover of nature may drink, and to worship our Maker, without the can be had, in its freshness and purity, one duty interfering with the other.” only at the living fountain of nature;

The Morning of Life.— “ The day

and if we attemptto fetch it away in the spring of the morning leads us, by an

clay pitchers of human description, it easy and very natural transition, to the loses all its spirit, becomes insipid, and dayspring of human life, the morning of acquires an earthy taste from the clay."

our sojourn upon earth ; and the parallels

Early Rising and the Joys of between the commencement of life itself,

Spring. — To enjoy the beauties of spring and of those successive days by which it in perfection, “ it is necessary to take ad- is numbered , is a parallel the most strik vantage of the morning, when the beams ing. There is a freshness in young life VOL. II .

A

SPRING.

2

which no experience can acquire for us at herd, too, has his painful watchings ,day any future time ; and there is a newness and night, on the lambing ewes ; and his in every object, which is not felt after care of the tender lambs, until they are

years have passed over our heads. Our able to gambol upon the new grass, is a bodies are light, flexible, easily moved, task of peculiar interest, andnaturally and not liable to be injured. Our minds, leads to higher thoughts— “ we cannot too, never become wearied or listless ; and refrain fromthinking of the unspeakable

although the occupation and the thought condescension and kindness of Him who are necessarily different from those of persons of mature age, they are far more

6

feeds His flock like a shepherd , gathers the lambs into His arms, and carries them

energetic, and what is learned or done in His bosom , and‫ ور‬gently leads those that

takes a more permanent hold of the are with young. ' Field -work in Spring. – The condi memory .

“There are many circumstances which tion of the fields demands attention as render the morning of life of far more well as the reproduction of the stock. importance than the morning of an indi- The day now affords as many hours for vidual day. It is a morning to which labour as are usually bestowed at any no to-morrow morning can follow ; and season in the field. The ploughmen, therefore, if it is neglected, all is inevit- therefore, know no rest for at least ten ably and utterly lost. We cannot exactly hours every day, from the time the har make up the loss of even one morning, rows are yoked for the spring wheat until though we can repair it a little by our the turnips are soun. The turnip land,

diligence in future mornings. We must bared as the turnips are consumed by bear in mind, however, that the means of sheep, or removed to the steading, is now doing this are a mercy to us, and not a ploughed and prepared for spring wheat, privilege that we can command as our barley, or oats - that is, should the own .

We never know what a day may weather be mild and the soil dry enough.

bring forth ;' and as there daily occur The first sowing is the spring wheat; then around us instances in which the young the beans, the oats, and the barley. The and the strong are at once levelled to the fields intended for the root crops then dust, we never can be certain that the receive a cross-furrow , in the order of the demand shall not be made on ourselvesfallow crops — the potatoes first, then tur

' this night is thy soul required of thee .' nips, and lastly the bare fallow, if there But if it is thus perilous to neglect one should be any, which is now very ex morning out of many, how much more ceptional.

perilous to neglect the one morning of a

This is the course followed with the

life - a life granted by a beneficent God ,

root-land in many cases, but where the

in a world full of the wonders of His

stubbles are ploughed with a strong loose

power, capable of enjoyment, and deny furrow in early winter, the soil is so Him service whileit lasts, and in the ful- pulverised by the influences of winter, ness of time entering, through the atone- that spring ploughing may be unneces

ment of the eternal Son ,a life of bliss sary, grubbing and harrowing being suffi which shall have no end ! ” 1 Cares of Stock -owners in Spring.-

cient to bring it into the required con

dition. This will, of course, much de Spring is the busiest of all seasons on the pend upon the nature and condition of farm . The cattle-man, besides continu- the land. Stiff, dirty land will most ing his attendance on the feeding cattle, likely have to be cross - ploughed in has now the more delicate task of waiting spring, and grubbed once or even twice

on the cows at calving, and providing as well. comfortable lairs for new -dropped calves. Grass seeds are then sown amongst the

The dairymaid commences her labours, young autumnal wheat, as well as amongst not in the peculiar avocations of the dairy, the spring wheat and the barley or oats. but in rearing calves — the support of a The field -workers devote their busy hours future herd. The farrows of pigs also to carrying seed to the sower, turning claim a share of attention. The shep- dunghills in preparation of the manure for the potato and turnip crops, continu

1 Mudie's Spring, 12-15.

ing the barn -work to supply litter for the

FIELD OPERATIONS AND SPRING WEATHER.

3

stock yet confined in the steading, and arctic spring, in which the snow melts to prepare the seed -corn for the fields. without rain, and the meads are covered The hedger resumes his work of water with vernal flowers ere the last traces of

tabling and scouring ditches, cutting winter have disappeared.

Possessing

down and breasting old hedges, and this variability in its atmospherical phe taking care to fence with paling the nomena, spring presents few having pecu young quicks upon the hedge-bank,which liarities of their own, unless we except he may have planted at the commence- the cold unwholesome east wind which ment and during fresh weather in winter, prevails from March to May, and the very as also to make gaw -cuts in the sowed heavy falls of snow which occasionally fields.

The steward is now on the alert, urges

occur in February East Wind. - So invariable is the

the progress of every operation, and in- phenomenon of the east wind in spring, trusts the sowing of the crops to none that every person who dwells on the east

but himself, or a tried hand, as the skil- coast of Great Britain is quite familiar

ful hedger, or ploughman experienced in the management of an approved cornsowing machine. Thus every class of labourers have their work appropriated for them at this busy season ; and as

with it, having felt its keenness and known its aptitude to produce catarrhal, pulmonary, and rheumatic affections. In its dread , many migrate to a milder climate until summer shall have set in.

the work of every one is individually An explanation of this remarkable phe defined , it is scarcely possible for so nomenon has been given by Mr Samuel great a mistake to be committed as Marshall. “ In Sweden and Norway," that any piece of work should be ne- he observes, “ the face of the country is glected by all. covered with snow to the middle of May The Farmer's Duties in Spring -

or longer. This frozen covering, which

The farmer himself now feels that he has been formed during winter, grows

must be "up and doing.” His mind be- gradually shallower to the 15th or 16th of comes stored with plans for future execu- May,or until the sun has acquired 17° or tion ; and in order to see them executed 18° N. declination ; while, on the other at the proper time and in the best man- hand, the valleys and mountains of ner, he must now forego all visits, and England have received an accession of 24° remain at home for the season ; or at or 25º. On this account, when the tem most undertake an occasional and hasty perature of Sweden and Narway is cooled journey to the market town to dispose of down by snow to 32°, that of Britain is surplus corn and transact other pressing 24° or 25° higher than that of the preced business. The work of the fields now ing countries. Because, while the ground

requiring constant attendance, his mind is covered with snow , the rays of the sun as well as body becomes fatigued, and, are incapable of heating the air above 32°,, the freezing-point. For this reason the air of England is 24° or 25 ° more heated than that of the before-mentioned coun tries. The air of Sweden and Norway ticular attention to the state of the wea- will then, of course, by the law of com

on taking the fireside after thelabours of the day are over, the farmer seeks for rest and relaxation rather than mental toil. He should at this season pay par-

ther, by observing the barometric and parative specific gravity, displace that of thermometric changes, and make it a oint to observe every external phenomenon that has a bearing upon the changes of the atmosphere, and be guided accordingly in giving his instructions to his people.

England, and, from the relative situation of those countries with this country, will produce a N.E. wind. The current is in common stronger by day than by night, because the variation of temperature is at that time the greatest, being frequently

Weather in Spring :—The weather in from 50° to 60° about noon, and sinking spring, in the zone we inhabit, is exceed- to 32° in the night.” 1 ingly variable, alternating, at short inSpring Winds. - All the seasons have tervals, from frost to thaw, from rain to their peculiar influence on the winds. snow , from sunshine to cloud — very dif ferent from the steady character of the

1 Brewster's Jour. Sci., viii. 39.

SPRING.

4

" In spring," says Schouw , "E. winds we need corresponding observations, em

are common ; at certain places in March, bracing a great number of localities,”" 1 at others in April. They diminish the an advantage now very efficiently pro force of the W. current, which in many vided by the Royal Meteorological countries is at that time weaker than Society and the Scottish Meteorological during the rest of the year. The relation Society. The character of the winds in spring of N. to S. winds is not constant, and varies according to the localities. In is, that they are very sharp when coming

some the direction is more N., in others from the N. or N.E. direction ; and they are also frequent, blowing strongly some “ When winds come from distant times from the E. and sometimes from

more S. , than the mean direction of the >

year.

countries, they possess a part of the pro- the W. In the E. they are piercing, perties bywhich those countries are char- even though not inclining to frost; in

acterised ,” is an observation of Kaemtz. the W. they are strong, boisterous, “ Thus the W. winds, that blow from the sea, are much more moist than the E., which traverse continents. The latter, particularly when they are N.E., are very cold, especially in spring ; and they give rise to a great number of rheumatic affec-

squally, and rising at times into tre mendous hurricanes, in which trees es cape being uprooted only in consequence of their leafless state, but by which many a hapless mariner is overtaken and consigned to a watery grave, or

tions. The very opposite sensations, produced by violent S. or N. winds, are much more marked in countries whose inhabitants live in the open air.” Kaemtz further explains the cause of the very variable nature of the wind in

dashed without mercy on a rocky shore. Snow in Spring. – Very frequently snow covers the ground for a time in spring. The severest snow storms and

falls usually occur in February. Truly awful is a storm of snow in spring

our countries. After having mentioned that the two great leading currents of wind on the globe are the N.E. and S.W., he observes that “meteorological registers present to us the indication of a great number of winds which blow

amongst the hills.

from all parts of the horizon.

are sometimes lost in hundreds daily.

When we

It is a serious affliction to the sheep

farmer when a severe and protracted snowstorm occurs in spring.

The losses

caused by the storm are often very great, especially in breeding flocks, where lambs

compare corresponding observations made Then by providing extra food for sheep in many localities in Europe, we are not in spring storms, the sheep -farmer's out

slow in recognising that those winds in- lays arefrequently increased to a serious volve no other causes than difference of

extent.

Clouds in Spring. The prevailing a general S.W. wind occupies the upper clouds in spring are the same as in win temperature.

Suppose, for instance, that

regions, but that the W. part of Europe ter- namely, the cirro-stratus, which very cold, with a clouded sky, the differ- cumulo - stratus, and hovers about the

is very hot, whilst the E. regions remain more frequently gathers itself into the

ence of temperature will immediately horizon, and either subsides entirely be

give rise to an E. wind ; and when this low it on the approach of frost at night, wind meets that from the S.W. there or veils the zenith in the daytime inthe will be a S.E. wind, which may be trans- form of cirro- stratus ; but the cumulo formed into a true S. wind. stratus of spring presents a very different

“ These differences of temperature ex- aspect to what it does in summer, having Now, suppose that a region is unusually margin,and a peculiar look of transpa

plain the existence of almost all winds. generally a well-defined though ragged heated, and that there is no prevailing rency or clearness, which is preserved wind, then the cold air will flow in on all even when the clouds become purple or

sides ; and according as the observer is nearly black . in the N., the E., the S., or the W.,

he

Rain in Spring. — The character of

will feel a different wind blowing from rain in spring is sudden, violent, and the corresponding points of the horizon. However, to put the fact beyond doubt,

i Kaemtz's Cour. Meteoro., 50-54 .

FIELD OPERATIONS AND SPRING WEATHER.

cold, not unfrequently attended with hail.

5

February. February fill dyke, be it black or be it white :

Evaporation in Spring.-Evaporation is quick in spring, especially with But if it be white, it's the better to like. an E. wind, the surface of the ground The hind hasas leif see his wife on the bier, being as easily dried as wetted . Thus As that Candlemas day should be pleasant and clear . two or three days of drought will raise

the dust in March, and hence the cold If Candlemas day be fair and clear, The half o' winter is to gang and mair ; felt on such occasions. But if Candlemas day be foul, Prognostics of Spring .- The weather The half o' winter is gane at Yule. in spring may be regarded as the key stone to that of the ensuing seasons. Its March .

indications are analogous to those of cirri, which make the first movement in

March hack ham, comes in like a lion, goes out

like a lamb. the upper regions of the sky when a change is about to take place in the A bushel of March dust is worth a king's ran som . state of the atmosphere. The prognos tics of spring are therefore worthy of March grass never did good. attention, and the enumeration of a few A windy March, and a showery April, make a beautiful May.

of them may point to that class of phenomena which deserves the greatest March wind and May sun Make clothes white and maids dun . attention at this season. Dalton says that the barometer is at So many frosts in March, so many in May.

the lowest of all during a thaw following March many weathers. a long frost, and is often brought down March birds are best. by a S.W. wind. When the barometer April. is near the high extreme for the season of the year, there is very little probabil ity of immediate rain ; when the bar. April showers bring forth May flowers. ometer is low for the season, there is When that Aprilis with her showery soote

seldom a great weight of rain, though a

The droughte of March had pierced to the roote .

fair day in such a case is rare ; the general tenor of the weather at such

When April blows his horn ,

good both for hay and corn. times is short, heavy, and sudden It's April the barn will fill. A cold showers, with squalls of wind from the

S.W., W., or N.W. When the appear. The borrowing days —— the last days of ance of the sky is very promising for March and the first days of April — are fair weather, and the barometer at the

proverbially stormy.

that the appearances will not long con tinue so ; the face of the sky changes

March said to Averil,

very suddenly on such occasions. Very dark and dense clouds pass over without

Do you see thae hoggs on yonder hill ? If ye lend me days three, I'll do my best to gaur them dee.

rain when the barometer is high ; whereas, when the barometer is low, it sometimes rains almost without any appear

The second day was snaw and sleet,

same time low, itmay be depended upon rhyme is regarding themThis :

ance of clouds.

A sudden and extreme

change in temperature, either from heat to cold, or from cold to heat, is generally followed by rain within 24 hours.

well -known

The first day was wind and weet, The third day was sic a freeze As festen'd the birdies to the trees ;

But when the three days war come and gane, A' the wee hoggies gaed hirplin' hame.

Birds in Spring Storms. — During a

Weather Proverbs. — Many prognos- snowstorm in spring, wild birds, becom tics of the weather have been received as ing almost famished, resort to the haunts proverbs by the country people ; and as of man. The robin is a constant visitor,

and helps himself with confidence to the ture experience, we may rely on their crumbs placed for his use . The male

these have become current only after ma-

accuracy. These are a few relating to partridge calls in the evening within spring : -

sight of the house, in hopes of obtaining

SPRING.

6

some support before collecting his covey to be at all aware how strong the tie is together for the night to rest upon the which binds man even to a little spot of his native earth, if so be that he can

snow.

Hares have been known to come to the consider it as his own , and that he him door in the evening, and through the self, and those on whom he loves to be night in the moonlight, to receive the stow it, are to enjoy the fruit. food set down for them.

Rooks now

“ This is the very strongest natural

make desperate attacks upon the stacks, hold which binds a poor man to his coun and will soon make their way through try, and to all those institutions estab

the thatch. Beginning their attacks at lished for the wellbeing of society. Show the top, they seem to be aware of the me the cottage, the roses and the honey exact place where the corn can be most suckles on which are neatly trimmed and easily reached . Sparrows burrow in the trained , and the garden behind is well

thatch ; and even the diminutive tomtit,

stocked with culinary herbs and a few

with a strength and perseverance one choice flowers, and I will speedily find should suppose beyondits ability, pulls you a cottager who never wastes his time out whole straws from the side of the

ormoney, or debases his mind, and learns

stacks, to procure the grain in the ear.

' the broad road which leadeth to destruc

Further on in spring, the insect world tion,' in the contamination of an alehouse. come into active life in myriads, to serve If the garden is neat, one may rest as

as food for the feathered tribes. Rooks, sured that the cottage, however humble with sturdy walk and independent gait, it is, is the abode of contentinent and diligently search the ground for them, in happiness ; and that, however simple the

the wake of the plough, and feed their fare may be, it is wealth and luxury in

young therewith. Tomtits clamber round full store to the inmates, because they every branch of trees which indicate an are satisfied with it, and grateful for the opening of their floret buds. A stream possession of it." i The contentment

of migration to the north, of wild geese of the married ploughmen - in districts

and other water-fowl,betokens the ap- where comfortable cottages and little

proach of genial weather.

garden -plots are provided — and the at Cottage Gardening.- " By the time tachment to the farm upon which they the season is fairly confirmed, the leisure serve, may be traced to the feelings ex hours of the cottagers," and of the plough- pressed in these remarks. men, who are cottagers of the best deThe Farmer's Garden . — Farmers, scription, are spent, in the evening, " in as a rule, are bad gardeners. Not un

the pleasing labour, not unaccompanied frequently the garden, or where the gar with amusement, of trimming their little den should be, isone of the most thor

gardens, and getting in their early crops. oughly neglected spots on the farm . There is no sort of village occupation This is much to be regretted, for the which men , women, and children set about with greater glee and animation than this ; for, independently of the hope of the produce, there is a pleasure to the simple and unsophisticated heart in ' seeing things grow,' which, perhaps, they who feel the most are least able to

value of a good, well-stocked kitchen garden to a household is very great. There should be a garden on every farm , and it may be kept in good order at trifling expense. The hedger, stable man , or some other of the farm -servants, should know as much of the art of gar dening as to be able to keep the farmer's explain. “ Certain it is, however, that it would garden in decent order in the absence of be highly desirable that not only every à gardener, whose assistance may with country labourer, but every artisan in advantage be called in to crop the ground towns, where these are not so large as to in the respective seasons. A field -worker prevent the possibility of it, should have now and then could keep the weeds in

a little bit of garden, and should fulfil subjection, and allow both sun and air state of innocence, to keep it and too sides carelessness about the garden , the

the duty which devolved on man in a free access to the growing plants. Be dress it. ' It is impossible for any one wh has not carefully attended to the subject,

1

Mudie's Spring, 274-275 .

FIELD OPERATIONS AND SPRING WEATHER .

7

same feeling is evinced by too many far- are about to occupy all hands for several mers in the slovenly state in which the months to come, the injunction of old

shrubbery and little avenue attached to Tusser to undertake them in time, so their dwelling are kept.

that each may be finished in its proper

Fat Cattle. — In spring the farmer season, should be regarded as sound ad thinks of disposing of the remainder of vice. When field - labour is advanced ever his fat cattle . Should he not be offered so little at every opportunity of weather

the price he considers them worth, he and leisure, no premature approach of may keep them on for a time— a few of the ensuing season can come unawares ; them perhaps for a month or two on and no delay beyond the usual period

grass — for beef is usually plentiful and will find the farmer unprepared to pro

cheap, in spring, and scarce and dear ceed with the work. When work pro ceeds by degrees, there is time to do it Grass Parks. — Spring is the season effectually. If it is not so done, the for lettinggrass parks. In the majority farmer has himself to blame for not

early in summer.

of cases the parks are held by landed looking after it. When work is advanc proprietors. The ready demand for old ing by degrees, it should not be allowed grass induces the retention of pleasure- to be done in a careless manner, but grounds in permanent pasture, and re- with due care and method, so as to im

moves temptation from a landlord to press the work -people with the import speculate in cattle.

It is not customary ance of what they are doing.

The ad

for farmers to let grass parks, except in vantage of doing even a little effectually the neighbourhood of large towns, where is not to have it to do over again after cowfeeders and butchers find them so wards; and a small piece of work may convenient as to induce them to tempt be done as well, and in as short a time, farmers with high prices. Facility of in proportion, as a greater operation. Keep the Plough going . – Even if obtaining grass parks in the country is one man is kept constantly at the only grazing raises who farmer the to useful stock, when he can give them a better plough, he would turn over, in the course bite or warmer shelter than he can offer of a time considered short when looked them himself, on the division of the farm back upon, an extent of ground almost

which happens to be in grass at the incredible. He will turn over an imperial time.

acre a -day — that is, 6 acres a -week, 24

Selling Wood . — The landed proprie- acres in a month, and 72 acres in the tor has also to seek a market in spring course of the dark and short days of the

for his timber, which he annually fells in winter quarter. All this he will accom thinning his plantations. Such sales plish onthe supposition that he has been

afford convenient supplies to farmers in enabled to go at the plough every work want of paling for fencing new hedges, wood for sheep -flakes or stobs, or timber for the erection of shedding for animals, or for implements. They are also serviceable to country joiners and implement-makers, in affording them necessary

ing day ; but as that cannot probably happen in the winter quarter, suppose he turns over 50 acres in that time, these will still comprehend the whole extent of ground allotted to be worked by every pair of horses in the year. Thus a large

materials nigh at hand. The timber is proportion of a whole year's work is done felled by the owner, and assorted into in a single, and that the shortest, quarter lots of sizes and kinds best suited to the of the year. Now , a week or two may

local demand. Prunings and thinnings quicklypass, in winter, in doing things are sold as firewood.

which, inaw fact, amount to time being thro

wn ay Instances of misdirected labour are too

ADVANTAGES OF HAVING FIELD - WORK WELL ADVANCED .

The

season

apt to be regarded as trifles in winter ; but they occupy as much time as the

- early spring – having most important work — and at a season,

arrived when the labouring and sowing too, when every operation of the field is

of the land for the various crops culti- directly preparatory to others to be exe vated on a farm of mixed husbandry cuted ina more busy season .

SPRING .

8

Neglected Work inefficiently done. should be ploughed first, and the land - The state of the work should be a kept dry ; so that the worst weather in subject for the farmer's frequent con- spring may not find the land in an un

sideration, whether or not it is as far prepared state. The land intended for advanced as it should be ; and should he potatoes , for turnips, or tares, or bare

find the work to be backward, he con- fallow, should be prepared in their re soles his unsatisfied mind that when the spective order ; and when every one of

season for active work really arrives, the all these objects has been prepared for, people will make up for the lost time. Mere delusion — for if work can be made up, so can time, the two being inseparable ; and yet, how can lost time be made up, when itrequires every moment of the year to fulfil its duties, and which is usually found too short in which to do everything as it ought to be done ? The result will always be that the neglected work is done in an inefficient manner . Subdivision

of

Farm - work .

and little to do till the burst of spring work arrives, both horses and men may enjoy a day's rest now and then, without any risk of throwing work back . Spring Preliminaries . — But besides

field operations, other matters require attention ere spring work come. The implements required for spring work, great and small, have to be repaired the plough -irons new laid ; the harrow tines new laid, sharpened, and firmly

Field - labour should be perseveringly ad- fastened ; the harness tight and strong; vanced in winter, whenever practicable; and some consider it a good plan, for this purpose, to apportion certain ploughmento different departments of labour— some to work constantly on the farm , some constantly at the plough, others frequently at the cart. When the elder men and old horses, or mares in foal, are appointed especially to plough, that

the sacks patched and darned, that no seed -corn be spilt upon the road ; the seed - corn threshed, measured up, and sacked, and what may be last wanted put into the granary ; the horses new shod, that no casting or breaking of a single shoe may throw a pair of horses out of work for even a single hour ;-in short, to have everything ready to start

most important of all operations will be for the work whenever the first notice of well and perseveringly executed, while spring shall be heralded in the sky. the young men and horses are best suited

Evils of Procrastination . — But sup

for carting when not at the plough. Thus pose all these things have been neglected the benefits of the subdivision of labour until they are wanted — that the plough may be extended to farm operations. irons and harrow -tines have to be laid Advancing Field -work . It is right and sharpened , when perhaps to -morrow to give familiar examples of what is they may be wanted in the field — a stack

meant by the advantage of having field- to be threshed for seed -corn or for horse's labour advanced whenever practicable. corn when the sowing of a field should

The chief work in spring is to sow the be proceeded with ; suppose that only a ensuing crops. It should therefore be week's work has been lost, in winter, of the study of the farmer in winter to ad- a single pair of horses, 6 acres of land

vance thework for spring sowing. When will have to be ploughed when they the weather is favourable for sowing should have been sown,—that instead of

spring wheat, a portion of the land, having turnips in store for the cattle cleared of turnips by the sheep, may perhaps be ploughed for wheat instead of barley. If beans are cultivated , let the ploughing suited to their growth be executed; and in whatever mode beans are cultivated, care should be taken in winter to have the land particularly dry, by a few additional gaw -cuts where necessary, or clearing out those already

when the oat-seed is begun, the farmer is obliged to send part of the draughts to fetch turnips — which cannot then be stored — and the cattle will have to be supplied with them from the field during all the busy season . In short, suppose that the season of incessant labour arrives and finds every one unprepared to go along with it, what

existing. Where common oats are to be must be the consequences ? Every crea sown, they being sown earlier than the ture, man, woman, and beast, will then other sorts, the lea intended for them be toiled beyond endurance every day,

THE CALVING SEASON .

9

not to keep up work , which is a light- time” —and after all, the toil will be some task, but to make up work, which bestowed in vain, as it will be impossible is a toilsome burden. Time was lost and to sow the crop in due season . Those

idled away at a season considered of little implicated in procrastination may fancy value; thus exemplifying the maxim , this to be a highly coloured picture ; but that “ procrastination is the thief of it is drawn from life.

CATTLE IN SPRING. To the stock -owner the spring months are full of hopes and anxieties. At the opening of the season calving will most probably be in full swing ; and in breed-

should not be too deep, as over-exertion in wading through soft litter may cause such an excited action of the cow's system as to make her slip calf. The

ing stocks this is the most critical period litter in a court constantlytrampled by in the whole year. Naturally, therefore, cattle at freedom becomes firm , and the treatment of cows and their young affords a good footing, and the cattle produce demands our first consideration man should spread every barrowful at this time.

thinly. Cows, as they calve, and after it is safe

THE CALVING SEASON.

for them to go into the air, should not go into the court at the same time with

those yet to calve ; as calved cows soon The calving of cows is one of the chief come into season — that is, desire the bull events of the spring upon stock farms. —and when in this state, the other cows

Not that calving does not occur until ride upon them, and this propensity is spring—for most breeders of farm -stock

strongest in those cows yet uncalved .

are anxious to have calves early, particu- Such violent action, uponsoft litter, is larly bull-calves, and for that purpose likely to prove injurious to uncalved calves are born as early as the month of cows. The time of day in which cows in Besides, those in the new- different states may go out, should be December.

milk trade require to have the animals dropping their young at intervals during the whole year. Still by far the largest proportion of cows do not calve until January, February, and March, and the

left to the discretion of the cattle-man, who knows that cows, after calving, be come more tender in their habit than before, and should have the best part of the day — from 12 to 2 o'clock.

season of calving continuesgood till the

Symptoms of Pregnancy.- Cows

middle of April. After that date the may be ascertained to be in calf between calves are accounted late.

the fifth and sixth months of their gesta

An early calfpossesses the advantage of tion. The calf quickens at between four having passed through its period of milk- and five months. The calf may be felt

drinking in time to be supported upon by thrusting the points of the fingers grass, as soon as it affords sufficiency of against the right flank of the cow, when food. A late calf somehow seems never a hard lump will bound against the to fully regain the lost time. Risks of the Calving Season.-

abdomen, and be felt by the fingers. Or when a pailful of cold water is drunk

From eight to ten weeks at this season by the cow, the calf kicks, when a con

is a period of great anxiety for the state vulsive sort of motion may be observed of the cows. Every care, therefore,

in the flank, by looking at it from be

that can conduce to her passing in hind, and if the open hand is then laid

safety over this critical period ought to upon the space between the flank and be cheerfully bestowed. When the cow udder, this motion may be most distinctly first shows heavy in calf, which is after felt. It is not in every case that the the sixth month, the litter in the court calf can be felt at so early a period of

IO

CATTLE IN SPRING .

its existence ; for lying then in its na- delayed my examination until the fætus tural position in the interior of the was three months old, I should have womb, it cannot be felt at all ; and when assurance that it was there by its now it lies near the left side of the cow , it is increased bulk , while the pulsation of not so easily felt as on the opposite one. So that, although the calf cannot be felt at that early stage, it is no proof that

its heart would tell me that it was

living.”

When a resinous - looking substance can be drawn from the teats by stripping them firmly, the cow is sure to be pregnant. After five or six months, the flank

When still older, the pulsation of the heart may be distinctly heard on apply. ing the ear closely to the flank here and there, and upwards and downwards, while the cow is held quietly and steadily.

in the right side fills up, and the general

Cow's Womb. — The womb of the

the cow is not in calf.

enlargement of the under part of the cow is a bag of irregular form , having abdomen affords an unequivocal symp- a chamber or division attached to each tom of pregnancy . side, called the horns of the womb ; and But there is seldom any necessity for so called, perhaps, because of the horn -like

thus trying whether a cow is in calf, for form they present in an unimpregnated if she has not sought the bull for some state . The womb consists almost en months, it is almostcertain to be because tirely of muscular fibres, with a large she is pregnant. proportion of blood - vessels and of vascular

Youatt's Method of Testing Preg- matter, which admits of contraction and nancy. These are the common modes extension. Its ordinary size in a large of ascertaining the pregnant state of the cow is about 272 feet in length, but, cow ; but Youаtt has afforded us more when containing a full -grown fætus, it is scientific means of ascertaining the fact. 7 feet in length. This is an extraordin

He says he would not give,nor suffer ary adaptation to circumstances which any one else to give, those terriblepunches the womb possesses, to bear an expan on the right flank, which he had no sion of 7 feet, from about a third of that

doubt were the cause of much unsus- length , and yet be capable of performing pected injury, and occasionally, at least, all its functions. were connected with, or were the origin of, difficult or fatal parturition.

The Foetus.— “ The fætus of the cow

At a is huddled up in the right side of the

very early stage of the gestation, he belly,” says Youatt.

« There its mo

says, by intrinto the handgently and tions are best seen, and the beati mous of oducthe ing vagin cautiously a, the state of its heart best heard. The enorngs the womb may be ascertained. If it is paunch , lying principally in the left

in its natural state, the mouth of the side, presses every other viscus , and the womb or os uteri will be closed, though uterus among the rest, into the right not tightly so ; but if it is impregnated, flank . the entrance of the uterus will be more

Indication of Twins. _" This also ex

firmlyclosed, and the protrusion will be plains a circumstance familiar to every

towards the vagina. He adds a caution, breeder. If the cow should happen to however, in using this mode of explora- carry twins they are crowded together tion : “When half, or more than half, in the right flank, and one seems abs of the period of pregnancy is passed, it is lutely to lie upon the other. Whenevero not at all unlikely that so much irritation of the parts will ensue as to cause the expulsion of the fetus." He would rather introduce his hand into the rectum , and as the fætus of two months

the farmer notices the kicking of the fætus high up in the flank, he at once

is still in the pelvic cavity, he would feel the little substance under his hand. He adds : “ I am certain that I am pressing upon the uterus and its contents. I cannot, perhaps, detect the

known by the cattle-man as well as by the farmer himself, for the time when she was served by the bull should be

pulsation of the embryo ; but if I had

calculates on twins.” 1 Reckoning Time of Calving . – The

exact time of a cow's calving should be

registered . Although this last circum 1 Jour. Agric. Soc. Eng., i. 172.

THE CALVING SEASON .

II

stance is not a certain proof that the cow period of calving, between the eighth and isin calf, yet if she has passed the period ninth months, and, from whatever cause

when she should have taken the bull it may originate, the position of the cow , again without showing symptoms of sea- as she lies in her stall, should be amended son, it may safely be inferred that she by raising her hind quarters as high as became in calf at the last serving, from

the fore by means of the litter. The im

which date should be calculated the mediate cause of the protrusion of a part period of gestation, or of reckoning, as of the womb is, the pressure of the calf's it is called .

fore feet and head against that part of it

A cow is reckoned to go just over 9 which is opposite to the vaginal passage, months with calf, although the calving is and the protrusion mostly occurs when not certain to a day. The experiments the calf is in its natural position ; so that,

of the late Earl Spencer afford useful in- although no great danger need be appre formation on this point. After keeping hended from the protrusion, it is better the record of the calving of 764 cows, he to use means to prevent its recurrence

“It will be than to incur bad consequences by indif seen that the shortest period of gestation , ference or neglect. when a live calf was produced , was 220 Feeding In -calf Cow8. — Much more days, and the longest 313 days; but I care should be bestowed in administering

came to this conclusion :

have not been ableto rear anycalf at an

food to cows near the time of their reck

earlier period than 242 days. Any calf oning than is generally done. The care

produced at an earlier period than 260 should be proportioned to the state of days must be considered decidedly pre- the animal's condition. When in high mature; and any period of gestation ex- condition, there is great risk of inflam

ceeding 300 days must also be considered matory action at thetime of parturition. irregular : but in this latter case the health of the produce is not affected . It will also be seen that 314 cows calved before the 284th day, and 310 calved after the 285th ; so that the probable period of

It is therefore the farmer's interest to check every tendency to obesity in time. This may partly be effected by giving fewer turnips and more fodder than the usual quantity; but some cows when in

gestation ought to be considered 284 or calf, and have been long dry, will fatten 285 days, and not 270, as generally be- on a very small quantity of turnips ; and lieved .”

Indication of Bull - calves. It is also a popular belief that when a cow exceeds the calculated period of gestation, she will give birth to a bull-calf. The belief accords so far with experience. Lord Spencer observes, " In order fairly

there is a tendency in dry food to aggra vate inflammatory action. Medical Treatment of In - calf Cowe.

Other means should therefore be used, along with a limited allowance of food. In as far as medical treatment can be applied to the case, there is perhaps no

to try this, the cows that calved before thing safer than bleeding and laxatives. the 260th day, and those that calved after

“Every domestic animal like the cow ,”

the 300th, ought to be omitted as being observes Skellett, “ is to be considered as anomalous cases, as well as the cases in by no means living in a state of nature.

which twins are produced ; and it will Like man himself, she partakes of civilised then appear that from the cows whose life, and of course is subjected to similar period of gestation did not exceed 286 infirmities with the human race. The days, the number of cow -calves produced time of gestation is with her a state of

was 233, and the number of bull-calves indisposition, and every manager of cattle 234 ; while of those whose period exceed- should be aware of this, and treat her ed 286 days, the number of cow -calves with every attention and care during this was only 9o, while the number of bull- time. calves was 152 ."

The actual diseases of gestation

1

are not indeed numerous, but they are Calf-bed coming Down. — Cows are frequently very severe, and they occasion

most liable to the complaint of the com- always atendency to slinking, or the cow ing down of the calf-bed, when near the slipping her calf. As the weight of the calf begins to increase, it will then be 1 Jour. Agric. Soc. Eng., i. 167, 168.

necessary to take some precautions — and

CATTLE IN SPRING .

12

these precautions will consist in an at- loss to the breeder of stock. It is not tention to her diet, air, and exercise."" 1 only a loss of perhaps a valuable calf, Critical Period in Pregnancy .

but its want makes a blank in the

The eighth and ninth months constitute number of the lot to be brought up in the most critical period of a cow in calf.

the season , which can be filled only

The bulk and weight of the fætus cause by purchase, perhaps not even in that

disagreeable sensations in the cow , and way. Another vexation is that the cow frequently produce feverish symptoms, can never again be fully depended upon the consequence of which is costiveness. to bear a living calf, as there will be The treatment is laxative medicine and considerable danger of her slipping in emollient drinks, such as a dose of 1 lb.

after - years.

Why this result should

of Epsom salts with some cordial admix- ensue has never been satisfactorily ex ture of ginger and caraway - seed and plained. The only safe remedy for the treacle, in a quart each of warm gruel farmer is to take the milk from the cow

and sound ale. Turnips may be given as long as she gives it, and then fatten in moderate quantities , as they have a her for the butcher. laxative tendency, especially the white Causes of Abortion . — The direct varieties. Potatoes are inadmissible, causes of this troublesome complaint are because of their great tendency to pro various, - chiefly violent duce hoven.

If hoven were to overtake

exercise, frights, bruises, knocks, bad attendance, diseased bulls, bad food -particularly musty fod

a cow far advanced in pregnancy, the calf would either be killed in the womb, or it would likely cause the cow to abort.

der - impure water, bad smells, sympathy, and hay

Oilcake for Calving Cows. — Oil

cake as a laxative along with swedes is very satisfactory. The cake is given to

a fine laxative state, and at the same

affected with ergot. Ergot and ' Abortion . - There has from time to time been much discussion as to whether or not abor

time in good health, will be amply de

tion in cows is due in any

monstrated. The quantity given toeach

large measure to their eat ing grasses affected with ergot. Ergot is a fungus

the cows for two months, one month

before and one after calving, and its valuable property of keeping them in

cow daily is usually 2 to 4 lb. at any intermediate time between the feeds of

which attacks the ear or

turnips. When a little oilcake is given to cows before and after their calving, less apprehension need be entertained of their safety as far as regards their calv ing, in whatever condition they may happen to be, as it proves a laxative to the fat, and nourishing food to the lean,

panicle of grasses and cere

als, rye particularly, takes the place of the seed , and

is recognised there as a black spur.

See fig. 240,

which represents a head

cow .

of timothy grass with

Over -leanness to be avoided . — But

numerous ergotised ears. Ergot is a strong irritant,

the state of over -leanness is also to be avoided in cows in calf. The cow should

and the idea is , that the

have nourishing food, such as mashes of

irritation which ergot con

boiled barley, turnips, and oilcake, not Fig. 240: –with Headof sumed inthefood bycows given in large quantities at a time, but frequently, with a view to laying on flesh

merous ergots.

sets up in the womb re sults in the premature ex

in agradual manner, andat the same time pulsion of the fetus. It is in ergotised of avoiding the fatal tendency to plethora. hay that the greatest danger exists, for Abortion .

Slinking, abortion, or slipping of the

in hay ergot is sometimes present in considerable quantities.

But there is good reason to doubt the

calf, is a vexatious occurrence, and a great contention that ergot is one of the chief i Skellett's Partur. Cow , 41 .

causes of abortion amongst cows. It is rarely present in farm crops in such large

THE CALVING SEASON.

13

quantities as to be likely to cause abor- if the symptoms make their appearance tion.

Farmers should certainly regard suddenly, and go through their course ergot as a dangerous enemy, and should rapidly. burn any portions of hay in which it is

Mr C. Stephenson on Preventive

seen to exist extensively. We suspect Means. Mr Clement Stephenson, however, that the great majority of the M.R.C.V.S., Newcastle -on - Tyne, in a

many cases of abortion which occur every suggestive paper in the Royal Agricul yearamongst cows must be attributed to tural Society ofEngland's Journal (1885 ), other causes. says : “ All breeding animals should be Bad Smells and Abortion . — Skellett kept in as natural a condition as possible. observes : “ The cow is remarked to pos- The food should be good in quality, and

sess a very nice and delicate sense of apportioned according to the breeding smelling, to that degree, that the slinking state they are in ; remember that the

of one cow is apt, from this circumstance, fætus as well as the cow is to be kept in to be communicated to a great number a growing healthy condition .

Avoid the

of the same herd ; it has been often

practice of giving inferior and refuse

known to spread like an infectious

food to in -calf cows.

Be very particular

respecting the purity of the water-sup disease, and great losses have been suffered by the cowfeeders from the same.‫ ܐܙܙ‬ply ; neglect of this is a fruitful cause There is unquestionably much truth in of abortion . See to general sanitary these remarks, and it is therefore desir- arrangements, ventilation, pure air, and

able that everything in a byre occupied good drainage; use disinfectants freely. by breeding cows should be kept in a În the fields keep a sharp look -out for clean and wholesome state. Every par- decomposing putrid matter, which event ticle of filth should be removed daily ually destroy . Exercise is most import from the feeding-troughs in front, and

ant ; even in winter cows should be let

the urine-gutters behind the cows, and out for a short time every day. Before the byre should be thoroughly ventilated service be sure that the generative organs of both animals are healthy. Where pos when the cows go out to the courts. These circumstances also show the pro- sible, split up the herd into small lots, priety of preventing pigs being slaugh- cows with bull-calves, cows with heifer tered in the court in which cows walk, calves, cows and heifers to serve, cows and any animal being bled near the and heifers settled in calf, and doubtful breeders by themselves, which do not byre. Symptoms of Abortion . — The first

serve with a valuable bull, or unless they

symptoms of abortion are a sudden filling are regular .' of the udder before the time of reckoning Hemp- seed as a Preventive.-Many would warrant, a looseness, flabbiness, American breeders have strong belief in

and redness of, and a yellow glairy dis- hemp-seed as a safe preventiveof repeat charge from, the vagina, and a giving ed abortion in cows that had previously

wayof the ligaments on both sides of aborted — common hemp-seed, half a pint ru the

morning and night about the time of

mp .

Preventing Abortion . — Whenever a

pregnancy at which the cow formerly

cow shows symptoms of slinking, which aborted. Fluid extract of Indian hemp may be observed in the byre, but not is also commended — a table - spoonful

easily in the grass field , she should be every second day in wet bran, from the immediately removed from her compan- time corresponding to former abortion ions. She should be narrowly watched, up to within a month of calving. This and means of preventing slinking in- fluid in excess would itself cause abor stantly adopted. These consist in keep- tion, but in small doses it has a benefi

ing her perfectly quiet, giving laxative cial effect by allaying irritation. food, such as oilcake and mashes, and

After - risks from Abortion .

The

if there is straining, frequent doses of risk which the cow runs, after slinking, opium, belladonna, or antispasmodics.

is in not getting quit of the cleansing,

But these means will prove ineffectual afterbirth , or placenta , it not being in a state to separate from the womb. Should i Skellett's Partur. Co

62.

it remain,it will soon corrupt, and send

14

CATTLE IN SPRING.

forth a very nauseous smell, to the detri- should be reduced in condition ; if in ment of the other cows.

If it does not

very low , she ought to get nourishing

food and strengthening medicines ; and or at most a day, the assistance of the if she is much annoyed by nauseous veterinary surgeon should be obtained. lls, these should either be counter But in ordinary cases a dose of laxative acted, or the cow withdrawn from them. medicine — such as i lb. Epsom salts, i Disinfecting powders and fluids must oz. powdered ginger, and i oz. caraway- be sprinkled about the byres-such as seeds— will be quite sufficient. Jeyes's fluid, or some preparation of car The cow should have plenty of warm bolic acid — while washing the backs of

come away in the course of a few hours,

drinks, such as warm water, thin gruel, the animals themselves with a weak and mashes made of malt, with bran, so solution of sheep dip or smear will as to keep the body gentlyopen—which tend to counteract any smell or con

should beattended to at all times. Should tagion about the animals themselves . Coarse Pasture causing Abortion . the regimen not be sufficient to keep the body open, and feverish symptoms ap- -It is understood that cows which are

pear, recourse must be had to stronger fed in the neighbourhood of, and in remedies, such as Epsom salts, 1 lb.; nitre, 2 oz . ; anise-seed in powder, 1 oz.; cumin-seed in powder, 1 oz.; ginger, 72 oz. ;-mixed together for one dose,which

woods, and that live on coarse rank pas ture in autumn, are most liable to this complaint. In Switzerland the complaint increases after the cows are put on rank

is to be given in 2 quarts of water-gruel pastures in autumn. Similar experience with 72 lb. of treacle. This dose may be has been had in this country, where in repeated,if the first dose has not had the calf cows have grazed pastures on which desired effect, in ten or twelve hours.

there was a rank growth of coarse her

Preventing recurrence of Abortion . bage, especially after wet sunless years -In regard to preventing the recurrence such as 1879. We know of some cases of this vexatious complaint, though the where good has been done by having best thing for the farmer is not to coarse herbage of this kind cut by a attempt any, but milk and fatten the mower in the autumn and gathered into cow, yet a natural desire may be felt to the dung-pit or burned . Is Abortion Infectious ? —Although retain a valuable and favourite cow, so that means may be used to enable her slinking is spoken of as an infectious again to bear a living calf. Skellett complaint, it has no property in common

mentions as preventive measures, that with any contagious disease; and sym “when a cow has slipped her calf, in the pathetic influence being a main cause of next gestation she should be early bled,

it, the result is as fatal as if direct con

her body should be kept open by cooling tagion had occasioned it. physic ; she should not be forced to take Calving.

any more exercise than what is absolute

ly necessary for her health, and her interSymptoms of Calving. — About a fering with other cattle guarded against fortnight before the time of reckoning, by keeping her very much by herself. symptoms of calving indicate themselves At the same time," he adds, “ it must

in the cow.

The loose skinny space

be observed, that though it is necessary between the vagina and udder becomes to preserve a free state of the bowels, à florid ; the vagina becomes loose and laxity of them will often produce this flabby ; the lower part of the abdomen accident ; cows fed very much upon pota- rather contracts ; the udder becomes lar toes, and such other watery food, are very ger, firmer, more florid , hotter to the feel, apt to slink, from their laxative effects. and more tender-looking ; the milk -veins In the food of the cow , at this time, a along the lower part of the abdomen be

proper medium should be observed , and come larger, and the coupling on each it should consist of a due proportion of side of the rump-bones looser ; and when the couplings feel as if a separation had fodder, so as the bowels may be kept taken place of the parts there, the cow should be watched day and night, for at regularly open, and no more. If the cow is in high condition , she any hour afterwards the painsof calving

other vegetable matter mixed with the

THE CALVING SEASON .

15

may come upon her. From this period even to have block and tackle to hoist up the animal becomes easily excited, and the hind-legs in order to adjust the calf on that account should not be allowed to

in the womb.

These last articles should

go out, or bedisturbed in the house. In be ready at hand if wanted. Straw should some cases these premonitory symptoms be spread thickly on the floor of the byre, succeed each other rapidly, inothers they to place the new -dropped calf upon. All

follow slowly. Withheifers in first calf being prepared, and the byre-door closed for quietness, the cow should be attended Attendance at Calving. – Different every moment. Progress of Calving . — The proximate practices exist in attending on cows at

these symptoms are slow .

calving.

In the southern counties the

symptoms of calving are thus exactly

cattle-man attends on the occasion, as- described by Skellettas they occur in an sisted sometimes by the shepherd, and ordinary case. “ When the operation of

other men if required. In some parts calving actually begins," he says, "then of the northern counties, as also in the signs of uneasiness and pain appear : a south -western counties of Scotland, the little elevation of the tail is the first

calving is left to women to manage. mark ; the animal shifts about from place This difference in practice may have to place, frequently getting up and lying arisen from the degree of assistance re- down, not knowing what to do with her

quired at the operation . The large and self.

She continues some time in this

valuable breeds of cows almost always state, till thenatural throes or pains come require assistance in calving, the neglect on ; and as these succeed each other in of which might cause the cow to sink from regular progress, the neck of the womb, exhaustion , and the calf to be strangled or os uteri, gives way to the action of its Powerful as- bottom and of its other parts. By this sistance is sometimes required, and can action the contents of the womb are

or drowned at its birth .

be afforded only by men, the strength of pushed forward at every throe; the water bladder begins to show itself beyond the women being unequal to the task . The cows of the smaller varieties more shape, and to extend itself till itbecomes

frequently calve without assistance, and the size of a large bladder, containing with these women may manage the calv- several gallons ; it then bursts, and its ing without difficulty. contentsare discharged, consisting of the

On large farms there should be a liquor amnii, in which, during gestation, skilled cattle-man to take the charge, the the calf floats, and which now serves to farmer himself in all cases giving his lubricate the parts, and renders the pas sanction to the means about to be em- sage of the calf easier.

After the dis

ployed-it being but fair that he himself charge of the water, the body of the should bear the heaviest part of the re- womb contracts rapidly upon the calf ;

sponsibility connected with the process of in a few succeeding throes or pains thé head and feet of it, the presenting parts, calving Preparation for Calving . — A few are protruded externally beyond the

preparatory requisites should be at hand shape. The body next descends, and when a cow is about to calve. Flat soft in a few pains the delivery of the calf ropes should be provided on purpose to is complete.” 1 The cattle-man should

Assistance in Calving. – The easy

have the calf's crib well littered, and pare the nails of his hands close, in case he should have occasion to introduce his arm into the cow to adjust the calf; and he should have goose-fat or hog's lard with which to smear his hands and arm ,

calving here described is usually over in 2 hours, though sometimes it is protracted to 5 or 6, and even to 12 hours, particu larly when the water -bladder has broken before being protrudedbeyond the vagina, and then the calf is in danger of being

tie to the calf.

although the glairy discharge from the drowned in the passage. But although vagina will usually be sufficient for this thecalf may present itself in the natural Goose- fat makes the skin position, with both itsfore-feet projecting, smoothest. It may be necessary to have its chin lying on both the fore-legs, and

purpose.

a sackful or two of straw to put under

the cow to elevate her hind-quarters, and

i Skellett's Partur. Cow , 105.

CATTLE IN SPRING.

16

the point of the tongue appearing out of presentation, only the tail should be put the side of the mouth, it may not be straight, and not folded up, before the calved without assistance.

To render legs are pulled out. The first obstruct

this, the feetof the calf being too slip- ing point in this presentation is the rump, pery to be held firmly by the bare hands, the soft flat rope, with a folding loop at the double, is placed above each fetlock joint, and the double rope from each leg is held by the assistants. A pull of the ropes should only be given at each time the cow strains to get quit of the calf. It should be a steady and firm pull,

and then the thickest part of the shoulder. On drawing out the head, which comes last, it should be pulled away quickly, in case the calf should give a gasp for air at the moment of leaving the cow , when it might inhale water instead of air, and run the risk of drowning.

The mouth

and nose should , in this case, be wiped

in a direction rather downwards from the immediately on the calf being laid down

back of the cow, and sufficiently strong upon the straw on the floor. to retain whatever advance the calf may

Restless Cows in Calving . – All as

have made. The assistance given is rather yet has been easily managed, and so will to ease the cow in her exertions in the be as long as the cow lies still on her throes, than to extract the calf from her side in the stall, with plenty of straw

by force. Meantime the cowman endeavours to relax the skin of the vagina round the calf's head by manipulation , as well as by anointing with goose-fat, his object being to slip the skin over the

around and behind her hind -quarter. But some cows have a restless disposition , and, whenever the pains of labour come on,

start to their feet, and will only lie down again when the pain ceases. It is thus

crown of the calf's head ; and when this scarcely possible to ascertain the true posi is accomplished, the whole body may be tion of the calf, especially when not pre gently drawn out. In obstinate cases of sented in a natural position. It is now

this simple kind, a looped rope passed across in the mouth round the under jaw of the calf, and pulled steadily, will help the passage of the head ; but this expe-

necessary to extract the calf energetically, and remove the uneasiness of the cow quickly ; for until she gets quit of the calf, she will not settle in any one posi

dient should not be resorted to until the

tion.

cowman cannot effect it with his hands,

ternal air as to enable the operator to get

When the calf is so near the ex

the cord being apt to injure the tender the ropes round its legs, whether fore or mouth of the calf.

hind, they should be fastened on imme

The Calf.— On the extrusion of the calf, it should be laid on its side upon the clean straw on the floor. The first symptom of life is a few gasps which set the lungs in play, and then it opens its eyes, shakes its head, and sniffs with its nose. The breathing is assisted if the viscid fluid is removed by the hand from

diately after the discharge of the water, and, on gently pulling them ,her attention will be occupied, and she will strain with great vigour, the standing position giving her additional power, so that the extrac tion of the calf is expeditious.

the mouth and nostrils. The calf is then

so as to receive the body of the calf upon

As the calf will fall a considerable

height, the ground should be well littered,

carried by two men, suspended by the it. Active means should be used after legs, with the back downwards, and the the symptoms of actual calving have be head held up between the fore-legs, to

gun . If such are neglected , the calf

its comfortably littered crib, where we may be found killed, or injured for life. shall leave it for the present.

Reviving

Calves . — Some

calves,

Reverse Presentation . The presen- though extracted with apparentease, ap tation is sometimes made with the hind- pear as if dead when laid upon thestraw. feet foremost.

At first the hind -feet are Besides removing the viscid fluid from

not easily distinguished from the fore ; the mouth and nose, the hand should be but if a hind presentation is made in the placed against the side of the breast, to natural position of the body, with the ascertain if the heart beats. If it does back uppermost, the hind -feet will be in so, all that is wanted is to inflate the an inverted position , with the soles up- lungs. To do this the mouth should be permost. There is no difficulty in a hind opened, and if no breathing is yet felt,

THE CALVING SEASON .

17

some one should blow steadily into the the calf will most likely be dead. The mouth, a device which seems to answer legs should be pushed back, retaining the purpose ;

and also a hearty slap of the hold of them by ropes, and the head

open hand upon the buttock of the calf will cause it to start, as it were, into being. Perhaps bellows might be usefully employed in inflating the lungs. Should no beating of the heart be felt, and yet consciousness of life seem to

brought forward between the legs if possible. It may be beyond the strength of the operator to bring forward the head ; if so , he should put a loop into the calf's mouth, and his assistants pull forward the head by it.

exist, the calf should be carried without

Still more difficult cases may occur,

delay to its crib, and covered up with the such as a presentation of the shoulder, litter, leaving the mouth free to breathe,

with the head lying into the side ; a

and it may survive. But even after a few presentation of the buttock, with both

gasps it may die - most probably the the hind -legs stretched inwards; or the cause of death arising from injury received calf may be on its back, with one of the in calving, such as too long detention in worst presentations now enumerated, the vaginal passage,or a too severe squeeze

In whichever of these positions the

of the womb on the thorax, or by the calf may present itself, no extraction can rashness of the operator. safely take place until the head , and one Dead Calf.— When a calf is thus lost, of the legs at least, are secured, or both its body should be skinned while warm , the hind - legs, with the back turned

cut in pieces, and buried in a compost for uppermost, are presented. In no case manure, and the skin sold or made into should a fore or hind leg be so

ne

glected, as to either obstruct the body on passing through, or tear the womb cult cases of presentation which usually of the cow. The safest practice is, to occur are with one foot and the head, secure both legs as well as the head. “ wechts ” or baskets for the corn -barn , Difficult Presentations. — The diffi-

and the other foot drawn back, either This may causethe operator considerable with the leg folded back altogether, or trouble, but by retaining hold of what the knee doubled and projecting for- parts he can with the cords, and dexter ward. In all these states the missing ously handling the part amissing, so as leg should be brought forward. To effect to bring it forward to the passage whilst

this, it is necessary to put round the the assistants pull as he desires, his ob presented foot a cord to retain it within ject will in most cases be attained. But should be borne in mind that none of the power of the operator, and the head is then pushed back into the womb to these objects will be attained without the make room to get at the missing foot, to powerful assistance of the throes of the search for which the greased arm of the cow herself. If this precaution is not operator should be introduced, and the attended to and watched for by the foot gently brought beside the other. operator, the muscular grasp of the womb which was attached to the first will render his arm powerless. foot now serves to pull the entire body One circumstance should here be con into the passage, when the throes may sidered by the operator. When the again be expected to be renewed. hind-quarters of the cow have an inclina

The rope

The presentation may be of the head tion downwards, she has the power to alone without the feet, which may be strain the stronger, and to counteract his knuckled forward at the knees, or folded efforts the more easily. On finding her

back along both sides. In the knuckled position so, he should raise the hind case both legs should be brought for- quarters of the cow with sackfuls of ward by first pushing the head back,

straw higher than the fore-quarters,

and, in case of losing hold of the calf, a until he has got the calf in the position loop of rope should be put in the calf's he desires, and then , on letting the cow mouth : in the folded case, both should down again, and watching her strain be brought forward. ings, assist her at that time and only at A worse case than either is, when one that time, and the extraction may be

or both legs are presented and the head successful. folded back uponthe side. VOL. II.

In this case

But the power of the womb may B

CATTLE IN SPRING.

18

have been exhausted .

When it can no

should be made in the best manner.

longer render assistance by its strainings, If this is not likely to succeed, it will be the operator must continue his exertion better to destroy the calf by cutting it with the greater force until the calf is away than lose the cow. Should the brought away.

When the head only of

cow die, the live calf can easily be ex

the calf is presented, and cannot protrude tracted by the Cæsarean operation . itself through the vagina, an inspection Veterinary Advice in Calving . – A should be made of the position of the skilful cowman may be able to manage calf, by thrusting the head back with a all these difficult cases within a reason

loop in the mouth, and on finding the able time ; but unless he is particularly fore-legs bent backward, to bring them dexterous at cases of calving, it is much forward. When this inspection has been safer to work under the advice of a vet

too long delayed, and the head kept erinary surgeon, who may or may not confined in the passage, the violent operate himself. In the case of extract throes of the cow will most likely strangle ingmonstrosities, his actual assistance is the calf, and the head will swell to an indispensable. inordinate degree. The swelling will Isolation in Difficult Cases.— Calv prevent the calf's head from being pushed ing in a byre does not seem to produce

back to get at the legs, then the head must be cut off, the legs brought forward , and the body extracted. One of the most difficult cases is, when

any disagreeable sensations in the other cows, as they express no surprise or un easiness in regard to what is going on beside them. When the cow gives vent the fore- feet are presented naturally, and to painful cries, which rarely happens, the head is thrust down upon the brisket the others express a sympathetic sound ; between the legs.

The feet must first

and when the calf is carried away, they

be pushed back, and the head brought exhibit some restlessness, but the emotion up and forward, when the extraction will arising therefrom soon subsides. But if become natural.

Extracting a Dead Calf . — When the

difficult and protracted labour is appre hended, it is better for the other cows,

symptoms of calving have continued for and also for the particular cow herself, a time, and no appearance of a presenta- that she be removed to another well tion by the calf,the operator should in- littered apartment, where the operator troduce his arm to ascertain the cause,

and his assistants can have free action

and the probability will be that the calf around her. has been dead in the womb some time.

Mistaken Idea . -

A notion exists in

A dead calf is easily recognised by the some parts of England that a cow, when

hand of an experienced cowman.

It seized with the pains of labour, should

should be extracted in the easiest man-

be made to moveabout, and not allowed

to lie still, although inclined to be quiet. of decay, it will not bear being pulled “ This proceeds from an erroneous idea, out whole, and must be taken away Skellett well remarks, “ that she will ner ; but should the body be in a state

32

piecemeal. calve much easier, and with less danger ; Twin Calves. - As regards the ex- but so far from this being the case, the

traction of twin calves, before rendering author has known a great many in the cow any assistance it is necessary to stances where the driving has proved

ascertain whether there are twins, and the death of the animal by overheating that the calves have made a proper pre- her, and thus producing inflammation sentation ; that they are free of each and all its bad consequences.

Every

other; that one member of the one is rational man will agree in opinion with not interlaced, or presented at the same the author, that the above practice is time with any member of the other. both cruel and inconsistent in the ex

When quite separated, each calf may be treme ; and this is confirmed by what he has noticed, that the animal herself, treated according to its own case. Desperate Cases. The block and as soon as the pains of calving come on,

tackle should never be resorted to but immediately leaves the rest of the herd, to save the life of the cow . If this might and retires to some corner of the field, be done by turning the calf, the attempt or under a hedge, in order to prevent

THE CALVING SEASON .

the other cows, or anything else, coming with a handful of salt.

19

This she will

near, that may disturb her in bringing drink up greedily. A pailful is enough forward her young.

at a time, and it may be renewed when Quietness for Cows at Calving.— she expresses a desire for more. This In short, too much gentleness cannot be drink should be given to her for two or

shown to cows when calving, and they three days after calving in lieu of cold cannot be too strictly guarded against water, and mashes of boiled barley and every species of disturbance. gruel in lieu of cold turnips ; but the oil Afterbirth.— The afterbirth, or pla- cake should never be forgotten, as it acts centa, does not come away with the calf, at this critical period as an excellent a portion of it being suspended from the laxative and febrifuge. cow . It is got quit of by the cow on Barley for newly Calved Cows. — A straining, and when the calving has been common practice with some is to give the natural and easy, it seldom remains cow barley in the sheaf to eat, and even longer than from one to seven hours. raw barley, when there is no barley in

In bad cases of labour it may remain the straw . Sometimes a few sheaves longer, and may only come away in are kept for the purpose; and barley-chaff

pieces; but when it remains too long is given where people grudge to part with and is sound, its separation will be as good barley in this way. The practice, sisted by attaching a small weight to it, however, is objectionable, for nothing say of 2 lb., with the occasional straining causes indigestion more readily than raw of the cow . barley or barley-chaff at the time of calv

A draught in gruel, containing Epsom ing, when the tone of the stomach is im salts 8 ounces, powdered ergot 1 ounce, paired by excitement or fever. Boiled and carbonate of ammonia 4 drachms, barley, with a mucilaginous drink, is quite safe. Nothing should be given at this time composition actually commences, the hand of an astringent nature. The food should should be introduced and the placenta rather havea laxative tendency. Immediate Milking.- It is desirable removed as gently as possible.

given daily, will facilitate the cleansing

If the afterbirth should remain till de-

The common custom is to throw the to milk the new -calved cow as soon as

afterbirth upon the dunghill, or to cover convenient for her, the withdrawal of

it up with thelitter ; but it should not be milk affording relief. It frequently hap put there to be accessible to every dog pens that an uneasiness is felt in the and pig that may choose to dig it up- udder before calving ; and should it in pigs have been known almostto choke crease while the symptoms of calving are themselves with it.

Let the substance yet delayed, the cow will experience much

be buried in a compost-heap; and if there inconvenience, especially if the flush of be none such, in the earth . The umbili- milk has come suddenly. cal cord or navel-string of the calf breaks in the act of calving.

The Udder . — The cause of uneasiness

is unequal hardness of the udder, accom Refreshing the Cow . When a cow paniedwith heat, floridness, and tender

seems exhausted in a protracted case of

ness.

Fomentation with warm water

calving, she should be supported with a twice or thrice a -day, continued for half warm drink of gruel, containing a bottle an hour at a time, followed by gentle of sound ale. Should she be too sick rubbing with a soft hand and anointing

to drink it herself, it should be given her with goose-fat, will tend to allay irrita with the drinking-horn. tion. In the case of heifers with the first

After the byre has been cleansed of calf, the uneasiness is sometimes so great the impurities of calving,and fresh litter during the protracted symptoms of calv strewed, the cow naturally feels thirsty ing, as to warrant the withdrawal of milk after the exertion, and should receive a before calving. warm drink . There is nothing better than

Should the above remedial measures

warm water, with a few handfuls of oat- fail to give relief, the great heat may meal stirred in it for a time, and seasoned cause direct inflammationand consequent

suppuration in the udder. To avertsuch i Skellett's Partur. Cow , 113.

an issue, the uneasiness should be attend

CATTLE IN SPRING .

20

ed to the first moment it is observed ,

veterinary surgeon should witness the

neglect permitting the complaint to proceed so far as to injure the structure of the udder. Prevention of the congestion of the udder may be secured by refraining to give rich food until after the ninth day, when the womb has discharged its

process, and afterwards administer the requisite medicines and prescribe the days after calving, should no uterine dis charge come from the cow , means should

contents attendant on calving.

be used to promote it, otherwise severe

proper treatment and regimen. Discharge.

Uterine

About nine

Attention to the Cow . - In ordinary costiveness and puerperal fever may cases of calving, little apprehension need ensue. Oilcake for a fortnight before be felt for the safety of the cow ; but she and after calving has been found an

must be carefully attended to for at least excellent expedient for promoting the a fortnight after calving. No cold drinks, discharge — which discharge has the effect no coldturnips, should be given her, and of thoroughly cleansing the womb. no cold draughts of air allowed to blow upon her. The hind -quarters, raised up

Coming in “ Season .” — A cow will

desire thebull in four or five weeks after

by litter for a fewdays, will recover the calving. The symptomsofa cow being in seaso tone of the relaxed parts.

n

are thus well described by

Flooding.- In cases of severe and pro- Skellett : "She will suddenly abate of tracted labour the cow may be overtaken her milk, and be very restless ; when in by several casualties, such as flooding or the field with other cows she will be

loss of blood, which is caused by the vessels of the womb being prevented collapsing as they should do ; but it is not often a fatal complaint, and may be removed by the application of a lotion,

frequently riding on them, and if in the cow -house she will be constantly shifting about the stall; her tail will be in con stant motion ; she will be frequently dunging, staling, and blaring ; will lose

consisting of a quart of strong vinegar her appetite ; her external parts will mixed in one gallon of spring-water, in which cloths should be dipped, and applied frequently to the loins, rump, and vagina. A drink of two quarts of cold water and a pint of ale will much relieve her and assist the efforts of nature.

Protruding Womb.

appear red and inflamed, and a transpar ent liquor will be discharged from the vagina. In old cows these symptoms are known to continue 4 or 5 days, but in general not more than 24 hours, and at other times not more than 5 or 6 hours.

Should the Therefore, if a cow is intended for pro

womb protrude when the placenta re- creation, the earliest opportunity should mains too long after delivery, in conse- be taken to let her have the bull ; for if quence of long and severe straining of it be neglected then, it will often be 2 the cow, the womb should be washed per- or 3 weeks before the above symptoms

fectly clean with a mixture of milk and will return.

These instructions,” adds

warm water, and replaced with care,

Skellett, " are necessary to be given only taking hold of it only by the upper side. to the proprietor of a small number of The hind -quarter of the cow should be cows, where a bull is not always kept well elevated with straw , and a saline with them. If a cow , after

dose of laxative medicine administered, calving, shows symptoms of season with some opium, to allay pain and pre- sooner than 4 or 5 weeks, which is some times the case, she should not be per vent straining Inflammation in the Womb . — Aftermitted to have the bull sooner than 4 or

severe calving, draughts of cold air may 5 weeks from that period — for the womb cause inflammation in the womb. Large before that time is, in general, in so re drinks of cold water will produce the laxed a state, as not to be capable of same effect, as well as the irritation aris- retaining the seed, consequently she

ing from retention of the cleansing. A seldom proves with calf if she is suffered 1

purge is the safest remedy, consisting of to take him sooner. » 1 lb. of Epsom salts, 8 drachms powdered

Too Early Bulling Unwise . — This

aloes, and 12 ounce ginger in a quart last remark is of great value, for there is of warm water or gruel. But in all cases of severe calving the

i Skellett's Partur . Cow , 11-13.

THE CALVING SEASON .

21

good reason to believe that many cases of cows not holding in calf with the first serving after calving arises from the want of consideration on the part ofbreeders as to whether the cow is in that recovered state from the effects of calving whichmay be expected to afford a reasonable hope

quires some hours to arrive at the same point, and the season continues for a time in a languid state : a third runs through the course of season in a few hours, while a fourth is only prepared to receive the bull at the last period of her season ; a fifth may exhibit great fire in

that she shall conceive.

her desire, which induces her keeper to

And this is a

point more to be considered than the have her served at once, when too soon ; mere lapse of time after calving ; for a whilst a sixth shows comparative indiffer cow, after a severe labour, may be in a ence, and, in waiting for an exhibition of

much worse state for conception, even at increased desire, the season is allowed to double the length of time, than another pass away ; and in this last case, cattle which has calved with ease, although she men, conscious of neglect, and afraid of

may have come as regularly into season detection, will persist in the bull serving as her more fortunate neighbour. The her, though she may be very much dis state of the body, as well as the length inclined, and does everything in her of time, should be taken into considera- power to avoid him . Attention in Serving.There is no cow should receive the bull. way so natural for a bull to serve a cow,

tion in determining whether or not the

Fatigue affecting Pregnation . - A as when both are in the field together. common practice in places where there is The most proper time is chosen by both, no bull, is to take the cow to the bull at and failure of conception then rarely

a convenient time for the cattle-man to happens. But it is possible that the take her; and should she have passed the bull cannot serve the cow in the field by bloom of the season before herarrival at disparity of height. The cow should then

the bull, the issue will be doubtful. The betaken to a part of the ground which cow may have travelled a long distance and become weary, and no rest has been allowed her, although she has to undergo the still farther fatigue of walking home. Fatigue renders impregnation doubtful.

will favour his purpose. One thorough skip is quite sufficient for securing con ception, but two or three skips are mostly insisted upon. The cow should be kept quiet in the byre after being served until

Many are not satisfied with the service

the desire leave her, and she should have no food or water for some hours after, as

of their cows until both bull and cow are wearied out. Others force cow or bull,

any encouragement of discharges from holding her by the nose, and goading him the body, by food and drink, isinimical with a stick against the inclination of to the retention of the semen. either. Such treatment renders impregConception Completed. — “ When nation doubtful. There There is, beside, the is, beside, the nature is satisfied,” says Skellett, " or

chance that the bull is worn out for the the symptoms of season disappear in the animal,conception has taken place. The None of these mischances can happen neck of the womb becomes then com

day.

when a bull is at home. Even then a pletely closed by a glutinous substance discretion is requisite to serve the cow at which nature has provided for that pur

the proper time, and this can only be pose, being perfectly transparent, and with difficulty separated from the parts. known by observing her state. Cow's Record of Character. — It is This matter is for the purpose of exclud desirable that the farmer should keeping all external air from the mouth of

or have kept a record of the character the womb during gestation, which, if of each cow, in regard to her state of admitted to the fætus, would corrupt the season, and of her reckoning to calve - a membranes and the pellucid liquor in

desirability all the greater because of the which the fætus floats, and would un great difference ofcharacter evinced by doubtedly cause the cow to slink. This For glutinous substance also prevents the

cows under the same treatment.

example, one arrives soon at mature

lips of the mouth of the womb from

season after the symptoms are exhibited, growing together ; and when the cow and as soon it disappears ; a second re- comes into season it becomes fluid — the

CATTLE IN SPRING.

22

act of copulation serving to lubricate the It is unnecessary to fill up thetable with parts and prevent inflammation.” 1 In -CalfHeifers. — The heifers in calf that are to be transferred to the cow . stock should be taken from their ham-

in the short period between each fort night can easily be calculated the par ticular reckoning of each cow :

mels, in which they have been all winter, into the byre, into the stalls they are to

A RECKONING TABLE FOR THE CALVING

occupy, about three weeks or a fortnight

OF COWS.

before their reckoning. If they had been accustomed to be tied by the neck when calves, they will not feel much

marking down every day of the year, as

When Bulled .

reluctance in going into a stall ; but if not, they will require some coaxing to do

Jan.

When taking them to the byre at

Feb.

it.

I.

11

15.

10

29. 12 .

fright received at this juncture may not be forgotten by them for a long time to come,

To avoid every chance of that ,

let them go in quietly of their own ac cord ; let them snuff and look at every-

When Bulled .

Oct.

July 16.

11

30.

Aug. 13.

March 12. 10 26.

Jan.

23. 7.

11

May

21 .

June 11

July

8.

Feb. 11

5. 19 . 2.

16.

March 2.

4.

11 11

16 . 30 .

27.

When will Calve,

April 27. May II . !!

June

25. 8.

!!

22 .

Sept. 10.

22 . 11

18 . 2.

!!

24.

Dec.

April 9.

13 27.

Nov. 10.

26.

10

first, it should be remembered that a

When will Calve .

!!

Oct. !!

Nov. !!

Dec. 11 11

24. 8.

July

22 .

Aug.

5. 19 . 3. 17 . 31 .

6. 20 .

11 11

3. 17. 31 .

Sept. 14. 28.

Oct.

12.

April 13.

thing they wish ; and having assistants

to prevent their breaking away, let the cattle-man allow them to move step by step, until they arrive at the stalls.

Leading Cows. - A cow is generally

easily led to the bull at a distance by a

Here may be some difficulty : some halter round the head . If she is known favourite food should be put in the to have a fractious temper, it is better to manger to entice them to go up.

An- put a holder in her nose than to allow her

other difficulty will be putting the seal, to run on the road and have to stop or fig. 104, round the neck. It should be turn her every short distance. A simple hung, when not in use , upon a nail on form of holder is in fig. 241 , which has the stake, from which it should be a joint that allows the two parts of the quietly taken down, without clanking holder to meet, and to open sofar asunder as to embrace the nostril the chain ; and while the heifer is eat scr ing, let the cattle-man slip one hand below the neck with the chain , while the other is passed over it, to bring the

of the animal.

b

A

ew

nut brings the two knobbed points as close as to em

loose end of the seal round the neck, and hook it into whatever link he first finds. The moment the heifer feels she

brace firmly the septum of

is bound, she will hang back, or attempt to turn round in the stall to get away,

tightly screwed as to squeeze the septum . The

which she should be prevented doing by

leading-rein isfastened to

gentle means ; and after remaining in

the under ring.

that state for some time, and feeling herself well used and kindly spoken to,

cow is never tied by the

the nose.

In Africa “ an unruly head : a man walks be

she will yield ; but although she may ap pear to submit, she must not be left alone for some time — till the assurance she will

In using this

nut it should not be so

Fig. 241. ler. Bullock a Joint.

hind it, having hold of a

rope tied tightly round its

points, hock ; this plan seems to not attempt to turn in the stall is certain . 0 Knobbed meeting. Rareyfy the animal most Reckoning Table. — The following c Screw- nut. " 2

for rein. completely ." table, containing the dates at which cows e Ring rope. should calve from those at which they

Detecting Pregnancy.

were bulled , is founded upon the data

— The usual mode ofdeterminingwhether

afforded by Lord Spencer - namely, 285 a cow is in calf is deceptive. She may days as the average period of gestation. not have held when bulled ; she may i Skellett's Partur. Cow , 17.

2 Grant's Talk across Africa , 52.

THE CALVING SEASON.

23

have taken the bull again in a few days, afterwards comatose ; the pulse becomes and she may not show evident symptoms irregular, and death ensues.

of calving until only a few days before The promptest remedy to be used , after she actually calves. The application of the first symptom has been observed, is the ear to the flank of the cow is

to bleed to the extent of 3 or 4 quarts,

simpler and more certain mode of ascer- but not after the earliest stages. The

taining the pulsation of the calf, and the next is to open the bowels, which will be unerring stethoscope renders the mode found to havea strong tendency to con truly philosophical.

The existence of stipation .

From i lb. to 1/2 lb. of

pregnancy may be detected by it at as Epsom salts, according to the strength early a stage as six or eight weeks, by of the cow, with a little ginger and car

which time the beating of the heart of away, shouldbe given as apurge. The the calf may be distinctly heard, and its spine should be stimulated by the appli singular double beating cannot be mis- cation of ammonia liniment, and the taken. head kept cool by cloths wet with cold Milk - fever.- Although parturition water. The animal should be bolstered

is a naturalprocess," as is well observed up into the natural position with bundles by Youatt, it is accompanied by a great of straw , and hoven prevented by the use

deal of febrile excitement. The sudden of the trocar and canula. Perspiration transferring of powerful and accumulated must be induced by covering with cloths,

action from one organ to another — from and the animal must be prevented from the womb to the udder - must cause a

injuring herself when she begins to throw

great deal of constitutional disturbance, her head wildly about. It must be con as well as liability to local inflammation .” 1 One consequence of this constitutional disturbance of the system is milk-fever or puerperal fever. Cows in high condition are more subject than others to this complaint, and especially if they have been kept up for some weeks

fessed , however, that the disease is nearly always fatal. Treatment rarely effects a cure, and practical experience has shown that, in the majority of cases, it is much better to kill the animal at once, as she is sure to die at any rate. Prevention of Milk - fever.- But it

before calving. The complaint may seize is a preventable disease. It is due to the cow only a few hours after calving, days. Its first attack is probably not observed by those who have the charge of the cows, or even by the

overfeeding and having the body in a too plethoric state from the use of con centrated foods. Regular physicking and moderate feeding for a month or so be

farmer himself, who is rather chary in

fore calving, so as to reduce any “ fulness "

or it may be

looking after the condition of cows, in of body, will almost always ensure safety. Red -water. — The ninth day after a case he should offend his female friends, to whose special care that portion of his cow has calved, a uterine discharge stock is consigned . should take place, and continue for a day

The symptoms are first known by or two, afterwhich thecow will have all the cow shifting about in the stall, or the symptoms of good health . It has from place to place if loose, lifting one been observed that when this discharge

leg and then another, being easily startled, does not take place, the cow will soon and looking wildly about her as if she after show symptoms of red -water. She had lost her calf, and lowingfor it. Then will evacuate urine with difficulty, which

the flanks begin to heave, the mouth to will come away in small streams, and be in her walk, and at lengthloses the use appear like dark grounds of coffee. "The

open and issue clear water, she staggers highly tinged with blood, and at length

of her limbs, lies down and places her nature and cause ofthe disease are here head upon her side. The body then evident enough," as Youatt well observes. swells, the extremities feel cold and “ During the period of pregnancy there clammy. Shivering and cold sweats fol- had been considerable determination of low, the animal is at first wild and ex- blood to the womb. A degree of sus cited, throwing her head about, and ceptibility, a tendency to inflammatory action had been set up, and this had 1 Youatt's Cattle, 546.

been increased as the period of parturi

CATTLE IN SPRING .

24

The teats should be at equal distances the state and general fulness of blood to every way, neither too long nor too short, which she had incautiously been raised. but of moderate size, and equal thickness The neighbouring organs necessarily par- from the udder to the point, which should

tion approached , and was aggravated by

ticipated in this, and the kidneys, to be smaller. They should not betoo large which so much blood is sent for the proper discharge of their function, either quickly shared in the inflammation of the womb, or first took an inflammation,

at the udder, to permit the milk to flow down too freely from the bag and lodge in them ; nor too small at that place, to allow the coagulation of the milkto cord

up or fill the orifice; nor too broad at the and suffered most by means of it.” 1 The prevention of this disease is re- point, to have the orifice so large that

commended in using purgative medicine the cow cannot retain her milk after the after calving ; but as purging never fails bag becomes full and heavy. They should to lessen the quantity of milk given by be smooth, and feel like velvet, firm and the cow for some time after, a better plan soft to handle, not hard and leathery.

is to give such food as will also operate They should yield the milk freely, and as a laxative for some time before as well

as after calving. One substance which

not require to be forcibly pulled. When the milk is first to be taken from

the cow after calving, the points of the teats will be found plugged up with a resinous substance, which, in some in

possesses these properties is oilcake.

stances, requires some force to be exerted on them before it will yield.

MILKING COWS.

Structure of the Udder . — The struc-

ture of a cow's udder is remarkable.

First Milk . — The milk that is ob

It tained for the first four days has a thick

consists of two glands, disconnected with consistence, and is of a yellow colour. each other, but contained within one It is known as the “colostrum,"and has

bag or cellular membrane; these glands obtained the name of biestings in Scotland. being uniform in structure.

Each con- It possesses the coagulable properties of

sists of three parts, the glandular or secreting, the tubular or conducting, and the teats or receptacle or receiving part. The division is longitudinal, and each

the white of an egg , and will boil into a thick substance called biesting cheese. But it is seldom used for such a purpose, and is given to the calf, because in many

half is provided with three teats, one of parts the people have a notion that it is

which, however, is abortive, so that milk not wholesome to use the biestings. is only yielded by four altogether, and

Theory of Milking.— “ Thus, then ,”

thus each teat with its adjacent portion says a writer, " we perceive that the milk of the udder is called a 66 quarter. The is abstracted from the blood in the glan glandular forms much the largest portion dular part of the udder ; the tubes receive of the udder. It appears to the naked eye and deposit it in the reservoir or recep

composed of a mass of yellowish grains, tacle ; and the contractile tissue at the but under the microscope these are found end of the teat retains it there till it is to consist entirely of minute blood vessels wanted for use. But we must not be forming a compact plexus, which secrete understood to mean, that all the milk the milk from the blood.

drawn from the udder at one milking, or

The udder should be capacious, though meal, as it is termed , is contained in the not too large for the size of the cow. It receptacle. The milk , as it is secreted, is should be nearly spherical in form , though conveyed to the receptacle, and when this

rather fuller in front, and dependent be- is full, the larger tubes begin to be filled, hind. The skin should be thin, loose, and next the smaller ones,until the whole and free from lumps, filled up in the fore- become gorged . When this takes place, part of the udder, but hanging in folds the secretion of the milk ceases, and ab

in the hind part. Each quarter should sorption of the thinner or more watery contain about equal quantities of milk, part commences. Now , as this absorption

though sometimes the hind ones yield takes place morereadily in the smaller or the most. more distant tubes, we invariably find

1 Youatt's Cattle, 504.

that the milk from these, which comes

MILKING COWS.

25

the last into the receptacle, is much called a large milk-vein below the belly. thicker and richer than what was first This vein is the subcutaneous vein, and

drawn off. This milk has been signifi- drains a part of the udder of its blood, cantly styled afterings ; and should this and when large, certainly indicates a

gorged state ofthe tubesbe permitted to strongly developed vascularsystem, which continue beyond a certain time, serious is favourable to secretion generally, and mischief will sometimes occur : the milk no doubt that of milk in particular. becomes too thick to flow through the

Milk -pails . — The vessel used for re

tubes, and soon produces, first irritation, ceiving the milk from the cow is sim

then inflammation, and lastly suppura- ple, as in fig. 242, which is one of the tion, and the function of the gland is most convenient form . The size may be materially impaired or altogether de- made to suit stroyed. Hence the great importance of the dairymaid's emptying the smaller tubes regularly and taste. It ismade thoroughly, not merely to prevent the of thin oak occurrence of disease, but actually to in- staves bound

crease the quantity of milk ; for so long together

with

as the smaller tubes are kept free, milk three thin gal

is constantly forming ; but whenever, as vanised hoops. we have already mentioned , they become Pails similar in gorged, the secretion of milk ceases until shape are now they are emptied. The cow herself has made of tinned no power over the tissues at the end of iron, and are

the teat, so as to open and relieve the preferable for overcharged udder : neither has she any cleanliness and power of retaining the milk collected in

lightnes s.

the reservoirs when the spasm of these is Pitchers of tin " 1

overcome.

Fig. 242. - Milk -pail.

are mostly used

Thus the necessity of drawingaway for milking in the dairies of towns. the last drop of milk at every milking; In Holland the milking -pails are made and the greater milker the cow is, thisis

of brass, and must be kept quite bright,

the more necessary .

otherwise they would injure the milk. Hefting. — Thus also the impropriety The Dutch dairymaids have a great deal

of hefting or holding the milk in cows of trouble in keeping these vessels in until the udder is distended much be- proper order. A pail, as fig. 242, is of yond its ordinary size, for the sake of a convenient size when 9 inches in dia

showing its utmost capacity for holding milk, a device which all cow -dealers, and indeed every one who has a cow for sale in a market, scrupulously adopts. It is remarkable that so hackneyed a practice should deceive any one into its being a measure of the milking power of the cow ; for every farmer is surely aware that, when he purchases a hefted

meter at the bottom , ii inches at the top, and 10 inches deep, with a handle 5 inches high ; which dimensions will give a mouth capacious enough to re ceive the milk as it descends, and of a

sufficient height to rest on the edge of its bottom when held firmly between the knees of the milker, as he or she sits upon the three-legged stool. The pail should

cow , he gains nothing by the device. not be milked quite full for fear of spill Why, then, encourageso cruel and in- ing, and should be large enough to con jurious a practice in dealers ?

Were tain all the milk that a cow will give at purchasers to insist on a reduction in a milking, as it is undesirable to annoy

price of the cow that is hefted, the the cow by rising from her before the dealers would be obliged to relinquish milking is finished, or by exchanging one the bad practice. pail for another. Indications of Milking Properties. The milking -stool, as in fig. 243, is -The milking properties of a cow are made of ash, to stand 9 inches in height, to a certain extent indicated by what is or any other height to suit the conveni ence of the milker, with the top 9 inches 1 Blurton's Prac. Ess. Milk ., 6, 7.

in diameter, and the legs a little spread

CATTLE IN SPRING .

26

out below to give the stool stability. Some milkers do not care to have a stool,

ently employed in milking the hinder teats of the cow, which are most difficult

and prefer sitting on their haunches ; but to reach, because of the position of the a stool keeps the body steady, and the hind part of the udder between the hind legs. The near side is most common in Scotland, while in England the other

side is preferred. It is rare to see a cow milked in Scotland by any other than a woman, though men commonly do it in

LA

England .

The Operation of Milking. – Milking is performed in two ways, stripping and nievling. Stripping consists of seizing the teat firmly near the root between the front of the thumb and the side of the

forefinger, the length of the teat lying along the other fingers, and of pressing arms have more freedom to act, and the finger and thumb while passing them Fig. 243. - Milking -stool.

ready to prevent accidents to the milk down the entire length of the teat, and causing the milk to flow out of its point Cows holding back Milk . — The cow, in a forcible stream, The action is re being a sensitive and capricious crea- newed by again quickly elevating the ture, is so easily offended that, if the hand to the root of the teat. Both milker rise from her before the milk is hands are employed at the operation, in case of disturbance by the cow.

all withdrawn, the chances are she will each having hold of a different teat, and

not again stand quietly at that milking ; moving alternately.

The two nearest

or if the vessel used in milking is taken teats, the fore and hind, are first milked , away before the milking is finished, and and then the two farthest. another substituted in its place, the proNievling is done by grasping the teat

bability is that she will hold backher with the whole hand, or fist, making the

milk - that is, not allow it to flow . This sides of the forefinger and thumb press is a curious property which cows possess, upon the teat more strongly than the

and how it is effected is not very well other fingers, when the milk flows by the understood ; but there is no doubt of the pressure. Both hands are employed, and fact occurring when a cow becomes irri- are made to press alternately, but so tated or frightened by any cause. All cows are not affected to the same

quickly in succession that the alternate streams of milk sound on the ear like

degree; but, as a proof of their extreme one forcibly continued stream ; and al sensitiveness in this respect, it may be though stripping also causes a continued

mentioned that very few can be milked flow , the nievling, not requiring thehands so freely by a stranger the first time to change their position, as stripping as by one to whom they have been does, draws away the larger quantity of accustomed .

milk in the same time.

Stripping is thus performed by press near side of the cow is taken for milk- ing and passing certain fingers along the ing, and it is called the milking side ; teat ; nievling by the doubled fist press The Milking Side. — Usually, the

ing the teat steadily at one place. Of the two modes we prefer the The near or left side of the cow nievling, because it is more like the

but whichever side is adopted, that

should always be used with the same COW.

may have been adopted for two reasons ; sucking of a calf. When a calf takes because we are accustomed to approach a teat into its mouth, it seizes it with

all the larger domesticated animals by the tongue against the palate, causing

the near side — the animal's left side

them to playupon the teatby alternate

as being the most convenient for our- pressures or pulsations, while retaining selves ; and because most people are it in the same position. Nievling does

right-handed, and thereby the right hand this ; but the action of stripping is quite being the stronger, it is most conveni- different.

MILKING COWS.

27

It is said that stripping is good for Cows are often troublesome on being agitating the udder, and agitation is con- milked ; and the kicks and knocks which

ducive to the withdrawal of a large quantity of milk ; but there is nothing to prevent the milker agitating the udder while holding the teats in nievling -indeed, a more constant agitation is

they receive for their restlessness only render them the more fretful. If they cannot be overcome by kindness, thumps will never make them better. But the fact is, restless habits were engendered

really kept up by the vibrations of the in them by the treatment they received arms, than bypulling the teat constantly when first taken into the byre, when, down as in stripping.

most probably, they were dragooned into

Stripping, by using a strong pressure submission. Udders and teats are very upon two sides of theteat, is more likely tender immediately after calving, and to press it unequally than by grasping especially after the first calving ; and the whole teat in the palm of the hand ; when unfeeling horny hands tug the while the friction occasioned by passing teats in stripping, as if they had been the finger and thumb firmly over the accustomed to the operation for years, skin of the teat, is also more likely to no wonder that the young and inexperi excite heat and irritation in it than a

enced cow should wince under the inflic

tion, and attempt by kicking to get quit an unpleasant feeling even to the milker, of her tormentor. Can the creature who is obliged to lubricate the teat be otherwise than uneasy ? and how frequently with milk, and to wet it at can she escape the pain but by strik grasp of the hand.

This friction causes

first with water, whereas nievling re- ing out a heel ? The hobbles are then quires no such expedients; and as it placed on the hind -legs, to keep the heels gives pain to the cow, it cannot be em- down. The tail is next employed by her ployed when the teats are chapped, or as an instrument of annoyance, which is affected with cow -pox, while nievling can then held by some one while the milking be used with impunity.

is going on, or is tied to the creature's

Milking should be done fast, to draw leg by the hair of the tuft. Add to

away the milk as quickly as possible; these the many threats and scolds uttered and it should be continued as long as by the milker, and a faint idea of how there is a drop of milk to bring away. a young heifer is broken in into milking

This is an issue which the dairymaid may be conceived. Some cows are nat cannot too particularly attend to herself, urally unaccommodating and provoking; and see it in her assistants. Old milk but, nevertheless, nothing but gentleness left in the receptacle of the teat soon towards them will ever render them less changes into a curdy state ; and the SO. Some cows are only troublesome to

caseous matter, not being at once broken milk for a few times after calving, and and removed by the next milking, is apt soon become quiet ; others kick perti

to irritate the lining membrane of the naciously at the first milking. In the teat during the operation, especially when last case, the surest plan is forthe milker, the teat isforcibly rubbed down between while standing on his or her feet, to place

the finger and thumb in stripping. The the head against the flank of the cow, consequence of this irritation being re- stretch the hands forward, get hold of

peated is a thickening of a part of the the teats the best way possible, and let lining membrane, which at length be- the milk fall to the ground. In this posi comes so hardened as to constitute a tion it is out of the power of the cow

stricture which at length closes up the orifice of the teat. The stricture may easily be felt from the outside of the teat, and the teat is then said to be corded . After this the teat becomes “ deaf” or “ blind ,” and no more milk can afterwards be drawn from the quarter

to hurt the milker. Such ebullitions of feeling, at the first milking after calving, arise either from feeling pain in a tender state of the teat — most probably from inflammation in the lining membrane of the receptacle ; or simply from titillation of the skin of the udder and teat, which

of the udder with which the corded teat becomes the more sensitive as the heat communicates.

increases ; or the udder, being still hard, Cows troublesome at Milking.- gives pain when first touched. Should

CATTLE IN SPRING.

28

the udder be difficult to soften, the ad- as the cow does not possess

the power of

vice of Youatt may be tried, by allowing retaining her milk in any one quarter of the calf to suck at least three times a-

the udder while it flows freely from the

day until the udder becomes soft. This will doubtless cure the udder, but

others.”

These tubes, containing a small and may cause another species of restlessness larger end, beyond which they cannot in the cow when the calf is taken from pass into the teat, may be made of ivory, her. Still, rather let the milker suffer bone, or metal. They should be thrown inconvenience than the udder of the cow into the pail and milked on before being be injured. Be the cause of irritation used, and when taken out of the teat, let what it may, one thing is certain, that fall into the can. On being used they gentle and persevering discipline will should be dipped in boiling water and overcome the most turbulent temper in a blown through.

They do not seem to

cow . Milking affords different degrees of pleasure to different cows. One yields its milk with a copious flow , with the gentlest handling ; another requires great

possess any advantage over the hand ; on the contrary, the hand must be em ployed to complete what they cannot accomplish, in drawing off the last drop

exertion to draw the milk in streams no

of milk , and must bein use when they

larger than threads.

The udder of the are employed.

gentle one has a soft skin, and short teats like velvet ; that of the hardened one, a thick skin, and the teats long and tough like tanned leather. Artificial Means of Milking . – A plan of drawing milk from the cow was recommended by Mr Blurton, Field

Milking -tubes. - Milking-tubes have been invented by Cooper & Co. , Shef field . They consist of 4 india -rubber smooth

Hall, Staffordshire, by introducing tubes

6 inches in length, as in fig. 244. To one

teats at the same time.

C

into two teats, and milking the other

He was once of

opinion that a tube in each teat would draw away all the available milk from

tubes about the thick

ness of a goose-quill, end of them is at tached an electro

Fig . 244. plated tube, 2 inches Milking-tubes. in length , closed at the udder ; but, finding his mistake in this, he adopted the following method of the upper end, and perforated there with milking. The tubes are called siphons, 3 opposite holes in each side, and at the though they have noneof the properties other end is inserted a short open simi of the truesiphons. His improved planlar metal tube of about 34 inch in of milking is this : “ The milker sits length ; the 4 tubes being held to down as in the common method, fixing gether with an indiarubber band. In the siphon can (pail) firmly between his using these tubes they are thrown into knees : he then takes hold of the near- the milking-pail, and a small quantity of hand teat with a slight pressure of his milk is milked upon them by the hand right hand, and with his left introduces from each teat. Each tube is then in

the small tube of the siphon an inch or serted into the hole of the teat with the

more into the teat, putting the thumb right hand, while drawing down the teat

on the large tube, to prevent the milk with the left hand, until the milk flows from running out till completely intro- freely through it. The pail is placed on duced — and so on with the near fore-teat, the ground under the combined orifices reserving the two furthest teats to be of the tubes, and remains there until the milked by hand.

By this method three milk ceases to flow , when the tubes are

teats can be milked with the right hand, removed. About 1862 an apparatus for milking assisted by the siphons, in the time one can be milked with the left, and this cows was presented to public notice, with ease and comfort. It may be here in which the air-pump was used to ex observed that the action of milking one tract the air out of tubes which were or two teats by hand, is quite sufficient connected by finger-pieces to the teats to induce the cow to give her milk down of the cows, and the pressure of freely from those milked by the siphons ; the atmosphere on the udder expelled

MILKING COWS.

29

the milk out of it. It was not easy to and get rid of a portion of the hardened

fit the finger-pieces air-tight upon the scabbiness about them , the continuance teats ; a restive cow could easily throw of which is the greatest pain in the act the whole apparatus out of gear ; and of milking ; and, after the milking, the

the apparatus did not milk clean. This teats should be dressed with the follow invention made a sort of sensation at ing ointment: Take 1 oz. of yellow wax the time, which soon subsided .

and 3 oz. of lard, and melt them to

In 1864 Barland's " pocket self -milk- gether, and when they begin to get cool, ing apparatus ” was brought out. It rub well in 4 oz. of sugar-of-lead» 2and i simply consists of the insertion of a drachm of alum finely powdered .” tube, with a flange upon it, into each Milking Period . — Cows differ much in teat, and the milk flows through it from the time they continue to milk , some not the udder. continuing to yield it more than 9 months,

Mr Blurton very properly advocates others for years. The usual time for clean milking, and describes a good plan cows that bear calves to give milk is of drawing away all the milk from an

10 months.

Many remarkable instances

No implement can draw away of cows giving milk for a long time are the milk clean from the udder ; the hand on record . “ The immense length of time alone can do that. “ In aftering, " he forwhich some cowswill continue to give

udder.

says, “ I have adopted the plan of using milk , ” says a veterinary writer, “ if fa the left hand to press down the thick milk vourably treated, is truly astonishing ; so into the receptacle and teat, at the same much so as to appear absolutely incred time milking with the right hand ; then,

ible. My own observation on this subject

in a similar manner, discharging the extends to four most remarkable cases : whole from the remaining quarters of the 1. A cow purchased by Mr Ball, who re udder.” He adds what is very true, that sided nearHampstead, that continued to

“ it must not be supposed that this give milk for 7 years subsequently to method is distressing to the animal ; on having her first and only calf. 2. A large

the contrary, her quietness during the dun Suffolk cow , shown to me as a curios process is a satisfactory indication that it ity by a Yorkshire farmer. This animal, occasions "no1 pain, but rather an agreeable when I saw her, had been giving milk sensation .'

for the preceding 5 years, duringwhich

Sore Udder. — The udder, in cases of period she had not any calf. The 5 years' heifers, becomes not only uneasy before milking was the result of her second calv

calving, but is subject to inflammation ing. afterwards.

During that period attempts had

“ The new or increased func- been made to breed from her, but ineffec

tion which is now set up,” says Youatt, tually . 3. A small aged cow, belonging “ and the sudden distension of the bag to a fermier near Paris, that gave milk with milk, produce tenderness and irrita- for 3 years subsequent to her last calf. bility of the udder, and particularly of the teats. This in some cases shows itself in the form of excoriations or sores, or small cracks or chaps on the teats ; and very troublesome they are. The discharge,

4. A cow in the possession of Mr Nichols, postmaster, Lower Merrion Street, Dub lin. This animal was in Mr Nichols's possession 4 years, during the entire of

which time she continued to give an un likewise, from these cracks, mingles with interrupted supply of milk, which did not the milk . The cow suffers much pain in diminish in quantity more than 3 pints the act of milking, and is often unman- per diem, and that only in the winter

ageable. Many a cow has been ruined, months. ' .

· He disposed of her for

both as a quiet and a plentiful milker, butchers' meat, she being in excellent by bad management when her teats have condition. The morning of the day on been sore .

She will also form a

which she was killed, she gave her usual

habit of retaining her milk, which very quantity of milk ." speedily and very materially reduces its

Spaying Cows. The same writer

quantity. The teats should be fomented proves fully the possibility of securing with warm water in order to clean them, permanency of milk in the cow . This is 1 Blurton's Pract. Ess. Milk ., 10-12 .

? Youatt's Cattle, 552.

CATTLE IN SPRING .

30

effected by simply spaying the cow at a teat may lose the power of retaining the proper time after calving. The operation milk in it. To prevent the running out consists in cutting into the flank of the of the milk from the cow's udder , this

cow, and, bythe introduction of the hand, expedient may be adopted witha chance destroying theovaries of the womb. The of success : cow must have acquired her full stature,

Place an india -rubber band

round the teats of the cow , and, in case

so that it may be performed at any age the band should insert itself too deeply after 4 years. She should be at the flush of her milk, as the future quantity yielded depends on that which is afforded by her at the time of the operation. The opera-

into the teat to be easily removed at milking, wrap the teat round with a piece of linen or thin soft leather under the band, so that the under part of the linen

tion may be performed in ten days after may be easily taken hold of in removing calving,but the most proper time appears the band. to be 3 or 4 weeks after. The cow should be in high health, otherwise the operation

may kill her or dry up the milk . The only preparation required for safety in the operation is, that the cow should fast

CALF- REARING.

Importance of Calf -rearing. – Calf

12 or 14 hours, and themilk be taken away rearing, the root and the rise of the immediately before the operation. The wound heals in a fortnight or three weeks. For two or three days after the operation the milk may diminish in quantity ; but it regains its measure in about a week,

cattle-breeding industry, has not received from the general body of farmers such

and continues at that mark for the re-

of the United Kingdom might advan

full and careful attention as it deserves, or as it is capable of repaying. It is

undeniable that the live-stock resources

mainder of the animal's life, or as long tageously be developed to a much greater as the age of the animal permits the extent. The growing importance of live secretion of the fluid ; unless, from some

stock interests in British agriculture is

accidental circumstance — such as attack manifest to all. In this expansion calf of a severe disease — it is stopped. But rearing must play a leading part. Breed even then the animal may easily be fat- ing is of course the starting point, and tened. the rearing of the calf is the first great Advantages of Spaying . — The ad step in the progress of the industry. vantages of spaying are : “ 1. Rendering Aversion of Farmers to Calf -rear permanent the secretion of milk, and hav- ing. — With many farmers calf -rearing ing a much greater quantity within the finds little favour; often, we venture to given time of every year. 2. Thequality say, for no better reason than that it is of the milk being improved. 3: The un- a troublesome business, demanding con certainty of, and the dangers incidental stant and careful attention. With skil to, breeding, being to a great extent ful and careful management, calf -rearing, avoided. 4. The increased disposition to where circumstances are at all favour fatten, even when giving milk, or when, able, is almost invariably remunerative. from excess of age, or from accidental This much, however, it must have, and it circumstances, the secretion of milk is rarely succeeds where not well conducted. checked ; also the very short time re- The young animals must be fed with

quired for the attainment of marketable skill and regularity, and their health and

condition. 5. The meat of spayed cattle comfort carefully attended to in every being of a quality superior to that of ordi- way . nary cattle . ” 1

When this responsible work is

With these advantages left entirely to hired servants, it may be

breeders of stock can have nothing to do ; imperfectly or irregularly performed, with but since the operation is said to be quite the result that the calves make unsatis safe in its results, it may attract the factory progress, or perhaps become im notice of cowfeeders in town.

Preventing Udders from Running

paired in health.

The farmer thus loses

faith in the benefits of calf-rearing. He

-From some cause, the tissues of the has, perhaps, at last learned that the cause of the mischief is improper treat 1 Ferguson's Distem . among Cat., 29-36.

ment ; but personal supervision , or super

CALF-REARING.

31

vision by some member of his family or extent. We are far short of that limit employees in whom confidence could be yet ; and we would fain hope that until placed, may be found irksome or incon-

it is reached the best efforts of our leaders

venient, and thus again the industry of calf-rearing loses in favour. Calf - rearing on Large Farms.This demand which calf-rearing makes

of agriculture may be directed to the encouragement of home-breeding rather than to the devising or providing of

means of increasing the embarrassments

upon the careful personal supervision of of home-breeders by importing foreign the farmer or some member of his family,

is undeniably the main reason why upon

bred lean stock. Rear more Calves . — In any scheme

many large farms well suited for breed- for increasing the supply of home-bred ing, so few calves are brought up. We store cattle, calf -rearing must play an lay a little of the blame for this at the important part. We must not only door of modern social fashion. Upon a breed more calves, but we must also rear large farm the farmer himself has many

more.

We should rear all we breed, or

other duties which draw him away from nearly so, and rear them well, too ;

for let

superintending the feeding and treatment it ever be kept in view that whatanani of calves ; and it is not the fashion for mal loses with bad treatment as a calf, it sons and daughters of large farmers to can hardly ever fully recover. But we give their attention to such matters. do not mean by rearing well, any sort of This conception of social life upon the extravagant treatment. In fact, we be farm may easily be carried too far. It lieve there is room for much greater is not suggested that the sons and economy in the rearing of calves. In daughters of men of capital should be connection with calf - rearing on dairy expected to put their hands to the farms, or wherever milk can be turned

manual work of calf -rearing. There is to good account, this point is of special a difference between this, however , and the superintending of work done by hired servants .

importance. Breed longer from Cows.

The daughters and sons of should breed longer from cows.

farmers will be none the less ladies and

We A cus

tom by no means uncommon is to buy a

gentlemen if they should make them- cow for a temporary supply of milk, and selves acquainted with certain details of fatten her off when she gets dry. Now their father's business, and assist him in

this is a serious loss.

Breed from all

seeing that these details are carried out suitable cows as long as practicable. with due care and regularity.

Breeding from Heifers. - From all

Deficiency of Store Cattle .

The heifers that are suitable, whether in

growth in the breeding of cattle has not tended for cows or not, take one, two, or kept pace with the increase in the con-

perhaps even a third calf. Keep them

sumption of beef. The supply of home- well all the while, letting the calves bred store cattle has not been equal to suckle ; and if the heifer is not to be the demands of the feeders.

Farmers kept for a cow, she may be fattened off

have been complaining of unsatisfactory and sold as heifer-beef. The calf or two

financial results from fattening cattle, will have done her little or no harm in and the main difficulty has been the fact the butcher's eye, if only she does not that, on account of deficient supply, store show the udderof a cow.

This will not

cattle have been dearer than fat animals often arise when the calves suckle. This —that feeders have had to pay more for question we lately put to an extensive

the lean cattle than the price of beef salesman in the north of England, who would warrant.

Home - breeding, not Importation, the Remedy.- The proper remedy for this state of matters is the extension of home-breeding - assuredly not the im-

replied that his experience was that two calves or so in no way spoiled the sale of the young heifer, if only there were no display of udder, and if she were plump, level, and well fattened . He

portation of foreign lean cattle. Let added that a lot of young heifers never that be resorted to only when our own came before him for sale but he regretted

resources in cattle-breeding have been that so much valuable material was being developed to the fullest advantageous wasted. Premature fatting of heifers

32

CATTLE IN SPRING.

is really killing the goose that lays the old.

If the calves are of a good class

golden egg In these times farmers they will sell readily at handsome prices. cannot afford such waste as that.

While it may suit some to breed calves

Are Calves Nuisances ?—Unfortu- and sell them young, it will undoubtedly nately not a few dairy farmers look upon pay others to adapt their arrangements

calves as little else than nuisances-- as specially for rearing. Instead of keeping necessary evils - something which they would never wish to have if only they could without them get cows in milk. This is a great misfortune, and shows clearly that while the cry is for more

large stocks of cows, they may buy in young calves, and rear them partly on milk and other suitable food. In certain cases these bought-in stock may be carried on and fattened when from two to three

store stock, there must be something years old . In others they may be simply radically wrong somewhere. The fact is, reared, and sold as lean stock when from calf - rearing is very imperfectly under- ten to eighteen months old. stood.

Details of Calf-rearing. There is, of course, much variety in suited for breeding, would find , in well- the systems of calf-rearing pursued We are convinced that dairy farmers,

as well as other farmers in all parts

conducted calf - rearing, returns which throughout the country. And in this as would amply repay careful treatment in most other farming matters, it would and judicious and liberal feeding. The be unwise to lay down hard - and - fast dairy farmer may dislike the calf because

rules as the best for all circumstances.

he has found it a greedy andbad -paying Various approved methods will be de customer for its mother's milk. But if scribed , and with these in view the in

he has done so, he has had himself to telligent farmer will arrange his practice blame. A good calf will well repay a to suit his own peculiar conditions and moderate allowance of its mother's milk objects. for a short time ; and we would emphasise

Housing

Calves.

The comfortable

this point, that it is only for a very short and economical housing of calves is timeat the outset that there is any neces-

a matter that demands careful attention .

sity to give milk — at any rate, new milk

Calves are either suckled by their mo thers, or brought up by the hand on

—to calves.

Milk Substitutes. - Scientific research milk and other substances. When they

and commercial enterprise have placed are suckled, if the byre be roomy enough us in possession of many advantages un- —that is, 18 feet in width - stalls may

known to our forefathers. In the simple be erected for them against the wall matter of calf-rearing we have gained behind the cows, in which they are tied much in this way.

Why, the market is up ; or, what is a less restrictive plan ,

teeming with cheap milk substitutes ; they may be put together in large loose and, without going the length of affirm- boxes at the ends of the byre, or in ad ing that these foods are worthy of all joining apartment, and let out at stated

their energetic vendors say of them , yet times to be suckled. we unhesitatingly say that, with subWhen brought up by the hand, they stantial advantage to themselves and the are put into a suitable apartment, pref general public, farmers might draw upon erably each in a crib to itself, where the them much more largely than they have milk is given to them. The advantage of

done heretofore.

Undoubtedly the use having calves separate is, that it pre and we think that, by a judicious use of ance of milk, sucking one another, by

of these prepared foods is on the increase ; vents them , afterhaving had their allow them and other simple natural foods, the ears, teats , scrotum , or navel, by calf-rearing might be increased to a very which malpractice ugly blemishes are at great extent, both on dairy and mixed times produced. When a number of husbandry farms.

calves are kept together, they should all

Rearing or selling Calves. — We do be muzzled to prevent this sucking. not say that all farmers should rear their Calf- crib . The crib for each calf calves. It may suit some better to sell should be 4 feet square and 4 feet in

the calves when one, two, or three weeks height, sparred with slips of 'tile-lath ,

CALF - REARING .

33

to prevent the door being thrown off the afford access to the calf. The floor of hinges by any accident. Cross-tailed iron hinges, of the light the cribs, and the passages between and have a small wooden wicket to

them , should be paved with stone, or ness suited to such doors, would soon be laid with asphalt or concrete.

Abund-

ance of light should be admitted, either

broken. C

by windows in the walls, or skylights in the roof; and fresh air is essential to the

health of calves, so that ventilation should be carefully attended to . So also should the cleaning of the calf -cribs. The cribs should be regularly cleaned out ; and it isa good plan to sprinkle the floors daily with some disinfectant, such as diluted carbolic acid - one part of acid to twenty of water. This will keep the atmosphere pure and wholesome, which is very de sirable for the young animals. If the calf compartment be separate

from the cow -house, it should communicate with the latter by a close door,

having upper and lower divisions, into

d

Fig. 245. - Calf's -crib wicket. a Wicket to give access to the crib. b b Its hinges of wood . c Thumb-catch for fastening wicket. d Billet to prevent wicket being thrown off.

à court with a shed , which the calves may occupy till turned out to grass. More frequently the spars forming the The crib should be fitted up with a crib are placed upright, and are of greater manger to contain cut turnips or carrots, strength than indicated in the illustration.

and a high rack for hay, the top of

Care in letting out Calveg . — When

which should be as much elevated above the calves are fit to be put out in the

the litter as to preclude the possibility

open air, after it becomes mild, they

of the calf getting its feet over it. should be put into a shed for some nights The general fault in the construc- before being turned out to grass, and

tion of calves' houses is the want of also for some nights when at grass.

light and air — both great essentials ; The shed should be fitted

up with

light being cheerful to animals in confinement, and air essential to the good health of calves. When desired, both may be excluded. The walls of the calves' house should be plastered, to be

mangers for turnips, and racks for hay, and a trough of water. Navel - string. The state of the navel-string is the first thing that should be examined in a new -dropped calf, that neat and clean, and should be white- no blood be dropping from it, and that

washed at least once every year.

it is not in too raw a state.

The bleed

In some cases the cribs are so con- ing can be stayed by a ligature on the structed that the calf has access, either string, but not close to the belly. In opened, to a larger enclosure in which look the cause of the navel-ill; and, in the young animal can exercise its limbs. significant as this complaint is usually The front and wicket of a calf's crib regarded, it carries off more calves than which we have seen in use, is shown in most breeders are aware off. Youatt remarks : " Possibly the spot fig. 245, in which a wicket-door gives access to the crib. The hinge is of wood, at which the division of the cord took simple and economical. It consists of place may be more than usually sore. the rails of the wicket being elongated A pledget of tow , wetted with friar's

at will or when the door of the crib is attention to the navel-string may over

and rounded off, and their lower face balsam , should be placed over it, con end shaped into a round pin, which fills fined with a bandage, and changed every and rotates in a round hole in a billet morning and night ; but the caustic ap

of wood securely screwed to the upright plications that are so frequently resorted Another biſlet is to should be avoided. Sometimes, when screwed on immediately above the hinge, there has been previous bleeding, and

door- post of the crib. VOL. II.

C

CATTLE IN SPRING.

34

especially if the caustic has been used

Some are afraid to give a calf as much

to arrest the hemorrhage, and at other biestings at first as it can take, because times when all other things seemed to have been going on well, inflammation

it is said to produce the navel-ill. Let it take as much as it pleases. As to the

suddenly appears about the navel be- navel-ill, it proceeds from neglect of the tween the third and eighth or tenth day.

proper inspection and precaution after

There is a little swelling of the part, but the calf is born. with more redness and tenderness than

Teaching Calves to Drink . — The

such a degree of enlargement could in- process of feeding a new - dropped calf

dicate. Although there may be nothing by hand is here minutely described , in the first appearance of this to excite because absurd modes are practised in alarm , the navel-ill is a far more serious doing it. It is common to plunge the business than some imagine. Fomenta- calf's mouth into the entire quantityof

tion in the part, in order to disperse the biestings, and because the liquid bubbles tumour, the opening of it with a lancet around its mouth with the breath from if it evidently points, and the adminis- the nose, and it will not drink, its head tration of 2 or 3 oz. doses of castor-oil, is the more forcibly kept down into the made into an emulsion by means of an vessel. How can it drink with its nose

egg, will constitute the first treatment ; immersed amongst the liquid ? and why but if, when the inflammation abates, should a calf be expected at first to drink extreme weakness should come on, as is with its head down, when its natural too often the case, gentian and laudanum, instinct would lead it to suck with its

with perhaps a small quantity of port head up ? wine, should be administered . ” It should be borne in mind that feed Inflammation of the navel is often ing calves by the hand is an unnatural caused by one calf sucking another. process ; nevertheless it is convenient, Calf's First Food . Thefirst food the practicable, and easy, provided it is done calf receives is the biestings—the first in a careful manner. The young calf milk taken from the cow after calving. must be taught to drink, and a good Being of the consistence of the yolk of mode of teaching it is the one here the egg, it seems an appropriate food given. In this way it is fed as often

for a young calf. By the time it gets as the cow is milked, three times a -day. Another Method of Teaching to its first feed, the calf may have risen to its feet. If not, let it remain lying, and Drink . - After the first two or three

let the dairymaid take a littlebiestinys days, another plan should be adopted, in a small dish-a vessel formed like a

for the calf should not be accustomed to

miniature milk -pail, fig. 242, and of suck the fingers, and it may refuse to similar materials, is a convenient one drink without their assistance. The

—and let her put her left arm round plan is to put a finger or two of the the neck of the calf, support its lower right hand into its mouth, and holding

jaw with the palm of the hand, keeping the pail of milk with the left under its its mouth a little elevated, and then head, bring the mouth gradually down

open the mouth by introducing the into the pail, with the nostrils free, thumb of the same hand into the side of it. Then let her fill the hollow of her right hand with biestings, and pour it into the calf's mouth, introducing a finger or two with it for the calf to suck, when it will swallow the liquid.

where the fingers induce it to take a few gluts of the milk ; and while it is doing this, the fingers should be with drawn, while the mouth is gently held down in the milk, when it will drink a little of itself. In a few days more the

Let it get handful after handful, as fingers will not be required , the head much as it is inclined to take.

When only being put down to the milk, and in

it refuses to take more, its mouth should a few more still, the calf will drink of

be cleaned of the biesting that may have its own accord . run

over.

Sometimes, when a calf is

Reform in Calf - feeding.

In the

begun to be fed lying, it attempts to get method of feeding calves during the upon its feet ; and, if able, let it do so, and rather assist than prevent it.

first few months of their existence, there has been almost as great a revolution as

CALF -REARING .

35

in any other branch of farm practice. sometimes averse to a strange calf, but The old notion that at least three months

with a little care at the outset she will

of feeding upon whole milk as it comes gradually lose this, and will fondly wel from the cow was necessary for success- come its attentions when her udder is

ful calf-rearing, has been exploded . In in want of relief. many cases, almost entirely in herds of Suckling two or more Calves . — An pure-bred cattle, the calves still suckle average milker will yield more milk than their dams.

But beyond these herds

one calf requires.

A second calf may

comparatively little new milk is now therefore be admitted, and a good, well employed in rearing calves, reliance being fed cow will easily raise two strong more largely placed upon skim -milk and milk substitutes.

Excellent results are

calves. In many cases, indeed, one cow rears two sets of calves, sometimes four

obtained by the new method , and the

in a -year, but more frequently three.

fresh milk and cream thus saved from

After the first two calves have been

the calves are advantageously used for weaned, a good cow should have enough other purposes, sold to milk retailers, or milk remaining to rear at least a third made into butter and cheese.

calf, and if she had calved early in the

The season , be naturally a heavy and endur

Composition of Biestings.

biestings or first milk after calving ing milker, she may, with liberal feeding, differsconsiderably in composition from be quite able to rear a second couple of ordinary milk .

It contains an excep- youngsters.

A cow that is capable of

tionally large proportion of casein or doingthiswill give a good account of her cheesy matter, as the following analysis year's feeding. of ordinary milk and biestings will show : Ordinary Biestings. Milk .

Casein ( cheese )

Suckling and Milking combined.When these additional calves cannot be

4.48

Butter

3. 13

Milk -sugar

4.77

Saline matter . Mucus Water

0.60

15.1 2.6

2.0

advantageously obtained, or when fresh milk is desired for some other purpose

than calf-rearing, the cow may beleft with the one calf and her surplus milk drawn from her once, twice, or thrice

87.02

80.3

a -day, according to her supply and the requirements of the calf. This method

100.00

100.00

has other advantages apart from the

supply of milk it provides for household The prevailing methods of feeding or other purposes. It accustoms the calves may be briefly described as fol. cow to milking as well as to sucking, lows :

Suckling. This is " nature's method.”

and by the operation of milking, syste

matically and efficiently performed , the

It is the surest and simplest means of capacity of her milk -vessels is developed,

attaining the highest development in the and her flow of milk stimulated ; while calf. When maximum growth in frame, the risk of the calf gorging itself with flesh, and fat is the main object, and too much milk at any one time is ob “ cost of production " of little moment, viated . Of course this supplementary

suckling is the most reliable system . It process of milkingthe nurse-cow may be carried too far. The calf must not be pure-bred cattle, especially by breeders robbed of its due amount of food . One who enter the showyard lists. The usual objection to partial suckling is, that a is therefore pursued largely in herds of

plan is to allow the calf to run with its cow suckling a calf does notallow milk

dam , and to suck the cow at pleasure, or ing afterwards with the hand in a kindly allowit access to her at regular intervals. manner. Unless, therefore, cows are

The former is preferable,and will make kept for the purpose of suckling through the best calf. If the dam has not suffi- out the season, they often become trouble cient milk to raise the calf, or if her milk some to milk with the hand after the

is desired for other purposes, the calf may be put to a nurse -cow , which the

calves are weaned .

Decrease in Suckling. – Suckling is

youngster will suck as readily as it would not pursued nearlysoextensively as for suck its own mother. A nurse -cow is merly. Increased facilities for utilising

36

CATTLE IN SPRING .

surplus milk and cream , and the better est or most economical, as well as the

understanding of calf-rearing by other most perfect, food for calves.

The in

means, have tended to curtail the prac- creased and still increasing demand for tice of suckling calves. Even in pure- milk and its products for household pur bred herds it has lost ground. It is poses has withdrawn vast quantities of

a comparatively costly system , and is milk formerly employed in calf-rearing. therefore not to be commended in ordi- This diversion is still going on, and it is

nary farm practice. Suckling saves the to the farmer's advantage that it should trouble of milking the cows and giving be stimulated, for it practically adds an the milk to the calves; but a saving of other string to his bow. If he can

trouble may be a loss of money in the advantageously sell or utilise his milk rearing of calves. An objection to suck- otherwise, he should use as little as pos ling exists when one cow brings up two sible of it in rearing calves. For these calves at a time, that the quantity of youngsters he has the choice of an ample milk received by each calf is unknown, assortment of other foods , the economical

and the faster sucker will take the larger share. True, they are both brought up ; but are they brought up as well as when the quantity of milk consumed is known

worth and efficiency of which have been well established . In the selection, mix ing, preparation , and feeding of these foods lies the art of modern calf-rearing.

to be sufficient for the support of each ? It is an important item in the routine of The milk becomes scarcer, too, as the the stock -owner's duties, and demands

calves get older, instead of becoming studious and careful attention. more plentiful, as should be the case to Prevalent Methods. - Perhaps the

satisfy the growing wants of the young most widely prevalent method of rearing animal.

calves is to feed them entirely on new

Suckling with Heifers. - Reference milk for a short period at the outset , has already been made to the plan of that period varying from two to six taking at least one crop of calves from weeks,-and afterwards partly on new heifers that are not intended to be added milk, skim-milk, and artificial food ; or to the regular stock of cows. This is a upon skim -milk and artificial food , with species of " catch crop " which may often out any of the rich milk as it comes from be taken with advantage. It is the the cow. It is, no doubt, a good plan to usual practice to allow these calves to let the calf have all the new milk it can

suck their youthful mothers. This does readily consume for at least two or three as milking would — develop the weeks at the outset. By degrees skim

not-

udder so as to spoil the sale of the young milk may be substituted for new milk,

cow in the fat - stock market, and by and when the new milk is wholly, or liberal feeding she may be fattened while almost wholly, withdrawn, the skim -milk she is rearing her calf. Hand-rearing -Although this is an

must be supplemented by some other richer food .

artificial, it is nevertheless the most genSkim -milk for Calves.Skim -milk eral, as well as the most economical, sys- alone is not a well-balanced food for tem of rearing calves. It enables the calves. The butter -fat has been almost farmer to use for his calves as much or wholly removed from it, and what re as little as is thought desirable of his mains is not sufficiently provided with all

supply of milk, and it permits him also the elements necessaryfor the healthy to avail himself of those cheaper milk substitutes which are now within his reach. He has thus, in the hand -rearing methods, much freer choice and greater scope for economical and skilful man agement than in the simple system of suckling.

development of the young animal. Skim milk, left by an efficient system of cream ing, will, on an average, contain the following per 100 lb. : Casein Albumen Fat

It may be admitted that no perfect substitute for milk has as yet been dis covered or devised.

Sugar Ash

3.5 lb. .7

11

.5 " 4.0 8

11 11

It by no means

follows, however, that milk is the cheap

9.5 lbs,

CALF -REARING .

37

The skim -milk thus retains almost all calves every day. The supply of this the casein and sugar in the new milk ; milk often lasts the whole week. If the but so effective are some of the modern Sunday's milk falls short, the calves get processes of separating the cream from two quarts of new milk, with one quart the milk, that only the merest traces of of water added . butter-fat may remain in the skim -milk .

About one-sixth of the casein and albumen consists of nitrogen, and as far as it goes, skim -milk is undoubtedly a valuable food, and may be used with great advantage in conjunction with other feeding material.

Artificial Food for Calves.

The

other substances most largely used either in supplement of or as substitutes for milk in rearing calves, are linseed, lin seed - cake, oatmeal, Indian - corn meal, palm -nut meal, malt, pea -meal, barley meal, or some specially prepared food.

Skim -milk should not be fed largely The characteristics and composition of by itself to calves, for calves so fed are these articles are described in the chap 66 liable to scour, indigestion , and other bowel - complaints. It is a dangerous

ter on

Foods, ” which should be referred

to and consulted carefully in arranging

practice to abruptly substitute skim -milk the dietary of animals. for new milk as the main food of calves. The withdrawal of the new milk should

Preparing Foods for Calves. - All

these articles of food are given to calves

take place gradually, and other substances in the form of gruel, and they can hardly should be introduced in corresponding be too well steeped or boiled . It is de ratio to make up for the deficiencies of sirable to have the linseed and linseed the skim-milk. Professor Stewart on Skim -milk .

cake ground into meal before boiling. Gruel from linseed -cake is often prepared

— “ Skim -milk is much more valuable as by adding four parts of boiling water to a food than is generally supposed. It one part of themeal derived by grinding contains all the qualities of the milk ex- the cake, and allowing the mass to remain cept the cream . The casein, the most covered up for twelve hours. Palm -nut valuable food - constituent of the milk, meal may be prepared in a similar man

and the milk -sugar, or whey, are still in

ner.

In making linseed - gruel, water

it. If you feed only skim -milk to a should be added so as to give almost a

healthy calf, it will require on an aver- gallon and ahalf of gruel for every pound age from 15 to 20 lb. of milk to make of linseed . If the gruel is found to purge 1 lb. of live - weight during the first the calf, add a little more water, and for ninety days, if the calf is given all it a day or two give rather less of the gruel wants ; and a good eater will gain 272 and more of the skim-milk. A little

lb. per day.” Professor Stewart has a wheat-flour, mixed with gruel, is also a high opinion of boiled linseed as food useful and simple remedy in cases of for calves. He points out particularly purging. Mixtures of these meals are

that, given along with skim -milk, the often made into gruel for calves, and the oil of the linseed “ will make good the selection of the particular articles to be loss of the cream in the milk .” 1 used will be regulated mainly by their Scalding Skim -milk . - It is well to market prices atthe time. have the skim -milk scalded as soon as the

Quantities of Milk for Calves.In

cream has been taken from it, because it the majority of cases where calves are

will thus longer remain sweet. A simple raised by hand-feeding, they get about way of scalding is to insert a vessel full two quarts of new milk twice or three of the skim -milk into a larger vessel con- times a -day - four to five or six quarts taining hot water. Some even boil the in all- during the first two, three, four,

skim -milk, and are thus able to keep it

or six weeks of their existence. At these

sweet a whole week .

various periods, according to custom or Weknow of one large farmer who sells to the supply of new milk and the other

his milk on the six week-days,keeps at demands for it at the time, a beginning home his Sunday's milk, has it boiled on is made with the substitution of skim Monday, and gives a portion of it to his milk for new milk . A very small pro 1

Peeding Animals, 235-237.

portion of the latter is given at first, by degrees it is increased , and soon the new

CATTLE IN SPRING .

38

milk is wholly withdrawn. Some indeed supplied with 1 lb. each per day of lin " i

give new milk only for about two weeks, seed -cake all through the

year.

and others continue it for six weeks or

A Common Plan with whole Milk .

two months, perhaps even longer. The new milk and skim -milk are given to-

_Mr Wilson, late of Edington Mains, Berwickshire ,describes the following sys

gether.

Some feed calves three times tem of feeding, which is common where

a -day in the first few weeks, and others whole milk and no skim -milk is used : Whole milk , warm from the cow, is given

only twice.

Allowances of other Foods. — Sup- three times a -day for the first fortnight, plementary foods should be begun soon,

and the calf is allowed to have as much

as soon perhaps as the curtailing of the new milk has commenced. Theartificial food, made into gruel, is given along with the milk, and at the outset the gruel should be given in very small quantities. Sudden changes of food may inflict serious injury upon the health of the tender young animal. Some begin to give gruel to calves before they are a month old, others delay till the animal is in its sixth

of it as it will take. It may then be tempted to suck (and at length to eat) small bits of oilcake and sweet hay, and the mid -day meal of milk may be grad ually reduced and ultimately discontin ued ; and when the calf at length takes slices of turnips and mangels freely, the milk may be brought down to five or six quarts per day, water being added to make up the necessary quantity. At

or seventh week.

The daily allowance seven or eight weeks the milk

may be

of gruel will of course vary with the age gradually reduced, and soon altogether of the calf, and the quantity of milk it is discontinued. receiving.

No fixed “ bill of fare ”

can

A Gloucestershire

Practice.-

Mr

be prescribed with safety. The appetite Ruck, Cirencester, has reared his calves

of the young animals must be watched successfully upon the following food, closely, and special care taken to keep with whole milk for the first few days, the bowels in good order. Feed calves and then a little skim -milk : 7 lb. of

liberally, but never overdo them. Let finely ground linseed -cake dissolved in them have just as much as they can 2 gallons of hot water, to which is added readily consume at the time ; keeping 2 gallons of hay -tea, made by pouring

on the scrimp rather than the abundant hot water on good hay in a tub ;and to side.

this again is added 7 lb. of mixed meal,

Perhaps the best guide to the young of wheat, barley, oats, and beans, in farmer will be a description of methods equal parts, steeped in 2 gallons of hot which have been pursued with success by water. Of this mixture the calves get 2 quarts in the morning, further diluted Mr W. T. Carrington's System.— with two quarts of warm water ; and 2 The late Mr T. Carrington, Uttoxeter, quarts at night, also diluted with 2 quarts

various breeders.

Staffordshire, who kept a dairy herd of of warm water.

Upon this gruel the

over 100 cows, reared about 40 of his calves thrive well, and are weaned when earliest heifer calves as follows : “ They about 12 weeks old. are not allowed to suck their dams; they Mr Bowick's Plan . - In his useful have from four to eight quarts of new paper on “ Calf-rearing ,” Mr Thomas

milk per diem , according to age, for three Bowick gives this account of his mode or four weeks. They are then fed with of rearing calves : “ We manage to turn skim -milk , thickened with boiled linseed out from 25 to 30 calves annually or oatmeal, and are taught as soon as such as will pass muster anywhere — and

possible to eat hay and a small quantity never use at any time more than 6 gal of linseed -cake. They are allowed to run lons of new milk daily. For this pur on a grass field in May and June, and are pose, as well as to obtain a regular

after then generally left out altogether, supply of milk for other purposes, the with a shed to run into in very wet wea- calves are allowed to come at different ther, or to avoid the heat of the sun and periods extending from October to May. the teasing of the flies. The milk -feed ing is altogether discontinued when they are about four months old. They are

1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., sec. ser. , xiv. 401 .

CALF -REARING .

We begin with new milk from

Spare Dietary for Calves.

39

The late

the pail, which is continued for a fort- Mr J. Chalmers Morton described the

night after leaving the cow . Then skim- system of feeding in a case in which " 5 milk , boiled and allowed to cool to the

cows reared 50 calves, their milk having

to some extent skimmed for natural warmth , is substituted to the been also In butter for the household. The cows extent of one- third the allowance. another week the new milk is reduced were brought to the pail one after an to half, and at the same time, not before, other from February until May ; and boiled linseed is added to the mess: 5 the calves, brought as they could be got, Ib. of linseed will make about 7 gallons received each à share of the partly of gruel, and suffice for 5 good -sized skimmed milk , more and better milk calves. As soon as they take freely to being given to the very youngest, until this food, the new milk may be replaced they began to nibble shred swedes and with that from the dairy, and the calf is hay. The sole addition to this food was encouraged to indulge in a few sliced oatmeal gruel; half a pint of finely ground carrots, green hay, or linseed - meal, or best oatmeal for each calf being put finely crushed oilcake. Amongst the morning and evening into about 2 quarts multitudes of substitutes for milk that of scalding water, which wascool enough

have at different times been recommended , and cooked enough, by staying there all we have found nothing better than those day or night, for use at the evening or previously referred to ; or linseed, 2 parts, morning meal respectively, after having

and wheat i part, ground to meal, and thus stood 12 hours . This, with care boiled to gruel of moderate thickness, and always to give food which is perfectly then mixed with an equal quantity of sweet and not too cold, with attention skimmed milk .

It is true we have omit- also to the warmth and dryness of the

ted any allusion to ' Irish moss, ' which accommodation that is given to the calf, calves seem to relish well, though it does has reared them in health, without a not prove of a fattening nature. For the single loss, during the season ." 3 lot of calves named (25 to 30), 2 cwt. of

Liberal Treatment desirable . - Re

this article is found a desirable addition , marking upon the scrimp character of and lasts throughout the season .” 1

this dietary, Mr Morton adds : “ It is

General Rules.- Major M'Clintoch writes thus : “ It is very difficult to lay down an exact rule for feeding calves, as far as quantity is concerned ; nor can a

more and more coming to be generally acknowledged , that for the production of the best and most profitable animals,

whether for the dairy or the feeding-stall, time be fixed for weaning, the appear- the more liberal management of the calf

ance of forwardness in theanimalsbeing is in the end the better way. To stint the best rule to go by. However, as the young beast is to diminish its quality a general mode, supposing a calf to be as a good doer from the very beginning.

dropped in March, Iwould suggest that Whether for beef or for milk, itis well pure ' mother milk ’ should begiven for à fortnight, then by degrees an admixture of oilcake gruel ( 1 quart of cake, ground fine, to 4 quarts of boiling water)

that good calf-flesh should be established at the outset, and that by no stinginess

introduced, and a sufficient drinkallowed

Mr E. Bowly's System . — In his

or severity of after-treatment should it

be lost. ” 1

at each meal, so as to remove all hollow- prize essay “ On the Management of

ness from the flank. In a few weeks 6 Breeding Cattle," the late Mr Edward gallons will be taken by the calf, and when the weather is favourable it should be allowed to run in some well-sheltered place where the pasture is sweet. In 3 months calves have an appetite for grass,

Bowly, a noted English breeder of short horns, thus describes his system of rear ing calves : My early calves — those which drop from December till the end of February - I allow to suck the cows for

and it is then that the process of wean- a fortnight, then take them off, and give ing should begin ." 2 them as much as they will drink of skim milk and thick gruel made from boiled 1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., xxii. 140, 152. 2 Ibid .

3 Ibid ., sec. ser ., xiv. 403.

* Ibid .

CATTLE IN SPRING .

40

linseed, in equal proportions, twice a day. A Perthshire Example . On a well As soon as they are inclined to eat, I conducted farm in Perthshire the follow

supply them with oilcake, carrots, and ing system is pursued : “ For the first

hay. When three months old I reduce fortnight we give nothing save new milk ; the milk and linseed to once a -day, and the third week the quantity of new milk in three weeks afterwards discontinue it is lessened, and skim -milk supplies the

altogether, continuing the food till they deficiency, a little linseed and oatmeal are turned out to grass. Then I give porridge being added toit. The oatmeal them 2 lb. of oilcake daily, which I con- is well boiled, the linseed (cake ground tinue, in addition to other food, for down very fine) steeped in boiling water twelve months — that is, till they go to an hour or two previous to use.

As to

the quantity that should be given, ex grass the following year.” Late Calves.- Mr Bowly states that perience will prove the best guide ; a those calves which drop late in March supply sufficient for one animal is fre 2

and during the summer months he allows quently too much or too little for its to run with cows, after purchasing nurses neighbour. The great ' secret of success ' for the purpose. He considered it de- in calf-rearing lies in being careful not to sirable to remove the calves from their overload the stomach ; the appetite should

own dams, as those cows which are being never be quite satiated. When eight or sucked by calves will not always take the nine weeks old, a little clover-hay and

bull so soon as those milked by the hand Devonshire

Custom .

A

custom

finely cut swedish turnips are given ,along with a small allowance of dry linseed

long prevalent, although not universal,in cake. Some difficulty is occasionally ex Devon, was to allow the calf to suck its perienced in getting them to take to the

dam for the first eight or ten days, then latter substance; but by putting a small take it away and give it five pints of bit into the youngster's mouth just after new milk per day for the first week, after it has finished its gruel or porridge, at

which the new milk is gradually with- which time it will suck greedily at any

drawn, and skim -milk added, until, at thing within its reach, it soon acquires the end of three or four weeks, the skim- a taste for it. The allowance of porridge milk is entirely substituted for the new should be continued until the animals milk , and then a little other food is by are five or six months old, after which

degrees introduced, such as turnips, cut into finger-pieces, as for sheep, and oatmeal or other gruel. In this way the youngsters are carried on till the grazing

it may be gradually discontinued . We have tried various of the calf meals, or milk substitutes, in the market, but found none fit to beat the oatmeal and season begins. linseed, either as regards moderation of Daily Allowance.— The quantities of first cost or the satisfactory after - re food given to calves at each meal vary sults.” 2 according to the size, breed, and condi-

A Useful Dietary . — Mr G. H. C.

tion of the animals. For a healthy calf Wright gives the following as a useful of any of the larger breeds the following table of rations for a calf : quantities are generally allowed : in the first week, 3 pints ( new milk ) at once, Ist week — 4 quarts of new milk at three meals. quarts of new milk and 2 quarts three times a -day, making 472 quarts per 2d week-4 boiled skim -milk at three meals .

day ; gradually increased till, in the 3d week — 2 quarts of new milk and 4quarts fourthweek, the quantity is 5 pints at

boiled skim -milk at two meals, and 2

once, and three meals, making up 772 lb. boiled linseed . quarts per day. At one month old, 4th week - 6 quarts boiled skim -milk and 23 lb. boiled linseed at two meals.

when the calves eat hay, finely sliced 5th week — 6 quarts boiled skim -milk and 1 lb. roots and cake, two meals a -day may boiled linseed at two meals . suffice ; the quantity at two months old i lb. of crushed linseed ( flax -seeds, not cake)

being 4 quarts at a meal, or 2 gallons will make rather more than I gallon of gruel.3

daily.1 American Example. — Professor E. 1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., sec. ser. ,

xiv . 2

495.

Farming World , 1889, 23.

3

Ibid ., 1889.

CALF -REARING .

41

W. Stewart says: “ We have often had sary. Fat-forming matter must be added calves seventy days old fed with 72 lb.

to make up for that removed in the

flax-seed and 1/2 lb. of oatmeal each

cream ; and nitrogenous matter, phos

with 20 lb. of skim -milk per day, that phate of lime, magnesia, sulphur, soda, have gained in weight 30 to 37 lb. in ten &c., taken away in the casein, must like days an average of over 3/4 lb. each wise be replaced. These elements, added per day. The flax-seed and oatmeal are

in due proportion to the easily digested

boiled, and then mixed with the milk. milk -sugar in the whey, make a very The average weight of these calves when wholesome food for calves. These sup dropped was about 60 lb.; their average plements to whey would be well supplied

weight at seventy days was 230 lb.;—they by linseed and linseed -cake - say 1/2 lb. had consequently gained 2.42 lb. per day. of each well boiled and added to 2 gal They were fed on new milk for one week. lons of whey for a young calf.

Some

then half -and -half skim-milk for another might prefer oatmeal, barley - meal, or week, then upon skim -milk and 4 oz. wheat-bran .

of boiled flax -seed each per day; at thirtyCare in use of Whey. - In utilising four days old, flax-seed increased to 1/2 whey as food for stock, certain precau lb., and 72 lb. oatmeal added ; the latter tions are necessary. It should be used was increased to 1 lb. in a few weeks,

while fresh and sweet, as, if allowed to become sour, it may seriously derange Whey for Calves .- Whey — what re- the system of the animal. Then whey mains of milk after the cream and casein should not be fed alone, on account of its or cheese are taken away — is much more being so unevenly balanced —too much

and afterwards another 1/2 lb. added .” 1

useful asfood than is generally supposed. water and too little dry matter. To en Often this refuse of the dairy is thrown able the animal to obtain the necessary away as of little value ; but some con-

amount of dry matter, it would have thus

sideration willshow that in this there is to swallow too much water. Therefore, great waste.

Whey consists of about 93 give the whey in conjunction with other

per cent of water and 7 per cent of solids drier and more concentrated food . -nearly the same proportions as in comHay -tea for Calves . — There is con mon turnips. The solid matter consists siderable feeding value in hay-tea.

In

of about 70 per cent of the sugar of milk , fact, well-made hay-tea is almost a per 14 per cent albuminous compounds — con- fect food as far as it goes . Professor E. taining about 3.75 per cent of nitrogen,

T. Stewart says : “ The soluble nutritive

11 per cent of ash , and nearly 5 per cent constituents of the hay are extracted by of butter or pure fat. It is probable that at least one- half of the mineral matter or ash is made up of common salt, derived from the salt used in the cheese-

boiling, and this extract contains all the food elements required to grow the ani mal, besides being as digestible as milk. Ifthe hay is cut early, when it has most

making. The albuminous matter makes soluble matter, and is of good quality , up very nearly 1 per cent of the whole of the tea will grow good calves ; but this the whey, and this, with 1/3 per cent of extract frequently has too small a pro

butter-fat and 5 per cent of milk -sugar, portion of albuminous and fatty matter. proves whey to be an article of food Yet if the hay -tea is boiled down so as worthy of careful utilisation .

not to contain too much water for the

Supplementing Whey.-- But while dryonsubstance, calves will usually thrive

the food constituents in whey are con up it. " 2 siderable, and may be turned to good Experiment with Hay -tea.

Pro

purpose in feeding calves, these must be fessor Stewart describes an experiment largely supplemented by other richer which he made with hay-tea and other commodities in order to sufficiently nour- foods in calf-rearing. To each of five

ish the young animal. For the success- calves, thirty days old, he gave daily 2 ful and economical selection and propor- gallons of hay -tea, in which 14 lb. of tioning of these supplementary foods linseed and % lb. wheat middlings had great care and no little skill are neces- been boiled . The experiment was con · Peeding Animals, 237 .

? Ibid ., 246.

CATTLE IN SPRING .

42

tinued for sixty days, with a gradual Where the suckling method is followed , increase during the last thirty days of the calf is allowed to remain with the the middlings to 1 lb. The calves did cow or have regular access to her till it

remarkably well, gaining an average of is weaned at six or seven months old. a little over 2 lb. per head per day in

A Gloucestershire Shorthorn Herd .

weight. He also states that a similar -In Lord Fitzhardinge's herd of short experiment was tried by a dairyman who horns at Berkley Castle, Gloucestershire, sold his milk for city consumption, yet the custom is to let the cows suckle their desired to raise a number of calves. Here calves, the calves running with their

the results were even more satisfactory— dams and sucking at will for three weeks. the average daily gain in weight for sixty The cows being milked between five and days being 24 ib.1 six in the morning, and at four o'clock Making Hay-tea . — There is a knack in the afternoon, to take from them what in making all kinds of tea . There is a ever the calves may have left. At the good deal in the manner in which this end of three weeks the calves are taken

wholesome beverage for the calf is pre- away and brought up by hand, the finger pared. Some make it by merely pouring being given them for a day or two, if boiling water over long hay in a tub. A

necessary, to teach them to drink out of

better plan is to cut the hay, as with a chaff-cutter, and boil it in the ordinary way for at least half an hour. Professor Stewart states that in his experiment mentioned above, he boiled hay cut 5/8

the bucket. They are fed twice a -day, getting about a gallon of new milk each time, the quantity being slightly lessened if there is a tendency to scour. Care is taken never to gorge a calf with too much

of an inch long, 3 lb. for each calf, half milk ; the appetite and constitution of an hour, and then the short hay was each youngster being carefully observed .

raised upon a wire-cloth sieve over the Sometimes a calf three weeks old can kettle and drained, whilst the flax -seed not beneficially take more than two and middlings were put into the kettle quarts of new milk at each end of the day. Milk is continued till the calf is and boiled to a jelly.

It is important for tea -making that the six or seven months old ; but when it hay should be cut young, when in full

has been five or six weeks in this wicked

bloom, so that it may be nutritious and world, it is allowed access to a little crushed oats, Indian meal, and barley easily digested. Where milk is scarce, the use of hay -tea meal, given very sparingly at the outset, in calf-rearing is to be commended . and not too finely ground, as calves do not so readily chew the cud when fed Calf-rearing in Pure-bred Herds. on finely ground meal.2 The methods of rearing calves in pureA Norfolk System . - In Mr Hugh bred herds does not vary quite so much Aylmer's large herd of shorthorns at

as in ordinary stocks. In pure-bred herds West Dereham Abbey, Norfolk, Mr the successful rearing of the calf is the Housman tells us, “ the calf at birth is first and main object. The utilisation of allowed to remain with the dam, at least

the cow'smilk ,apart from the upbringing in the same box ; but there is in the of the calf, is as a rule a matter of second- corner a little pen for the calf, in which ary importance. The pure -bred calf, it is kept, having the mother's com

therefore, usually gets all the milk that panionship, though not unrestricted ac good is

for it.

In the majority of cases, cess to her, for the first fortnight.

From

perhaps, it draws this directly from its that time the calf has a pen in some dam , but the system of hand -feeding other house, sometimes in a box to itself, pedigree calves is also extensively pur- but oftener in a compartment in a house sued . In most cases the

calf sucks its with other calves, and is taken to the

dam at the outset, and where hand -rear- mother twice a-day, morning and even ing is pursued it is taken away from the ing. If the mother is a deep milker, cow in ten days or two weeks-in some the herdsman takes from her as much

cases as early as its second or third day. 2 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., sec. ser. , xvi. 1 Feeding Animals, 246.

409.

CALF -REARING .

43

milk as he finds she can spare, leaving cow cannot retain her milk . When the plenty for the calf, which then comes in calf can manage all the milk , it is al and clears the udder, so that the calf lowed to go loose about at will, one

gets the richer strippings, but does not stall being leftfor the use of cow and When satiate itself by taking too much after a

the cows go out to the

calf.

day's (or a night's) fasting. . . . There grass, the milk generally increases, and is no inflexible rule, but usually the calf, sometimes it is again necessary to resort if a heifer, is suckled about six months ; to hand -milking to take away the sur if a bull, sometimes rather longer. As plus. After the calf is weaned, the cow soon as the calf can be enticed to eat a is regularly milked three times a -day. little dry food, it has in its manger a Indeed, at all times, care is taken to mixture of crushed oats, oilcake , and relieve the cow of all her milk. The ground maize (these ingredients varied in calves are trained to eat oilcake and proportion, and one or more omitted so sliced turnips as soon as possible, and are

as to tempt the appetite), and sometimes weaned at from seven to eight months a little cut cabbage or tares with the dry old .” 3 food ; but it does not do much more than Systems in Irish Herds.- There is flirt with the manger until it reaches the no part of the country where calf -rearing age of six or seven weeks, when it be- is better understood than in Ireland.

gins to eat in earnest, and by the time it The prevailing system in Irish pure-bred

should be weaned, it is pretty well past herds is to let the cow suckle the calf. the necessity of having milk, so that In Mr T. W. Talbot -Crosbie's herd of there is no checking of growth or loss of shorthorns at Ardfert Abbey, County flesh after weaning.

The quantity of Kerry, all the calves are suckled, and run

milk , too, can be regulated by the quantity with cows while these are on pasture. taken from the cow before the calf is

The bull calves are taken in as soon as

turned in with her ; and the calf is thus, they begin to be troublesome, and put by easy transition, relieved of dependence into boxes in pairs, the same two being upon its mother." 1 A Northumberland

kept together until they are sold .

The

cows are brought in twice a -day to suckle Herd. — In almost every instance, the the calves till weaning-time. The heifer Shorthorn

cows in the Duke of Northumberland's calves are usually left with their mothers shorthorn herd at Alnwick Park are till the cows are housed in the autumn,

allowed to suckle their calves. This plan, but no calf is ever allowed to be with the Mr Housman says, is found to be a safe cow after she is six months in calf. Food

one for both cow and calf, and since it is given to the bull calvesas soon as they was fullyadopted, the loss of a calf at are put into the boxes, but the heifers Alnwick Parkhasbeen very rare, and no get no extra feeding until they are shorthorn cow has died of milk - fever for many years. The calves remain with

weaned . The first food, other than milk ,

given to calves, generally consists of their dams for six or seven months, when pulped turnips, sweet-hay, and a mixture they are weaned, in order to rest the of linseed -cake, decorticated cotton -cake,

oats, and bran, in the following propor tions, divided into four equal parts : most general plan in Scotch herds of Two of linseed -cake, one of cotton -cake,

cow before she has another calf.

Scotch

Shorthorn

Herds.

The

shorthorns is to allow the cows to suckle

and one of crushed oats and bran . There

their offspring: Describing the practice is no fixed rule as to quantity, except in Aberdeenshire with the Sittyton short- that the bulls are fed pretty liberally

horn herd specially in view , Mr Housman according to size, and the heifer calves “When the cow calves, the calf is sparingly.

says :

tied up beside her ; and for some time, until it is well able to take all her milk,

In Mr Richard Welsted's old -estab

lished herd of shorthorns at Ballywalter, the cow is regularly milked, the calf County Cork, the rule is to let the cow

sucking at thesame time, so that the suckle the calf for one day only, and to

bring up the calves by hand - feeding, 1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng ., sec. ser., xvi. 415.

** Ibid ., 395 .

3 Ibid. , 388.

4 Ibid ., 422 .

CATTLE IN SPRING .

44

mainly with new milk, until they are meal.

well able to consume and live upon cut

Some give raw fresh eggs to veal

calves, which are generally allowed to

roots, hay, or grass, and roughlyground suck the cow at will, or at least three To bring forward late calves, the times a -day. The usual period of fatten

oats.

suckling system is sometimes resorted to. ing for veal is from six to ten weeks, and Hereford Herds. — In herds of Here with the view of improving the colour of ford cattle the almost universal practice the flesh the calves are frequently bled.

is to let the calves suck their dams. The tention In fattening vealgiven calves, most careful at must cleanliness, ven

youngsters generally run with the cows

be

to

on the pastures in the grazing season, tilation, and regularity of feeding. and in the house they are either kept in Rearing Bull Calves.- As a rule, a compartment with the cow, or in an bull calves intended for sale for breeding

enclosure by themselves, and brought to purposes are fed more liberally than the cow two or three times a -day, most heifer calves. They are reared more generally twice. If any cow gives more largely upon new milk to begin with, milk than is thought desirable for the the most general custom being to let

calf, the cattle-man milks her at regular them suck their dams for six, seven, or intervals. In Mr John Hill's herd at Fel- eight months. Then when other food hampton Court, the calves, before the be- is provided for them , it is usually of a

ginning of the grazing season, " are fed richer and more forcing kind than is as soon as they can eat (they begin when allowed to heifer calves. Gruel made

a fortnight old to pick up a little), with from linseed or linseed -cake, oatmeal or hay, pulped swedes, or a few cut into barley -meal, is extensively used, and so finger -lengths, with a little cake and is linseed -cake by itself or mixed with crushed oats. The allowance of cake and

bruised grain. Malt is a favourite food

meal is increased as they get older, to half with some experienced breeders in push a pound each per day, and before the ing on bull calves. Some breeders summer is over up to 2 lb. per day," 1 sweeten the food -mixture for young bull the calves sucking their dams at the same calves with a little dissolved or diluted

treacle. This should be used sparingly,

time.

Polled Herds.—In the herds of polled however, if used at all — as food which, Aberdeen -Angus cattle, suckling is the like treacle, is rich in sugar, is delete prevailing custom . The calves are train- rious to the procreating properties of ed, before being weaned , to eat other animals — that is if given in considerable food, such as linseed -cake, hay, cut roots, quantities. bruised grain ; and at the time of weanIt is specially important that bull

ing they are fed and tended with the calves should have plenty of exercise and greatest care, so that there may be no fresh air. If long shut up and highly retrogression. In some herds the calves fed on forcing food, they are liable to go

are taken from the cows when about six wrong in the legs and feet. weeks old, and thereafter brought up on

Danger of gorging Calves . - Great

new and skim milk, and gruel made care should be exercised in the feeding chiefly from linseed -cake or oatmeal, or of calves in their tender days, especially a mixture of these and other foods. ? General Notes.

during the first three weeks. At this time they should be fed sparingly rather

than liberally. Many calves are lost by

Feeding Calves for Veal. - Large sucking or drinking more milk when numbers of calves are slaughtered for they are quite young than their weak veal, and these are of course forced with digestive system can readily dispose of. rich food from the very outset. New Whether the calf is fed by the hand or milk is the best of all foods for this pur- suckled by its dam, take care that it does

pose , although it may be to some extent not over-feed itself. Never let it suck

supplemented by rich gruel, made per- or drink till it is quite satisfied - at any haps from barley - meal or Indian - corn rate during its first three weeks.

If the

1 Hist. Ilereford Cattle, Macdonald & Sinclair, cow has too much milk for the calf, take away a little by the hand. 274.? Polled Cattle. Macdonald & Sinclair. Referring to this point in his admi

CALF -REARING .

45

rable paper on “ The Management of a assumption that certain districts are Shorthorn Herd ,” Mr William Housman , more favourable than others to the

one of our most reliable authorities on live-stock matters, says : “The theory is -and I believe it to be perfectly true— that manyof the frequent and discouraging lossesamong young calves arecaused

breeding propensity and reproductive ness of cattle.

In some herds it has

been found that cows rarely return to the bull until after their calves areweaned . In othersthe sucked cows come round as by the allowance of too much milk at a early and as regularly as those milked tender age. The calves should be kept by the hand . hungry — that is, never allowed to satisfy

Licking and Rubbing beneficial.

themselves for the first three weeks of their lives. Scouring and indigestion, with consequent formation of hair-balls in the stomach, arise from too liberal or irregular feeding.” 1 Irregular feeding - long fasts followed

Many skilled breeders systematically let the newly dropped calf be licked by the COW .

And there is more in this ap

parently smallmatter than is generally supposed. “ The bloomy appearance of suckled calves is partly due to this

by heavy meals of milk or other food— motherly attention ; and the licking is quite as hurtful as, and of more fre- along the calf's spine, which the cow, quent occurrence than, excessive feeding

with her rasp of a tongue, gives her calf

Many calves are killed by gorging with immediately after birth, has evidently milk after a long fast - perhaps after a an important meaning. All careful journey. When a purchased calf is taken managers, when the calves are not to its new home it should be fed very reared by the cow , take care to imitate this process, rubbing well over the spine sparingly for at least two days.

Does Suckling hinder Breeding ? with a wisp of straw. -By many experienced breeders it is contended that when the calf is allowed to remain with and suck the cow , there is a danger of the cow being longer in

This not only

dries the calf and prevents its taking cold, but evidently strengthens it ; and the calf, if a healthy one, responds to the rubbing by vigorous efforts, soon suc

returning to the bull than if she were cessful, to gain its feet. ” 2 milked by the hand and the calf kept Weaning Calves. - Weaning is usu The subject has long ally a critical event in calf -life. In dairy been debated, and still opinion amongst and ordinary stocks, where only a small

away from her.

leading breeders is sharply divided . The portion of the milk is given to the calves, be that the danger, if such exist at all,' young. The process may be said to

preponderance of opinion would seem to the youngsters are weaned when very is not serious ; and this is confirmed by begin in some cases at the end of the

the fact that in pure-bred herds the second week, when some skim -milk or

suckling system is the one which pre- gruel is ksubstituted for so much of the

vails the most extensively. Some con

new mil .

In pure - bred herds, and

tend that it is the companionship of the wherever calves are reared largely on calf, rather than the mere act of suck- milk , weaning is generally completed in

ling, which retards the cow in breeding the sixth, seventh , or eighth month, after again ; hence some who practise the suck- which the calves are fed similarly to the ling, systematically keep the cows and other animals.

the calves separate from each other

Now in the weaning of calves there is

scope for the exercise of the utmost skill except at feeding-times. Mr Housman made a special point of and care . If success is to be attained ,

investigating experience and observation both skill and care are essential. Pre upon this subject amongst breeders of pare the young animal for the weaning shorthorns throughout the kingdom , and -the complete withdrawalof its mother's he was quite unable to account for the milk — by feeding it partially for some

divergence except by differences in local time before with such food as will form conditions of soil and climate, by the its main support after it has beenweaned. Let the milk be lessened , and the other 1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., sec. ser . , xvi . 388 .

? Ibid ., 428.

SHEEP IN SPRING .

46

food gradually increased in quantity, so thriving as well as could be desired is that the transition may be effected almost a raw egg beaten up and added to the

imperceptibly. The more carefully and milk. Some beat up the egg shell and intelligently this is done, the more sat- all, others think it preferable to with isfactory will be the result in the calf. hold the shell. The amount of milk allowed to a suckled Setoning. – A seton is a piece of string calf may be regulated by drawing away or tape passed through a certain part of as much of the cow's milk by hand as the body, with the object of either draw

may be desired, and at last, just before ing an abscess, acting as a counter-irritant, final weaning, the calf may have access to or for the purpose of inoculation. As a the cow only once a -day.

prevention against black -leg, or quarter

There is perhaps no better food for ill, it is a useful custom to insert a seton calves at weaning-time than good linseed- in the calf's brisket in the spring. It is cake_from 1 to2 lb. per day, and a few considered desirable to soak the seton in sliced turnips or mangels, and fresh well- some irritant such as the following em made hay. If accustomed to this fare brocation — viz., hartshorn, 1 ounce; tur

before being entirely deprived of their pentine, 2 ounces; spirit of camphor, 2 mother's milk, they will be found to pass ounces ; laudanum, 12 ounce ; olive oil, through the ordeal of weaning without 6 ounces. Castrating. - The male calves can be any loss in condition or delay in promost easily castrated when a few weeks gress. Diseases

of Calves . -

Scouring -

old. They can then be cut standing, by

sometimes called white skit or white twisting the tail around one hind leg . scour - is the most prevalent ailment Stand behind the calf, cut through the

among calves. It is generally caused by bag, twist the stone several times, and improper feeding, and may as a rule be cured by giving 2 ounces of castor-oil, or an egg beaten up shell and all, followed by tablespoonful doses of calf -cordial, prepared of the following : prepared chalk, 2 ounces ; powdered catechu, i ounce ; ginger, 12 ounce ; opium , 2

scrape the cord closely through with your finger - nails or

a blunt knife.

When the calves are several months old they must be cast. This may be done by tying the hind - legs together with a rope, placing a halter round the neck, taking the shank end of the halter

drachms; peppermint -water, I pint. and running it through the rope that Oatmeal or linseed gruel should be the unites the hind -legs, tying it back, pass main food for a few days. ing it through theportion that is around Calves also suffer frequently from the neck, and drawing the legs tight,

. The fore-legs constipation. This will be relieved by then fastening the rope The stones may the yolk of an egg, with a very little then be removed by the clams and hot

giving 1 ounce of castor oilbeaten up in can be held by a man .

ginger, about 1 scruple, repeating the iron, as in the case of the horse - place

dose if necessary.

the stone in the clams, and with a red

Eggs for Calves. — An effective “ pick- hot iron saw the cord slowly through me-up” for a calf that is not eating or close to the clams.

SHEEP IN SPRING.

The anxieties of the spring - the occasionally stretch into March, causing hopes and the fears — are as great to much anxiety, and it may be serious the flock -owner as to the cattle-breeder.

losses, to flock -owners, by deaths and by

It very often happens that the heaviest outlay for extra feeding and manage part of the winter weather has to be ment. gone through in spring. Severe snowSheep in Spring Storms. — As to

storms frequently occurin February, and the treatment of sheep in stormy weather

THE LAMBING SEASON .

47

in spring, the information given under the beauty of the dewy eve and rising the heading of “ Sheep in Winter " should be consulted. The particular kind of extra food to be given to the sheep in a spring snowstorm will depend mainly upon

moon, or listening as the amorous thrush concludes his song ; or only to think of the price of mutton and of wool, or of lambs as fore and hind quarters.

the supply on the farm and the sort of food cheapest and most easily obtained

“ The haunt o' Spring's the primrose brae,

at the time.

This one word of caution

we would repeat, Do not too long delay

The Summer's joys the flocks to follow ; How cheerie through the shortening day Is Autumn in her weeds o' yallow ! '

hand-feeding if such should be necessary “ The sweetness of pastoral life is -do not postpone extra feeding till starvation has done its work of mischief. going. It is disappearing under the At such a crisis timely rather than liberal influence of commercial enterprise, the spread of science, and the difficulties of feeding is the essential point.

competition. We also ourselves are vic tims to utilitarianism , and must plead guilty to sharing in the universal want THE LAMBING SEASON. of sentiment even when birds rejoice in At this season of the year lambing is leafy bowers and bees hum round the

the all-absorbing topic of interest with breathing flowers ; or when within yon the sheep-farmer and the shepherd. No milk -white hawthorn bush, among her one who has not lived on a sheep -farm nestlings sits the thrush. One is some can conceive what the advent of the

times inclined to wonder if steam -power

lambing -time brings to the chief actors and chemical manure, pedigree stock and in flock management. It arouses a iron fencing, weigh - bridges and milk depth of interest and a ceaseless anxiety registers, will ever compensate us for the

not experienced at any other period of loss of the fresh andsimple country life the year. It is the time in which, above of our forefathers. It is useless to re all others, good or bad management tells pine, and perhaps the best thing we can —when every hour of carelessness may do is to cherish those pleasurable feel rob the flock of the lives of valuable ings with which we may still view the animals.

flock spread o'er the down, or listen to

And the seriousness of the lambing the varied tones of the sheep-bell; and season is nearly allied to sentimentality ; to cultivate more of personal interest and affection for our domesticated crea day and night in the lambing-pens, he is tures. There is no doubt that the

for while the faithful shepherd is toiling even then cheered by

foretaste of the

unspeakable joys which come alike to the owner and the tender of the flock from the sight of thriving “ lambs at play.;" It may be — we fear it is, al-

humble dairyman, the carter, or

the

shepherd, obtain more enjoyment from watching and tending their charges than do their masters ; and the pleasures of farming might be greatly enhanced by

though one is loath to believe it — that devoting more personal attention to our the hard utilitarianism of the present live stock, and studying their habits.

age is depriving pastoral life of much of Love of animals maybe cultivated , and the sentiment and poetry which gilded with it comes an interest in the wild it in the past.

Poetry of Pastoral Life . — We are

creatures which surround us. ” 1

Assuredly the kindly interest here in

heart and soul in sympathy with Pro- culcated has a practical bearing upon fessor Wrightson when he says: “ There the material wellbeing of the flock -owner, is genuine poetry in pastoral life which who may do much to encourage his

it is sad to lose entirely. Nevertheless, shepherd by sympathetic countenance agricultural science and literature are

and intercourse by the side of the flocks.

between them rapidly taking the ro- And a good shepherd is well worthy of mance out of it. Perhaps we should all the encouragement that can be given add , hard times, and the vital import- to him . ance of making things pay. Still, it is 1 Live Stock Jour., Jan. 1889, 42. a pity to lose the faculty of discerning

EP

SHE

48

ING

IN SPR

.

A Good Shepherd. - A shepherd shepherd will prove mortal to sheep at lambing, whose unwearied attention and consum-

which even the most skilled veterinarian

mate skill become conspicuous at this

cannot prevent. His acuteness will per

critical period of the flock's existence, is ceive a sheep affected long before any an invaluable servant to a stock -farmer.

one else can detect it ; but it is not to

His services, in fact, may be worth far be expected of any shepherd to treat more than the amount of wages he many of the diseases of sheep success receives.

Such a man will save the fully when a veterinarian is not to be

amount of his wages every year, when found. compared with the losses sustained by Preparations for Lambing.– The the neglect of an unskilful shepherd, es- cautious shepherd will have several pre

pecially in a precarious season, when, by parations attended to before lambing be treating the ewes and lambs in the most gins. He will see that sufficient shelter proper manner under the circumstances, is provided — on arable land—either in the lives of many are preserved that permanent or temporary lambing pens, will have conveniently at hand supplies The Modern Shepherd . — As a class of extra food, such as turnips, cabbages,

would otherwise have been lost.

of men the shepherdsof the present day are surpassed by none of their fellows on the farm for intelligence, efficiency, or faithfulness. They are undoubtedly, as a rule, better informed , if not more trustworthy, than the shepherds of

hay, &c., also of straw for litter, and will see that his medicine-box is replenished to meet emergencies. He will have a good lantern, such as shown in fig. 117, in readiness to guide him through the pens at night, andlikewise a piece ofblanket former times. In many instances we in which to wrap a weak lamb. In many have known, their success in treating cases the shepherd will have to spend the their flocks at lambing-time has been

night beside the lambing-pens, and he

remarkable.

must therefore have his own bed in

Yet the best of them need

all their wits about them in the height order, either in his separate hut, or in of lambing, and in bad weather may a corner of the lambing-shed. There sustain numerous losses in spite of their should be a fire in the shepherd's com utmost efforts.

partment, and some coffee or tea will be

Skilful and Attentive Shepherds. -Some shepherds are as attentive as could be wished, but lacking in skill. They may have their ewes in too high

useful. All these essentials should be in readiness, and not have to be sought for when the active and critical work of lambing begins.

condition for lambing, and may be over-

Classifying Ewes for Lambing.

anxious and over-ready to assist in diffi- Ewes are drafted into the lambing fold cult cases of lambing - thus, through want or ground in lots as they are expected to of skill, causing the loss of both ewes lamb. The tups are usually left among and lambs. Other shepherds, again , are the ewes for six weeks. After two weeks'

sufficiently skilful, but are wanting in Of these two sorts of shepherds — the attentive and the skilful -the skilful is the safer, as it will usually be easier for the master to en-

attentiveness .

service the tups are marked with, say, red paint on the breast, and this, at the end of two weeks, is changed to blue paint. The marks of paint on the breast of the tup mark the served ewes on the

force attentiveness than to inculcate rump, and thus their time of lambing is skill — that is, if the skilful shepherd is ascertained. The in-lamb ewes unmarked not a positively careless fellow, in which are first taken in for lambing, then those case he should not be in this position with red marks, and lastly those with at all.

blue marks.

It is well to have the ewes

A Perfect Shepherd. — It is only on the lambing -ground quite a week by the union of both qualities that a before their lambs are due, as early par

perfectshepherdis constituted - prevent- turition is frequent. In many cases the order of marking ing evils by skilful attention, and curing them by attentive skill. Even with such service is the reverse of the above, the

a perfect shepherd losses will happen, unmarked ewes being the last to lamb. but they will be no fault of his : disease

Lambing Folds or Pens . - Custom

THE LAMBING SEASON .

49

varies greatly in the providing of shelter have been fixed during the previous for lambing. On many farms there are summer, and have determined the situa elaborate and costly lambing sheds and tion of certain hay and corn ricks. As

pens built of stone and lime. On others threshing proceeds, the corn -ricks yield the lambing -pens are merely temporary straw -ricks, which are made long, and erections, formed, perhaps, of hurdles placed so as to secure the greatest

and straw ; while in many casesnolamb- amount of shelter from the wind. A ing-pens of any kind are provided. Costly gentle slope towards the south is the erections are not necessary, and therefore best site, and in close proximity to a undesirable, as all unnecessary outlays field of swedes or of late turnips. are. Lambing-pens of one kind or other, The enclosure consists of a double row

however, should be provided upon all of hurdles, stuffed between with straw , farms carrying breeding- sheep, and for and kept firm by means of a few posts all kinds of sheep, whether the hardy and rails. About 2 feet from the out mountain breeds or the more tender side wall, and on the inside, are driven southern varieties.

Let the character of 6-feet posts carrying a head rail or plate,

the shelter be suited to the farm , the and, resting on this plate and upon the locality, and the breed of sheep. Little outside hurdles, with a sufficient run or roofed space may suffice, but there should slope, thatched hurdles are fixed ; thus

be a dry bed and shelter from the pre- forming acontinuous narrow shed,which vailing winds.

The weather may be so is again divided by hurdles into coops or cells. These coops are best open to the

favourable as to make it unnecessary to

put any of the ewes and lambs under south and east, and backed tothe north roof, yet the means of doing so should and west ; and in such a position ewes exist. The sudden occurrence of a storm without proper shelter being at hand for

and lambs lie warm even in the severest

weather.

Outside these cells, and in

ewes with very young or tender lambs, side the enclosure, the space is divided might result in serious losses.

by hurdles into four or five good -sized The Old - fashioned Shed . - Professor yards, and a straw -rick ought to occupy

Wrightson, in the paper already quoted, a central position with reference to the says that shelter must be provided for entire space. The shepherd's portable the ewes at lambing-time. He mentions house is drawn up at a convenient dis two descriptions of enclosures for lamb- tance, and with such a fold we may look

ing -ewes. One is the old -fashioned per- forward to the throes of lambing with a manent shed, for which the rick -yard feeling of confidence and security . Fold for 300 Ewes. — In his paper on tages of this system are, that the flock is the treatment of Border Leicester ewes near home, and that the rick -yard is a and lambs, Mr A. S. Alexander gives has often been employed. The advan-

protected enclosure, which , when well the following description of a lambing ſittered down and fenced with thatched fold for about 300 half -bred ewes : “ A

hurdles, forms a very suitable place for small field of half an acre is chosen be the purpose.

In some cases there are hind the homestead.

At the north side

seen special walled enclosures, furnished there is a high stone wall, and on the east

with accommodation for the shepherd a thorn hedge, which effectually breaks ding is most conveniently divided into north wall are erected a row of twenty coops by means of hurdles, and in such houses, ' parricks'or pens, the roofing of

and shedding for the ewes. The shed- the effect of the east winds. Along the

a shed ewes will lamb safely and com- which is made by fixing timber fromthe

fortably.

On large sheep - farms this top of the wall to the posts which form distance between the flock and their door serves for two pens, there being in

system is objectionable on account of the the doors and fronts of the pens. One

food .

the interior a middle division which does

The Modern Fold . — The more gen- not quite come to the same line as the to where the ewes and lambs are to turn

The door is closed by means of a small hurdle or ' flake,' which

out after lambing. The position of the pen , says Professor Wrightson, should

1 Live Stock Jour ., 1889, 65.

eral plan now is to construct a pen near

VOL . II .

walls in front.

D

50

SHEEP IN SPRING .

moves between the partition and the should he not require the third lamb for another ewe . There are fifty -four pens, “ The roof is thickly thatched with rye and the reason for such a large number is or wheat straw , tied in bundles, and on that, should severe weather - as a snow the outside or front, bunches of straw re- storm - come on during the season, the sembling sheaves are set on end, so that ewes may be penned instead of lying out. their tops meet the thatch ; and when “By having a number of doors in the

inside of the walls.

fixed in this position by means of ' tarry ' lambing-shed instead of a few, the lamber

string or old sheep -netting, a most effec- is enabled to house the ewe at the point tual covering is made, the straw materially adding to the warmth during the cold nights so com ly prevalent in March. This row mon of pens forms the

nearest the place where she lambed.

To make it all the easier for him , the pens are constructed round three sides of the square court, so that at whatever

north side of a rectilineal figure. On the part of the court a ewe lambs he has east is the hedge ; and to form the other shelter at hand. A covered court en two sides westand south , a fence of larch closed is also in connection with these

posts, with three spruce rails, is erected lambing - pens, into which on stormy of the same height as a common fence . nights ewes and gimmers having single To make this enclosure as comfortable as lambs are placed . There is also a store possible, bunches of straw are fixed all house for food under the same roof.” 2 along the inside of the fence and hedge, Lambing Shelter on Hill Farms . and when fixed in position, form as it As a rule hill farms are deficient in lamb were a solid wall of straw , which is quite ing shelter. On these the lambing is impervious to the strongest wind. delayed till so late a periodin the season

# The enclosure which is called the —from the middle of April till the end court is provided with two gates — one of May — and the mountain breeds of

for driving the ewes in at the evening, sheep are so hardy, that farmers are apt

at the west end, and one at the east end, to trust too much to the clemency of the where ewes and lambs are turned into a

weather and the hardiness of the sheep.

' seed 'field after a day or two. There is The more careful farmers have numerous also a little gate formed of two bundles small pens or “ keb-houses” erected on

of straw, at which the shepherd enters at the lambing -ground, so that there may night.” 1 be plenty of protection for both ewes and Permanent Lambing -shed . — A sub- lambs from severe storms. On many

stantial permanent lambing -shed erected farms, however, little attention is given on the farm of Crookhouse, Lanton, Nor- to this, and as the result the losses of

thumberland, is also described by Mr young lambs, and even of ewes, are often Alexander : “ All the pens are erected exceedingly heavy. This neglect is all under one roof of larch, timber, and slate,

the more reprehensible from the fact that

and enclosed in front and behind by sub- comfortable lambing pens or huts might stantial walls of stone. The partitions be formed at nominal expense and very between the pens themselves are con- little trouble. With some hurdles, or a structed of larch hurdles, fixed at each few boards, cuttings of turf, and perhaps end to larch uprights, which at the same a little straw , temporary shelter may be

timesupport the roof. Each set of pens provided by which the lives of many is divided by a passage communicating lambs might be saved. And it is equally with the outside court, where the un- important that the shepherd should pro lambed ewes lie at night. vide himself with some extra food, such “ On entering a passage we have three as hay, roots, and corn, with which to

pens on each side, provided with gates nourish weakly ewes confined for a time hung on hinges, and fastening by means in these lambing -huts. of an eye and draw -bolt. A few pens are Lambing Hospital. — A few pens in made six feet square, so that should the a corner of the lambing -fold by them

shepherd have ewes with twins, he may selves should always be set apart for have ample accommodation for them, hospital purposes. In these, weakly ewes 1 Trans. High. and Agric. Soc ., 1882, 146.

? Ibid ., 1882, 148.

THE LAMBING SEASON .

and lambs may be made specially comfortable, the ewes receiving palatable, nourishing food, or such remedial treatment as best suits their peculiar ailments.

51

food , and the medicine-case or bottles for the sheep, and of course a fireplace. Fig. 246 represents a convenient portable shepherd's

Many careful farmers have such hospitals house

made

formed at some convenient and well-shel- of corrugated tered spot in a field quite independent of iron by the an ordinary lambing-fold. They may be Redcliffe formed of hurdles and straw at very little Crown Gal trouble and expense, and would be of vanised Iron great benefit wherever a breeding flock Co., Bristol. Shepherd's is kept. Accessories to the Fold .

It is often

difficult to keep the floor of the lambingfold dry. It is a good plan to have the floors of the roofed pens raised by a layer of gravel or burnt clay ; and the whole should be comfortably littered with straw . The stacks of straw and hay in the centre will add greatly to the comfort of the fold. A store of

Fig. 246.on— Shepherd's house wheels.

Medicine .

chest. -In many cases shepherds are now provided with medicine-chests fur nished with a considerable variety of medicines and stimulants, comprising laudanum , linseed -oil, castor-oil, spirits of nitre, Epsom salts, powdered ginger, powdered chalk , tincture of aconite, car bolic acid , Gallipoli oil, and whisky or -

roots should be at hand, and so also brandy, & c., &c. Excessive physicking, should be a well-filled corn-bin , with a however, is not to be commended . number of small feeding-boxes which can Drugs should be used with caution be placed here and there for the ewes.

only when necessary, and then

as

Care should be exercised in placing the promptly as possible. In the lambing shepherd's hut, root-store , and hay and pen carbolic acid and Gallipoli oil are straw stacks, so as to provide the greatest most valuable agents, for they are re possible amount of shelter. Supplementary Shelter . -In addi-

liable preventives of inflammation after lambing.

tion tothe regular lambing-fold it would

Symptoms of Lambing. – These are,

be well to provide additional shelter in enlargement and reddeningof the parts the form of small covered pens or huts under the tail, drooping of the flanks, at convenient well-sheltered parts of the patting the ground with the feet, and farm , where weakly ewes and lambs desire for separation from their com

might find comfort during a storm panions, stretching frequently, exhib fold . These might be very cheap and one place for any length of time, lying

without having to be brought into the iting restlessness by not remaining in

temporary erections, constructed by the down and rising up again as if dissatis

shepherd ; and they would be specially fied with every place , bleating as if in useful on hilly farms, or wherever the quest of a lamb, and appearing fond of ewes are not systematically brought into the lambs of other ewes. In a few hours, a fold for lambing.

With several of

or shorter time, the immediate symptom

these supplementary pens placed con- of lambing is the expulsion of the bag veniently over the farm , odd ewes and of water from the vagina, when the pains lambs would be more easily provided of labour may be expected to come upon

with protection from sudden storms than the ewe immediately. When the pains if they had all to be driven to one cen- are felt, she lies down and presses with tral fold. The importance of even one earnestness, changing one place or posi

night's shelter to a young lamb may be tion for another, as if desirous of relief. very great, often saving it from death, Assistance in Lambing. — Up to and setting it on its legs. this time not a hand should be put Shepherd's Hut. — This should rest upon her, nor, as a rule, until the yellow

on wheels, and may be made of iron hoofs of the fore-feet of the lamb, and or wood . It should be large enough to its mouth lying upon them , are distinctly hold a bed for one man , a small table seen to present themselves in the passage.

and chair, a cupboard for the shepherd's When time has been given, and the ewe

SHEEP IN SPRING .

52

is not able to expel the lamb by her own and keep good what is obtained at each

exertions, the shepherd renders assistance strain, and not to tear the lamb from before her strength fails by unavailing her prematurely by force. Whenever straining. Before giving assistance to a the lamb's head is clear, the shepherd ewe while lambing, the shepherd should seizes the upper part of the neck behind smear his hands as well as the vagina of the head with his left hand, the right the ewe with “ carbolic oil ”—that is, a hand still holding the legs, and pulls out

mixture of 1 part of carbolic acid to 10 the body with ease. The lamb is then parts of pure olive-oil.

placed at the ewe's head, for her to lick

The exact moment for rendering assist- and recognise, which she will instantly ance can be known only by experience. do; if her labour has not been severe. It is necessary to watch and wait, for a

If the labour has been very severe, she

hasty parturition often superinduces inflammation, if not of the womb, of the external parts of the ewe. If the labour is unusually protracted, the ewe should

will likely become sick, and be careless of the lamb as long as the sickness con tinues, which is evinced by quick, op pressed breathing.

be examined , and if the lamb is found

If the pains have been sharp, and this

to be in its natural position — with its head resting onits two fore-legs — a little more time may be given. Tedious labour often terminates in an easy birth. In nine cases out of every ten of natural presentation the ewe will lamb without

her first lamb, and she is not overcome by sickness, the ewe may probably start to her feet, and run away from the lamb. The attempt at escape must be prevented, and the end of the tail of the lamb put into her mouth, to make her notice it.

But the ewe should not be

The extraction of a lamb, as thus

assistance.

allowed to thoroughly exhaust herself related, is done by a shepherd who has before receiving assistance. When assistance must be rendered, the ewe is taken hold of as she lies, and laid gently over upon the ground on her

no assistant.

far or right side, with her head up the hill, where the ground has an inclinaTo save her being dragged on the ground when the lamb isbeing extracted , the shepherd places the heel of his left foot pressing against the rump of the

easy for her and himself, to prevent its body being dragged along the ground while the shepherd is extracting the lamb. In doing this, the shepherd places himself behind the ewe, and, on ascer taining the position of the lamb, pulls

When he has, he adopts another and more easy mode for the ewe and himself. The assistant holds the ewe upon her side, in any way the most

ewe, and kneels on his right knee on the its legs towards him , whilst the assistant

ground, pressing against the lower part endeavours, by the pressure of the side of her belly, having the body of the ewe of his hand below the tail, to make the

below his own body, between the heel vaginal membrane pass over the lamb's and knee. Having his face towards the head, which when accomplished, the tail of the ewe, and both his hands free, he first proceeds to push out from him, with both hands, one leg of the lamb and then the other, as far as they will stretch ; then seizing both legs firmly

shepherd seizes the back of the neck by his right hand, and, holding the legs still in his left, takes away the lamb as quickly as he can, and places it before the ewe. above the fetlock -joints between the There is great difference in the dis

fingers of his right hand, he pushes the position of the ewes themselves to assist legs from him rather downwards from in the lambing. Some, when they find the ewe's tail, with considerable force, they are assisted, give themselves little whilst by pressing upon the space be- trouble ; others strain with vigour from tween the tail of the ewe and the head first to last; and some only strain at of the lamb towards him, with the lower long intervals.

A ewe that strains

edge of his left hand, he endeavours to strongly and continuously will become slip the vulva of the ewe over the cantle

of the lamb.

sooner exhausted than one that takes

The action of both hands the matter more leisurely.

In the case

must be made simultaneously with the of the straining ewe there is greater strainings of the ewe, only to assist her, danger in neglecting to make examina

THE LAMBING SEASON .

53

tion of the presentation in time, before tions, is that given as follows by Pro the ewe has become exhausted .

fessor Wrightson, whose sound advice A Second Lamb. — If she continues should be considered carefully by flock

to lie on her side, her abdomen should owners and their shepherds : be felt, to ascertain if there is another “ 1. One fore-leg only presented with lamb to come. If there is, the pains ac- the head lying upon it. In this case it is

companying the passage may have been difficult for aewe to lamb without help. the cause of her carelessness for the first The operator will endeavour to get hold lamb.

If the second lamb is in a natural of the missing limb, and, bringing it for

position, it will most probably, by this ward into its proper position, deliver the time, be showing itself in the passage.

ewe.

The best manner of doing this we

If so it be, it should be taken away shall consider after passing in review the at once in the same manner as the first, principal abnormalpresentations. and the ewe, feeling the attempt, will at 2. Both fore-legs lying back, the head alone being presented. In this once assist on her part by straining. The existence of a second lamb is worth position the ewe must have assistance, 66

attending to immediately on another ac- as birth without it is impossible.

The

count— some ewes becomeso engrossed head must be pushed back, the legs ex

with the first lamb, that the pains at- brought forward, and the lamb tending the second are neglected for a

tracted .

“ 3. The head slipped down between, or her, she must be watched, that whenever on one side of, thefore-legs. This must it comes into the passage itmay be taken be set right by bringing thehead into its away ; but unless it actually makes its natural position above the fore-legs, and time. When a second lamb is found in

appearance there, it should not be at- extracting the lamb. tempted to be taken away. Should the second lamb not make its

“ 4. A broadside presentation, in which case the broad side of the lamb is found

appearance in a reasonable time, it may within the uterus, and of course no pro be suspected that the lamb is either gress can be made until the hand and dead or not in a natural position , and forearm of the operator are introduced examination should be made by the and the fætus is turned and brought into fingers into the state of the case. In position. cases of suspected twins, some make an “ 5. The fætus on its back, in which examination to ascertain if they are case a similar manipulation must be em

presenting themselves separately. If a ployed as in the last case. complication is probable, the hand will have to be introduced to effect a separationof the twins by bringing one forward to the passage. A dead lamb is easily known by the feel, and should be extracted immediately ; but should the lamb be alive, and make no appearance, it may be necessary to introduce

“ 6. A breech presentation. If the hocks are doubled, the breech of the lamb must be pushed forward, and the hind feet brought up. The lamb is then pulled away backwards without turning. 66

17. The fætus too large, or the pass

age too small. This is a troublesome case, sometimes involving the loss of

the hand toascertain its position. Before the lamb, and occasionally of the ewe. the hand is introduced, it should be Shepherds sometimes are obliged to smeared with the mixture of carbolic carefully introduce a knife and cut off acid and oil. the shoulders, and remove the fætus False Presentations. — Cases of diffi- piecemeal. More commonly by patience cult lambing generally arise from the and by exerting a good deal of strength presentation of the lamb in some false or the lamb is safely born. abnormal form . The natural position of “ 8. Monstrosities are not uncommon ,

the lamb in the passage is upon its belly, most seasons providing examples of with its head resting upon its two fore- lambs with five legs, headless lambs, legs. The false or abnormal presenta- fusion of two lambs into one, &c. These tions are of course variations from this cases are puzzling, and require special position. The most recent, and one of the treatment, and when such malforma fullest definitions of abnormal presenta- tions are presented there need be no

SHEEP IN SPRING.

54

hesitation in employing the knife for of hard labour, by “ bearing ” or “ strain ing ”—after pains — and inflammation.

their removal.

Assisting in Lambing.-- " Having Formerly the rate of mortality from in given all the possible unnatural presen- flammation after lambing was very high, tations likely to be met with, I shall next but it has been abundantly proved that

explain how assistance ought to be rendered to a ewe in distress. In all cases great care and gentleness are requisite, and all roughness or hurry should be

by timely treatment the danger may be effectually averted. It has already been pointed out that in all cases the shepherd, before assisting a ewe, should smear his

avoided .

hand in a mixture of carbolic acid and

The hand should be anointed

with fresh lard or oil, and the finger-nails olive or Gallipoli oil — about i part must be short (shepherds' nails always of the former to 10 parts of the latter.

are). The hand must be compressed into Then, after the removal of the lamb, as narrow a space as possible and gently about two tablespoonfuls of the carbolić introduced .

In giving assistance the acid and oil should be poured into the

operator should draw the lamb in ac- womb, while any of the external parts cordance with the natural pains of the which seem inflamed should be smeared

ewe, and wait for her to pain. Assist- with the same mixture. This treatment ance given at that moment is useful ; but if force is used during the intervals of the labour-pains, the muscles of the uterus are excited , and the result is Again, the early exhaustion of the mother. in

should be repeated every three or four hours, as may be found necessary. The strength of the carbolic mixture should be regulated — from 5 to 20 parts of Gallipoli oil to i of carbolic acid –

using force the fætus should be drawn according to the symptoms of the case. downwards towards the hocks of the Where the symptoms of inflammation are ewe, and the operator need not be afraid serious, a strong mixture should be ap of using his strength when the fætus is plied promptly and frequently. The effi once brought into a proper position.” 1 cacy of this simple and inexpensive treat One Fore -leg Presentation . - In re- mentin preventing after-birth inflamma

gard to the difficulty of one fore-leg tion is remarkable — so much so indeed, presentation, Mr George Brown, Watten that if it is applied in time, immediately Mains, Caithness, says: “ If the lamb is well forward in the passage, it is much easier, and often safer, to bring the lamb away as presented ,than to attempt pressing back the head to get forward the

after birth in hard cases of labour, and in all cases upon the faintest indication of after straining orinflammation, complete prevention may be expected in ninety nine cases out of every hundred . It

other foot.”

should be mentioned that the credit of

Cesarean Operation. — The lamb is discovering this invaluable preventive sometimes in the Fallopian tube, from belongs to Mr Charles Scott, author of

some cause or other not coming into the womb after conception .

Cases of

" The Practice of Sheep Farming.' Rotten Turnips causing Inflam

this nature can only be managed by the mation . - Referring to the occurrence of

Cæsarean operation — taking the lamb inflammation among ewes after lambing, out of the ewe's side. In cases of this Mr James A. Gordon, of Arabella, states kind, while the lamb may be saved, the

that he had found the tendency to

ewe, unless a good deal of care and skill inflammation and mortification

much

are used, is very liable to be lost. greater when ewes were fed on turnips The hardier the breed the rarer the of which a good many were in a half-rot necessity for assistance in lambing. In ten condition. The best corrective in this

flocks of Blackfaced and Cheviot sheep, case, he says, is to remove the ewes to a thousands of ewes lamb every season field where they can get plentyof young without the slightest assistance. clover, and will receive only a few roots,

Inflammation after Lambing. — Un- nothing being so suitable for ewes and less the utmost care is exercised there is their young lambs as fresh young grass. great risk of losing the ewe after a case Inflammation Infectious.--Referring to the infectious character of inflammation 1 Live Stock Jour ., 1889.

in ewes after lambing, Mr George Brown,

THE LAMBING SEASON .

55

Watten Mains, Caithness, says : “When with it — and what is still more tantalis a case of inflammation does occur, it is ing, the intense fondness of its mother

absolutely necessary to separate the ewe urges her to turn herself round to it, in from the flock, and have the place she order to lick it with her tongue, mutter

lambed at thoroughly disinfected. The ing affectionate regards, while her wheel disease is most infectious, and will attack ing about removes the teat, the sole ob

all ewes which lamb after the first case ject of the young creature's solicitude. if they come into contact with the con- When at length a hold of it is obtained ,

tagion. The shepherd, if he has touched it does not easily let it go until satisfied the affected ewe,must be very careful to with a good drink,which is indicated by wash his hands in either turpentine or its full flanks. When a fond ewe has carbolic oil, and even change his twin lambs, one can easily obtain the teat clothes before touching another ewe ; while she is taken up in caressing the while ewes which die of inflammation other. This is the usual behaviour of

should be skinned by some one else, strong lambs ; and on once being filled not by the shepherd . with warm milk, they increase in strength “ Oats are a fruitful cause of inflamma- rapidly, and are soon able to bear very tion in ewes, as ewes fed largely on them rough weather. become full and hot-blooded at a critical

Assisting Lambs to Suck . -- But

time. Feeding on oats should therefore after a protracted labour, the lambs be discontinued a few weeks before lamb- may be so weakly at first as to be unable

ing, and cake or bran, or extra turnips, to reach the teat by their own strength. They must then be assisted, and the After Lambing . — When lambing has assistance is given in this way : turn taken place in the day, in fair weather, ing the ewe over upon her rump, the the ewe with her lambs are best at liberty shepherd kneels upon the ground on his within the enclosed area of the lambing right knee, and reclines her back against

given instead . ”

ground ; but in rain or snow , and at his left leg, which is bent. Removing shed , and kept there for some time and thumb if necessary, he first squeezes night, she should be taken into the any wool from the udder by the finger

until the weather proves better, or she the wax out of the teats, and, taking a has recovered from the effects of the lamb- lamb in each hand by the neck, if twins,

ing. In the day -time, it matters little opens the mouth of each with a finger, for lambs how cold the air is, provided it and applies the mouth to a teat, when the

be dry. It is considered a good sign sucking proceedswith vigour. A young of health when a lamb trembles after birth.

ewe or gimmer is apt to be shy to her first lamb, but after being suckled, either

Cleansing.— The cleansings or pla- in this or thenatural way, she will rarely centa generally drops from the ewe in forsake her offspring. the course of a very short time, in many

When lambs do not succeed at once

cases within a few minutes after lambing. in finding the teat, the shepherd should It should be carried away, and not allowed soon give the lamb its first suck in this to lie upon the lambing-ground. way, which not only saves it much trouble,

The Lamb. — The lamb is fondly licked and gives it strength, but affords himself

by the ewe at first, and during this pro- a favourable opportunityof examining cess the youngster makes many fruitless the state of the udder. The first good attempts to gain its feet, and it is truly and early suck to a lamb imparts a surprising how very soon after an easy strength to it beyond expectation. birth it will stand.

The moment it does

so , its first effort is to find out the teat,

Gimmers often have so scanty a supply of milk, that it is expedient for the shep

expressing its desire for it by imitating herd to support their lambs partially on

the act of sucking with its lips and cow's milk until the requisite supply ap tongue, then utteringa plaintive cry ,and pears, which will be partly induced by

wagging its still wet long tail. There are suckling, and partly by nourishment of variousobstacles to its finding the teat at succulent food . first — the long wool on the ewe's flank Hand - feeding Lambs . — When the hides it — that on the udder interferes shepherd has lambs to support for a

56

SHEEP IN SPRING .

short time, he should supply them with and that quietly, and with plenty of time cow's milk at regular hours, in the morn- given them. ing and evening, immediately after the

Mothering Lambs. — When ewes and

cows have been milked , and should see

lambs are turned out to pasture, or out

the lambs suckled by their mothers dur- of the lambing-fold, the shepherd ought ing the day, as also that the ewes have for the first ten days to see, at least

a sufficiency of milk. The dairymaid twice a -day, that every lamb is with its should put the cow's milk for the shepherd in bottles, when the cows are milked in the morning and evening, and he should feed the young lambs while the milk is warm from the cow . The feeding is done in this way : Sitting down, the shepherd takes a mouthful of milk from a bottle, and, holding up the mouth of the lamb open, he lets the warm milk drop into it in a small stream from his

own mother, and especially in the case of twins, to see that they are both hav ing regular access to the right ewe. Distinctive marks with paint on ewes and lambs are helpful in this work of mothering. putting ewes and very young lambs on to luxuriant grass, care is necessary to see that the lambs are not too hard forced

mouth, which the lamb drinks as fast as

with milk.

Risk of Over -forcing Lambs. - In

Mr George Brown, Watten

it comes ; and thus mouthful after mouth- Mains, Caithness, says: “ If the pasture ful until the lamb is filled . The auxiliary is rich and the ewes very full of milk , supply of milk should be withheld when ever the ewe can support her lambs.

Removing Ewes and Lambs. - Ewes are kept on the lambing - ground until they have recovered from the effects of lambing, the lambs have become strong,

there will be danger of lambs dying from

inflammation and apoplexy. Change of diet may stop this fell epidemic, for such it may become, especially if there is an east wind at the time. Scores of the strongest lambs have been lost in a

few days in this way. Careful change The time and moderation in feeding are the best

and the ewes and lambs are well ac-

quainted with each other.

required for all this depends on the preventive treatment.” nature of the lambing and the state of Protecting Lambs from Foxes. the weather : the more severe the lamb- Foxes are apt to snatch away young

ing, and the more broken the weather, they are kept the longer in ward. When quite recovered, the ewes, with their lambs, are put into a field of new grass, where the milk will flush upon the ewes,

lambs at night, even close to a lamb ing - house. An effectual preventive to their depredations has been found in set ting a sheep-net (fig . 75, vol. i. p. 172) in front of the lambing-houses, leaving

much to the advantage of the lambs.

sufficient space for a few ewes with their

It is generally a troublesome matter to drive ewes with young lambs to any distance to a field , the ewes turning round upon and bewildering the lambs. The

lambs making their lair within the net. When thus guarded, with a lantern burning outside, the foxes become appre

hensive of a snare, while the lantern dog irritates the ewes more than assists serves the useful part of affording ample

the shepherd in this task. A plan often light to the shepherd to see his valuable adopted is to lead the flock, when small, charge. The expedient of net and lan

instead of driving it, by carrying a single tern was tried after several lambs had lamb, belonging to an old ewe, by the been destroyed in successive years by fore-legs, with its head between the legs foxes, and a lamb was never afterwards -which is the safest way of carrying a lost in this way . A fox will seldom

lamb — and walking slowly with itbefore meddle with a lamb above a month old . It is easy to distinguish between an the ewe ; she will follow bleating close at the shepherd's heels, while the rest of attack by a fox and by a dog. The fox the ewes will follow her. If the distance seizes the lamb by the neck behind the

to the field is considerable, the decoy head, to throw it over his shoulder, and, lamb should be set down to suck and if he is scared at the moment, distinct bite

rest, and another taken for the purpose. holes of the teeth will be found on each When the number of ewes and lambs is side of the neck ; whereas a dog seizes considerable, they will have to be driven, any part of the body, and worries by

THE LAMBING SEASON .

57

tearing the under part of the neck. The lambs. The fostering is easily accom fox, if not disturbed, carries off his prey plished while the lambs are still wet, and bodily – he does not take time to eat it the two are placed before the ewe at the on the spot ; whilst the dog leaves behind him what he does not eat.

Some ewes

same time.

But in the case of a ewe

that does not die till two or three days

will fight off either dog or fox, and after she has lambed, it will be difficult single lamb ; whilst to make another ewe that lambs a single others are so afraid , that they kno w not lamb, at the time of the death of the Afte

stoutly protect

r an ewe, take the older lamb along with her whither to flee for refuge. attack, the bleating of the ewe in search own . of her lamb an unusual occurrence at The usual plan is, to rub the body of

night — will acquaint the shepherd of the the older lamb with the new -dropped one disaster that has happened . before the ewe had recognised her own Unkindly Mothers. - Much trouble lamb, and to place both before her at the is imposed upon shepherds when ewes same time. She may then take both

will not take their own lambs. In every case of a ewe refusing to let her own lamb suck, the shepherd should particularly examine the state of the udder, and ascertain the cause of uneasiness. If it be inflammation, or simply hardness, reme-

without scruple ; but the probability is, she will reject the older one. If so , she may be put into a dark corner of the shed, and confined by a board placed across the corner, giving her room only to rise up

and lie down, and to eat, but not

dial measures must be used to restore the

udder to its natural state.

to turn round upon the stranger lamb to If the udder box it. Meanwhile, being strong, and

be well, the ewe must be put under dis- rubbing itself against her wool, and suck cipline . ing heragainst her inclination, the lamb The discipline consists of putting her will acquire the odour of her own lamb, into the shed, and confining her to a spot and ingratiate itself in her favour. If by a short string tied above the fetlock she persist in refusing the lamb for some of one of her fore-legs, and fastened to days, the discipline of tying the leg must

anything. As she endeavours to avoid be resorted to in the confined cell until her lamb, the string pulls her foot off the she yield . ground, and while her attention is taken

Another troublesome case is, when the

up struggling with the string, the lamb lamb dies at birth and the ewe has plenty seizes the teat and sucks in the mean-

of milk, while another ewe with twins is

time; the stratagem , often repeated, unable to support them . The expedient makes her take with the lamb.

It is is, to let the ewe smell her own new -born

surprising how soon the lamb learns to dead lamb, and then to strip the skin off steal a suck from its mother ; if it cannot it while wet, and sew it upon the body of

approach her by the flank, it will seize one of the twin lambs, and present the the teat from between the hind - legs. foster-lamb to her, which she may accept When a ewe will allow but one of her when she has been sucked by it.

But it

twins to suck her, she should be held till is possible that the dark corner will have both do it, and in a short time she will to be used before she gives a cordial re ception to the foster -lamb. Should all yield to both. Introducing a Strange Lamb to a these expedients fail to mother the lambs Ewe. It is not surprising that a ewe upon the ewes— and they may all fail, should refuse to take the lamb of an- though with a skilful shepherd they other ; and yet, when a lamb is left an rarely do — the lambs should be taken

and brought up as pets on cow's orphan, or happens to be a supernumer- away milk .

ary, it is necessary to mother it upon an-

“ Stocks ” for Refractory Ewes. other ewe, or to bring it up byhandas a pet; the former if at all possible. When Of the various forms of discipline ad

à gimmer that has little milk has twins at a timewhen a ewe that has plenty of milk produces a single lamb, it is for the benefit of the gimmer and one of her

ministered to ewes that are unwilling to admit foster-lambs, placing in “ the stocks” is perhaps the most irksome. In bad cases itis usually the most speedily

lambs that the ewe should bring up two effective.

The stocks are formedin this

P

SHEE

58

NG

IN SPRI

way : Two small posts, such as hurdle stakes, are driven firmly into the ground about six inches apart. The head of the ewe is passed through between

.

after the lamb is born, says Professor Wrightson, is to clear its mouth of mucus, and see it draw its first breath . Previous to birth the fætus receives oxy

these posts, and a thong or shackle is gen through the mother. It is her lungs passed over their tops, so as to keep the posts sufficiently close to hold the ewe by the neck. A third stake is passed horizontally under the ewe's belly, and sup-

which vivify its blood, and her digestive system which prepares its nourishment. But with the breaking of the umbilical cord comes the necessity for air,and after

ported at the two ends on the bottom

a convulsive movement of the diaphragm

bars of two hurdles placed on either side and intercostal muscles the young crea of the ewe, but far enough from her to ture gasps, and generally utters its first enable the lamb to approach its foster- cry. Whether the almost universal prac mother. In this manner the ewe is most tice of shepherds, of blowing into the

effectually brought into subjection, for she can neither run away nor lie down, which many foster-mothers would do at first in order to prevent a strange lamb

lamb's mouth, facilitates this action, is not certain ; but it is probable that this simple expedient excites the slumbering vitality, and causes the necessary mus

from sucking. A very short experience cular contraction. A slap with the flat of this form of discipline will usually be of the hand across the buttocks will also sufficient to induce the ewe to freely often cause a lamb to draw its first accept the lamb.

breath , when animation appears to be

Changing Ewes and Lambs. — Mr suspended for a few seconds after birth . George Brown, Watten Mains, Caithness, Reviving Weak Lambs.-- Various considers that there need really be little devices are resorted to in order to revive difficulty in making a ewe take to any weakly lambs. “ Those naturally puny lamb. “ When a ewe becomes careless of one of her lambs,” he says, “ a good plan is to lift them both away from her, and place them in a box or barrel by the side

need to be kept in good shelter for some days, and if their dams have plenty of milk they will soon get strong . The usual trouble with young lambs is cold

of the fence, and suckle them three or and hunger. A lamb so chilled that the four times a -day. They thus soon be- thumb and finger held on opposite sides come so identical in smell that the ewe

is willing to admit them both.

of the chest can scarcely detect the heart

Another beats, can be restored by an immediate

plan is to rub both lambs with salt and water, so as to make them alike in smell. “ When gimmers (or shearlings) and older ewes are lambing at the sametime, we often change lambs, always putting a single lamb with the gimmer. The best plan, when a gimmer lambs twins and an older ewe a single, is to lift the twins from the former to the head of the latter,

plunge into blood -warm water. But this should be resorted to only in desperate cases, for the water is likely to obliterate

the scent, by which alone the ewe recog nises her offspring. For the same reason

it is equally dangerous to wrap the lamb in malodorous cloths, and allow it to lie

before a fire. It will probably be a long time in recovering, and the chances are

and give the gimmer the single lamb. If that the natural scent will be lost ; then

neither be allowed to smell her own lambs, she will readily enough adopt the other. I have seen a hundred lambs so changed in one season without any great trouble .' The Newly -born Lamb . — It is won-

there will be trouble in establishing rela tions again between it and the mother. Then, too, the lamb will most likely have to be fed on cow's milk, which is the

greatest evil that could happen.

derful how quickly the newly-born lamb " If at all possible the lamb should attains vitality and vigour enough to never be removed from its mother. Carry

move about and seek for its mother's out soft woollen wraps, well warmed, and udder. As a rule, the lamb needs little wrap it up, letting the head remain out attention after birth ; but it is of course

where the ewe cansmell and lick it when

desirable that the shepherd should be at disposed ; she will thus keep up her ac hand to see that matters progress satis

factorily. The first duty of the shepherd

1 Live Stock Jour ., 1889, 114.

1

THE LAMBING SEASON.

quaintance with it. The sooner some warm milk is given it the better. The creature may be so chilled that it cannot suck, yet it may not be advisable to carry it to the fire. Catch the ewe gently with the crook ; lay her on her left side, yourself being squatted at her back ; lay the lamb on its right side ; with the thumb

59

is not so good for lambs as their mothers'

milk, though they thrive upon it. In the intervals of meals, in bad wea ther, pet lambs are kept under cover, but in good weather they are put into a grass paddock during the day, and under shel ter at night until the nights become warm . They are fed by hand with as much milk

and fingerof the left hand hold the jaws as each can drink. They are first taught apart, and milk a few drops into the to drink with the finger, and as soon as

mouth. Still holding the jaws apart, rub they can hold the finger steady in the the throat with a downward stroke, and mouth, an india -rubber teat, about 3 it will swallow. If it cannot swallow , it inches in length, is used as a substitute, will probably have to be carried to the through which they will easily drink their

kitchen. But try every expedient before allowance of milk. The lambs soon be carrying a lamb away from the sight and

come attached to persons who feed them.

touch of its mother. Never give a young The ancient Greeks had a notion that if lamb more than a tablespoonful of milk lambs were fed on ivy -leaves for 7 days, at a time, and a teaspoonful every ten

minutes will be more effective still, when life is but a spark." 1 Stimulants

they would ever continue healthy. Cow's Milk for Lambs. — Caution is

required in beginning a young lamb

for Weak Lambs. -

upon cow's milk .

Much difference of

When a lamb has become so prostrate as opinion would seem to have long ex to necessitate removal from the mother,

isted as to the influence of cow's milk

it should not only be placed upon a upon young lambs

some contending as that it may be used with safety. The

woollen cloth stimulant neara moderate fire, but that itis dangerous, and others affirming administered have a little well. Some experienced shepherds recommend from a half to a whole tea-

milk of a newly calved cow is said by

some high authorities to be especially spoonful of gin or whisky in a little warm risky, but others equally well entitled to

water, sweetened with moist sugar ; a confidence assert exactly the reverse .

very little of its mother's milk - or the Be all this as it may, the fact is, that milk of another newly lambed ewe, if its every year large numbers of lambs are own mother is not alive - should also be

reared upon the milk of cows newly

given without delay. The ewe should be milked into a small jug or cup, and the milk at once conveyed to the lamb, which may be fed by a teaspoon. If the milk gets cold before being given to the lamb,

calved and long calved ; and it is well known that the pretty high rate of mortality amongst these “ pet ” lambs is due to irregular and excessive feeding. With intelligent care at the outset, giv

it should be heated to the normal tem-

ing small allowances and often, and tak

perature by the addition of a few drops ing care to have the milk at the natural of hot water, or, better still, by a clean temperature, and afterwards feeding in hot piece of iron inserted into it.

moderation and at regular intervals, the

Pet Lambs.— Pet lambs consist of youngster will be found to thrive well orphans or supernumeraries, and in either upon the cow's milk. condition are deserted creatures which

Heating Milk for

Lambs.

It is

would die were they not reared by hand. not considered a good plan to heat milk When ewes die, it may be difficult to

for lambs by the addition of any appreci

avoidhavingpets, on account of the im- able quantity of water. The milk should probability of ewes lambing single lambs be given immediately it is drawn from just in time to receive those which have the cow.

But if it has been allowed to

become orphans. Pet lambs are brought cool it may be raised to its natural heat up on cow's milk, which they receive by being placed in a cup upon the kitchen warm from the cow at each milking, and range for a moment, or by a clean hot as much as they can drink . Cow's milk iron being inserted in the milk. Scour in Lambs .- Cow's milk, given 1 Prac. of Sheep Parm .,

82.

too freely, is liable to cause scour or diar

SHEEP IN SPRING.

60

rhea in lambs.

Especially when very until the shepherd has caught hold of the

young, lambs are subject tovarious forms sheep, and allows its foot to slip through of diarrhea, arising from various causes, the loop. Some caution is required in some of which are not easily removed .

amongst lambs about two or three days old. As soon as symptoms of this ail ment are seen, the ewes and lambs

should be removed to a fresh lair or shed, and, as a rule, this change of scene will check the disease. A teaspoonful of castor-oil is often given with good effect to lambs suffering from diarrhoea . Carrying

Lambs.

-

· Young lambs

should be handled as little as possible. When they have to be carried, this should

be done by the two fore-legs. Never seize or carry a lamb by the body. Cleaning Ewes' Udders .— Any loose

wool should alwaysbe removed from the udders of ewes at lambing, so as to pre

R

“ Scout ” is a fatal form of diarrhoea

usingthe crook, for should the sheep give a sudden start forward to get away the moment it feels the

crook touch its leg, it may forcibly draw the leg through the narrow part,

and strike the fore edge of the bone with such vio

lence against the bend of the loop as to cause the animal considerable pain, and even occasion lame

ness for some days. On quietly hooking the leg from behind the ewe, the crook should be quickly drawn towards you, so as

vent the lamb from swallowing pieces

to bring the bend of the

of wool, and forming hair-balls in the

Shepherd'sCrook. loop against the leg as

stomach. These balls often prove fatal to the lambs, and they are sometimes

a Narrowest part high up as the hock , and of crook . lift thefoot off the ground, before the sheep isalmost

formed by lambs on bare and dirty pas

ture where pieces of wool are lying aware of the movement; and being about. thus secured at once, her struggles will Catching Ew08 . — Great care should

cease the moment the hand seizes the

be exercised in catching ewes at all leg. The crook is placed in the figure times, more especially, of course, when to catch the off hind -leg. they are near the lambing-time. It is a common practice with shepherds when

they wish to catcha ewe to give aweakly

LAMBING PERIOD -

DETAILS OF

MANAGEMENT.

twin lamb a suck, or to examine the state of her udder, to stoop down and It may at first thought seem curious run in upon her from behind and seize that within the narrrow limits of the

her by a hind-leg . This is a safe mode British Isles there should be such a of catching a ewe when dexterously length of time as there is between the done ; but when he fails, she will start dates of lambing in the earliest and and run off, and alarm the other ewes the latest districts. The lambing period beside her — and every alarm to a ewe, in this country now actually extends whether lambed or about to lamb, is over six months, beginning with Dorset

injurious, and at any rate cannot do any sheep in the extreme south of England in November, and ending with mountain Shepherd's Crook . — A crook catches sheep in the north of Scotland in the

good.

the leg quietly and securely. It consists month of May. Lambing, therefore, of a round rod of iron, bent in the form stretches into three seasons of the year, shown in fig. 247, terminating at one end in a knob, and at the other end in a socket, which receives and is fixed to a wooden helve, 5 or 6 feet long, according to fancy.

yet it is in a special sense associated with spring, and is conveniently dealt with in this part of The Book of the Farm . The hind -leg is seized from In detailing the different systems of

behind the sheep ; and as its small bone just fills the narrowest part of the crook, the leg cannot get loose backwards, and remains in the roomy loop of the crook

management, the prevailing dates for lambing in the various districts will be noted . Climate is, of course, the chief element in determining the time of lamb

THE LAMBING SEASON.

ing, as it is desirable that there should

fully.

61

Castration is delayed till the

be a plentiful supply of green food for lambs are about a month old, it being the ewes while nourishing their young considered that lambs left entire for a In certain

with milk .

cases a more

month are more fleshy when matured

highly artificial system of rearing or than lambs castrated when ten days' old, forcing is pursued, with the object of which latter plan is pursued by many. providing early lambs for the meat market.

Fattening Ewe and Lamb together. -About the end of the first month the

Dorset Flocks. — The fattening of lambs for slaughter when a few months old is now pursued extensively in various parts of the country. This practice has

ewes and lambs are put upon roots, and liberal fare is provided, as the intention is most likely to fatten both the ewes and the lambs at the same time. The system of feeding now pursued is thus described by Mr John A. Clark

been so skilfully carried on with Dorset

“ The roots are cut and given in troughs,

Early Market Lambs.

sheep in the extreme south of England, and the lambs feed in advance of, and that in some cases two crops of lambs separate from , the ewes — a lamb - gate are obtained in one year from the same being provided for the purpose, having ewes.

The ewes of this breed are very

a space between the bars toallow lambs

prolific, and have come to possess the to pass, without being wide enough for characteristic of turning very early to the ewes. the ram .

As soon as it is light in

For early market lambs the the morning, the shepherd gives hay to

Dorset ewes are usually crossed with a both lambs and ewes, and then fills

Down or cross-bred ram , and by feeding the troughs with cut roots, passing the the ewes freely upon trifolium and cut swedes mangels — with a run on fresh dry pasture, and perhaps half a pint each of beans daily - they are brought

lambs' portion twice through the cutter, reducing the slices into bits the size of dice.

Next he gives oilcake and peas

in covered troughs, the allowance being

to take the ram as early as May and as much as they will eat. To prevent June. When the rams are withdrawn, waste the oilcake is broken fine - the

the ewes are changed to a dry pasture size of horse-beans — so that the lambs do with a fold of tares or other similar for- not take up large pieces and drop them age crop, and are kept in moderate con- beside the troughs. To induce the young dition.

The ewes walk a good deal animals to eat cake and peas, it issome

daily, and this healthy exercise has a times necessary to mix a portion of com favourable influence on

the

crop

of

lambs.

mon salt.

The ewes next receive their

portion of oilcake, without peas, begin

These ewes lamb in November and ning with 14 lb. per day - half in the In average seasons only the morning, hall before the bait of roots at

December.

weakest of the lambs need to be taken

night. After two or three weeks of this

the climate being so mild food, the cake is gradually increased up to into the shed, that even in the middle of winter the 1 lb. each per day ; and towards the end young lambs thrive admirably by the of the fattening process half a pint of side of their mothers in the open fields. beans is added . This renders the flesh When the weather is wet and stormy, more firm ; the great objection to the the ewes and lambs have to be housed ewes being fattened while suckling being

or brought into some exceptional shelter that they are mostly deficient in firm till the worst of the storm is past, but no ness and quality of meat. “ Hay or hay -chaff also is given to the unnecessary pampering is practised.

Preparation is made for the ewes with lambs twice a day ; but after eight or the early lambs by serving rye-grass on nine weeks old they have it three times a portions of the wheat stubble. This day — the last feeding being not later than

fresh young grass is peculiarly suitable three o'clock, as the hay not eaten will

for newly lambed ewes, and upon this be spoiled in case of rain.

The portions

and the run of the stubble at night, and of hay, after having been picked over by a “ bite

of

young clover by day, they the lambs, go to their mothers. The lambs are ready for the butcher at ten

are able to nourish their lambs bounti-

SHEEP IN SPRING .

62

or eleven weeks old — that is, in February cannot be formed, great store is placed and March .” 1 Lamb for

upon the forage crops. Christmas

Dinner.

It is undesirable to force ewes into

In some instances in Dorset and the high condition before lambing ; but it is Isle of Wight lambs are dropped in an essential feature in the management

September, and fattened for sale by of early lambing flocks that as soon as Christmas. With this practice the sys- the lambs are dropped the ewes should tem of management has to be still more be fed liberally with succulent milk-pro

artificial and forcing. This highly arti- ducing food. Liberal feeding has more ficial system is no doubt remunerative to do with the

progress of young lambs

to the enterprising farmers who pursue than the mildness of the weather. It is,

it. It is not to be assumed , however, indeed, wonderful how even very young that the rearing of fat lambs for Christ-

lambs will withstand cold and wet wea

mas, or even for Easter, would be either practicable or profitable in other parts of the country . “ In Devon and Wilts there are numerous sunny glades and

ther if only their mothers have plenty of good milk for them . They are, of course, all the better of shelter, and ought to have it ; but above everything else, see

warm sheltered vales, where, assisted by that they are well nourished with milk.

the hot vapours of the Gulf Stream And the surest way of providing this is wafted across the Atlantic by the south- to feed the ewes liberally after lambing. western breezes, the grass is ever green .'

Lambing on the Arable Farms.

Thus the flock -owners in these favoured For this early lambing on the arable parts have advantages not enjoyed to the farms of the south -west of England, mild same extent in other districts.

as the climate is, it is desirable to have

a well-arranged and ample lambing yard Hampshire Customs. or pen. The practice of rearing and fattening “ The forward ewes , " says Professor early lambs has been more extensively Wrightson, " should be brought into the and successfully developed with flocks of pen every night and lie upon the straw .

Hampshire Downs than with any other A good -sized heap of swedes should also variety of sheep outside the domain of have been provided, and hay racks or these wonderful Dorset flocks.

The cribs should be placed around, so that

Hampshire Down has been skilfully cul- the animals may receive a foddering tivated with this end in view, and the when they come into shelter at about

whole system of farming in Hampshire has, to a large extent, been arranged to promotethe rapid production of mutton . Lambing begins with the new year in

four o'clock in the afternoon. During the height of the lambing, the shepherd remains night and day with his flock,

and provided with a good lantern, he

Hampshire flocks, and at this season makes periodical visits, carefully looking

great care has to be exercised in protect- at every ewe. As soon as a lamb isborn, ing the young lambs from stormy weather it and its dam should be removed into when it occurs, as it of course often does.

one of the coops or cells, as already men

The water-meadows in the chalk districts tioned, there to remain for three or four of the south -west of England are turned days, until the lamb is able to follow its

to good purpose in furnishing an early mother without difficulty, and until the supply of fresh grass for ewes, and in two thoroughly know each other. When addition to these, a great deal of other this is judged to be accomplished, the cell succulent green food, such as roots, cab- is vacated for other occupants, and the ewe

bage, thousand - headed kale, rape, rye, and her lamb or lambs are transferred vetches, trifolium , &c., has to be provided one of the larger divisions of the pen. for the ewes and lambs in winter and

to

“ As lambing proceeds, the various lots

spring. Where there is a considerable of ewes are classified and separated, as stretch of good water-meadows, there is follows : less necessity for other succulent food ; but in dry lands where water-meadows

2.

1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng ., 1878, 520.

4.

1. A yard of ewes heavy in lamb. with single lambs.

3.

11

with twins.

and very young lambs.

THE LAMBING SEASON .

“ The older lambs, with their dams, are, when from four to seven days old,

63

The plan of having one lambing -yard near the homestead, once general, is now

allowed to go out upon the turnips, and in most cases supplanted by temporary it is interesting to watch these young lambing -pens formed at some convenient creatures learning to fend for themselves, spot on the fields, near the supplies of and imitating their mothers in their eat- green food, and where the manure is ing, choosing the softer parts of the tur- most required. nips, nibbling at the rape or turnip Treatment of Ewes and Lambs.

greens, or sorting out the choicer portions As a rule, in fine weather the ewes go of the hay.

out from the pens on to the turnip -break

The Lambs' Corner.— “ Lambs ought when the lambs are two or three days old,

to be provided with a corner for them- but in some exceptional cases they are selves at an early age. A few hurdles kept in shelter with their young lambs should be placed around so as to include for two or three weeks. The ewes some small troughs in which is placed a and lambs are usually kept on turnips

mixture of split peas, bruised oats, and and hay till the water -meadows are finely ground cake. Admittance isgiven ready to receive them , perhaps about the

to this enclosure by means of lamb -hur- first of April , and then they go on to the dles, which, while allowing of the ingress water -meadows by day, and are folded of the lambs, is a bar to the larger -sized overnight on Italian rye-grass, rye, win ewes . ‫ܠܐܙܙ‬ ter barley, winter oats, or trifolium , Lord Northbrook's Flock .

The fine

sown for the purpose — the tup and wether

flock of Hampshires kept at Stratton, lambs intended to be forced being ad Micheldever, by Lord Northbrook , is mitted in front of the hurdles to receive managed similarly to the other leading a little cake or corn . Where there are Hampshire flocks. His lordship's agent,

no water -meadows there is usually a

Mr T. Stirton , says : “ Lambing takes preserved portion of clover, which forms place, as a rule, from the middle of a most useful adjunct to the turnips and January to middle of February. Ram forage crops.

breeders commence on the ist of January. Frequent changes of ground and food Generally speaking, the ewes get plenty are a leading principle in Hampshire of hay or sainfoin with a limited supply flock management, and no doubt this of turnips before lambing, and plenty of contributes largely to the success of the roots and hay afterwards. Ram breeders system .

use artificial food, such as malt-dust, cake,

Forcing Young Lambs . — For the

The ewes are always folded on

first two, three, or four weeks the lambs

arable land, and the roots are not cut for them . After the roots are finished, rye and winter barley follow. As a rule, the lambs are weaned about the first week in

subsist upon their mothers' milk, but even before they are a fortnight old they will be seen to nibble at the finer portions of the food being consumed by the ewes.

May, when the lambs have field -grass,

The forcing of lambs may be begun in

&c.

followed by vetches during the summer the third week, and if the object is to rear

-usually a fold of each a -day - or sain- precocious ram lambs or fatten wether If not sold at the summer fairs, lambs at as early an age as possible, or sold fat at the auction sales, they then a separate enclosure of hurdles in ad

foin .

get sainfoin, rape, and turnips, till the

vance of the ewe-fold should be formed

autumn fairs, with or without cake, ac- for the lambs.

The lambs get access to

cording to the views of the owner. The this enclosure through an opening in the ewes live behind the lambs, for the latter ordinary hurdles — an opening not large have large folds. Ram breeders give enough to admit ewes - or by what is their lambs at least two to three folds of

called a lamb-hurdle.

In this lamb- fold

different kinds of food each day, with the young lambs will pick at the fresh various mixtures of artificial food . The food before it has been spoiled by the green foods are vetches, early rape, and ewes running over it, and in troughs sainfoin . ”

1 Live Stock Jour ., 1888, 65.

they should receive cut roots — put twice through the cutter, so as to reduce them

to small pieces — and just as much of the

64

SHEE

P

IN SPRIN . G

bruised cake and grain as they will Wherever the ewes are timed to lamb readily consume, witha very small quan- before the middle of March, ample shel tity of fresh hay. The mixtures and ter and green food must be furnished ;

quantities given to lambs vary on differ- for without comfort and plenty of nourish As to quantity, the rule ment for the young lambs, early lambing should be—if the lambs are to be forced cannot possibly result in success. —to give them as much in two or three The systems of management in some

ent farms.

meals per dayas they will eatup at the typical English flocks are described in time. " A mixture of linseed-oil and peas Division I., pages 194 to 201 . gives excellent results. Another very good

Summersbury Southdowns.

- Mr

mixture may be made of equal portions Edwin Ellis, Summersbury , Guildford, of finely ground linseed and decorticated Surrey, whose fine flock of Southdowns

cotton -cake, bean-meal, and palm - nut has taken a high position in the show meal, given perhaps with fine hay-chaff. yard, writes : It is not likely the lambs will eat much

“ For several years I have been de

more than about two ounces per day of sirous that my lambs (Southdown)should this mixture till they are weaned, after fall in January and February, instead which the quantity may be doubled. of from the middle of February till the Lamb - hurdles . — The lamb - hurdle beginning of April, but I have as yet or lamb-creep, contrived to let the lambs been unable to obtain this result.

It is

run forward and hold back the ewes, is true that by forcing treatment and very an important institution where breeding high feeding a few eweswould come into

flocks are kept on arable land . " The season in August, possibly even at the lamb-hurdle," says Professor Wrightson, latter end of July; but this would be “ is in constant requisition throughout very expensive work at a period when the spring, and by its means the lambs we expect the flock to be kept at the are able to run forward and crop the smallest possible outlay. In the present

choicest herbage before it is soiled or year ( 1888 ), although the rams were put trampled by the older sheep. The best out on the 16th August, the first ewe creeps are adjustable to the size of the was served on the 27th, and it was not lambs, and the upright bars through till several weeks after this that any which the young animals pass are round considerable numbers were tupped. and smooth, and revolve easily upon a

“ Lambing, therefore, begins with us

central axis of iron. They are also fur- about the beginning of February, and nished with a similar roller, which forms we generally get half-through by the

the top of the creep, so that the lamb end of the month ; and by the end of passes through without rubbing the wool. March the season may be said to have The opening is hinged inwards, but is finished, although a few ewes will be rigid when pushed outwards, and this is still later than this. done to allow of lambs running quickly

Feeding of Ewes.— “ When the ewes

back into the fold if frightened, but at have gone half their time, we take care the same time to prevent the ewes from that they shall be well fed, having a passing outside the fold .” 1 Various English Methods.

little hay, and sometimes a few oats, but - The

foregoing details, which relate chiefly to Hampshire flocks, embrace the outstanding features of the systems of management which prevail wherever

no roots if we can avoid it.

After lamb

ing we feed very liberally - good hay, swedes and swede-tops, if there are any, and sometimes a few mangels as well. I consider mangels better even than

early lambing is pursued — that is, lamb- swedes for milk . The ewes are driven ing in January, February, and the be- into a fold if the weather is bad, other ginning of March. The amount and

wise they do better in the

open field .

Treatment of the Lambs.- " Directly vided for the ewes and lambs vary with the lambs begin to feed, they have a pen the locality, climate, class of sheep , pur- into which they can run, and sliced

character of shelter and green food pro-

poses in view , and date of lambing. swedes, corn, and cake are at their dis posal. If we get a large proportion of i Live Stock Jour., 1888, 114.

twins, a separate flock is made, and the

THE LAMBING SEASON .

65

as the ewes did, and were drawn from their other food. I have generally weaned the ewes the last week in December.

mothers have some corn in addition to

when the lambs are about 12 or 14 weeks Lambs Dropped .-- " The ewes began old, but I think it might be done earlier to lamb on 6th March, and ended 21st of May. As for the number of lambs withadvantage. “When the lambs are taken away, dropped , I do not keep strict account

careful attention should be given to the ewes’ udders for the next few days, otherwise great pain, and possibly inflammation, may be caused by the milk . My lambs are kept on tares, trifolium , thousand-headed kale, and clover, each in

until I tail them, which is done when they are about a fortnight or three weeks old; and I have tailed this season 454. I have about 170 twins, 25 triplets, and the rest singles, with 3 barren ewes. I had 443 lambs living on May 29th. One

their turn ; and if we find it practicable lamb has died since I tailed them, with to give a change of food to the ram a ball of wool in its stomach , and another lambs, it is beneficial.

Indeed the with sand ; the others died from what

greater variety the better. we call scoley, caused by the cold severe “ As for the ewes, directly the wool is weather, such as I never before experi off they run the commons around us, and come on to the meadows when the crop of hay has been harvested. “ Flushing ” Ewes.—“ I have always

enced . We had snowstorm, and hail storm , and frost at night all through

ewes have generally one lamb, but the

Lambing -yard.-- " My sheep-yard was

March and part of April, and that is the cause of thelambs being scoley and stiff had a good number of twin lambs, con- jointed. They then linger and die. I sequent, as I believe, on ' flushing ' the should think I have lost from 40 to 50 ewes with plenty of green food just in that way, though I had plenty of before they come into season. The young shelter. old ewe flock with me generally bring made on the open common with hur three lambs to two ewes ,and sometimes dles first, then whin fagots, then straw hurdle -pens round inside and outside to the number of about 70 pens, and then Suffolk Flocks. thatched with straw . I keep them in

even more than this."

With the leading flocks of Suffolk the pens two or three days, then turn sheep, which have been greatly improved them on the field under the bank and in recent years, the ewes and lambs are battens made with whin fagots on

managed with much care and intelli- purpose. gence.

In his Prize Report to the

Feeding of Ewes.

“ The general

Farming World in 1888, George Last, feeding of the ewes consists of maiden

coleworts for the tup shepherd to Mr S. R. Sherwood, Hazel- leys, marshes, and Then follow on with white

wood, Suffolk, says :

ping season .

“ The farm consists of marshes and turnips and a good bait of malt-combs every morning, and a run on rough pasture and arable land, and is and chaffcommo n every day ; and about about two miles and a half from the sea the whin --a cold,bleak place, but most of it good a month beforelambing a bushel of best

light land, withabout three or four fields oilcake to two bushels a -day mixed with black and poor land even for breeding the chaff and malt-combs, and from half a load to a load of mangels per day.

ewes.

“ My flock consists of 300 Suffolk When the ewes refuse the chaff, increase

ewes, bought from the best breed of the the cake to three or four bushels, and Suffolks. Six ram lambs were used of the mangels to two and three loads per the same breed as the ewes on October day. II . One ram was put to 50 of the best Feeding of Lambs.- “ About the ewes, and five to the other 250, which is middle of April we begin to bait the

fifty each for a ram . The 50 ewes and lambs. I shut them from the ewes about

one ram are put on the marshes night an hour every morning for the bait, then and day for three weeks, and the 250on

let the lambs run forward on the clover

the marshes during the day, and folded leys for a time; the ewes then clean out on coleworts at night. The rams lived what bait the lambs leave, and which is VOL . II.

E

66

SHEEP IN SPRING .

a good deal at first, but the lambs soon is difficult for even a good judge to select get hold of it and leave the ewes very a good lamb, or, in fact, anyimmature little. Losses of Lambs.— “ I have lost nine

animal. The ram selected for use should be as

ewes from the following causes: One large as possible, combined with mascu in January from scour and inflammation ; line character, perfect type, and high two in February from ulcer-sores ; four quality ; and as a rule the size should be

in March-two broken down from weight, looked for on the side of the dam , as it one from dead lamb's putrefaction, one is next to impossible to procure a male

wasted by ulcers ; and two in April — one perfect in all the essential points, and casted or awal'd, and one choked with yet with sufficient size. Rams generally mangels. There are now 443 lambs alive, will serve from thirty to fifty ewes satis reared from the 300 ewes." 1 factorily, and in many cases this number is greatly exceeded. But a ram should Shropshire Flocks. seldom be used largely until his second For the following description of the year as a sire, when the breeder has had prevailing system pursued during the a chance of seeing his produce and of

entire year in Shropshire flocks, weare judging what they are likely to grow indebted to Mr Alfred Mansell, College into.

Hill, Shrewsbury --the round of the year

After the ewes have all been served

being commenced when the rams are ad- they run together, and for another month mitted amongst the ewes : or so should be kept in as thriving a The ewes are put to the ram early in state as possible. They then go to old

September, so as to drop their lambs seeds or pasture and get a daily allow early in February or March ; but in high ance (not too large) of roots and hay; the cold districts the lambs, as a rule, are all

lat loose on the fields is best, as the ewes are apt to get crushed if crowded Flushing the ewes is considered advis- at racks. able at the tupping period, as the ewes Preparation for Lambing. — Some

dropped in March and early in April.

go faster to theram,and are generally breeders, a short time before lambing, more prolific. If so treated and for this purpose, they are put on a fresh pasture, say second year's seeds, or a permanent pasture which has been purposely saved. To ease the rams sometimes a teaser is

give the ewes boiled linseed, crushed oats, andbran mixed with pulp and cut stuff. This is a practice much to be commended, as it strengthens the ewes and greatly assists a safe and easy par

used, and the ewes as they come on are taken to the ram . This is quite neces-

turition.

As soon as the lambing season ap

sary in the case of a very fat ram , or proaches (end of January or early in where it is wished to serve a larger num- February) the ewes are folded at night. ber of ewes with a certain ram than is When the lambs are a few days old they go on to the seeds which have been usually the case.

If any show ewes have been added to the flock, they should be treated precisely in the same way, but perhaps may be put to the ram a little earlier, as they are apt to turn several times before holding to the rams. Still, with care and patience, they can generally be got to

kept up during the winter, and if the season has been moderately favourable these are usually very fresh, and a good pasture for promoting the secretion of milk. Only the ewes with twin lambs should get any assistance, as the ewes with single lambs if corn -fed are apt to

breed.

get too fat and doubtful breeders.

A

Ram Lambs. Atthe latter end of the mixture of beans, malt-dust, linseed -cake, food to sustain the season, should any of the ewes have turned and bran, is a capital flow of milk . several times, and this will probably be ewe and increasethe The shepherd should, as far as possible, the case with a few of the older ewes, a ram lamb should be tried ; but, as a rule, be encouraged to keep up the returns

I should not commend this practice, as it from the sheep by means of a bounty on 1 Farming World , 1888, 526.

each lamb alive at weaning -time (June ), and also by giving him a further interest

THE LAMBING SEASON .

67

in another way in the wellbeing of the carelessness on this point, annually spoil flock .

Castration in ram breeders' flocks is

not a general practice, and the process of

several of their best ewes .

The average number of lambs is 150 to 175 per cent. In small Hocks it has often

selection is left until the winter, when been much more, but, speaking generally, a lamb and half to three-quarters for each butcher. In the case of ordinary flocks ewe is about the average.

the inferior rams are fed and sold to the

they are castrated as lambs and sold fat Dipping the lambs once or even twice the following spring. is very desirable, and for this purpose a

Shearing the lambs, which takes place non -poisonous dip is best. about the last week in June, is considered

To prevent husk or hoose in lambs, a

to have a good effect in securing greater most fatal complaint in the autumn, it is immunity from the fly in summer ; also an excellent plan to drench the lambs

in preventing the clinging of the soil to either with oneof the well-known patent the belly of the sheep when on turnips. remedies, or with the following, which Weaning the lambs takes place in May costs less, and is to all intents and

or early in June. For this a good pas- purposes as good : 78 oz. asafoetida, 18 ture is selected, as with good treatment oz. turpentine, 38 oz. linseed -oil, given in

they do not feel the change so much. half a gill of milk or thin gruel, two days Nostrong artificial food should be given consecutively. at first, but a few common turnips may As a preventive against foot-rot it is be thrown about on the ground to teach a good plan to periodically, say two or

them to eat turnips. Following this, three times a -year, carefully pare all the harvest-fields are cleared the young seeds trough containing a disinfecting solution

rape or cabbages are given, and as the sheep's feet, and walk them through a are made use of. This would carry the ( composed as described on page 198, vol.

lamb till the end of September or so, i.), after which they should be folded when they are folded on common turnips on a hard road or dry yard for a few till aboutChristmas, and then on swedes. hours. Linseed -cakes, oats, and bran, commencMr Carrington on the Care of Ewes

ing at 14 lb. each per day, and gradually and Lambs.

The late Mr W. T. Car

increasing, is the artificial food at this rington, in describing the general man period .

agement of sheep on light-land arable

As January and February come in, the farms in England, said : “ The time of cull rams are ready for theknife, and by putting the ram with the ewes varies the end of the latter month most of these with the locality, and the prospect of have been despatched. early spring food. In the south of Eng The rams intended for show and sale land , August and September are usual and the shearling ewes are kept on the months. In the midlands, October; and turnips a little longer, or until the land in the north, November. On those farms is wanted for barley -sowing. The rams where rams are bred for annual sale, they intended for show are housed early in are usually dropped early, so as to give April and shorn, but the majority are not them a good start. housed until May. The rams then get Condition of Ewes at Mating -time. mangels, hay, and a small allowance of - “ It is better that ewes going to the ram corn , and as much green food as possible. should be, though not fat, in an improv

This latter is a most necessary food. ing condition, a supply of succulent food

Mellowing the mangels by exposure to at this period having also a favourable the sun is a good practice, as it renders influence on the number of lambs dropped ;

them less liable to develop the water therefore many farmers put their ewes on complaint amongst the rams. The ewes after the lambs are taken

rape.

Ewes in Winter.- " In the autumn

from them are kept on the barest pas- and early winter the ewes are run on the

tures, as they are apt to get gross and clover or stubbles, receiving an occasional fat and non -breedersif they are allowed a fold of rape or early turnips, or mangel

good pasture during the summer months. tops, with chaff and a little cotton -cake. Indeed many breeders, through a little They often follow the feeding sheep,

SHEEP IN SPRING.

68

clearing up all their leavings on the fold . clover or grass produced by sheep -manure The practice formerly pursued of giving being unhealthy food for lambs, and caus in - lamb ewes a full allowance of turnips, ing scour.

is generally discontinued, it being found

Dipping Lambs.— “ The lambs, after

that they are much better without such weaning, are all dipped in some prepara tion todestroy parasites, and to prevent watery food before lambing. about lamb- for a time the attacks of the maggot-fly, Lambing -time. “When "

ing, the ewes are brought in at nights, which in some districts, especially where into a covered shed or yard ; or a move- much timber exists, is very troublesome, able lambing-shed is taken into the open blowing up on the wool, and unless field, and protection against wind and quickly eradicated, spoiling the wool, " 1 rain is provided by means of hurdles and even sometimes killing the launb . ” wattled with straw , or one or two old Scotch Flocks.

waggons, part - loaded with straw , the

shepherds giving them unremitting at-

In Scotland the lambing period comes

tention both day and night. on later than in England. In some ex After Lambing . " The ewes, after ceptional cases a few lambs are dropped

lambing, are well fed, having straw, chaff, inFebruary,but the general time is from or hay,and 1/2lb. to 1 lb. ofcake or meal,

the middle of March till the third week in

with roots. Whatever be the destination of the lamb, the ewe should at this time

May. In the lower-lying and better fa voured districts — especially with Border,

be liberally fed.

Leicester, and half -bred flocks — the ma “ When the lambs are two or three jority of the lambs may be dropped in weeks old, they begin to eat food with March ; but in exposed hill-farms lambing

their dams, and lamb-hurdles are often does not begin till about the middle or

provided, allowing them to run before 20th of April, and frequently extends till

the fold and eat a little dust, linseed -cake, the closing days of May. or bruised oats. A change of food for Early Lambing risky. — The cli the ewes is desirable, as soon as it can mate, probable supply of early spring

well be given. Early rye or Italian rye- food, and amount of shelter, are the grass, or the second year's clover, with a considerations which mainly determine

few mangels, and 42 lb. each daily of the time of lambing. In cold late dis cotton -cake, proves an excellent diet.

tricts early lambing is very undesirable,

Castration.- "Castration of all male and can hardly lead to satisfactory re lambs not required for stock purposes is sults.

The flock -owner is truly in a piti

often done by drawing at ten to twenty able condition when struggling with a days' old , or is done by searing at three big flock of ewes and newly born lambs months old. with a deficiency of shelter and little Weaning .- " Weaning takes place at food for them , except what may be given from three to four months old; where by the hand. Heavy outlays may be in

the lambs are early taught to eat artifi- curred, and yet the results may be very cial food, it is not desirable to delay it disappointing. There are few points more too long

On those farms where fat essential in the successful management of

lambs are sold to the butcher at an early a breeding-flock than this — that, as soon age, they remain with the ewes until as the lambs are dropped, the ewes should

be liberally fed and protected from ex “ The lambs, when weaned, are either cessive storms. In order, therefore, to

sold .

taken a distance away out of the sound ensure this as far as possible, it is desir of their dams bleating, or a doublerow able that lambing should be delayed till

of hurdles at a little distance keeps them the rigours of the winter are past and apart, when they before long become paci- moderately genial spring weather and a

fied. The lambs are provided with a suc- speedy growth on the pastures may be cession of green food, much importance reasonably calculated upon. The period being attached to a frequent change of of lambing will thus vary with the local It is not well for them to graze on land which has been folded with older diet.

sheep, the rank luxuriant herbage of

1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., xiv. , 1878, 713

THE LAMBING SEASON.

ity and the system of tillage farming-

69

Inflammation . — “ Four deaths OC

which latter has, of course ,much to do curred amongst the ewes during lamb with the supplies of such extra food as ing. Five dropped dead lambs, and three of these ewes rank amongst the roots, grain, and hay. above deaths.

The other death was

South of Scotland Flocks. that of a gimmer which exhibited signs In the Border Leicester flocks in the of lambing in the morning, but which south of Scotland many lambs are dropped went about all day without ever mak early in March -some even in February. ing any effort to lamb. I lambed her As a rule, in these flocks ample provision all right at night, and both ewe and is made for the lambing-time both in the lamb looked as well and comfortable

way of food and shelter. Comfortable lambing-pens are provided ; and with turnips, hay, cake, and grain, and a run upon young grass, the ewes are kept so

in the morning as wishes could desire. The lamb was full, and the mother eating her food and tending her little offspring with motherly anxiety and

as to ensure a full supply of milk. Keep- care. But before mid -day the lamb was

ing up the supply of milk is the chief object to have in view, for without this the crop of lambs will be disappointing. Orchard Mains Flock . — In his Prize Report on the management of the ewes

sick and grievously swollen in the belly, and died shortly. The gimmer, just as I was about to give her another lamb, gave signs of inflammation. I applied

carbolic to her of the i to 5 strength, but and lambs under his care in the winter to no purpose. Doses were repeated at

of 1887-88 and following spring, Alex- intervals of about from two to three

ander Burns, shepherd to LordsArthur hours, without abating in any way the and Lionel Cecil, Orchard Mains, Inner- virulent nature of the inflammation . In leithen , Peebles, says : the morning she was ready for skinning.

“ The sheep under my care are Cheviot The other three were similar in every ewes — part with half-bred lambs and part respect, except that they dropped dead with Cheviot lambs.

After similar treatment, they lambs. Park Sheep.-" The Leicester rams were ready for skinning also . Whether

were admitted amongst the park sheep on the 22d October, and were withdrawn on the 24th November, when two Cheviot tups were admitted in their stead. The park sheep, which numbered 205, commenced to get a run of the turnip -break a week previous to the time of admitting the rams .

the case presents itself as hopeless or not, I always like to apply carbolic, for the simple reason that it invariably proves itself an efficient factor in keep ing down infection. Lambing in a Storm .

6

Turnips,

with a little rye-grass hay, was the feed

The latter were five in num- ing the park ewes got during the season,

ber, and consequently had each an allot- and as each ewe lambed, she was housed ment of two scores of ewes. In addition for a time weather — the

being so cold

to the regular fare of turnips and grass that young lambs could not do to be which the ewes were getting, the rams exposed to its severity. In fact, the 28th were fed with corn and bran, while I of March was almost too much for the keeled them to indicate the proceedings. old sheep. Both old and young, lambed Lambing.— “ Dividing them into two or not, I made thorough against that

lots, the first commenced lambing on the notorious night. The sheep lambed very

18th March. The weather was very cold slowly atthe beginning,which was greatly -in fact too severe for old sheep, not to in their favour in such weather, as it not

speak of young lambs. The ewes were, only allowed space to accommodate, but perhaps, a little to the thin side in con- gave time for the bestowal of special dition.

Though they did not drop a

care upon each individual ewe as she

great quantity of lambs, they lambed lambed. fairly well throughout, but always grew “The percentage requiring assistance scarcer of milk, which no doubt might be was on the whole very small - perhaps attributable to the inclement stateof the something like 10 or 15 per cent. ” 1 weather and the wretched state of the

turnips, which were simply slush .

1

Farming World , 1888, 526.

70

SHEEP IN SPRING .

i lb. each of linseed - cake and oats — this A Perthshire Flock .

brings them rapidly into condition, and The first of three prizes offered by the is also likely to lead to an increase in the proprietor of the Farming World for crop of lambs. reports “ On the Management of Ewes

6 When the rams are admitted the

and Lambs," was won by Mr W. Suther- hand - feeding is discontinued. During land, Peel Farm , Tibbermuir, Perth,who the period the rams are with the ewes

thus describes his practice — in the winter eachof the breeds are kept separate, and 1887-88 and following spring : “Our flock (in addition to a lot of blackfaced, into the treatment of which I shall not enter) numbered 138 —-com-

previous to the rams being turned loose

the breast of each is rubbed with keel, and this is repeated daily, so that the ewes that have been tupped are readily

prising 45 Leicester, 14 Shropshire Down, recognised. After the rams have been and 79 half-bred and other ewes. On out for a week all the ewes served during the 17th September i Shropshire and i that period are marked with a little paint Oxford Down ram were turned in amongst on the shoulder ; at the end of the second

the half-breds; and on the 8th October, and third weeks those served since the 2 Leicester rams amongst the Leicesters, previous markings haveanother distinctive th ma

y and i Shropshire Down among the ewes marks put on them ; d any at of that breed. For about five weeks pre- come in season afterwards are left un

viously the rams got a daily allowance marked. By attention to this matter a of about 2 lb. each of linseed -cake and deal of trouble is saved when the lambing oats ; but once they were admitted to the ewes they had no extra feeding what-

season arrives.

“ I keep the rams with the ewes rather

ever given them . The rams were with longer than is customary, and find by drawn from the three lots on the 20th doing so we have seldom any eild ewes, December. The first of the ewes lambed and I have frequently seen a « May

on the 17th February, and, with one or lamb as far forward by the end of the by season as those dropped two months lambed whole two exceptions, the 15th April. the Total, 245had lambs. earlier. “The Leicesters dropped 77 lambs“ About the beginning of November 14 singles, 27 pairs, and 3 triplets — one the whole of the sheep are dipped for the ewe being eild. The Shropshire Downs,

winter.

28 — eachhaving a pair. The half-breeds, “ When the grass begins to get scarce 140—21 singles, 52 pairs, and 5 triplets. a daily supply of turnips are given — a “ Two of the ewes died from inflam- cart-load to a hundred sheep - and as mation , after very severe cases of lamb- much hay as they can consume without ing, and another was suffocated by a

waste.

A week before the first are ex

piece of turnip sticking in her throat. pected to lamb the first-marked lot are

Seven deaths occurred amongst the lambs. drawn out and kept on pasture adjoining Three weakly ones only survived for a the steading, and in addition to turnips few hours. Another lingered for ten and hay are allowed a little linseed and days. Two died from diarrhoea, and cotton -cake mixed with oats. When the another from some undefinable cause. other lots get within a week of lambing General Management.- " In order to they are also separated and the same explain the management thoroughly, it feeding supplied. It is a mistake to will be advisable to start with the treat- have the ewes too fat at this time ; but ment given a month previous to the time a much greater one to allow them to be

I intend letting the rams along with the in poor condition — and the latter will be ewes .

If the season has been a favour- found to be the most frequent error.

able one, the latter will, on examination,

Abortion .— “ With the exception of

be found in good condition, and, conse- one season we have never had any cases quently, no hand-feeding need be resorted of abortion. When this disease appears,

to ; but if, owing to a deficiency of pas- inquiry into the circumstances connected ture, any of them are in rather poor con- with the outbreak usually reveals some dition, I separate these from the others mismanagement in the feeding. The use and give them a daily allowance of about of frosted turnips is a fertile source of

THE LAMBING SEASON.

71

the trouble, and the outbreak we had then remove them to one of the pens and some years since I attributed wholly to keep them there for a day or two till the

this cause. On discontinuing the turnips lambs gaina little strength ; after which, and substituting an allowance of cake if the weather is not suitable for letting and corn for a time, no further cases oc- them outside, I divide one of the other curred .

Since then I have been careful sheds into spaces large enough to contain

to give only as many turnips during six or eight ofthe ewes with their lambs, frosty weather as will be at once con- giving sufficient room to afford the latter sumed without any being left lying over space for exercise. “ I find gimmers and young ewes some exposed to the frost ; and in the event of the turnips getting frozen in the pits, as times careless in looking after their lambs, they occasionally do in very severe wea- but by confining them in one of the pens

ther, I discontinue using them altogether, for a few days they soon take to them and give other feeding until fresh weather without much trouble. In the event of ensues . two ewes lambing about one time, the one Rupture .— “ I have had a few cases having a single lamb and the other trip of rupture among the ewes, caused by lets, I takeone of the lambs from the the weight of the lambs when near lamb- ewe having three and put it along with ing. By getting a piece of strong sheet- the one having the single. By haltering iron curved to the shape of the ewe's her to a corner of the pen she takes to back, and having a few holes pierced the stranger in a very short time. along both sides, and then passing a

“ Occasionally it is necessary to bring

piece of sacking beneath the belly and up some of the lambs on cow's milk. I tying it up to the plate, great relief is have often heard it said that the ' bother

and expense ' of doing so exceeded the Shelter.— " It is very important to have profit; but in most cases I have found proper shelter available during the lamb- both bother and expense amply repaid.

given.

ing season .

More deaths occur among Once the lambs are a few weeks old they

lambs from want of this during bad will readily eat a little cake and corn, weather than from all other causes put and if a piece of early well-sheltered grass

together. I have two large open sheds, is obtainable, the milk can soon be in and another divided into pens about five great measure dispensed with . feet square,

I commence taking the

“As soon as the weather is suitable, I

ewes into the sheds a few nights before the first are likely to lamb , and after dark take a turn among them by lamplight. By doing so they soon get accustomed to their new surroundings, and

keep the ewes and lambs out on the pas ture during the daytime, but never care about leaving them outside at night until the beginning of April, when the weather

is more to be depended on. Before allow

are not so apt to hurt eachother through ing many of them outside together I put fright as they might be if this practice a distinctive mark on each pair of twins, were deferred until lambing had actually so that in the event of anything going wrong, the ewe and both lambs belonging Lambing. — “ Once they commence to her can be recognised without trouble. lambing I take a look amongst them Inflammation of the Udder.— “ I

commenced .

every two hours during the night. Should find inflammation of the udder somewhat any of them require assistance I rub my

common .

In such cases I give 2 oz.

hands with linseed -oil before handling Epsom salts in gruel, bathe the udder them, and in any case where there has with hot water, and then rub with oint

been much difficulty in lambing I injectment composed of 2 oz. fresh butter, i vent inflammation, and give five orsix of wine. In severe cases poulticing is

a little carbolic oil into the womb to pre- drachm camphor, and one spoonful spirits drops tincture of aconite in a spoonful of necessary, so that the lambs must be

water, repeating the dose in two hours removed from the ewe altogether. after if any uneasiness is shown.

Sore Teats.— “ This season, owing to

“ After the ewe lambs I examine the the cold unseasonable weather experi udder and clip away any wool that might enced for some weeks after lambing interfere with the lambs sucking, and commenced, sore teats have been more

SHEEP IN SPRING.

72

than usually prevalent among the ewes. hearing of the lambs, which I keep con I have found frequent applications of fined in the fold for ten or twelve hours glycerine and olive - oil a very good afterwards. By doing so they get hungry, and when allowed out at once commence

remedy.

Castrating.— “ When the lambs are eating in place of breaking away in about ten days old their tails are cut,

search of their mothers, as they would

and as soon as the weather suits, the otherwise be apt to do. By keeping the youngest of the cross-bred tup lambs are ewes on bare pasture for afew days, the

castrated,a little turpentine being applied milk rapidly dries off them ; but I gener to the edge of the wound. The first- ally find it necessary to milk the most dropped lambs are usually too far for- of them once or twice to relieve them . ward in size and condition to risk castrat- A week after weaning, I examine them

ing by the time the weather is mild all, and any found broken -mouthed or

enough for the operation, but as they are faulty in udders are drawn out andput early sold off fat it is a matter of little on good pasture, getting also an allow ance of other feeding, so as to have them consequence.

Fat Lambs.—“ As soon as the grass early fattened .

Those intended to be

has got a fair start, the Leicester and kept on are put on ordinary pasture. “ As soon as the lambs have got over Shropshire ewes, with their lambs, are separated from the half-breeds— the lambs the separation from the ewes, the ram

of the latter being intended for the fat lambs are separated from the ewe ones, market. I prefer to push them on as and each lot put on the best grass avail rapidly as possible, and therefore confine able, a small daily ration of cake and them to the young grass fields, and increase the quantity of hand-feeding, as the lambs will be taking a share of it. Lambs for Breeding.— “ The Leicester and Shrops are kept on the older

oats being also given. The ram lambs are usually retained and sold as shear

lings '; the best of the ewe lambs are kept to fill the vacancies caused by the drafting of the old and defective ewes ;

pastures ; their lambs being intended for and the others are either sold in the end

breeding purposes, there is not the same of the year, or kept on and disposed of ‫ ܙܙܙ‬1 necessity for forcing , and the hand -feed- the following season as ' gimmers. ing is therefore discontinued. “To keep the sheep in healthy thriv

ing condition frequent change of pastur-

Hill Flocks.

Early Lambing Undesirable. — The

lambing season, begun in the well-shel

age is necessary. Diarrhoea.- " A few of the lambs are

tered vales of the south -west of England,

sometimes attacked by diarrhoea. If it is wound up on the exposed hill-farms of arise from the richness of the grass, a the north of Scotland.

On the higher

little castor oil, sugar, and ginger (the sheep -ranges of Scotland, and the north quantity varying with the size of the of England and Ireland, vegetation is lamb) will usually cure it ; but should it

late in moving in spring, while severe

proceed from coagulation of milk in the snowstorms in the months of March and

stomach, it is more dangerous, and fre- April are by no means rare occurrences. Occasionally a It is thus desirable that lambing should little hartshorn and magnesia given in not take place in these parts till the water effect cure,

quently proves fatal. will

a

Clipping.— “ The ewes are clipped

spring season is well through — desirable in order that the young lambs may escape

about the beginning of June, and about the rigours of a severe snowstorm , and the end of that month the whole of the that, after lambing, the ewes may not ewes and lambs are dipped to prevent have long to wait for a bite of fresh

the attacks of maggot-fly, which is very young grass, which is so effectual in prevalent on our land. bringing on a full supply of milk. Weaning.- " On weaning the pureFrom about the middle of April to the

bred lambs about the ist of August ( the end of May is the most general period crosses are all sold off fat long before for lambing on hill -farms.

then ), I put the ewes to the furthest off pasture on the farm, out of sight and

1 Parming World , 1888, 525.

THE LAMBING SEASON .

Hardiness of Hill Sheep.-Mountain

73

of straw , and small supplies of roots and

sheepare not brought into lambing pens hay to convenient places on the farm for as is done with lowland breeds.

They

the formation of shelter to ewes and

produce their young on the hillsides, and lambs. Forethought and carefulness in in average seasons the death-rate amongst matters of this kind play a large part in hill lambs is wonderfully small. The the successful management of breeding vitality of these creatures when newly flocks. The necessity for these huts will much dropped is quite marvellous. A healthy

blackfaced lamb will be on its feet and depend upon the amount of natural shel searching for the udder three or four ter on the farm . If the farm abounds minutes after it is born. It seems to in hills and hollows, with patches of rank care little for cold, and if the weather heather, there will be little need for be dry and the ewe have plenty of milk huts. The ewe will find a cosy bed the youngster will thrive rapidly, even for herself and her young by the side

although there should be snow and frost. of a dry hillock or bush of heather. Rain is more hurtful to lambs than cold But when such natural shelter is defi cient, artificial protection should be pro with a dry temperature . Shelter on Hill Farms.-It is there-

vided.

fore desirable that, even for the hardy Typical Hill Flocks. — Describing hill sheep, some provision should be the general system of management in the made whereby the more weakly lambs lambing season on average hill-farms in may have shelter in excessively wet cold the north of Scotland, MrGeorge Brown, weather. It may not be practicable to Watten Mains, Caithness, says : provide shed accommodation for the

“ On all hill farms there is more or

whole flock ; but in heavy rains it would be well to have the weaker lambs drawn out with their mothers and put under a roof, where they should be left over night while the ground is wet and cold. For this purpose, it will be found useful to have some artificial shelter provided at suitable points throughout the farms. Little huts constructed perhaps of turf,

less natural shelter, most of the ground being interspersed with knolls and val leys, and the high ground covered with heather, which forms excellent shelter for autumn, and winter, the ewes are kept out on the hilly ground, and the straths and glens are preserved until within a fortnight of lambing. The ewe hirsels

hurdles, and bundles of straw or rushes,

are then allowed access to these reserved

ewes and lambs.

During the summer,

will entail little outlay or trouble in for- pastures during the day, and are turned mation, and during inclement weather out again to the mossingor higher ground

will be found of great benefit to the during the night. ewes and lambs.

This fortnight of good

Ewes with weakly feeding brings on a flush of milk as soon lambs can be accommodated comfort- as lambing takes place. ably in these scattered huts for a few “ Large hirsels are divided, 500 being days and nights, the shepherd carrying the usual number in each, and this num

or having conveyed to them some hay ber are in charge of two shepherds who and roots. It is desirable to have these work together. Before lambing begins, huts at different points on the farm , so all the weak ewes, or those in low condi as to lessen the distance which ewes tion, are selected and either sent to arable and weakly lambs have to be driven. land to be lambed , or taken home to a

Before lambing begins the shepherd park which is usually found in connection with a pastoral farm , and there lambed, keb -houses, sheds, huts, or whatever name and fortified with extra feeding, being and form they may take - are in good returned to their respective hirsels when order, and sufficient for the probable they have regained sufficient strength.

should see that the means of shelter-

wants of the flock. If necessary, the This park, when lambing is concluded, is shepherd should receive assistance in pro- preserved, so that a cutting of hay is ob viding and repairing lambing shelter . A tained from it. On some farmsthere are day or two of a man with a horse and

three or four of these enclosures.

cart may be well bestowed upon this • All weakly lambs are also taken from work, to convey hurdles, posts, bundles the hill ground to be treated specially in

74

SHEEP IN SPRING .

these home enclosures. After lambing, sheep -farmer will watch carefully the the ewes and lambs are driven from the daily condition of affairs, and will not low ground on to the hill ground over hesitate to call in the aid of such ex night, where, amongst the heather and

traneous food as roots and hay when the

undulations, the ewes find comfortable time for its use has really arrived. A beds for themselves and their young. high death -rate, both of ewes and lambs, “ Late in the season when, through an occurs on many farms owing to the re

abundance of grass, the lambs become luctance and delay in resorting to hand very big and strong before lambing, there feeding. This inhuman system cannot are often serious losses both of ewes and be commended . It cannot be profitable. lambs.” To allow ewes to perish or to fall off Hand -feeding for Ewes. — There is seriously in condition and in supply of much difference of opinion, and as great milk for the want of a handful of hay variety of practice, amongst sheep - far- and a few roots, simply because the mers as to the feeding of ewes during animals may look for similar treatment stormy weather. It is contended ,on the in after years, is short-sighted in the one hand, that hand -feeding should al- extreme. Keep up the condition and most, at all hazards, be avoided, for the vigour of the Aock at all hazards. If alleged reasons that, once indulged by liberal feeding does not pay, assuredly such treatment, the sheep will not again a starvation system will not. forage so well for themselves on the hill

It is well to remember that if the

pasture; that hill pasture is not sufficient ewes are brought to the lambing in good,

in quantity and quality to afterwards fresh, vigorous condition, there will be maintain in a thriving condition sheep

the less likelihood of extensive hand

that have been once artificially fed, and feeding being then necessary. Ewes in that on this account when artificial food

lamb should therefore be well wintered ,

is oncegiven it has to be continued every and never allowed to get low in con year. In former times this was no doubt dition or weakly. the prevailing idea ; but while it is still Just before lambing begins, it would

both preached and practised by many ex- be well to draft out any ewes which perienced and successful farmers, yet it seem to be exceptionally thin in con

is certain that a more liberal and a more dition, and take these for lambing to artificial system of management is com- some low , well -sheltered field , where they may have good pasture or artificial food. ing into favour.

Assuredly the point is one which deFor whatever extra or hand feeding mands the most careful consideration. may be necessary, hay and turnips are No elaborate or universal system can be most suitable. Cake and corn may be laid down. Each season , and each set more speedily effectual in bringing round

of circumstances, must be considered very weakly animals, but in their pamper

separately , and the farmer must watch ing influence on hill sheep these concen carefully the condition and progress of trated foods are more injurious than hay his flock, and his existing and probable and roots. supply of food, and decide for himself Shepherds' Duties at Lambing to what extent, if any, his ewes should time. The lambing season on hill

be hand -fed. In itself the hand -feeding farms is a time of hard work and much

of hill sheep is unquestionably undesir- anxiety. As soon as lambing begins, the able. It should therefore be resorted to shepherd requires to see his flock three only in cases of necessity -- when the times a-day. available supply of other food is mani“ His first round is made at early

festly inadequate, andwith such ewes as dawn, before the sheep have left their are too thin and weakly to furnish their 'moorings,' when any requiring attention lambs with a sufficiency of milk. can be readily noticed . Someshepherds With this consideration in view—that make this trip before breakfast, but this hand -feeding is to be resorted to only is not a good plan to adopt. When a

where it is necessary in order to ensure shepherd leaveshis house he neverknows as far as possible the full and uninter- how long he

maybe

detained ; and going

rupted progress of the young lambs — the out hungry may cause him to leave his

THE LAMBING SEASON .

work when he ought not to do so, especially in bad weather.

75

“ Lambs are, however, never taken from

On returning their dams if it can possibly be avoided.

from his rounds he brings home any There is often some difficulty in getting Having the ewes to own them again, the natural keb - houses at various parts of the hill is odour by which they are recognised by of immense advantage at this time, and the mother having been dissipated by the saves not only the shepherd a lot of un- heat of the fire, or from coming in con ewe that has lost her lamb.

necessary work, but is much better for tact with others of a different smell. A the sheep every way. Then there will better method of reviving chilled lambs be a number of suchstock in the hospital than warming them by the fire is to dip

individually requiring careful treatment, them in a tub of warmwater, then, after all of which he needs to see before re-

wiping dry, wrap in a woollen cloth, and

turning to the house for a meal. There is no time for rest during the day, and no sooner is one journey finished than

leave them beside the ewes in the keb house.

“ On recovery, care must be taken to he starts on another, repeating thesame accustom the lambs gradually to out morning, noon, and evening. Much de- door life. A sunny noon is a favourable pends on the weather, and the worse it time to set them out, but if the weather is the more need there is for exertion continues cold they should be housed for

and daily perseverance, which the shep- a few nights, until they are strong enough

herds, as a rule, never grudge in behalf to withstand the elements to which they of their flocks.

are exposed.” ?

“ In order to induce a ewe to take a

After Lambing. of her own dead lamb is flayed and put Lambing is usually completed in four on another lamb, when the smell of the or five weeks. The after -treatment of old skinis usually enough to deceive and the flock varies in accordance with the induce her to take kindly to the new- class of sheep, and the objects in view .

stranger lamb under her charge, the skin

comer. Instead of adopting this method, In pure-bred flocks, where ram -breeding which involves more or less labour, some- is carried on to some extent, the lambs to times the ewe is milked , and the milk is be kept on as rams are early selected, rubbed over the skin of the lamb that and may be taken with their mothers to

is to be transferred to her care ; and it is reserved pasture, where, from the out found that the smell of her own milk has

set, the ewe and lamb receive liberal

the samedeceptive effect as the smell of treatment. Castration . —

The male lambs not to

Reviving Hill Lambs. - Hill lambs be kept as rams are castrated when from are remarkably hardy, and when the ten days to five weeks old. In some

ewes have plenty of milk, the young cases, indeed, castration is performed when the lambs are only two or three

creatures make rapid progress.

“ Their first and most fatal enemy is days old, but the more general plan is cold or hunger. For reviving chilled to delay from two to four weeks. . lambs the shepherd carries constantly in In hill stocks castration is not usually

his bosom a bottle of warm milk, and performed until the lambs are fully a sometimes another containing gin or month old ; in other words, the ewes com

whisky, of which he supplies a mouthful mence to lamb in the third week in April, in extreme cases of weakness. Lambs and the “ marking " takes place about

that are really prostrate with cold have end of May, varying a little according to be carried to some place of shelter. to circumstances and personal tastes. Very often the shepherd's kitchen is Some farmers have a decided objection turned into a hospital for subjects of against too early castration, as it tends this kind.

In a stormy day it is not to give a feminine appearance to the

unusual to see 20 or 30 shivering lambs wedders, stunting the growth of horn, by his fireside, which his wife or children and weakening the neck too much. attend to while he is away on his rounds. Blackfaced Sheep, Scott, 118.

Great caution is required in castrating ? Ibid ., 122.

SHEEP IN SPRING .

76

It should not be done in rainy,

the scrotum smooth ; and cutting through

cold , or frosty weather ; nor should the lambs be heated by being driven before the operation. It is best performed early in the morning, in fresh weather, with

the integuments of the scrotum , with a sharp penknife in the right hand, first to one testicle and then the other, he pro trudes both testicles forward with both

lambs.

a westerly breeze.

The ewes and lambs hands, and seizes first one testicle with

should be driven gently into the sorting his teeth, drawing out the spermatic folds, the ewes being run out and the cord until it breaks, and then treating lambs held back .

One assistant should

the other testicle in the same manner ;

catch the lambs, and another hold them and, on adjusting the wounded scrotum , while the shepherd operates. It is not the operation is finished. Describing the system in the north , easy to catch the leg of a lamb with a

sheep's crook, their small active limbs Mr George Brown, Watten Mains, Caith easily escaping through the loop ; but it ness, says: “ The pen is provided with . may be effectually used in hooking the a half -door, outside of which stand front of the neck, when the captor rushes the cutter and holder. The catcher in upon the lamb and secures it. But enters the pen and catches the lambs

the historic crook is now seldom used for anyway or anyhow : no man who knows

this purpose, as the lambs when confined his work will hurt a lamb, and a novice may be easily caught without it. On will soon learn by looking on. The arable land, where there is no permanent catcher hands the lamb over the half

fold, a few hurdles may be set up in the door to the holder, who waits until the corner of the field and the lambsenclosed cutter completes operations,—the latter there, and let out as castrated .

using one knife for castrating and another

Castration may be performed in this for docking, and then lets it down out way : Let the assistant hold up the side the fold, where it quickly joins its back of the body of the lamb against his mother.” Another mode of castrating lambs is

o

Pr

to cut off the point of the scrotum , and extract both testicles through the large opening. The amputated wound takes a considerable time to heal, whereas the

two simple incisions heal by the first intention . It is argued , however, by those

who prefer the latter plan, that there is an advantage in the larger open ing, as all discharges are more readily Whereas when the smaller wounds heal with the first intention

got rid of.

there would be no outlet for pus re

sulting from suppuration, and inflamma tion would therefore be likely to ensue. Both methods are largely pursued . The

penknife should be clean and sharp, and Fig. 248. ---Mode of holding a lamb for castration . a Scrotum .

c Tail.

the whole operation should be quickly performed . Docking.- Advantage is taken of the

left breast and shoulder, and with each opportunityafforded at castration to dock

hand raise a hind -leg towards the body, the tail, which in Scotland is left as long securing them by the shank ; while, to as to reach the meeting of the hams. In prevent farther struggling, a fore-leg is docking, the division should be made held firmly in connection with a hind one with a large sharp knife in a joint, when of the same side.

The effect of this

arrangement is to exhibit the scrotum to full view, as well represented in fig. 248. The shepherd with his left hand then causes the testicles to make the point of

the wound will soon heal.

The lamb,

after being docked, is let down to the ground by the tail, which has the effect of adjusting the parts in connection with the castration . Ewe lambs are

THE LAMBING SEASON.

77

also docked at this time, but they are factory. This practice is pooh-poohed by not held up, being merely caught and some veterinary surgeons; but when à held by the shepherd between his legs farmer who uses such a simple and until the amputation is done. inexpensive mixture very rarely has a In England, docking is performed at death amongst his lambs, whilst his the third joint, which gives a stumpy neighbour, who does not use anything,

appearance to the tail. The object of loses 5 to 10 per cent, we think he is docking is to keep the sheep clean behind justified in pursuing his own course. from filth and vermin ; but as the tail is

Perhaps a still better preventive of in

a protection against cold in winter, it flammation would be a few drops of a shouldnot be docked so short in Scotland solution of carbolic acid and oil poured as is done in England. Tup lambs, in into the scrotum . order to strengthen the back -bone, are Rig or Chaser . — Sometimes one of allowed to retain their full tails until the testicles does not descend into the one year old. scrotum , when the lamb ultimately be Risks from Castration and Dock- comes what is called a rig or chaser - one ing. — The scrotum does not bleed in which constantly follows and torments castration, but the tail often bleeds in the females of the flock, when near him , docking for some time in two minute from insatiable desire. It is not, as and forcible streams, though usually the a rule, safe to rely upon such a ram for

bleeding soon stems. Should it continue breeding, although we have known of as long as to sicken the lamb, a small his becoming a successful and prolific cord should be tied firmly round the end sire. His career should be soon put an of the tail, but not allowed to remain end to. If one testicle comes into the

on above twenty -four hours, as the liga- scrotum and is taken away, or if neither tured point would die by oppage of the comes down, the ram may be regarded circulation of the blood , and slough off. as barren . In some instances inflammation ensues, Lambing Risks. - Ewes and lambs and the scrotum swells, and even sup- are subject to several risks during the purates, when the wound should be care-

first four or five weeks .

When they

fully examined, the matter discharged , and have passed through them in safety, the the wound soon heals.

shepherd may calculate on his results ,

The advantage of performing the operation in the morning is, that the several cases may be observed during the day ; and should the weather have changed for

whether he has increased the breeding part of his flock in the proportion it should have increased. He is not satis fied with his exertions if he has lost a

the worse towards the afternoon, the single ewe in lambing. What number of ewes, with the lambs that have just been lambs he should have to every hundred cut, should be brought under shelter over ewes will vary greatly with the breed and

night. Besides the state of the weather, other circumstances. The death of single lambs is a vexa matter to a shepherd, as not only tious scrotum the by wounds the in ing of the points of the stubble amongst the new breaking pairs, but imposing considerable

one cause of inflammation is the scratch-

grass ; and this irritation is most likely trouble on himself in mothering lambs of to be aggravated when castration has stranger ewes. Yet the trouble must be

been performed by cutting off the point undertaken, so as to retain the ewes in of the scrotum .

milk that have lost their lambs, and thus

To avoid this source of irritation , the maintain them in the breeding state for new -cut lambs should be put on new

future years.

Hence the shepherd's an

grass, where the stubble has been shorn xiety to save the lives of single lambs, by a reaping -machine, or on old grass, and hence, also, his pride in preserving for a few days. pairs. Bad Weather and Lambing.-- In A Preventive. Some farmers use a mixture of pure oliveoil and spirit of fine steady weather the shepherd's labour

turpentine for dropping into the scrotum is comparatively easy ; but when stormy after extracting the testicles, and the

or wetweather prevails, or comes at un

results, to themselves at least, are satis- expected intervals, the number of lamb

78

SHEEP IN SPRING .

ings are not only accelerated, but every afterwards in fine growing weather, will ewe creates more trouble, even in the yield a heavier crop of hay than if it had day -time. “ Daylight has many eyes,” not been pastured in spring at all. Al

and permits him toobserve casualties in though the whole of the young grass on time to evade their effects ; but at night, a farm , pastured lightly with ewes and in bad weather, with glimmering light, lambs inthe spring, were to grow, as the difficulties increase tenfold ; and we are season advances, more rapidly than the convinced that every owner of a large ewes could keep it down, it will never flock would find it repay him at the end produce the fine sweet fresh pasture

of the lambing season, by preserving the which field after field will yield that has number of lambs and ewes, to afford the been eaten down in succession, and then

shepherd assistance in the busiest period left to grow for a time. Caution in Changing Ewes of the lambing, and especially in bad

on

weather.

Pasture. — But in removing ewes and Look to the Pastures. — The state of lambs from a short to a full bite of grass,

the new grass-fields occupied by ewes and caution isrequired in choosing the proper done lambs requires consideration. Ewes bite time for the removal. It should be very close to the ground, and eat con- in dry weather, and in the afternoon ;

stantly as long as the lambs are with because continued damp or rainy or cold them ; and as they are put on the new wet weather renders new grass so succu grass in spring, before vegetation is much lent and fermentable that it is almost advanced , they soon render the pasture certain to produce the green skit in the

bare in the most favourable circumstances, lambs, although that sort of weather in and especially so when the weather is un- creases the milk of the ewes. In the af favourable tovegetation. In cold weather, ter part of the day the ewes have not time in spring , bitten grass soon becomes to eat too much grass before nightfall. No Lambing on Carse Farms. brown. Whenever the pasture is seen to fail, the ewes should be removed to Carse farms have, as a rule, neither a

another field ; for if the plants are allowed standing nor a flying stock of ewes, and to be bitten into the heart in the early consequently have no lambing season ; part of the year, the greater part of sum- neither have farms in the neighbourhood

mer will pass ere they will attain any of large towns, nor dairy farms, nor pas

vigour. In steady growing weather there toral farms for the breeding of cattle need be little apprehension of failure in alone. Ewes and lambs are thus found the pasture. At the same time, over- chiefly on pastoral farms devoted to the stocking grass should be avoided at all breeding of lambs, and on farms of mixed times. It not only incurs the risk of the husbandry. Shepherding on Arable Farms. clover plants being bitten into the heart, but the pasture soon becomes foul with On low country or arable farms with the the dung of the sheep.

Of the sown

softer breeds of sheep, from 200 to 300

pastures, consisting chiefly of red clover ewes are about as many as one shep and rye-grass, the clover is always accept- herd can superintend during the day, to

able to sheep ; and in the early part of render them the assistance they may the season young shoots of rye -grass are stand in need of ; to place the new much relished by ewes. lambed ewes and lambs in shelter until Rest beneficial to Pasture. - On re-

they have both gained strength , and are

moving the ewes from the first to the able to take to the pasture ; and, in case

second field, it is better to eat the first down as low as it safely can be for the plants, and then leave it unstocked for at least a fortnight, toallowthe young plants to spring again , which they will do with

of bad weather, to supply them with tur nips and hay, to enable them to support their lambs until the weather improves. If one shepherd fulfils these dutiesin the day, he does quite enough ; so that it

vigour, and with a much closer bottom, will be necessary to have an assistant for than to pasture every field for a longer him in the night, to gather the ewes into time with fewer stock.

Such a field,

shelter at nightfall, and to take a weakly

eaten down to the end of May or begin- lamb, or all the lambs that have dropped ning of June, and then allowed to spring during the night, into sheds erected on

THE LAMBING SEASON .

79

purpose, or into sheltered stells,as a pro- It is not by walking much, and doing a tection against bad weather. To ascer- great deal, that a shepherd is a good tain the state of his flock , he should go one ; but it is knowing where to walk, through them with a lantern at least so as to disturb the sheep the least, and every two hours, and oftener if necessary.

by doing at the time whatever is neces

shepherding Hill Sheep. Thehardy sary to be done. There is not an expe breeds of hillsheep need less attention, rienced shepherd, who has been any

especiallyduring the night. Indeed, the length of time on one farm , who does general plan is to leave the flock undis- not, as soon as he rises in the morning,

turbed during the dead of the night. and observing the state of the weather, The ewes and lambs are turned out to know almost to a certainty where to find the dry lair over night, and there the every sheep on the hill, and will ac

shepherd looks over them carefully, per- cordingly take his course to the places haps as late as eleven o'clock, while he where he knows his presence is most

or his substitute returns to them as early as 3 or 4 A.M., when daylight is making

wanted .

“ The object in looking over a hill

its appearance . If the lair is dry and every evening and morning, is to ascer free from holes, into which young lambs tain if there be no trespassers nor disease

might occur fall and get hill drowned, mishaps the sheep which require looking rarely amongst sheep in lamb- among after. If any of your own or neighbour's ing, anda prudent hill shepherd disturbs sheep have trespassed, it is very foolish his breeding flock as little as possible.

to dog or abuse them , for the more

Hill Shepherds.—The observations gently you can turn them back the of Little on the qualifications of a hill better. If the boundary should be on shepherd are valuable, as containing the top of a height, to which sheep are much good practical sense. “ Much , apt todraw at night, it is better to turn he says, “ of the success in sheep- your own a littlecloser to the boundary farming depends on the skill and application of shepherds, as well as on the judgment of farmers. As the situation of a shepherd is one of con-

in the afternoon than to turn back your neighbour's, and it will answer the same

purpose ; and if the two flocks are gently divided in the morning, without dogs,

siderable trust, he ought to be honest, they will become so well acquainted with active, useful, and of a calm temper ; for their own side, that at thevery sight of

if at any time a shepherd gets into a the shepherd they will take to it without passion with his sheep, it is attended further trouble. with great disadvantage in herding, or “Those shepherds who dog, force, and in working among them. I have known shed much about a march , I consider a hasty, passionate man, with a rash them as bad herds for their masters as dog, give himself double the trouble in for the neighbouring farmer.

If the

managing a hirsel of sheep, besides abus- boundary be a brook or low ground, ing the sheep, that a calm good -tempered where the sheep graze in the middle of sses are likely to man, with a sagacious close-mouthed dog, the day, and if trespasse would have had in the same circumstances.

be considerable, the same plan of turning the sheep should be taken as on the

“ The qualification required in taking height, except that they are to be turned care of a hirsel of sheep, is, not in run- down in themorning, and set out in the ning, hounding, and training dogs, nor afternoon. in performing a day's work of any other “ When a sheep dies on the hill, or kind, but in directing them according to any disease appears among them , the the soil, climate, and situation of the dead or diseasedsheep should be removed farm , in such a manner as they shall immediately, but particularly so if the obtain the greatest quantity of food at all disease is of an infectious nature. Look seasons of the year. Their health and ing regularly over a hill is of great con comfort should be carefully looked after sequence, also, in case of any sheep fall

by the shepherd ; and if his exertions ing into a ditch, or lamb losing its mother, are made with judgment, they are of

or when they are annoyed by flies or

very great consequence to the farmer. maggots, or by foxes or dogs worrying

SHEEP IN SPRING.

80

them, or when they fall on their back

and cannot get up again. “ All these incidents an active shepherd

Abortion among Ewes. Ewes in lamb are liable to abortion,

with a good eye will soon discover, how- or slipping of the lamb, as it is termed, ever much a flock may be scattered over as well as the cow, but not to so great a farm . ..

an extent, nor is the complaint consid

“ In good weather the shepherd mayered epidemical in the sheep. Various possibly do all that can be done among causes produce it, such as severe weather the ewes in the lambing season ; but in in winter, having to endure much fatigue bad weather it is the farmer's interest to in snow, leaping ditches, being frightened afford every necessary assistance, for the by dogs, over-driving, feeding on unripe want of which, serious losses have often been incurred. 66

watery turnips, &c. Great Outbreak in Lincolnshire.

Knowing sheep by head -mark often In the winter and spring of 1883, a

saves a shepherd much trouble, particu- serious outbreak of abortion and pre larly in the lambing season , and at all mature birth occurred in the flocks of

sortings of the sheep ; yet there are many

Lincolnshire; and an investigation, car

good shepherds who do not know sheep ried out on behalfof the Royal Agri by head -marks, and there are some very cultural Society by Professor J. Wortley

ordinary ones who have a talent in that Axe, brought out information and con The

way. Every individual may be known clusions of considerable value. ? inquiry extended to 106 flocks, number by the stock mark.

“ To possess the knack of counting ing 51,475 ewes.

Of these, 6234, or

sheep readily is of no small service to a about 12 per cent, aborted, and 1494 shepherd, for he ought always to be able died. to count his flock when he makes his

Causes of the Outbreak.- Professor

rounds on the hill. There are few shep- Axe arrived at the conclusion that the herds, who accustom themselves to count

outbreak of abortion was not produced

sheep , who cannot, wherever they meet by any special and particular cause, but with them on a hill, count 100 going at by the concurrent operation of several large, or even 200 ; and it seldom happens hurtful influences of a common character. that a greater number than 200 will be

These he enumerates as follows:

found together in an open hirsel. To “ First and foremost stands the mis know the number in the different lots is chievous and fatal practice of feeding of great use in case of a hasty blast, as pregnant ewes exclusively on unripe

you can, in that event, know almost to a wateryroots, and especially on unwhole certainty whether or not any sheep are some filth -laden shells.

wanting, and from what part of the farm . “ Secondly, pain and suffering caused “ A shepherd ought likewise to be by protracted foot-rot. able to do any kind of work about a Thirdly, exposure to cold winds and

sheep -farm , such as cutting lambs, smear- heavy continuous rains. ing, slaughtering, dressing for the market, " Fourthly, fatigue arising out of the repairing stone-dykes, cleaning out drains, deep and sticky state of the ground.” mowinggrass, making hay, casting and Unripe Roots and Abortion.— The

winning peat-turf for fuel, &c.; but he clearest evidence as to the evil influence ought at no time to neglect the sheep of exclusive feeding of in-lamb ewes upon for such work. unripe watery roots was obtained by Shepherds are generally accounted Professor Axe. The turnip crop in that lazy ; but those who really care for their season was unusually abundant, and, sheep will not be so. Much walking owing to the mild winter of 1882-1883, unfits a man for hard labour, as much continued to grow, and remained through as hard labour unfits a man for much out the season in an unripe and excep

walking ; but labourers will generally be tionally watery condition. Of the total found more lazy on a hill, or among number of ewes (about 7800) fed exclus sheep, than shepherds at field -work .” 1 1 Little's Prac. Obser. Mount. Sheep, 79-86 .

2 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., vol. xxi. ( 1885), 199.

THE LAMBING SEASON.

81

ively on roots, no fewer than 19 per cent fresh break should be given every day aborted ; while, where the roots were sup- after the hoar-frost has disappeared, and plemented by frequent changes to grass, the rate of abortion fell to 3 per cent,

in the early spring the tops should be removed .

and to 174 per cent where the roots were “ 3. Change from the fold to the open supplemented by corn and cake, or some pasture twice or thrice a -week, or for a other substantial aliment. Significant few hours each day, if convenient, is enough, surely ! desirable, and especially when the lair Inreference to the high -pressure sys- is bad . tem of forcing the growth of roots by the “ 4. Protection from cold winds and free application of artificial manures, and driving rains should be provided in the growing practice of sowing roots late, stormy weather. andbeginning their consumption early, “ 5. Plenty of trough -room should be .

Professor Axe remarks that these are ewes provided, and ample space allowed for the to fall back .

inconsistent with full maturation and

ripening of roots, and that on this ac“ 6. All troughs should be shifted count " the desirability of a guarded daily, and set well apart. and judicious employment of this de“ 7. Dry food should be given at the scription of food in the management of same time as the fresh breakof roots, to

breeding stock cannot be too forcibly prevent crowding at the troughs. insisted upon. “ 8. Rock -salt should be at all times He also very strongly objects to the accessible. “ too common system which condemns “ 9. Animals suffering from foot-rot, pregnant ewes to live exclusively on or other forms of lameness, should be re

filth-laden shells ” behind other sheep, moved from the fold, and placed on dry which get the best of the fresh roots. Foot - rot and

Abortion . - It was

litter, and receive such other attention as the nature of the case may indicate. "

shown clearly that foot -rot contributed Mr Henry Woods on Abortion. largely to thecases of abortion. In flocks Sheep -farmers have derived much benefit where it prevailed to any extent the rate from the investigations regarding abor of abortion was 4 %2 per cent greater than tion in ewes which havebeen conducted in those in which there was no foot-rot. by Mr Henry Woods of Merton, Thetford, Twins and Abortion. The cases of Norfolk, agent to Lord Walsingham . He abortion were much more numerous with collected and published a mass of valu twin than with single lambs.

Indeed,

able information on the management of

' for every abortion with a single there breeding -flocks and the causes of the pre were six abortions with twin- lambs-

valent and excessive loss of ewes from

pointing, as Professor Axe says, “ to the abortion — the facts having been gathered existence of some debilitating cause un- from four hundred flock -masters in all

fitting the ewes with twins to meet the parts of the kingdom. In fifty cases of greater demands on their nutritive re- sheep management, where the feeding sources, while influencing in a less degree and results were satisfactory, there were those with singles." Preventive Measures.As the re-

25,281 ewes ; in that number the cases of abortion amounted to 126, and the

sults of his investigations into this Lin- deaths from all causes during the breed colnshire outbreak of abortion, Professor ing season were 222 . In fifty unsatisfac Axe submitted the following recommen- tory cases, there were 21,682 ewes ; and

dations, with the view of avoiding similar in these returns, twenty-two farmers had occurrences : very heavy losses, while twenty - eight " 1. That from the time ewes are stated a total of abortions amounting to placed on turnips to the time when they

1884.

In forty of the reports there were

lamb down, they should receive a liberal totalled 1255 deaths. Thus, fifty satis amount of dry food, to be regulated ac- factory cases showed i abortion and not

cording to the nature of the season and quite 1/2 deaths for every 200 ewes ; the condition of the roots.

whereas the other cases showed 1772

“ 2. The quantity of roots should at all abortions and 1172 deaths for every 200 times be limited, and besides shells, a ewes, though nearly one-half the abor VOL . II.

F

SHEEP IN SPRING .

82

tions and one-fifth of the deaths were not my returns to be greatest where short recorded. woolled ewes have been put to long Mr Woods on Preventing Abortion .

woolled rams.

The evidence, I say, is

-In his general conclusions, Mr Woods unquestionable that greater mortality remarks : attends lambing where short - woolled “ A most careful analysis of the returns ewes are put to large-boned , long-woolled -in making which I have had some able rams, than where the ewes breed after assistance — shows that sheep fed on tur- their own kind. Where cross-bred ewes nips now are not so healthy as sheep were are served by Oxford Down rams, the

when fed on turnips some years ago. As you will have imagined, and as it needs no philosopher to tell you, ewes fed on grass are much more healthy than when fed on turnips.

loss of ewes has been less than in the case of the short-woolled ewes served by long woolled rams ; and I presume the reason

is that the half-bred ewes, having their parts more fully developed from the cross,

“ It is very evident that sheep are not are the better adapted to perform the so healthy as they used to be. One functions required of them . reason is, I think, the land being farmed

more highly for turnips; and I have repeatedly remarked that we lose more sheep after a heavy crop of turnips. I do not think the artificial manure of itself is the cause, beyond forcing a turnip into

Youаtt on Abortion .

It is stated

by Youatt, that too liberal use of salt will produce abortion.

It is scarcely

possible to predicate abortion in sheep, on account of their woolly covering, but its immediate effects of dulness on the

a bad quality, which frequently causes us ewe, and of a redness under the tail, will great loss just at lambing -time. I think be symptomsnoticed by an observant it must be clear to any personwho has shepherd. “ The treatment after abor

followed my remarks in giving details of tion ," observes Youatt, "will depend en cases, that swedes are proved to be un- tirely on the circumstances of the case. healthy food for breeding-ewes. I might If the fætus had been long dead, proved have adduced many othercases from my by the fetid smell of it, and of the vagi

returns confirmatory of this. In the few naldischarge, the parts should be washed instances where the ewes have done well with a weak solution in water ( 1 to 16) when feeding on swedes, the daily supply of the chloride of lime, some of which has been limited, and there has almost may also be injected into the uterus. If

invariably been an allowance of other fever should supervene, a dose of Epsom food — as hay -chaff, with a liberal admix- salts, timeously administered , will remove ture of bran .

the symptoms. If debility and want of

" I believe that the verdict of a large appetite should remain, a little gentian majority of the thinking and practi- and ginger, with small doses of Epsom cal farmers and experienced shepherds

salts, will speedily restore the animal.

throughout the countrywill be this - Care should be taken that the foodshall that if we make it a rule to flush our

not be too nutritive or too great in quan

ewes by stimulating food during the tup- tity .” Ailments among Lambs. — Young ping season, to avoid feeding on swedes

as much as possible, to limit the supply lambs, as long asthey are dependenton of other roots as far as circumstanceswill permit, to give a fairly liberal allowance of digestible, nutritious, and health -preserving dry food, and to run theewes out on grass as much as possible (taking care

their mother for food, are subject to few diseases. A change to new luxuriant grass in damp weather may bring on the skit or diarrhea, and exposureto cold

may produce the same effect. As long never to over-fatigue them) before lamb- as the lamb feeds and plays, there is little

ing, there will in future be far fewer danger ; but should it appear dull, its cases of abortion and death amongst ewes

eyes watery and heavy, and its joints

than we have now to deplore, and many somewhat stiff, remedial means should more strong and healthy lambs will be immediately be used. “ A gentle aperi reared than at present. ent is first indicated in order to carry off “ One other point is this. The ewes any offensive matter that may have accu

lost during lambing would appear from mulated in and disturbed the bowels ;

83

THE LAMBING SEASON .

half an ounce of Epsom salts, with half panied with fever that may be dangerous. a drachm of ginger, will constitute the Half-ounce doses of Epsom salts should best aperient that can be administered.

be administered every 6 hours until the

To that must be added 1 table-spoonful bowels are evacuated, after which both of sheep's cordial, consisting of equal ewe and lamb should beturned into more parts of brandy and sweet spirits of nitre, succulent pasture, as the cause of the complaint is to be found in bare pasture housing and nursing.” But there is a species of apparent purg- in dry weather. In cases of fever, which ing, which is a more dangerous disease may be observed from the dulness of the than the skit. “ In the natural and lamb and its quick breathing, the admin

healthy state of the milk and stomach, istration of tolerable doses ofEpsom salts

curd produced by the gastric juice gra- will generally avert the malady at its >

dually dissolves and is converted into

chyme; but when the one takes on a morbid hardness, and the other may have lost a portion of its energy, the stomach is literally filled with curd, and all its functions suspended . The animal labours

commencement. Inflammation in Ewe's Udder.

After recovery from lambing, the com plaint the ewe is most subject to is in flammation in the udder, or udder-clap or garget. Of this complaint Youatt

under seeming purging, from the quan- gives a good idea of its origin and of tity of whey discharged, but the actual its treatment : “ The shepherd , and disease is constipation . Itis apt tooccur especially in the early period of suckling, about the timewhen the lamb begins to should observe whether any of the ewes graze, and when the function of the

are restless and exhibit symptoms of

stomach is naturally somewhat deranged . pain when the lambs are sucking, or will

Chemistry teaches us, that while a free not permit them to suck at all.

The

acid produces coagulation of the milk , an ewe, like the cow , or oftener than that alkali will dissolve that coagulum . Mag- animal, is subject to inflammation of the

nesia, therefore, should be administered, suspended in thin gruel, or ammonia largely diluted with water,and with them should be combined Epsom salts to hurry

udder during the time of suckling, caused either by the hardness or dryness of the soil on which she lies ; or, on the other hand, by its too great moisture and filth,

the dissolved mass along, and ginger to or by some tendency to general inflam excite the stomach to more powerfulcon- mation and determination to the udder

traction. Read's stomach -pump will be by the bumps and bruises, sometimes not found a most valuable auxiliary here. A

a little severe, from the head of the lamb.

perseverance in the use of these means

If there is any refusal on the part of the

will sometimes be attended with success ; ewe, or even disinclination, to permit the and the little patient being somewhat re- young one to suck, she must be caught

lieved, the lamb and the mother should and examined. There will generally be be moved to somewhat better pasture.”

found redness and enlargement and ten

Watery food in the lambing season derness of one or both of the teats, or lays the foundation of a bad quality of sometimes the whole of the udder, and blood, and probably causes a number of several small distinct kernels or tumours deaths in the flock .

on different parts of the bag. " The udder should be cleared of the “ Besides looseness, lambs are at times subject to costiveness in the bowels. In wool which surrounds it, and should be the first few days of its existence the well fomented with warm water,a dose fæces they void has a very viscid con- of Epsom salts administered, and then,

sistence, which, when it falls on the tail, if there are no large distinct knots or has the effect of gluing it to thevent and kernels, she should be returned to her

of stopping up that passage. On the re- lamb, whose sucking and knocking about moval of the obstruction byscraping with of the udder will contribute, more than a knife, the symptom will also be re- any other means, to the dispersion of the moved. A worse species of costiveness tumour and the regular flow of milk. is, when a few drops of liquid fæces fall It may occasionally be necessary to con occasionally to the ground accompanied fine her in a pen with her little one, in by straining, as it is generally accom- order that it may have a fair chance to

SHEEP IN SPRING .

84 suck.

A day, however, having passed,

labour, or has a weakly lamb, or has

and she not permitting it to suck, the twins which are apt to stray from her lamb must be taken away, the fomenta- or she from them, or has been overtaken tion renewed , and an ointment, composed by a rude blast immediately after lamb of 1 drachm of camphor rubbed down with a few drops of spirit of wine, I drachm of mercurial ointment, and I oz. of elder ointment, well incor porated together, must be rubbed into the affected part, or the whole of the udder, 2 or 3 times a -day. She must also be bled, and the phy

ing, a contrivance to afford such a d

sic repeated . If the udder should continue to enlarge, and the heat and tenderness should increase, and the knots and kernels become more nume

rous and of greater size, and some of

them should begin to soften or evi dently to contain a fluid, no time must be lost, for this disease is abun

dantly more rapid in its progress in the sheep than in the cow. A deep incision must be made into that part of the udder where the swellings are ripest, the pus or other matter

Fig. 249. - Ewe and lamb house.

squeezed out, and the part well fo

a Movable front of box,

mented again.

6 Manger within .

To this should succeed a weak solution of the chloride

with hooks.

c Rack for hay. d Broad lid with hinges. e Fork to assist in lambing.

of lime, with which the ulcer should be temporary shelter, used by Nicholas Bur

well bathed 2 or 3 times in the day. nett, Blaik Hedley, near Gateshead, and When all fetid smell ceases, and the illustrated in fig. 249, seems to deserve wound looks healthy, the friar's balsam notice. It consists of an enclosure of may be substituted for the chloride of boards, or a box, whereof the front re moves by hooks at the sides to admit the

lime.

“ The progress of disorganisation and

ewe and her lamb within, and where she

the process of healing are almost in- is provided with a manger to contain credibly rapid in these cases, and the sliced turnips or oilcake, and a rack for lamb may sometimes be returned to the hay, to fill both of which access is ob mother in the course of a few days.

tained by a broad lid movable on its

There are particular seasons, especially damp and warm ones, when there is a superfluity of grass, in which garget is peculiarly frequent and fatal. Without warning, the udder swells universally

hinges. The box is light, and can be easily carried to any spot, and it might

be the means of saving the lives bothof ewes and lambs which would otherwise

perish from exposure. The size of this ewe-house, as it is bring on great inflammation ; and if that called , may be made to suit that of the is not stopped in the course of 24 hours, sheep bred on the farm ; and as it is not part, if not the whole, of the udder costly, any number can be made to be with hardened teats, which sometimes

mortifies, and the mortification rapidly used at a time.

spreads, and the sheep dies . ” 1 Ewe and Lamb Box.In case of an

A useful size will be

found to be the following : Length, 5 feet 6 inches ; breadth , 3 feet ; height,

individual ewe, of a large flock of a pastor- 3 feet; breadth of the covered part, 2 al farm , which has strayed a considerable feet 7 inches; and rise of its slope, 7 distance from the shed erected to afford inches.

The fork leaning against the

shelter to ewes, or has suffered in hard side of the ewe-house may be used to grasp a ewe's neck, while lying on the 1 Youatt's Sheep, 497-515.

ground, and to fasten it down while the

THE LAMBING SEASON .

85

shepherd is lambing her without other feet in length, the depth of the sides but holding a ewe down be- being 15 inches — a shifting head with tween the heel and knee renders such an unequal sides, one being 18 inches, the implement of little use. other 30 inches long, fixed by iron pins Preparing Ewes for Railway Tra- passing through 2 pairs of eyes attached

assistance ;

velling. – Ewes with lambs at foot, un- to the head and to the sides of the plough

accustomed to oilcake or hay, will get respectively , so as to bring the point of dry of milk on being sent on a long the attached head of the plough nearly journey by steam or rail. But if accus- into the line of its upper side, or next

tomed with oilcake before, they will eat the hill. A stilt at the same time was it readily on board ship or truck.

made movable by a hinge - joint at its

Snow in Lambing. — One of the anterior extremity, fixed to the bottom greatest sources of loss among lambs on

of the head from the post, so as to be

hill farms is a fall of snow at the lambing capable of being fixed to a cross-bar or

season, and a continuance of it after that stretcher, eitherinthe line bisecting the period.

Ground rendered wet by the angle, which is the position for level

melting of new-fallen snow is in a worse ground, or in the line, alternately, of state for lambs than when wetted by rain , asrain falls at a higher temperature. Wet ground of any kind, however, is inimical to the safety of new -dropped

either of the sides, when to be used on a declivity. A draught-chain is fixed, not to the shifting head, but to the upright frame-post, in the nose of the

plough, which rises 10 or 12 inches above The driest part of the farm , combined the mould -boards. “ When the plough so constructed is with shelter, should be chosen for the lambs.

with the lambing -ground, though it may be incon- tobe worked along a declivity, But should left hand towards the hill, the shorter

venient in other respects.

the best lambing-ground be covered with limb of the shifting head is fixed on the old snow, and in a sheltered spot, and left side of the plough, near the point, the temperature of the air above the and the longer limb on the right side,

freezing-point, the snow might be re- towards themiddle ; and thestilt being fixed in the left extremity of the cross

moved .

Snow -plough . — A snow -plough would bar, nearly in a line with the temporary

prove useful in its removal. The snow- point, the plough is necessarily drawn plough, fig. 250, is thus described by Mr in the direction of its left side, so as to throw the snow wholly to the right down the hill. d

“When the plough is to return across

the declivity, withits right side to the hill, the movable head is detached by

drawing out the linch -pins, is turned upside down, and fixed in the reverse Fig. 250.- Mountain turn -wrist snow.plough. a The plongh.

b c d Shifting-head. b c Head , 18 inches long. bd Head, 30 inches long. g Stilt, movable.

ſ Post for stilt, with a hinge -joint, and for draught -chain . e Stretcher or cross -bar. dh Mould -board

in

this

arrangement.

position ; the shorter limb being at tached to the right side, and the longer to the left side of the plough, while the stiltis brought to the right extremity

of the cross-bar. The plough is then drawn in the direction of the right side,

and the snow is thrown wholly to the left, near the lower side.

Should the

Hepburn of Culquhailzie : “To enable lower side of the plough show a tend the plough to clear tracks for the sheep ency to rise, it may either be held down

along the hillsides, it is necessary it by a second movable stilt, fixed to the should be made to throw the snow

middle of the cross-bar, or a block of

To effect this, wood or other ballast weight may be I caused to be fitted to the plough — the placed on that side of the plough. The body of which forms an isoceles triangle, plough will be found to remove con

wholly to the lower side.

whose sides are 772 feet and its base 6 siderably more than its own depth of

SHEEP IN SPRING .

86

When a plough of 1 foot high

net 1 /2-inch mesh upon a double row

passes through snow 18 inches or 2 feet deep, very little of the snow falls back into the track, and what does so fall is easily cleared out by the plough in

of ordinary net-stakes, care being taken to have the bag of the net low enough to prevent the sheep from passing under it. A hay -rack which will last for years, and of any desired length, may thus be

snow.

returning."

Snow - harrow . — The snow- harrow ,

made at a moderate cost.

But many think the best way of giving the middle of which, on the under side, lay it out in lines on the snow. Hill a piece of 1 /4 -inch plank, 3 feet long, is sheep will not, as a rule, eat hay unless they are confined, or the ground is fig. 251 , consists of a single bull, 472 inches square, and 6 feet long ; and in

hay to ewes during a snowstorm is to

covered with snow.

Sheep on Turnips. - The manage mentof sheep on turnips in spring differs very little from that inwinter, which has been fully discussed.

Produce of Lambs. Single and Twin Lambs . - As to

the probable produce of lambs, the fol Fig. 251. - Mountain snow -harrow .

d Stilt attached to plank.

ab Bull. c Plank , on which is

€ e 7 Long cutters.

the draught-hook.

16 Short cutters.

lowing remarks by Professor Wrightson will be read with interest : “ The num

ber of twins or of single lambs is an im portant matter affecting the profits of

sunk flush transversely, for the attach- sheep -farming. An abundance of twins ment of a draught-hook and a stilt to is a matter for congratulation, butis not steady the motion of the implement. In an unmixed advantage. They will not

the bull are fixed, by screw -nuts at inter- attainthe size of single lambsfor sale in vals of 10 inches, 7 cutters, &c., 9 inches long and 138 inch broad , sabre-shaped, with their points turned backwards, so as to be less liable to be arrested by obstacles on the surface of the ground. Between these cutters are fixed six shorter ones, 3 inches long, having their points turned forwards. This implement,

the following autumn ; the ewes require more food, and are often more reduced in condition through suckling, and the strain upon the mother is heavy, especially in the case of two - tooths. Still, a good many twins are required in order to keep up the number of lambs,which is liable to drawbacks from death,barrenness, and

dragged by one horse ridden by a boy,

slipping.

Twins give the opportunity to

and the stilt held by a man, cuts the the shepherd of dividing them , and thus

frozen snow into stripes of 5 or 6 inches supplying lambs to ewes which have lost broad , which are easily pulverised by the feet of the sheep, or divided by the snowplough. In lowland farms the snow remains around the fences long after the middle

their own offspring, and which, otherwise, would go as barreners. Crop of Lambs.—“ Without a fair

proportion of twins we should unques tionably suffer from a short supply of

of the fields are clear . A speedy means lambs, even upon the assumption of a of getting rid of the snow is to cut with lamb to a ewe throughout the flock.

thecommon plough repeatedly.

This apparently modest estimate is by no

Hay -rack for Storm . — A cheap and means always realised, in spite of twins,

most portable sheep hay -rack or heck for as barren and aborted ewes may easily a storm , is the cart-horse hay-net, which constitute 5 per cent of a flock, and

can befixed in spite of wind and drift, and will save hundreds of sheep where there is hay. Seven or eight sheep can get round one net, which will serve for

often double that proportion. Deaths among very young lambs are also fre quent, so that the general statement

that for every ewe put to the ram there should be a lamb at weaning -time, is not An excellent plan is to hang a wire far from correct.

years with care.

MANURES AND MANURING.

87

How to obtain a Big Crop of been recorded. A ewe, the property of Lambs.— “ Some flocks, and some farms, J. Amall, of Thrussington, Leicestershire, seem naturally adapted for producing a had the immense number of 22 lambs in large number of lambs. It may be rea six years. She had 3 lambs three times, sonably expected that twins will in turn 4 lambs twice, and 5 lambs once.-T.

produce twins, and hence rams and ewes Stephens, of East Deanes, St Neot, had 12 ewes, which in one season produced

which have been twins might properly be

selected to propagate their species. Fer- 30 lambs— viz., i ewe, 4 lambs ; 4 ewes, tility is as likely to be inherited as any

other property, and with it the natural accompaniments of good nursing and abundant milk-supply. I am inclined

12 lambs ; and 7 ewes, 14 lambs.

Lambing Table. The duration of pregnancy in the ewe

to think that ewes are naturally dis- is generally reckoned at twenty-one weeks, posed to produce a pair of lambs, and

but may vary from 136 to 160 days.

that single lambs are to be regarded as a From the following table, which shows degree less normal than twins. Thus, when twenty-one weeks expire from the when ewes are in good order and keep ist and 14th of any month, the date for is abundant — both of which conditions the lambing of ewes may be easily ascer must be regarded as strictly natural- tained :

the number of twins is immediately in flock produces doubly. This indicates

creased , and sometimes almost the whole

the best method of obtaining a big crop of lambs, namely - keeping the ewes well throughout summer. Extreme fatness extreme poverty both militate against

From

January 11

14.

t1

14.

March 1

I.

14 .

April

tion produces an opposite effect. Ewes which have been barren during one season

May

14 . June

July

14.

August

26.

August

14. 14.

-is known to have a wonderful effect in

14. November 1 .

increasing the proportion of twin lambs. December 10

8.

26.

September

8 22.

October November

8.

25 . 8.

25. December 11

January

9.

26 . 8.

26.

September 1 . October

instances of the prolificacy of ewes have

12.

11

I.

two before tupping, and during tupping remarkable

July

1.

with rich and abundant food for a week or

Ewes . — Some

10.

28.

I.

14 .

sale ewes which have been caked will

Prolific

27.

June

1. 14. I.

will often conceive early and produce two generally produce a lot of lambs.” 1 Flushing — that is, forcing the ewes

May

February 1 .

fertility, but a judicious mean and plenty of good food during the period of concep

strong lambs the succeeding spring, and

Το 1.

February

I.

9.

25. March

10.

14 .

April

1. 14 .

26. 9. 25 .

May

9.

MANURES AND MANURING .

In the advanced agriculture of the the maintenance, utilisation, and recupera present day the question of manuring tion of fertility ; the discovery and devel possesses far more importance and in- opment of new sources of manurial com volves greater difficulties than were asso- modities ; and the vastly increased and

ciated with it in the elementary farming still growing consumption of farm pro of olden times.

The extension and ac-

duce of all descriptions, have with their

cumulation of knowledge, in regard to combined influence contributed largely to 1 Live Stock Jour., p. 114, 1889.

the great revolution which, since 1840, has taken place in British farm practice.

MANURES AND MANURING .

88

The farmer can no longer wait for the of the elements of plant-food withdrawn recuperating power of nature to restore by the crop. reduced fertility. He is not content to It is not to be said here that this

merely “turn over,” as it were, the nat- system of selling crops and buying ar ural store of plant -food which the soil tificial manures is preferable to the older Before the advent of “arti- and still more general method of con manures and feeding - stuffs the suming a large portion of the crops on

possesses. ficial

prevailing system of farming was little the farm , and so restoring fertility by

else than a " turning over ”of the inherent farmyarddung. The point is mentioned fertility of the soil — the abstraction of merely for the purpose of indicating the fertility from one field in certain crops, vastly extended scope which the develop and the returning of it, or a great part of ment of the manure-trade has imparted it, to another field in the shape of farm- to the practice of farming. yard manure. This, however, was a slow process, quite unequal to the wants, the

It is thus seen that the subject of manures and manuring is now one of sur

aspirations, and resources of the progres- passing importance. It has, indeed, be come the very keystone of British agri A speedier, more intense, more arti- culture . We have therefore deemed it

sive age in which we live.

ficial system of farming has arisen, and

right that in this edition of The Book

to make provision for the greater de- of the Farm the subject should receive mands which are now made upon the somewhat exceptional attention. It is productive powers of the soil, active and dealt with more fully than has before persistent attention has for years been been attempted ; and while dogmatism devoted by scientists, capitalists, and as to the precise composition and quan

practical farmers to the all- important tities of specific manurial doses has been question of manuring. Indeed the de- avoided, an effort is made to submit in velopment of the manure -trade is to some

convenient form such information as will

extent the cause rather than the result safely guide the intelligent farmer in the of the increased activity and progress of economical and efficient manuring of his agriculture. They have grown up, as it land. There is probably no process connected were, hand in hand, the one fostering and encouraging the other. with agriculture as to which there is By the discovery of vast natural de- more difference of opinion, or in which posits of manurial elements, and by the greater diversity of practice prevails, than manufacture of useful fertilisers from the manuring of land. This remark , too, waste products and other material, great is quite as applicable to professional possibilities, hitherto undreamt of, have been placed in the hands of the farmer.

chemists as to practical farmers. To attempt to reconcile all these contradic

By the means of these agencies it is tory views and customs would be hope possible for him to vastly increase and less ; yet in the majority of cases the con hasten the production of his farm - not tradiction is more apparent than real.

only by adding to the supply of plant- The more intimately one becomes ac food already in the soil, but also by quainted with the routine of farm man

so stimulating, equalising, and prepar- agement in the various parts of the ing that supply, as to render it far more British Isles, the less is one inclined to serviceable and nutritious to the growing dogmatise and to assert that a certain crops.

system is right and all others wrong.

The farmer is not now dependent The system which gives the best results upon the residue of his crops for the in the cold regions and light friable well restoration of fertility to the soil. So far drained lands in the north of Scotland,

as concerns the question of the fertility may be utterly unsuited to the stiff of the soil, the farmer may now grow

clayey lands of England, or the moist

what he pleases and sell what he pleases. The abstracted fertility may be replaced by purchased fertilisers, so prepared and proportioned as to return to the soil in the most useful form the exact quantities

soil and mild climate of the Emerald Isle. One may be assured that the marked divergences in farm practice are not mere accidents. As a rule, they will be found to be fully justified by

MANURES AND MANURING.

89

variations in local conditions, differences Prior to the introduction of artificial in soil, climate, and objects and possi- manures, farmers relied almost entirely

bilities of the farmer. Then, as to the upon farmyard dung to replace the ab differences amongst men of science, it should be borne in mind that the great field of agricultural chemistry is only in process of exploration, and that while our knowledge regarding its wonderful truths has, in recent years, grown with gratifying rapidity, it is still far from being perfect and entire.

stracted fertility. This, however, was not sufficient, for much of the ingredients of the soil were sold off in the form of grain, meat, milk, cheese, &c. It is thus ob vious that, if no other means of restoring fertility had been found, the soil would have, in course of time, become exhausted .

Deferring Exhaustion . — The agents In dealing with the subject of man- which were most effective in deferring

ures and manuring, the Editor has been this exhaustion were careful and season deeply impressed with these considera- able tillage, drainage, subsoiling, the tions, and, keeping them in view, he has decay of the roots of crops, rotation of

sought the counsel of many recognised crops, and bare fallow . The combined authorities. The writings of our most influence of these agents is certainly by eminent chemists and practical agri- no means insignificant. It has been well

culturists have been carefully consulted shown in the Rothamsted experiments and freely drawn upon , notably those of that tillage and the decay of the roots

Johnstone, Cameron, Voelcker, Anderson, of crops have a very important bearing Lawes, Gilbert, Wilson, Sibson, Morton , Ville, Liebig, Hellriegel, Wright-

upon the duration of fertility in soil. It is a curious and important fact that

son, Warington, Aitken , Jamieson, Fal- the growth of crops in itself,while rob coner - King, Aikman, MacAdam , Ber- bing the soil of certain ingredients, tends nard -Dyer,Lloyd, Cooke, Fream , Curtis, to enrich it in other elements of fertility. Brown , &c.

And from several experi- The plants absorb nitrogen from the at

enced practical farmers, who have made mosphere, and draw nutritious ingre a special study of the subject, and who dients from the subsoil. By the decay reside in and farm different parts of of their roots they thus leave the surface

the kingdom , the Editor has received soil richer in certain elements than it was most valuable help and advice in his before. And the larger the crop the more effort to present the readers of this does it enrich the soil in these elements,

work with useful information as to the for the greater is the residue of plant economical manuring of land.

food in the roots which remain in the

soil. See pp. 60 and 61 , Div. I. EXHAUSTION AND RESTORATION OF FERTILITY .

Restoring Fertility . — But it is clear

that something more is necessary to re store to the soil the particular elements In the section on “Fertility of Soils ” removed in the produce exported from (p. 56, Div. I. ), the principles relating it. For this restoration we have now to the existence, exhaustion, and restor- at hand an exhaustless store of artificial ation of fertility in soils are fully ex

plained . The reader should be familiar with what is said there before perusing what follows here.

Abstraction of Fert

ty . - It has

manures.

Ingredients Removed by Crops.

—— The important question now arises : What are the ingredients which are re moved in crops, and what are the quan

been seen that the fertility of the soil tities of each ? As to the elements of becomes reduced by the removal of in- plant-food and the sources of their ele

gredients in crops and animals raised ments, see p . 57, Div. I. upon it, and by soluble matters being On p . 63, Div. I., will be found an ex

carried away in drainage-water. It isalso haustive table, showing the weight and more than probable, as will be explained average composition of ordinary farm in connection with the Rothamsted ex- crops in pounds per acre. From that

periments in this chapter, that loss of table it is easy to calculate the quantity plant-food occurs through evaporation of of each ingredient of plant-food removed volatile ammonia . in any rotation of the ordinary farm crops.

MANURES AND MANURING .

90

And from the full explanations which

accompany the table, useful deductions

Exhaustion in a Norfolk Rotation . -It may

be interesting to show here in may be drawn as to the manurial treat- tabular form the quantities of the chief ele

ment which should be pursued under the ments of plant-food which would be with various systems of cropping, stocking, drawn from the soil in the course of the and disposal of crops and stock . Norfolk rotation of wheat, turnips, bar The subject is so fully and clearly dealt

ley, and clover ; and with this total is

with by Mr Warington, in the pages re- contrasted the amount of these ingre ferred to, that any further discussion here dients which would be returned in an

of the general principles relating to the ordinary dressing of farmyard manure exhaustion and restoration of fertility 8 tons or 16 yards of dung : would be needless repetition. Dry Matter.

Crop .

Wheat, 30 bushels per acre .

Turnips , 17 tons Barley, 40 bushels

11

Clover, 2 tons

11

11

Nitrogen .

Potash .

Magnesia.

Phosphoric Acid.

Ib. per acre . Ib. per acre. | ib . per acre. Ib . per acre. Ib. per acre . 21.1 28.8 48 4183 7.1 II2 148.8 33. I 9.5 4657 6.9 3827 48 35.7 20.7 102 28.2 3763 83.4 24.9

Totals

310

296.7

51.7

99.8

Rotten farmyard dung, 8 tons per acre

96.8

95.2

18.94

48.0

213.2

201.5

32.76

51.8

It is thus seen at a glance that an ordi- more plant-food than would be exported

nary dressing of farmyard manure, say 8 tons or 16 yards per acre, applied once in the above four-course rotation, would restore barely one -third of the elements of fertility removed by the crops. Such a large dressing as 24 or 25 tons of dung

from the farm ; and thus, without the aid of any of the artificial fertilisers, there

would be an accumulation rather than an exhaustion of fertility. But extreme cases of this kind are very rare. The extreme on the other hand is where

per acre is impracticable ; hence the econ- the growing and selling of crops are the omy and advantage of having at com- main features in the system of manage

mand the various artificial fertilisers in ment, and where few or no stock are kept

which, in a highly concentrated and beyond what is necessary for the working readily available form , the deficient ele- of the farm. Between these two extremes there are ments may be supplied.

Removal and Return of Plant-food

many gradations - an endless variety of

in Different Systems. -- This supple- systems, in which there is an ever-chang mental work is indeed the chief function ing relation between three great factors Upon all farms, in successful agriculture - viz. ( 1 ), the

of artificial manures.

less or more farmyard dung is made ; amount of plant - food withdrawn from and as a means of restoring fertility, it the soil; (2) the amount returned in is first reckoned upon and employed. farmyard manure ; and (3) the quantity Under certain systems offarming , where of purchased fertilisers necessary to make

not only the great bulk of the produce of up the deficiency in the latter, as com the farm , but also large quantities of pared with the first, or to furnish any purchased foods, are consumed on the increased fertility which the farmer may farm by stock, the quantity of dung may desire to impart to the land . be almost sufficient for all the manurial

Sum and Substance of Successful

requirements of the holding. Indeed, Manuring. — Here, then — in securing under such a system , the manurial resi- the proper relations of these factors — we due of the purchased foods might supply have the sum and substance of successful

MANURES AND MANURING.

91

manuring. It is by no means a simple the chemist fails in this particular point. matter.

It is beset with many problems

By the aid of his powerful acids, alkalies,

requiring the most careful and intelligent and other decomposing agents, he can study, as well as technical knowledge. tell us the entire quantity of any element The farmer has to consider not only what in the soil and subsoil ; but he has not quantities of the various elements of as yet succeeded in determining definitely

plant-food he would have to purchase to how much of that element exists in a make up the deficiency in his supply of form available to the plant, and how

farmyard manure. He must also see that much of it is locked up in combinations he procures these elements from the best which the weaker acids at the command and cheapest sources at the time, and that of the plant are unable to break up.

they are in the forms most suitable to his True, by diluting and weakening his acids and alkalies, so as to bring them And it has to be kept in view that the as near as possible to the strength of

objects.

ascertaining of the amount of purchased the dissolving agents at the command manure necessary to supplementthe farm- of the plant, the chemist endeavours to

yard dung is not the simple matter the estimate the amount of available plant uninitiated might at first sight regard it. food in a soil. In this way he is able It is not sufficient to merely subtract the to obtain information of undoubted supply of plant-food in the stock of dung value. Yet it is merely an estimate,

from that contained in the crops removed and in practice has to be followed from the soil. For instance, we have with caution. seen from the table on page go, that Evidence of the Crops. — Recognis

during the four - course rotation there ing the difficulty of accurately estimating

mentioned the quantities of plant - food the fertility of soil by analysis, Georges removed in the crops would exceed those Ville, the eminent French chemist, recom returned in 8 tons of dung by 213 lb. of mended the more elaborate and more re

nitrogen, 201.5 lb. of potash, 32.76 lb. of liable plan of testing the soil by the magnesia, and 51.8 lb. of phosphoric acid, “ evidence of the plants themselves." per acre. Resources of the Soil to be Reck-

He says :

farmer to have ascertained this. If he were to supply the full quantity of each ingredient here represented as deficient, he would most likely be pursuing a wasteful system of manuring. The natural resources of the soil must be reckoned with. In many soils there is a great

acid, potash, lime, and nitrogenous mat ter - it was possible to bring the most barren soil to the highest degree of fer tility. We have learntmore than thisviz., that these four substances, however efficacious they may be, only remain so as long as they are associated and united

“ I laid down the principle that by oned . - Now it is not enough for the means of four substances — phosphoric

natural store of certain elements of plant- one with the other; for by suppressing food, which will be capable of furnishing one, the remaining three are often ren the wants of crops for several years to come. For instance, if it is aclayeysoil, there will most likely be such an abundance of potash in it as that any direct application of this element would, for the time being, be entire waste of money,

dered inert, and frequently lose the greater partof their activity.

of plant-food in the soil.

phoric acid fulfils a similar function with respect to maize, cane-sugar, and swedes ;

“ We have further said that these four

substances arenot of the same degree of utility to all descriptions of plants, but that each has a preponderant or subor perhaps even hurtful to the crop. dinate action by turns ; that for cereals, The farmer has therefore a fourth fac- colza, and beetroot, nitrogenous matter tor to reckon with — namely, the reserve was the preponderant constituent; phos Chemical Analysis Unreliable.-

The accurate ascertaining of the quan- whereas potash preponderates in the case tity and condition of this “ reserve” of plant-food in the soil is perhaps, of all, the most “ knotty ” point in the whole question of manuring. The acumen of

of potatoes and leguminous plants . If you thoroughly understand these three

fundamentalpropositions,you will readily see by what natural deductions we shall

S

MANURE

92

NG

AND MANURI

. Crop per acre of

be able to found upon them a practical method of analysis that will be accessible

Potatoes .

Normal manure Manure without lime

to all.

tons , II

cwt. 3 4 6

to^

8 “ Suppose, for instance, that we ex phosphate 6 periment upon the same soil with five nitrogen 5 18 different manures : first of all, a manure 2 2 potash Soil without manure composed of the four substances of which 14 we have been speaking, and to which we have given the name of normal manure ; The potato, then, tells us that the soil of 11 11

11

2

and next with four manures composed of three ingredients only, excluding in rotation nitrogenous matter, phosphoric acid, potash , and lime, and with these produce

Vincennes does not contain sufficient pro portions of potash and of nitrogen ; and if it shows a preference for soil that is rich in potash, it is because that sub

a parallel series of crops

stance is its dominant constituent — that

With the normal manure.

Manure without nitrogenous matter. 16 11

11

11

phosphates. potash. lime.

The soil without any manure .

is to say, it is the ingredient in manure that acts most beneficially upon that special crop. “ The evidence of these two plants is not contradictory but confirmatory, and

you will observe how the preponderance of certain constituents gives an additional

The result will be that the complete manure produces 43 bushels of wheat per acre ; manure without nitrogenous matter produces 14 bushels ; manure without phosphates, 26 %2 ; manure without potash , 31 ; manure without lime, 41 ; and

value to the same facts. In order to gather an exact idea of the richness of the under layer or subsoil at Vincennes,

it is necessary to consider the result which was obtained at the same time with wheat

and potatoes. A series of crops of wheat

the soil without any manure, only 12 shows plainly that nitrogenous matter bushels per acre.

“The conclusion is evident and conclusive. The soil requires, above all, nitrogenous matter ; it is provided with lime, but insufficiently supplied with potash and calcic phosphate. What analysis, I ask, be it as delicate as it is possible to conceive, will ever be able to

and potash are present in restricted pro portions, and a series of potato crops confirms and ratifies this testimony; only with manure without potash, the crop of potatoes is feebler and comparative ly smaller than that of wheat, because potash is a dominant constituent in potatoes, and only a subordinate con

furnish us with a series of results like

stituent in wheat. 66

this ? According as the crops obtained Here, then, is a perfectly accurate with the incomplete manures differ from system of experiments, and the informa or resemble those resulting from the use tion gained may at once be applied to of the normal manures, the conclusion practical use. With an experimental we arrive at is, that the soil lacks the field we always determine the nature of ingredient excluded from these manures, the substances useful to plants contained orvice versa .

“ But this is not all. In every soil

in the soil, and also determine in what

constituents the soil is deficient, and with

there are two portions to be considered this knowledge we can decide what sort

—the surface soil and the subsoil, the of manure it will be advisable to em

upper and under layers — and it is most ploy. important that we should have definite ideas upon this subject. We may gain

Method of Test Experiments .— “ I

will briefly show you how we should pro

the necessary knowledge very easily by ceed in the formation of such fields, ac substituting for wheat some tap-rooted cording to the purpose for which they are plant ; beetroot, for instance, which buries to be used. If the results of our experi itself in the ground to a much greater ments are somewhat important, we must depth. choose a piece of land representing the

" With potatoes, the information gained mean fertility of the whole estate, and is no less instructive and precise :-

divide it into ten plots, each containing,

MANURES AND MANURING.

93

touchstone, and in a certain measure completes and rectifies their signification. I is to receive 24 tons of farmyard man When you are once familiarised with this

say, a quarter of an acre, to be fertilised , as shown beneath : No.

mode of investigation, every kind of cul

ure . 11 11 11

11

11

3 4 5

11

12

ture becomes a source of information con

very rich normal manure . ordinary manure without nitrogen

cerning the state of the soil - its richness

11

ous matter. without manure

6

1

7 8

t1

!!

9

11

11

calcic

phosphate. manure without potash. manure without lime. manure without mineral matter .

IO

11

soil without any manure.

or its exhaustion . Here, for instance, is an example :

“ On two contiguous portions of land, say of a few square yards, sow peas and wheat without any kind of manure. This

little experiment will amply suffice to ascertain if the soil contains nitrogenous and mineral matter. We have already seen that nitrogenous matter was the

Here is a system equal to all the exigen- dominant constituent in wheat, and that cies of every kind of culture. Thanks to this method of growing crops side by side, we are able to follow methodically the exhaustion of the soil; that advancedguard of the field of experiments indicates with certainty the precise moment when

it was only of very secondary importance to peas, if indeed its action could be regarded as of any use at all to them ; whilst the dominant constituent in peas was potash. You see now, by the light of these simple facts, with how much im

the soil is ready to receive nitrogenous portance the experiment just quoted can matter, potash, or calcic phosphate, as be invested. If the two squares of wheat the case may be. and peas are equally fine, it proves that

“ But it will be said that on every the soil contains a sufficiency both of farm it may happen, as it nearly always nitrogenous and mineral matter. does, that there are soils of

very different

“ Now , if the wheat becomes small,

nature. The experimental field, of which yellow, and rather soft, whilst the peas we have just been speaking, does not flourish well, it proves that the soil is

suffice for an extended inquiry, and in lacking in the dominant constituent of order to arrive at useful results, it is wheat , which is nitrogenous matter,

necessary to set aside an additional quar- whilst it contains, on the contrary, á ter of an acre, divided into four parts, sufficiency of mineral matter, and above on which to experiment with these differ- all ofpotash. “We will extend the range of our manure, and nitrogenous matter, the observations. Lucerne has roots which

ent manures : normal manure, mineral

fourth part receiving no manure at all. ? penetrate deeply into the subsoil. It is With these four combinations of manure , from these under layers that it principally

under the condition that if necessary the obtains the mineral matter, of which it trial may be repeated, we can acquire requires a large quantity. Suppose that with certainty all information of which, lucerne prospers whilst peas are weakly.

practically speaking, we have need. The What are we to conclude from this ? first field , by reason of its greater extent,

That the superficial layers of soil are

and the more numerous and varied com- lacking in potash and phosphates, whilst bination of manure that it receives, is, as the deep layers are provided with them ; it were, a centre towards which all the but if the two plants progress equally others must gravitate. The results given well, we know that the superficial and

by the smaller plots are tested by those deep layers of soil are well provided with of the first field , which acts as a sort of mineral matter.” 2 Farmers' Experiments.- Mr F. J.

The best arrangement as to experimental Cooke, Flitcham Abbey, Norfolk , in a paper read before the London Farmers' crop is roots, orso manyridges or yards wide Club, on March 25, 1889, urged farmers plots in fields is to select so many drills if the

if corn or pasture, so that each plot may run from end to end of the field , and thus, as far

to make trials upon their own land as to

as possible, embrace all the variations in the character and condition of the soil.

2

Artificial Manures.

G. Ville, 176-183.

MANURES AND MANURING .

94

the kinds and quantities of manures best and present in an available form , but suited to their farms. He stated that he

likewise contain in due proportion all

had been doing so himself annually for the essential elements of plant nutrition. some twenty years, and he was not aware

Law of Minimum.- This due pro

of any other separate practice which had portioning or balancing of the elements been so useful to him . The information of fertility is a point of the utmost im he thus obtained had saved him much portance.

It is illustrated by what is

unprofitable outlay on manures which known as Liebig's law of minimum.

had formerly been unnecessarily or im- Every soil contains a maximum of one or prudently applied.

more, and a minimum of one or more,

Mr Cooke's method of testing the of the ingredients necessary for plant wants of the soil and the crops isquite growth. Now the growth or produce of the plants on this soil is governed

simple, and similar to that recommended

by Ville, -namely, the use of the four not by the combined quantityof all the gen, phosphoric acid,potash, and lime- producing power of the essential ingredi

necessary elements of plant-food - nitro- ingredients present in the soil, but by the separately and together, and as far as ent present in the smallest proportion, possible in the most economical forms,– no matter how small a part this deficient

one plot remaining unmanured , another element may play in the economy of the having all the ingredients, whilst upon particular crop. Again, let it be remem

the other plots each ingredient is in turn bered that the strength of the chain is governed by the weakest link.

omitted.

An interesting example of the value

The object of manuring is to provide

of experiments in discovering the man- against deficiencies of this kind, and at urial wants of separate farms, and of the lowest possible cost to furnish the the unreliability of chemical analyses of crops with a full supply of readily avail soils for this purpose, is given by Mr able well -balanced wholesome plant-food. Cooke. A dressing of 3 cwt. of nitrate of soda and 3 cwt. of superphosphate VARIETIES OF MANURE - FARM was applied to a plot of barley at FlitYARD DUNG, cham , upon which the crop failed. An adjoining plot got these manures, and in Ir a description of the various commo addition 2cwt. of muriate of potash, and produced 54 bushels of barley per acre. dities employed as manure, the first place

Yetthe soil of both the plots was found naturally falls to farmyard dung. At by chemical analysis to contain as much one time the only kind of manure avail potash in the top foot of it as would be able, it is still, in this connection, the found in 3tons per acre of muriate of mainstay of the farmer. Its pre-emin potash.

There was an abundance of ence is gradually lessening, yet it will

potash in the soil, but it was not avail- always be an important agent in main able to the barley. Hence, on this soil taining the fertility of the farm . There an application of potash was essential for are now many farmers who depend more profitable cropping, and no amount of largely upon artificial manures than upon other manures would succeed without it.

dung. Upon the whole, however, “muck "

All this tends to show not only the is still the staple manure, and artificial

importance of, but also the difficulties in- fertilisers merely supplementary to it. volved in, the question of manures and

manuring.

Variety in the Quality of Dung.

In arranging the dressings Farmyard manure consists of the solid

of manure to be applied, the farmer and liquid excrements of farm live-stock, must consider the probablecontents and and ofthe litter provided to them. Ex: condition of the soil, as well as the wants cept when made and kept wholly under

of the particular crop. He will endeav- roof, it also contains a considerable our, as fully as possible, to utilise the quantity of rain - water. Its manurial reserve fund ” of fertility in the soil, value depends upon the class of animals

and aim in particular at having the crop by which it is made, the age of these

providedwith a supplyof plant -food, animals,the kindsandquantities of food which will not only be ample in quality, supplied to them, the kind and quantity

VARIETIES OF MANURE - FARMYARD DUNG.

95

of litter employed , and the manner in tice, this fact does not always have due which the manure is made and managed consideration. What is said on pages 226-232, Div. generally — whether well trodden , evenly mixed, the fermentation kept duly in I., as to manure in covered and open courts, should also be consulted here. check, and waste prevented. In the chapter on the “ Treatment of Manurial Value of Straw.— The

Farmyard Manure ” (p. 501 , Div. II.), straw ofthe cereal crops does not possess information is given, not only as to the such high manurial value as is by many “ making ” of good and bad dung, but accorded to it.

also as to the characteristics of the different kinds of dung. In this connection the succeeding chapter on “ Liquid Manure ” (pp. 514-529, Div. II. ) should

The constituents of

fresh straw are for the most part insol uble, so that straw is of little use in the soil unless it is well rotted. Indeed, the principal value of straw in the making of manure is that it, in the first place,

also be consulted .

The system of feeding is mainly re- forms comfortable litter for the animals,

sponsible for the originalquality of the and thereafter becomes a suitable vehicle dung.

The feeding of draught - horses for absorbing and holding in a manage

varies but slightly, so that farm -horse able condition the solid and liquid ex dung is comparatively even in character. creta. From this it is apparent that the With cattle - by which the great bulk of excessive use of straw as litter is impru farmyard manure is made the case is dent and wasteful ; for, while the bulk very different. All sorts of dietary are of the dung may be thereby greatly in given to them ; from very poor and creased , there may be little more fertilis

scanty — such as will barely sustain the ing value than if one-third less litter had existing " condition " of the animal- been supplied. Composition of Dung. — From the to very rich and abundant, far beyond the power of the animal to assimilate. foregoing it is of course obvious that the

Then in one case the supply of litter, chemical composition of farmyard dung manurial value (see tables on pp. 285-287, ing detailed analyses of samples of farm

generally cereal straw, which has little is liable to great variation. The follow

Div. II.), may form a much larger pro- yard dung were made by Dr A.Voelcker. Composition of fresh dung, composed portion of the bulk of the dung than in of horse, cow , andpig dung, aboutfour

another.

Obviously, therefore, there must be teen days old: many degrees of quality in farmyard

Water

.

dung,-a fact which farmers should * Soluble organic inatter keep carefully in view in considering Soluble inorganic matter how many tons of dung, and what

Insoluble inorganic matter .

plementary manure, should be given to this field or that.

1.54 25.76 4.05

+ Insoluble organic matter

sup

Moreover, as we have

100.00

seen, in pp. 501-513 , Div. II., the ori- * Containing nitrogen . ginal character of the dung may be Equal to ammonia greatly altered — improved or damaged +Equal Containtoingammonia nitrogen

.149 .181

.494 .599

-by the manner in which it is made,

.643 .780

Total percentage of nitrogen .

and treated generally. These consider

Equal to ammonia

ations should never be lost sight of. One ton from a certain dung -heap may

.

Ammonia in a free state in form of salts Do.

.034

.

.088

fected by the food supplied to the animal. It has long been recognised that dung

made by fattening stock is much more valuable than that made by store cattle,

which are sparingly fed ; yet, in prac-

Composition of the whole ash : . cent per 27.55

The information given on pp. 283-289,

Soluble in ,water

be worth two tons from another.

Div. II., as to the “ manurial value ” of foods, indicates how , and to what extent, the manurial value of dung may be af-

66.17 2.48

Soluble silica

.

4.25 5.35

Phosphate of lime Lime

I.IO

Magnesia

0,20

Potash Soda

Chloride of sodium Sulphuric acid . \Carbonic acid and loss

10.26 0.92 0.54 0,22 .

4.71

MANURES AND MANURING .

96 Insolubl e in water ,

. cent per 72.45

Soluble silica

.

17.34

small proportion organic, and mineral substancesofinsoluble, accounts fresh dung for its slow action compared with rotten

Insoluble silicious matter . 10.04 Phosphate of lime Oxide of iron and alumina, 8.47 with phosphates

dung. Insoluble matters are very large -of organic matters, ten times as great

containing phosphoric acid

( 3.18)

equal to bone-earth 20.21

Magnesia

contains a mere trace of free or volatile

2.56 1.78 0.38

Potash Soda

Chloride of sodium

ammonia, and but a trifling quantity of ammoniacal salts.

.

The amount of ni

trogen in fresh dung is inconsiderable.

...

Sulphuric acid . Carbonic acid and loss

as soluble ; and of mineral matters, three

( 6.88) times as great as soluble. Fresh dung

Lime

It is gradually liberated as the dung

1.27 10.40

progresses in putrefaction, and is con

The composition of rotten dung, mixed tained in the portion insoluble in water. horse, cow, and pig dung, six months old, Hence little nitrogen exists in fresh

dark brown, almost black in colour, weli dung in a state to be assimilated by plants.

fermented and short, is as follows : Water

.

*Soluble organic matter Soluble inorganic matter + Insoluble organic matter

.

.

12.82

Insoluble inorganic matter .

.

The principal constituent of

soluble ash in quantity is potash 37.26 75.42 parts, equal to 54.7 parts ofpure carbon 3.71 ate of potash , also silicate of potash ; and 1.47 in the insoluble ash, lime, and in the

6.58 soluble, phosphate of lime, 1972 per cent, Chemically, farmyard dung is a universal 100.00

* Containing nitrogen . Equal to ammonia

• 360

+ Containing nitrogen . Equal to ammonia

.309 .375

Total amount of nitrogen Equal to ammonia

Soluble in water , cent . per 18.27

.046

Composition of the whole ash : Soluble silica

.

.

Phosphate of lime Lime

.

Magnesia . Potash Soda

4.75 1.44 0.59

tion favourable for the luxuriant growth of our crops.

Fresh and Rotten Dung.– Fresh

.057 dung contains considerably more potash than rotten, as also more phosphate of lime. There is more nitrogen in rotten than in fresh dung ; rotten dung has less insoluble organic matter, and contains more insoluble inorganic matters than fresh. On the whole, weight for weight,

5.58 .

0.46 0.72 1.28 .

rotten dung is richer in soluble fertilising

0.29

Chloride of sodium Carbonic acid and loss

Insol uble water in , .81.73 cent per

3.16

Sulphuric acid . Soluble silica Insoluble silica .

stituents are in that state of combina .606 .735

Ammonia in a free state Do. in form of salts

manure, because it contains all the con

stituents of our cultivated crops ; and it is a perfect manure, because its con

.297

constituents than fresh , and contains more readily available nitrogen, and therefore produces a more immediate and powerful

17.69

effect in vegetation.

12.54

evinced by farmers for rotten over fresh

Phosphate of lime Oxides of iron , alumina, with phosphates 11.76 containing phosphoric

The preference

...

acid .

1.17

Potash

0.56

Soda

0.47

Chloride of sodium

Sulphuric acid .

three months, was found to have suf

( 7.36) fered little change in organic and min 20.70

Magnesia .

Carbonic acid and loss

Open and Covered Court Dung.

Farmyard dung, kept under roof for (3.40)

equal to bone-earth Lime

dung is thus sanctioned by chemistry.

eral constituents in comparison with fresh dung, and the soluble and insoluble portion of the ashes was almost iden

tical. Rotten dung exposed to the air 0.79

16.05 100.00

in cold weather loses little substance,

but in warm weather the loss may be

considerable ---principally in the soluble constituents, nitrogen and ammoniacal

Fresh Dung. — The comparatively salts rapidly becoming exhausted. Fresh

VARIETIES OF MANURE - FARMYARD DUNG.

97

dung undergoes putrefaction rather than thatany appreciablequantity of ammonia fermentation, the nature of which pro- volatilises. It is different, however, with

cess consists in the gradual alteration of the action of rain, which soon removes by the original organic matters, and in the solution a considerable quantity of nitro

formation of new chemical compounds. gen contained in farmyard manure; and Putrefaction is accompanied with evolu- the deterioration must necessarily be tion of heat ; air and water are both conspicuous in rotten dung, which some

requisite for putrefaction. If kept per- times contains nearly halfof its nitrogen Well fectly dry, organic substances remain un- in a soluble condition. made and well - preserved farmyard altered for an indefinite period.

Fixing Ammonia .-- Ammonia is generated in large quantities during the putrefaction of thenitrogenised constituents of dung. It is this free ammonia

manure will generally be found to differ comparatively little in value and when bought at the ordinary price, the purchaser is pretty sure to get full

which is liable to be lost. Fortunately value for his money, and the specialties some natural provision is made for its of its managementare of comparatively conservation.

The straw in course of

little moment to him.

But the case is

putrefaction is, to a great extent, con- very different when the person who uses verted into humic and ulmic acids, which the manure has also to manufacture it.

have a powerful affinity for ammonia, and Though the manure made in the ordinary which, therefore, to a certain extent, fix manner may, weight for weight, be as

the ammonia as it is generated. These valuable as at first, the loss during the

acids form , with potash, soda, and am- period of preservation is usually very monia, a dark - coloured, very soluble large, and it becomes extremely import compound. Hence the dark the drainage of dung-heaps.

colour of

ant to determine the mode in which it

may be reduced to the minimum .

In

Dr Anderson on Dung.- The che- the production of farmyard manure of mical remarks of Anderson on the an- the highest quality, the object to be alyses of Voelcker are worthy of atten- held in view is to retain, as effectually as tion by the farmer : " On comparing and possible, all the valuable constituents of examining these analyses, it appears that the dung and urine. In the management the differences are by no means great, of the dung-heap there are three things although on the whole they tend to to be kept in view : first, to obtain a show, weight for weight, well - rotted manure containing the largest amount

dung is superior to fresh, provided it of nitrogen ; secondly, to convert that has been properly treated. Not only is nitrogen more or less completely into the quantity of valuable matters exist- ammonia ; and, thirdly, to retain it

ing in the soluble state materially in- effectually.” 1 Other analyses of dung show from 65 to creased, whereby the dung is enabled to act with greater rapidity, but, owing to 80 per cent of water, from 0.40 to 0.65 evaporation and escape of carbonic acid, per cent of nitrogen, and ash ( exclusive of

produced by the decomposition of organic earth and sand ) from 2.50 to 3.00; the substances, the proportion of those con- ash containing from 0.4 to 0.7 potash and stituents which are most important to from 0.2 to 0.4 phosphoric acid per cent. the plant is increased.

This is partic

Fertility in a Ton of Dung.-Even

ularly to be noticed in regard to the greater variations than these are to be nitrogen, which has distinctly increased met with in the analyses of farmyard in all cases in which the dung has been dung. The manurial value of dung is

kept for some time; and the practical governed by the amount it contains of importance of this observation is very nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid.

great, because it has been commonly sup- The quantity of these in one ton may posed that, during the process of putre- range as follows: Ib. faction, ammoniais liable to escape into 8 to 16 Nitrogen the air. It would appear, however, that there is but little risk of loss in this way,

Potash

Phosphoric acid

8

to 17

22 to 9

so long as the dung -heap is left undis turbed ; and it is only when it is turned VOL. II.

1 Anderson's Agric. Chem ., 176-179.

MANURES AND MANURING .

98

A ton of first-class well-made farmyard about one-half of its most valuable con dung, all kinds mixed, should contain stituents. the following, or thereby : According to other experiments, the Ib . Nitrogen

12 to 14

Potash

11 to 15

Soluble salts of phosphoric acid (equal to soluble phosphate of super phosphate )

Insoluble phosphates (as in bones)

loss on the weight of fresh, common, mixed farmyard manure, at different periods, approximately, is as follows : 10 cwt. of dry food and straw yield

8 to 9 10 to 13

cwt.

Produce of Dung per head of Stock .

- The quantity of dung produced by a

Of recent dung At the end of six weeks . After eight weeks .

21

When half rotten

15 to 17

When fully rotten .

10 to 13.”

23 to 25 20

given number of stock will vary with the Character and Uses of Farmyard Dung. class of stock , the amount of food con sumed , the quantity of litter supplied , A Complete Manure. — Farmyard and the amount of rain -water admitted

manure contains all the elements neces

Each farm -horse sary for plant-growth, and is therefore a will make about 12 tons of dung in a complete manure. If applied in sufficient

amongst the dung.

year - producing about three-fourths of quantity, it will, without any extraneous In stalls or covered maintain

its food in manure .

aid,

fertility even under an in

courts, full-grown feeding cattle will each tense system of cropping. produce from 10 to 12 tons of dung in

Mechanical Uses of Dung.

- As a

the year, allowing, say, from 10 to 20 lb. manure, dung is valuable, not only for

of litter to each per day. In open yards its chemical but also for its mechanical the weight might be about 2 tons per properties. Referring to this point, Sir head more. The solid excreta of an ox John Bennet Lawes says that by reason has been estimated at from 50 to 65 lb. of its bulk and the quantity of organic daily, and liquid from 65 to 95 lb. daily. matter it contains, it serves to render the The above quantities of manure made by soil moreopen and porous, and so enable it stock would thus be still greater if the not only to retain more water in a favour

whole of the urine were incorporated with able condition, but also to absorb and re tain more of the valuable constituents of the solid excreta and litter. Fresh and Rotten Dung . - In refer- the manure, and so arrest the passage of

ence to the effects produced by the rot- them in solution into the drains. Further, ting of farmyard dung, Dr A. Voelcker by the gradual decomposition of the or says : ganic matter of the dung, the pores of “Direct experiments have shown that the soil become filled with carbonic acid, 100 cwt. of fresh farmyard manure are which probably serves to retard the oxi reduced to 80 cwt. if allowed to lie till

dation of the ammonia into the more sol

the straw is half-rotten ; 100 cwt. of uble form of nitric acid, in which it would

fresh farmyard manure are reduced to 60

be more liable to be washed out and lost

cwt. if allowed to ferment until it be-

by drainage. From these facts, Sir John

comes ' fat or cheesy '; 100 cwt. of fresh

considers it will be readily understood

farmyard manure are reduced to 40-50 how it is that dung is more lasting in its cwt. if completely decomposed . “ This loss not only affects the water and other less valuable constituents of

effects than the more active artificial manures. 1

It is well known that, by repeated ap

farmyard manure, but also its most fer- plications of farmyard dung, stiff clays tilising ingredient, nitrogen. Chemical have been rendered more friable. And its analysis has shown that 100 cwt. of mechanical influence on such soils is more common farmyard manure contain about effective when the dung is applied in a

40 lb. of nitrogen ; and that during fer- rank state, —that is, before the straw it mentation in the first period 5 lb. of contains or rather, the straw which con nitrogen are dissipated in the form of the tains the manure,-has become thorough volatile ammonia ; in the second, 10 lb .; ly rotten . in the third, 20 lb. Completely decom posed common manure has thus lost

1 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. Eng., ii. 8, 1875.

VARIETIES OF MANURE - FARMYARD DUNG.

99

Dung Heating Soil. — Then it is about 14 or 15 per cent had been re equally certain, though not so generally covered in the increase of crop. From

recognised, that a heavy dressing of this it was calculated that if all the re rank dung benefits the soil by raising maining 3400 lb. of nitrogen had been its temperature. “ The temperature of stored up in the soil, in a form as avail the soil is affected by other causes than able as that which had already been used

the sun's rays. Decaying vegetable mat- in the crop, this plot should have been ter is a source of heat, as evidenced by ablefor 150 years to produce an average the high temperature arising from the of 48 bushels of barley per acre per an fermentation of dung Farmyard man num . Yet with the stopping of the ure thus supplies heat to the soil from annual dressing of dung, the crop showed two different sources, while it helps to a very marked decline.

retain much valuable manurial ingredi-

How is this decline to be accounted

ents, which, in a more purely mineral for? There had, no doubt, been some loss soil, would be washed away.'" 1 of nitrogen in drainage , and some may Lasting Influence of Dung. — The have been volatilised .

great lasting influence or " staying power ” of farmyard manure is an important factor in practical agriculture. For the full understanding of the extent, advantages,

But, upon analy

sis, the soil was found to contain a great accumulation of nitrogen, as wellasother constituents. This great accumulation of nitrogen and other constituents of the

and risks of this enduring power and dung, if it had remained in the soil in a slow -acting characteristic of farmyard sufficiently available form , would have the results of the Rothamsted investi- could absorb for many years. Why, then,

dung, it is necessary to refer the reader to supplied the crop with all the food it gations, as described by Mr Warington, does this abundant residue give such a Rothamsted Ex- poor account of itself ? In reference to periments” (pp. 135-169, Div. III.) See this important question, Dr Gilbert re

under the heading of

particularly what is said there as to the accumulation of fertility in soil heavily dressed with dung (pp. 153-167); as to the lower immediateefficiency of the nitrogen in dung, as compared with a correspond-

marks that it is only the comparatively small proportionof the nitrogen of farm yard manure which is due to the liquid dejections of the animals that is in a readily and rapidly available condition ;

ing amount of nitrogen supplied in am- whilst that due to more or less digested

monia salts or nitrate of soda (pp. matter passing in the fæces is more slow 139-146 ); as to the loss of the nitrogen ly available, and that in the litter re of dung in nitrates formed during autumn mains a very long time inactive.” and winter, and washed away in drainage-

The potato experiments at Rothamsted

water (pp. 154-168) ; and as to the loss afforded equally striking evidence of the

of surplus nitrogen -- that is, of available slow recovery of the nitrogen supplied in nitrogen not immediately assimilated by a growing crop_by evaporation in the form of nitrogen gas (pp. 166-168). Similar resultsare shown in the Roth-

dung. Fourteen tons of farmyard man ure, applied every year for six years, yielded in potatoes only 6.4 per cent of its nitrogen ; while in the next six years,

amsted barleyexperiments. For twenty the same crop every year, without any years up to 1871 , 14 tons of dung were further dressing of manure, recovered

applied every year to one plot for barley, from the residue only 5.2 per cent more and the average produce was 4874 bush- —that is, only 11.6 per cent in the course of the twelve year els.

No further manure of any kind was

s.

In other words, at

applied to this plot, upon which barley the end of the twelve years there was

was continued , with the result that the still about 88 per cent of nitrogen sup average yield for the next twelve years plied in the dung unrecovered by the fell off by about one-third . It was esti crop . An Old Custom Questioned . — All mated that of the 4000 lb. of nitrogen

per acre supplied to the soil in the 14 these are considerations which — although

tons of dung for twenty years, only subject to modifications under ordinary 1 Mark Lane Express, 1889, p. 412.

farm practice should have studious at tention from farmers. They unquestion

100

MANURES AND MANURING .

ably suggest that in the past farmers might say that the best plan would thus have placed rather too much faith in be to apply nitrogen in a readily avail farmyard manure — that the old custom able form, just when it is required by the of manuring only once in a rotation - of crop , and only in such quantity as may

applying with the root-crop a heavy supply the wants of that particular crop. dressing of dung, in the belief that what This is, no doubt, sound enough theoreti of the manure the roots do not appro- cally, and may often be carried into prac priate will remain in the soil and be tice with the best possible results. available for the use of the succeeding But such a course will not, as a rule,

crops — may, in certain circumstances, be be practicable. It would practically ex clude the use of farmyard manure ; and

found to be seriously mistaken . Loss of Residual Manure . — The un-

while it would be unwise to overlook

or disregard the important results ob natelydo not, in their entirety or nearly tained under certain conditions at Roth

used portions of the manure unfortu-

so, remain in the soil available for future amsted, it would be a still more serious Much of this residue of the error now to hastily jump to the other

crops.

mostvaluable portion of it too - is now extreme, and unreasonably depreciate or

found, under certain circumstances, to discredit the great value ofthe fertil escape through channels which were for- ising materials in the solid and liquid merly unsuspected as means of loss. The excreta of farm animals. The prac

discovery of the great loss of excess or residual nitrogenby the washing away of nitrates in drainage-water, and by evaporation as nitrogen gas, throws new light upon the theory and practice of manuring, which farmers cannot afford to

tical points to be kept in view are,that from the investigations as to the behav iour of nitrogen in the soil, it is seen that the enduring character of farmyard man ure is not an unmixed advantage to the

disregard.

rent- paying farmer ; that the excess ni

Practical Conclusions.

-

Soil an Unreliable Custodian of trogen accumulated in the soil by heavy Manure. - In times past we have placed dressings of farmyard manure is, in cer too much faith in the soil as the custo- tain circumstances, liable to serious losses dian of costly manure. While nourish- by drainage and evaporation, and cannot,

ing a growing crop, the soil is commend- therefore,in all cases be to thefull extent ably faithful to its trust, and does not depended upon for the nourishment of

then readily part with its available plant- future crops; that, therefore,the practice food , except to the crop itself. But the of so entirely or mainly trusting to heavy moment the crop is removed , the soil dressings of dung at long intervals for

loses retentive power, and if the condi- the production of profitable crops is tions favourable to the washing away or neither reliable nor economical; and that

volatilising of nitrogen are present, loss the loss of nitrates from land' which is

of residual nitrogen is liable to set in. rich in residual nitrogen, may be re Moreover, results obtained at Rothamsted seem to suggest the question whether some portion of the nitrogen which accumulates in the soil may not, in certain

duced to a minimum by having the soil covered with vegetation throughout the entire year, or in cold northern districts

by having it bare only in the winter

circumstances, undergo some sort of re- months when the temperature is usually version by which it is rendered more too low for the formation of nitrates to

slowly instead of more readily available proceed in the soil. to the crops.

Vegetation Preventing the Loss of

Superiority of Dung Questioned.- Nitrates. — For the last-named object

Now nitrogen is the most costly of all the many farmers, especially in England, sow therefore

elements of manure .

It is

ob-

some forage crop, perhaps rye, soon after

viously desirable that it should not only the removal of a cereal crop. This not be drawn from the cheapest sources, but only engages the attention of unused

should also be supplied to the soil so as nitrogen, thus preventing the washing to guard as far as possible against any away of nitrates, but most likely affords portions of it being lost in the manner a useful feed to sheep in the course At first thought, one of the winter, and likewise further en

just described .

VARIETIES OF MANURE - FARMYARD DUNG.

IOI

riches the soil when ploughed down in unquestionable, therefore, that dung, as spring

a source of plant-food, has been depre Cold Weather and Loss of Nitro- ciated in its relative intrinsic worth ,

gen . — The above safeguard, to be sure, and in its importance as

a

factor

cannot be provided in the cold regions of in agriculture ; and that it should not the north, but then there is, fortunately, count for so much on the credit side of much less necessity for it there.

It is the feeding account as it has often done

in the form of nitrates in which nitrogen in times gone by. is washed away in drains. Nitrogen is Dung not likely to Diminish in transformed into nitrates by the opera- Production . — But farmyard manure is tions of myriads of living atoms, com- a necessary accompaniment of the rearing In very cold and feeding of stock, and there is little weather, with the temperature at or likelihood that, with the growing import near to freezing-point, these wonderful ance of the live-stock industry,there will little atoms of life seem , with com- be any falling off in the production of monly called bacteria .

mendable beneficence, to relapse into farmyard manure. In all probability it idleness ; so that at this cold season of will be of a more concentrated character

the year the northern farmers may with tolerable, if not complete, immunity from loss of nitrogen, till their land and leave it exposed to the action of frost,

than in former times. Straw is now being turned to better purpose as food for stock, or in other ways than as litter for cattle.

The animals may therefore be littered

as has been their wont from time im- with smaller quantities of straw , or with other substances less bulky, such as peat Making Dung or Selling Crops.— moss litter. But while the dung may

memorial.

We are not to discuss fully the question thus be more concentrated, and less bulky as to whether farmers should endeavour per head of stock than it would be with to make as much dung as possible, or freer use of straw as litter, it is not likely

should sell produce and purchase artifi- that the amount of fertilisers annually cial manures. Local circumstances vary available in the form of farmyard manure so much that the conditions which deter- for application to the soil will be less in

mine the best system in one case may not the future than it has been in the past. Much will deA Word for Dung. - Although farm pend on thelocality and character of the yard manure is not likely to lose its hold

apply equally to another.

holding, and the tastes of the tenant-

upon the affections of British farmers, it

whether favourable to the breeding and nevertheless seems desirable to remind feeding of stock, or the growing and sell the reader that in considering the practi ing of crops; also upon the fluctuations cal lessons to be drawn from the Rotham

of market prices — especially as to the sted experiments with dung and other relative prices of beef,feeding-stuffs, and manures, it should be kept in view that litter, on the one hand, and of artificial these experiments were not framed as a manures on the other. guide to farmers in pursuing the ordinary Farmers now less Dependent on routine of farm practice. The scientific Dung. – With the abundance of excellent conclusions arrived at are undeniably of artificial manure in the market, and with great value to farmers, but it would be

the great advance that has been made in imprudent to attach to them a signifi cance which they were not intended to principles which govern economical and and do not possess. If the course of

the investigation and elucidation of the

successful manuring, farmers are now cropping andsystems of tillage pursued

tothose much less dependent upon farmyard at Rothamsted had been similar followed

manure than in former times.

They observed in the

rotations

have no need any longer to consume their throughout the country , the dung would, crops on the farm for the sake of provid- in all probability, have given a much ing manure with which to restore fertility better account of itself. In particular, to the soil. This may now be accom- it is probable that the accumulation of plished cheaply and efficiently by the use inert nitrogen would have been roused to

of other manurial substances, of which greater activity and usefulness, so that exhaustless supplies are at hand. It is under a rotation of crops, with the

102

MANURES AND MANURING.

thorough tillage necessary for roots, the months, when vegetation is most luxu influence of the residue of the dung riant. would have been more

marked than

“ Hence farmyard manure subjected to

it has been upon the continuous growth gradual decay yields up its materials, of the same crops on the same respective especially nitrogen oxidised into nitrates, plots. atthat period of the year when they are Professor Wrightson on Dung.- wanted . It is worth notice that the same

Professor Wrightson is a strong advocate forces which liberate nitrogen must also of the superiority of farmyard dung over liberate the mineral and other constitu As to the reasons ents of farmyard dung, gradually and artificial manures. farmya why he thinks rd dung should as required .” 1 hold a strong position in the estimation of the British farmer he says : “ The first reason, no doubt, is what has been already advanced — the general com

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

position of dung. A great many science In addition to farmyard manure there students stophere. When they are asked are the various artificial or special man why farmyard manure is a more potentures, which supply one or more of the and more valuable manure than many ingredients necessary for the growth of artificial fertilisers, they say it is because plants.

of its general composition. But there Classification . These are classified are a good many other reasons beside, in accordance with the proportion of the one of which is, no doubt, its effect upon more valuable or abundant constituents the mechanical condition of the soil - a present in them , and they are accordingly

subject which we have already had before divided into the following groups : nitro us, and which it is therefore not neces- genous, phosphatic, potassic, calcareous sary to further enlarge upon. Then, in manures . The liming of land will be

the third place, there is the reaction of dealt with in a subsequent division of the carbonic acid gas which is evolved the work. from farmyard dung, upon the mineral matter in the soil.

Peruvian Guano.

I do not doubt in

the least that it digests the soil. “ I do not doubt that Jethro Tull was

perfectly right when he said farmyard

The chief of the nitrogenous manures in its various forms.

is guano

In the year 1839, some twenty barrels

manure prepared plant-food. Nodoubt of a red or light-brown substance were it does ; it is the source of carbonic acid imported into Liverpool from one of the gas, and we know that that gas in watery islands which lie adjacent to the Peruvian solution reacts on the mineral matter in coast . The substance had been in use the soil with great effect. as a manure amongst the natives of Peru

“ Now take another reason. Farmyard for many centuries.

It became known

dung is rich in nitrogen ; that alone places as guano, a term which takes its origin it on a superior basis to most artificial from the Peruvian word “huana,” dung manures. It is rich in nitrogen in a state or manure, which consists of the accumu

of organic combination, from which it is lated droppings of sea -fowls during long liberated slowly by the process of decay, periods of time.

As the temperature stands very high those regions (lying between 3° in as nitrification. Performed under favourable temperatures, with access of air, and and 21° south latitude), these bird no doubt also assisted by the agency of droppings soon dry ; and as the cli certain bacteria which work in the soil mate isalmost a rainless one, much of and produce the peculiar fermentation the soluble ingredients are preserved.

that liberation of nitrogen being known

The resulting manure is a complex necessary, this nitrification of farmyard manure in the soil is arrested at freezing- one, possessing a composition similar to point. It proceeds very slowly at low farmyard manure. After experiment, temperatures, and with accelerated speed and when the merits of the guano were at higher temperatures. Especiallydoes it take place freely during the summer

1 Principles of Agric. Prac., 152.

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

103

brought home to the mind of the farmer, analysis. This arrangement is still in the demand for it rose very quickly. existence ; and as a consequence, it is

We can form some idea of the estima- customary for sellers to attempt to sell tion in which this manure was held by cargoes upon “ official analysis.' the Peruvians from the proverb, “Huano, 1 From year 1850 to 1870 there was though no saint, works many miracles ; ” a large increase in the demand for guano, and from the fact that, under the govern- as many as 200,000 tons having been

ment of the Incas, the killing of birds imported in a single season. The quality which frequented the islets in which of the Peruvian deposits was yearly de

guano deposits were formed , was made teriorating, and accordingly other coasts a capital offence.

were explored, resulting in the discovery When the exportation attained con- of deposits in the African coast which

siderable proportions, the Peruvian Gov- lies between these latitudes. Ichaboe ernment, by exercising its lordship of was the richest, and Mejillones the the soil, created a monopoly of the sale poorest. These two guanos are fair of guano,

which was sold at so much per representatives of what is known in the

ton irrespective of quality. The first trade as high -class and low -class guanos. contract made by British merchants was in 1840 or 1841. They made it a condition of the contract that for a period of four years they would have the ex-

The one contains a large percentage of ammonia and a low percentage of phos

phates ; the other a high percentage of phosphates and a low percentage of am

clusive right to export from the island monia or none at all. Composition of Guanos. - The fol of Chincha " 20,000 tons of guano lowing may be considered as an average yearly.

The increasing demand and the mono- analysis ofthese guanos, to whichisadded

poly, which raised the price of guano the analysis of “ Pabellon ," which is now above its real value, together with the offered in the market, and which will fact of the richer deposits becoming be seen to be very much lower than the exhausted, led to guano being sold on others in quality Phosphates Potash

Ammonia

Peruvian .

Ichaboe.

Mejillones.

“ Pabellon . "

24.00

10.86

71.16

32.38

2.00

2.00

2.00

2.10

17.00

13.00

.75

9.39

These analyses show Peruvian, Ichaboe, made to utilise this offal, which, besides and Pabellon to be rich in nitrogen, and

the heads and entrails of all the larger

are therefore called nitrogenousor high- fish, and the cleanings of the herring class guano .

To these may be added

curing stations, often included large

“ Punta de Lobos ," " Huanillos," which quantities of entire herring which the are somewhat richer in phosphates and curers were unable to manipulate. Neigh poorer in ammonia .

bouring farmers bought large portionsof Mejillones is purely phosphatic, and is this offal; but frequently they could not a low -class guano . The latter term , use up the supplies, so that many boat

however, embraces guanos which contain anything under 4 per cent ammonia and over 40 per cent phosphates. The absence of ammonia is due to these guanos being deposited in climates where fre-

quent and heavy rains occur. These heavy rains supply the moisture necessary to set up fermentation in the guano, and they wash away the soluble salts and ammonia which are the products of this fermentation . Fish Guano.

loads of fish were emptied into the sea

as being the only means of getting rid of the material. Such excessive waste could not long continue in the light of the nineteenth century. At length, at the various fish

ing - stations, factories were erected in which the offal is submitted to the

action of steam at a high pressure , and

afterwardsit passes through the hydrau lic press, by which means the greater portion of the oil is extracted . The whole mass is next passed through the

Formerly there was great loss of fish- disintegrator, and thus is produced the In many cases no attempt was article known as fish guano.

offal.

MANURES AND MANURING .

104

Composition of Fish Guano . — The per cent of ammonia, but no other fertil composition of fish guano varies from 8 ising matter of much importance. They to 12 per cent of ammonia, and from 15

are used principally in the manufacture

to 30 per cent of phosphates. The fish of dissolved and compound manures, and guano in the market seldom contains contribute to the percentage of ammonia

more than about 9 or 10 per cent of in these. ammonia and 16 to 20 per cent of phos

phates. But there is also present from 3 to 6 or 8 per cent of oil, which detracts

Nitrate of Soda. Nitrate of soda, otherwise known as

from the value of this manure, as the Chili saltpetre or cubic nitre, is the oil retards the dissolving of the elements most abundant and best known of these of plant nutrition which the fish guano salts. contains. This salt is a natural product of the Frey Bentos Guano.

soil in tropical climates, and as to its formation, several theories, less or more

In the manufacture of Liebig's extract different, are entertained. A full descrip of meat there is a large residue of flesh, tion or discussion of these theories need bone, and muscle.

These substances are

not be attempted here.

Some hold that

mixed together, dried, and ground, the it is made from the action of water, im product being a flesh guano, if we may pregnated with soda salts upon guano. so term it. In other instances a large Others attribute its formation to sea

supply is obtained from diseased meat weeds, which, by their decay, have given and animal refuse of all kinds.

rise to nitrate of lime, which reacted

Composition . — The composition of upon sulphate of soda,the products being flesh guano varies from about 8 to 13 nitrate of soda and sulphate of lime. It per cent am onia, and from about 10 is supposed that these beds were at one to 20 per cent phosphates. time isolated lagoons— isolated by vol Dissolved Guanos.

canic action. The sea -water on its evap oration would leave a large salt deposit,

The unequal character of natural thus furnishing the source of the large guano in recent years has led to its being quantity of soda salts found in these

treated ( some would say spoiled ) with nitrate beds. The lime would, according sulphuric acid, and its composition being to this sea -weed theory, be supplied by otherwise altered by the introduction of sea -shells, &c. ammonia from sulphate of ammonia, The chief sources of supply are Chili, dried blood, or other organic source. Peru, and Bolivia, where it occurs in

This process dissolves the phosphates beds varying from 10 inches to 16 feet and organic matter, making these more in depth, sometimes quite near the sur

soluble , and the nitrogenous matter face, but generally covered by several raises the percentage of ammonia, so that feet of a layer known as Costra .” The This regions in which nitrate of soda is found commodity is known as Dissolved Peru- are quite destitute of vegetation, and vian Guano. there is often a period of several years Composition . - Dissolved Peruvian without rain . These beds lie in the guano is usually in good mechanical Pampas known as “ Los Salinas," which an active manure is the result.

condition.

It

seldom

contains more

is over 40 leagues in extent, and literally

than 8 per cent ammonia, and perhaps covered with beds of nitrate of soda. from 20 to 23 per cent soluble phos-

The supply may be looked upon as

phates, and 3 or 4 per cent insoluble almost inexhaustible. In its native state it is mixed with impurities, notably chloride of sodium (common salt) and

phosphates. Dried Blood, dc.

sulphate of potash, soda, lime, & c. But

Dried blood, horn- dust, shoddy, and before exportation it undergoes a pro other waste products from the shambles cess of refining which renders it com

orfactory, may allbe treated as insoluble paratively pure, 5 per cent being about nitrogenous substances, coming into ac- the amount of impurities remaining in it. tion slowly. They contain from 5 to 16 Nitrate of soda, when first introduced

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

105

as an artificial manure, came into great every farmer, as he is in many instances, perhaps unknown to himself, producing Its high price, however, and the lack of this salt in the soil of his farm .

repute amongst farmers as a fertiliser.

correct views as to its action and un-

Forming Nitre - beds . — A brief de

sound mode of application, brought it scription of how nitre- beds are formed into such ill favour that on some estates will place the matter clearly before our its use as a manure was in certain cir-

readers. A quantity of fertile loam is

procured, and with it is incorporated In recent years, however, with more highly nitrogenous organic matter - such enlightened views as to its character and as blood, flesh, liquid manure, stable action, a steady increase in the demand manure, &c. To this is added chalk or cumstances prohibited.

has arisen . Indeed this salt is to a large old mortar - lime, and the whole mass extent, as a source of nitrogen, taking the turned over once or twice, after which place of that now more variable commo- the soil is washed and the water evap dity Peruvian guano. We find that in orated , when the residue is found to be

the year 1880, 50,000 tons of nitrate of crystals of nitrate of potash. soda were imported, while in 1887 the

The chemical changes which here take imports of it exceeded 110,000 tons. place are as follows : The decay of or

It is likely, indeed, that the output of ganic matter is hastened by the lime, nitrate of soda will soon reach a mil- and produces nitric acid .

Ammonia is

lion tons annually. At the present time produced, and becoming oxidised it is nitrate of soda is the cheapest source converted into nitric acid, which com

of nitrogen in the market, and has be- bines with the lime in the first instance, come the most important of the arti- and afterwards with the liberated pot ficial manures . It usually consists of ash , and thus is evolved the nitrate of

95 per cent pure nitrate of soda, which potash. is equal to about 19 per cent of am monia.

Nitrification.

Theory of Nitrification . — The latest

Nitrate of Potash . This salt is much more valuable than

theory in connection with nitrification is that organic matter, when it is allowed

nitrate of soda, both commercially and

free contact with the air and moisture

from an agricultural standpoint. Nitrate within certain ranges of temperature, of soda supplies only one of the ingredi- undergoes changes which break it up ents of plant-food, whilst nitrate of pot- into simple bodies. This result is pro ash provides two - nitrogen and potash, duced by the presence of myriads of - and is a valuable manure where ap- minute organisms termed “ bacteria.” plied to soils poor in clay and where no the Micrococcus nitrificans of Van farmyard manure has been applied . Teighern , and other forms of bacteria.

Nitrate of potash has been imported These living bodies feed upon the nitro from India for many years, it beingthe genous matter, and increase in numbers nitre or saltpetre of commerce. The at a rate of which we can have but little

source of this Indian nitrate of potash conception. Every fertile soil, therefore, is believed to be human urine which had

becomes the home of countless millions

at some time been poured upon the soil, of these living organisms which carry on these nitre-beds being found near the the work of nitrification, so that, as Pro sites of ancient cities. Until lately its fessor Cohn tersely puts it, “ Putrefac

high price prevented farmers from using tion is the concomitant not of death but it as a manure .

It is, however, produced by artificial

of life.” Conditions which favour Nitrifi

means, which is of interest to farmers, cation . The conditions necessary for

as seen in the nitre-beds or saltpetre the life and development of the nitrifi plantations which originated in France cation ferment are, - (a ) temperature during the last century so as to obtain a above 40° Fahrenheit and under 130° supply of nitre for the manufacture of Fahrenheit most favourable tempera

gunpowder. The manner in which this ture, 100° Fahrenheit, development at nitre is produced ought to be studied by

that temperature being as great in a

106

MANURES AND MANURING .

few days as in months at a lower ; of ammonia . Another source of supply, (6) a certain

amount of moisture ; which appears to be almost without limit,

(C) presence of organic matter, mineral constituents of plant-food, carbonate of lime, and a plentiful supply of oxygen. Any excess of putrefying organic matter

is obtained in the manufacture of pig iron into steel, but perhaps the largest source of sulphate of ammonia is that obtained by the conversion of shale into

in a soil is against nitrification. It is paraffin -oil. The production has been found to be most active near the surface largely increased by , if it has not been of the soil ; it is not found much below altogether due to, the introduction of 18 inches. Strong sunlight is not so the retort, invented by Young and Beilby, favourable as darkness. The bacteria by the oil companies into their works.

are easily killed by poisons, such as The process by which the sulphate is ferrous sulphate of iron, coal - tar, and produced is similar to that carried out at the gas-works. sulphuretted hydrogen. Hellriegel's Theory .- A still further The preceding are the chief nitrogen development in the theory of the forma- ous manures which are at presentmarket tion of nitric acid has been recently able commodities.

Other substances

announced by a Continental savant might be mentioned , but they are either named Hellriegel, who by careful ob- too expensive for use as manures , or con servation, and a series of experiments tain their organic matter in such insol

on the manner of growth of legumes uble compounds as to be practically or pod -plants, has arrived at the con- worthless. clusion that the excrescences or warts

found on the roots of these are large Characteristics of Nitrogenous Manures. There are a few points in connection ly composed of bacteria, or fungoid which have the power of with manures hich should be carefully matter, which changing the inert nitrogen of the at- considered by farmers, so that they may mosphere into the active form , as seen be guided to a wise selection of manures in nitrates or ammonia .

to suit their varied circumstances as to

There appears to be a wide difference soil, climate, and crop. Essential Points.— It should in par between the organisms of this orderand those present where organic matter is in ticular be borne in mind, (1) that the

process of decay, as the latter can work solubility of a manure depends on the only upon organic nitrogen, and break it up into simpler forms. It would be unsafe as yet to draw definite conclusions ; but if this discovery is confirmed by further research, there can be no doubt it will lead to a considerable

minute division of its parts ; (2) that the greater the solubility, the quicker its action ; (3) that the shorter the time a crop occupies the ground, the more abun dant and the more soluble must be the

manure ; and (4) that the rate of the

change in the system of cropping and growth of a crop ought to indicate the manuring. The preceding will, at all kind of manure, and the best state in events, serve to suggest the reason why which to apply it. a big crop of wheat generally follows a If these points are kept in view , the heavy crop of clover. classification of manures in relation to their activity, and their action on the crop Sulphate of Ammonia . and in the soil, will be comparatively Until recently, the chief source from easy .

which sulphate of ammonia was obtained Slow and Active Manures . — A man was a by-product from the distillation of ure may , however, be perfectly soluble coal in the manufacture of gas. The am- and yet not be available to the plant. monia set free is absorbed in water at a

It depends on the form in which its

low temperature, which, on being heated elements are combined whether the plant by steam , gives off the ammonia, which will absorb it or not. is received in vessels containing sulphuric For instance, nitrate of soda and sul acid. These enter into combination, and phate of ammonia are equally soluble sulphate of ammonia is the result. Pure salts, but both are not alike available

samples contain from 22 to 25 per cent for plant - food. Nitrate being a com

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

107

pound of nitric acid and an alkaline base, applied to grass, nitrate of soda checks is readily absorbed and elaborated into the growth of clover, which, it would the tissues of the plant; whilst, at any seem, dislikes the presence of an acid,

rate to most plants, sulphate of ammonia although the acid is of great benefit to is not available until the ammonia ab-

sorbs oxygen, and is converted into nitric

acid.

plants of a different order. Action of Sulphate of Ammonia.

The latter, therefore, does not Sulphate of ammonia being slower in its

come into action so quickly, and ought to action- see above - gives more time es be applied to the land before the plant pecially for roots to grow , and on this is ready to absorb it.

Nitrate of soda,

account the roots grown on land to

on the other hand, is most economically which sulphate of ammonia is applied applied after the plant has developed its are often denser and heavier, and of leaf-surface to a greater or less extent. better feeding qualities than where ni Assimilation of Ammonia by trate of soda has been applied. This is Plants . — It is considered by some to true, although the direct action of the

be too sweeping an assertion to say two is identical, and chiefly confined to that ammonia is not in any case avail- the shaws, the roots being injured in

able to plantsuntil it is converted into keeping and feeding qualities by an ex nitric acid.

It is admitted that most

plants assimilate their nitrogen in the

cessive dressing of either. It has been shown by experiment that

form of nitrates; but that someplants, sulphate of ammonia improves grass both more especially at certain periods of in quantity and quality. Nitrate of soda and Sulphate of growth , have the power of assimilating their nitrogen in the form of am- Ammonia Compared . — We have seen monia would seem to be indicated by that sulphate of ammonia contains con

certain experiments by Lehmann. It is siderably more nitrogen than nitrate of pretty generally admitted that the leaves soda, the most general proportion being

of plants have the power of absorbing about 13 in the former to 10 in the carbonate of ammonia from the air.

latter. Experience, however, has shown

Action of Nitrate of Soda . — Nitrate that the nitrogen in the nitrate of soda

of soda, as will be seen further on, is feebly retained by the soil, and should therefore be applied only to supply the wants of the crop then growing. The surplus will find its way to the subsoil,

is the more effective, producing at Rothamsted and Woburn about 14 per cent more barley, and from about 5 to 25 per cent more wheat, than sulphate of ammonia ; while, when applied with

and may escapein the drainage-water. It potash salts and phosphates to grass-hay exhausts the soil more quickly than any and potatoes, similar results were ob other manure, if the soil is unaided by tained. When applied alone, the nitrate the application of other manures.

The of soda was far superior to the sulphate

reason of this is, that its action in the of ammonia. first instance tends to increase the leaf-

With mangels the evi

dence in favour of nitrate of soda has

surface of crops, which therefore make been still more striking. It may thus larger demands upon the soluble constit- be taken as fully established, that al

uents of the soil, resulting in a heavier though sulphate of ammonia may con yield per acre . But if care is taken to tain nearly one-third more nitrogen than have the soil sufficiently furnished with nitrate of soda, it is not, as a rule, worth the other elements of plant-food, this to the farmer more than from one-tenth exhausting influence of the nitrate may to one-eighth more money per ton. beeffectually counteracted . Guano, when of fairly good quality,

The turnips and other roots produced from nitrate of soda are light in weight, porous and inferior in feeding qualities, and are apt to decay when touched by frost. In a dry season, nitrate of soda gives better results than sulphate of

gives better results than either nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia . Excessive NitrogenousApplications

Injurious. — The excessive application of nitrogenous manure tends to increase the percentage of nitrogen and diminish

ammonia, and increases the produce of that of phosphoric acid in the composi straw , but produces light grain. When tion of plants. This fact leads to wide

MANURES AND MANURING .

108

issues ; for the relation between the soil

manures, one should not overlook the

and plant is in no way closer than that fact that some soils have a greater power between plants and animals. From this of retaining manures than others, and cause

we have weed and diabetes in that some manures part with one or more

horses, and , where phosphates are defi- of their elements more readily than others. cient, rickets, rotten teeth, and late The power of a soil to retain manure was dentition, &c., &c.

at one time thought to be a mere physical

Nitrogenous Salts are not suited for property pertaining to it, but later re grain crops when applied alone, as the search has modified that opinion. Mr tendency is to produce straw at the ex- Way, in the Journal of the Royal Agri pense of the grain. But when these are cultural Society of England ,clearly proves mixed with phosphates, excellent results by experiment, that when solutions of the are obtained . various salts are filtered through a layer Slow Manures for Slow Crops.- of earth, and the solution, after filtration, The period of time during which the is analysed, it is found to have lost all or crop occupies the ground has a consider- nearly all the substances which it held in able influence upon the economical use solution—it being the base rather than of soluble manures . Wheat takes often the acid which the soil had the power of seven to nine months to mature, and dur- retaining. This affinity is greater in ing that period will have plenty of time some soils than in others, the following

to use up the soil constituents which are being the order : arable soil — clay, peaty, slowly soluble. Barley, on the other calcareous, sandy. It has also been hand, is often harvested in four months found that the soil has a greater power or less ; so that this cereal, being a of retaining some manures than others,

shallow -rooted plant, will require readily the following being the order, those soluble manure in greater abundance. having the greater affinity being placed For this reason , top - dressing once or first : ammonia, potash, magnesia , lime, twice with any of the more soluble nitro soda. genous manures, mixed with superphosIn explanation of this, Mr Way ad

phates, would give the bestresults ; for it vances the following theory : In soils must be kept in view that crops can take there are double silicates of lime and up nitrates only when soluble phosphates alumina. If potash be brought into and potash are present. Action of Guano. — Guano is both a quick and a slow acting manure . The ammonia present in guano is to the extent of one-third or more in the form of salts which are readily soluble ; the other portion is in the form of compounds more or less soluble. Its phosphates are of secondary consideration ; but

contact with this double silicate, it re places the lime; sulphate of lime and the double silicate of potash and alumina are produced. Silicate of alumina com bines readily with ammonia, and least so with soda, &c.

Others, again, maintain that the oxide of iron, which is abundantly present in most soils, absorbs the ammonia.

Mr

when guano of good quality can be Warington also finds that thisoxide acts obtained, it is undoubtedly the best upon superphosphates. The soluble phos manure in the hands of the farmerthat is, next to farmyard manure. Its use has now become limited by its high price and very variable composition. Horn, Dried Blood, Shoddy, Woolwaste, & c., are very slowly acting manures , and are ,

phoric acid may also be retained by re combining withlime and forming a slowly soluble salt. Conserving Manures in Soils.

All agree, however, that the soil has little

or no power of retaining nitrates in any in consequence, more fitted combination. We must therefore look

for pasture-land than for quick -growing to some other means to preserve this crops. But in a dry season they may prove as effective on the root crops as the more soluble forms. They are used chiefly to fortify dissolved manures.

valuable manure. The growth of catch crops has been recommended for this purpose . But this is impracticable in

many instances, such as in ploughed land Power of Soils to retain Manures. preparatory to the turnip crop. The

-In connection with the more soluble work of the farm must go on in a regu

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

109

lar manner, and the leaving of the fallow of the latter county would seem to have unploughed until spring would throw the fully appreciated the beneficial action of work into confusion.

can be kept under

Where the land bones. Their active system of grazing kind this with dairy cattle had greatly exhausted

crop of any

should certainly be done, for the nitrates the phosphates of the soil, and the effect will be preserved by being absorbed by which followed a liberal dressing with the roots and elaborated into the tissues bones was simply marvellous . Indeed the pastures to which they had been of the plants as albumen .

It seems, however, that in this as well applied very soon increased in value by as in many operations connected with 3os. per acre. -As would Fame of Bone-manure. agriculture, where the farmer fails nature steps in and provides a remedy. This be expected , the story of this wonderful may be understood when we are aware result rapidly attained notoriety, and led

that nitrification proceeds in exact pro- to an extended use of bones as manure

portion to the riseor fall of temperature, in these districts. The small home-supply being at a minimum during winter, and of bones soon became exhausted, and the ceasing entirely about freezing-point. We importation of bones from Germany and

thus see that, during the season of least Northern Europe speedily developed into growth , nitrates are not produced, or produced only in small quantity ; but as the temperature rises, and growth begins, then the bacteria resume operations, increasing in their productive powers until they reach the maximum during summer when the heat is greatest, and at the

a regular trade, of which Hull was the chief centre.

The bone -trade of Hull now became a

leading factor in the agricultural world, and the benefits which arose to all classes in the community may be summed up in

the proverb,

“ One ton of German bone

period of the greatest growth, and when dust saves the importation of ten tons of nitrogen is most largely required for the German corn . Benefits from further development of the plants. Action of Nitrogen greatest on

manures .

the use of Bone - But a direct increase in

Young Plants. We learn from experi- production was not the only benefit re ments conducted by Arendt that the sulting from the use of bones as manure.

presence of albuminoids, which are largely The use of bone-manure played a leading composed of nitrogen, is greatest during part in the extension of turnip-culture, the first period of the growth of plants, and in the consequent change of the

and becomes a gradually diminishing whole system of farming formerly prac quantity until it nearly reaches maturity. tised - changes which have led not only The beneficial action of a soluble form to a large increase in the production of of nitrogen, such as in nitrate of soda, food, but gave rise to that spirit of in

may be understood from this, especially quiry which has evolved and placed when applied to young grass or corn within our reach the mass of valuable crops when they come into braird. information embraced in the term “ Agri cultural Chemistry." Phosphatic Manures. Forms ofBone -manure . — Bones have Bones . — The use of bones as a source been applied to the soil in many forms

of phosphoric acid and nitrogen for the and conditions — raw or green, boiled, growth of crops , began long before the burned, broken, bruised, ground, fer underlying principles of manuring were mented, and dissolved. understood .

Thereason why an increase

Raw , Broken , and Bruised Bones .

of crops should follow an application of - Raw bones, when dried so as to lose bones was consequently the subject of no more weight, are found to be made many unsound theories.

up on an average of 28 per cent organic

Early use of Bone - manure . - The matter and 72 per cent of inorganic first authentic account we have of the matter or bone-earths. The presence of

use of bones in this country tells of their these is determined as to quantity by

application in many parts of Yorkshire. the kind of animal,its age, and the state Soon after they were applied to the ex- of preservation of the bone.

hausted pastures of Cheshire, the farmers

Organic Matter in Bones.

The or

MANURES AND MANURING .

IIO

ganic matter is almost entirely composed lost part of their organic matter would of ossein or cartilage. This substance is also largely enter into the composition of very rich in nitrogen, which yields on an average 22 per cent of ammonia .

this dust. Hence their inferior quality.

It is

Fineness of Division appreciated. not, however, present in all bones in the –The requirements of the turnip crop, same proportion. In young growing however, increased the demand for animals the cartilage is presentingreater quickly acting manure, so that farmers

proportion than in an aged one, as the began to find out that the smaller the bones of the latter are composed largely division the more soluble the manure. of bone -earth, and are in consequence Thus bone-meal came into use, and has much more brittle, and when broken in ever since remained the favourite form

a live animal take a much longer time in which to apply insoluble phosphates to mend.

Bones, again , are often col- to the soil.

lected from the plains of Russia and Fermented Bones. — Before Liebig's various parts of America, where they discovery of dissolving bones with acid, have been so long lying exposed to at various methods were tried to increase mospheric influences, that it is found the solubility ofbones, fermentation being much if not all of the cartilage has dis- one of many. It consists of mixing the appeared. It has also to be considered that the manufactures of soap, glue, and gelatine often abstract a part of this substance alongwith fatty matter which

mass with liquid manure, and allowing

adheres to fresh bones. It may therefore be accepted as a rule applicable to this as well as to all phosphatic manureswhich have not been adulterated, that the higher

present day ferment their bone-meal by throwing it into a heap after mixing it with water. In about a week the heat of the fermentation is at its greatest

bones with earth and saturating the the heap to remain for a week or two before using. Some farmers in the

the percentage of ammonia, the lower the height, after which the heap will de percentage of phosphates, and conversely, crease in bulk and change in colour, a high rate of phosphates means a low the latter being due to the presence of rate of ammonia .

insects and germ -life, which attack the

Preparing Bone - manure .

When organic portion of the bone and de bones were first used, they were simply compose it. There can be no doubt chopped into pieces or broken by ham- this process hastens the solubility of mers.

The advantage of their being bones. Bone-ash and Bone - flour . - In the soon apparent, and mills

broken was

glue and gelatine, and were erected at nearly all the ports at manufacture of as a source of ammonia , bones have

which cargoes of foreign bones arrived.

Steam -power was first employed in break- been long used. The residue was found ing bones by Mr Anderson of Dundee to be an excellent manure in a much in 1829, his machinery preparing the more soluble form than could be attained

bones in the form of 1/2-inch, 4 -inch, by any process of grinding.

Steamed bones were thus brought under the notice For some time farmers seemed to be of farmers. But before this, bones were satisfied with these sizes, as they con- boiled to extract the fatty matter and and dust.

sidered that grinding the bones smaller detracted from theirbeneficial and lasting effect. The more observant, however, by watching the progress of their

part of their gelatine, by soap -boilers for the manufacture of soap. The residue was found to be more active than ordi

crops, noticed that the bone-dust came

that in the manufacture of dissolved

nary crushed bones. We arenow aware

more quickly into action, and that it was bones this fatty matter carbonises and mainly due to impurities that dust was forms an impervious layer over each

not in favour. The dust being the small fragment of bone, preventing the acid particles which passed through the riddles from acting upon it. of the mills, would contain all the sand

Fat in Manure disadvantageous .-

and earthy matter which would find a The same process occurs in the soil.

An

lodgment in the hollow parts of the bone; impervious envelope is formed around and much of the old bones which had the bone-fragments by the fat, and the

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

III

action of acids which are generated is terbalances this fact to a certain extent. prevented, thereby retarding solution. Fat is of no manurial value. meals of all descriptions would be enhanced as fertilisers if these fats were removed before grinding. Steamed bone -flour undergoes a more

Burned Bones. — The burning of bones is a wasteful process to effect the same object. In this form they are largely imported from South America for the manufacture of superphosphates. In

searching process, as the bones are introduced into a Papin's digester, and submitted to the action of steam at a high pressure, which removes a portion of, and

this process the nitrogen is entirely dis sipated. No doubt it is a concentrated form in which to obtain phosphates, but the plan is not commendable. Its only

We would therefore infer that bone-

in some instances nearly all, the organic redeeming point is that the charcoal matter, thereby disintegrating the sub- resulting from the burning of bones can stance of the bone, which is afterwards be used for other purposes, sugar-refin reduced to an impalpable powder. The ing, &c., before it comes to the farmer abstracting of the gelatinedecreases the asa manurial substance. manurial value, as it is the only source

Analyses of Bone - manure . - The

of nitrogen ; but the percentage of phos following are analyses of average sam phates is largely increased, which coun- ples : Moisture .

Crushed

Bone

Bones .

meal.

Steamed Bones.

5.20 17.50

7.13

7.45

Organic matter Phosphate of lime

36.61 48.32

41.85 46.36

67.53

Carbonate of lime Insoluble matter

7.11

3.66 .68

9.31

.83 100.00

100.00

100.00

4.56

5.27

1.94

1

| Yielding ammonia

Russian Bones

(steamed ). 6.80

16.70 59.31

.46

1.80

Analyses similar to the above are very general in trade circulars. It may be explained, however, that bone-meal, made by crushing pure bones from cattle, horses, or sheep, would not contain quite so much as 5.27 per cent of ammonia. In a bone - meal with the above analyses there would likely be a good deal of

weight of sulphuric acid diluted with three or four parts of water, and after they have been digested for some time, to add about 100 parts of water, and to sprinkle this acid -mixture (phosphate of lime) before the plough,” it was thought a solution to the problem had been found. skinny matter crushed up, or it might The plan could hardly be said to have be made partly of the bone of fish . come into use, as it was open to much The Russian bones of steamed .

commerce

are

objection on account of the form in which

the bones were to be applied to the soil.

Dissolved Bones. - About the year A dressing of 1 cwt. of the dissolved 1840 a new departure was made in the mixture, entailing the application of manufacture of bones as manure. The nearly a ton of water, was simply imprac

development of this trade was rapid and ticable in most cases of ordinary farm extensive, but farmers became at last alive to the fact that the division of bones could not be carried to such a point as to suit the requirements of the turnip crop. Mechanical means had been

ing. A remedy was found in putting less acid in the mixture, and thereby produc ing a nearly dry product which could be sown by hand or machine.

This sub

stance came quickly into favour with all

tried , and had not, to the full extent,

classes of farmers, as they found the

fulfilled the purpose.

manure to be easy of application, rapid

But when Liebig announced that inits action ,andinmostclimatesand “ the most easy and practical method soils never failed to produce an increase of effecting their division is to pour over of crops. the bones, in a fine powder, half their Dissolving of doubtful Advantage. da

MANURES AND MANURING.

II2

7 cwt. bone-meal

-From the accounts to which we have had access, there would seem to have

much manuring with dissolved bones.

low

been , until recently , a good deal too

14

1

15 3 I

11

coprolites acid sulphuric water gypsum

There can be no doubt of their efficacy, 40 but we cannot help agreeing with Dr Aitken when he says, “ Considering the enormous quantity of mineral superphos- This will give about 22 to 25 per cent

es now tavailable, I tak am strongly of soluble phosphate, from 8 to 12 insoluble, phation tha it is a mis e to dissolve and about i per cent ammonia . It is opin bones, and that they are put to a much specially important to notice that the better use by applying them in their material from which the manure derives natural state in as finely ground a con- its name is present only to the extent of h part,the balance being made dition as they can possibly be got. The nearly 1-6tape germ -life in the soil and in the bones will up of che r materials. Now let a very rapidly convert the whole into a mixture of bone-meal and ordinary super

form available for the nourishment of phosphates be made up to give the fore plants ; but to dissolve bones in sulphuric going percentages, and our point is made. acid is to kill out the germ-life within it,

But there is another view. The farmer

is paying the dissolved - bone price for and retard the decay of any nucleus of materia ls which he can buy at a super bone it may contain ." Bones and Mineral Phosphates.- phosphate rate. That is, for 2 tons of a Bones contain nitrogen and phosphates. substance which is made up to the extent

Mineral phosphate contains only phos- of 33 cwt. of superphosphate materials, phates, but when dissolved this phos- he ispaying a dissolved -bone price. phate is probably as efficient a plant-

food as phosphate obtained from bones. Some chemists still maintain that the

Further elucidation of this, and the chemical changes which are involved in dissolving bones, are given under Super

origin influences the manurial value of phosphates, p . 116. the phosphates ; but the idea is gaining The dissolving of bones and other ground that the only difference which manures has developed now into a great exists between the forms - bone and

industry, and, as a consequence, all

mineral phosphates — is the presence of qualities are offered in the market, from This nitrogen, high-class dissolved bone down to adul however, can be readily introduced in terated rubbish entirely unworthy of the some other form ; and thus would result name of manure . a manure about equal to bones. To put Analyses of Dissolved Bones . — The

nitrogen in the bones.

it another way, ordinary dissolved bones following are average analyses of three classes of dissolved bones :

are made up as follows :

No. 1. Dissolved

No. 2 Dissolved

No. 3. Dissolved

Bones .

Bones .

Bones.

7.12

9.92 5.32

9.40 3.28

78.36 3.84

78.30 6.46

80.92 6.40

Equal to tricalcic phosphate, rendered “ soluble " 23.32 Equal to insoluble phosphate of lime 15.56

21.68

20.56

7.76

7.20

2.00

1.38

Phosphoric acid in a soluble state 1 Phosphoric acid in an insoluble state ? Lime, sulphuric acid, &c. . Insoluble matter 1 2

Ammonia

3.03

Coprolites. Origin of the

10.68

Manure - trade.

It hasbeen shown that a new era began

appreciated, increased attention was given to the question of manuring, and active research was made for otherfertilisers. Fresh substances were found, and

in the agriculture of this country with the proved to be successful and economical As as fertilisers. A large increase in the the results obtained became known and demand for these manures rapidly arose,

introduction of bones as a manure.

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

113

and with this movement began the man- are of various qualities. Those found in

ure - trade of this country, which has the Suffolk Crag, in Buckingham , &c., developed from small beginnings to the

were at one time known

as false or

immense volume of about 600,000 tons pseudo-coprolites, from their containing a per annum .

considerable quantity of alumina and

Cambridge Road - scrapings. - In oxide of iron. It has been suggested the rise and progress of this trade the by Dr Buckland that the coprolite of effect of any substance when used as a this description was at one time chalk,

manure was closely observed, and thus which , after absorbing phosphoric acid we can therefore understand how the from the decay of organic matter, was road -scrapings of Cambridge came into ultimately altered by natural forces into notice. These scrapings, on being ex- a mineral phosphate. Another theory as to the origin of amined , were found to be in part composed of phosphate of lime, obtained from these and other mineral phosphates has phosphatic nodules, which were dug up also had support. It was supposed out of the underlying " greensand, that they were at one time nearly the and used for repairing roads. Dr Buck- same as many of the phosphatic guano land, their discoverer, found these nod- deposits, and had been altered byrains ules to be a mineral phosphate, and con- and afterwards by changes in the earth's sequently nearly insoluble. They are crust, so as to be converted into the >

now known under the name of coprolites. nodules or phosphatic rocks, now so A considerable period elapsed after the largely employed in the manufacture of discovery of these nodules before they superphosphates. came to be used as manure.

The writ-

Dissolving or Grinding. – Until re

ings of Henslow and Hérapath , who min- cently, chemists were of opinion that utely described the extent and composi- mineral phosphates, unless treated with tion of this manurial wealth, effected this acids, were practically useless as a man object by bringing these resources under ure . Modern research, however, has

the notice of the Royal Agricultural shown that, if ground to an impalpable powder, they are of considerable value Society of England. Origin of Coprolite . — Coprolites, or as fertilisers. dungstones, are the excrements and reWe shall not here attempt to deter

mains of saurians or lizards, Ammonites, mine or pronounce upon their precise Belemnites, & c.

relative value in a dissolved or undis

Sources of Coprolite. — The digging solved state. As yet, indeed, this ques

of coprolites was at first confined to the tion occupies a debatable position in midland counties, where they were found chemical investigation. All, however, in the greensands of Cambridge, the agree that coprolites, when dissolved, green marls, the gault, the bone - beds become a safe and valuable source of

of the Lias, Ludlow bone-beds, Suffolk phosphoric acid for plant-growth. Crag, &c.

After a time immense de-

Composition of Coprolites.

- The

posits were found in various parts of following are average analyses of copro Europe and America. These deposits lites by Sibson : Cambridge.

Moisture .

Phosphoric acid Lime

Carbonic acid Other matters

Sand

Bedford .

1.24

2.06

· 26.80

23.52 33.46

43.26 7.10 12.70

16.54

Suffolk .

Carolina .

French .

1.03 25.50 37.24 3.60 20.50 12.13

1.04 25.70

1.90 20.80 31.94

37.38

3.80 16.76 19.12

26.53 100.00

45.41

8.90

24.42

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

58.50

51.34

55.67

56.10

15.03

1 Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime

The preceding are very similar in comBut there are many other sources of position, and may be taken as fair repre- insoluble phosphates. We shall men sentatives of the phosphatic nodules. tion briefly a few of those best known. VOL. II.

H

MANURES AND MANURING.

114

and masses. It exists in lesser quantities Apatite, Phosphorite, and Phosphatic Layers.

in other parts of the world . Phosphatic layers are generally poor in

These substances occur in varied pro- quality, and aremet with in the Silurian portions in nearly all rocks, but are more rocks, notably in Wales. Phosphorite abundantly present in the Metamorphic. is very abundant in some parts of Portu

They are much alike in characterand gal, but these sources have not as yet The existence of these layers, veins, and pockets seems to be due to the decay oforganic matter ; the residue being mixed up with shells of various kinds in which phosphate of lime is present in considerable abundance—

composition.

been fully developed in consequence of bad roads. It is more sparsely present in Spain and Germany. The Canadian phosphorite beds have not been fully explored. The specimens which have been sent to the market are extremely

these being deposited during long periods hard and brittle, very difficult to grind ; and compressed amongst the the powder obtained being minute glassy of time, rock -material. Granite and syenite particles of a crystalline form . This other

seem to be more largely interspersed with

renders it more insoluble than most other

these substances than other rocks, and phosphatic materials. These substances are for the most part we have, in consequence, the best corngrowing lands on soils which overlie these manufactured into superphosphates. Composition of Phosphorite.- Un

rocks.

Apatite is found largely in Canada dernoted are analyses of average speci and Norway, where it is present in veins

mens :

Canadian

Moisture

Phosphoric acid 1 : Lime

Other constituents Sand, &c. 1

German ,

Spanish .

Traces. 33.60

11.98

1.30 28.02 37.II 15.44

5.50

18.13

16.27

100.00

100.00

100.00

77.06

61.17

73.35

Phosphorite. Traces. 35.30 47.22

Equal to phosphate of lime

42.02 8.11

bination with lime as a base.

In Re

Sombrero or Rock Guano. This substance is found in the West

donda phosphatewe have instead of lime a base composed of alumina and iron. Indian island of Sombrero, hence its This substance can be applied to the soil name . There can be little doubt that in its natural state only in a finely the greater part of the islands in the divided condition, as the absence of lime

Caribbean Sea were at one time covered in its composition prevents the treatment with guano deposits in the same manner of it with acid . as those found on the islands of the

There would seem to be a consider

South American and African coasts. able amount of conflicting opinion as

These deposits, by naturalagencies, have to the efficacy of this substance as a been converted into the phosphatic rock

manure. Many hold it to be utterly which covers the greater part of this and useless. From its composition we would

the other islands of the West Indies.

infer that it should become more readi

This rock has become known in the ly available than many other mineral

manure-trade as Sombrero guano, and is phosphates, for it not only depends on the fineness of division, but also

largely used in the manufacture of com-

pounds and other soluble phosphatic on the composition whether a substance becomes more or less dissolved in the

manures.

soil. “ Redonda ” and “ Alta Vela ”

Phosphates.

The hard, brittle, and crystalline char acter of some of the phosphorites, with

The preceding are all phosphates in little or no carbonate of lime or iron in which the phosphoric acid is in com- their composition, must necessarily be

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

115

less soluble than those phosphatic mate. render them more liable to disintegra rials in which these substances are pres- tion. ent to the extent of about ii per cent

Composition of Sombrero, Redonda ,

carbonate of lime, and 7 per cent oxide and Alta Vela . — The following is aver of iron. These substances being dis- age analyses of a few of these materials solved out of the minute particles, must by Sibson : Moisture

Phosphoric acidi Lime Other constituents Sand

1 Equalto phosphate of lime Alta Vela contains Redonda

Sombrero .

Redonda .

Alta Vela.

6.50 31.60 44.67

21.13 30.24 3.16

27.20

15.99 1.24

24.84 20.63

21.14

100.00

100.00

100.00

16.50 8.93 26.23

66.01 59.38 68.98 7.20 oxide of iron and 14. 16 alumina . 3.64 15.72 11

11

such as manganese, silicon, phosphorus, Thomas Slag.

and carbon, combine with the oxygen

We have in this substance not only the most recently discovered, but also the cheapest and most abundant source of phosphoric acid . It has been in the market only since 1886. The results obtained from carefully conducted experiments in Germany and this country

present in a stream of air which is forced through the molten mass, and either burns off or forms oxides with these sub stances. But on an increase of the al ready high temperature the phosphorus is converted into phosphoric acid ,which combines with the lime, and the resultant

clearly indicate that this substance is an product is the Thomas slag, or phos excellent source of phosphorus to plants. phate of lime. Solubility of slag. — This substance plants than any previously known form can be readily ground into a very fine

It is, indeed, more quickly available to

of insoluble phosphate. As it is now powder ; and after being passed over produced in Europe to the extent of about 600,000 tons per annum , the discovery of its manurial value is of great importance to agriculture. Source of Thomas Slag.— Thomas slag is a by - product obtained in the conversion of pig -iron into steel. Before the discovery of this new process, all the slag resulting from the Bessemer method was treated as a waste product, and it often became a serious difficulty with

powerful magnets, which abstract a part of the iron, it is presented to the farmer in the best form for application. In this state it is quickly rendered available to

the plant by the carbonic acid and water present in every arable soil. This solu bility arises from its peculiar composi tion. In bones and mineral phosphates we have three atoms of lime as a base com bining with one atom of phosphoric acid

the salt termed phosphate of manufacturers how to get rid of this to formThe combination may be stated supposed rubbish.

It was therefore

lime.

allowed to accumulate in those unsightly thus, it being remembered that the heaps which are always seen in con- atomic weightof calcium is 40, oxygen nection with iron factories. 16, and phosphorus 31 Manufacture of Thomas Slag.–

The new process was patented in 1879 by the inventors, Messrs Thomas & Gil- Lime

the waste product was not christ, but utilised until some six or seven years later.

Lime

Weight.

CaO

56

Phosphoric CaO } P , Op = 356 ? 142 acid 56 Cao )

器3

The method consists of mixing

the molten iron with about 20 per cent of lime.

Lime

Chemical formula .

Now , Thomas slag has four molecules

The converter, which is a large of lime in its composition, in combina

pear-shaped vessel, is also lined with lime tion with one molecule of phosphoric acid, instead of brick .

The various impurities,

thus

MANURES AND MANURING.

116

Formula .

Lime Lime Lime Lime

Weight.

Phosphoric /Cao acid

P ,05

Cao

Cao

56 56 56 142

56

sulphuric acid, and the ammonia escapes in a volatile state into the atmosphere. Further information on this point will be found under mixtures and mix

ing. In other words, 168 parts of lime are

combined with 142 parts of phosphoric acid in the one instance, and 224 parts of

Soluble Phosphates or Superphosphates. When Sir John Bennet Lawes, about

lime with 142 parts of phosphoric acid the year 1840, announced that he could in the other.

That is to say, in Thomas obtain soluble phosphate of lime from

slag the acid is combined with too great the mineral phosphatic nodules as repre a proportion of lime to enable it to cohere sented by coprolites, it is not to be

firmly. To put it in still another way, supposed that he then realised that from its chemical affinity is weakened from this discovery a special industry would being over -saturated with lime, so that develop, which would go on increasing in volume until it reached, as it had done Hence the solubility of Thomas slag. by 1888, the placing upon the markets

the compound is more readily broken up.

Oxide of Iron in Slag . - There seems

of Great Britain of over half a million

to be one drawback which, in the opinion of many farmers, detracts from the value of slag as a manure. This is the great quantity of oxide of iron in its composi-

tons of superphosphates yearly. The great value of this discovery to the agri cultural world becomes apparent by a consideration of the large and increas

tion, many samples containing from 10 ing quantities of superphosphate which From experi- farmers require under the changes which ments conducted by Sir John B. Lawes, the application of artificial manures

to 20 per cent and over.

and in Germany, it seems that the has effected in the rotation of crops, presence of this material has little or and the ever-diminishing supply of phos no effect on the growth of crops. The phates. farmer, therefore, just loses the value of

Composition of Phosphate of Lime.

the fertilising ingredients in proportion to -Phosphoric acid and lime in combina the quantity of this substancewhich may tion are the principal ingredients in the be present in the slag bought by him . salt, phosphate of lime. These substances Composition of slag. — Slag also are present always in the same propor contains, beside phosphate and silicate tion whether the phosphate is derived

of lime,a considerable quantity ofcaustic from bones or mineral phosphatic mate or free lime and magnesia. The following rials—with the one exception of slag. is an average analysis of Thomas slag :- This combination is known as insoluble,

tribasic, or tricalcic phosphate, which Phosphoric acid

.

Lime

.

Oxides of iron, & c. Silica

consists of three atoms of lime and one

atom of phosphoric acid , thus

97

22 3 .

Magnesia

18 per cent 50

.

7 3

27

The quantity of phosphoric acid in a sample depends on the amount of phos phorus present in the iron, and the

Lime Lime Lime

Phosphoric acid

Formula .

Weight

Сао

CaOkP O3

56 56

Сао

56

142

Solubility of Phosphate of Lime.

quantity of lime which is added to the -In thisform phosphate of lime is very

molten liquid. If an excessive quantity slowly soluble.

Were it not that this

of lime be added, then the residue must substance when applied to the soil comes

be poor in phosphoric acid, and vice into contact with water impregnated verså.

The caustic lime, although a with carbonic and other acids, the phos

good manure, prevents slag forming an phate would remain unaltered for years. all round ingredient in mixing manure,

But the carbonic acid and water possess

as in this form it is a strong alkaline considerable dissolving power, and when

base, which will readily drive out a insoluble phosphate is acted upon by volatile one, as ammonia .

If these be

carbonic acid, a molecule of lime is taken

mixed, the lime combines with the away, and water takes its place, so that

1

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

117

the phosphate is now changed into a phoric acid combination, and abstracts more soluble form , known as biphosphate two atoms of lime from it, the vacancy of lime or dicalcic phosphate.

being made up with water.

Precipitated , Reverted , or Reduced

After a

short time the bottom of the mixer is

Phosphates. This form is also effected opened, and the whole mass drops into by mixing dissolved phosphates with an enclosure known as the den . In a bones, slag, or caustic lime, before ap- day or two the mixture dries quickly, plying it to the soil. These phosphates it is then passed through a disinte

also assume this form after being applied, grator, bagged up, and sold under the

asthe phosphoric acid rendered soluble nameof " superphosphate." will then combine with any free base This product, on examination, is found which may be present in a fertile soil. to haveundergone a change different from The combination may be stated thusthe other forms, as the compound now Lime Lime Water

Phosphoric acid

Formula .

Weight.

Cao

56 )

Ca0 } P , , = 3 s6 / 142 18 1,0 )

(so

retains only one atom of lime in com bination with the phosphoric acid, and may be stated thus Lime Water Water

Phosphoric

Formula .

Weight.

Cao

56

18 The preceding form may be looked HO 142 acid upon as the natural process by which 18 H2O phosphate of lime is rendered soluble, and consequently available for plant-food. In chemical parlance this substance is Dissolving of Phosphate of Lime. designated monocalcic phosphate, but it

-We have next to consider the artificial

is usual in analysis not to state the quan

method of rendering insoluble phosphates tity of this substance, but the quantity soluble.

The raw material is first ground

of tricalcic phosphate from which it was

into a fine powder, after which itis placed made — that is, the tribasic or tricalcic

in a vessel termed a mixer, and treated phosphate of lime rendered soluble by with sulphuric acid. It depends upon an acid. In this form it is in its most the composition of the raw material and soluble condition, as it can be held in the strength of the acid as to the exact solution by water. proportions in which these substances are Biphosphate. But some chemists mixed, more acid or less being employed consider that in this state the phosphoric in proportion to the carbonate of lime acid is not available for plant-food — that present. The general rule is to give as before becoming so , it has to pass into the much acid as the material will take up biphosphate form . When this change is

quickly and dry readily after. In prac- effected, it becomes a precipitate, and is tice the quantity of acid varies from then in the most finely divided condi one-third to the full weight of the phos tion a substance can assume, Many phatic material.

farmers consider the biphosphate the

The value of a superphosphate depends best form in which to apply phosphate on the amount of soluble phosphates of lime, holding that it is more quickly It is therefore questionable effective upon crops, and that the super

present.

policy to stint acid — at least from a phosphate form is over-soluble, and liable manufacturer's point of view — as the to escape into the subsoil or drains if unit value of soluble is much greater a base is not present. than that of insoluble phosphates. For But there are advantages which arise

this reason, in low -class superphosphates from the use of phosphates, as in super the material is saturated with acid to phosphate-- viz., the greater power of prevent reversion, with old mortar, chalk , diffusion a substance has when it is held and other inferior substances which some-

in solution by water ; because, wherever

times form a considerable portion of such this water, which is impregnated with mixtures. When the acid is put into phosphoric acid , comes into contact with the mixer, chemical action at once be- the soil in which lime or other base is gins by the sulphuric acid, which is present, there a portion of the phosphor strong, driving out the weaker car- ic acid is precipitated, and in this man

bonicacid. It then attacks the phos- ner the phosphoric acid is interspersed

118

MANURES AND MANURING .

throughout the soil in a way which could never be attained by any mechanical

The percentage of soluble phosphates which average samples should contain

means.

is shown below :

Bone or Mineral Phosphate .It is

held by eminent chemists that the solu

ble phosphates obtained from mineral Soluble phos. ) phosphates are equally as good as those from bones, and that there is no special

phate ( per

Low -class High -class Medium Superphos. Superphos. Superphos phate. phate. phate.

35

28 to 30

23 to 26

cent )

virtue in one form over the other. It is

therefore of little importance to the far mer from which source his soluble phos-

Characteristics of Phosphatic Manures. In the selection of the form in which

phates are made, provided the material to apply phosphate to his crop, the far is fully dissolved, and in a dry, powdery mer has to consider the character of the

soil, climate, and crops to be grown. The But from this we do not infer that remarks made uponnitrogenous manures

condition.

superphosphates are as good a manure

apply with equal force to all kinds of

asdissolved bones. We merely conclude phosphates. that the soluble phosphates present in each are equal in value as fertilisers.

Activity of Phosphatic Manures. We have already tried to impress on the

The dissolved bone owes its greater minds of our readers that the solubility efficacy to the nitrogen ; but then this of a manure depends on the minuteness nitrogen can be supplied to the super- of its division : we can have therefore

phosphate either as bone-meal or sul- little difficulty in placing them in the phate of ammonia, by which means we order of their activity, beginning with can secure a cheaper manure, with an those which come into action slowly

equal if not a greater amount of fertil- crushed bones, finely powdered mineral ising matter.

phosphate, fine bone-meal, steamed bones,

An additional benefit which bone possesses over mineral phosphate is due to its containing a certain percentage of organic matter, which, in the process of decay, gives rise to carbonic acid and other organic acids, which have a dissolving action on the phosphate of lime,

precipitated phosphates, Thomas slag, dis solved phosphates. Bones are the slowest in their action , and become available as plant-food only after being mixed with the soil for some time. It is therefore a safe rule to apply them early. In some soils they come

an advantage of considerable import- more quickly into action than in others. ance, especially when no dung is being This is especially the case in porous soils applied.

where organic matter is present.

Composition of Superphosphates. -Superphosphates are of three kinds — low , medium , and high-class. As a rule, amongst the superphosphates which

clays, and soils of like texture, they may remain unchanged for years. Bones are, however, good " stayers ”—that is, being slowly soluble, they last long, and raise

In

abound in the market the medium is the the fertility of the soil. Therefore all best form , as the first too often contains mixtures of manure intended to last a

a considerable quantity of coarsely ground rotation should contain a proportion of

phosphate, which, in that rough condition, bones. In a wet climate bones are also is comparatively worthless as a manure ; rendered more quickly soluble than in whilst high-class is not unfrequently in drier parts. Indeed, in wet seasons bones bad condition, being wet and lumpy, and

decompose rapidly.

difficult to handle. But it should be understood that these defects in the so-

mineral phosphates when ground into a

The softer or less compact forms of

called low - class and high - class super- very fine powder, have been found to be

phosphates are not always present. Bet- moderately quick -acting manures, about ter attention is now given than formerly equal, some consider, to very finely to fineness of grinding, and with skilful

ground bone-meal or bone-ash. Finely ground steamed bone-flour is the should be dry, powdery, and quite free most active form of bones prepared by from lumps. mechanical means, and gives a high -class

dissolving the high -class superphosphates

ARTIFICIAL AND SPECIAL MANURES.

119

superphosphate when treated with an such as starch, dextrine, &c., and is ulti acid. The fineness of division of this mately deposited in the seed. We are substance counterbalances the want of also aware that a deficient supply of

organic matter with relation to solubility. phosphates produces light grain and But this preparation is coarse when com- diminished yield. Phosphates produce pared to precipitated or reverted phos- dense roots, of excellent feeding quality

phates , which possess the highest degree and high keeping properties . of solubility of any ofthe forms of phos phates except slag. Slag comes next to POTASSIC MANURES. superphosphate, and hasa great future The use of potash manures is of recent before it , being, as we have seen, the cheapest source of phosphoric acid in the date. Even yet many farmers do not market at present, while the supply is consider the application of potash to the abundant.

Dissolved manures are the most active.

soil necessary Sources of Potash . — The only avail

The chief advantage of this solubility is able sources of potash, before 1860, were their certainty of action, the rapid man- wood -ashes, sea -weed, and farmyard man ner in which they become available in ure . In 1859, vast deposits of potash any soil or climate. The young plant salts were found by the Prussian Gov is in consequence supplied with this ernment when sinking a shaft at Stass essential ingredient at a period of growth furt in the hope of discovering rock - salt. when it is liable to sustain damage from Overlying large deposits ofrock - salt, untoward influences which may infest its they found layers of kainit, a name

surroundings. An abundant supply of given to carnallite or muriate of potash ; manure or food at this critical period to and magnesia , polykalite or sulphate of a great extent determines the future potash ; gypsum and kieserite, or sulphate crop, an increased yield of well - filled of magnesia. Similar deposits were also grain and early maturity being the found at Leopoldshall, in Anhalt. results .

The discovery of these deposits put

Large crops require large doses of the use of potash as a manure within manure, and short-lived crops require the reach of the farmer.

It can now be

quick -acting manures. A crop such as bought at about 358. per ton, containing wheat, which occupies the ground for a onan average 23 per cent of potash. long period, will not be benefited to the Use of Potash .— But notwithstanding

same degree by a ready supply of phos- its low price, potash has not come into phates as a short- lived crop like bar- general use. As a rule, it can be applied ley. Wheat abstracts the ingredients at with advantage only to certain crops, leisure, and can search for them over a and on land deficient in clay, such as much larger area of the soil. And as sandy or peaty soils. phosphates are present in some proporWhen farmyard manure is applied, a tion in all soils, this crop can, as a rule, separate dose of potash is unnecessary.

acquire all its wants during the period of growth . Barley, on the other hand, grows rapidly, building up its tissue in à comparatively short time, and, owing to itsroot-surface, has not the area nor the time to search for its supply of phosphates.

Indeed it would be liable to lessen the produce, and also lower its quality, as with the potash in the dung there would be more available potash inthe soil than would be beneficial for the crop.

On

most soils containing a fair proportion of clay, and where a good deal of farmyard

In the well-known work, 'How Crops manure is used, there is, as a rule, a

Grow ,' we are told that the phosphorised sufficiency of potash. But where it is oils require phosphates for their elabora- deficient,the gain in produce obtained by

tion ; that phosphates increase the dif- a small application of potash, at a cost of fusive rate of albumen , and thus help a few shillings per acre, is often remark its transference to the different parts of able. By observation and experiment the plant ; and that phosphates co-oper with light doses on plots, farmers may ate with the other ash ingredients in ascertain if their soil needs potash, and

building up the proximate constituents, if so, its application in moderate quantity

I 20

MANURES AND MANURING.

will be sure to be profitable. Potash has these are gas- liquor, from which sulphate been found of some benefit when applied of ammonia is obtained, and gas - lime, to mangels, and appears to be of consider- which is produced by spreading quick able benefit when mixed with other man- or caustic lime over plates in a close

ures and applied as a top -dressing for chamber, through which the gas con hay and grass seeds. It also may be taining sulphuretted hydrogen is forced. applied with advantage to leguminous This latter substance combines with the

crops, beans in particular. Wherever applied it ought to be sown early, and care should be taken not to apply it in conjunction with farmyard manure.

lime, forming in the purifying chamber sulphide of lime. In this form it is destructive to vegetable life ; but after exposure to the atmosphere it absorbs

It is positively injurious to oxygen, and is thereby changed into

green crops when given in excess.

sulphate of lime or gypsum . The caustic

lime which may be present is also changed GYPSUM .

into carbonate.

Use of Gas-lime. - Gas- lime ought to

Sources of Gypsum . - Gypsum , or be applied in autumn, or allowed to lie sulphate of lime, occurs as rocks in the some months before using, so as to allow form of beds, generally in conjunction time for the changes just explained to with rock -salt. In the compact form it take place. It is unsafe to apply it to is commonly known as alabaster and any growing crop. Many Berwickshire and Roxburgh Many of the deposits owe selenite.

their origin to the evaporation of salt farmers mix gas- lime and salt, and apply water, which contains gypsum in solu- the mixture to their leas which are to be tion. At one period, where rock -salt broken up for oats. They consider this is now found, there must have been inland lakes or seas, and by changes of the earth's surface the outlets have been gradually cut off from the sea ; so that all the saline matter brought down by the drainage has been accumulating, the water becoming more and more impreg nated with these salts, and thus, when

application to be of service to the corn crops, and a preventive of anbury or finger-and -toe in the green crop. Gas lime is also much used as an insecticide. COMPOUND MANURES .

In addition to the various manures

evaporation has gone on for a certain already enumerated, there are in the period, the salts cannot be longer held in market many compound manures or solution, and, becoming crystallised, they special crop mixtures bearing different

are deposited in the form of beds, which names, such as cereal, turnip, potato, by compression assume the compact form . bean, and grass manures. Use of Gypsum . - From an agricul-

Disadvantage of Compound Man

tural point of view, gypsum is valuable ures. - Many of these mixtures are skil chiefly as an absorber of ammonia (see p. fully made up, and, when manufactured

527, vol. i.) It is of benefit to clover by respectable firms, analyse well, and and other leguminous crops. give good results on soils for which they The value of gypsum as a manure was are adapted.

But there is one great

the subject of much discussion about drawback to this system of preparing 1850 to 1860 ; but since the introduc- manures, and it is this, that with such

tion of dissolved phosphates it has been variation in soil, climate, and customs of unnecessary for the farmer to trouble farming, it is impossible to compound himself about it, as the application of 5 one manure equally suitable for all farms,

tons of superphosphate involves an ap- even in one district. Moreover, the trade plication of 2 tons of gypsum . GAS - LIME .

in compound manures opens a wide field for the unscrupulous dealer who would sell inferior stuff as good material.

Upon the whole, therefore, it is safer for In the manufacture of gas, many im- the intelligent farmer to avoid mixed purities have to be got rid of before the manures and select fertilisers from gas is ready for combustion. Amongst sources as to which there can be no

ECONOMICAL PURCHASING OF MANURES.

I 21

suspicion, and blend these in mixtures dissolve in water, like sugar or salt ; but suitable for the soil and climate where to assist practical men to arrive at con they are to be applied. clusions more correctly as to the value Still there are many farmers who are of the manures, the percentage of dis

not sufficiently acquainted with the solved phosphate of lime is also given characteristics of the various manures that is, the amount of tribasic phosphate to enable them to ensure perfect mixing, of lime or bone - earth required to give

and in these cases it will be advantage- that quantity of phosphoric acid in a ous to have the mixtures prepared by a soluble state.

thoroughly respectable firm , by whom Organic Matter. - Chemists apply the composition of the mixture will be this term to every substance that will guaranteed . rot or decompose by “ heating " or burn by fire — no matter whether it belong to the animal or vegetable kingdom . The ECONOMICAL PURCHASING OF MANURES.

value of the organic matter in a manure depends mainly upon the amount of

nitrogen in its composition, and whether readily In the purchasing of manures there or not that nitrogen becomes For in are a few points which farmers should available for the use of plants. simple From exstance, straw , wool, blood, or sawdus t always keep in view . amination of any article sold as manure, are all organic matters, but the amount

the purchaser can have little or noidea of nitrogen present in each is very differ of its quality or value as a fertiliser. For this reason the farmer ought-

ent.

Straw and sawdust in themselves

may almost be looked upon as non

dandof subst (1.) buy ntage ctablee nitro respectabl eryances,while large percebloo shows av woolgenou from respe only from buy only Tofirms. (1.) To (2.) Never buy without obtaining a guaranteed analysis.

nitrogen . Again, we have to consider how soon the nitrogen shall become available for

(3.) Always buy the valuable ingredi- food to plants. This must necessarily ents from the cheapest sources depend upon whether those substances in the market. are subject to rapid decomposition or

The first point is so self-evident as to otherwise. require no further remarks.

Blood decomposes quickly,

while wool may lie in the soil for years

unchanged, and its effects upon vegeta Analysis explained. tion cannot therefore be the same, be It may be useful to explain some of cause all substances before they become

the terms used by chemists in an analy- available as a manure must be broken up manure sis of

.

into the elements of which they are made

Insoluble and soluble Phosphates. up , or in other words, decompose or rot. --As to the meaning of the terms insol-

It should also be noted here, as already

uble phosphate and soluble phosphate indicated, that organic matter is of value some explanation has already been given in the notes upon superphosphate, p . 117. It was there seen that soluble phosphates always mean tribasic phosphate of lime

as an indirect improver of the textureand mechanical properties of a soil as well as the generator of carbonic and other acids,

whose action on the dormant fertilising

made soluble by an acid.

It is no mat- constituents of a soil is most beneficial. ter whether they are termed monobasic Nitrogen and Ammonia . — It may

phosphate, monocalcic phosphate, biphosphate, phosphoric acid in a soluble state, or superphosphate, the term superphosphate is generally applied

be here explained that when nitrogen into combination with hydrogen and form ammonia, or it may be evolved as is liberated from a substance, it may go

to all dissolved phosphates in which free nitrogen and pass off in the atmos ammonia is not present.

phere, or it may be converted into nitric

In analyses of manures, the term phos- acid, which, combining with lime, potash, phoric acid in a soluble state is often met or soda, forms nitrates of these bases. with.

This means the acid will melt or

But in most cases where organic nitrogen

MANURES AND MANURING.

I 22

occurs in a manure it becomes converted to know the cheapest sources from which

into ammonia - hence the term, nitrogen to obtain phosphoric acid, nitrogen,and equal to ammonia . potash. In order to enable him to form Alkaline Salts . — These may be acci- an approximate opinion of relative values,

dentally present or may be added in the we shall try to explain the theory of

drying agents employed. They consist valuation by units, preluding it with chiefly of sulphate of soda or potash the remark that the value of a manure to salts. The latter is of considerable value, the farmer depends on the amount of but the former is not of much importance. valuable ingredients which may be pre

The foregoing are the more valuable sent in its composition, but that its constituents in the analysis.

market price, like that of all other com

Lime and Sulphuric Acid . — Lime modities, is regulated by the law of and suphuric acid are present in pretty supply and demand. large quantities in the form of sulphate Valuable Ingredients of Manure .

of lime or gypsum , this being a result of The valuable constituents in manure are: the sulphuric acid applied to render sol- ( 1 ) nitrogen, equal to ammonia, quickly uble the insoluble phosphates. The acid, available , as in nitrate of soda and sul as before explained , acting on the phos- phate of ammonia ; (2 ) nitrogen slowly

phate of lime, abstracts from the phos- available, as in bones, blood, &c.; ( 3) phoric acid two equivalents of lime; phosphoric acid quickly available, as

while, where carbonate of lime is present, in superphosphate ; (4) phosphoric acid it drives off the carbonic acid and com- slowly available, as in bones, guano,

bines with the lime to form the foregoing & c.; and (5 ) potash, as in kainit. salt. Gypsum is also employed as a Nitrogen , phosphoric acid, and potash are available from many other sources,

drying agent.

Moisture.— Moisture is present in a but the foregoing will give an average. manure as the water of combination, and What the farmer has to carefully con sider is the form in which these are

also as the water which is mixed with

the materials to enable the acids employed present, whether quickly or slowly avail able, and then judge which will be most to act with the greatest advantage. The amount of moisture present in a suitable for his purpose. Unit Value . — Let us now see how the manure is of considerable importance to

the purchaser, as when a quantity of unit value is arrived at.

Taking the

manure dries, the water lost by evapora- prices per ton stated below as the selling tion is a direct loss of weight. price of the manures, and dividing the cost price by the percentage of units of

The Cheapest Source.

the various useful ingredients, we find The greatest difficulty the farmer has the value per unit of these ingredients to encounter when purchasing manure is would be as follows : Per ton .

Sulphate ammonia = 24 per cent ammonia, at Nitrate of soda

Phosphatic guano

= 19 = 46

Superphosphate

= 40 27

Muriate of potash Sulphate of potash

= 23.5 50 = 26

Slag

Bones

=

at

phosphates, at at

£O 10

3

10 12

6

2 12

6

o

II I

2

at

10

0

O

0

9

O

0

2

o

6

o 0

potash, at

7

7

6

11

at

4

2

6

5 15

0

11

whosphates}

ammonia

at

.

3

2 15 7 2

11

S 50 4.5

o

I

soluble phosphates, at 11

Per unit .

$ 125

2

4 0

O

3 3

O

I

4 3

ого

2

The only difficulty is in regard to a seen, contains 472 per cent of ammonia . compound manure such as bones. In This multiplied by ios. 3d. ( the cost of such a case the unit value of the con-

ammonia per unit in sulphate of am

stituents of a similar substance is taken. monia ), gives £2 , 6s. 2d. as the propor Sulphate of ammonia is adopted in this tion of the cost of the bones represented instance .

The bone - manure, we have by the 4/2 per cent of ammonia. This

MIXTURES AND MIXING .

deducted from the cost price of £5, 158.

123

origin of the phosphate, be worth per

per ton, leaves £3, 8s. rod. for the 50 per haps 3d. to 4d. per unit more. The cent of phosphates. foregoing figures will, however, give a

The foregoing, of course, cannot be useful idea of the approximate value, taken as hard - and - fast rules.

The and indicate how, from the cost price

chemist generally exercises a good deal and analysis, the value per unit is of discretion, and often raisesthe unit arrived at. value above what it will actually work Estimating the Value of a Manure . out upon paper, much depending on the -Now , let us reverse the process, and source of the material and its condition. from these values per unit and the an

For instance, the phosphates in bones, alysis of a manure, find what the cost although showing à net unit value of price per ton should be. Take, say , IS. 4d., may , on account of the first -class dissolved bones, showing analysis of 22 per cent soluble phosphate, worth 28. I2

11

insoluble

234

11

ammonia, worth

11

2d. per unit. worth 18. 2d.

Ios. 3d.

The total cost per ton should be £ 4, 98. iod. Dissolved bones with this analysis can

Guide to Analysis.

The following

just now be bought at £ 4, 1os. per ton, table, compiled by Dr Aitken, will be and are therefore fair value in comparison found veryuseful in reading and under standing an analysis of manures : with other fertilising substances. Amount of nitrogen, PI

multiplied by 1.214 gives amount of ammonia.

ammonia,

11

11

11

10 11

potash, 11

11

3.147

11

3.706

albuminoids. sulphate of ammonia. muriate of nitric acid . nitrate of soda.

11

11

!!

11

5.0

11

1.85 1.585 2.183

11

11

11

6.3 3.882

1

sulphate of potash. muriate of

phosphoric acid,

11

11

11

1.4

11

11

1.648

11

1.325 1.566

11

phosphate of lime. biphosphate.

11

soluble or mono 11

!!

11

11

soluble phosphate, 10

biphosphate, lime, 11

11

1.845 1.786 Manures .

MIXTURES AND MIXING.

calcic phosphate. phosphate oflime.

11

carbonate of lime.

11

The

chemical

processes

which take place in this decomposition need not be fully described here.

For

all practical purposes, the substances mixing manures, a knowledge of their which result may be regarded as acids character and composition is indispens- in chemical combination with alkalies Dangers of Careless Mixing. - In

able if loss is to be averted .

Indiscrim-

as bases.

In chemical action , a strong

inate or careless mixing is almost certain or free acid will drive out a weak one, to end in loss of fertilising material, and and a strong alkali will usurp the place may even, by generation of poisonous of one possessing a less degree of affinity gases in a close compartment, incur for acids. If we examine our manure danger to human life. lists, we find that in ( 1.) Highly soluble phosphates, to It should therefore be kept in view that while the substances used as manwhich, as is sometimes the case, an ure are more orless in the form of salts, excess of acid has been applied, there

which are harmless in themselves, yet if their complex forms are broken up, the products of the decomposition assume a very different character. Chemical

Processes

in

Mixing

is present free sulphuricacid ; in (2. ) Nitrate of soda — an alkali having a strong affinity for sulphuric acid i ,n (3. ) Slag — a strong alkali in the form of caustic lime; and in

MANURES AND MANURING.

I 24

(4) Sulphate of ammonia — a weak or volatile alkali, ammonia .

in the centre.

A man is now placed at

each heap, and alternate shovelfuls, less

When soluble phosphates are mixed or more -the quantity being determined with nitrate of soda, à portion of the by the relative proportion of materials de phosphoric acid rendered soluble ab- sired — are throwninto the centre, where stracts a portion of the soda from the a new heap is formed containing the

nitrate of soda, the products of the de- three materials. After this mixture is composition being lime and soda and an made, it is turned over, carebeing taken orange -coloured gas, better known as to always shovel the material from the nitric acid vapour - a deadly poison. If bottom of the heap. The top portions 13 of nitrate of soda and 23 of super- of the material slip down, and thus by phosphates are mixed, and allowed to shovelling from the bottom , a thorough lie for six weeks or so, it may be found mixing is brought about. that nearly 1/3 of the nitric acid has been In a day or two the sulphate of am monia or nitrate of soda, when such is to lost from this cause alone. Again, if superphosphate and bones or be applied, may be added. The mixture slag are mixed , and allowed to remain

is then driven to the field in carts, the

for some time, the soluble phosphoric mixing process being completed by the acid will combine with another molecule material being shovelled from the bottom of lime, and more or less precipitates, re- of the heap into the cart. When the verted or reduced phosphates, will be manure is to be sown by hand, equal quantities should be placed in each cart, produced.

Then if we mix sulphate of ammonia in order to facilitate even application. with slag, the caustic lime of the slag

By mixing in this manner, the risk of

will driveout the ammonia, which, being volatile, will become dissipated in the atmosphere, and the resulting product becomes sulphate of lime or gypsum . Comparatively few realise the loss and

loss throughany excess of sulphuric acid having been added to the superphos phate will be averted, as any freeacid will combine with the free lime of the

slag, or with the bones if there is no slag

disappointments which have occurred to in the mixture. A neutral salt is thereby the great body of farmers by haphazard formed and loss prevented. As already mixing of manure. The fact is, there indicated, it would be unwise toallow a are very few manurial substances which mixture of fine steamed bone- flour or

can be mixed at random , and allowed to lie, without some important change occurring in their composition. Safe Mixtures. — The following manures may be mixed with impunity : ( 1 ) bones with nitrate of soda or sulphate of

slag and superphosphate to lie long, as the phosphates in the superphosphates would be precipitated by the carbonate of lime in the bone-flour, or by the

caustic lime in the slag. Another Method of Mixing.- Mr

ammonia ; ( 2 ) superphosphate and sul- William Grant, Wester Alves, Moray phate of ammonia ; ( 3) bones and slag ; shire, writing in the Farming World (p.

and (4) slag and nitrate of soda. These mixtures will not, however, suit the requirements of farm practice. Organic nitrogen, such as fish guano or Frey

206, 1889) thus describes his method of ing is done in a turnip -shed, about 16 ft. square, as follows: A layer of bone

mixing manures for turnips: “The mix

Bentos guano (or meat-meal), may be manure is laid down over the whole mixed with any other manure without area , next a layer of superphosphate, incurring loss.

next another of bone meal or dust, on

Method of Mixing. — The following which is put a layer of fish guano ; then plan of mixing has been adopted with another of the bone-meal, on which is a fair amount of success. As short a laid a layer of kainit, and the same sys

time as possible before application, the tem gone over a second time till a quan superphosphates are emptied, and the tity sufficient for 20 acres is laid down. lumps are broken by striking the lump A layer of the bone-manure is always put a smart blow with the back of the shovel.

between each of the other kinds used ,

Next, a heap of bones, and another of and, as a rule, only a day or two before slag, are put down, leaving a clear space being required for use . The heap has

MIXTURES AND MIXING.

125

per cent of ammonia, 18 to 30 per cent phos sometimes lain two weeks without, as far phates, and not more than 3 per cent oil. as I could see, sustaining any injury ; but These substances are present in insoluble I am always careful to have a layer of compounds, therefore this manure is slowly the bone-meal between the other layers, available. The oil retards decomposition . and do not stir up the heap till we begin Prey Bentos Guano. - Contains 6 to 12 per cent to use it. "

Mixtures injured by lying long.-

If a long time is allowed to elapse before application, then reversion of phosphates will set in ; nitric acid and ammonia will be evolved, although in less degree ; and the mixture will become damp and

ammonia, and from 16 to 30 per cent phos phates, both in an insolubleform , consequent ly slow in their action as manures . Bone-meal. Contains on an average 50 per

cent phosphates, and 472 per cent ofammonia, These are insoluble and slow acting.

Their

solubility depends on the fineness of their division .

lumpy, and form into cake, which will Steamed Bone Flour: --Contains on an average prevent its even distribution . Early application after mixing is there fore a matter of great importance.

60 per cent phosphates and 1/2 per cent am monia . This material can be ground into very fine powder, and is quicker in its action than bones, ground or fermented.

Guano, dissolved bones, superphos- Pure Dissolved Bones.--- These ought to contain phate, and sulphate of ammonia ought

all to be riddled, and lumps broken be fore mixing Compounding Mixtures and Character of Manures . - In order to enable

the farmer to make an approximate cal culation of the quantities of the several manures, he will require to make up a mixture containing certain propor-

about 20per cent soluble and 10 per cent in. soluble phosphates, with 272 to 3/2 per cent of ammonia . When pure, this substance is the most soluble and best form of phos phates. It is, perhaps, also the dearest. Dissolved Bones.-Differ from the preceding by being largely composed of mineral phosphates and nitrogen obtained from cheap sources ; dissolved together so as to generally contain 15 to 30 per cent soluble phosphates, and i to 3 per cent of ammonia — to be purchased with caution .

; Superpho sphates of a highclass are made from ,insoluble ; nitrogen , and potash, phates mineral phosphates, which contain a high we append a very useful table compiled percentage of phosphate of lime.

by Dr Aitken, slightly condensed : Nitrate of Soda . — The most available source of nitrogen ; contains 95 per cent pure nitrate, equal to 19 per cent ammonia.

Sulphate of Ammonia . — Not so quickly avail. able ; contains 95 per cent pure sulphate of

ammonia, equal to 25 per cent ammonia. 5 parts nitrate equals 4 parts sulphate of ammonia .

5 parts nitrate equals i per cent of am . monia .

Dried Blood . - A slowly available source of

nitrogen ; contains 12 to 16 per cent am monia .

Horn, Shoddy, Wool-waste. — Insoluble nitrog. enous materials — therefore slowly available ; containing about 17 per cent, 5 to 10 per cent of ammonia respectively . Peruvian Guano. - A nitrogenous manure con taining soluble and insoluble nitrogen therefore in part available when applied, and

They con

tain between 30 and 40 per cent of soluble phosphates.

Medium -class Superphosphates contain from 26 to 28 percent soluble phosphate. Low -class Superphosphates are dear at com paratively low prices, and it is a safe rule to avoid them .

Mineral Phosphates, Coprolites, &c. , ought to contain on an average between 50 and 60 per cent of phosphate of lime, and be ground into an impalpable powder. Slag ought to contain from 36 to 41 per cent phosphate of lime, and the material, as also mineral phosphates, be so ground that 85 per cent of it will pass through a screen contain ing 10,000 holes to square inch. Uncertain Character of Compound

Manures . — Compound manures are so

numerous and varied in their composi tion that it is impossible to indicate

balance slowly available ; contains from 8 to those mostsuitable for any crop or soil. 10 percent ammonia, and from 30 to40 per They usually contain phosphate,nitrogen, cent phosphate of lime, slowly available. Low - class Guano .-- Contains less ammonia and

andpotash in various proportions.

But

more phosphates, 3 to 5 per cent of ammonia, the purchaser must not only ascertain and 40 to 50 per cent phosphates.

the percentage of these ingredients which

Standard Guano.-- Being similar to improved, may be present, but also the sources equalised , fortified , & c., these are mixtures from inwhich they are are derived, which present.and the of low -class guano and sulphate of ammonia, form these and are generally guaranteed to contain 8 to 10 per cent ammonia. Fish Guano . - Should contain from 10 to 12

Home Mixing preferable.

It is

therefore considered more prudent for

126

MANURES AND MANURING.

On the other hand, many farmers and chemists regard the turning process as such as bones, superphosphate, nitrate both unnecessary and injurious. Mr

a farmer to buy a suitable combination

of materials derived from known sources,

of soda, guano, &c., and make up the

Milne, Mains of Laithers, Aberdeenshire,

desired mixture for himself — that is, ifhe looks upon the turning of ordinary dung has taken the very necessary precaution heaps as waste both of time and of am

of acquiring a knowledge of the charac- moniacal matter. The more dung rots teristics of the different manures.

the denser it becomes, and therefore the more difficult to spread evenly on the

land, while the unbroken lumps will the APPLICATION OF MANURES.

longer lie on the land in a useless condi tion . This, Mr Milne says, any one can

verify after a dry summer. If the drills into which the dung had been put are split up, little or none of the fresh dung will be seen, while the rotten dung will this part of the work is done will, to turn up almost as solid as when applied.

The application of manures is a subject which should receive careful consideration and timely attention from the farmer. Upon the manner in which

a large extent, depend the success or In his part of the country, Mr Milne has the failure of the manurial treatment.

Amongst the points to be considered

not seen a dung -heap turned for twenty years ; and if artificial manure is to be

are the character and composition of used along with the dung, he considers the soil, the nature and requirements turning quite unnecessary.

of the crops, the rotation of crops pur-

In so far as concerns the dung itself,

sued, the climate of the district in which there will, as a rule, be little necessity

the farm is situated, and the character for turning, provided it has been properly and condition of the manure itself.

made and taken care of in the cattle

court — that is, if the litter has been

Application of Dung. evenly distributed (or, better still, cut In the application of farmyard manure, into short lengths), and well and regu simple as the matter may seem, there is larly saturated with urine, so that the dung may come out moderately short great divergence of practice.

Turning Dung - heaps. — Differences and ofuniform texture and quality. In of opinion exist as to whether or not it deed, with dung so made and treated ,

is necessary or desirable to “ turn ” dung- there are strong considerations in support heaps before applying the manure to the land. This depends mainly upon the manner in which the manure has been made and treated generally during the

of the contention of many farmers, that it is better to cart such dung right from its original position in the court to the land for distribution.

time it has been accumulating. A cer-

Carting out Dung . - In many parts

tain amount of fermentation is necessary of the country the dung is turned , not to prepare or “ ripen ” the dung: Turn- because the turning itself is considered

ing promotes fermentation. It is desir- necessary, but becauseit is deemed ad able that the dung should be as uniform visable, in order to facilitate work in the

in texture and character as possible. busy season of laying down roots, to have This may

be ensured by turning . Rank, the dung carted into heaps on the field

fresh, unevenly made dung, will there- some time during the winter, when in fore be improved by being turned over these parts there is little other work and well mixed two or three weeks before which can be done by either the men or application. horses. In reference to this point, Mr

Mr Gilbert Murray says that “ in no George Brown, Watten Mains, Caithness, case is the dung in a fit state for use remarks that it would be impossible for

until the manure in the yards has been turned over and allowed a little time to ferment ; ” and he adds, that “ when treated in this way the liquid manure remaining in the pond should be pumped over the heap."

farmers in many parts of the north to put in the turnip crop seasonably without another pair — in some instances perhaps two pairs — of horses, if the dung had all to be carted from the steading at this busy time of the year. He also points

APPLICATION OF MANURES.

127

out that if rank fresh dung is once turned unequally to the graip when thrown into before application, it is easier to spread the cart. Besides, trampling the centre

it on the land. This is unquestionably when the dung was thrown to the ends, true, provided it is not allowed to become causes it to become harder than the rest

so rotten as to get into the dense lumps referred to by Mr Milne. Thus, whilea certain amount of turning and fermentation facilitates the evenspreading and speedy action of dung in the soil, exces-

of the heap, and so to undergo a different degree of putrefaction. In fact, the whole job is bungled. Dung, properly speaking, does not fer ment, but putrefies.

sive rotting may to some extent operate

Intermixing. — The outside and drier

against both. It is certainly very im- portions of the dung are put into the portant, in carting out or turning dung, inside of the dunghill, and, where dif that great care should be taken not to al- ferent sorts of dung are met with, they low fermentation to go too far, as in that are intermingled intimately. Each dace case a considerable portion of the valu- is cut off, and turned over from the top able plant-food in the manure might be to the bottom . When

lost. Fermentation may be regulated the bottom is reached , by compressing the dung when it is too the earth damped by rapid, and by opening up the dung when the exudation from the it is too slow.

dung - heap is shovelled

Processof Turning.If a dung-heap up by the men with the in the field isto be turned, a beginning square -mouthed shovel, should be made at the end farthest from or the frying-pan shovel, the head -ridge. The unturned dung-heap fig. 252, and thrown slopes a little at both ends, but the upon the breast of the turned dunghill should be made of the turned dung. When straw ropes are same height throughout. A dunghill is turned over in a succession of breadths met with, they should of 3 feet, which affords sufficient room be cut into small pieces for people to work in ; but the first few and scattered amongst

breadths should be narrower than 3 feet, until the desired height of the turned dunghill is attained at that end. At the centre, the height is lowered to that of the first end, and the last end is height-

the dampest parts of the dung-heap. Though the dung - heap is cut into parallel trenches, the dung from the top of

ened to the general level.

the new trench is not

There is more of good management in thrown down upon the attending to these particulars of turning bottom of the former Fig . 252. – Frying

a dunghill than is at first apparent. Å one, like trenching land, pan or lime shovel. turned dunghill will not putrefy equally but upon the breast of when of different heights — the greatest the turned dung, which slopes upwards

heat will be at the highest part, where away from the workers. The advantage the dung will become short and compact, of this arrangement is not onlythat the whilst at the shallowest it will continue dung is thereby intimately intermixed comparatively crude and unprepared ; and and not in separate independent trenches,

such different states of the manure will but that when the dung is carting away, have different effects upon the crop. In it rises freely with the graip. Fig. 253 represents an excellent steel ordinary practice, the uniform height of the dunghill is often miscalculated, graip, such as is used in filling dung, and thus the ends still continue lower made by Spear & Jackson, Sheffield. In finishing the dunghill, the men The endeavour to than the centre. equalise the height by throwing dung shovel up all loose dung and earth from the middle to the ends does mis- along its sides and ends to the top, chief, inasmuch as no complete union and a dung -heap thus turned over forms

takes place betweenthe turned dung and a parallelopipedon, and is a good-look that thrown upon it, the two portions ing piece of work . remaining in different states, and rising Lime-shovel. — Fig. 252 is a frying

MANURES AND MANURING .

128

pan shovel, which is so named from its similarity to that culinary utensil. It is also called the lime-shovel, as being well adapted for the spread-

greatest heat may be expected at the side opposite from whence the wind comes. The actual degrees of heat may be ascer tained by thedung-thermometer. ing of lime upon the The substance of the dunghill consoli land, the raised back dates uniformly, and a black -coloured protecting the hand liquid oozes out at the ground. If the from thelime, while the soil upon which the dunghill stands is

sharp point passes easily under it and makes its way along the bottom of the cart. This shovel is chiefly confined to the Border

counties.

soft, the oozing is absorbed by it ; but if firm , the moisture remains on the surface, and forms small pools in the ruts of the cart-wheels or open furrows. The leakage is trifling ; and much moisture cannot

It exude from dung derived from courts in

makes clean work at which the cattle are supplied with as

everything, and is easily much litter as keeps themdry and warm . In some cases dung intended for tur Turningand Putre- nips is twice turned , but the losses by

handled .

faction . - Unless much

excessive fermentation are now better

rain has fallen from the understood than formerly, and farmers time the dung was led are therefore more careful in the treat out of the court until ment of their dung. Turning Court Dung . – For potatoes, the heap is turned , the

dung will not be very moist, and not at all wet, but in agood workable state, with a slight degree of heat in it.

particularly well-made court dung, which has perhaps been made under roof, and is concentrated rather than rank, is con sidered by many to give the best results when taken direct from the court without

Any evaporation as yet previous turning and applied to the soil. will contain no valuable Turning is bymost farmers regarded as material, merely moist- more necessary for turnips than for pota Fig. 253.-— Steel graip.

ure, as decomposition of toes. The riper the dung — that is, if the

the dung has not begun. rotten dung is thoroughly broken and Very little moisturewill evenly spread on the land — the earlier have come from the heap. does it begin to afford nourishment to the After this turning over, shaking up, plant, which, with the young turnips, is a and mixing together, which should be matter of special importance. quickly done, a heat will manifest itself

Less Necessity for Turning. — The

in the course of a few days. The first putrefaction produces no great degree of heat, as the air is still cool at night, and the largest proportion of the heap consists of cattle - dung, which is slow

object of turning, we have seen , is to pro mote the rotting of the dung. One of the main objects of having the dung well ripened or rotted is to ensure its speedy action after application to the soil. For merly, before the introduction of more quickly acting manures, there was great necessity for this, as otherwise, on ac count of the slow decomposition of fresh dung, the crops would be liable to suffer

of putrefaction.

Symptoms of Putrefaction.—The first external symptom of general putrefaction is subsidence in the bulk of the heap, which, in the course of 2 weeks,

may contract 1 foot of height. A per- from scarcity of available food in their ceptible smell will then arise from the earlier stages. Now, however, the crops dung, accompanied with a flickering of can be efficiently nourished in their youth the air over it, which is occasioned bythe by highly soluble artificial manures, which escape of vapour and of gases. By in- are fit for assimilation by the crop as soon serting a few sticks into the heap here as they are applied. Thus more time and there, a heat considerably above that can be afforded to the dung for decom

of the hand will be felt, andthe relative position in the soil, so thatthere is less

heat of different parts ascertained ; and the necessity for its prior ripening - less neces

APPLICATION OF MANURES.

129

sity for turning, thereby saving labour the manure covered in at the earliest and lessening the risk of loss by excessive opportunity. The land remains in this fermentation. See pp. 501-530, vol. i.

state untilthe season for sowing arrives.

Time of Application. The best time Advantage must then be taken of the for applying farmyard manure will de- first favourable state of the land, when pend upon a variety of circumstances.

a chain harrow is passed lengthways over

Chief amongstthese are the character of the ridges. This has the effect of further the soil, to thebeclimate grown. of the district, and pulverising the surface, already reduced the

by the action of the atmosphere. Supplemental Manure. If artificial a root crop, the autumn may be the best manures are used along with the dung, time. The dung will thus have more now is the time to apply them , sown crop

On very strong land in preparation for

time to exercise its beneficial mechanical broadcast over the surface. A double influence upon the soil, while summer mould -board plough is then passed be

tillage, which would be detrimental to tween the ridges, and the fine soil set up such land, is avoided . But there is one

and the seeds sown .

Great care must

great obstacle to this practice. Dung be taken not to bring any of the solid cannot be applied until it is made, and soil to the surface. Here the young seeds the main portion of dung is made during find a congenial soil in which to vegetate, the winter months.

Thus autumn man-

and a supply of moisture within avail

uring is impracticable, except where stock able distance. Dunging Light Soils . — The once po are fed in the house in summer, or where

there is on hand a reserve supply of pular system of autumn manuring on manure .

light soils is now discontinued by the

Southern Practice without Drills. best and more intelligent class of farmers. -In many parts, especially in England, The very process of deeply stirring such

the system is as follows: Assuming that soils in the autumn in warm climates is the stubble is clean, such manure as a source ofmuch waste. Tillage stimu exists is carted from the yards after lates nitrification, and the rain - water harvest, spread on the land, and turned passing through the soil washes out in with a moderately deep furrow . The nitrates, whether in the soil or in the land remainswithout furtherdisturbance manure, or both. In the south, where throughout the winter. As the root-sow- the winter is so mild that there may ing season approaches, the land is scuffled not be sufficient cold to check nitrifica

and harrowed, care being taken not to tion, such soils are usually more fertile bring any of the crude soil to the surface. when broken up in spring. The chief desideratum on such soils, and

Northern Practice .In the northern

the great secret of success, is to maintain and colder counties different systems of a finelypulverised seed -bed. The mangel tillage and manuring are pursued. Here or turnip seeds are in this case sownin

the winter tillage of land for roots is

rows on the flat surface. In this way universally pursued, so that the full the moisture is retained, which is an im- benefit of the pulverising influence of the portant consideration under the more winter frosts may be secured. And this arid climate of the south. By careful is done in these northern parts without

attention to these details, a braird is incurring any serious loss of nitrates in drainage -water, as the winters are too almost invariably secured . With Drills or Ridges. If the land cold to permit nitrification to proceed. is to be ridged for the roots, then a some- Thus the general plan in the north is to

what different course must necessarily be plough land for roots with a deep furrow pursued. The stubble is broken up by a in the autumn or early in winter, let it deep furrow early in autumn. As soon lie bare till spring, then cross-plough it, asthe land has become mellowed by the and apply the dung in summer just before rains and frost, the soil is ridged up in the seed is sown, the dung being usually the rough. Then when the land becomes spread in drills. This is the usual prac sufficiently dry, or should a frost set in, tice in Ireland also. Dung for Wheat. - For wheat, the the farmyard manure is carried and spread in the ridges which are split, and dung is either spread in the autumn, and VOL. II.

I

MANURES AND MANURING .

I 30

at once ploughed in, or it is spread over certain cases the allowance of dung would the young plant during dry or frosty be less, and in other instances more. weather. Mr Gilbert Murray says the

Dunging Often and Lightly . - As a

best results are obtained by the latter rule it is the best plan to dung often, and method of application. in moderate quantity at each time. As to Dung for Grass Lands. - In top- this point, Mr Gilbert Murray says : “If dressing grass or meadow land with dung, the land is worked on the six course, I the general practice is to apply the dung should divide the farmyard manure into

in the autumn. Little or no loss arises three portions. One I should apply to through its exposure on the surface.

the root break , supplemented by artifi

Surface-manuring. – It is a mistake cials - phosphates and nitrogen - a sec to bury dung deeply in the soil. Indeed ond would be spread on the young seeds it is now well known that nitrification immediately after the separation of the proceeds in inverse ratio to the depth at crop, and the third I should apply to the

which the manure is buried ; hence the wheat stubble on the separation of that best results are obtained from farmyard crop and in preparation for the next cereal. manure when kept near the surface. This

“ I have long been convinced of the

system of surface-manuring also benefits folly of applying the whole of the fold the layers of grasses and clovers as well yard manure to the root crop. Repeated as the young wheat.

The alleged waste

doses at short intervals is the most effec

by exposure to atmospheric influences is tive system of applying dung." now regarded as a popular error.

Unsatisfactory Results from Ex

Mr Gilbert Murray states that he has cessive Dressings.—Mr Murray adds : farmed side by side with men occupying “For the last twenty years I have

good turnip land, whose practice was to carefully watched the effects of stable draw out and spread the manure on the manure on a kitchen - garden devoted to prepared land, and turn it in with a the production of ordinary garden pro shallow furrow.

The roller closely fol-

duce.

The extent is under 4 acres.

To

·lowed the plough. Their usual sowing this has been applied the summer and time was the last week in June. The winter manure

of thirty horses. The land, having lain three or four weeks, was manure is drawn fresh from the stables,

scuffled, harrowed , and rolled, and the placed in heaps, watered , and turned seed drilled 20 inches wide on the flat. A

several times until well rotted, when it

considerable portion of the manure was

is carted on to the land and covered in

brought to the surface, yet he says he with a deep spit. I can scarcely con had considerable difficulty in growing a ceive a more convincing proof of the

heavier weight of roots per acre on his unsatisfactory results to be obtained by 27 -inch ridges with the manure carefully heavy dressings of farmyard manure covered .

alone.

The crops are not better than,

Quantities of Dung per Acre. — The if so good as, those gathered from the old practice of applying excessive quan- same land twenty years ago. It is true

tities of dungat onetime has been shown the potatoes grow more tops, and the to be wasteful. On an average of years cabbage and cauliflower are more open better results will be obtained by a mo- than formerly. Light dressings often derate quantity of farmyard manure, applied are the most efficient. supplemented by a good selection of ' Cabbages and mangels as field crops artificial manures . are gross feeders, and pay for extra So much depends upon soil, system dressings.” Economical Use of Dung. - It seems of cropping, and quality of the dung, that to attempt to give definite directions to be well established that dung maybe, as as to what quantities should be applied a rule, most economically used in moderate for each crop might be more misleading dressings, along with judicious mixtures than useful. From 8 to 12 tons per of more quickly acting chemical manures. acre for roots, and from 15 to 20 tons Application of Artificial Manures. for potatoes, are general dressings, along In the application of artificial manures with artificial manures, which may cost from 25s. to 6os. per acre additional. In there is ample scope for good or bad

APPLICATION OF MANURES .

131

management. By the use of these man- proportion in which its proximate con ures all the elements of plant-food may stituents, sand, clay, lime, or humus, be supplied either together or separately, may be present. If either of these pre

or asmany of them given and as many ponderate, then the product is known as withheld as may be considered desirable. a clay, sandy, calcareous, or loam soil. The subject is therefore one of vast im- These have all different textures, and

portance, placing in the hands of the consequently vary in their capability of

skilful farmer far greater possibilities retaining the more soluble manures. than were within his reach when farm- Sandy and open porous loams have less yard dung was the only available manure . power of holding manure than clays or

It is especially necessary in the use of artificial manures, that the farmer should most carefully consider the character and composition of the soil, the nature and

heavy loams. Then the relative fertility of all soils is regulated by the character and composition of the materials of which the soil is made up, whether this material requirements of the crops, the rota- owes its origin to the disintegration of tion pursued, the climate of the district the rock it overlies or is transported . in which the farm is situated, and the A Knowledge of Geology useful. character of the manure itself.

There are few studies that would give

Elements Absorbed by Crops. - In better paying results to the farmer than

the first place, it would be well to have that of geology, as a knowledge of the in view the amounts of the various in

character of the soils on the various rock

gredients abstracted from the soil and formations would correct many a blunder

atmosphere for building up the sub- which occurs when a farmer changes to stance of the crops. These have already a new locality. Farm practice must al been shown - see p. 62, vol. i., and p. 90, ways be modified by the relation of the vol. ii.

soil to the underlying strata, and not

These substances are present in soils only this, but the system of manuring in various proportions, the quantity of must also in so far be regulated by the each being dependent on the origin of same considerations. the soil in the first instance ; and secondManures for Different

soils . — The

ly, on the prior growth of plants on its surface — the residue left by the decay of these having a considerable influence on the natural fertility of every soil. The

surface-soil and the general practice as to the application of manures may now be considered. On clay soils the best results are usually obtained from nitrog majority of these constituents exist in enous and phosphatic manures — the for all soils in excess of the quantities re- mer having the greater influence ; on quired to build up the substance of loams, from phosphatic and nitrogenous crops, no matter what system of cropping manures — the former exercising the great may be pursued ; and therefore the er power ; while on sandy soils a com

farmer, in order torender his soil fertile, bination of nitrogenous, phosphatic, and has to supply only those few elements potassic manures generally gives the best which are deficient in the soil.

return .

Soils

intermediate

between

Elements to be supplied in Man- either of these groups will give results

ures. — The subject of manuring is thus in proportion to the modification of the reduced to the supply of an uncertain deficiency of one or more of the following substances -- viz., nitrogen, phosphoric acid, lime, and potash. The form , manner, time, and quantity in which these substances are to be applied will manifestly depend on the pre-

mixture of manures. Form of Application for Different

Soils. — Then, again, the form in which the manure is applied must depend on

the composition of the soil. A sandy soil cannot retain a soluble manure : for it, therefore, it is safest to give nitrogen

ceding considerations enumerated inthe in the form of fish guano, guano, or other first paragraph under the above head- organic matter; phosphates, as bone-meal ing — considerations which we shall now or slag ; and potash, as kainit. Loamy examine in detail. soil will usually give the most satisfac Character of Soil and Manuring.- tory results from nitrogen in the form The character of a soil depends on the of sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of

MANURES AND MANURING.

132

soda mixed, and one of bones to two of farmers that no soil responds more freely

superphosphate ; whilst clay will respond to the application of artificial manure phosphate, three parts — one of bones and glected and partially exhausted. The

most freely to nitrate of soda, and super- than one which had been previously ne two of slag.

cause of this is obvious. By the repeat Evidence of the Soil. — But the only ed cropping without receiving an ade

evidence which is absolutely reliable as quate return in the shape of manure, to the immediate manurial wants of a

this soil becomes exhausted of certain

soil is that of the soil itself, as expressed, of the elements of fertility, while by the not in chemical analysis, but in various decay of the roots of the crops other

crops carefully arranged so as to test the elements of plant-food are stored up in available supplies of the different ele- increasing quantity. Then , when the ments of plant - food contained in the neglected land is well tilled and the land.

As to how this evidence may be deficient elements supplied in a suitable

procured, refer to Ville's remarks on pp. manure, the store of fertility is called 91-93, and to “ Farmers' Experiments,” into action, and the result is a bountiful on p. 93, in this Division. Caution in Applying Bones.In the

crop .

Manures for Different Crops . — The

application of bones, care must be taken form and quantity of manure must be that carbonate of lime is not present in carefully adapted to the requirements of too great a proportion, as, if it is so, the the crop. carbonic acid present in the water, instead

Limited Guidance of Experiments.

of attacking the tribasic phosphate of

-- Many experiments have been car

lime, will combine with the carbonate of lime, and form a bicarbonate ; also, if the carbonate of lime is deficient, the soluble phosphate will not precipitate, and will escape into the subsoil, or it

ried out for the purpose of determin ing the best form , kind, and quantity of various fertilisers for the different farm crops ; but, as has already been stated, the local circumstances of soil and climate

will combine with iron and form phos- and the customs of farming vary so great

phate of iron, which does not readily yield up its phosphoric acid to the plant. Tillage and Manuring.- In applying artificial manures, it should be borne in

ly that the results and lessons of these experiments are not, as a rule, to be re lied on as guides beyond the respective districts and conditions in which they

mind that the natural source of plant- have been conducted. The results at

food is the soil, and that manure is merely supplemental. The farmer should therefore, by careful cultivation , endeavour to prepare these soil ingredients so as to render them available to the plant.

tained at Rothamsted have most certainly been of great benefit to the agriculture of this country, yet it is well to bear in mind that the circumstances under which these have been carried out differ sub

The quantity of manure required may thus stantially from the conditions surround be, to a considerable extent, influenced by ing ordinary rotation farming such as the care bestowed on the tillage operations. prevails throughout the country. It is With efficient and timely cultivation, a

thus obvious that farmers cannot with

certain amount of manure will produce safety resort to these experiments for better crops than would be obtained from specific directions as to the manuring of twice as much manure with bad, ill-timed their land. tillage. One of the most noteworthy Value and Uses of Experiments. facts demonstrated in the Rothamsted With a full knowledge and intelligent

experiments is the great influence which

conception of his own local surround

perfect tillage and the keeping down of ings—of the character and condition of weeds exercise on the productive power the soil, the requirements of the crops to of a soil. Indeed, the application of man- be grown, and the climate of the district ures cannot possiblybe profitable to the —the farmer may unquestionably derive

farmer unless the soil bemoderately well valuable aid in his practice of mánuring, cultivated, as well as efficiently drained. Return of Manure on Exhausted

Land . — It is often remarked by practical

by careful study of such experiments as have been carried on at Rothamsted and

elsewhere.

We have taken care to pro

APPLICATION . OF MANURES.

133

vide him with convenient means of study- nomical results, to at least 5 cwt. per acre,

ing the results of several of the more im- besides, perhaps, some bones and nitrog portant sets of experiments conducted in

enous manure .

this country ; and here we would speciRainfall and Artificial Manures. ally commend the farmer to peruse And the climate, particularly the rain the contributions to this volume by Mr fall, should also influence the form in Warington, on the Rothamsted experi- which a manure is to be applied. Every

ments ; by Mr Jamieson, on the experi- farmer must have noticed that in a dry ments in Sussex and Aberdeenshire ; and season the effect produced by artificial

by Dr Aitken, on the Highland and Agri- manures is very slight indeed, the more soluble showing better results than in

cultural Society's experiments.

Manures for Slow and Fast Grow-

soluble manures .

From this it may be

ing Crops. It is important in the prac- concluded that soluble manures are most tice of manuring that the habit of growth suitable for a dry climate, whilst the of the different crops should be carefully less readily available kinds will give A slow -growing crop, for in- better results over a rotation of crops stance, should receive different manurial in a moist one. treatment from that which is best adapted These remarks are fully borne out by considered .

to fast-growing crops. A slow -growing the practice pursued in different locali crop requires a mixed manure, partly ties. In the north and east, where the

soluble, and the balance coming slowly climate is moderately moist, the applica into action. Wheat, which occupies the tion of artificial manure ranges from 5 ground for a comparatively long period , to 6 cwt. per acre ; while in the west will, as a rule, be able to obtain from and south -west, where the climate is

the soil all its mineral ingredients, and wet, 7 to 9 cwt. per acre would be therefore a supply of readily available nearer the average ; 3 to 4 cwt. being

nitrogen seems to be all that is required . usual quantities in the dry climate of Barley, on the other hand, is a plant of the south of England. more rapid growth, and being shallowManures for Different Rotations. rooted , must have its food ready, and The length of the rotation must also be

near the surface, to ensure a large pro- considered in determining the form of duce.

Then, the leaf-surface is also im- manure to be applied.

For instance,

portant, for a plant is dependent on the three years' grass will necessitate a larger soil or the atmosphere for its increase, in application of phosphates in the formof proportion to the extent of its foliage.

bone-meal or slag.

For long rotations

Soil, Climate, and Manuring. – But the slow -acting manures are employed. a still more important consideration is

More Frequent Manuring. — But

the bearing of soil and climate upon many farmers now consider that it is a the weight of the crop. For example, mistake to apply to the turnip or other in a dry climate 12 to 15 tons is a

green crop the entire quantity of manure

very general yield of roots ; while in required for a rotation of crops. When a moist climate and favourable soil the one considers the solubility of most of produce per acre will be nearly 30 the artificial manures now in use, one tons, often indeed as much as 40 tons. can readily understand that the spread

Now it would be manifestly absurd to ing of themanure over the crops of the apply the same quantity of manure in these two cases. To the consideration involved here is due the diversity and misunderstanding which frequently arises as to the practice of manuring. About 3 cwt. of superphosphate per acre is usually found a suitable quantity to allow

rotation would result in less loss of fer tilising matter, and lead to a more reli able increase of crops on an average of years. Again, the insoluble manures, by their greater specific gravity, must speed ily find their way to the subsoil, where they are beyond the reach of the plant

for roots in the south of England, where atits first period of growth. These con the yield is generally under20 tons per siderations would lead the farmer to in acre ; but in the north of Scotland, where fer that a moderate dose of soluble phos much heavier crops of roots are grown, phates, applied along with the seed,

this quantity may be increased, with eco- would be most suitable for green crops;

134

MANURES AND MANURING.

and if nitrogenous manure were con- better results than nitrate of soda. In sidered necessary, then sulphate of am- dry seasons, and on dry soils, exactly

monia or nitrate of soda could be given the reverse is usually the case. But with the seed or after singling, or guano sulphate of ammonia is not nearly so well suited for top -dressing as nitrate of might be applied at the time of sowing.

Grass seeds then might receive an ap- soda. A safe method ofapplying sul plication of soluble and insoluble phos- phate of ammonia is to mix it with dry phates, along with nitrogenousmanure- fine soil (not ashes, as these might cause

the mixture being varied according to the loss of ammonia), sow broadcast, and intended duration of the grass, whether plough in immediately. two, three, four, or more years. Then, Mr Warington remarks that top -dress again, the corn crops after lea would ing with nitrogenous manures is especi

require another top- dressing of phos- ally to be avoided when the soil con phates and nitrate of soda.

This tains any considerable amount of lime, as

method would be specially suitable in loss of ammonia might then occur. a climate subject to heavy rainfall, while as a rule it would be safe and economical for average conditions in this country. Ratio of Different Ingredients.— On account of the diversity of conditions

Phosphates may be sown any time

during winter or early spring. The usual practice of sowing in the drill, when applied to green crops, has until lately been considered satisfactory ; but and influences which have been noticed, new ideas have sprung up, and the action it is considered unsafe to attempt to pre- of soluble phosphates has become better scribe definite doses of manure.

But it

understood.

Yet until further informa

may be stated approximately that the tion is obtained as to the benefits de ratio of the manurial elements for green rived from a change of practice, farmers crops should be about 4 of phosphoric would do well not to rashly abandon a

acid to i of nitrogen; for oats and custom which has long been pursued barley, 2 of phosphoric acid to i of with fairly satisfactory results. Farmers nitrogen ; for wheat, 2 of nitrogen to might advantageously experiment for I of phosphoric acid ; and for grass, i themselves on this point. They might make trials of different times of applica tion, and the result would guide them as Time of Application. — Until re- to the best method to adopt. cently, artificial manures were generally Sowing Manure in Drills . - In sow applied along with the seed . Slow- ing artificial manures in the drills the fol of nitrogen to 2 of phosphates and i of potash.

acting nitrogenous manures may be thus lowing plan is found to work well, the

applied, but nitrate of soda, as a rule, manure, as wehave already seen, being gives the best results when not sown till conveyed to the land in carts : The after the braird appears. When a heavy loads ought each to contain 20 bushels, dressing of nitrate of soda is to be given, and thus in, say, a 20-acre field 8 loads one-half the quantity should be sown are to be applied. The width of the then, and the balance held over for later field is, say, 240 yards, and we divide application . it into breadths of 60 yards. Two carts

Nitrate of Soda is the most quickly full of manure are unloosed in each

acting of all nitrogenous manures, and is breadth ; and the sowers, one to each therefore the best adapted for a late drill-plough, are started with a weighed dressing to push on a dragging crop. quantity to sow along the drill so many But in a late wet climate, or rainy yards. If the drills are 27 inches wide, not be advisable to apply then to sow 6 cwt. per acre, 21 lb.

season , it may

nitrate of soda, for it has a tendency to will sow one drill 200 yards. After the force up a rank growth of straw, thus sower ascertains the quantity to take in perhaps making the harvest too late, and the hand to effect this, he will have no difficulty in applying the quantity cor so endangeringthe yield of grain. Sulphate of Ammonia would be more rectly, and he will always have a check suitable in these circumstances. Indeed, when each pair of carts are emptied. The reason for having the carts in as a rule, in wet districts, or very rainy

seasons, sulphate of ammonia gives pairs is to save the carrying of manure

APPLICATION OF MANURES .

135

long distances. The sower can load -up farmers seem inclined to regard it. Un himself, as the space he will thus have less the manure is evenly distributed, its to travel will not be too great. In a full benefit cannot be obtained, and to field, say, 20 chains long, the carts will secure this, the cost of an efficient manure be placed, one 5 chains from the top, distributor would be a good investment. the other 5 chains from the bottom , There is still scope for ingenuity in the

about 20 yards away from the face on devising of machines for this purpose, the prepared land, not in the drills. although there are already some very Another Method.— Another method, good distributors in existence. One of

still more precise, is conducted as fol- the best is that made by Ben. Reid & Co., lows : The manure is sown with a Aberdeen, represented in fig. 254. machine, which does three drills at once,

The hand -sower “ Little Wonder,” fig.

and is riddled just before being used, so 263 ( p. 195), is also well adapted for sow that there may not be any lumps to in- ing dry manures, and so also is Strawson's

terfere with even distribution in sowing. very ingenious air-power distributor. The length of the drills is measured to

Farmers to Judge for themselves .

-It might perhaps have been expected The quantity for each drill is that more precise prescriptions would

ascertain the number required for an acre.

calculated, and the quantity necessary have been given as to the doses of to sow three drills put into one of the manure to apply for the various crops. artificial manure bags and weighed on a Practical farmers, however, know only weighing -machine. A bag for each three too well that any attempt to lay down

drills islaid down at each end of the hard -and-fast rules in manuring would field, making it very convenient to put be liable to do more harm than good. into the machine without loss of time,

and each three drills in this way get their own exact quantity of manure.

Doses which give good results on one be quite unsuitable for another.

farm may

It has therefore been considered advis

The weighingof the bags takes up very able rather to present in a convenient little time. They are filled to sight as form such information as will enable

near the quantity as can be guessed, farmers to become acquainted with the character, purchase, preparation, and ap justed to the required quantity according lication of the various manures,and thus, then lifted on to the machine and ad-

with a careful study of this information, This system may be considered un- be qualified to judge for themselves,

to the rate per acre .

necessarily precise, but the result on the and adjust their practice to suit their crops has proved that it is worth more own peculiar plans, circumstances, and than the additional labour, which indeed environments.

is very little, when properly conducted. Sowing Manures by Machines.

The practice of sowing artificial manures

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

by machine is much preferable to sowing

by hand, and it is fast coming into

Rothamsted has become a household word wherever science is applied to agri culture. In 1834 Sir ( then Mr) John Bennet Lawes succeeded to the estate

of Rothamsted, Hertfordshire, and soon after began to conduct experiments with different manuring substances, first with plants in pots, and afterwards in the field . In 1840 and 1841 somewhat ex Fig. 254. - Broadcast manure-distributor.

favour.

tensive field trials were carried out, and

in 1843 the experiments were begun By an efficient machine a more upon the comprehensive and systematic

even distribution can be secured , and the form which they have ever since main importance of this is not easily over- tained . The foundation of the Rotham Careful consideration cer- sted Experimental Station is therefore estimated .

tainly shows it to be greater than most usually dated from 1843.

136

MANURES AND MANURING.

The experiments, the most elaborate for turnips.

No sheep are kept on the

and comprehensive of the kind ever at- farm . Dairy cows and bullocks are kept tempted in any country, have from the on the permanent pasture.

The arable

first been maintained entirely by Sir John land is largely devoted to corn crops. Bennet Lawes, Bart., LL.D .; and with

Scope of the Manurial

Experi

munificent liberality and public spirit he ments. — Different fields on the farm has set apart the handsome sum of have been set apart for the study of in

£100,000, besides certain areasof land, dividual crops ; thus one has been de to ensure to British agriculture the bene- voted to wheat, one to barley, one to fits and guidance derivable from the per- roots, &c.

In

each of these fields

petual continuation of the Rothamsted the crop has, as a rule, been grown con experiments. The unique and splendid tinuously for many years without the inheritance which the country is thus to intervention of fallow or any other crop. receive from a private citizen is of priceIn the early years of the experiments less value.

trials were made with various miscellane

Since 1843, Dr J. H. Gilbert has been ous manures, and the same plot of land

associated with Sir John Lawes in the did not each year receive the same man conduct of the experiments, and has had ure, but after a little while the present the direction of the laboratory. Since systematic treatment was adopted. In 1850, one, two, and sometimes three nearly every case farmyard manure has

chemists have been employed in the been annually applied to one portion laboratory ; and, as indicating the vast of the experimental field, while an amount of chemical work undertaken, other portion has been left entirely be mentioned that in 1887 there without manure. The other plots have were more than 40,000 bottles ofsamples received the various chemical constitu of experimentally grown vegetable pro- ents of manure, either singly, or in it may

duce, of animal products, of ashes, or mixture with each other. The sub stances applied have been generally of soils, stored in the laboratory.

Besides the experiments upon crops ammonia salts, nitrate of soda, super and manures, many interesting points phosphate of lime, sulphate of potash,

connected with the feeding offarm live- sulphate of magnesia, and sulphate of stock have been experimentally investi- soda.

The object has been to supply

gated, and much of the valuable infor- the various constituents of plant - food mation thereby acquired has been incor- (see p. 57) in their most soluble and porated in different parts of this work.

active form , and thus obtain their great

For the following sketch of the general est effect. By employing substances of

scope of the investigations with manures, known composition, itis also possible to of the detailed experiments with wheat calculate how much of each constituent

under different manurial treatment, of has been applied to the land. the behaviour of manurial substances in Each plot of land has, during the later the soil, and of the loss of plant-food in systematic portion of the experiments, drainage-water, we are indebted to Mr received each year, as a rule, the same R. Warington, who has long been engaged manure. The system pursued has in fact been to grow the same crop

in chemical work at Rothamsted . The Soil. -Rothamsted adjoins

the for many years on the same land with

village of Harpenden . The land lies the same manure . By this plan trust mostly about 400 feet above the sea . worthy averages of the amount of pro The average rainfall is about 28 inches. duce yielded under each condition of

The surface-soil is a heavy loam, con- manuring are obtained, and also ample is a pretty stiff clay, resting on chalk. produce of seasons of different character. The chalk is usually about 9 feet from The permanent or temporary effect of the

taining many flint stones ; the subsoil information as to the influence upon the the surface, and affords a good natural manures is also shown . drainage. The land does not bear a high By long -continued treatment of this kind the soil of the experimental field , rent. The soil is a fair one for wheat

but would not be considered as specially which was at first practically the same suited for barley ; it is still less suited throughout, has been altered, so that the

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

137

different plots now represent extremely is necessary for an appreciation of the different conditions of food -supply. On results. The mode of investigation adopted is, one which must add largely to however, phosor nitrogen, specially exhausted of phates, or alkalies, to an extent which our true knowledge of crops, manures, and can very rarely occur in farm practice ; soil. This knowledge will be turned to while in the soil of other plots abund- practical account in a number of ways ance of these constituents has accumu- by a skilful farmer ; but to provide him

certain plots the crop now grows in soil

lated.

with practical rules has not been the ob The work has not been confined to a ject of the investigation. To have made

determination of the amount of produce the practical result the chief object, obtained from each manure ; the crops would have cramped the whole inquiry, have themselves been analysed at the and defeated its highest purpose . Rothamsted laboratory. Information has thus been obtained as to the proportion

EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONTINUOUS

of the manure that is recovered in the GROWTH OF WHEAT.

increase of the crop ; and also respect The experiments on wheat are among ing the alteration in the composition of the crop brought about by the differ- the oldest of those at Rothamsted. Broad ences in the composition of the soil, and balk field has been under arable culture the character of the season .

for at least two or three centuries.

It

Soil and Drainage-water Investi- grew its last turnip crop in 1839 : this gations. - The investigation has further was followed by barley, peas, wheat, and

extended to the soil. After applying the oats. The last four crops were without same manure to the same land for many manure . years, it becomes possible to learn by soil The continuous growth of wheat com analysis what accumulation or exhaustion menced in 1844, and has since proceeded

has taken place, and the depth to which without interruption, so that the present manure has penetrated. In one of the crop ( 1889) is the 46th. The cultivation fields the drainage-waters are collected of the land has been that usual in the district ; there has been no deep plough of the soluble matters lost by drainage, ing. The seed used in the first 5 seasons under various conditions of manuring, was old Red Lammas; then followed Red are thus indicated. The investigations Cluster (4 seasons), Red Rostock (29 sea and examined : the nature and amount

relating to the soil are, from the difficulty sons), Square Head (8 seasons ). The area of the subject, in a less advanced stage of the full-sized plots (a and b) is 6- roths than those relating to the effect of of an acre ; there are some half plots. manures on crops.

Scientific Character of the Trials. -It will be seen from the above sketch

All the artificial manures are sown broad

cast, screens being carried on each side of the sowers to prevent the manure fall

that the object of the investigations ing on other plots. The wheat is drilled

has been purely scientific. It has not in October, 2 bushels of seed being used. been the aim to discover the most econo-

In the spring and early summer great

mical manuring for each crop. None of care is taken to remove weeds. The the experiments have been designed with luxuriance of weeds, in the absence of

a view to a money profit ; on very few of fallow crops,will always prove a practical them would there be any profit if con- objection to the continuous growth of ducted on a large scale. The whole in corn , and especially of winter corn. vestigation, therefore, stands condemned

by the so -called " practical” man as a

Without Manure.

In Table I. is shown the average pro mere scientific amusement, from which he has nothing to learn . He, indeed, duce per acre on Plot 3 , without manure,

may learn little, but it will be because in four succeeding periods of ten years, he lacks the elementary knowledge which and during the last five years.

[TABLE I.

MANURES AND MANURING.

138

Table I. —PRODUCE OF WHEAT WITHOUT MANURE, FORTY - FIVE YEARS, 1844-88 . Dressed Corn. Total Produce.

Quantity.

Ten years, 1844-53 if

1854-63 1864.73 1874-83

Weight per Bushel.

bush .

Ib.

1534 1672

58.3

2711

57.6 59.0

2728 1614 1648

2178

1234 104

lb.

Five years, 1884-88

122

58.3 59.7

Mean of forty - five years

1358

58.5

11

1924

If all the seasons had been perfectly is interesting to note that this amount alike, the produce of the unmanured land is quite equal to the average yield of would doubtless have fallen steadily the principal wheat-producing countries Thus, the average yield

throughout the experiment — more rap- of the world .

idly at first, and very slowly afterwards. of the United States is 12 bushels, The very variable character of the sea- of Australia 11 bushels, and of India sons in our climate prevents any such 10 bushels.

regularity in the produce. The course With Farmyard Manure. of change is best seen by looking at the Ordinary yard manure, at the rate of amounts of "total produce.” The average produce of forty -five years 14 tons per acre, has been annually of continuous wheat -growing without ploughed in in October on Plot 2 ; the manure is seen to be 135/8 bushels. It produce is shown in Table II. TABLE II.-PRODUCE OF WHEAT WITH FARMYARD MANURE, FORTY -FIVE YEARS, 1844-88. Dressed Corn . Total Produce.

Quantity. bush.

Ten years, 1844-53 1854-63 1864-73

27

Weight per Bushel .

Ib.

lb.

59.8

4828

3734

60.3

6355

60.8

5797

1874-83 Five years , 1884-88

35 % 2958 36%

Mean of forty -five years

3258

11

60. I

5086

62.0

5778

60.4

5546

Plant- food in Dung. — The amount large amount of silica ,which is at present of plant-food supplied is much larger supplied to no other plot in the field. In

than on any other plot in the field. The fourteen tons of farmyard manure are estimated to contain 201 lb. nitrogen, 235 lb. potash, 35 lb. magnesia, 31 lb.

consequence of this large supply there has been a great accumulation of man urial matterin the soil, which is now far richer than that of any other plot in the

lime, and 78 lb. phosphoric acid, with a

field .

number of other substances, including a

Limits to High Manuring. — The

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

139

table shows a considerable rise in the

produce during the earlier years of the

With Ash Constituents.

experiment, owing to the accumulation

When water has been removed, the constituents of a plant may be classed under two heads — the combustible, and the incombustible. The incombustible portion is very small;

of food in the soil. This rise afterwards ceases. Everything, indeed , in nature tends to come to an equilibrium . On the unmanured land the crop falls, till

its demands equal the annual supply in wheat grain it is about 1.7 per cent,in from soil and atmosphere.

On the

wheat straw about 4.6 per cent. It con

dunged plot the produce rises, till sists of the phosphates, potash, lime, mag here, too, the crop equals the annual nesia, silica, &c., derived from the soil. supply of assimilable food. With very The combustible part is made up of the

high manuring we meet with another limit, that of season. A larger crop cannot be produced by manure than the character of the season will admit

carbon, oxygen , and hydrogen derived from the atmosphere and rain, and of the nitrogen derived from the atmosphere and soil. The quantity of the principal

of.

ash constituents, and of nitrogen, con

The average produce with farmyard tained in a wheat crop of 30 bushels, manure in forty -five years has been 325/8 has been already given on p. 63. Of the substances present in the ash, bushels ; the highest produce was 44 bushels in 1863. six - potash, lime, magnesia, iron, phos Nitrogen in Dung. – Notwithstand- phoric and sulphuric acid are quite

ing the richness of thesoil, the farmyard indispensable for plant-growth. manure plot very seldom yields the high-

Mineral

Theory .

At

the

time

est produce in the field, both nitrate of when the Rothamsted wheat experi soda and ammonia salts proving more ments commenced, effective.

chemists

had

a

The nitrogen in farmyard very exaggerated notion of the amount

manure is in fact principally combined with carbon, and exists as nitrogenous humic matter ; only a limited portion of this is each season oxidised, the

of ammonia annually supplied by rain. Liebig, owing to this mistaken idea, taught in 1843 that the ashes of a man ure contained its true active ingredients ;

nitrogen forming nitrates, and thus be- that where the necessary ash constituents coming available to the crop. of a crop were supplied by manure, the

Mechanical Influence of Dung.- crop would have no difficulty in obtain Not a few of the advantages attending ing all the nitrogen it required from the the use of farmyard manure are due to atmosphere. This view was known as

its improvement of the physical condi- the " mineral theory." tion of the soil.

The state of

In the present case opinion at the time must be borne in

the soil, while becoming less heavy, has mind in considering the Rothamsted also become more retentive of moisture, field experiments, as they were planned and the crop thus suffers less in time to a considerable extent to test the

of drought (Jour. Royal Agric. Soc., truth of the mineral theory. 1871 , p. 91). The produce of this plot In the first season of the wheat ex is more even, and less affected for good periments ( 1843-1844 ), one plot received or evilby the vicissitudes of season than 14 tons of farmyard manure, and a the other highly manured plots in the second plot the ashes from another lot field . of 14 tons, with the following result : Dressed Corn .

Total Corn .

Total Produce .

bush.

Ib .

lb.

Farmyard manure , 14 tons .

2012

1276

2752

Ashes of ditto

1422

888

1992

Unmanured .

15

923

2043

MANURES AND MANURING.

140

The plot receiving the ashes thus phete Insufficient. - As these manures yielded no more produce than the plot have supplied all the ash constituents of the wheat crop (excepting silica, which Various systematic experiments have we shall presently see to be non -essential),

entirely without manure.

since been made with the ash constitu- it is quite evident that the amount of the

ents of wheat ; these have been supplied other necessary elements of plant - food in abundance, and the crop left to obtain supplied by the soil and atmosphere was its carbon and nitrogen from the natural insufficient to produce a full crop of resources of the soil and air.

wheat.

The crop grown with a full

One plot has received superphosphate supply of ash constituents on Plot 5 has

of lime only ; one a mixture of the sul- contained, on an average, about 20 lb. of phates of potash, soda, and magnesia ; nitrogen per acre per annum. This quan and one these sulphates together with tity represents the average amount fur

superphosphate. Thelattermixture is nishedbythe soiland atmosphere without termed by Lawes and Gilbert the “ mixed the aid of manure . 93 mineral manure. It has generally conWe shall presently see that the growth

sisted of 3/2 cwt. superphosphate, 200 of wheat onthese plots was really limited

lb. sulphate of potash, and 100 lb. each by the small quantity of nitrogen at the of sulphate of soda and magnesia, per disposal of thecrop. When nitrogen is acre . supplied, phosphates and potash become The mixed sulphates of potash, soda, important elements in producing growth.

and magnesia, applied for thirty -two years

( Plot 1), have not increased the produce Ammonia Salts with Ash Constituents. at all. Superphosphate of lime applied The ammonia salts employed have been alone (Plot o) has, on an average, increased a mixture of equal parts sulphate and the corn by 3 bushels, and the straw by chloride : 200 lb. of this mixture are esti The mixture combining both

mated to contain about 43 lb. of nitrogen.

manures (Plot 5 ) has given an increase of

The systematic experiments with am

2 cwt.

about 2 bushels of corn , and 134 cwt. of monia salts did not begin, in several straw over the produce of the unmanured cases, till 1852. We shall therefore take land. Nitrogen of the Soil and Atmos-

the average produce after this date as the basis of our comparison :

TABLE III. -PRODUCE OF WHEAT VARIOUSLY MANURED, AVERAGE OF THIRTY -SIX YEARS. Average Produce, 36 Years, 1852-87.

Average Total Produce .

Dressed Corn .

Second

Plot. Quantity .

Straw

Corn to

Weight

and

100

per

Chaff.

Straw .

Bushel. bush.

Ib.

58 5875

First

lb.

Ib.

2421

1669

1258

66.5 66.9

2786

1944

217 33 %

61.6

4480

6295

3449 5300

77.0

56.0

6518 2788

91.1

4018

60. I

4936

3758

76. I

60.4

6066

5299

87.4

cwt. II

3 No manure 5 Mixed ash constituents 6 Do., and ammonia salt,

1578

200 lb. 7 Do. do. 8 Do. do.

24

5958

3234 3672 2012

5934 5958 574

404

51.5

7152

1834

61.8

2534

5774

24 %

3334

60 %

3158

400 lb. 600 lb.

Toa Ammonia salts, 400 lb.

Superphosphate and am monia salts, 400 lb. 2 Farmyard manure , 14

13

Second

Years , 18 Years, 18 Years, 18 per 100 1870-87. of first 18. 1852-69.

68.9 69.8 84.2 69.4

11

tons

Table III. shows, that whereas the con-

addition of 200 lb. of ammonia salts

tinued use of ash constituents alone in- gave a further increase of 878 bushels, creased the crop by only 278 bushels, the the addition of 400. Ib. of ammonia salts

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS .

141

an increase of 175/8 bushels, and the half of several of the plots received for addition of 600 lb. an increase of 2138 four years an application of soluble sili bushels. The produce with ash consti- cates, and in the succeeding twelve years tuents and 400 lb. ammonia salts (Plot the straw of the crop was returned to the

7) nearly equals in corn, and exceeds in land. The half plots thus treated have straw , the produce from the annual ap- not shown any increase of produce, save

plication of 14 tons farmyard manure ;

in those cases where the straw was help

while the produce with 600 lb. of ammonia ful by supplying potash ; nor has the

salts (Plot 8) considerablyexceeds both wheat-straw any greater power of stand in corn and straw that yielded by the ing in rough weather than that grown dung. The far greater effect produced without silica in the manure. Artificial Supply of Nitrogen es by the nitrogen of the ammonia than by the nitrogen of the dung is very evident, sential for Wheat. — The evidence af

86 lb. ofnitrogen as ammonia being on a forded by these experiments with am long series of years nearly equal to Ib. applied as dung. Organic Manures Unnecessary.These results throw a flood of light on

monia salts shows unmistakably the

great need of the wheat crop for an artificial supply of nitrogen, if full crops are to be continuously obtained.

The

the conditions required for producing assimilable nitrogen furnished by the air good wheat crops. The manure applied and rain is quite insufficient for the pro to these ammonia plots has been purely duction of afull cereal crop. The annual

inorganic, it has contained no carbon; application of86 lb. ofnitrogen per acre, yet the produce has been large , and in in the form of ammonia, has raised the

favourable seasons very large . In 1863 average produce from 1578 bushels to the yield of corn on Plot 7 amounted to 3234 bushels per acre. Manures best for Cereals.The 5372 bushels per acre. About I ton of carbon is contained in the average manures which experience has proved to crop of Plot 7 , and still more in that be most effective for wheat, barley, or of Plot 8. All the carbon assimilated by oats, are those which, like guano, nitrate

these crops has been derived from the of soda, and sulphate of ammonia, supply atmosphere. The atmospheric supply of nitrogen in a form readily assimilated by carbon is apparently sufficient for the plants. The enrichment of the surface

largest cereal crops. Such crops may be soil with nitrogen is also the main effect obtained in favourable seasons by the of a variety of agricultural methods com use of purely inorganic manures. monly employedto render land fit to pro Silica Unnecessary . — The results are duce good crops of cereals. Excessive Dressings Unprofitable. equally conclusive as to the uselessness of applying silica in manure. The com -It will be noticed that the application position of cereal crops given on page 63 of 200 lb. of ammonia salts per acre gave shows silica to be by far the largest con- an average increase of nearly 9 bushels stituent of the ash of straw , and to its of corn, and 974 cwt. of straw . The presence the stiffness of the straw has addition of a second 200 lb. of ammonia been too hastily attributed. German salts gives a further increase of nearly 9 experiments have shown that silica is bushels of corn , and 1138 cwt. of straw. not an indispensable constituent of cereal The 400 lb. of ammonia salts was thus

crops ; that fully developed plants can not an excessive dressing . With a fur be obtained without it ; and that in these ther addition of 200 lb. ammonia salts, plants the straw does not show any want however, the return is greatly diminished,

the increase only amounting to 334

of stiffness.

bushels of corn , and 7 cwt. of straw . average produce of the country, have It is plain, therefore, that 600 lb. was

At Rothamsted , wheat crops,

above the

been continuously obtained for forty years not an economical dressing. with manures supplying no silica. The For thirteen years, 1852-64, as much produce with these manures has indeed as 800 lb. of ammonia salts were applied been larger than that yielded by farm- to one of the plots. The average produce yard manure which supplies silica. To of different amounts of ammonia during make the test still more complete, one- these thirteen years was as follows :

MANURES AND MANURING .

142

TABLE IV.--PRODUCE OF WHEAT WITH VARIOUS QUANTITIES OF AMMONIA SALTS, AVERAGE OF THIRTEEN YEARS, 1852-64. Dressed Corn .

Plot.

Straw and Chatr.

Manuring.

Corn to

100 Straw .

Weight per

Quantity.

5

Mixed ash constituents

Do.

with ammonia salts, 200 ib.

7 8 16

11

11

400 lb.

11

11

600 lb.

10

11

Soo lb.

Bushel.

bush .

Ib .

cwt.

1874 282 3718 3878 3972

5878 5878 5812 58 58

1658 27 %

38 %8 4234

4658

62.6

58.8 54.6 51.2 47.8

We have here a successive increase of chlorine in the ammonia salts). This 10/4, 85/8, 134, and 5/8 bushels of corn, treatment has dated from 1845 . The

and 102,11, 45/8, 378 cwts. of straw for average produce in thirty- six years has each additional 200 lb. of ammonia salts. been 20 %2 bushels and 1834 cwt. of

High Manuring and Wet Seasons. straw ; or 72 bushels and 734 cwt. of - It will be noticed that though the straw over that of the unmanured land.

crops are larger in this shorter experi-

Natural Supplies of Ash and Nitro

ment, the return for the second and third gen . — While the crop on Plot 5 was en addition of ammonia is less than in tirely dependent upon natural sources of the longer series of trials. We shall nitrogen, the crop on Plot ioa has been

see presently that the nitrogen of the wholly dependent upon natural sources ammonia is liable to be removed as for its ash constituents. The supply of nitrates in the drainage - water in wet ash constituents from the soil hasclearly

When this happens, the plots been insufficient, for the same amount of receiving an excessive manuring will ammonia salts, when aided by a manuring suffer least ; as, notwithstanding their of ash constituents (Plot 7 ), has produced

seasons.

loss, they may retain enough to carry a much larger crop than on Plot 1oa .

the crop . The explanation of the differThe natural supply of ash constituents, ence in the two series is therefore appa- though insufficient, is, however, more ef rently to be found in the large number of fective than the natural supply of nitro wet seasons during the latter part of the gen ; for while, on Plot 5, the natural last thirty -six years. supply of nitrogen only produces 1578 Corn and Straw from High Man- bushels, the natural supply of ash con

uring . — It will be observed that there is stituents is equal to the production of a much larger increase of straw than of 20 %2 bushels. corn with the heavier dressings of am-

Soils better supplied with Ash

monia salts ; the proportion of corn to than with Nitrogen . — The fact just straw diminishes, indeed, with each addi- stated is one that holds true in general tion of ammonia. agricultural experience. A purely nitro The quality of the corn is improved genous manure will, in a vast majority of by the use of 200 lb. and 400 lb. of cases, produce a greater effect on wheat ammonia salts, but with further addi- or other cereals than any manure supply

tions of ammonia the weight per bushel ing ash constituents ; not because the begins to decline.

latter are less necessary for the growth

of the crop, but because the soil is gener ally far better supplied with available We come now to Plot 10a , which has ash constituents than it is with available Ammonia Salts alone.

received annually 400 lb. of ammonia nitrogen.

salts, without any supply of phosphates, It must be recollected also, that the potash, magnesia, lime, or other ash con- average results obtained in these Roth stituents (saving the sulphuric acid and amsted experiments with purely nitro

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

143

with superphosphate. The average pro good as would be obtained in ordinary duce is 2534 bushels, and 2474 cwt. of practice. The soil on Plot ioa is now straw ; or 574 bushels and 572 cwt. of

genous manures, are by no means so in fact exhausted of ash constituents by

forty -four successive wheat crops, removing, at least goo lb. of potash and 500 lb. of phosphoric acid per acre. Inthe earlier years of the experiment the am-

straw more than that given by the am monia salts alone. Thus, on a phos

phate - exhausted soil, superphosphate

becomes a paying manure for wheat if nitrogen is not deficient. monia salts applied alone gave a much The produce on this plot is, however, far below that on which all the neces better result than they do at present. Importance of Ash Constituents.-

sary ash constituents are applied. The

The importance of ash constituents when superphosphate has increased the pro nitrogen is supplied is strikingly shown by comparing the produce of the exhausted soil on Plot 1oa with that of the soil of Plot 7, which has annually received an abundance of ash constitu-

duce of the ammonia by 574 bushels, but the

mixture of ash constituents

applied on Plot 7 increases the pro duce by 1274 bushels. The mixed ash constituents include potash, soda, ents, with the same amount of ammonia . and magnesia. A series of experiments has been made The average produce with ash constitu-

ents and ammonia is 12/4 bushels greater in which the sulphates of potash, soda, than with the same quantity of ammonia applied alone. As nitrogenous manures are by far the most costly that a farmer purchases, it is important to remember that economy in their use depends a

and magnesia have been used separately, each with ammonia salts and superphos

phate. Unfortunately, previously to the commencement of this trial in 1852, the whole three plots had received during

great deal on there being a sufficient five or six years heavy dressings of supply of available phosphates and pot- potash. It has therefore required a ash in the soil.

considerable time for the want of potash

to affect the amount of produce.

Tak

Ammonia with Individual Ash Constituents.

ing, however, the average of the last five seasons, 1884-88, the effect of the special On Plot in the 400 lb. of ammonia manuring is tolerably apparent, as will be

salts have been continuously applied seen from Table V. TABLE V. -PRODUCE OF WHEAT VARIOUSLY MANURED, AVERAGE OF FIVE YEARS, 1884-88.

Plot.

Manured with Ammonia Salts and Superphosphate .

Total Corn .

Straw and

Chaff.

11b 12b

Alone With soda

146

With magnesia

13 76

With potash .

With soda, magnesia, and potash

1b .

lb.

1323 1777

2019

Corn to 100 Straw .

1848

2721 2810

65.5 65.3 65.8

1983

3108

63.8

2130

3322

64.1

The sulphate of potash thus yields the nesia is a less important ash constituent largest crop, and its excess over the soda of wheat, and is usually found in suffi andmagnesiawill doubtless become more cient abundance in the soil. Soda is marked as exhaustion of potash proceeds found to a very small extent in the ma on these plots. ture crop ; but soda salts have some effect Relative Importance of the Ash

as manure: they probably act by liberat

Constituents. - Phosphoric acid and ing potash in the soil.

Lime scarcely

potash are the ash constituents of the

occurs in wheat grain, and to only a small

greatest importance to the wheat crop,

extent in the straw ; the natural supply

and indeed to every other crop. Mag- is quite sufficient.

MANURES AND MANURING.

144

salts as a top -dressing at the end of

Efect ofAutumn and Spring Applications March or beginning of April,while Plot of Ammonia Salts.

7 received the same amount when the

Up to the year 1872, the whole of the wheat was put in in October. For the manures,

with the exception of nitrate autumn of 1877 the manuring was re

of soda, were applied to the land in autumn at the time of wheat-sowing, and ploughed in. With the season 1872-73, an experiment commenced on the comparative effect of autumn and spring applications

versed, Plot 15 now received the ammonia salts in the autumn, and Plot 7 received

them in the spring. Both plots had at all times a complete autumn manuring with ash constituents. The comparative results in ten years

of ammonia salts. For five years ( 1873- of autumn and spring manuring are 77) Plot 15 received 400 lb. of ammonia shown in Table VI. TABLE VI. - COMPARATIVE EFFECT OF AUTUMN AND SPRING SOWING OF AMMONIA SALTS. Rainfall.

Drainage , 5.ft. Gauge.

Total Produce, Corn and Straw . 1

Autumn

1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76. 1876-77 1877-78 1878-79 1879-80

Spring

Autumn

Spring

Manuring Manuring

Manuring Manuring

to Spring Manuring

to end of

July .

to Spring Manuring.

inches.

inches.

inches.

inches .

18.53 7.05 10.55

6.92

11.45

7.93

2.89 5.21

0.42 0.58

13.55

22.01

7.58 8.18

11.17

12.96

15.05 5.78

10.14 15.78 8.11 13.09 3.37 12.75 7.62

9.04

12.17

1880-81 1881-82

15.20 10.34

17.10 10.82 6.16 14.73

Mean

12.79

10.59

Autumn Spring to end of Manuring. Manuring. July.

3.86 1.94 1.18 6.02

lb.

lb.

3344

5031

7094 5110

4588 4915

3793 3048

4083

Spring + or -

Autumn . lb.

+ 1687 - 2506

4486

4795 7017

195 + 290 + 1747 +2531

+2788

1275

4063 6155

154

3917

+ 428

4.48

6309 3489 5948

7981

+2033

2.71

4390

5255

+ 865

6.76 1.58 0.25

Spring Sowing preferable . - It ap- soil ; and the soil, having no power of re pears that, out of the ten seasons, there taining nitrates, they are liable to be

was one ( 1874) in which the autumn sowing of the ammonia salts gave decidedly the best result ; there were four in which the difference betweenautumn

washed into the subsoil by heavy rain , and to be carried in drainage-water be yond the reach of the roots. This is what happens during a wet winter. and spring sowing was very small ; there In the table, the quantity of rain, were five in which the spring sowing and the amount of drainage-waterpass gave much the best result. The average ing through 5 feet of uncropped soil (60

result was thus decidedly in favour of inch drain -gauge), ineach season, is given . spring sowing

It will be noticed that a wet winter,

Rainfall and Time of Sowing Man- in some cases (1880-81), does little harm ure . — When we turn to the other columns to the autumn-sown ammonia salts.

In

in the table, it is plainly seen that the these cases the wet winter is followed by advantage or disadvantage of autumn a dry summer, and the crop is able to

sowing depends on the amount of the draw up from the soil the solution of rainfall.

The autumn application of

nitrates which had passed downwards.

ammonia salts is advantageous only The worst results of autumn manuring when adry winter follows their applica- are when a wet winter is followed by a tion.

This is owing to the fact that am- wet summer ( 1877-78, 1878-79, 1881-82 ).

monia is converted into nitrates in the

In these cases the nitrates washed below

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS .

145

are kept down by the subsequent spring ject of the experiment was to compare and summer rainfall.

the effect of nitrogen in the two forms of

In consequence of these results, the ammonia and nitric acid , the quantity time for applying the ammonia salts to of nitrate of soda employed was arranged the experimental plots in the wheat-field to supply the same weight of nitrogen has been altered. For 1878-83, the am- ( 86 lb.) as 400 lb. of ammonia salts.

monia was ( save on Plot 15) applied The quality of the ammonia salts em entirely in the spring. Since then 100 ployed has since improved, so that in lb. of ammonia salts have been applied later years the quantity of nitrogen sup plied as ammonia has probably exceeded by 3 or 4 lb. that supplied as nitric acid .

in autumn and the remainder in spring.

With Nitrate of Soda .

The nitrate of soda has always been ap

The trials with nitrate of soda com-

plied as a top - dressing at the end of

menced in 1852, but the quantities of March or beginning of April. The am manure used did not become constant monia salts on the comparative plots till 1855. We shall therefore quote the were applied in autumn, till the season results from the latter year. As one ob- 1877-78. TABLE VII. –PRODUCE OF WHEAT WITH NITRATE OF SODA AND AMMONIA Salts, AVERAGE OF THIRTY YEARS, 1855-84. Average Total Produce.

Average Produce, 30 Years, 1855-84. Dressed Corn . Plot.

Second

Manure.

Weight Quantity.

Straw

Corn

and Chaff.

to 100 Straw .

per

First 15 Years,

1855-69.

Second

15 Years,

15 Years, 1870-84.

per 100 of first 15

Bushel . bush .

3 5 7

No manure . Mixed ash constituents

Do. , ammonia salts, 400 lb. Do., nitrate of soda, 550 lb. .

9a Ioab

Ammonia salts, 400 lb.

ob

Nitrate of soda, 550 lb.

Ib.

lb.

lb.

2390

2695

1670 1964

69.9 72.8

6284

5350

85.1

49.3

7368

7026

95.3

1976 62.3

4271 4971

2947

69.0

3489

70.2

cwt.

59 %8

1078 66.9 1238 68.5

33

5978

334 56.6

3772

59%

43

2134 2372

5734 5678

13

584

15 % 8

2458 53.7

Nitrate of Soda excels Ammonia given both by autumn and spring dress Salts. — The nitrate of soda applied alone ings of ammonia salts during ten years, has given 134 bushels more corn and each manure supplying approximately 434 cwt. more straw than the correspond- the same quantity of nitrogen, and the

ing plot receiving ammonia salts. Where land receiving in every casea full supply an abundance of ash constituents is sup- of ash constituents in the autumn. It

plied, as on Plot 9a, the advantage from the use of nitrate of soda is still more marked, the excess over the corresponding ammonia plot reaching 472 bushels and 934 cwt. of straw .

will be seen that, on an average, the spring-sown ammonia was 478 bushels better than the autumn sown, and the nitrate of soda 478 bushels better than the spring-sown ammonia. With the

As the nitrate of soda, from its wellknown solubility, has always beenapplied in the spring, and the ammonia salts have, in most years of the experiment,

straw , the spring-sown ammonia is 538 cwt. better than the autumn sown, and the nitrate 10 cwt. better than the spring sown .

been applied in the autumn, the compari-

Influence

of Rainfall . - Ammonia

son may be thought hardly fair to the salts and nitrate of soda compare, how ammonia . In Table VIII., the produce ever, very differently in different seasons; is by nitrate of soda is compared with that there are seasons in which the nitrate K VOL. II.

MANURES AND MANURING .

146

immensely superior, and there are some spring, the nitrate is subject to immediate

seasons in which the ammonia salts give loss by drainage, while the ammonia is an equal or better result. With a dry not lost till it is nitrified, and thus for a spring and summer the nitrate is gene- few weeks partially escapes the losses rally much superior to a spring dressing which the nitrate is undergoing. In of ammonia salts, the nitrate being imme- Table VIII., the comparative effect of

diately available to the plant, while the nitrate of soda and ammonia salts is given ammonia has to undergo the process of for the ten seasons of which the rainfall nitrification, which in dry weather is not and drainage have been already given in speedy.

On the other hand, in a wet Table VI.

TABLE VIII.-PRODUCE OF NITRATE OF SODA, AND OF AUTUMN AND SPRING SOWN AMMONIA SALTS, IN VARIOUS SEASONS. Nitrate of Soda, 550 lb.

Ammonia Salts, 400 lb.

Season .

Autumn Sown .

Spring Sown.

Straw ,

Corn .

bush .

cwt .

3574 3072

3578 4434 4238

334

32

314 1614 3472 2658 3534

2772 2434 282 2134 2478 44/4 2678 3534 1958 51 %8

29

3072

Straw .

Corn .

22

18

392 2578

4112 3092

3256 2978

2322

1934

2572

1978 2278

33 % 8

Corn.

bush .

1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76 1876-77 1877-78 1878-79 1879-80 1880-81 1881-82

25/4 29

1638 2778 878 36 1758 3672

Mean

2478

2578

5 8 364

It would require a detailed discussion

Spring Sown.

2572

38%

Straw .

4018

3438

374

50%

22

3878

34

39%

352 3178

3272

3378

402

56

season than in the latter. In two seasons,

of the character of each season , month 1874 and 1880, the autumn - sown am by month, if we were to attempt to ex- monia salts beat the nitrate in yield of corn . These two seasons have a very

plain all the differences between the

crops; we can only refer to the most dry winter, as well as a dry spring ; the striking instances. In 1874, 1876, 1877, rain from spring sowing to the end of and 1881, the nitrate crop exceeds the June in those two years was but 5.12 and spring-sown ammonia crop by 7 to 95.56 inches respectively . The weather bushels, and 10 to 20 cwt. of straw ; during spring was apparently too dry for these are all years in which the spring the nitrate to attaina proper diffusion in and summer rainfall are on the whole the soil. The nitrates from the autumn conspicuously deficient. In 1882 the sown ammonia were better diffused , and

spring- sown ammonia yields 4 bushels gave the larger produce. more than the spring-sown nitrate.

This

year is seen by Table VI. to have had the wettest spring and summer in the series, with the exception of 1879. In 1882, however, a large excess of rain occurred

Practical Conclusions.

It is evident

from the facts now mentioned that nitrate of soda will give a better return than spring applications of ammonia salts in à dry climate. In a very dry climate

the nitrate should be applied very early, did not commence till May ; the nitrate or ammonia salts should be employed in in April ; while in 1879 the great excess

not yet taken up by the crop thus prob- the autumn instead. Where the spring ablysuffered a greater loss in the former months are usually wet, the nitrate should

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

147

be applied in two dressings, or recourse 8, ga, are those which have suffered had to ammonia salts.

When a late least in the second period ; the diminu

dressing is needed, nitrate of soda should be preferred to ammonia salts, as its nitrogen is immediately available. Very late dressings produce straw rather than

tion in their case varies from 5 to 16 per cent. The smallest diminution takes place on Plot ga, receiving nitrate of soda and ash constituents. In these

corn .

cases we may probably assume that the decline in produce is due to the inferi ority of the seasons in later years.

Proportion of Corn to Straw . In Tables III. and VII. will be found

The produce of other plots, as 3, 5, 10,

the proportion of corn to 100 straw and gb, shows a diminution of about 30 various manures per cent in the second period. We have in the produce of the

we have considered. The proportion of here, besides the effect of bad seasons, corn is highest in the produce of the un- the still greater effect of the gradually

manured land, and on that receiving only progressing exhaustion of the soil. the ash constituents of the wheat crop.

Influence of Season. The 45 successive wheat crops in portion of straw ; thus, by the continu- Broadbalk field at Rothamsted , grown ous application of farmyard manure, the for the most part under the same con proportion of corn to 100 straw falls ditions as to manuring every year, afford

The addition of any manure producing luxuriance of growth increases the pro-

from 66 to 60.

splendid material to the statistician for

With increasing quantities of ammonia indicating the varying produce of the salts, applied with ash constituents, the country in different seasons. We cannot proportion of corn gradually falls, being in this place regard them in this wide 61.6, 56.0, and 51.5, with 200, 400, and aspect. The produce of each plot, and Thi con the charact 600 lb. of ammonia salts.

s

er of each season , during 40

siderable increase in the proportion of years, will be found in two papers by straw with the higher amounts of am- Messrs Lawes and Gilbert, in Jour. monia is not, however, entirely due to Royal Agric. Soc., 1864, 93 ; 1884, 391.

the ammonia, as on Plot 10a , with 400 To these papers, and to a paper,

Our

lb. of ammonia salts alone, the proportion of corn is 61.8 ; and on Plot 11, with the same quantity of ammonia with superphosphate, the proportion is 60.1 to 100 . The increase in straw is clearly

Climate and our Wheat Crops," ibid ., 1880, 173, we must refer for full details. We have here to regard the influence of season as a condition affecting the fer tility of soil and the action of manures.

due in great part to the potash supplied

Every farmer knows that the effect of

on Plots 6, 7, and 8, which helps largely season is greater than the effect of man to form straw when the nitrogen neces- ure . A season may be so bad that the sary to nourish the crop is present. best soil and manure may yield a miser

The proportion of straw is much able produce, and it may be so good that ammonia salts ( Table VII. ) Here, too, result a liberal treatment. A suitable the effect of the ash constituents is seen, manuring will, however, assert itself in

greater with nitrate of soda than with moderate manuring may nearly equal in

for while the nitrate alone gives 53.7 of a large majority of cases, redeeming a

corn to 100 straw , the proportion when bad season from utter loss, and securing phosphates and potash are added is 49.3 from a good season the grand return to 100 . which it is capable of yielding. Diminution in Produce .

Influence of Light and Heat. - No large crop can be obtained without a

In Tables III. and VII. we have given sufficient amount of light and heat, as

the total produce of the various plots the assimilation of carbon from the at during the first and second half of the mosphere only occurs with suitable light period of experiment. In every instance and temperature. The formation of seed there is a diminution of produce in the especially requires heat. A bulky crop

more recent years. The plots receiving in Junewill produce abundance of corn the most abundant manuring, as 2, 7,

in July, if this month is warm , and not

148

MANURES AND MANURING .

too wet ; but it will remain a crop of These are the conditions favourable to straw if July is cold and rainy. The large produce on every description of

corn produced in a cold wet summer is soil, manured or unmanured. The dry also imperfectly developed ; it contains weather between autumn and spring less starch, and a larger proportion of retains in the soil all the nitrates be albuminoids and ash constituents, than longing to it ; dry mild weather dur well-ripened grain, and has a low weighting winter and spring also occasions per bushel. The same defect in the corn a maximum development of root ; the

may be brought about by premature plant is thus enabled to levy contribu ripening, occasioned by sudden heat and tions from a considerable depth of soil. drought ; but this will seldom happen If moderately dry weather continue, the upon a clay soil like that at Rothamsted. plant is afterwards fed with a concen trated solution of plant-food . The mod

Autumn and Winter Weather.-

The popular view of the character of a erate warmth of the season allows full wheat season is confined to the meteoro- time for the collection of food from the logical conditions of spring and summer. soil. There is finally a somewhat late

Winter is taken into account only when frost or floods have injured the plant. We have already seen, however, when considering the very different results of the autumn and spring application of

harvest, and a most abundant produce. High Temperature . - A different class

of good seasons are those with high tem perature, and (generally ) an early har vest ; such seasons were those of 1857,

ammonia salts, that the dryness or wet- 1868, and 1870. The produce in corn, ness of the autumn and winter is a most though very good, is not equal to that of important factor in determining the the longer and cooler seasons; and the character of the next summer's crop. produce in straw is much less. In a wet winter, the nitrates produced Bad Seasons. — The worst possible in the soil since the last cropping, or

season is that in which a wet winter

resulting from autumn applications of nitrogenous manure, may be removed almost entirely in the drainage-water, and the soil reduced to an impoverished condition by the time the growth of wheat commences in the spring. A dry

is followed by a cold, wet, cloudy sum mer, as in 1879. Under these circum stances the soil is robbed of soluble food ; the whole plant, roots included, is scarcely developed, and, fed with a copious supply of rain - water, a miser

winter is thus essential if a full wheat able crop is the inevitable result. The

crop is to be harvested throughout the most liberal manuring is the one that under these circumstances yields the best

country.

The farmer who applies nitrate of return . soda, ammonia salts, or guano as

a

The seasons 1853, 1860, 1867, 1871 ,

spring dressing, may of course make 1873, 1875, 1876, were bad seasons for

himself independent of the character of the production of wheat, but none were the winter ; but if the winter has been nearly so bad as 1879.

wet, he must apply more of those expen-

Ash Constituents and the Seasons.

sive manures to produce the wished -for

- The beneficial effect of giving a good supply of ash constituents with theam

effect.

Conditions Favourable to Large monia salts or nitrate is generally very Crops.

- The years of greatest total conspicuous in a season of low vitality,

produce during the Rothamsted experi- or in one of premature ripening. The ments have been 1863 and 1854. These bulk of the produce is not affected so seasons had dry winters, and in the case adversely by the season , and the grain has of 1863 the winter was also mild. There a higher weight per bushel where the soil was also during spring and summer a is well supplied with ash constituents. deficiency of rain, though enough fell at Effect of Residues of Manures. critical times to prevent any check to growth. The summers were not unusuAs only a portion of every dressing of ally hot, indeed that of 1854 was de- manure is taken up by the crop in the cidedly cool; there was thus no prema- season in which it is applied, it becomes an important practical question whether ture ripening of the produce.

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

149

the unused portion of the manure re- ceived in 1847, and again in 1849, a mains in the soil in such a condition as liberal manuring of ash constituents,

to yield a supply of food to subsequent containing in allabout 300 lb. of potash crops. The subject has recently received and 130 lb. of phosphoric acid. The additional importance, as, under some other half of the plot, named 10a, did not circumstances , a farmer has now a pro- receive this manure.

For the season

perty in the unused residues of the 1851 , and since, both halves of the plot have received annually 400 lb. of am manures which he has applied. The Rothamsted experiments supply monia salts without ash constituents. As manuring with ammonia salts alone

numerous illustrations of the influence

of the residues of previous manuring. is the treatment which produces the most We will, in this place, refer to a few of rapid exhaustion of the ash constituents the most important experiments on this of the soil, it is naturally an excellent subject occurring in the wheat field .

means of bringing into view any store of

We will consider first the results showing ashconstituents which the soil contains. the effect of residues of ash constituents. Residues of Ash Constituents.-

Table IX. shows the average produce

per annum of the two half plots since

One half of Plot 1o, designated iob, re- 1852. TABLE IX . - AVERAGE PRODUCE OF WHEAT ON PLOTS TON AND

DURING THIRTY - TWO YEARS. Total Produce .

Dressed Corn .

Eight years, 1852-59 11 11

1860-67 1868-75 1876-83

Thirty -two years, 1852-83

Plot rod .

Plot 10b .

Excess on rob .

bush .

bush.

bush .

2234 1638

2772 2774 2018 1878

434 3% 198 134

2012

23 %

234

24

19

The figures show an average annual

Residue

Plot roa .

Plot 106.

Excess on rob .

Ib.

lb.

Ib.

4055

4076 3060

4885 4563 3264

830 487

2618

2935

317

3452

3912

460

of

204

Ash and Ammonia

excess of 234 bushels on the plot which Salts. — Our next illustration will show received in early years the dressings of not only the effect of residues of ash ash constituents. The excess was most constituents, but also the effect pro considerable in the first years, but was duced by a previous manuring with ammonia salts . The manures on Plots still perceptible in 1888. In thirty-six years the residue of ash 17 and 18 have alternated each year

one plot re constituents on rob has produced in since 1852. In each year This ceives the usual full dressing of ash is a very striking fact. It must, how- constituents, and the other plot 400 lb. all ninety -one bushels of corn !

ever, be recollected, that the effect of of ammonia salts. In the following this residue of potash and phosphoric year the manuring is reversed, the plot acid is made apparent only by follow- that had received ash constituents now ing a treatment very exhaustive to receives ammonia, and the one which the land, and that such an exhaustive had received ammonia now receives ash system is very wasteful, and one that constituents. There is thus each year a it would never pay a farmer to follow . crop by ammonia salts, plus a residue

Had ash constituents been regularly ap- of ash constituents, and a crop by ash plied to Plot rob during the thirty -six constituents, plus the residue from the years, the same quantity of ammonia ammonia. The average effect of these annual would have yielded 340 bushels more corn !

residues is shown in Table X.

MANURES AND MANURING .

150

TABLE X. - EFFECT OF ANNUAL RESIDUE OF Ash CONSTITUENTS, AVERAGE THIRTY -SIX YEARS. Dressed Corn .

Total Produce.

bush .

Ib .

Ammonia and residue of ash constituents

30 %2

5258

Ammonia alone, Plot 10a

2012

3403

Excess, due to residue of ash constituents

10

1855

EFFECT OF ANNUAL RESIDUE FROM AMMONIA Salts, AVERAGE THIRTY-SIX YEARS. Dressed Corn .

Total Produce.

bush .

lh.

Ash constituents and residue of ammonia

154

2500

Ash constituents alone, Plot 5

15

2365 14

Excess, due to residue of ammonia .

The abundant residue of ash constituents remaining from the preceding year has proved its effectiveness, by raising the produce by 10 bushels per year. We turn now to the result produced

135

much evidence to show that the unused ammonia has been in great part lost as nitrates in the drainage -water. We have one more instance to give

of the effect of residues of ammonia.

by the residue of the ammonia. It has Plot 16 received for thirteen years (1852 yielded, according to the table, an in- 1864) 800 lb. of ammonia salts per crease of but 14 bushel per year !

annum , with ash constituents.

This was

Of the 86 lb. of nitrogen contained in the largest amount of ammonia salts the ammonia salts, not more than 43 lb. applied to any plot in the field. The would be contained in the crop obtained average produce during these thirteen

by its use ; what then has become of the yearswas 3972 bushels of corn. From remaining 43 lb. ? It is quite clear that 1865-1883 theplot was left unmanured. the missing ammonia is not present in The excess of produce in these nine the soil ready for use in the next season , teen years over the produce of the per manently unmanured land is shown in for it produces no effect on the сгор.

We shall see presently that there is Table XI. TABLE XI. — EXCESS OF PRODUCE ON PLOT 16 OVER PLOT 3, IN NINETEEN YEARS. Dressed Corn .

Plot 3. Plot 16.

bush .

1865

.

1866 1867 1868

Average - four years, 1869-72 eleven

11

1873-83

bush .

13 % 3238 1278 1778 878 | 1458 1658 2234 124 15 % 10 %2 1134

Total Produce .

Excess of 16 over 3

bush.

Plot 3 . Plot 16.

Ib.

lb.

Excess of 16 over 3.

Ib.

1978 | 1861 5007 | 3146 54 2046 3081 | 1035 534 1505 2512 1007 698 2027 | 3503 1476 3

1943 | 2493

14 | 1613

1821

550 208

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

151

It will be noticed that in the first EXAMINATION OF THE SOILS .

year after the cessation of the ammon iacal manuring on Plot 16, there was on It may be assumed that, at the com this plot a considerable crop, exceeding mencement of the experiment, the soil by 1978 bushels that of the permanently of the various plots in Broadbalk field unmanured land.

This considerable ex-

was of a fairly uniform composition ,

cess must be attributed to a residue of though the subsoils would then , as now, the preceding abundant nitrogenous man- be more or less irregular in character. uring remaining in the soil.

In the As on some plots of the field no manure

second, third, and fourth years, the ex- has been applied, while on other plots

cess of crop on the previously manured there have been long -repeated applica soil is only 5 or 6 bushels. After this tions of particular manures, the com time the excess rapidly diminishes, aver- position of the soil is now of the most aging in the last eleven years only 1/4 varied description. On some of the bushel per annum . plots the land is now extremely rich in It is probable that only the excess of phosphoric acid and potash, on others the first year was due to an unused resi- it is exhausted of these constituents to due of nitrogenous manure. The excess an extent which could hardly occur in

of the later years, we shall see presently, ordinary farm practice. On some plots was probably rather due to a gradual nitrogen has accumulated, on others the oxidation of the accumulated organic soil is impoverished . matter in the soil.

1. Contents in Cinereal Plant- food . Little has been done in the way of

Practical Conclusion . — We learn ,

then, that residues of phosphoric acid or potash remain available for future crops, but that no effective residue remains in the soil, even from abundant applications of ammonia salts. The use

von Liebig examined the soils of some

of such salts is apparently attended with a considerable waste of nitrogen.

uents soluble in dilute hydrochloric and in dilute acetic acid, and the amount of phosphoric acid soluble in nitric acid.

mineral analysis of the soil. Hermann of the plots collected in 1865, and de termined the amount of various constit

His results for the unmanured soil are

given in Table XII. TABLE XII.-SOME CONSTITUENTS IN 100 PARTS OF UNMANURED SOIL (PLOT 3) IN BROADBALK FIELD , 1865. Soluble in

Dilute Hydro

Soluble in Dilute Acetic Acid.

chloric Acid .

First 9 inches.

Lime

First 9 inches. Second 9 inches . Third 9 inches.

2.298

2.065

.377

Magnesia

.092

Potash Soda

.085

.028 .015

.013 , 018 .013

I not deter mined .011

Sulphuric acid

.066 ,015

trace

.002

.003

Silica .

.434

.065

.080

not deter mined

Phonitphcorniciacid,soluble in dilute}

.075

.075

.047

.043

.012

.014

The lime in the surface -soil at Roth the commencement of the experiments, is amsted is principally due to ancient estimated by H. Liebig as .084 per cent.

dressings of chalk. The phosphoric acid This he considers as below that neces

originally present in the surface-soil, at sary for a good wheat soil.

He con

MANURES AND MANURING.

152

cludes, from his analyses of the soils and soda applied in the manures, had appar subsoils of other plots, that the phos- ently not been retained by the soil. phoric acid which had been applied as manure, and not removed in the crops, was still present in the soil, chiefly in

The soils and subsoils of the various

the first 9 inches, but some also in the second 9 inches. Of the potash applied, he found some in the first 9 inches; but a large quantity was not found. He

plots have been on several occasions carefully sampled, and the nitrogen which they contained determined . The last and most complete examination was

2. Contents in Total Nitrogen .

thought it most probable that it had made on soils collected in October 1881 . bination which was unattacked by his of the principal plots is given in Table weak acid. The sulphuric acid , and the XIII.

really entered into some insoluble com- The amount of nitrogen found in some

TABLE XIII. — NITROGEN FOUND IN FIRST 9 INCHES OF SOILS FROM BROADBALK FIELD, 1881 . Average

Nitrogen in Dry Soil.

Total Plot.

Manuring.

Produce

per Acre, 1852-81.

Per Cent.

Per Acre.

Excess over Plot 5 per Acre.

Ib.

Ib .

0.1045

2404

0.1012

2328 2652 2908 3036 2883

lb.

3 Sa ба 7a 8a ga

96 loa

106 Ila 2

No manure .

2108 2394 3954 5710

Ash constituents

Do. and ammonia salts, 200 lb. 11

400 11

11

600

11

11

and nitrate of soda, 550 Nitrate of soda, 5501 Ammonia salts, 400 11 Ammonia salts, 400 11

6778 6903

.

Superphos. and ammonia salts, 400 lb. Farmyard manure, 14 tons

0.1153

0.1264 0.1320 0.1253

0.1106

2543 2471

4293 3450 3923

0.1074 O. 1077

4387 5696

0.1164

2476 2676

0.1957

4502

324 580

708 555 215 143 148

348 2174

The first thing that strikesone in look-

The slowness with which the nitrogen

ing at the figures is the smallness of the

ous matter in the soil is oxidised, and

alteration in the nitrogen of the soil pro- made soluble and available to the plant, duced either by exhaustive cropping or is a great natural safeguard against the by very liberal treatment with artificial complete exhaustion and sterilisation of manures . the soil which might else speedily occur Slow Exhaustion of Soil-nitrogen . under bad treatment. Small Increase of Soil-nitrogen by -On Plots 3 and 5 no nitrogen has been

applied ; the crop has drawn its nitrogen entirely from the soil and atmosphere. On Plot 5 production has been stimulated as far as possible by liberal manuring with the ash constituents of wheat. In this

Ammoniaor Nitrates. — On the other hand , the liberal manuring with ammonia salts, or nitrate of soda, which many of the plots have received , and which has resulted in large crops, has not produced

condition of nitrogen hunger, all the any considerable increase in the nitro nitrogen has been taken from the soil gen of the soil. We have already seen

that could be taken ; yet at the end of that these nitrogenous manures, though twenty-nine years the soil still contains very active in the season in which they 2300 to 2400 lb. of nitrogen in the first are applied , leave no residue in the soil

9 inches. The amount of nitrogen lost available for the next season ; they, in

in twenty-nine years of continuous wheat- fact, feed the crop but not the soil. cropping without nitrogenous manure is Soils Enriched in Nitrogen by probably not more than one-fifth of the Heavy Crops. — Though, however, am amount originally present in the soil.

monia and nitrates do not themselves

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS .

153

permanently enrich the soil, it will be ( save Plot 2 ) at that date. From 1864 the soil has been unmanured ; the crop, as wehave already seen (Table XI. ), speedily

seen, on comparing the average total produce of the plots during nine years with the nitrogen found inthe soils at the end of this period, that there is a

manured soil.

distinct relation between the two.

lysed again, and found to contain not

The

fell to nearly that of the permanently un In 1881 the soil was ana

nitrogen of the soil rises or falls as the more than 2557 lb. of nitrogen per acre. previous cropping has been abundant or

The soil had thus lost at least 350 lb. of

Thus the same amount of am- nitrogen in 16 years, or about 22 lb. per monia has been applied on Plots 7 and 10. annum . not.

The former plot , having been well sup-

Residue of Dung . — The soil of Plot

plied with ash constituents, has yielded a 2, receiving farmyard manure every year, good crop ; the latter, having no ash con- is in very different circumstances from

stituents,has given a much smaller pro those manured with ammonia salts or The soils now reflect, not the nitrates. There is here a very large ac

duce.

quantity of ammonia applied to them , cumulation of nitrogen and carbon in the which has been alike, but the amount soil, due, not to crop residues, but to of produce grown upon them , the soil large residues of manure. The amount of Plot 7 containing considerably more of nitrogen in the soil is shown by Table nitrogen than the soil of Plot 10.

The

XIII. to be much larger than in any other

soil has in fact been enriched, not by the plot in the field. It is indeed nearly manure, but by the residue of roots, double that found on Plot 5, receiving stubble, and weeds left in it at the end of each harvest. That this is the case

no nitrogenous manure. On Plot 2 the crop for some time steadily increased

is further proved by the fact that the from year to year ( Table II.) This in proportion of carbon found in the vari- crease of crop has now ceased, and the ous soils rises or falls with the propor- increase of the nitrogen in the soil has tion of nitrogen . also ceased, or is at least proceeding but

The permanence of the percentages of slowly. The annual oxidation of organic

nitrogen and carbon in the soil thus de- matter in the soil is now, apparently, pends on the permanence of the amount about equal to the annual receipt. In the first 9 inches of soil, manured of produce. We shall expect a further decline in nitrogen in the soils of Plots for 38 years with farmyard manure, the .

3, 5, 9b, 10, and 11, because the crops on these must still further diminish in consequence of their imperfect nutrition ; but we do not expect any further decline in Plots 6, 7, 8, ga (unless there should

proportion of nitrogen to carbon was found to be 1:11 . On the other plots in the field the proportion was about 1:10. By comparing these proportionswith those shown by the original materials supplied

), to the soil, we see in a striking manner be a series of seasons below the average because the nutrition on these plots is the character of the oxidation which complete, and the amount of crop and takes place in the soil. In moderately crop residue should remain fairly constant. Effect of Exhaustive Treatment.-

rotted farmyard manure the proportion of nitrogen to carbon is about 1:19 ; and

Plot 16 , which is not mentioned in the in the roots and stubble of cereal crops table, affords a striking instance of the

1:43.

The carbon is thus first oxidised,

rapidity with which a soil falls out of and a residue of nitrogenous humus re condition when it passes from a liberal mains in the soil. to an exhaustive treatment. As already

Nitrogen in the Subsoil.

The

stated (p. 142), this plot received up to second and third 9 inches of the various 1864 a larger amount of ammonia salts, soils have been examined. They are

with ash constituents, than any other plot in the field, and surpassed every other plot in the amount of its total In 1865 the soil was sampled. produce. contained the first It then

in

9 inches

fairly uniform in their percentage of nitrogen throughout the field, being ap parently little affected either by manure or crop residue. They lie, indeed, to a great extent, out of the sphere of ac

2907 lb. of nitrogen per acre, a quantity cumulation or oxidation. The percent larger than that found in any other plot age of nitrogen in the soil of the second

MANURES AND MANURING .

154

9 inches is usually 0.07, and the amount but the reader is advised to peruse the per acre about 1900 lb.

In the third next section, on drainage -waters, before

9 inches the percentage of nitrogen is considering these results, as the subject about 0.06, and the amount per acre will become clearer by so doing.

1600 lb. The proportion of carbon to

The composition of the drainage-waters

nitrogen diminishes as we descend, being of Broadbalk field proves that nitrates about 1 : 9 in the second 9 inches, and

are absent, or nearly absent, during

1 : 8 in the third 9 inches. Soil-nitrogen unsuitable for Wheat.

summer time in the soils of those plots

which receive no excess of nitrogen in -One fact plainly taught by the results their manure. The same fact is shown given in this section isthe uselessness of by the analysis of various soils at

the ordinary nitrogen of the soil for the Rothamsted, taken from wheat and wh eat crop

The unmanured land con- barley fields immediately after harvest.

tains, to a depth of 27 inches, about At this time, unless heavy rain has 5700 lb. of nitrogen per acre, yet the lately fallen, the soils are nearly desti wheat on this land can barely appro- tute of nitrates. After harvest, nitrates priate 20 lb. per annum , and suffers from generally appear in considerable quanti nitrogen hunger! The form of nitrogen ties in the drainage-waters, the amount

that practicallyacts as food for wheat is depending on the richnessof the soil in nitric acid . The growth of the wheat nitrogenous matter, and the abundance crop is limited (ash constituents being of the rainfall, and is much increased by

present) by the amount of nitrates pres- ploughing: In soils containing an excess of ammonia or nitrates beyond the power of the crop to assimilate - either from the largeness of the application, as on

ent in the soil.

3. Contents in Nitric Acid .

Determinations of nitrogen present as Plot 8, or from the fact that the ash

nitrates in the various soils and subsoils constituents necessary for the assimila of Broadbalk field were made in the tion of nitrogen are absent, as on Plots

samples collected October 10 to 18, 1881. 9b, 10 , and 11 - nitrates are found in The results are described here, as they the drainage-waters, when the drains run , fall naturally under the head of soil; both in summer time and at harvest. TABLE XIV . — THE NITROGEN AS NITRATES IN THE DRAINAGE-WATERS OF THE PLOTS IN

BROADBALK FIELD, FROM MARCH 1881 TO JANUARY 1882, IN PARTS PER MILLION . August 30. March Plot.

Mixed .

2

3 & 4

9 IO II 12

13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Sept. 25. Oct. 14. Oct. 23. Nov. 25. Nov.

5, 6, 7,

5.1 3.4 3.6 3.9 3.9 5.3 5.2 5.9 5.4

A.M.

6.30 .

P.M. 2.3 .

1.2

0.9

4.7

6.3

1.5

1.4 1.9 4.1

6.0

8.1 12.3

4.8 4.5 5.1 11.6

3.1 3.9

16.1 6.8 2.3 2.4

7.0

5.4

9.5

6.0

7.1 7.0 7.3

13.3

8.8 11.7

18.5

8.5 9.8

23.0

17.1

21.8

12.3

21.0

16.2

11.2

10.7

12.6 9.3 9.0

19.6 15.2

12.6 10.5

14.5

7.2

...

0.3 0.4

8.7

20.6

...

1.0

Dec. 7.

Dec. 17, 18, 20 , 21 ,

Jan. 9 .

Mixed .

18.91

20.3 9.0

27.

8.8

3.9 I 2. I

1 Farmyard manure applied October 27.

7.4 9.6

15.0 13. I 8.6 10.7 11.6 14.9

18.2

5.8 5.1

6.3 7.8 10.9 16.8

13.8 14.5 14.9

14.0 13.7

11.6 II . I

10.2

9.8 9.7

12. I

66.6 ? 40.5 6.3 5.1 5.4 7.5 19.6

3

6.8 9.0 19.2

9.3 9.4 34.8 4. I 5.6 7.1 10.0

4.1 5.0 6.2 7.3

7.2

II.2

10.2

9.4 9.3 9.4 7.6 6.8 6.8

10.0

26.4

22.4 2.9

3.4 4. I

5.6

15.6

2 Ammonium salts applied October 27.

3 Rape- cake applied October 28 .

3.5 3.9 6.2

9. I 9.4 7.4

6.5 6.7

3.7 4.9

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

155

Nitrates in the Drainage.— Table supply of ash constituents (6, 7, 12, 13), XIV. shows the amount of nitrogen as contained 2.7 per million ; while that re

nitrates in thedrainage-water from each ceiving ammonia with incomplete ash plot in Broadbalk field immediately constituents ( 11 ) gave 7.9 ; and that before and after the sampling of the receiving ammonia with no ash constitu soil.

A blank in the table signifies

ents ( 10) 18.2 per million.

that no water ran from the pipe : drainIn the first division of plots we may age would, however, actually occur in safely conclude that no appreciable such cases.

The thick line indicates the

amount of nitric acid existed in the

upper interval at which soil-sampling occurred. soil at harvest. In the second division Thedrain -pipes did not run from March the amount, if any, was very small. In

7 till afterharvest. The ammonia salts the third division a considerable amount and nitrate of soda were applied to their of nitric acid had remained unassimilated respective plots on March 12. The spring all through the summer. Of the plots and summer months were dry. The that did not afford drainage-water in

wheat was cut August 8-11 . Immedi- August or September, we may class ga, ately after followed a deluge of rain,

14, 15 , 18 in the second division, and 8

amounting during the whole month to and 96 in the third division . 5.82 inches.

The land was scarified

It is clear that after the soil became

early in September, and ploughed towards saturated with water active nitrification

the end of the month. The soil was commenced, as with each running of the sampled between October 10 and 18, the drains the proportion of nitrates in the operation being interrupted by heavy rain water is increased, the maximum being

on the 14th. It will be seen that on the first run-

reached on October 23 . Nitrates in the Soil and Subsoil.

ning of the pipes after harvest, the drain- - We now turn to the amount of age-waters from the plots receiving no nitrogen as nitrates found in the soil : nitrogenous manure ( 3 & 4, 5 , 16, 17) this was determined in the first, second ,

contained on an average 1.o per million and third 9 inches . The results yield of nitrogen as nitric acid ; those receiving ed by the principal plots is shown in ammonia salts, with a complete or fair Table XV. TABLE XV . - NITROGEN AS NITRATES IN WHEAT SOILS VARIOUSLY MANURED, OCTOBER 1881 , IN POUNDS PER ACRE, Excess First Plot.

Manuring.

9 inches .

Second 9 inches.

Third 9 inches .

27

Total over Plots inches.

3 and 4 . Ib .

No manure, thirty -eight years

4

No manure, thirty years No manure, seventeen years

16a 5a 17a ба 7a

8a ga

9b loa ІІa

19

Ash constituents, thirty years one year Do. do. , Do. and ammonia salts, 200 lb. Do. do. , 400 lb. 600 lb. Do. do. , Do, and nitrate of soda, 550 lb. Nitrate of soda, 550 lb. Ammonia salts, 400 lb. Superphos. and ammonia salts, 400 lb.

Rape - cake, 1700 lb. Farmyard manure, 14 tons .

9.7 9.2 10.6 12.6 10.3

16.5 22.8 21.I

lb. 5.3 4.0 5.0 7.1 7.5 7.5 11.3 13.9

19.7

10.0

16.3

20.1

14.2

11.9 9.3 13.0 15.4

17.9 14.1

30.0

1b. 2.8 1.8

Ib.

Ib .

17.8 15.0 17.9 24.3

::

3

2.3 4.6 3.4 4.7 5.7 7.8 8.2 17.7 7.3

3.6

30.8

37.7 17.0 14.4

7.1 6.8

34.2 52.2

17.8 35.8

1.5 7.9

21.2

4.8

28.7 39.8

12.3 23.4

42.8 37.9 54.1 33.4

26.4 21.5

It must be recollected in discussing to the impossibility of obtaining a sample these results, as in all other results of of soil that shall exactly represent the soil analysis, that the figures can only whole of the plot. The first point calling for attention is approximately represent the truth, owing

MANURES AND MANURING .

156

the preponderance of the nitrates in the —Before leaving this section we will surface soil.

Taking the mean of all the recapitulate what has been already said

plots, save 9b, the proportion of nitrates in various places as to the sources of the in the first second, and third 9 inches very considerable amounts of nitrates is as 100, 59, and 31. This is owing to found in these wheat soils. The nitrates the fact that nitrification takes place are in some cases (Plots 3, 4, 16, 5 , 17,

chiefly near the surface, where the soil is 6) entirely derived from the oxidation of richest in nitrogenous matter, and most the nitrogenous organic matters of the freely exposed to air. After a continu- soil, consisting primarily of crop and

ance of rainy weather, the nitrates would weed residues, and the dead bodies of be found much more evenly distributed.

insects and other animals ; for it should

On Plot gb, manured with nitrate of not be forgotten that the soil of our

soda only, the nitrates are most abundant fields is a burial-ground. On other more in the subsoil. Here a considerable part highly manured plots the nitrates are of the nitrate applied in spring has not been assimilated by the crop, owing to the poverty of the soil in ash constituents: it has remained in the soil all the

mainly derived from a similar source (which in many cases is much more con siderable, as the growth on the land has been much greater), but there is, in ad

summer, and reached by drainage and dition, more or less nitrate which has diffusion a lower depth than the nitrate resulted directly from the ammonia or newly formed after harvest. Nitrates in Soil without Nitrogenous

Manure.

The

nitrate applied , and which has existed

as nitrateall through the summer. There three unman- is, farther, on Plots 19 and 2, but espe

ured plots yield an average of 16.9 lb. cially on the latter, nitrate derived from the oxidation of organic manure. inches of soil. With a liberal supply The quantities of nitrates found in

of nitrogen as nitric acid per acre in

of ash constituents this is increased to

October in these Broadbalk soils must

22.8 lb. It is now known that phos- be considered as decidedly above an phates favour nitrification ; their effect average, the large rainfall in August

will only be perceived by comparison producing a specially early and vigorous with a soil exhausted of phosphates. Nitrates, where Ammonia Applied .

nitrification .

Losses by Autumn and Winter

-With an annual dressing of 200 lb. Drainage. As an example of the ammonia salts, with ash constituents, the serious losses which soil may suffer from

nitric nitrogen rises to 28.7 lb. When autumn and winter drainage, it may be the ammonia is doubled, or an equiva- mentioned that before the spring of 1882 lent quantity of nitrogen as nitrate of there had been removed in drainage from soda is employed, the nitric nitrogen be- these plots of Broadbalk field a quantity comes 39.8 and 37.9 lb. of nitrates equal to from one-half to With an excess of ammonia salts (600 three -quarters of that shown by the lb. ) the nitric nitrogen reaches 42.8 lb. analyses in Table XV. With an excess of nitrate of soda it is

54.1 lb. The plot receiving ammonia

DRAINAGE -WATERS AND THE NITRATES

without ash constituents shows a com OF THE SOIL.

paratively small amount of nitrates in the surface - soil, the crop and weed

residue here being relatively small. Nitrates from Farmyard Manure.

In order to understand fully the facts shown by the drainage-waters, we must say a word, in the first place, as to the

-The largest amount of nitrification composition of the rain falling on the soil. in the surface-soil occurs on the plot reRain -water . — The rain iscollected at

ceiving farmyard manure. The first 9 Rothamsted in a gauge having an area inches contains 30 lb. of nitric nitrogen of 1-100oth of an acre. The nitrogen per acre ; in 27 inches the total is 52.2 as ammonia which it contains amounts Ib. The large amount of nitrogeninthis to 2.4 lb. per acre per annum ; the

soil has been already noticed in the pre- nitrogen as nitric acid to barely 1 lb. ceding section.

The chlorine is 14.4 lb., equal to 24 lb. Sources of the Nitrates in the Soil. of common salt. The sulphuric acid is

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS .

157

equivalent to 17.3 lb. of sulphuric anhy-

Evaporation and Drainage.-The dride per acre per annum . The amount proportion of the rainfall which passes

of organic nitrogen has been determined in some samples of Rothamsted rainwater by Dr E. Frankland. If we take this amount as expressing the average composition, the total combined nitrogen in the rain -water becomes a little over 4 lb. per acre per annum . The nitrogen in rain is thus small in quantity, while the chlorides and sulphates are rather considerable, and equal or even exceed the amounts presentin most farm crops.

through a soil depends, if there is no surface drainage, entirely on the amount of evaporation that takes place from the surface. The amount of drainage is, in fact, the amount of rainfall minus the amount of water evaporated. The evapo

ration is of course much greater in sum mer than in winter.

It is also much

greater from a soil covered by a crop

than from bare soil. Periods of Drainage . - In an average

season comparatively little drainage oc curs in the seven months March to Sep

The Drain -gauges.

Since 1870, the amount of drainage tember. The period of active drainage

has been determined at Rothamsted by is the five months October to February. means of three drain - gauges, of the With land bearing a crop the amount of respective depths of 20, 40, and 60 summer drainage will be still further

inches, andThe of the area of 1-1000th of reduced, and the autumn drainage com soil which they contain mence somewhat later.

an acre .

is in its natural state of consolidation, Chlorides in Drainage. Since May the gauges having been constructed 1877, the amount of chlorine, and the by cutting under the soil, and then amount of nitrogen as nitrates, have

isolating the block of soil by building been systematically determined in the The mixed drainage of each month. Average

round it with brick and cement.

soil has been kept free from weeds. No results for 11 years are given in Table XVI.

manure has been applied.

TABLE XVI. —THE AMOUNT OF DRAINAGE, AND THE NITROGEN AS NITRATES IN THE DRAINAGE WATER, FROM UNMANURED BARE SOIL, 20 AND 60 INCHES DEEP, AVERAGE OF ELEVEN YEARS. NITROGEN AS NITRATES. AMOUNT OF DRAINAGE.

inches. 1.60

March

April

20 Inch

60 - Inch

20 - Inch

60 - Inch

20 -Inch

60 - Inch

Gauge.

Gauge .

Gauge.

Gauge.

Gauge.

Gauge.

inches .

inches.

0.78

0.88

9.0

0.82

0.90 0.70

7.5 8.2 9.0 9.5 15.4 15.9 17.8 14.1

2.31 2.50

0.69

2.40

0.66

2.50

0.52

2.67 2.88 3.26 3.26 2.48

0.85

February

2.14 2.31

1.82

March - June

July - September

May June July August September

Per Acre.

Per Million of Water.

RAINFALL

0.66 0.45 0.76

Ib.

8.9 10.3 9.7 13.3 14.0

Ib.

1.80 1.82

1.33 1.53 1.40 1.42 1.81 3.05 4.32

2.78

4.83

1.63 1.45 1.35 2.40

1.07 1.97

0.91

12.1

6.30

2.48

11.3

11.4

6.64

6.13

9.4 7.3 7.6

10.6

9.0

4.19 3.00 3.41

4.72 3.91

1.99

2.36 1.96 1.98 1.87

3.80

8.81

2.95

3.14

8.5

9.4

5.68

6.70

8.05

2.44

2.12

16.6

13.6

9.18

6.53

October -February

13:45

10.23

9.94

10.2

10.4

23.54

23.39

Whole year

30.31

15.62

15.20

10.9

10.6

38.40

36 62

October . November December

January

.

1.97

1.77

13.5

8.7

MANURES AND MANURING .

158

The amount of chlorides found in the maximum strength for the year, though

water from the drain -gauges, when cal-

on an average the maximum is a little

culated as pounds per acre,is found to later. The largest quantity of nitrates

be practically identical with that fur- is not, however, discharged till the season nished by the rain.

The soil in the of active drainage commences in October.

drain -gauges has thus apparently been After November the amount discharged thoroughly washed out, and all residues in the drainage-water diminishes, the soil being gradually washed out.

of soluble manure removed.

Nitrates in Drainage. — The quanNitrification does indeed continue dur tity of nitrates in the water from the ing winter time (probably not in actual

drain - gauges is very large, amounting in the drainage from 20 inches of soil to 38.4 lb. , and in the drainage from 60 inches of soil to 36.6 lb. per acre per annum . Of this quantity only about 4 lb. could possibly be supplied by the

frost ), but with far less activity than in summer .

From the 20 -inch drain -gauge,

61 per cent of the nitrates annually dis charged are expelled in the drainage of five months — October to February. The proportion for the same period with the

rain ; the remainder has come from the 60-inchgauge is 64 per cent. oxidation of the nitrogenous organic matter of the soil.

Total Production of Nitrates in the

Soil. — The 36-38 lb. of nitric nitrogen

Nitrification and Bacteria . - Nitri- discharged on an average each year from fication in soil is now known to be the drain-gauges, may be regarded as rep accomplished by the agency of a bac- resenting the average annual production terium . This requires for its action the in the soil. The rate of production is

presence of water; the ash constituents apparently diminishing, the easily oxi of plant-food ; a salifiable base, as car- dised nitrogenous matter contained in bonate of lime, with which the nitric

the soil becoming slowly exhausted. We

acid may combine; a suitable tempera- shall see, by-and -by, that the rate of pro ture ; and the presence of sufficient duction in a manured soil, or in a bare oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere. fallow subject to tillage, is considerably Ammonia is apparently the substance which is oxidised into nitric acid.

greater. Lo88 per Acre. — The significance of

The first stage in the nitrification of these results is at once apparent, when we the nitrogenous humic matter of soil is recollect that the amount of nitrogen as probably the production of ammonia. nitrates present in a soil represents the

This production of ammonia is also amount nitrogen as plant These nitrates are apparently the work of bacteria, but food forof most crops. available whether of the same species which pro- annually produced in the soil, and they duces nitrification is at present unknown. are lost with great ease by drainage.

Consistently with these conclusions, The money value of nitrogen in nitrate based on laboratory experiments, it is of soda is, at the present price of this found that nitrates are produced most salt ( £ 11 a ton ), 772d. a pound. The abundantly in moist soils, during warm 38 lb. annually lost by the uncropped weather, and that the production is soil of the drain -gauge are thus worth greatly increased by tillage, and that 245. an acre, and this sum would have ammonia salts, when mixed with a to be spent in manure to replace the

fertile soil, are rapidly converted into waste by drainage, if the fertility of the nitrates .

soil is to be maintained .

Discharge of Nitrates in different The Nitrates in Fallow Soils. Monthş. — On looking at the amounts As the soils of the drain -gauges rep of nitrogen as nitrate found in the monthly drainage from the soils of the resent a bare untilled fallow in an drain - gauges, it will be seen that the exhausted soil, it will be most conveni smallest amount is found in March . ent to mention here the amounts of

After this month the strength of the drainage-water slowly rises. In July a great stride is made, and the drainagewater in this month has sometimes the

nitrogen as nitrates found in ordinary farmed soils at Rothamsted at the end of a season of bare fallow . Three analyses of soil, taken in September or

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

159

October, from different fields, in fair laid in 1849, at from 2 to 3 feet below agricultural

56.5,

the surface. Since 1866 the lower end

58.8, and 59.9 lb. of nitrogen as nitrates per acre, in 27 inches from the surface. When the preceding summer had been dry, the principal part of this nitrogen (40 lb. ) was found in the first

condition, showed

of each pipe has discharged into a small pit, so that the drainage-water can be collected from the end of the pipe. The series of pits are connected by a large cross-drain which keeps them free from

9 inches.

water. There is no means of gauging

In bare fallows, on unmanured and the quantity of water discharged from exhausted land, 33.7 and 36.3 lb. of each plot, nor would any measurement nitrogen as nitrates were found. give a correct idea of the amount of

All these amounts represent the quan- drainage, as much drainage must occur tity left in the soil at the end of fourteen through the soil itself. or fifteen months fallow .

If we estimate

Run of Water in different Months.

the probable amount lost by drainage -There is no continuous run of water

during the seasons in question, it will from these pipes. The discharge ceases The

appear that about 80 to 90 lb. of nitric soon after the cessation of rain .

nitrogen had been produced per acre in the dates on which each pipe has run since better soils during the period of fallow . 1866 have been recorded . As an ex ample of the distribution of the dis The Nitrates in Cropped Soils. charge throughout the year, we will take The determinations of nitric acid in the case of the pipe from the unmanured soils that have just grown a cereal crop land, Plots 3 and 4. This pipe has

show a very small amount existing in the discharged in July, August, and Sep soil. On permanently unmanured wheat tember, only on nine, six, and eight days land there was found, after harvest in respectively during twenty years. In

1878, only 2.6 lb. of nitrogen as nitric October active drainage commences, 35 minable quantity in the second 9 inches. In November the runnings reach59, and

acid in the first 9 inches, and no deter- daily runnings occurring in twenty years .

The same land was sampled again in in December and January 60 and 61 .

March 1881 (it had been left unploughed In February there is a diminution,the through the winter )-it then contained total being 42. In March the runnings in the first 27 inches 14.5 lb. of nitric are only 18 , and the monthly total still further diminishes as summer is nitrogen.

In September 1877, after a good crop approached. of barley, grown with nitrate of soda,

Heavy Crops and Drainage. - On

15.7 lb. of nitric nitrogen were found in those plots which bear the heaviest crops the first 9 inches of soil, but in 45 inches the runnings are less frequent in spring

below this depth only 6.2 lb. The nitrate and summer, and begin somewhat later at the surface had probably been formed in autumn. Farmyard Manure and Drainage. in great part since the active growth of the crop had ceased . -The drain -pipe from the plot receiving The nitrates found in the wheat plots farmyard manure runs less frequently of Broadbalk field have been already than any other. This is apparently due

noticed in detail ; in this case the sam- (at least in part) to the greater power of pling of the soil did not take place till retaining water possessed by the soil the middle of October, after heavy rain, this plot. Determinations made in Jan and the ploughing of the land, had caused uary 1869, when the soil of the field was vigorous nitrification to take place. saturated with water, showed that in the

feet, thecontained soil continuously manured with 3 dung 214 tons more The Drainage -waters of Broadbalk Field . first

The principal plots of Broadbalk field water per acre than the permanently consist of two “ lands,” each 478 yards unmanured land.

wide, and forming the two halves, a and b, of the plot. The length of the plots is 352 yards. Under the furrow , in the

1. Ash Constituents lost in Drainage. Several series of drainage -waters col

middle of each plot, is a drain - pipe, lected in 1866-68 were analysed by Dr

MANURES AND MANURING.

160

Other series, collected in in Jour. Royal Agric. Soc., 1874, p . 132 ; 1868-73, were analysed by Dr E. Frank- 1881 , p. 1 . land. Since 1876 , determinations of the We will, in the first place, call atten

Voelcker.

nitrates and chlorides have been made tion to some facts shown by the an at the Rothamsted laboratory, in nearly alyses of Voelcker and Frankland . The

every running, or in mixtures of the following table gives the mean of five runnings, of every pipe. The subject analyses by Voelcker and five by Frank is a large one. We can only here dwell land, of the drainage -waters from the on the points of greatest practical im- principal plots. portance ; further details will be found TABLE XVII. -MEAN OF TEN ANALYSES OF BROADBALK DRAINAGE -WATER BY VOELCKER

AND FRANKLAND, 1866-73, in PaRtS PER MILLION. Total Solid

Plots .

3&4 5 7

8 9 IO II 2

Lime and Magnesia.

228 330 450 542

99 132 171 207

615

222

406 442 490

126 173 197 123

367

Nitrogen as Chlorine.

10.4 10.7 23.5 33.9 44.8

Nitrates .

3.9 4.7

9.0 15.9 20.2

12.4

16.0

37.1

17.6

38.6

19.4 11.5

19.4

Unmanured Plot Drainage. — The stituents applied on Plot 5 , the solid drainage from the permanently unman- contents of the drainage -waters rise in ured plots, 3 and4, is seen to have con- proportion to the quantity of ammonia tained 228 of solid matter per million of salts added . Thus in the drainage water ; the principal constituents of this waters from Plots 6, 7, and 8, to which

solid matter are lime salts, chiefly the 200, 400, and 600 lb. of ammonia salts are applied, the proportion of total solid

carbonate.

Ash Constituents Plot Drainage.- matter is respectively 450, 542, and 615 The superphosphate, and the sulphates per million . of potash, soda, and magnesia applied to

The ammonia salts used in these exper

Plot 5 , considerably increase the contents iments are composed of equal parts sul of the drainage -water, the solid matter phate and chloride. The solid matter

rising to 330 per million. The sulphate which they remove from the soil consists of lime in the superphosphate, and the chiefly of the sulphate, chloride, and sulphate of soda, are the chief constitu- nitrate of lime. ents of the manure which appear in the Ammonia Salts robbing a Soil of drainage-water. The sulphates of potash Lime. The whole of the sulphuric acid and magnesia do not appear directly in and chlorine contained in the ammonia the drainage-water, but by acting on the salts probably combines with the lime of

lime in the soil, they contribute a fur- the soil. The nitric acid produced by

ther quantity of sulphate of lime to the the oxidation of the ammonia will also unite with lime, and if not appropriated drainage. Ammonia Salts and Drainage.- by the roots of the crop, the nitrate of

When ammonia salts are applied to the lime will also appear in the drainage land ,the quantity of matter removed in water. This action of ammonia salts in the drainage - water is much increased. impoverishing a soil of lime must be Thus the application of 400 lb. of am- borne in mind whenever their application monia salts alone to Plot 10 raises the to a soil poor in lime is in question. solid matter to 442 per million. When Nitrate of Soda and Lime. - The ammonia salts are added to the ash con-

nitrate of soda applied on Plot

9 has ap

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

161

parently little or no influence in increas- The former proportion would, with the ing theproportion of lime in the drainage- drainage previously assumed, correspond water. Asonly one-half the plot receives to a loss of 3.6 lb., and the latter to a ash constituents, the amount of lime ap- loss of 9.5 lb. per acre per annum . plied as manure is one -half that received

It must be recollected, however, that

by Plot 5. Although receiving some lime both potash and phosphoric acid would, in the manure, the quantity present in in theabsence of drain -pipes, be retained

the drainage-water is considerably less in great part by the subsoil. than in the water from Plot 10, receiving

Soda in Drainage. - Soda is shown

ammonia salts without lime.

by Voelcker's analyses to be present in

Lime and Magnesia lost in Drainage. — For the purpose of illustrating the

much larger quantity in the drainage water. The water from six plots receiv

annual losses of lime and magnesia 1 ing no soda as manure contained a mean which the soil suffers by drainage, we of 6.1 of soda per million. The water will assume that the average annual from five plots receiving 100 lb. of sul drainage in Broadbalk field amounts to phate of soda, gave 11.6 per million. 10 inches (2/4 million lb. per acre), and Where 36672 lb. of sulphate of soda that ithas the composition shown in are applied ( Plot 12 ), the amount became The lime and magnesia 24.6 per million. Where 550 lb. of Table XVII. annually lost by the unmanured Plots, nitrate of soda were used ( Plot 9), the 3 and 4, will then be 223 lb.; by Plot soda is increased to 56.1 per million.

5, receiving only ash constituents, 297

These results illustrate the well-known

lb.; by Plot 9, receiving nitrate of soda

fact that soil has a far less retentive

and half a dressing of ash constituents, power for soda than for potash. The 284 lb.; by Plot 10, receiving 400 lb. soda in the drainage from the unmanured of ammonia salts alone, 389 lb. ; by Plot land was probably derived from rain .

11, receiving 400 lb. of ammonia salts Chlorine and Sulphuric Acid in with superphosphate, 443 lb.; and by Drainage .-- The chlorine and the sul Plots 6, 7, 8, receiving, on an average, phuric acid in the manures are not re the same manure as Plot it, with the tained by the soil, but appear freely in sulphates of potash, soda, and magnesia the drainage -waters. Drainage from Dunged Plot . — The in addition, 450 lb. per acre. As the quantity of lime and magnesia in the scanty drainage from the farmyard man annual dressing of ash constituents is ure plot ( 2), though much stronger than only 104 lb. , the amount lost is greatly that from the unmanured land, is by no in excess of that applied to the land.

means so concentrated as that from many

These results are good examples of the plots receivingartificial manure.

It is ,

losses of lime occurring both on unman- according to Voelcker, specially rich in ured and on manured land. The neces- sulphuric acid. sity of restoring lime to many soils after

a number of years is well known. Phosphoric Acid in Drainage.-

2. Nitrates Lost in Drainage.

We turn now to the part of the subject

Theamount of phosphoric acid found by which, in recent years, has been most Dr Voelcker in the drainage-waters was thoroughly investigated at Rothamsted very small ; the average of all the deter- namely, the loss of nitrates in the drain

minations is 0.93 per million. With 10 age -waters. inches of annual drainage, this would Not only the nitrates, but also the amount to a loss of 2.1 lb. per acre. chlorides removed in the drainage have

Potash in Drainage.The drainage- been determined. From the results re water from six plots receiving no potash lating to chlorides many valuable facts in their manurecontained, on an average, have been learnt. Indeed, without the 1.6 of potash per million ; the waters information which they afford, our inter

from eight plots receiving potash con- pretation of the course of action which tained an average of 4.2 per million . takes place would be uncertain or imper 1 The magnesia shown in Voelcker's analyses fect. We shall here, however, confine ourselves as far as possible to the results relating to nitrates. the lime. is small in amount, generally 4 to 5 per cent of VOL. II .

L

MANURES AND MANURING .

162

Unmanured Plot.- We take first the XVIII. shows the average monthly pro case of the wheat land which is left portion of nitrogen as nitrates, and of permanently without manure. Table chlorine present in the drainage-waters. TABLE XVIII. - NITROGEN AS NITRATES AND CHLORINE IN THE DRAINAGE OF UNMANURED

WHEAT LAND, AVERAGE OF Eight YEARS, 1878-86. Per Million of Water.

Rurnings of

Nitrogen to 100 Chlorine.

Drain -pipes

( Days).

March

April May :

Nitrogen as Nitrates.

7

2.0

IO

1.9 0.8

6

June

O. I

July August September

0.0

Chlorine.

0.2

4.5 4.3 3.3 2.9 1.7 2.4 9.0 9.3

October November December

20

January February

14

3.9 4.9 3.2 5.0 3.2

34

4. I

6. I

March - May June -August September - November December - February .

23 18

1.6 0. I

4.3

4.1 2.4 8.0 6.1

3.4

6.0

Whole year

5 25 26

50 74

4.0

165

6.7 6.8 4.8

43.5 12.7

5.2

50.8 61.1

67-3 39.3 4.5

49.8

69.6 55.8

Loss of Nitrates Checked by Crop. energy as the weather becomes colder, -The nitrates in the drainage - waters and the amount of nitrate in the water

from the uncropped soil of the drain- diminishes to some extent, but is fairly gauges increased in proportion as the maintained till after February, when the spring advanced, and the waters attained nitrate is once more taken up by the their maximum strength between July new crop. and September. Here, on the land The course of change shown in the bearing an unmanured wheat crop, the table is not regular, because in some of

nitrates diminish as the spring advances, the seasons drainage did not commence and soon entirely disappear .

In fact, till winter, and the maximum strength

out of the 18 collections of drainage- of the water was consequently post

waters made during eight years in June, poned. July, and August, there were only two which contained any nitrate.

The chlorine in the drainage-water is derived from rain .

It is permanently

The nitrates are thus entirely re- assimilated by the crop to only a small moved from the upper 272 feet of soil extent. The relation of nitric nitrogen (the depth above the drain -pipes) during to chlorine thus serves to indicate the the period of active growth of the crop. formation or removal of nitrates in the Loss Resumes when Crop is Re- soil.

moved . — After the crop has been removed from the land, the first drainagewater collected is sure to contain nitrates The proportion rapidly increases, and, if the season is wet, a maximum is reached in October. Nitrification diminishes in

Dung Plot. — The nitrates in the drainage from the plot annually manured with farmyard dung show the same course of change that we have just no ticed . The average results of fifty run nings during eight years were as follows.

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

163

The farmyard manure is ploughed in in these salts become mixed with the soil October : they are speedily decomposed, the chlo TABLE XIX . - NITROGEN AS NITRATES IN THE

rine and sulphuric acid combine with the

lime of the soil, forming soluble salts YARD MANURE, AVERAGE OFEIGHT YEARS, which can be removed byrain, while the DRAINAGE OF WHEAT LAND RECEIVING FARM

ammonia is retained near the surface in

1878-86. Runnings Nitrogen as Nitrates, pipes per Million , (Days).

of Drain

combination with the hydrous silicates, the humus, and the ferric oxide of the soil.

If, therefore, drainage occurs immedi ately after the application of the am

March - May

4

2.9

June- August September - November December - February

5

1.2

15 26

8.2 5.8

50

5.8

monia salts, much chlorine and sulphuric acid are found in the drainage-water, with some ammonia, butthere is no con

siderable increase in the quantity of nitric acid .

Whole year

After a few days the nitric

acid in the drainage is much increased, while the chlorides have begun to diminish .

The drainage is seen to be considerably We may quote, as an illustration of richer in nitrates than that from the what we have been saying, some analyses unmanured land, but it is by no means of the drainage-water of Plot 15 made in as rich as we should expect from the very the autumn and winter of 1880-81. 400 large amount of nitrogenous manure lb. of ammonia salts were applied to this

applied. We shall refer to this point plot on October 25 , 1880, and then ploughed in.

again.

Heavy rain occurred on

Ammonia Salts . — We turn next to the night of the 26th, and the drain -pipe These, was found running the next morning. as used at Rothamsted, are a mixture of The analyses of the drainage-waters are

the behaviour of ammonia salts.

equal parts chloride and sulphate. When given in Table XX . TABLE XX . - COMPOSITION OF THE DRAINAGE -WATER OF PLOT 15 BEFORE AND AFTER THE APPLICATION OF AMMONIA SALTS ON OCT. 25, 1880, IN PARTS PER MILLION , Nitrogen as Date of Collection .

1880 , October 10

1880, October 27, 6.30 A.M. 11

11

11

11

11

I P.M.

28 29

November 15, 16

Nitrogen as

Nitrogen as

Ammonia .

Nitrates.

none

8.4

9.0

6.5 2.5 1.5 none

19, 26 December 22, 29, 30

1881, February 2, 8, 10

I!

13.5 12.9

16.7 16.9 50.8 34.6 21.7 22.9

Chlorine,

Nitrates to roo

Chlorine.

22.7

37.0

146.4

9.2

116.6 95.3 80.8 54.2 47.6 23.2 19.4

II . I

17.5 20.9 93.7 72.7 93.5 118.0

The occurrence of ammonia in the hours after the application of the am It is only present in any distinct quan- its maximum proportion. After the tity when, as in this instance, heavy rain middle of November the nitrates steadi

Rothamsted drainage-waters is unusual. monia salts, and in three weeks it reached

follows immediately after applying the ly declined , but not so rapidly as the ammonia salts.

It will be observed that the nitric acid

chlorides.

The proportion of nitrogen

to chlorine thus continued to increase

began to rise in the drainage-water forty throughout the winter.

MANURES AND MANURING .

164

When ammonia salts are applied as a average composition of the drainage top -dressing in spring, they are, from the waters in four seasons of the year. The drier character of the season, less liable first period is from the top -dressing of to the rapid removal of their constituents the ammonia salts and nitrate of soda in March till the end of May. The into the drainage -water. Relation of Manure to Loss of second period is from the beginning of Nitrates. - The relation of the character

June till harvest.

The third is from

of the manuring to the contents in ni- harvest to the autumn sowing of the trates of the drainage -waters from the wheat, when farmyard manure and гаре

principal plots in Broadbalk field, is cake are ploughed in on their respective shown in Table XXI. , which gives the plots, and ammonia salts applied to Plot TABLE XXI. - NITROGEN AS NITRATES IN DRAINAGE -WATERS FROM VARIOUSLY MANURED WHEAT

LAND, AVERAGE OF FIVE YEARS, 1878-83, IN PARTS PER MILLION.

Plots.

Spring Sowing to

June to

end of

Harvest.

Harvest to Autumn

Autumn Sowing to

Sowing.

Spring Sowing.

5.6 5.6 7.3 14.7 14.3

3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 7.3 6.8

12.3

11.5

6.3

9.9

May.

3 & 4 Unmanured 5 7 8

gab

Do. , ammonia salts, 200 lb. 400 lb, 600 lb.

21.5

11

nitrate of soda, 550 lb. Ammonia salts, 400 lb. 11

IO II

Superphosphates, ammonia salts,

15

Ash constituents, ammonia salts,

19

Rape-cake .

400 lb. 400 lb. 2

O. I

1.7 1.7 8.1

Ash constituents

0.2

Whole Year.

3.5 3.9 5.0 6.4 9.3

28.6

0.7 1.4 4.0 9. I 11.4

19.5

5.8

9.2

7.1

8.5

5.7 4.7 2.7

2.9 0.5 1.4

7.4 8.2 7.4

26.4

19.4

12.5 7.3

IO. I

16.3

48.4

.

Farmyard manure

8.3

5.6

Looking next at Plots 6, 7, and 8, 15 . The fourth period embraces the winter months, from autumn sowing to which receive rising quantities of am the spring top -dressing.

monia salts with ash constituents, we see

Only fairly general runnings of the drain -pipes are taken into account, so that the comparison between the plots may be as accurate or possible. The numbers given for Plots 2 and 19 are,

that they are all liable to suffer loss of

however, the average of but 45 and 53

nitrates in the spring period, after the top -dressing of the ammonia salts in March, the loss being greatest on Plot 8, where most ammonia is applied. Not withstanding the very considerableamount

analyses respectively, in place of 78 to 87 of nitrate produced from the ammonia in the case of the other plots, as the salts, it is usually found to have dis

drain -pipes of the two plots first named appeared entirely from Plot 6 , and to have disappeared, or have been reduced ran but seldom . The general change in the amount of to a very small quantity, from Plot 7, nitrates with the season of the year has when the drains run in summer time.

been already discussed in the case of the Plot 8 receives nitrogen in excess of drainage-water from the unmanured plot. what the crop can assimilate. The nic We may now confine ourselves to the trates here do not disappear in summer, though the quantity is greatly dimin influence of manure. With the application of ash constitu- ished.

ents to the soil (Plot 5) there is some in-

In a very mild early spring, as that crease in the proportion of nitrates over of 1882, the nitrates may disappear from that produced without manure, but no Plot 6 , and be reduced to little more change in the general character of the than a trace on Plot 7 , by the first week in May. In other seasons a similar di drainage.

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS.

165

minution may not occur till June or nitrates , and their removal from the soil in the drainage-water, affords an ample When the drains commence running explanation. after harvest, Plot 8 shows signs of the Nitrate of Soda. There is but one July.

existence of nitrate that has remained plot (9) on which we have the results of

unused through the summer ; but the the direct application of nitrates. The excess of Plots 6 and 7 over Plot 5 is numbers given for the nitric nitrogen but small.

should be compared with the mean of

The winter drainage shows a sur- Plots 7 and 10, since one half of Plot 9

prising equality, the amount of nitrates receives ash constituents and compares removed from Plots 5 , 6, and 7 being with 7, and the other half receives none more equal than the total nitrogen and compares with 10. Thus viewed , contained in their surface -soils.

Excess Nitrogen Lost in Drainage.

the loss of nitric nitrogen on Plot 9 is seen to be much greater than that of

–The results afforded by Plots 10 and ammonia salts applied at the same time. 11 are most instructive. The same quan- It is evident, indeed, that the nitrate is tityof ammonia salts is applied here as ready for removal directly it is applied , on Plot 7, but on Plot 10 without ash while in the case of ammonia, time must constituents, and on Plot 11 with super- be allowed for nitrification. phosphate only. The result is that on For this reason nitrate of soda is al

these plots, and particularly on 10, the ways applied in spring to a growing crop, crop is unable to assimilate the nitrogen which can at once commence the assimi Notwithstanding,

supplied . The nitrates consequently are

lation of the manure.

found in considerable quantity all through summer, and a distinct residue remains after harvest The winter drainage, however, generally removes all excess, and

however, the larger loss to which nitrates are liable, so active is the manuring power of nitrate of soda, that, as we have already seen, it actually produces

the crop starts the next spring no richer more effect upon

the crop

than

the

for the unused nitrate of the previous same quantity of nitrogen applied as year.

ammonia .

Winter Application of Ammonia

A part of the efficacy of nitrate of

Salts Ruinous .- On Plot 15 the am-

soda is doubtless due to the fact that it

monia salts which are applied on Plot 7

leaves an alkali in the soil, while am

in the spring are here applied in October ; monia salts leave an acid . the salts are not top -dressed, but ploughed Nitrogenous Organic Manures. in. The winter drainage is here ex- The composition of the drainage-waters

tremely rich in nitrates, and as no crop is then growing, the losses are often extremely heavy. On an average of five years, the drainage-water has contained for the whole year 19.4 per million of nitric nitrogen, as compared with 6.4 in the case of Plot 7, where the ammonia is

from Plots 2 and 19 , to which organic nitrogenous manures (farmyard manure and rape - cake) are applied, does not fairly compare with the results given by the other plots, as these drain -pipes run much less frequently. These organic manures, from their slower nitrification, applied in March. accumulate nitrogen in the soil during Practical Conclusions. These re- the earlier years of their application. sults furnished by the drainage -waters

The soil thus enriched with nitrogen

explain in a striking manner the results ous matter produces nitrates more evenly

already shown by the crops. We have throughout the year than soils to which now no difficulty in understanding why ammonia salts are applied once in the a spring dressing of ammonia salts is season . This, however, will scarcely in most seasons superior to an autumn prove an advantage when land is cropped dressing. The reason why the unused with cereals, as nitrates will be freely

nitrogen of an abundant application of produced in autumn and winter when ammonia salts produces no effect on the there is no crop to appropriate them . The rape-cake contains nearly the same

crop of the following season is equally

manifest. In both cases the conversion amount of nitrogen as 400 lb. of am of the nitrogen of the manure into soluble monia salts. According to the figures in

166

MANURES AND MANURING.

the table, the drainage-water contains for the whole year an average of 10.1 of nitrogen per million. This is much less than the autumn - sown ammonia salts, which give 19.4, but more than the spring-

of nitrates undoubtedly takes place in seasons in which the period of drainage has been short, and the depth to which the nitrates are carried is therefore not considerable. On the other hand, the recovery, after sown ammonia salts, which show 6.4 or

9.9, according as ash constituents are long -continued rain, must be very small, applied or not. the nitrates being carried below the The farmyard manure plot shows a possible action of the roots. much smaller quantity of nitrates in the Thus in good seasons the drain-pipes drainage -water than we should expect may rob the crop to some extent, while from the large amount of nitrogen in the in very wet seasons they do not really manure, and especially from the large diminish the supply of soluble food,

amountof nitrate found in the soil in while they make the crop more vigorous autumn by direct analysis (Table XV.) by removing the excess of water. Nitrogen Evolved as Gas.-It seems

very probable that a considerable part of the nitrates produced on the farmyard manure plot are afterwards destroyed, and the nitrogen evolved as gas. This action is now well known to agricultural chemists. It takes place in soils rich in

Nitrates in Deep -well Waters. We can only here just refer to an

investigation concerning the drainage water which exists at great depths in the soil - namely, in deep wells. The chalk - well waters at Rothamsted and

organic matter, and ill provided with air. Harpenden have been subjected to a It will thus chiefly occur when the soil monthly examination, extending over is for some time saturated with water.

3. Do Drain -pipes Increase the Loss ?

two or three years. The unpolluted well - water, at depths from 60 to 140

feet below the surface, is found to be of In concluding this survey of the losses nearly uniform composition. It contains suffered by drainage, it may fairly be 4.4 of nitrogen as nitrates, and 10 to 11

asked: Would the losses have been as of chlorine per million of water. considerable if the field had not been

This

is the final result of the drainage from a

provided with drain - pipes, especially large area of land under pasture and with pipes so near to the surface as 272 arable. Analyses of 109 pure well and The amount of water passing spring waters, from various geological downwards through the surface - soil formations, gave Dr E. Frankland a would, of course, be the same whether mean of 3.8 nitric nitrogen and 16.5 feet ?

pipes were present or not.

All that the

of chlorine.

pipes have done is to remove a portion of Taking the higher figure of 4.4, the the drainage-water before it had passed loss of nitrogen will be 1 lb. per acre below 2/2 feet of soil. If the nitrates for each inch of drainage. With the

that have passed below 272 feet of soil lower figure of 3.8, the loss will be may afterwards be of service to the crop, 0.86 lb. per inch . Assuming the aver then the action of the drain-pipes has age drainage for England, excluding the tended to diminish the food -supply, and

extreme western counties, as 8 inches per annum , we have 8 lb. of nitrogen as the annual loss by drainage, according to The influence of subsoil nitrates on the the evidence of the chalk wells, and 6.9 crop must depend very much on the lb. as the loss calculated from Frank character of the spring and summer. land's analyses. The loss from arable

increase the amount of waste. Influence of Subsoil Nitrates.-

If these are warm and fairly dry, the land will be, of course, much greater crop becomes vigorous, extends its roots, than this, while that of pasture will and evaporates through its leaves much be less, the figure given being clearly more water than is then supplied to it by a mean of all. The average loss of nitrogen by drain rain . Under these circumstances a part

of the nitrates that have passed into the age is thus distinctly greater than the subsoil in winter will move upwards, and amount supplied to the land by rain, but be consumed by the crop. This recovery it is probably less than the whole atmo

ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS .

1

167

spheric supply, including the amount unaccounted for loss of nitrogen.

The

absorbed by soil and crop.

simplest case is that of Plot 7. The ammonia salts have supplied 86 lb. of

NITROGEN STATISTICS — THE SUPPLY, AND nitrogen. Assuming, as above, 10 lb. of WHAT BECOMES OF IT.

nitrogen from seed, rain, and air, we have

in all 96 lb. to account for. The average The nitrogen contained in the crops nitrogen in the crop has been 46 lb. ; the

removed from the Rothamsted wheat- estimated loss in drainage 31 lb. ; the field is approximately known. The total is thus 77 lb., leaving about quantity of nitrogen applied as man- not accounted for. ure is also known.

19 Ib.

We have also in-

This is a simple case , as there is no

formation as to the nitrogen in the soil, and as to the nitrogen removed in the drainage-waters. Is it possible, putting these facts together, to tell what has been the supply of nitrogen to the unmanured crops, and what has become

evidence of any serious change in the nitrogen of the soil during the experi ment. The quantity shown as unac counted for is very probably below the truth, as with a larger crop we should expect an increased supply of nitrogen

of the nitrogen applied as manure ? from the atmosphere. On Plot 8 and on Plot 10, where the

The problem is one of the highest interest, and Messrs Lawes and Gilbert have attempted to answer it. Unfortunately the data at command are in part insufficient. The gains and

ammonia is present in excess of the capa city of the crop to assimilate it, and the

quantity of nitrate passing downwards is very considerable, the quantity of nitro

losses of the soil are not exactly known. gen unaccounted for in crop and drainage The composition of the water from the

is much larger than on Plot 7.

drain -pipes does not certainly indicate the general composition of thewater percolating through the soil. The amount of drainage in Broadbalk field is also uncertain, save during the winter months. The figures, therefore, that we have to

farmyard manure annually applied to Plot 2 is estimated to contain 201 lb. of nitrogen. The average crop during thirty -eight years would contain about 46 lb. of nitrogen. The amount lost by

Wheat Annually Dunged.

The

give, must be taken only as probable drainage is very uncertain, but it is pro estimates, founded upon the facts at bably not more than 17 lb. There is command.

further to be taken into account a large

Wheat without Nitrogenous Man gain in the nitrogen of the soil, amount ure. - The unmanured wheat crop has ing to perhaps an average of 42 lb. per in thirty years contained an average of annum ; much more in the earlier years, 18.6 lb. of nitrogen ; the estimated loss and much less in the later ones . We of nitrogen by drainage is 10.3 lb. ; or have here an average of at most 105 lb. 28.9 lb. in all have been removed from of nitrogen accounted for out of 201 lb., the land each year. On Plot 5, receiv- plus that contributed by seed, rain, and ing only ash constituents, the average air received. The average loss thus ap nitrogen in crop is 20.3 lb., and in drain- pears to be about 106 lb. per annum ; age 12 lb. ; total, 32.3 lb. On these much less in the early years of the appli plots the nitrogen in the soil has con- cation, and much more in recent years.

siderably diminished ; the estimated Nitrogen Disappearing . - It will be diminution in the case of Plot 5 is observed that where nitrogenous manure about 20 lb. per annum . There is thus is applied, there is generally a consider left about 10 lb. of nitrogen to be sup- able proportion of the nitrogen which is plied annually by the seed, the rain, not accounted for, either in the crop, the and by direct absorption from the at- soil, or the drainage-water. It is quite

mosphere. If any reduction of nitrates possible that the estimatesof the loss by to nitrogen gas has occurred, the supply drainage are too low. It is difficult,

from the atmosphere would have to be however, to believe that there is not proportionately increased.

some other source of loss, an action , in

Wheat with Ammonia . — The plots fact, which reaches its maximum on the receiving ammonia salts all show an plot annually receiving farmyard manure.

168

MANURES AND MANURING .

This action is most probably the reduction That it is therefore found advantage ous, when there is any considerable re of nitrates to nitrogen gas.

The serious losses of nitrogen which sidual nitrogen in the soil, to sow some attend the continued abundant use of forage crop , such as rye, in the autumn farmyard manure is a fact of great prac- after the removal of a cereal crop, so that tical importance. the growth of the plants may absorb

The waste of manure with high farm- the soluble nitrates ; this forage crop ing must always be proportionately being, perhaps, pastured by sheep, and

greater than when smaller crops are ploughed down in spring. aimed at.

That, for the above reasons, the sys tem of bare fallow facilitates the loss

In addition to the fruitful investiga-

of nitrogen in drainage.

tions thus reported upon by Mr WaringThat lime and magnesia are liable to ton, many important experiments have be washed out of soils in drainage-water. been conducted at Rothamsted. Amongst That the action of ammonia salts tends the other subjects experimented upon are to impoverish a soil of lime. the manuring of other farm crops, the That neither phosphoric acid nor pot feeding of stock, the manurial value of ash is liable to serious loss in drainage. foods, the practice of ensilage, and other

That soils have a far stronger retentive

matters of interest to the farmer. In vari- power for potash than for soda. ous parts of this work we have drawn That the chlorine and sulphuric acid

freely upon the great stores of knowledge supplied in the manure are not retained which have been accumulated by Sir John in the soil, but freely pass away in the Lawes and Dr Gilbert, and which they drainage-water. have with characteristic public spirit That the continued application of

placed so fully at the service of their farmyard manure tends to lessen the discharge of water from drains by in The results of the experiments on bar- creasing the capacity of the soil to retain ley, roots, potatoes, and leguminous crops moisture. will be referred to when we come to treat That the loss of nitrates is prevented of these respective crops. Here it may by a growing crop.

fellow -agriculturists,

be useful to present the following summary of someof the

That immediately on the removal of a crop, any surplus nitrates remaining in the soil, and the nitrates resulting from

Practical Conclusions fresh nitrification, begin to pass away in which may be drawn from, or are further the drainage -water.

confirmed by, the investigations at Roth-

That this washing away of nitrates

amsted as to the behaviour of various will go on till the soil is robbed to a manures in the soil, and the loss in great extent of its available nitrogen. drainage - waters of nitrates and other That when ammonia salts are mixed elements of plant-food . with the soil they are speedily decom

That when nitrates --which are formed posed, the chlorine and sulphuric acid, by the agency of a bacterium - exist in combining with the lime of the soil, anuncropped soil, they are very liable— forming soluble salts, which can be indeed in a wet season certain—to be removed by drainage - water , while the ammonia is retained near the surface washed away in drainage -water. That nitrates are produced most abun- in combination with the hydrous sili dantly in moist soils, and during warm cates, the humus, and the ferric oxide

weather, their production being greatly of the soil. That, therefore, if drain -water begins That nitrification -- the production of to flow immediately after the applica nitrates-continues, though less actively, tion of ammonia salts, much chlorine during mild weather in autumn and and sulphuric acid and some ammonia are washed away, and that after a few winter, ceasing in times of frost.

increased by tillage.

That there is little danger of serious days the rate of loss of nitric acid on loss of nitrates in drainage-water while drainage becomes very serious. the soil is covered with vegetation. That when ammonia salts are applied

EXPERIMENTS ON PHOSPHATIC MANURING.

169

as a top - dressing in spring, they are, crop is ready to commence the assimi owing to the drier season, less liable to lation of it. That with excessive or abundant man the rapid removal of their constituents in the drainage-water. uring the waste of manure will always

That when more nitrogen is applied be proportionately greater than with moderate manuring.

than can be assimilated by the crop to which it is given, the whole of the excess nitrogen remaining in the soil in the form of nitrates, after the removal of the

EXPERIMENTS ON PHOSPHATIC

crop, is generally washed away in winter MANURING . drainage, so that the next crop starts in the following spring no richer for the Their History, Development, and Results. unused nitrates of the previous year. That, in wet seasons,it is ruinous to In 1875 there were at Rothamsted no experiments showing the relative effect apply ammonia salts in winter. That ammoniacal manures should be

of different forms of phosphates ; and,

applied in spring, so as to be speedily other subjects fully engaging attention, used by the crop.. That nitrate of soda is even more

liable to rapid loss by drainage than

the question has not there been taken up, or at least not largely, to the present Yet the annual expenditure for

time,

ammonia salts, for the former is ready phosphatic manurial matter was then, for removal directly it is applied to as now , very great indeed , while the the soil. many forms of phosphate available varied

That, therefore, nitrate of soda should greatly in price. It was a source of great always be applied in spring to a growing national and individual loss if the most crop which can at once commence to effective and economical form was not assimilate the manure. the one generally used, and unfortun That farmyard manure and rape-cake ately no distinct information existed as enrich the soil with nitrogenous matter. to the relative values of the different

That this, however, is not entirely ad- forms. vantageous, as from this store ofnitrogen Unless, however, private enterprise nitrates are freely produced, and washed took the matter in hand, it seemed that

away in drains in autumn and winter, nothing would be accomplished. The after the removal of the crop. That nitrates washed into the subsoil

private station at Rothamsted was fully engaged with other matters. There

by rain -water, are only partially service- were, no doubt, two large and wealthy able to the crop .

agricultural societies --the Royal Agri That the seed of grain, rain -water, and cultural Society of England, and the

the atmosphere, contribute to an unman- Highland and Agricultural Society of ured wheat crop about 10 lb. of nitrogen Scotland ; but they also were fully en

gaged on other matters, more in sym That where nitrogenous manure is ap- pathy with the views of their members

per acre per annum.

plied there is generally a considerable -such as competition in cattle-rearing, proportion of the nitrogen which is not and in implements for mechanical culti accounted for either in the crop, the soil, vation — and these societies were not en or the drainage-water. couraged to enter upon elaborate experi That the missing nitrogen most prob- ments by the fact that the little which

ably passes away into theatmosphere in

had been done in that direction had not

the form of nitrogen gas.

fulfilled expectation.

That there is from this cause a serious

That such experiments did not come

loss of nitrogen where farmyard manure up to expectation was due to a want of the development and continuance of the is applied abundantly. That the risks of loss are reduced to experiments : they were too limited, and a minimum , by giving only as much too desultory to reach the profitable nitrogen as will supply the wants of point. Work that had no outward show,

the crop to which it is to be given, and in its firststages no tangible benefit,

and by applying the manure when the could hardly be expected to appeal to

170

MANURES AND MANURING.

those with whom the whole subject was Barclay, M.P., who was familiar with the not only more or less a mystery, but manure trade and with farming, and had was indeed looked at rather with sus- given close attention to the scientific picion. This suspicion was engendered aspect of the question ; by Mr John

both by the feeling that artificial manure Milne, Mains of Laithers, farmer, man was a departure from the old -fashioned ure manufacturer, and holder of the

idea of substantial and solid manuring Highland Society's diploma ; by Mr Ran in the form of dung, and also by the ald Macdonald, factor on the Cluny es feeling that the result of artificialman- tates ; and by the chemist to the Associ

uringwasevanescent, if not positively ation. The scheme of experiments, pro hurtful. This, in fact, farmers had prob- visionally made, was thus scanned from

ably actually experienced, not being all all aspects, and was then laid before the so well trained in agricultural science as committee (presided over by the Marquis to distinguish between suitable and un- of Huntly ), fully discussed, and finally

suitable manure, nor to perceive that adjusted ." It will thus be seen that its perfect artificial manure is natural plant- scientific accuracy and direct practical food, and that while there were evanes- bearing were well assured. cent and hurtful forms, there might also

The Experimental Stations . — Five

different sites were fixed upon, at alti It was not therefore surprising that tudes varying from 1 to 400 feet above

be more reliable and economical forms.

all appeals made by advanced members sea - level; at distances from the sea

of these societies that experiments should varying from 2 to30 miles ; and repre be performed, fell on unsympathetic ears ; senting soils of different characters and while there was also a tendency to point different degrees of fertility ; the depth to Rothamsted as already doing all that of mould varying from 8 to 36 inches ;

was necessary, although, as has been while the subsoils represented crumbling stated, the points were actually not granite, gravel, and sand, yellow clay, touched there which the farmer really bluish clay, and stiff red clay. Size of Plot.— Each site was about required to know . two acres in size, and was enclosed by a substantial fence. ABERDEENSHIRE EXPERIMENTS .

This area gave space

for a large number of plots, of the size

that hadbeen so highly recommended by It was under these circumstances that the late Professor Anderson, chemist to

an effort was made in Aberdeenshire to the Highland and Agricultural Society deal with the question. The work was viz. , iloth part of an acre. taken up successfully and carried on conIt may be mentioned in

passing, that tinuously for seven years, by the Aber- Professor Anderson arrived at this size

deenshire Agricultural Association, which after much experience with experiments in 1882 wasdeveloped by the addition of on a larger scale.

It may also be men

a farm , laboratory , museum, &c., under tioned that the same experience was got

the name of the Agricultural Research in Aberdeenshire ; preliminary experi Association for the North -Eastern Coun- ments on itth and on th acre plots ties of Scotland.

having been made, while along with the

At the request of the Editor of this large number of ligth acre plots, a large edition of The Book of the Farm , Pro- field was divided into 14th acre plots.

fessor Thomas Jamieson, F.I.C.,chemist This experience gradually led to a clearer to the Association, who has all along discernment of the objectionable features had the active management of the ex- of large plots, and to a distrust in their

periments, has kindly furnished the fol- results ; while Professor Anderson's opin lowing account of the progress and re- ion was abundantly confirmed , that the sults of these historical experiments. iləth acre plot is a most suitable size for The experiments were commenced in field experiments, while it is also very

1875. They had been framed with great convenient for calculation, as every pound care, scrutinised and amended by several of manure applied, or of crop reaped ,

gentlemen familiar with the various as- represents the same number of cwts. per pects of the question, chiefly by Mr J. W. acre.

ABERDEENSHIRE EXPERIMENTS.

171

Discussion as to Size of Plot. — It is phosphate would give it undue advan only what is to be expected that this tagein a fair trial of the relative powers subject of size of plot will crop up every of the two substances. Possibly this

now and again ; familiarity with work on large areas engendering a leaning towards large experimental plots, while greater familiarity with actual experimenting leads to the small plot, as ensuring uni-

adjustment was unnecessary ; the pro bable effect was to provide a larger quantity of phosphorus in the case of the insoluble form than was necessary. In the later experiments, therefore, equal

formity of soil, as well as identical culti-

quantities were adopted, with about the same result as had previously been got in the crop . In the first instance, also, the soluble phosphates were exactly a half soluble (i.e., in commercial terms about 20 to 26 per cent superphosphate). In the later experiments, however, the highest practicable degree of solubility was sought - viz., about 35 per cent soluble. On singling the plants (turnips) it was

vation under the same climatic condi-

tions, and hence fair comparison. The ilzth acre plot is indeed too large ; butit is probably as small as can be adopted, unless thesoil is actually taken up, and thoroughly mixed, and returned in equal quantities to the former position. Under such arrangement the idooth acre plot will be found in the highest degree satisfactory.

Itis interesting to noticehow steadily sought to have an equal number in each opinion grows in favourof small plots, plot - namely,about200 ; but that num and how constantly the above experience ber, from various causes, which will be

is repeated - namely, that every beginner, easily understood by those engaged in especially if associated or influenced, di- practice, was seldom maintained to the rectly or indirectly, with practice on the endof the season. Attacks by insects, large scale, begins with large plots, and weakly plants, frost, drought, &c., fre gradually works towards the smaller ones. quently reduced the number. None of the operations on the plots Duplicated Plots. — Especial care was

taken to have each experiment dupli- were allowed to go on , nor weighing of cated, a feature too often neglected in the crop, except in the presence of the experiments.

It is indeed desirable that chemist who directed the experiments.

It may thus be seen that the most they should even be triplicated. In the experiments having reference scrupulous care and attention were given specially to phosphate applied with and to the whole work. without nitrogen, special care was taken that there should be no hindrance to the

action of these essentials by the absence

First Year's Conclusions.

At the end of the year the numerous

and duplicated results of this large tial. This was prevented by the applica- series of experiments were tabulated, and tion, all over the plots, of a mixture con- presented such a varied and confirmed

of other materials understood to be essen-

sisting of 3 cwt. potassic chloride, 1 cwt. series of results as probably had not magnesia sulphate, and y cwt. common previously been available. They were salt.

Each plot was surrounded by a

carefully considered by the individuals

deal-board nine inches deep, driven edge- above mentioned, and others taking part wise into the soil.

in the direction, and finally the following

Adjusting the Manures. The soils conclusions were adopted : 1. That phosphates of lime decidedly were subjected both to chemical and mechanical analyses. The manures were increase the turnip crop, but that farmers also analysed , and care taken that equal need not trouble themselves to know

quantities of the ingredients were used. whether the phosphates are of animal In the earlier experiments, however, the or of mineral origin .

proportion of insoluble phosphate was 2. That soluble phosphate is not su a half more than soluble phosphate, an perior to insoluble phosphate to the ex adjustment considered necessary in order tent that is generally supposed. phosph that the two

ates might be fairly

3. That nitrogenous manures

have

compared , assuming that the finer divi- little effect on turnips used alone, but sion or greater distribution of the soluble when used along with insoluble phos

MANURES AND MANURING .

172

phates increase the crop ; that the addi- most economical phosphatic manure for tion of nitrogen to soluble phosphates turnips is probably insoluble phosphate does not seem to increase the solids or

of lime, from any source, ground down

dry matter in crop ; that there is no ma- to an impalpable powder. terial difference between the effects of

Condensed Results.

It would oc

equal quantities of nitrogen in nitrate of cupy too much space to give the results soda and in sulphate of ammonia. Note. — Pure sulphate of ammonia contains about 5 or 6 per cent more nitrogen than nitrate of soda. 4. That fineness of division seems

It may suffice to give a few condensed results - namely, a few results

in detail.

from the station that responded best to the action of phosphate, and there fore showed

the relative

action of

nearly as effective in assisting the braird the different forms most clearly ; and and increasing the crop as the addition also the results of the five stations aver Hence the aged :

of nitrogenous manures.

AVERAGE OF 5 ΑΒΟΥΝΕ . STATIONS.

GROUP

No phosphate given I. Insoluble phosphate (ground coprolite) Soluble phosphate (superphosphate) | Insoluble phosphate and nitrate of soda

{ GROUP III. \ Insolublephosphate and sulphate of ammonia { GROUP II.

Raw bone-meal

Group IV. { Steamed bone-powder

Turnips .

Turnips.

Tons per acre . 5

Tons per acre .

19

16 18 18

22 21

ΙΟ

26

21

23

20

24 16 23

16

20

20

Insoluble Phosphates as Plant- concerns so large a body as the whole food . - From the point of view of new agriculturists of a kingdom. But no

information, the first and last groups are responsible person will now be found to

by far the most important. Formerly cop- take up an opposite position. rolite was deemed of no manurial value

The bearing of the New Doctrine.

until rendered soluble by sulphuric acid ; -At this stage there ought to be promi and in placing a money value on a dis- nently brought forward the real bearing solved manure, no value was attached

of this new doctrine on agricultural

to the insoluble portion it contained. practice. The above results indicated that this

position was untenable.

What is the actual effect of the know

They led the ledge that the natural coprolite, merely

Aberdeenshire Association to say de- ground, is able directly tofeed the plant cisively that insoluble phosphate in the with phosphate ? Being decidedly the form of ground coprolite was directly cheapest form of phosphate, does it fol effective on plants, and to add the state- low that it should be employed to the

ment that the superiority of the soluble exclusion of all other phosphates ? As form is not so great as is generally sup- suredly not, when it is so clearly brought posed. It was thought well to limit ex- out that although it produces 16 tons pression to the latter general and tenta- per acre, other forms produce 18 tons, tive statement, reserving a definite state- and others 20 tons per acre. Assuredly not again, when it is stated that greater The fourth group indicates the excel- assistance is given to the plant in the

ment till further results were obtained .

lent results got by using phosphate in early stage, by more finely divided phos a fine state of division, and led to the phate, or by soluble phosphate. fourth conclusion stated above.

So long

as the latter two phosphates are not

It may be remarked that these opinions charged a higher price, as compared with are now generally accepted. No doubt coprolite, than is compensated by the be used. So there may constantly be heard dissen- larger crop, they should tients from these doctrines. That is only soon, however, as the price advances what may be expected, when the subject much beyond that point, the agriculturist

ABERDEENSHIRE EXPERIMENTS .

173

can fall back on coprolite, which is found formsseemed more or less to have a simi abundantly in many parts of the world , lar effect. As to a remedy, the disease and requires no more manufacture than seemed lessened by whatever ensured healthy growth , or a condition of soil simple grinding

It is thus wholly and solely a matter uncongenial to fungoid growth, as well

of price. And herein lies the important as such lapse of time between the two practical bearing ofthe new doctrine. It turnip crops as would reduce the natural is well to grasp fully the significance of food of the fungus, while a heavy dose of

the knowledge that coprolite may be used lime markedly lessened the proportion of directly. Put in fewwords it is this disease. 4. The variation in weight on oat grain that it provides a check to the undue

raising of the price of manufactured by storing ; the solid nourishing matter phosphates. Experiments of Subsequent Years.

It would go beyond the limits of this article to explain the many points that engaged the Aberdeenshire Association during the following six years - viz., till 1882 - during which the experiments of

in oats differently manured ; and the pro portion of husk to kernel.

5. Different methods of storing turnips during winterwere tried, and the method of storing in pits of two or three loads, and covered with three or four inches of earth, was found to answer best ; while the re

sult was not greatly different whether or

the first year were continued and re- not the roots or leaves, or both, were

peated, providing altogether many hun- cutThe offprevious to storing. first series of experiments was, as The proceedings of

dreds of results.

the Association, for that period of seven mentioned, on turnips, and turnips were years, form a large volume, replete with grown on the same ground successively tables, diagrams, and photographs, which for five years. provide the critic with full details, while

But in the second year of the experi

at the same time the main points are ments, the original experiments were re clearly brought out for the generalreader. peated on new ground at each station,

It may suffice to say that the following and the effect of the various manures points were very fully entered into :-

ascertained over a rotation.

1. The specific gravity of turnips, which Relative Value of Phosphates and Nitrogen . the end 2. The proportion of water in turnips, At of seven years it wascon which was found to be increased both sidered that the subject that had been

was found to give no reliable indication of their quality.

by nitrogenous, and, to some extent, by carefully avoided up to that time might then be approached — viz., to fix the rela 3. “ Finger and toe " disease was in- tive agricultural value of phosphates and

soluble phosphatic manures.

vestigated ; farmers' opinions regarding nitrogen. This was done, not by attach

it widely ascertained ; many experiments ing a money value, which might vary conducted to ascertain the effect of man-

every year, but by fixing on some large

ures in giving rise to the disease; and other experiments with the view of finding a remedy. Speaking generally, it was found that whatever weakened the

natural source of phosphate, and a simi lar source of nitrogen, and adopting these each as a standard, to be referred to by the figure 10. The standard adopted for

plant predisposed it to disease, and phosphate was ground coprolite of the

rendered it an easy prey to its natural fungoid enemy, which then produced the disease. But while many influences, both mechanical and climatic, caused weakness, it was found, in a very remarkable and

usual commercial degree of fineness, which was called 10 ; while the standard chosen for nitrogen was nitrate of soda, the value of which was also called 10. It may be necessary later on to make

unmistakable manner, that soluble phos- these standards more definite,by specify phate produced this effect in a very striking degree. Nor was this effect confined to phosphate rendered soluble by sulphuric acid , but sulphur in various

ing more distinctly the precise state of

mechanical division ; and obviously the finer the division chosen for the stand ard, the less will be the difference be

MANURES AND MANURING .

174

tween it and the forms standing above give a visible increase of root crop, but it. But for the immediate purpose the this increase is due mostly, and often commercial forms were deemed sufficient. entirely, to excess of water in the bulbs.

The values thus carefully arrived at

Nitrogenous manures greatly increase cereal crops, and the increase in this case

Owo

for phosphate were : Phosphate of iron Phosphate of alumina ( redonda )

is not due to excess of water. 3

As to the relative efficacy of different

forms of nitrogen : the ultimate effect of Tribasic phosphateof lime ininsoluble nitrogen in sulphate of ammonia , in 10 mineral guano, and steamed bone flour, is nearly Monobasic phosphate of lime in soluble I2 identical, whether used with soluble or phosphate insoluble phosphate. Nitrate of soda, Bibasic or tribasic phosphate of lime in when used with soluble phosphate, is 13 precipitated form : also identical with the above forms, but Tribasic phosphate of lime in steamed bone flour 14 is of less efficacy when used with insol uble phosphate. While the values for nitrogen were as 4. Fine division (or perfect disaggre Tribasic phosphate of lime in bone

.

follows :

gation ) of phosphates assists the braird

Nitrate of soda

10

Sulphate of ammonia

nearly as much, and with more healthy

10 results, than applications of nitrogenous

Guano

ΙΟ

manures.

Nitrogen ( only) in bones (supplemented with dried blood ).

8

The most economical phosphatic man ure is probably non-crystalline, floury,

At the same time the conclusions orig- insoluble phosphate of lime ; the cheapest inally framed were more specifically form being mixed with an equal quantity of the form in which the highest degree of disaggregation is reached.

drawn out as follows :

Final Conclusions.

1. Non -crystalline phosphate of lime, ground to a floury state, applied to soil

deficient in phosphate, greatly increases

(At present these two forms are re spectively, ground mineral phos phate ( coprolite ), and steamed bone flour.)

the turnip crop, and also, though to a less extent, the cereal and grass crops,

Duplicate Trials in England . but always with equal effect, whether It remains only to say, that it having it be derived from animal or mineral been argued that while these results matter. might apply to soil in Scotland , poor in

2. Soluble phosphate is not superior lime, andnot to soils in England, gener in effect to insoluble phosphate if the ally richer in lime, it was considered de

latter be in finely disaggregated form— sirable to ascertain whether or not the

e.g., disaggregation effected by precipita- results had only this limited application. tion fromsolution, or by grinding bones A station was therefore established in after being steamed at high pressure. Huntingdon, and another in Kent, while

In such finely divided conditions, the later on a large number of experiments difference is in favour of the insoluble

were established in Sussex, and carried

form , in the proportion of about 12 for on by the Sussex Association for the Im the soluble to 13 and 14 for the above provement of Agriculture, under the same insoluble forms respectively.

In less

chemical direction as the Aberdeenshire

finely divided form (such as mineral experiments.

These experiments in Eng

phosphate impalpable powder), insoluble land showed, that while in soil actually phosphate is inferior to soluble phosphate on the chalk formation soluble phosphate in the relation of about 10 to 12. showed to more advantage than on all

3. Nitrogenous manures used alone the other soils tried, yet in the other soils have little effect on root crops, unless the soil is exceptionally poor in nitrogen, and rich in available phosphate. Nitrogenous manures used with phosphate on soils in fairly good condition

in Sussex and in Huntingdon, where the soil was not so purely chalky, but yet con tained the ordinary quantities of lime,

the results were practically the same as those got in Aberdeenshire.

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS.

175

of different seeding, different manuring, Outside Confirmation . liming, draining, & c. The value of these experiments in Aberdeenshire and Sussex would be un

certain unless confirmed not only in other

places, but by other and independent

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS .

experimenters. The importance of the In the year 1878, a series of field ex question, however, was widely recognised ; and after some time,both the periments was inaugurated by the High Highland and Agricultural Society of land and Agricultural Society of Scot Scotland, and the Royal Agricultural land. For the following account of these

Society of England, established experi- experiments we are indebted to Dr A. P. ments on the same subject, as did also a Aitken, chemist to the Society, under number of private experimenters, all of whose care they were conducted : Object of the Experiments . The whose results pointed more or less conclusively in the same direction. object of these experiments was to test Still the march has been slow, if we the accuracy of many views then prev judge its progress by the amount of cop- alent regarding the efficacy of the vari rolite applied , or by the small effect on ous light manures in use among farmers, the superphosphate trade. But for this to discover what was the agricultural or

there are two obvious explanations ; first, crop-producing values of these substances, as already explained, that the effect is and to see how far these values corre not to be looked for in the direction of sponded with the prices at which the

the greater use of coprolite, but rather in substances were being sold in the market. the reduction of the prices of superphosIt was believed by many advanced

phate and other phosphates— and this farmers that large sums of money were reduction has indeed taken place to a annually being spent in the purchase of very marked extent ; and, second, that manurial substances, whose efficacy as the interest of the trade is more than manures was entirely out of harmony

able to cope with the agriculturist, who with their market prices, and that noth at the present day is hardly so skilled in ing short of an extended series of experi theintricacies of manure as in a few years ments, performed upon an agricultural scale over two rotations, would be cap able of uprooting old prejudices, and of Scope of the Sussex Experiments. enlightening farmers regarding the true Allusion has been made to the experi- value of the substances in which so much ments conducted in Sussex under the of their capital was being invested. It name of the Sussex Association for the was believed that such a series of experi Improvement of Agriculture. As these ments would not only determine, in a

he is likely to become.

experimentshavebeen going on for eight practical and reliable manner, what was years, in eight different sites throughout the real value of manures, butwould also the county, representing the chalk forma- supply much -needed information regard tion, the weald clay, Hastings-beds and

ing the special utility of the various in

greensand, it will be evident that the gredients of manures, the forms in which

amount of work and number of results they could be most profitably employed, thus ascertained are too extensive to and the most rational and economical

admit of satisfactory treatment here. It methods in which to apply them. may be mentioned however, that, beginning with experiments testing not only phosphorus but also nitrogen and potassium in different forms, on which a great amount of both interesting and useful

The Stations. Forthis purpose the

Society rented two fields — one at Hare law, in East Lothian, and one at Pum pherston, in West Lothian. At each station 10 acres were set apart and divid

information has been obtained, atten- ed into forty plots of one rood each. tion has been directed latterly to the means of improving old pasture, and to the laying down of new pasture in such a way as to ascertain the effect

The soil of the former, a rich deep loam near the sea -level, in a dry early district ;

and that of the latter a thin clayey loam, resting on the till or boulder clay, a

MANURES AND MANURING . 176 somewhat wet and late district, 400 feet Manures for Cereals. — When the crop was barley or oats, the manure con above the level of the sea . No dung was applied to the stations tained— 1b . per acre. during the course of the experiments, 80 Phosphoric acid nor for four years previous to their com Nitrogen 40 mencement.

Potash .

60

Manures tried . — The three classes of manures under experiment were phosThe plots on which the various phos phates, nitrogenous matters, and potash phatic manures were tested, received, in salts of the following kinds : addition, their proper quantity of potash in the form of a mixture of muriate and

Phosphatic Manures.

Carolina land phos. sulphate, and their nitrogen intheform

Mineral phosphates

phate. Canadian apatite. Curaçoa phosphate.

of nitrate of soda.

The plots on which the various nitrog enous manures were tested, received, in

Arubaphosphate,&c. addition, their proper quantity of phos Phosphatic guano.

Of remote animal origin Coprolites. Bones,in Of recent animal origin forms.

phoric acid in the form of superphos

various phate, and their potash as mixed sulphate and muriate.

Bone-ash .

The plots on which the two potash These were applied in a finely ground state, salts were tested, received their proper

andalsoafter having been dissolved in sul- quantity of phosphoric acid as superphos phuric acid . Soluble

phate, and their nitrogen as nitrate of soda.

Nitrogenous Manures. | Nitrate of soda. Sulphate of ammonia.

Insoluble

Meat-meal Dried blood Horn-dust Keronikon

of

animal origin.

was only the outward and accidental form and fashion of these substances that

Shoddy or wool waste

Rape-cake dust ian guano .

The great majority of the plots on the stations were thus fully manured ; and in so far as the essential ingredients phosphoric acid, ammonia, and potash were concerned, they all fared alike. It

of vegetable differed.

Cotton-cake dust ) origin. Peruv

In order to form a starting point or

basis of comparison for the whole sta tion, three plots received no manure

Ichaboe guano Guanos, & c. Fish -manure. . Frey Bentos manure .

whatever.

In order to measure the specific effects of each of the three essential ingredients, Muriate of potash. three plots received one of each and nothing else, while from other threeplots These manures were so applied that each of the three essential ingredients each plot received the same quantity of respectively was withheld . phosphoric acid , of nitrogen, and of potIn addition to the two series of ex Potash Manures. Sulphate of potash.

ash, whatever might be the form in periments on the stations, there were which these were applied, and irrespec- annually carried out a selected number tive of the gross weights of the sub- of experiments on farms in various parts stances, or of their market prices. of the country to test the accuracy of Cropping .— The cropping consisted of the results obtained, and to acquire a four-course rotation of turnips, barley, additional information regarding the beans, and oats. action of manures when applied to dif Manures for Turnips and Beans. ferent soils and under different climatic -When the crop was turnips or beans, conditions. the manures applied to these plots conFull reports of the experiments were tained 1b. per acre .

Phosphoric acid Nitrogen Potash .

160 40 120

published annually in the Society's Trans actions, and the following is a general

statement of the chief results obtained and observations made.

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS. 177 1. Results with Phosphatic Manures. Produce of Dry Matter from Pum-

pherston. During the eight years com

different degrees of fineness to which they happened to be ground. The finer they

were ground, the more effective they were as manures .

prised in the two rotations, the total

A series of experiments made in 1886,

amount of dry vegetable matter per acre, in the form ofroots, grain, and straw , removed from the plots to which complete manures had been regularly applied on that section of the station at Pumpherston devoted to the study of phosphatic

on four plots of Pumpherston and on four Lowland farms, with the same mineral

manures was as follows :

The whole question of the efficacy of ground phosphates has been shown to turn on the point of the fineness to which they are ground. Phosphatic Guano. — The reason why

Tons of Dry Matter, per acre ,

Bone -ash

Ground coprolites Bone-meal .

Phosphatic guano

Undissolved . Dissolved . 12.69 12.66 I1.80 13.22 13.80 11.32 12.47 14.11

Ground mineral phos

phates Average

11.66

14.16

11.99

13.59

phosphate, in two slightly different de grees of fineness, showed uniformly a difference of about 11 per cent in favour of the more finely ground phosphate.

phosphatic guano is so effective a form of insoluble phosphate is presumably because it consists in great measure of very finely divided matter, and also because it contains from 5 to 10 per

cent of precipitated or “ reverted ” phos Conclusions .

The facts apparent phate whichis in an infinitely fine state

from a mere glance at these figures are, of division . that Bone - meal. — The reason why bone

Soluble phosphates have produced about meal is slowest in its action, is probably 13 per cent more actual fodder than because it consists in large measure of insoluble phosphates. Bone-meal, which is one of the dearest

very coarse particles. Judged by the standard of fineness

of the phosphates, has given the of division alone, bone-meal, which was smallest return . enormously coarser than the other phos

Dissolved mineral phosphate, which is phates,should not have produced nearly just ordinary superphosphate, and so much vegetable matter. Its efficacy made from the cheapest material, must therefore depend on other circum stances — notably its power of rotting in has given the largest return. Among the insolublephosphates, phos- the soil, and of accumulating a store of phatic guano and bone-ash are best. phosphate, in no very long time becoming Over a series of eight years, the amount available as plant-food. of fodder raised by the application Soluble Phosphates. Although the of different kinds of insoluble phos- eight years' record shows that the soluble phates are not very different. phosphates differ more widely in their

The following facts,although not ap- efficacy than the insoluble ones, they have parent from amere scrutiny of these not varied up and down so much as the figures, were attested from year to year latter.

Their action was much more

during the course of the experiments : steady and reliable. Nevertheless their Insoluble Phosphates. — These vary relative order of activity did alter on some in their efficacy far more than soluble occasions.

phosphates. They are more dependent on moisture for their activity, and during dry seasons they are of very little use. Even during wet seasons they were found to be very capricious in

Just as the undissolved phosphates differed from year to year in their fine ness of grinding, so the dissolved phos

phates differed from year to year in the fineness of their manufacture,or in their their action. The phosphate which was state of aggregation due to dampness, or the best one year might be the worst the time during which they were kept in the next year.

bags before being applied.

Dissolved

Fineness of Grinding.This uncer- manures are liable to cohere into lumps

tainty was found to be caused by the from various causes, and the most careful VOL . II.

и

178

MANURES AND MANURING .

riddling cannot restore the fine condition An extended series of experiments car of a manure that has become lumpy. ried out on the stations, and on other Fine Powdery Condition essential. farms, to test the relative manurial

-Attention was early drawn to this value of bone -meal of different degrees circumstance during the course of the of fineness, showed that the finer ground experiments, and observations made bone-meals gave the best results during

showed clearly that the efficacy of dis- the season in which they were applied, solved manures depends very much upon and also during succeeding seasonswhere the more or less powdery condition in their after-effects were observed. which they are applied . It is to this II. Nitrogenous Manures. circumstance, more than to any other,

that the variation in the amount of the

Produce of Dry Matter at Pum

produce from the application of different pherston. — The following are

the

forms of soluble phosphate must be at- amounts of dry vegetable matter removed tributed, and from the results of these from the plots at Pumpherston that were experiments the following affirmation set apart to determine the relative effi cacy of nitrogenous manures during the may be made : Given two phosphates of somewhat two rotations. The manures contained

similar composition, but of different degrees of fineness, the superiority will lie with the finer one, whatever be its origin or history, or by whatever name

in each case the same amount of nitrogen, and there was given along with it à definite uniform amount of superphos phate and potash salts.

it may be called . More Vigorous Growth from Solu .

ble Phosphates. On the plots to which soluble phosphates were applied the plants brairded sooner, the turnips came sooner to the hoe, and met sooner in the drills,

Tons per acre. Nitrate of soda .

12.22

Sulphate of ammonia .

11.62

Horn -dust, shoddy, &c.

9.28 10.38 10.96

Dried blood

Rape-cake dust :

and the cereals were ripe and ready for As in the case of phosphates, so also in

harvesting from a week to a fortnight the case of nitrogenous manures, the earlier than on those plots manured with most soluble substances produced the insoluble phosphates . These important largest return . advantages were especially noticeable Nitrate of Soda . — This is the most during dry seasons. active and efficient of all the nitrogenous Owing to the more vigorous growth on manures, and its action has been studied

the plots manured with soluble phos- under a variety of conditions at the phates, their crops were less liable to stations, and on other soils of very differ disease, and the land was always cleaner ent character. than on the other plots.

Its chief peculiarity is that it acts

Harelaw Results. — The results ob- almost immediately on the crop, and pro

tained at the Harelaw station were very duces a marked effect whether ploughed similar to those obtained at Pumpher- in with the seed or applied as a top

ston, but owing to the high state of fer- dressing during the growth of the crop. tility of the soil the differences were not

When applied to land in good condi tion, or when it forms part of a complete Insoluble Phosphates for Mossy manure, it causes the crop to braird

so well marked.

Land, & c . - A large number of experi- vigorously, and is sometimes the saving ments to determine the relative utility of a crop whose youth is precarious. of soluble and insoluble phosphates were It is especially valuable in seasons of

made on farms differing widely in their drought, as it enables the young plant soil and climate, and it was found that to root rapidly and become less depend insoluble phosphates produced their best enton surface-moisture. When applied to cereals it causes a in organic matter in wet districts. In more abundant growth of straw than such circumstances they were a more any other manure. When applied with

results upon mossy land, and soils rich

economical manure than superphosphate. the seed or to the young braird, it not Bones and Fineness ofGrinding.— only increases the bulk of the crop, but

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS . 179 it hastens its development and causes it

Sulphate of ammonia has been found

If applied at a later to check the growth of clover more effec period, it causes the plant to grow too tively than nitrate of soda if applied in to ripen sooner .

much to stem and leaf, and it unduly excess, but in moderate quantity it is an prolongs the period of growth. When excellent manurefor oldgrass. It is not applied late as a top -dressing to cereals, suitable for application to leguminous it causes a disproportionate growth of crops, which are intolerant of strong

straw , retards the period of ripening, and nitrogenous manures, especially after the favours the production of light grain .

When applied to a thin sharpsoil dur ing a wet season its effect is transient, showing that much of it has been washed

first period of their growth. Insoluble Nitrogenous Manures.

Insoluble nitrogenous manures are sub

down through the soil and out of reach stances containing albuminoid matter. of the rootsof the crop

. They are very suitable for wet districts, When applied too liberally on good but none of them can be considered a land, it causes a rapid growth of ill- manure until it is finely ground, or matured vegetable matter, and produces rotted, or dissolved. a crop which is too abundant, unable to Rape -cake Dust.- Among the in

ripen, of poor feeding value, and liable soluble nitrogenous manures rape - cake to accidents.

dust has produced the greatest amount

When applied to plants grown for of vegetable matter. It is very proba their seed, nitrate of soda must be ble that this is due in some measure to

used more sparingly ; for increase of the large amount of carbonaceous organic stem or straw , if overdone, is secured at matter contained in it. It was also the expense of the seed , both in quantity noticed that the plot to which this man and quality

ure was applied was singularly free from

It may therefore be used with greater disease, and that the texture of the soil

impunity to crops which are grown for improved under its application. the sake of their stem and leaf- chiefly

Dried Blood , Horn -dust,

& c.

and notably to grass of one or two years' Dried blood was found to be a good duration , manure for roots, especially when ap

Whenapplied liberally to grass, it in- plied early, but too slow in its action creases the growth of the grasses proper, for cereals. but diminishes the amount of clover and The same remark applies to horn -dust other leguminous plants; therefore, when and keronikon, which should be applied a good crop of clover is desired, nitrate long before sowing. Shoddy was tried should be used very sparingly .

on only one occasion, and was found

Sulphate of Ammonia .- Sulphate of quite inoperative. ammonia is slower in its action than It is therefore to be

nitrate of soda.

All these insoluble nitrogenous matters become, when dissolved in sulphuric acid,

preferred as a nitrogenous manure for good quickly acting manures. crops which have a prolonged period of III. Potash Manures. growth. When applied as a top -dressing Potash salts are chiefly important on to cereals, it retards the time of ripening.

A similar effect is produced when applied land that has not been dunged. On with the seed in dry districts or during dunged land they frequently fail to pro seasons of drought.

It does not fail to

duce any marked effect.

benefit the cropeven upon thin soils and Sulphate and muriate of potash are during wet seasons. It is therefore nearly equal in their action. They are more appropriate than nitrate of soda for most effective when applied some months application in these circumstances. before sowing. The crops to which they Sulphate of ammonia can do little for are most beneficially applied are beans,

the germinating seed in dry weather, as clover, and leguminous crops generally. When applied to cereals, they increase it is not in an immediately available form . Even after rain comes, it is some the amount of grain to some extent, and time before the sulphate of ammonia they make the straw more elastic and comes into action.

less liable to lodge.

MANURES AND MANURING .

180

the amount of turnip -tops, but retard the ripening of the bulbs. The manurial constituents of greatest An excess of potash manures decreases Manuring Turnips.

importance in raising a crop of turnips very materially the quantity of roots, and ric are phospho acid and nitrogen . may greatly injure the crop. The relative importance to the turnip It is scarcely possible to overdo the

crop at Pumpherston of these two ingre- application of phosphates to turnips, so dients of potash, is seen by comparing far as the health and feeding quality of plots manured as under during four

the roots are conc oncerned ; but too liberal

years :

an application of nitrogenous manure un duly increases the tops and retards the

No. of Plot.

22. Potash .

12. Phosphate (bone ash) 18. Nitrate

Roots per acre. tons. cwt. 6 14 8

14

IO

16

4

11. Potash and nitrate

21. Phosphate and nitrate 1. Phosphate, nitrate, and potash

2

9 13

2

ripening of the bulbs, and also increases their liability to disease. General Observations on Turnips. Turnips contain a smaller percentage of solids than swedes. The turnips at the stations contained from 7 to 9 per

Effects of Manures on Turnips.- cent solids, and the swedes from 10 to The chief effect of manuring on turnips 12 per cent. is to increase the quantity per acre, but The solid matter of the swedes con the quality of the turnip is also much tained 15 per cent more albuminoids than affected by the nature of the manure .

that of the turnip, and there was as much

Turnips manured with dissolved phos- nourishment in 10 tons of swedes as in phate contain a higher percentageof ash 13 tons of turnips. than those manured with ground phosTurnips contained in their dry matter phates. nearly 8 per cent of ash, and swedes only They also contain a somewhat smaller about 572 per cent. The latter were

proportion of albumen, and upon the therefore less exhausting to the land. whole they have a wider ratio of albu-

Large turnips are not so economical as

men to carbohydrates, which means that medium -sized ones in any way. They they have not quite so high a feeding contain more water, and produce less value.

solid matter per acre.

The larger they

are, the smaller is the proportion of true albumen in their solid matter ; they are the less mature, and the less nutritious. They contain a higher percentage of ash, amount of albumen per acre was some- and are therefore moreexhausting to the what in favour of the crop grown with soil. They have a low specific gravity,

The diminished percentage of albumen produced by the use of dissolved phosphate was counterbalanced by the increase in the total crop, so that the total soluble phosphate.

and are usually spongy in the heart.

Dissolved phosphates when applied in They are more liable to rot, and do not April produced a better crop of turnips keep so well when pitted. Turnips at than when applied with the seed in June.

their best are too watery a diet, but the

The earlier manured turnips were denser, larger they are the poorer the diet. and produced more solid food per acre Small turnips, on the other hand, are than the others. not so profitable as medium turnips, be Turnips manured early had more ash cause they do not produce so much solid

food per acre, and although they contain When the nitrogenous manure of tur- a higher percentage of solids and a smaller nips is given entirely in the form of percentage of ash, yet their solid matter nitrate of soda or of sulphate of ammo- consists largely of indigestible woody nia, the latter has been found to produce fibre, and is therefore less nutritious.

than those manured with the seed .

The nitrogenous matter in turnips is a denser, sounder turnip. The best way of applying potash to partly of a nutritive and partly of a non

turnips is to apply it several months nutritive kind. before sowing

The former consists of

albuminoid matter.

The ratio of nutri.

Potash manures cause an increase in tive to non -nutritive nitrogenous matter

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS.

181

varies extraordinarily in different turnips, ond place, and to amuch less extent, they and under different circumstances of affect the quality of both grain and straw, weather and manuring.

and they materially affect the time of Forced Turnips of Bad Quality.- ripening. Bulbs grown very rapidly, whether from Nitrogenous Manure for Barley . excess of moisture or too liberal applica-The most important constituent of a tion of soluble nitrogenous manure, have manure for the barley crop is nitrogen .

a smaller proportion of their nitrogenous In ordinary circumstances, it is the quan matter in the form of albumen .

tity of nitrogen in the manure or in the

Manures which unduly force the growth soil which determines the bulk of the of turnips may increase the quantity of crop. the crop ; but the increase of quantity is In an ordinary rotation of cropping, in got at the expense of quality, and the de- which barley succeeds turnips, the phos

terioration of quality is mainly expressed phate and potash required by the crop in the large percentage of water and the small percentage of albumen in the bulbs. Manures for Rich Crops of Turnips. - In order to grow a large and at the same time a healthy and nutritious crop of turnips, such a systemof manur-

are relatively abundant in the soil, and a good crop can be obtained if only some nitrogenous manure is applied in suffi cient quantity to enable the plant to take upits mineral food.

The kinds of nitrogenous manure most ing or treatment of the soil, by feeding suitable for barley are those which are

orotherwise, should be practised as will soluble and rapid in their action, such as result in the general enriching and rais- sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda.

ing of the condition of the land, so that Sulphate of ammonia, if applied as a the crop may grow naturally and gradu- top -dressing, and nitrate of soda, if so ally to maturity.

For that purpose a larger application of slowly acting manures, of which bonemeal may be taken as the type, is much better suited than smaller applications of the more quickly acting kind .

applied, much later than three weeks after the date of sowing, may increase the quantity of the crop both in grain and straw, but the quality of the grain, as indicated by the weight per bushel, will be lowered, and the time of ripening

A certain amount of quickly acting will be retarded. manure is very beneficial to the crop, especially in its youth ; but the great bulk of the nourishment which thecrop requires should be of the slowly rotting or dissolving kind, as uniformly distrib-

A difference of three weeks in the

crop of the three manurial ingredients

Slowly acting nitrogenous manures are

time of ripening occurred among the experimental crops. The earliest were those which were manured with soluble phosphate, and whose nitrogenous man uted through the soil as possible. ure was nitrate of soda applied with the seed. The latest were those which re Manures for the Barley Crop. ceived no nitrogenous manure, an over The relative importance to the barley dose of it, or too late a top -dressing.

may be seen from a comparison of the of no use to the barley crop, unless ap results obtained on the plots manured as plied some months before the time of under for five years : No. of Plot.

sowing. Grain per acre . Ib.

875

22. Potash

12. Phosphate (bone -ash ) 17. Phosphate and potash

21. Nitrate and phosphate .

1256 1287 1706 1814

13. Nitrate, potash, and phos. phate

diminished the total amount of the crop,

1175 .

18. Nitrate

11. Nitrate and potash

A deficiency in the amount of nitrog enous manure applied to barley not only

2596

but it also diminished the percentage of albuminoid matter contained in the

grain. Barley, top - dressed with nitrate of soda, contained somewhat more albu minoid matter than that which had the

Manures applied to the barley crop nitrate applied with the seed . affect, in the first place, the quantity per The amount of albuminoid matter acre both in grain and straw ; in the sec- varied from 872 to 1172 per cent. The

182

MANURES AND MANURING .

former amount was contained in barley, beans cannot be successfully grown with from whose manure all nitrogenous mat- out dung. But the experiments at Pum

ter was withheld, and the latter from pherston beans maystation show that a full crop of

barley top -dressed with nitrate. Phosphatic Manures for Barley.Phosphatic manures are next in order of importance for barley. The more speedy their action the better ; therefore superphosphate is the most reliable form of phosphate.

be grown with artificial man

ures upon land that has not been dunged for ten years. The relative importance to the bean crop of the three chief constituents of a

manure may be seen by comparing the produce of eight plots manuredas follows

The plots to which soluble phosphates for six years : were applied came to maturity ten days No. of before those with insoluble phosphates. Potash for Barley . - Potash manures

Kind of Manure .

Plot.

27. No manure .

somewhat increased the quantity of grain

12. Phosphate ( bone -ash )

on the station where no dung was ap plied , and they strengthened the straw . But it was noticed that the grain was

21. Phosphate and nitrate

somewhat darker in colour than that to

17. Potash and phosphate .

which no potash was appplied.

18. Nitrate

Grain per acre .

272 5% 64 5%

22. Potash

2672 42 % 10. Potash, phosphate, and nitrate 4522 38. Potash, phosphate, nitrate, and gypsum

Manures for Oats. The manures required for oats are

Bushels Dressed

51

The characteristic ingredient of a bean

quick -acting manures, to enable the crop manure is potash . to get a good hold of the soil before the Without potash in the manure, the nourishment contained in the seed is ex- other two ingredients are of very little hausted . use, unless, indeed, the land be very rich For this purpose superphosphate and in potash. Potash salts alone may be a sufficient nitrate of soda are peculiarly applicable. Sulphate of ammonia , although a sol- manure on land in good condition, and uble manure,did not come into operation may even produce a fair crop on land

in time for the wants of the young plant that is in poor condition. during the dry season of 1885, and the Phosphate, when applied along with crop which received that manure was a potash salts, or when applied to land rich signal failure at both stations. in potash, has a marked effect upon the Potash manures, especially muriate of crop. Nitrogenous manures, even when of the oat crop, and considerably increased the most favourable kind, have very little

potash, had a very beneficial effect upon

the yield of grain, and in a less degree influencein increasing the bean crop. the amount of straw .

Lime, in the formof gypsum (or sul

The general conclusions to be drawn phate of lime), has a beneficial effect upon from the experiments with the oat crop the crop. Dissolved phosphate acts far more are, that thetreatment of the land should

be such as to accumulate organic matter powerfully onthebean crop than ordi nary ground phosphate. Phosphatic guano was more effective

in it, to prevent too great a loss of moisture, and to provide the young plant with manures that come rapidly into operation. When the young plant has safely passed the critical period of its growth it roots deeply, and lays hold of the moisture and nourishment contained in the sub-

than ground mineral phosphate, presum ably for the reason that a small propor tion of it was in an easily dissolved form . The nitrogenous manures that are most beneficial to the bean crop are those

soil.

whose action is rapid and soon over.

In

this respect nitrates are preferable to all Manures for the Bean Crop. other nitrogenous manures. Nitrogenous manures should either be The usual practice in bean -growing districts is to apply dung to the bean applied in very small quantity, or alto break , and the opinion prevails that gether withheld from the bean crop.

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXPERIMENTS. 183 Nitrogenous manures that come into From these figures it is evident that the operation after the crop has made some manurial constituent most required for

growth have an injurious effect. Even the production of the crops grown was

sulphate of ammonia is too slow in its nitrogenous matter, in the next place action, and retards the growth of the phosphates, and in the next potash.

Potash alone. — The plot to which Nitrogenous manures should not be potash salts alone were applied gave applied as a top-dressing to the bean scarcely as much produce as the un manured plot. crop. Peruvian and other nitrogenous guanos This plot went steadily from bad to crop.

are among the worst manures for the worse, and was latterly the worst on the bean crop.

They contain too much station, showing that the accumulation

nitrogen and too little potash . of potash was hurtful to most of the The muriate of potash has proved a crops grown there. There was one exceptional year, 1884, more effective manure than the sulphate.

The beneficialeffect of gypsum is to be when the crop was beans, and then for ascribed , not to the sulphuric acid it con- the first time it threw up a crop five tains, but to the lime, which, in combin- times as abundant as the neighbouring ation with sulphuric acid , is a soluble plot, to which no potash had been ap

manure, and has the power of liberating plied. potash in the soil.

An Experiment for Farmers. - An

The general results of the experiments experiment of the above kind - in which, with different manures on the bean crop along with a completely manured plot,

inform usthat the bases potash and lime there are arranged side by side a series are the substances most required by the of plots from which in turn one of the crop. The acids, phosphoric acid and essential ingredients of a complete man nitric acid, are of secondary importance, ure is withheld — forms a most instruc and sulphuric acid is of no importance.

tive lesson for farmers, and should be

For land dunged in autumn or for applied by them to all the fields on land in good condition — it would seem their farm . It serves to show what is

from the experiments at Pumpherston the ingredient in the soil or in the that the application of superphosphate, manure that is most deficient for the muriate of potash, and sulphate of lime,

production of a crop , and thus guides

in equal parts, would be a very appro- the farmer in the selection of the light priate manure for the bean crop. manures that are most appropriate for The composition of beans is very uni- his purposes. form whatever be the nature of the

manures applied.

It is the quantity

Manures for different Crops.

A review of the manurial requirements that is affected by the application of of a rotation of crops, consisting of tur

of the crop, and not the quality of it,

nips, barley, beans, and oats, shows that while the three great constituents of a

manures .

Lessons from Incomplete Manure Experiments.

manure - nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and

potash — are all requiredin order to raise Thefollowing are the amounts of dry full crops and to maintain the fertility of vegetable matter yielded during eight the soil, the predominance which should

years by those plots at Pumpherston be given to oneor other of theseThconstit pr

from whose manures one or more of the uents varies with the crop .

e

e

three constituents - nitrogen, phosphoric dominant constituent is for acid , and potash - were withheld : Tons per acre .

Nitrate and potash (no phosphate) 9.78 Nitrate and phosphate (no potash ) 8.97 Potash and phosphate (no nitrogen ) 7.65 Nitrate of soda alone Bone -ash alone Potash salts alone Unmanured

Turnips Phosphoric acid . Barley and oats — Nitrogen. Beans Potash . Relative Importance of the Constit

uents. — The relative importance of the

8.68 6.50

three constituents for these three classes

5.35

of crops must be arranged in the follow

5.40

ing manner :

MANURES AND MANURING .

184 Turnips.

Cereals .

account of the large amount of sulphate

Beans .

Potash . 1. Phosphoric acid, Nitrogen, Phosphoric acid, Phosphoric 2. Nitrogen ,

3. ( Potash ),

Potash ,

of lime contained in that manure ; but if

sulphate of lime is applied tothe crop,

(Nitrogen ). any other good phosphatic manure may form part of the mixture. The only kind

The constituents enclosed in brackets of nitrogenous manure that is to be re should not be applied to the crops to commended for this crop is a soluble one, which they refer unless it has been learned and that in small quantity, applied with by experiment or observation that the the seed . land is deficient in them, and that the Dung for Turnips, Cereals, and

crops are benefited by them , for it may happen that they havean injurious instead of a beneficial effect. Regarding the forms in which the

Beans. — When farmyard manure is used for the turnip crop, potash salts should not be applied to it, and any nitrogenous

threeconstituents should be applied, ref-

The need which cereal crops have of

manure added should be soluble.

erence must be made to the information nitrogen points strongly to the con given under each heading in the previous clusion that a part of the dung should But it may be shortly noted be withheld from the root crop and applied to the white crop ; and this is Forms of Manures for Turnips.- all the more to be recommended, as it is

pages. that

For turnips the phosphates should be ap- evident that a considerable loss of the plied either in a soluble form or in a state nitrogen of the dung is inevitable when

of very fine division in the case of a heavy dunging is applied to the fallow ground phosphates, they should be at break. If dung is to be used for beans, it least so finely ground as to pass through should be applied to the stubble, rather a sieve of 120 wires to the linear inch , or they should be of a kind that rapidly than put in with the seed. rot in the soil (such as bone-meal), and Organic Matter. at the same time so finely ground as to permit of their being rotted in great While it has been stated that on ordi

measure during the period of the crop's nary soils the three constituents - phos growth. The nitrogenous manure should phoric acid, nitrogen, and potash — are be partly of a quick -acting and partly of

sufficient to form what is known as a

a slow -acting kind, so as to be of service complete manure, and that a manure con to the crop during the whole period of its taining two of these substances, or, it may growth . happen, only one of them , is a sufficient Forms of Manure for Cereals. — For manure to apply to certain crops in cer cereals the nitrogenous manure should be tain circumstances, it is of the utmost

very rapid in its action, so as not to re- importance here to observe that, never

tard the ripening of the crop. If applied theless, it must not be supposed that, in as a top -dressing, it should consist of the manipulation of these three constit The phosphate cannot be too rapid , and on that account superphosphate is to be preferred to any other form of phosphate. The importance of potash in a cereal manure will depend on whether grass and clover seeds are sown with the crop. If that is the case, potash salts take the second place, as the presence of potash in the manure is of importance for the nitrate.

nourishment of clover. Forms of Manure for Beans.

uents, in reference to the crops they are producing, lies the whole question of manuring. Consider Soil as well as Manure

and Crop . — The rapidity with which light manures act upon the crops to which they are applied has tended to restrict our view too much to the two factors

manure and crop and has caused us to think less of the soil than our forefathers did .

For

Before the days of light manures

the bean crop, the form of potash salt time comparatively recent — when the that is most suitable is the muriate of wants of a crop for phosphates, nitrates, potash . Superphosphate is preferable to and potash were unknown, farmers fixed other forms of phosphate, probably on their attention upon the soil, and used

SEED - TIME.

185

every means to raise its general fertility tility of the land, and the health and to put it into what is called high “ con- safety of the crop , are concerned in the

dition ” —and this they did by the use of accumulation of organic matter in the heavy manures containing a large amount soil. of organic matter. Quick - acting Manures and Or Function of Organic Matter. - It ganic Matter . — However much, there has since been discovered that plants can fore, we may commend the application of

grow to perfection without organic mat- quick -acting light manures - phosphates, ter, but the circumstances in which that nitrates, and potash salts — for theassist is possible for crops are not those which ance of crops, it is quite evident that their prevail in ordinary farming and in this proper position on most kinds of land is climate.

subordinate to that of the heavier manures

It is to the organic matter in the soil

and to the slowly acting manures rich in that are due many of the changes going organic matter, which perform the im on there that are beneficial to the roots portant work of building up the fabric of of plants. The warmth and moisture of the soil, and accumulating therein a re thesoil are increased by the organic mat- serve of fertility which is commonly ter in it, and the acids formed by its known under the name of " condition , decay have an important part to play in and which is also called “ backbone " by dissolving the mineral matter, which those who are able to appreciate its im forms the food of plants. It is indeed portance. the key to the treasures of the soil. But

in theordinary operations of agriculture Numerous other experiments of im -in the constant disturbing and working portance have been conducted through

of the ground organicmatter is rapidly out the country, both by societies and and organic composts or other substances uted to the fund of knowledge relating

destroyed, so that if farmyard manure individuals, all of which have contrib

rich in organic matter are not put into to the great subject ofmanuring. The land under cultivation , or fed on it, it Royal Agricultural Society of England, soon becomes unduly deprived of organic and the Bath and West of England , have

matter. And the soil is thus deteriorated been , and still are, specially prominent as a medium for the growth of roots and in this good work.

In different sections

for the retention of moisture, and as a of The Book of the Farm , notably in store of fertility gradually becoming avail- those relating to foods, and to the feed able for the nourishment of crops. ing of k, reference has been made to

During very dry or cold seasons, and even during very wet ones, the want of organic matter in the soil is a source of danger to the crop. The fate of many plots at the stations during the recent

the Woburn feeding experiments of the former society ; and the manuring experi ments there, although not as yet so con clusive as could be desired upon the main points under special investigation,

drought showed how intimately the fer- are likewise interesting and important.

SEED - TIME. The “ seed-time " is a season of con-

Seasonable Working of Land.

tinual stir and bustle on the farm . The prognostics and variations of the weather are watched with the keenest interest and anxiety, for not only the progress of

Field -work will now be pushed on with all possible speed . Yet there are more points to be considered than the mere progress of the work. In particular,

the spring work, but also the returns of

care must be exercised as to the condition

the harvest are greatly influenced by the inwhich the different kinds of soils are character of theweather during the seed- tilled and prepared for the crops. time.

stir stiff clay when it

To soaked with wet

SEED - TIME.

186

would be ruinous. Better delay a little gress of modern agriculture, has been than commit the seed to a cold, unkindly, ill-prepared seed -bed. Better let the men and horses stand idle for a few days than run the risk of destroying the year's pro-

greater by far than is generally recog nised . It has, of course, been a matter

of business, not of philanthropy with them ; all the same, it is right to ac duce by working the land in an unseason- knowledge the great power which the

able condition. On the other hand, when development of the seed trade has ex the weatheris favourable, and the landin ercised in the advancement of agriculture. good condition for tillage operations, let An Extensive Seed Firm . — The fact all hands do their very best, so that full that the work which the leading “ special advantage may be taken of every favour- ist " seedsmen have been engaged in is of able spell of weather. advantage to the farmer, is indicated by the vast proportions which the business Selecting Seeds.

of a few of these firms has attained .

Farmers cannot be too careful in the The business premisesoccupied by Messrs selection of seeds. It matters not what Sutton & Sons, Reading, cover no less

the crop may be, the best possible seed than six acres of ground. This firm , should be secured. To ensure thoroughly reliable seeds of a high character , an extra outlay of a few shillings per acre may be entailed, but then these few may add pounds to the value of shillings the crop .

established in 1806, is now the largest of its kind in the world.

At its experi

mental grounds at Reading thousands of trials with farm and garden seeds are made every year, and anything of special promise is chosen for stock, and is in due

Improvement in Seeds. In this time, when by further culture the " type "

matter of seeds, the farmers of the pres- becomes sufficiently fixed , propagated ent day are well situated compared with extensively for sale. their brethren in former times.

In this way, by The this and other firms, many valuable varie

development of the Seed industry is in- ties of grain , roots, vegetables, and other deed one of the most notable — one of plants have been placed in the hands of the most beneficial - features in the pro- the farmer . During the busy seed sea gress of modern agriculture. The im- son, from January 1 till end of April,

provement ofthe animals of the farm has the number of letters reaching Messrs been accomplished on the farms by the Sutton & Sons' establishment average stock -owners themselves. Equally im- from 1200 to 1600 per day ; while the

portant and equally great in its way has letters despatched range from 1800 to been the improvement of the plants of 2000 daily. From 700 to 800 seed the farm . And this latter work has been orders have to be executed every day in carried out in the most thorough and the height of the season . The accounts

energetic manner by a number of exten- opened to customers approach 70,000 in sive and influential seed firms, who have number, and it is curious to note that

for many years devoted great attention amongst these are no fewer than 800 not only to the improvement of the old with the name of Smith ! varieties of the farm crops, but also to

With the excellent facilities that are

the propagation and development of new thus provided by the leading seed firms

varieties of increased producing power. for procuring high -class seeds of proved There are many eminent firms who have purity and germination, farmers now in this way rendered good services to the run little risk of loss by weak or im

country. Amongst the names most prominently associated with this great work of plant improvement are those of Sutton, Carter, Webb, Drummond, and Dick-

pure seed. They should in all cases see that they obtain seeds which have been tested for their vitality, and which are well cleaned and true to their kind.

son ; but there are several other firms These remarks apply equally to all kinds

which have also been active in similar of seeds; and once again we would re well-doing

mind the farmer that à few shillings for

The part which these enterprising first-class seed may add pounds to the firms, who give us the improved, selected, value of the produce. and tested seeds, have played in the pro-

Sowing is sometimes delayed by dila

SEED - TIME.

187

toriness on the part of the farmer in try the change on a small scale in the providing the necessary supplies of seeds. first year, and if the results are satisfac

extensively in Have these on the farm before they are tory, usethe variety more subsequent years. Farmers should be when a suitable time arrives for sowing. experimenting in this way very fre required, so that they may be at hand

Change of seed . It is well known quently, for by introducing fresh va

amongst practical farmers that great advantage may be derived by judicious change of seed. As a rule with roots, freshseed is introduced every year, for

rieties well suited to their land, the produce of their crops may be substan tially increased. A change of seed from a clayey to a light loamy or sandy soil

it is only in exceptional cases wherethe is generally beneficial. farmer grows his own turnip -seed. With New Varieties of

Farm Plants.

grain, however, the rule is reversed . The Farmers also derive much benefit by

home- grown seed is used for the most taking advantage of the many new and part ; but it has been clearly shown that improved varieties of

rain and roots

by an occasional change fromone climate, which are brought out by experimenting one soil, and one system of farming to seedsmen . Our leading seedsmen are another, the vitalityand producing power continually engaged in propagating fresh of a particular kind or " stock " of grain and improved varieties of farm crops, are substantially increased . When one more particularly of grain, mangels, considers the artificial influences by which swedes, turnips, and potatoes, and by our improved varieties of grain have been availing themselves of these new and

brought to their highly developed con- vigorous sorts of proved excellence, dition, one cannot be in the least sur- farmers may to a marked extent en prised that such changes of scene and hance their produce. surroundings should often exercise a At the same time, it is well to say beneficial effect upon the crop. that caution should be exercised in in

But all changes are not successful. troducing new varieties. Let them be Neither are the conditions essential to

tried on a small scale at the outset, and

In almost adopted extensively only after their suit everychange of seed, as in every change ability and high qualities have been un success very fully known.

of a sire, there is something of the nature mistakably established. of an experiment. As a rule, a change Testing Seed . - Farmers should care of seed from an early to a late district is fully avoid using weak or unreliable seed .

followed by a marked benefit, notably in Seeds of all kinds may now be procured

the earlier ripening of the crop, but also pure, and of certain germination. This to

some

extent in the quantity and should always be insisted upon , and

quality of the produce.

The influence farmers should themselves test the seeds when they take them home. Even

on the date of the harvest is most

marked.

For instance, by the habitual home-grown seed, however well it may

introduction of seed -oats from the south look, should never be sown without of Scotland every second or third year, having been first carefully tested. This

the ripening of the cropon certain farms may be done very easily with grain or in the later districts of the north - east has

grass seeds, by placing say a hundred

been hastened by from six to ten days ; seeds between two folds of damp blotting

and practical farmers acquainted with a paper laid on a meat or soup plate, with late climate know that acceleration to another similar plate placed face down that extent in harvest is a very import- wards over that plate. No artificial heat

ant advantage - perhaps all the differ- need be used , and the plates may sit on ence between a crop secured and a crop an open shelf in the farmer's parlour. partially lost. The weight of the grain The blotting-paper should be damped

will also most likely beincreased 2, 3, or every day by sprinkling a little wateron more pounds per bushel. Then in taking it by the hand. The object of having seed from a late to an early district there the two plates placed face to face is to may sometimes be an advantage — notably cause a current of air to pass over the s an increase in the bulk of the produce.

seed .

In this way cereal seeds will

A good plan in changing seed is to germinate in about a week, and grass

SEED - TIME .

188

seeds in about three weeks. An efficient Date of Sowing. - In former times, testing apparatus may be purchased at even under the most favourable circum a moderate cost. Grain -seeds are often tested under a

stances, wheat was seldom sown after the

first week of March , but later varieties

very thin damp turf in a well- exposed have been introduced which may be sown spot in the farmer's garden.

We have

as late as April.

On farms possessing the advantages of also seen it done on damp turfs, placed on the rafters over the heads of cattle, favourable soil and climate, and on which where, of course, the temperature is it is customary to sow spring wheat every

considerably higher than outside early year, the root-land is usually ploughed in spring, when testing is usually carried with that view up to the beginning of March ; and even where spring wheat is

out.

Clover, turnip, or any other legumin- sown only when a favourable field comes

ous seeds may be tested in a moresimple in the course of rotation, or the weather and expeditious manner. Count out say proves tempting, the land should still be

100 seeds, roll them into a piece of so ploughed thatadvantage maybe taken flannel, and dip into boiling water for to sow wheat. Should the weather take

four or five minutes, and on opening an unfavourable turn after the ploughing, the piece of flannel all the reliable seeds the soil can afterwards be easily worked willbe found much swollen, and actually for barley. Tillage for germinated, with the elementary root

shooting out. The seeds which do not present this swollen appearance cannot safely be reckoned upon, and the quantity of seed to be given per acre should be regulated by the percentage of the reliable germinating seeds.

Wheat. - The land should

receive only one furrow — the seed -furrow —for spring wheat, because if ploughed oftener , it would be deprived of that firmness so essential to the growth of wheat. The mode of ploughing this seed -furrow depends upon circumstances. If the land has a visible form of ridge, and easily becomes wet, it should be

gathered up (fig . 34, p. 110, vol. i), and then it will have the appearance of being A large extent of wheat is sown in twice gathered up, as in fig. 40, p . 115, spring after a crop of roots of one kind vol. i. If the land is flat, and the sub SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

or another. Good Land for Wheat .- To ensure

soil somewhat moist, gathering up from the flat will answer best, as in fig. 34.

a good crop of spring wheat, the land If the soil has a dry subsoil, though of should be for some time in good heart, itself a pretty strong clay, it may be

otherwise the attempt will inevitably end cast with gore-furrows (figs. 36 and 37). in disappointment. Wheat cannot be And should the land be fine loam, rest sown in spring in every weather and ing on an open bottom, the ridges may upon every soil. Unless the soil has a be cast together without gore-furrows, as

certain degree of firmness from clay, it is in fig. 36 . It is probable that a whole field may —it is more profitable to sow barley upon not be obtained at once to be ploughed, it ; and unless theweatheris dry, to allow and this often happens for spring wheat ;

not well adapted for the growth of wheat

strong soil to be ploughed in early spring, but when it is determined to sow wheat, it is also more profitable to defer wheat, a few ridges should be ploughed as con and sow barley in the proper season . venience offers, and then a number of

The climate of a place affectsthe sowing acres may be sown at one time. In this of wheat in spring; and it seems a curi- way a large field may be sown by de ous problem in climate why wheat sown grees, whereas to wait till a whole field in autumn should ripen satisfactorily at a can be sown at once, may prevent the

place where spring wheat will not. Ex- sowing of spring wheat that season. Bad

perience makes the northern farmers weather may set in, prevent sowing, and chary of sowing wheat in spring, unless consolidate the land too much after it had the soil is in excellent condition , and the been ploughed ; still a favourable week favourable weather very

for the purpo

may come, and, even at the latter end of

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

189

the season , the consolidated land can be form is represented in fig. 255 (made by ribbed with the small plough, which will Fowler & Co. on Pirie's Patent), and move as much of the soil sufficiently as another in fig. 256, made by J. Cooke to bury the seed . & Sons, Lincoln . Advantages of the Double - furrow To exDouble - furrow Plough .

pedite the ploughing of the seed -furrow Plough . — The double-furrow plough is at a favourable moment, the double-fur- usually worked with 3 horses, and as to

row plough is used by some, though not the question whether it effects a saving so largely now as a few years ago. One of draught as compared with two single i

ko h

b

Fig. 255. - Fowler's double-furrow plough with single lever. a to 6 Frame of wrought-iron flat bar. a to c Frame of angle iron. d Front plough fixed , with mould . board, coulter, and share.

e Hind plough , movable, with like mounting. f g Inclined wheels with angular rims. Ñ Vertical wheel with angular rim .

i Handle and screw -rod. k Lever for adjusting wheel g. b c Cross or front baracting as the bridle.

furrow -ploughs, there has been much dis- furrow plough saves

I

man

and

I

cussion . Experiments with the dynam- horse. Turning over 2 furrows, and pre

C.

ometer have shown that there is little saving in this respect, and that the 3 horses have to exert about as much force as 4 horses, with 2 common ploughs doing the same amount of work, with a slight difference in favour of the double -furrow plough. In a trial with the double -fur-

Fig. 256. — Cooke's double-furrow plough.

suming the plough to be drawn by 3 horses (it is too fatiguing for 2 horses ), it undoubtedly saves i horse and its keep, but it does not save a man. Two double ploughs might, indeed , be man aged by 6 horses and 2 men, and thus a saving be effected of 1 man and 2 horses that is, if farmers can get plough men to undertake the grooming of 3 horses. Most of them think they have enough to do with 2 horses, and it can hardly be expected that they will add a third to their labours

without something like a correspond ing addition to their wages. At the best, therefore, it will be seen that

row plough and others in 1870, the com- the new ploughs can save only i man mon plough, with a furrow of from 672 out of 3, and of horses 2 out of 8, in turn to 772 inches deep, gave a draught from ing over 4 furrows. But men at certain 4 to 5 cwt.; while 9 double-furrow ploughs , seasons of the year are needed on the

with an average depth of furrow of 572 inches, gavean average draught of 7 cwt. In regard to saving either men or horses in employing the double-furrow plough, a writer says : “ It is a mistake to suppose, as many do, that the double

farm for other work than ploughing, and it is perhaps doubtful whether the double

ploughs will effect more than the saving of horses. This alone is a great matter. ” 1 1 The Farmer, January 26, 1870.

SEED-TIME.

190

In recent years double -furrow ploughs pickling the seed prevents the smut in have been losing favour in many parts of the country where they obtained a footing. The modern Anglo -American plough is now preferred by many for speedy ploughing. Still, in somecircumstances,

the crop, is a question more easily asked than answered ; and it is, perhaps, from the want of a satisfactory answer that pickling is disregarded by incredulous farmers. Objection against the practice

the double - furrow plough may be em- is as difficult to be stated as any reason

for it, but the palpable fact stands un ployed with advantage. Several improvements have lately been contradicted, that one field sown with

effected in the double - furrow ploughs, pickled wheat, and otherwise managed and now they are, as a rule, lighter in in the usual way, will most likely escape draught, and more easily manipulated the smut ; while the adjoining field , man than in former times. aged in exactly the same way, but sown

Sowing. — The land, having been with wheat without pickle, will most ploughed, should be sown at once. To likely be affected more or less with the economise time, the seed -wheat should disease. have been measured up in the sacks, or Various methods and materials for

ready to be measured up in the corn- pickling are employed. A solution of blue barn or granary, and, if pickling is to be vitriol is now most generally used , and done, the means of doing it provided .

the process, as described in former edi

Quantity of seed.- Wheat should be tions of this work, is seen in fig. 257. sown thick in spring, as there is no

time for the plant to stool or tiller —that is, to throw up a number of young shoots from one root, as is the case with autumnal- sown wheat.

About 3 bushels per imperial acre will

ACS

suffice of seed for spring wheat, but 1923

many farmers Sow

a little

more.

There is always a controversy about

thick and thin sowing. Since spring wheat does not tiller, it stands to reason that it should be sown thick

9

and buried regularly under the sur face, which is most efficiently done

Fig. 257. - Apparatus for pickling wheat. a Sackful of wheat. b Basket to receive the wheat from the sack .

by a drill-machine. Pickling Wheat. — There is much

to be said in favour of the pickling of seed -wheat — that is, subjecting it to a preparation in a certain kind of liquor — before it is sown, in order to ensure it against the attack of a

c Tub of pickle.

d Basket of pickled wheat. e Drainer for basket.

f Tub to receive draining of pickle from the basket. g Heap of pickled wheat. i Sacks for the pickled wheat.

fungoid disease in the ensuing sum- The pickling may be done on a part of mer, called smut, which renders the the corn -barn floor. Two upright bas grain comparatively worthless.

Some kets are provided, each capable of hold

farmers affect to despise this precaution, as originating in an unfounded reliance on an imaginary specific. But the existence of smut, and its baneful

ing easily about half a bushel of wheat, having upright handles above the rims. Pour the wheat into one basket from the sack , and dip the basketful of wheat

effect upon the wheat crop, are no im- into the tub of vitriolcompletely to cover aginary evils ; and when experience has proved, in numberless instances, that steeped seed protects the crop from this serious disease, the small trouble and expense which pickling imposes may

the wheat, the upright handles protect ing the hands from the vitriol. After it remains in the liquid for a few seconds, lift up the basket, so as to let the surplus liquid run from it into the tub again ,

surely be incurred, even although it and then place the basket

upon the

should fail to secure the crop . How drainer on the empty tub, to drip still

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

191

more liquid, until the other basket is special preparations are Down's " Far filled with wheat and dipped in the mers' Friend ” and Clarke's and King's vitriol tub.

Then empty the dripped specifics.

basket of its wheat on the floor, and as

Placing Sacks in the Field . — There

basketful is emptied, let a person is some art in setting down sacks of seed spread, by riddling it through a wheat- corn on the field . The plan of placing every

riddle, a little slaked caustic lime upon the sacks of course depends on whether the wet wheat to dry it. Thus all the the seed is to be sown by the hand or

wheat wanted at the time is pickled and emptied on the floor in a heap. Turning Pickled Wheat. - The pickled and limed heap of wheat is turned over and mixed in this way : Let two men be each provided with a squaremouthed shovel ( fig. 114, p. 234, vol. i.), one on each side of the heap, one having the helve of his shovel in his right hand,

by a machine. The sacks are set down the sowing commences. One row of sacks is sufficient, when the ridges are just long enough for the sower to carry across the field from the side at which

as much seed as will bring him back

again to the sack , and the sacks are then set in the centre of the ridge. When the ridges are short, the sacks are set

and the other in his left ; and let both upon a head -ridge ; and when of such make their shovels meet upon the floor length as the sower cannot return to the

under one end of the heap of wheat, sack by a considerable distance, two rows turning each shovelful from the heap of sacks are set, dividing the length of the behind them , till the other end of the ridges equally between them , setting the heap is reached . Let them return in a two sacks on the same ridge. The sacks similar manner in the opposite direction, are placed upon the furrow -brow of the

and continue, untilthe wheat is thorough- ridge, that the hollow of the open furrow ly mixed and dried with the lime. The may give advantage to the carrier of the pickled wheat is then sacked up, and seed to take it out easily as the sack carried to the field in carts. becomes empty. In thus setting down

Seed - dressing to Ward off Birds. the sacks of seed, it is intended to give -A Surrey farmer says: “ Weare much the supply of seed more easily to the troubled with crows and other birds eat-

man who sows the seed by hand.

When a machine is employed to sow ing the seed of wheat and other grain, but wheat more especially. The crows the seed, the sacks are set upon one of do most damage justwhen the plant be- the head -ridges connected with the gate

gins to come through the soil. I have of the field , unless the field is so long tried various dressings for the seed, but that a row of sacks must be placed in found the following by far the most the middle . effectual in warding off the crows : For

Where to begin Sowing.- If the

one quarter of wheat take a two-gallon surfaceis level, it matters not which side pail, into which put quarter full of fresh of the field is chosen for commencing the

lime, mixing and stirring with hot water, sowing ; but if inclined, the side which just enoughwater to get it into a thick lies to the left on looking down the in paste ; then put in one pint of tar; stir all up together, and fill up the pail with water, and keep stirring . Pour this over the heap of seed, and keep stirring till all the seed is equally stained with the

cline should be the starting point. The reason for this preference is, that the first stroke of the harrows along the ridge is most difficult for the horses to draw ; and it is easiest for them to give the first

mixture.

stroke downhill.

This is also effectual for bar-

This first action of the

ley, but no use for oats, as the birds can harrows is called breaking-in the land. It is the same to the sower at which side pick out the kernel.” 1 There are several most useful prepara- he commences the sowing, but ease of

tions for pickling wheat, not only for work for the horses ought to be studied . Seed Carrier . - In Scotland the car preventing smut, but also for preventing insects and crows and other birds from rier of the seed is usually a woman, eating the seed . Chief among these and the instant the first sack of seed is set down, she unties and rolls down its 1 Parming World , p. 471 . 1887.

mouth, and fills the rusky, basket, pail,

SEED - TIME.

192

or whatever she uses in conveying the upon the ground where they are emptied, seed, and carries it to the sower , who to be flung aside as the harrows come to awaits her on the head -ridge from which them . he makes his start.

Her endeavour

One-hand Sowing. - In former times

should be to supply him with such a quantity of seed at a time as will bring him in a line with the sack where he gets a fresh supply ; and as the sacks

the sower by hand inScotland was habit ed in a peculiar manner. He sowed by one hand only, and had a sowing -sheet wound round him , as shown in fig. 258.

are placed half -way down the ridges The most convenient sheet is of linen . when only one row is set down, this is It is made to have an opening large easily managed ; but with two rows of enough to admit the head and right arm

sacks, she must go from row to row and of the sower through it, and a portion of supply the sower, it being her special duty to attend to his wants, and not to consider her own convenience.

Nothing can be more annoying to a sower than to have his sheet or sowing-basket served too full at one time, and too stinted at another ; as also to lose time in waiting the arrival of the seed -carrier, whereas she should be awaiting his arrival. When two rows are at a consider able distance, on long ridges, two carriers are required to serve one sower.

Better that the carriers

have less to do than that the sower lose time and delay the harrows, d

which will likely occur when the

i s . b e

carriers are overtaxed . Seed -basket. — The basket or ves sel in which the carrier conveys the

seed is of various patterns— a deep or shallow basket, or ordinary pail, sometimes carried on the head,and in other cases in the hand or on the arm and haunches. The seed is most easily poured into the sowing

Fig. 258. —Sowing-sheet and hand - sowing corn .

basket from the seed -basket on thehead. the sheet to rest upon his left shoulder. It should be filled each time with just On distending the mouth of the doubled the quantity of seed the sower requires part with both hands, and receiving the at a time.

seed into it, the loose part of the sheet

The Seed -sacks. — The mouth of the sack should be kept rolled down, that the seed may be quickly taken out, for little time is usually at the disposal of the carrier. The carrier should be very careful not to spill any seed upon the ground on taking it out of the sack, otherwise a thick tuft of corn will un-

is wound tight over the left hand, by which it is firmly held, while the load of corn is supported by the part of the sheet which crosses the breastand passes under the right arm behind the back to the left shoulder. A basket of wicker work, such as fig. 259, was very common in England for sowing with one hand.

profitably grow upon the spot. As one It was suspended by agirth fastened to sack becomes empty, the carrier should two loops on the rim of the basket, and

take it to the nearest sack ; and as the passing round the back of the neck ; the sacks accumulate, they should be put left hand holding the basket steady by into one, and carried forward out of the the wooden stud on the other side of the way of the harrows.

It is a careless

habit which permits the sacks to lie

rim .

Two - hand Sowing . - But the system

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

193

of sowing with both hands is now more the form of a figure corresponding to the general than one-hand sowing. It should sweep made by the hand . The forward indeed be the universal method wherever

motion of the hand is accompanied by a

hand -sowing is pursued. It is the most corresponding forward advance of the expeditious ; and many people consider right foot, which is planted on the that the sowing can bedone more evenly

ground the moment the hand casts for

with two hands than with one.

ward the bulk of the seed.

For two-hand sowing a simple formof

The action is well represented in fig.

sowing-sheet is a linen semi-spheroidal 258, except that some would consider the sower should give his hand a higher sweep, especially on a calm day. The curve which the seed describes on fall

ing upon the ground, is like the area of a portion of a very eccentric el lipse, one angle resting on the open furrow, and the other stretching 2 or 3 feet beyond the crown of the ridge,

the broadest partof the area being on the left handof the sower. The moment the seed leaves it the

hand is brought back to the sowing

sheet to be replenished, while the left foot is advanced and the right hand Fig. 259. - English sowing -basket.

is stretched back for a fresh cast, and

thrown forward again with the ad bag, attached to a hoop of wood or of vance of the right foot. iron rod, formed to fit the sower's body, The seed ought to be cast equally over buckled round it, and suspended in front the ground. If the hand and one foot in the manner just described. Both alternately do not move simultaneously, hands are thus at liberty to cast the the ground will not be equally covered, seed, one handful after the other. and a strip left between the casts. When Art of Sowing. — The following de- the braird — that is, the young plants

tailed description of the art of sowing comes up, these strips show themselves. by one hand is also so far applicable to This error is most apt to be committed sowing by both hands. Taking as much by a sower with a stiff elbow , who casts

seed as he can grasp in his right hand, the grain too high above the ground. the sower stretches his arm out and a

The arm should be thrown well back

little back with the clenched fingers and stretched out, though, in continuing looking forward, and the left foot making the action , with the turning up the back an advance of a moderate step. When of the hand, the inside of the elbow the arm has attained its most backward joint becomes pained. position, the seed is begun to be cast, If the hand is opened too soon, too with a quick and forcible thrust of the much of the seed falls upon the furrow hand forward. At the first instant of brow , and the crown receives less than the forward motion the fore-finger and its proportion. This fault young sowers thumb are a little relaxed ,by which some are very apt to commit, froin the appre of the seeds drop upon the furrow -brow hension that they may retain the seed and in the open furrow ; and while still too long in the hand. If the hand is

further relaxing the fingers gradually, brought too high in front, the seed is apt the back of the hand is turned upwards to becaught by the wind and carried in until the arm becomes stretched before

a different direction from that intended .

the sower, by which time the fingers are When the wind becomes strong, the all thrown open, with the back of the sower is obliged to walk on the adjoining

spread hand uppermost. The motion of ridge to the windward to sow theone he the arm being always in full swing, the wishes; and the sower should cast low in grain , as it leaves the hand, receivessuch windy weather. an impetus as to be projected forward in VOL.

II .

Some sowers take long steps, and make N

SEED - TIME.

194

long casts, causing some of the seed to well, but is so constructed that its long reach across the ridge from furrow to sowing-chest is divided into sections, the furrow . Such a sower spills the seed be- two end ones of which can be folded upon hind the hand, and makes bad work

in wind. The step should be short, the casts frequent, and the seed held firmly in the hand, then the whole work is under complete com mand.

The sower should never

bustle and try to hurry through

his work ; he should commence with such a steady pace as to maintain it during the day's work. A sower with both hands makes

the casts alternate, the hand and foot of the same side moving simul

Fig. 260.--Broadcast sower ready for work .

taneously with regularity and grace. Sowing - machines.

Hand - sowing the central division, whereby the machine

has been to a large extent superseded by may pass through any field -gate without sowing-machines. These do the work having to remove the sowing-chest. better than it can possibly be done by By the use of the drill-machine less hand, and their use is therefore to be commended.

Of seed - sow

ing machines there are many pat terns, some dropping the seed in drills, others scattering it broad cast. A material difference exists between these two classes of ma chines. The broadcast machine

deposits the seed upon the sur face of the ground, and is in fact a direct substitute for hand-sow

Fig. 261. - Broadcast sower in transit

ing ; and as it deposits the seed

very regularly, this machine is now ex- seed will thus suffice, and another advan tensively used. tage is that the land between the rows may The drill-machine deposits the seed at be hoed by the hand -hoe, or by a horse

once at a specific depth under ground in hoe, such as in fig. 262 (Kells, Meats, & rows, and at such distances between the Co., Gloucester), thus tending to clean rows, and with such thickness in the rows, theland. Drilling is rightlyenough in as the will of the farmer may decide. The seed being left by the broadcast machine on the ground like hand -sowing, is buried in the soil more or less deeply as the harrows may chance to take it ; whereas the drill-machine deposits the seed in the soil at any depth the farmer chooses, and all the seed at the same

depth, thereby giving him such a com mand over the position of the seed in the soil as no broadcast machine or hand sowing can possibly do. Broadcast Sowers.

There are various

Fig. 262.- Horse hoe.

forms of the broadcast sowing-machine.

The one illustrated in figs. 260 and 261 , favour for good land in good heart, but made by Ben. Reid & Co., Aberdeen, on poor or medium land it does not give exhibits the machine in the most perfect so much straw as broadcast sowing . The

form, not only doing the work easily and sowing-gear of the broadcast machine is

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

195

connected with the main axle of the car- easy of attainment. To ensure an even

riage, as shown in the figure. The ar- braird, the machineshould becarried in rangements for regulating the quantity a level position. It sows all kinds of

of seed per acre are very simple and grain admirably, and is equally well effective, and altogether the machine adapted for sowing dry artificial manure. is very easily worked and con trolled .

About 18 feet is the usual

width sown at once by the machine. Hand Broadcast Sowers.

Fig. 263 represents a very ingeni ous and most useful hand broadcast

©

sower, the “ Little Wonder," of American invention, and brought to this country by Mr J. H. New

ton , West Derby, Liverpool. The illustration pretty well ex plains its appearance and action. A light box of thin wood is

Fig. 264. - Corn and seed drill.

The quantity to be sown per acre is reg To the top ulated by a little slide. part of this is attached a canvas reStrawson's ingenious air distributor ceptacle for the seed, while on front may also be adapted for sowing grain carried

under

the

left

arm with a

strap over the shoulder.

broadcast.

Drill Sowers.There are many pat terns of these, and they are now very reliable in working. Ingenious and efficient devices are employed for regu

lating the quantity of seed per acre, the width of the drills, and the depth to which the seeds are deposited. Fig. 264 represents the improved Suffolk corn and seed drill made by R. Garrett & Sons, Suffolk .

The “ Excelsior ” drill-sowing machine ( The Chadburn ManufacturingCompany ), represented in fig. 265, isa most ingeni Fig. 263.— Broadcast hand -sower

ous American invention, designed to sow almost all kinds of farm seeds, as well as

and below is fixed a little tinned iron

manure .

wheel, or rather four crossed pieces reWidth of Drill. — The width between volving on a spindle. Round this spindle the rows of wheat varies somewhat. is passed a thong which forms the string of a bow, and by “ see -saw ing " this bow the wheel revolves in alternate directions.

An eccen

tric on the spindle moves a little hopper which keeps a regular stream of seed falling on to the revolv ing “ wheel, ” and this in its turn sends the grain spinning out all round .

It will cover a width of

about 30 feet , but some have found it best in practice to go up the centre of one rig and down another, thus taking 14 or 16 feet at a time. It is

Fig. 265.— " Excelsior " sced drill.

thus possible, if kept supplied with seed, On good land in high condition, 9 to do four acres per hour, while three is inches is a common width, but many

SEED - TIME.

196

consider that rather too great for ordi- uncertain, while its construction is of the nary land .

simplest order.

So simple indeed is this

Hand Seed - drill.— There are small construction, that at a very remote period hand seed -drills both for grain and root it appears to have taken that form which, crops. Fig. 266 in so far as the simple principles of its ful drill of this

action are concerned , is almost incapable of further improvement. Iron Harrows.— Fig. 267 represents

pattern.

Howard's set of iron harrows for a pair

represents

Boby's very use Harrowing . The land , whether sown Fig. 266. - Hand seed -drill.

by hand or with any sort of ma

chine, must be harrowed. The order in time of using the harrows differs with the

12

sort of machine used for sowing the grain. When the grain is sown by hand or with

the broadcast machine, theharrow is used chiefly after the grain has been sown, although many consider it desirable to “ break in ” the surface by a single or double turn of the harrows before sow Fig. 267. - English iron harrows. ing. But in sowing with drill-machines, the harrow is first used to put the land into the proper tilth for the ma- of horses. Sellar's harrows, suited for chine. heavy land, are shown in fig. 268.

Considering the operation the harrow Wooden harrows, onceIron so common, are harrow

has to perform in covering the seeds that

now out of date.

s

are

have been cast upon the soil, and reduc- made of many patterns. Most of them ing the surface -soil to a fine tilth, it is an are wonderfully durable, light in draught,

implement of no small importance; and and very effective in reducing the soil yet its effects are apparently rude and to a fine condition.

They are made

群 Fig. 268. - Scotch iron harrows.

heavy or light, according to the work the ridge whichever is nearest the open intended to be done. In some the field . Each pair of harrows should be teeth or tines are held in by screw and provided with double reins, one rein from nut, and in others by being driven each horse ; and the ploughmen should through holes of the required size. be made to walk and drive their horses Process of Harrowing . — Two pairs with the reins from behind the harrows.

of harrows work best together, their If a strict injunction is not laid upon

united breadth covering the entire ridge, them in this respect, the two men may and lapping over the crown where the be found walking together, the leading soil is thickest. One pair takes the lead , one behind the harrows, the other at the by going usually on the near side of the head of his horses.

The latter is thus

ridge, while the other pair follows on the unable to know whether his harrows off side, but the leader takes the side of cover the ground which they ought to

1

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

197

cover, and the two are more engrossed

Suppose the harrowing had begun at the top of the declivity, the breaking-in To draw harrows as they should be commences at once on going down-hill ; drawn, is really not so lightwork for and to preserve the propriety of giving

in talk than in the work in hand .

horses as it seems to be.

When the the double tines in opposite directions,

tines are newly sharpened and long, and the harrows come up the same ridge and take a deep hold of the ground, the finish it, the double tine up-hill being

labour is considerable. To harrow the easy because of the ground having been ground well—that is, to stir the soil so as to allow the seed to descend into it, and bring to the surface and pulverise all the larger clods, as in the case of broadcast sowing - requires the horses to go at a smart pace ; and for efficient working harrows should on all occasions be driven with a quick motion. When the seed is sown by a drillmachine, it is deposited at a given depth ;

passed over by the harrowing down hill; and so on with every succeeding ridge. As there is little room for two pair of

harrows to turn at the end of one and the same ridge, the leading harrows are driven forward upon the head -ridge, and the horses are hied so as to movo round

upon the far side of the head -ridge, and still hied round, they take up their place

and in order that the harrows shall not on the same side of the ridge they had disturb its position, the land is har- come down ; while the hind harrows are

rowed fine before the seed is sown, a hupped so far on the head-ridge as to single tine —that is, one turn of the turn on its far side, and then hieing, take harrows — along the drills covering the up their position on the same side of the seed sufficiently . ridge they had come down, in rear of the Harrowing on Incline. — In har- leading harrows. rowing after the broadcast seed, one But where four pairs of horses are at

must be guided by the circumstances of work — and four pairs are required to the case . If the harrowing commences at the foot of the incline, and with two

cover in and finish as fast as the broad

cast sower deposits the seed—this plan pairs of horses, the following plan is would be apt to lead to confusion . If adopted by some. The ridge next the the field ascends from the gate, each pair fence should be ascended by the 2 pairs of of harrows may go up a separate open

harrows ; and on gaining the top of the furrow , as these require more harrowing

incline, the second ridge is descended, to than the other portions; and when the break -in its seed ; and hieing — that is, top of the field is reached, all the pairs turning them round to the left — both go down the side of the field where the the pairs of horses at the foot, the first sower has commenced.

At the bottom ,

ridge is again ascended, which finishes the first pair of harrows pass along the its double tine ; and though both tines head -ridge to the left in front of the

(or stripes or courses of the harrow ) have second pair, which pass to the right, the been given on it in the same direction, one pair going up the land upon which the anomaly is submitted to in order to the other came down. The third and

gain a favourable position for the horses fourth pairs do likewise, and in this way to break -in the seed, which is from the confusion in turning is avoided . top of an incline where there is an inThe entire movements are easily and

cline. Hieing the horses again on the quickly managed with double reins ; but

upper head - ridge, the third ridge is with a single rein, even with the voice, broke -in down-hill ; and hieing again on this mode

of turning at the end of a

the lower head -ridge, the second ridge ridge is apt to create confusion. is ascended, and is thus finished in its If the incline is begun to be sown at double tine-given in opposite directions. the opposite side of the field, the same Thus by hieing both pairs of harrows arrangements as have just been described at both ends, one ridge is broke-in on for easy breaking -in of the seed for the going down, and another receives the horses, whether from foot or top of the double tine on coming up the incline, incline, should be followed ; but in fol

which affords an easy mode of working lowing them here the horses should be the horses.

hupped - turned to the right - instead of

198

SEED -TIME .

hied , because the open side of the field is ciently fine and uniform , the harrowing should cease , although the When the field is level, it matters not number of double or single from which side the breaking-in com- not been given ; for it is a mences . cially in light, soft soils,

on a different hand.

appointed tines have

fact, espe that over

Cross - harrowing. - After the ap- harrowing brings part of the seed up pointed piece of ground, whether a again to the surface. whole field or part, has been sown and Water - furrows.-- When the spring broken-in, the land is cross-harrowed a wheat was sown early in the season , in

double tine — that is, at right angles to January or near the end of February,

the former harrowing, and to the ridges. it was usually considered necessary in But as, for this operation, the ground is former times that the ridges should be not confined within the breadth ofridges, water-furrowed, so that, incase of much

the harrows cover the ground with their rain falling, or snow melting, it may run whole breadth, and get over the work in less time than in breaking-in. Cross-harrowing is not easy for the horses, inasmuch as the stripes left in the ground by the breaking-in have to be cut through, and the irregular motion

off the surface of the ground by the water-furrows.

Whatever of the spring

wheat is sown late in the spring, in the last of February and beginning of March, the water-furrowing is not executed un til after the sowing of the grass-seeds, if

of the harrows, in jerking across the open any are to be sown with the wheat crop.

furrows of the ridges, has a fatiguing effect upon the horses.

Water -furrowing is making a slight plough -furrow in every open furrow , as

To finish the harrowing, another double

a channel for rain -water to flow off the

tine along the ridges, as in the case of

land . It may be executed lightly with a

the breaking-in, may be necessary. This common plough and one horse, but better turn is easily and quickly performed, the with a double mould -board plough and soil having been so often moved ; and one horse ; and as the single horse walks

should it seem uniform in texture, a single in the open furrow, the plough following tine will suffice for a good finishing.

obliterates his footmarks.

The better water - furrowing by the the harrowing of land, the sense of feel- double mould -board plough consists in ing is required as well as that of sight. the channel having equal sides ; and the When well done, the soil seems uniformly furrow -slice on each side being small, Efficient Harrowing. — To judge of

smooth, and the small clods lie loosely compared with the one furrow -slice of upon the surface; the ground feeling the common plough on one side, the uniformly consistent under the treadharof row. water can moresimply freely into fur the foot. sufficiently The run plough goes the When not up one rowed, the surface appears rough, the open furrow and down another until the clods are half hid in the soil, and the field is finished, the horse being hied at ground feels unequal under the foot—in the turns into the open furrow. Water

some parts resisting its pressure, in others furrowing finishes the work of the field. giving way to it too easily.

Under -drainage v. Water - furrows.

The old saying that “good harrowing On average soils there will be no is half farming ” has more wisdom in it necessity for water-furrows if the land is

than at first sight appears. The efficient thoroughly under -drained . The import harrowing of land is of more importance than seems generally to be imagined. Its object is not merely to cover the seeds, but to pulverise the ground , and render it of a uniform texture.

ance of this latter is now universally ac knowledged, and great benefit has been derived by the large extent to which drainage has been executed throughout Uni- the country. When the soil is excep

formity of texture maintains in the soil tionally adhesive, and water apt to lie a more equable temperature , not absorb- in pools on its surface, it is very desir

ing rain so fast, or admitting drought able that water-furrows should be pro too easily, as is the case when the soil

vided to prevent this.

Wheat after Grass.— The foregoing is rough and kept open by clods. Whenever the texture becomes suffi- relates mainly to the sowing of wheat

SOWING SPRING WHEAT.

199

after a root crop. But a large extent of than lose the advantage of sowing wheat spring wheat is also sown after grass, in good time before the winter sets in. chiefly in England, and some of the

But with others the aftermath is of

earlier and drier districts of Scotland. The success of spring wheat after grass in England attests the superiority of the English climate, which is too dry, and

greater importance, and they accordingly defer the ploughing of the lea till winter, and the sowing of the wheat till spring. January is considered a good month for

too warm in the southern counties, for wheat-sowing, but it is only in excep the perfect growth of oats. A great ob- tional seasons and in favoured districts

stacle to sowing wheat in Scotland in that the weather permits of this. There spring is the action of two classes of soil

is thus a considerable extent of spring

on the growth of that plant. Clay soils wheat sown after grass. Presser -roller . — This implement was are too inert in the average climate of Scotland to mature the growth of wheat

called into use with the object of consoli

in a few months; and the light soils, dating light soils, so as they might with though more favourable to quick vegeta- stand the drought of spring and support tion, want stamina to support the wheat the wheat plant until it attains maturity.

plant, and are, besides, too easily affected The action of the presser-roller is to con by drought in early spring — it being no solidate the soil in the lineal spaces in uncommon occurrence in Scotland to ex-

which the seeds of wheat are to have

perience a severe drought in March, and root; hence it is applicable only in drill culture on loose soil,whether after lea or during the prevailing east wind. Wheat cannot be safely sown in the

on bare land.

The presser-roller is in perspective re October, which is the time for sowing presented in fig. 269, and fig . 270 gives after potatoes. Some sow it in Novem- edge - view of the two pressing -wheels autumn in Scotland after the end of

ber, to the risk of producing athin crop. detached from the carriage, in which is To plough up lea before October would the axle of the two pressing-wheels as be to sacrifice the aftermath. Many far- they appear edgewise, their weight being

mers do this without hesitation, racher about 2 cwt. each. The pressing -wheels

d

Fig. 269. - Presser -roller. a a Rectangular frame. b Pair of shafts . c Cast -iron bracket.

dd Two pressing wheels. e Light carriage -wheel.

f Iron stay -rod. g Two iron scrapers.

are held at the required distance by ning always upon the last - turned - up square collars. A transverse section of furrows but one ; while the light car

the ground undergoing the pressing pro- riage-wheel runs always upon the solid cess is the shaded part of the section, land, where the horse also walks, the exhibiting the state of a soft soil when shafts being placed at that side. pressed by the roller ; and the dotted But the presser is now being more

lines of the newly-ploughed furrow -slices advantageously used as to time,in the of lea undergoing consolidation.

With

consolidation of soft soils, by being con

reference again to fig. 270, the press- structed with 4, 6, or more pressing ing-wheels are to be understood as run- wheels ; and in this form the carriage

SEED-TIME.

200

wheel is not required. In using the is a powerful auxiliary to the farmer of pressure of this construction, the field such soils ; perhaps it is equal, if not

must be ploughed for the seed -furrow, superior, to the drill in these respects." either entirely or in part, before the Spring Varieties of Wheat. — As to pressing is begun ; and the field is regu- the varieties of wheat which should be

larly gone over by the presser, which, from its now increased weight, will require two horses. In this form , with 6 pressing-wheels and with 2 horses, the

sown in spring in different localities, it would be imprudent to dogmatise. With the great attention now being given to the improvement of farm plants, and to the bringing out of new varieties and stocks of exceptional vigour and power of production, it is quite probable that the variety which is considered best to

B

day will be excelled in the near future. Farmers must therefore be constantly on

the outlook for improved sorts, and be guided by the experience of the time as to which variety they should select.

1 f

It is this same consideration — the

f

Fig. 270. - Action of the edge ofpresser -wheels. a a Axle.

b b Two pressing -wheels.

ccc Square collars upon the axle. dd Transverse section of ground being pressed. e f Newly ploughed lea, furrow -slices in dotted lines.

great ingenuity and enterprise employed in developing new sorts, and the rapidity with which one good sort is supplanted by a still better — which influenced us in deciding not to attempt in this work a detailed description of the different varie

ties or sorts of the respective farm crops now in use in this country. For guidance as to the best varieties

to use, no farmer need have any difficulty . By a careful study of the experience of

machine will press-roll from 8 to 9 acres other farmers, and due consideration of

in a day. The entire weight of the 6- his own peculiar conditions as to soil and is not likely to be far wrong wheel rollers amounts to about 12 or 13 climate, heselection of varieties.

cwt. The efficient.

work done by them is very as to the

Of course care must be taken not to

Use of the Land-presser.—The land- sow a distinctly winter variety of wheat

presser is not now used so extensively as it was formerly. This is to be regretted, for there can be no doubt of its beneficial influence upon light soils liable to suffer from drought in spring. The presser may also bebeneficially employed in compressing lightturnip-land when ploughing into ridges, to render it more fit for spring wheat; and in using it for this purpose it might be employed in the same manner as on lea.

The late Hugh Watson

in spring. Asto a winter wheat no mis takecan be made, for however early may be the habit of the variety sown, the very circumstance of its being sown in autumn, when sufficient time is not given to the plant to reach maturity before winter, will convert it for that season into a winter variety. The wheat plant is a true annual, but when sown late, and the progress of its growth is retarded by a depression of temperature, it is convert

Keillor, Forfarshire, stated that, having ed for the time into a biennial. It is used the land-presser, he could “ with confidence recommend it on all light soils with every sort of corn crop .” ] The late Mr A. Bowie, Mains of Kelly, Forfarshire, remarked : “ The presser is a most use-

therefore highly probable that, as the nature of wheat is to bring its seed to maturity in the course of one season, any variety sown in time in spring would mature its seed in the course of the ensu

ful implement for easy dry soils. For ing summer or autumn. This is believed saving seed and growing heavy crops it to be a fact ; nevertheless, circumstances 1 Jour. Agric ., iv. 545.

may occur to modify the fact in this cli mate. Under the most favourable cir

SOWING BEANS.

201

cumstances, the wheat plant requires a plants are able to immediately assimilate considerable time to mature its seed ; and

the manure .

From 1 to 2 cwt. per acre

a variety that has long been cultivated in are common quantities of these fertilisers winter, on being sown in spring in the for top -dressing wheat. same latitude, will not mature its seed

that season should the temperature fall much below the average, or should it be cultivated on very inferior soil to that to which it had been accustomed . In prac-

When the land has not been liberally manured with the preceding crop, a

heavier dressing, including phosphatic and potassic manures, must be given to the wheat crop ; or it may be manured

tice, therefore, it is not safe — at least in with dung. See chapter on “ Manures so precarious a climate as that of Scot and Manuring.'

land — to sow every variety of wheat in spring. SOWING BEANS.

Spring Wheat - seed from Early Districts. — Wheat taken from a warm

to a cold climate will prove earlier there Beans take about 7 months to come to than the native varieties, and, in so maturity, and should therefore be sown far, better suited for sowing in spring ; early — as early in spring as possible. They and if the same variety is an early one should be sown in February if the weather

in the warm latitude—bringing its seed and the condition of the land permit ; in to maturity in a short period, perhaps no case later than March. A very favour

not exceeding 4 months — then it may able season may hasten the plant through safely be sown as a spring wheat, whether its courses of vegetation in a shorter time; but a very unfavourable season it be red or white, bearded or beardless. The long experience of the late Mr will so retard it as almost to prevent the

Patrick Sheriff, East Lothian, led him to formation of the seed. the conclusion that autumn wheats should

In Scotland the bean is not a reliable

not be sown in spring, as they will not crop. It was never cultivated extensive produce a sufficient number of prolific ly there, and in recent years has lost ears .

Late Varieties of Wheat.— Special attention has been given in recent years to thebringing out of varieties of wheat suitable for sowing late in spring. Considerable success has been attained , and

ground slightly. Strong land is best suited for beans, and it still holds an important place on good carse farms. The land must be in good heart, and is generally well manured with dung in the previous autumn or winter. Beans

there are varieties now in use which in are sown on the flat surface, or in rows average years give fairly satisfactory re- from 15 to 20 inches apart, or in raised

sults, although not sown till March or drills from 25 to 30 inches wide. The bean crop occupies varying positions in April. Manuring Wheat. — In the descrip- the rotation. It usually comes in be

tion of the Rothamsted experiments in tween two cereal crops, between two

pages 135-169 of this volume, much use- crops of wheat, between oats and wheat, ful and suggestive information as to the or between wheat and barley. The bean crop is valuable both for its manuring of wheat will be found. Wheat

is usually sown on land in good heart, straw and grain. Though the crop fail for the most part after a potato or root in seed, it seldom fails to produce good

crop, with which a heavy dressing of fodder provided it can be well secured. dung and artificial manure had been

A dry season stints the growth of the

applied. In this case no special applica- haulm , but produces beans of fine quality; tion of manure may be necessary for the and a wet season prevents the growth

wheat beyond perhaps a top - dressing of the bean, but affords a bulky crop of with a little ammonia salts or nitrate of fodder.

soda in spring. The sulphate of am-

The culture for beans is not dependent

monia may be sown at thesame time as

so much on the soil as on the peculiar

the seed for the spring wheat, or early growth of the plant. Bearing fruit-pods in spring for winter wheat, but nitrate on its stem near the ground as well as of soda should not be sown until the near the top, it should have both light

SEED - TIME.

202

and air ; and its leaves being at the top, the Highland and Agricultural Society's and its stem comparatively bare, weeds experiments, that idea was not well find room to grow. The plant should founded. The artificial manures which therefore be wide asunder in the row and gavethe best results in these experiments between the rows, so that the crop may become luxuriant and the land cleaned.

are described by Dr Aitken on p. 182. Potash is the dominant ingredient. It

Beans were long wont to be sown is seen that, unaccompanied by potash, broadcast, and are so sown still in some neither phosphates nor nitrate is of much It is not a good plan, however, use to the bean, whether applied sepa for it has a great tendency to leave the rately or together, but the addition of

cases .

land full of weeds.

potash to either or both, at once enor

Varieties of Beans. Several varie- mously increases the crop. The artificial Those most manures were applied in March, three ties are in cultivation . largely sown are the common Scotch or days before the seed was drilled in with horse bean, and the common tick-bean. the three -drill bean -barrow . The former is the best suited for northern

Beans and Nitrogenous Manure.

districts, and under favourable circum- Seeing that a leguminous crop such as

stances grows to a height of 4 or5 feet, beans containsa great deal more nitrogen weighing from 62 to 65 lb. per bushel. than cereal crops, it might be expected The seed is large, flat, of a dingy whitish that nitrogenous manures would exercise colour, with a black eye, and irregularly a more beneficial effect upon beans than The tick -bean,

upon cereals. It has been found, how

which is shorter in the straw , and generally more prolific, is the variety most largely cultivated in England. The seed is smaller, plumper, a pound or two heavier per bushel than the seed of the

ever, that such is not the case. At Roth amsted extensive experiments have been carried out in the manuring of beans and other leguminous crops, but curiously enough the results have not been so clear

Amongst the other best-

or instructive as those obtained from the

wrinkled on the sides.

horse -bean.

known varieties are the Russian or winter manuring experiments with most other bean, the Mazagan , and the Heligoland crops. Sir J. B. Lawes says : bean. Quantity of Seed.— From three to

" The general result of the experiments with beans has been, that mineral constit

four bushels per acre are the most general uents used as manure (more particularly In the north it is more potash) increased the produce very much frequently four than three, sometimes during the early years ; and to a certain , whenever the season even five bushels. The seed is sown by extent afterwards machines of various patterns - sort of was favourable for the crop. Ammonia

quantities.

barrow -shaped appliances, worked by salts, on the other hand, produced very hand or horse power, and sowing usually little effect ; notwithstanding that a le guminous crop contains two, three, or

one or three drills or rows at a time.

Manure for Beans.-Land intended

for beans is usually well dunged in the autumn, or early in winter, with perhaps from 8 to 12 tons of farmyard dung, spread just before the land is ploughed.

more times asmuch nitrogen as a cereal one grown under similar conditions as to

soil, &c. Nitrate of soda has, however, produced more marked effects. But when the same description of leguminous crop

The dung will beall the better for this is grown too frequently on the same land it seems to be peculiarly subject to dis ease, which no conditions of manuring

purpose if it is tolerably fresh, and it should be spread evenly on the land. In other cases, the dung is spread early in spring on the flat or in drills, as for tur-

that we have hitherto tried seem to obviate.

nips. When the dung is to be spread in

“ Experiments with peas were soon

drills, these are opened a little deeper abandoned, owing to the difficulty of than if the land were simply drilled to keeping the land free from weeds, and receive the seed.

an alternation of beans and wheat was

Formerly it was thought that beans substituted ; the beans being manured could not be grown satisfactorily without much as in the experiments with the farmyard dung, but, as shown clearly by same crop grown continuously.

SOWING BEANS.

203

“ In alternating wheat with beans, the The improved grubbers or cultivators are remarkable result was obtained, that excellent implements for pulverising sur nearly as much wheat, and nearly as face soil. They do theirwork well, and much nitrogen, were yielded in eight are very speedy - a consideration of spe crops of wheat in alternation with the cialimportance at this time of the year. highly nitrogenous beans, as in sixteen Fig. 271 represents Clay's well-known crops of wheat grown consecutively without manure in another field ,

and also nearly as much third field in eight crops

as were obtained in a alternated withbare fal low .”

Ploughing for Beans. -Strong land intended for

beans

is

usually

WW2

ploughed about the end of autumn or early in winter, so that it may have the benefit of the

Fig . 272. - Broadshare cultivator.

pulverising influences of winter. If the land is very heavy and cultivator, while in fig . 272 the same

liable to hold surface water, it will be implement is fitted as a broadshare cul useful to plough it in the direction of tivator. Other forms of grubbers will be the greatest inclination or fall, so that referred to in dealing with tillage for there may be no cross-furrows to retain root crops. The action of the grubber or cultivator the water. But when the land can be ploughed across the inclination it will in the soil is to stir it effectually as deep be well to do so , and then the drills,

as the tines descend, and at the same

if the cropis to be grown in drills, will time retain the surface-soil in its existing follow the inclination, thus crossing the position. This advantage is especially autumn furrow . appreciated in early spring, when it is Spring Tillage for Beans. The precarious to turn overthe soilwith the amount and kind of tillage which bean plough , lest by a fresh fall of rain it land should receive in spring will depend should become wetter and worse to work upon the nature and condition of land, than if it had not been ploughed at all. and the character of the season . If the If the land be raw and not very clean,

and the weather precarious, the grubber will prepare the soil for harrowing, of which it should receive one double

tine along the ridges, the grubbing having been given them. Should this not be sufficient to reduce

across

the clod, another double tine

should be given across the

Fig. 271. - Clay's cultivator.

ridges, when the land will be ready for sowing. If the weather in spring is favourable, and the beans are to be sown broadcast or

land lying in the winter furrow is toler- in rows on the flat, ploughing across the ably friable, harrowing may be sufficient. winter furrow is by many considered de As a rule, however, a turn of the grubber sirable. The modern grubbers or culti or cultivator will be found beneficial. vators, however, do their work so well

SEED - TIME.

204

that the necessity for the plough in horses the heavy furrow down hill.

The

following morning fully as much seed is In preparing land in spring for beans, taken out to the field as will likely be

spring is much lessened.

care should be taken not to grub or har- needed during the forenoon, and the bags row more in one day than can be drilled should be placed along the top headland, up or sown on the same or the following.

if drills are not too long to admit of the

A fall of rain on this prepared ground three-drill horse sowing -machine sowing before it is drilled for the seed would be

a ' bout ' or six drills before it needed to

detrimental to the crop.

be refilled , care being taken that the seed

Sowing Autumn -manured Beans. always covered the pinions for forcing —The process of sowing beans upon land out the beans. which had been purposely dunged and “ In placing the bags with the seed, ploughed in autumn or early winter, is suppose that it takes thirty drills to be thus described by Mr F. Muirhead :an acre imperial, and we wish to sow 18

“ We willsuppose the time has arrived stones per acre, it will be more conveni for sowing the seed. The young farmer ent to have the beans weighed up to that

should previously have had his bean -sow- weight in each bag, and place the bags along the headland, one bag at the last ing machine examined, repaired if necessary , and well oiled. He should also drill of each acre ; and in beginning to have provided the requisite quantity of sow , it will be found of advantage to seed - say 4 bushels of common Scotch beans for every imperial acre, and he had better have an extra bag of beans for every twenty he intends to sow, in case he may need a little more to finish

take out as much extra seed in a bag as

cover the pinions of the sowing-machine,

so that when the first bag is all sown, the person in charge knows at once whe ther the machine is sowing too quickly the field than he anticipated, or too thinly. Perhaps if the first bag “ He should visit the field a day be- were accurately divided into two, and set

forehand, and ascertain the length of the down separately, at half an acre for each, proposed drills, and how many make an the setting of the machine would be the imperial acre ; and the following table sooner tested. The sowing-machine will may assist him : Inches wide. Drills.

26 27 28

now begin and sow the three outside Yards long. Imperial acre.

6701 6453 6222

“ The open furrows should be filled in with two or three bouts of a two -horse plough, and the ends or headlands marked off, say, to hold eight drills, which should be ample room to admit of horses and ploughs turning quickly without

drills, and the ploughs will commence and cover up the seed as they go down hill, and open fresh drills at the required width as they return. One sowing-ma chine will easily keep four or five pairs of horses at work .” 1 Sowing Spring -manured Beans.

When the dung has to be applied to the drills in spring, it is carted to the field, and thrown in graipfuls as the horse moves along the drills, just as in the

dunging of roots or potatoes. The graip

treading on the newly formed drills. If fulsare then spread evenly along the the land requires a double stroke of bottom of the drills, which, having re heavy harrows before being drilled, as ceived the seed, are thereupon closed. If the dung has to be applied in spring,

much should be harrowed the afternoon

previous to sowing (provided weather is and it is intended to sow the beans broad somewhat settled) as to allow the ploughs cast or in rows on the flat, then the land to get to work readily the following receives a single or double turn of the morning, or the foreman had better be harrow , the dung is spread evenly on the

sent half a day beforehand to do this, surface, and the land ploughed, the seed, and to open, say, ten or twelve drills; perhaps, being dropped by the single and care should be taken, if the field has bean -barrow into every third drill. And much inclination from top to bottom , to as the furrows are about 9 inches in

begin at that side of it which will, in covering up the sown seeds, give the

1 Parming World Almanac, 1888.

SOWING PEAS.

breadth, the three furrows will place the

205

Botanical

Character of Beans.

rows of beans at 27 inches apart. This It was an observation of De Candolle, that “ it is remarkable that the botanical ploughing finishes the operation. When the land is manured in the character of the Leguminosa should so

spring, and the seed sown broadcast, the dung in the same state is spread broadcast upon the surface. The further part of the operation depends on the state of

the weather.

strictlyagree with the properties of their seed . The latter may be divided into two sections — namely, the first,Sarcolobæ , or those of which the cotyledons are

Should it promise well thick, and filled with fecula, and desti

until the bean- sowing is finished, the tute of cortical pores, and which, more dung may be ploughed in, the seed sown over, in germination do not undergo any

broadcast upon the ploughed surface, change, but nourish the young plant by harrowed in with a double tine, and the means of that supply of food which they

ridges water-furrowed. Should the wea- already contain ; second, the Phyllolobæ, or those of which the cotyledons are thin, sow the seed broadcast upon the spread with very little fecula, and furnished

ther seem doubtful, a safer plan is to

dung, and plough in both seed and dung with cortical pores, which change at once together, and the surface will be secured from danger. In this case the plants will come up in rows of the breadth of the furrow - 9 inches apart. Harrowing Drills. — If it is considered desirable to harrow the drills, this

may be done about a fortnight after the sowing, if the surface is at all dry.

If

into leaves at the time of germination, for the purpose of elaborating food for the young plant. All the seeds of the sarcolobæ are used as food in different

countries, and none of those of phyllolobce are ever so employed .” Ancient Notions regarding Beans.

-The ancient Greeks had some strange

the land is wet, the harrowing should be notions regarding the bean. Thus Didy delayed, and the first dry state of the mus the Alexandrian says : “ Do not surface taken advantage of. The com- plant beans near the roots of a tree, lest mon harrow is sometimes used to harrow the tree be dried. That they may boil

down drills ; but a better implement is well, sprinkle water with nitreover them. the saddle drill-harrow , such as repre- Physicians, indeed, say that beans make sented in fig. 273, made by C. Clay & the persons that eat them heavy ; they also think that they prevent night dreams, for they are flatulent. They likewise say that domestic fowls that always eat them be come

says

barren . that you

Pythagoras also must

not

eat

beans, because there are found

in the flour of the plant in auspicious letters. They also say that a bean that has been Fig. 273.- Saddle drill -harrow .

eroded becomes whole again at the increase of the moon : that

Co., Wakefield.

This harrow is worked

it will by no means be boiled in

in pairs; and, to render it applicable to salt water, nor, consequently, in sea its purpose, it is made of an arch form , water,” &c.1

partially embracing the curvature of the drill, and on this account is best fabri

cated of iron. The pair of harrows are drawn by one horse, walking between

SOWING PEAS.

the drills.

Peas are sown to a smaller extent than Beans and Peas Mixed . - Beans and they were at one time in this country.

peas are often grown together, the seed They seldom take a prominent place as proportion is about one-third of peas to

being sown broadcast. The most general an ordinary rotation crop, but are largely two-thirds of beans.

1 Owen’s Geoponika, i. 82.

206

SEED - TIME.

grown near populous towns for sale in the green pod.

Peas give the best results on light and

this is not the usual character of our

climate, the yield is but indifferent. Dung is seldom given to the pea when

friable loamy soils of a calcareous char- sown by itself, having the effect of forc

acter, or which had been recently dressed ing much straw with little grain. with lime or chalk.

It is a general ob-

When peas and beans are reaped to

servation, that annual weeds are encouraged in growth amongst peas ; and the pea being a precarious crop, yielding a small return of grain, except infine warm

gether, they are separated when thrashed simply by riddling, the peas passing through the meshes of the riddle, while

seasons, a mere good crop of straw is in-

the beans are left upon the riddle. Sowing Peas. — Peas are sown by

sufficient remuneration for a scanty crop hand when cultivated broadcast, and of grain , accompanied with a foul state of with the barrow when in rows, in every land. Hence in many cases turnips have third, or in every furrow. With beans, been substituted for peas.

they are sown by a barrow ; on drilled

Peas, for a long period, were invari- land, broadcast by the hand : the seed ably sown broadcast ; but seeing their falling to the bottom of the drills is

tendency to protect weeds, and that drill-

covered by the harrows passing across

culture rendered the land clean, the con- the drills. Like beans, peas are sown clusion was obvious that peas sown in on ploughed lea in some parts of Eng

drills would admit of the land being land. On lea, the pea is dibbled in the

cleansed. It was found that the straw harrowed surface, the holes being placed by its rapid growth creeping along the about 9 inches asunder. When varieties ground soon prevents the use of theweed- of the white garden -pea are cultivated ing instruments. To counteract this ten- in the field, as in the southern counties dency, the practice was introduced of of England, these various modes of sow

sowing peas and beans together, and ing them deserve attention ; as also in the while their seasons of growth coincide, neighbourhood of large towns, where the the stems of the bean serve as stakes to garden -pea is cultivated and sent in a support the bines of the pea . The pro green state to the vegetable market. The quantity of seed per acre varies, portion of pea to bean when mixed usuin drilling, from 2/2 to 3 bushels per ally is as 1 to 3. Tillage for Peas . - It is somehow con- acre in the south, and sometimes as much sidered of little moment how the land as 4 in the north. The rows are usually

shall be ploughed, when the pea is to be from 12 to 15 inches apart.

A little

sown by itself. Sometimes only one fur- more seed is used in sowing broadcast. The varieties of peas are very numer row after the stubble is given ; and when the land is tender and pretty clean, a ous. Of the varieties of the field - pea, sufficient tilth may be raised in this man- the partridge grey pea in fig. 231, P. 497,

ner to cover the seed, which requires vol. i., is suited to light soils and late

neither a deep soil for its roots (which situations, and is considered of excellent are fibrous and spreading near the sur- quality, and prolific when the crop is full. face ), nor a deep coveringof earth above them, 2 inches sufficing for the purpose. But a single furrow does not do justice to the land, whatever it may do for thecrop.

TRANSPLANTING TURNIP BULBS FOR SEED.

The land should be double drilled or

grubbed after the spring ploughing.

Since the pea can be cultivated along with the bean, it will grow on good strong soils ; and its spreading roots enable it to grow on thin clays, where the bean does not thrive.

But as corn , the

When a farmer gets possession of a

first-class variety of turnip, which he finds well suited to his land, he should grow from it every year at least as much

seed as will supply his own wants - per haps even a quantity for sale.

The seed

pea, as has been indicated, thrives best on should be grown from well-formed bulbs, light soils. In clay, it produces a large transplanted, perhaps early in March, bulk of straw, and the grain depends on just before spring growth begins to show the season being dry and warm ; and as itself.

With intelligent care, and good

SOWING BARLEY.

207

varieties of roots, the seed may be grown to this duty, othersthrow old fisher nets over the seed, and this latter is the most successfully . The extent of ground required is not effective method of prevention.

great.

Reckoning the crop of seed at

30 bushels per acre, weighing 50 lb. per bushel, and allowing 3 lb. per acre of

seed for the turnip crop, 10 square yards of ground will supply the seed for every

SOWING BARLEY. It may be laid down as an axiom that

acre of turnips grown on the farm . It is the seed-bed upon which barley is to be necessary to have the plants of different sown should be fine, moderately deep, sorts of turnips at a considerable distance and clean, with an abundant supply of all from each other ; because, if near, one the ingredients necessary for the growth

variety will be impregnated by another, of the plant present in a soluble or by bees and other insects carrying the readily available form . Land after tur pollen of one flower to another.

nips is the place in the rotation which

Let a piece of ground be selected for is generally set aside for the growth of each variety of seed to be raised. Spare barley. Tillage for Barley . - If the land is spaces in the corners of fields may be converted into nurseries for the purpose. not of the heavy order of soils, all that is

Let the ground receive a little dung; necessary is the ordinary ploughing, espe

and the easiest mode of making friable cially if it can be accomplished by the mould at once upon such places is trench- second week of February. The action ing with the spade, and removing stones of the weather and frost will break and weeds. Then select the best- formed bulbs of the different kinds from the

down and mellow the soil, rendering it friable, so that a double tine of the har

fields as they are growing ; take them up rows before putting in the seed is all that

carefully, preserving the roots and fibres is needed to obtain a seed-bed in good

entire, and cutting off the shaws nearly tilth. On the heavier class of soils, and where ploughing cannot be done until A line of trench is made in the ground, later, more especially where the turnip

close to the bulb .

deep enough to contain easily the bulbs crop has been eaten off by sheep, two and roots, which are inserted at 12 inches ploughings may be necessary as well as

apart, and leaving the tops only above harrowing before seeding. the ground, when the earth is returned

But the simplest and easiest mode of

into the trench. The rows of transplanted procedure is to plough the land with one bulbs should be 3 feet asunder, to allow of the new Anglo - American ploughs, air to the plants, and afford room for a which will break down the furrow , leave person to pass between them to watch

the land level, and in excellent tilth.

the seed, when it is near ripe, from the By this plan the old method of cross In rows

depredation of small birds.

ploughing, scarifying, grubbing, ribbing,

wide apart the plants become stronger &c., may be obviated . and more prolific.

It is probable that some of the tur

The besttime of transplanting turnips nip -land which may have been ploughed is about the beginning of March, before for spring wheat may have to be any symptoms of spring growth appear. sown with barley, on account of inclem In a large piece of ground the plough ent weather preventing the sowing of In tha cas

e, t can form the trenches, and harrows re- wheat in seasonable time. whether the land had been gathered up duce the ground into mould. The ground occupied for raising turnip- from the flat, or cast together, it should seed should be protected by a fence of be seed -furrowed in the same form for

hurdles against stock, otherwise the crop the barley, to retain the uniform ridging of the field ; for the ploughing for spring Birds often play havoc with turnip- wheat being the seed - furrow , and the seed as it approaches maturity. Unless ridges made permanent, it would be im some means are employed to scare off the possible to reverse the ploughing with one

may suffer.

birds, they may indeed destroy almost furrow, without leaving one ridge on each the entire crop. Boys are often told off side of the field half the width of the rest.

SEED -TIME.

208

The ridges would have to be ploughed furrow -slice, to subdivide and pulverise twice to bring them back to their proper the soil. form, but for which there could not be Sowing . – Sowing barley upon a fine time, so they must be stirred with the

evenly pulverised surface requires strict

grubber, or ribbed with the small plough. attention, inasmuch as on whatever spot Another method which is being adopted every seed falls, there it lies, the soft

by farmers is to plough the land after earth having no elasticity to make the turnips,in breaks of six ridges, gathering seed rebound and settle on another spot. four and splitting two. This has become

Hence, of all sorts of corn, barley isthe

advisable nowadays, owing to the ad- most likely to be striped in sowing by vent of the reaper, for which the old open

hand, so every handful must be cast with

furrows were very unhandy, while the crop was uneven, as the growth on the crown of the ridge was heavier than that in the furrow which divided the

great force. Walking on soft ground in sowing barley is attended with consider able fatigue. Short steps are best suited for walking upon soft ground, and small ridges. handfuls are best for grasping plump If the ridges have consolidated on being slippery barley. long ploughed, the grubber will make a The broadcast machine sows barley as suitable bed for the barley seed, and keep well as oats on the ploughed surface, and thedrydryandsurface uppermost. If the soil so do the corn -drills across the ridges is loose on the surface, and tilly after the surface has been harrowed. The below, it will be best preserved by rib- grubbed surface is best sown by a drill machine, affording the seed a firm hold bing with the small plough. A capital implement for preparing a of the ground, while the surface ribbed fine seed - bed is the “Acme harrow ,” with the small plough is best sown by illustrated in fig. 274, an ingenious hand, or with the broadcast machine, the seeds falling into the ribs, from which the

young plants rise in rows, the ground being harrowed only a double tine along the ribs. Barley may be sown any time fit for spring wheat, and as late as the

month of May.

But the earlier crop

will be of better quality and more uni form , though the straw may be shorter. Quantity of Seed . — The quantity of Fig. 274.- Acmeharrow .

seed sown broadcast is from 272 to 4 bushels to the acre.

When sown early,

American invention, and brought to this country by Lankester & Co., London. It breaks up and pulverises the surface soil most thoroughly. By putting such ridges thus into the best state for barley, there will be no difficulty in ploughing the rest of the land. The first furrow upon the trampled

less suffices; when late, more is required, because less time is given to tiller and

soil should be the cross- furrow .

quantity of seed ( 3 bushels per acre) to

Although the field may not be cleared ofturnipsto allow cross-ploughing from side to side, any portion should be ploughed, and, after harrowing the crossploughed land a double tine along, it should be gathered up from the flat, or

the best lands is advantageous. That there is a saving of grain, there can be no doubt ; and that the bulk may be as

cover the ground.

Sown with the drill,

2 bushels suffice. Brown makes some sensible remarks

on this subject. " Amongst the farmers," he says, “it seems a disputed point, whe ther the practice of giving so small a

great as if more seed had been sown ,

there can be as little question. Little argument, however, is necessary toprove

yoked together ; and both the cross and that thin sowing of barley must be at

ridging-up furrows should be deep. The tended with considerable disadvantage ; cross-ploughing should be turned over for if the early part of the season be dry, with a broad furrow -slice, but the ridg- the plants will not only be stinted in their

ing-up should be done with a deep narrow growth, but will not send out offsets ; and

SOWING BARLEY.

209

if rain afterwards falls — an occurrence guide as to the amount of harrowing re that must take place some time during quired in individual cases. the summer, often at a late period of itThe head -ridges are ploughed and sown the plants then begin to stool,and send out by themselves. a number of young shoots. These young Finishing. — The grass seeds are then shoots, unless under very favourable cir- sown with the grass-seed sowing-machine;

cumstances, cannot be expected to arrive the land harrowed a single tine with the at maturity; or if their ripening is waited light grass-seed harrows, and thereupon for, there will be great risk of losing the finished by immediate rolling. On strong early part of the crop — a circumstance land, apt to be incrusted on the surface

that frequently happens. In almost every by drought after rain, rolling may pre instance an unequal sample is produced, cede the sowing of grass seeds, and the

and the grain is for the most part of infe- work is finished with the grass-seed har rior quality. By good judges it is thought rows, and perhaps another turn of the

preferable to sow a quantityof seed suffi- roller. On all kindly soils, rolling last cient to ensure afull crop without depend- is best for keeping out drought, and giv

ing on its sending out offsets. Indeed, ing a smooth surface for harvest-work . when that is done, few offsets are pro-

Soil for Barley . - Medium and light

duced — the crop grows and ripensequally, loams of a calcareous and friable nature and the grain is uniformly good." 1

—such as are generally known as good

Germination of Barley and the turnip lands — are best adapted to barley. Weather. — No grain is so much affected

Barley is grown most largely after tur

by weather at seed-time as barley. A nips, and is especially suited for follow dash of rain on strong land is liable to cause the crop to be thin, many of the seeds not germinating, whilst others burst. In moist, warm weather, the germination is certain and very rapid; and it has been observed , that unless barley germinate quickly, the crop will be thin. We have

ing where a portion of the roots has been consumed on the land by sheep. In some cases it is sown after potatoes or beans, especially if the land and the season are unfavourable for wheat. When intended for barley, the potato or bean land is gathered up for the winter, water-fur

seen the germ of barley piercethe ground rowed , andgaw -cut; and in spring it may only 36 hours after it had been sown, when the ground was smoking by evaporation of moisture, caused by a hot sun in a close atmosphere. We have also traced the germof barley to its root to the depth

be grubbed orcross-ploughed and ridged up for the seed -furrow . Barley is sown also after wheat, and the sample is always fine-coloured. Bar ley is never sown in Scotland after lea,

of 9 inches below the surface; and this but might be if the land were partially shows that land should be ploughed to a fallowed in spring. Barley does not moderate depth for barley. stand the winter in Scotland as it does Harrowing for Barley.— The har- in the warm calcareous soils of the south

rowing required for barley land sown of England. Winter barley is early ripe, broadcast is generally less than for oat and prolific ; but if the weather causes it

land, a double tine being given in break- to tiller in spring, it produces an unequal ing-in the seed, and a double tine across sample, containing a large proportion of immediately after. When sown with the light grain. drill-machine, the harrowing is perhaps a Varieties of Barley. - The varieties double tine along, and double tine across of barley are numerous. They are gen

the ridges, before the seed is sown . When erally distinguished by the number of

sown on ribbed land, the only harrowing rows of grain which grow upon the ear. may be a double tine along the ribs, just The kind which is cultivated in this to cover the seed , as the ribs afford it a country to the greatest extent is two sufficient hold of the ground. Care, rowed or long-eared, from which many

however, should be taken in all cases to improved varieties have sprung, notably “ Chevalier," " Annat," " Dunlop, ensure a fine even seed -bed for barley. the “Chevalier," condition

The

of the land will be the best

&c.

The Chevalier variety was propagated 1 Brown's Rur. Af ., ii. 45. VOL. II.

by a Mr Chevalier, who, when examin O

210

SEED-TIME.

ing one of his fields, noticed an ear of quantities, per acre, are 2 to 3 cwt.

better quality, being larger, with better superphosphate, and 72 to 1.cwt. of the filled grain, than the others around . This nitrogenous manure.

In many cases a

ear he selected and propagated in his light dressing of sulphate of ammonia garden.

or nitrate of soda is found to be very

The Annat barley originated from the produce of three ears selected by Mr Gorrie, Annat Gardens, hence its name. The four-rowed or common barley is

effective alone. In other cases a com bined dressing of phosphatic, nitrogenous, and potassic manures gives the best re

sults. Rothamsted Barley Experiments. bigg, and is confined chiefly to Northern Europe, and in this country to the north The experiments on the manuring of best known under the name of bere or

of Scotland, or to poor upland soils. barley at Rothamsted are full of interest There is also a six -rowed variety, but it to farmers. They have gone on contin is not extensively grown . uously since 1852, and are capable of Uses of Barley . — The great bulk of teaching some important lessons. Briefly the better samples of barley is used for summarised, the results are as follows :

distillery purposes, a small proportion No Manure . — The plot which has had being employed for the manufacture of no manure of any kind since the begin pot barley or barley - meal, chiefly con- ning of the experiments gave an average The inferior of 1778 bushels for the thirty -two years or damaged barley is used as food for up to 1883—472 bushels less than the

fined for use in Scotland. animals.

Manuring Barley.-When it follows

average of the first ten years. Farmyard Dung. — Applied at the

a well-manured root crop, as it generally rate of 14 tons every year for thirty -two does, barley seldom requires or receives years , this gave for that period an aver any further manuring. Barley is a suit- age of 4972 bushels, or about 317/2 over able crop for land on which a portion of the unmanured plot. the rootcrop has been consumed by sheep, Mineral Manures . — Mineral manures

and in this case the soil is usually in good alone — that is, superphosphate of lime, heart, especially if the sheep have been and sulphates of potash, soda, and mag allowed extra food, such as cake or grain nesia - gave very poor crops, both of grain

along with the roots. The custom is to and straw. Superphosphate alone, on an plough this land with a light or moderate average of thethirty -two years, gave only furrow, and thus give thebarley an abun- about5 bushels more than the plot with dance of readilyavailable plant-food with- no manure ; the increase from potash, soda, and magnesia over no manure was

in the reach of its shallow roots.

But when the land has not, by previous barely 2 bushels per acre, and from all treatment, become sufficiently stored with these mineral manures combined scarcely fertility for barley, this crop will, as a

6 bushels.

Nitrogenous Manures. — These sup rule, respond satisfactorily to direct dressings of suitable manure. Being a rapid- plied in sulphate of ammonia or nitrate growing shallow - rooted plant, barley of soda gave more than double the in should have plenty of readily available crease produced by the mineral manures.

food within easy reach of the surface. Ammonia salts, 200 lb. per acre (contain Quickly acting artificial manures are thus ing 43 lb. nitrogen ), gave an average of specially suited for barley. Superphos- 3034 bushels for the thirty-two years phate and nitrate of soda, or sulphate of nearly 13 bushels over the unmanured ammonia, in different quantities and pro- plot. Nitrate of soda, 275 lb. per acre

portions, according to the character and containing 43 lb. nitrogen), gave nearly condition of the land, are extensively 4 bushels more per acre.

and advantageously used as top -dressing for barley. The first and last should be applied at seed -time ; nitrate of soda, which acts more rapidly than sulphate of ammonia, may be applied in moist weather a few weeks later.

Rape-cake,

1000 lb. per acre,calculated to yield 49 lb. of nitrogen, raised the produce to 43/4 bushels. Nitrogenous and Mineral Manures

combined . — These in combination pro

Common duced excellent crops, more than the

SOWING OATS.

211

average of the country, continuously for ley ; from 6 cwt. to 8 cwt. would supply thirty -two years.

This result is very in- about as much nitrogen as would be equal

teresting, showing that barley responds to from 40 lb. to 50 lb. of ammonia. With admirably to the influence of readily act- this manure, as with guano, the addition ing artificial manures. Equal quantities of superphosphate is unnecessary. What ofnitrogenous and mineral manures ap- ever manure be used, it should be broken plied in the autumn to wheat, and in up, finely sifted, sown broadcast, and har spring to barley, gave considerably more rowed in with the seed .” produce from the latter crop than the former.

Practical Conclusions.

From

the

results of the experiments with various manures for barley, it is inferred that in

SOWING OATS.

In Scotland and Ireland by far the

corn - growing the soil is most rapidly greater portion of the ploughed lea is exhausted of its nitrogen, next of phos- sown with oats — a small extent being phates, and most slowly of potash. Ni- sown in some parts with spring wheat or

trogenous manuresare thus the first and vetches, & c. In England oatsare grown cheapest essential, but, especially for bar- extensively after turnips or mangels, ley, phosphatic manures are alsorequired,

which have been carted off the land.

and give a good return. To most soils of And in all northern and high -lying dis

a clayeytendency, dressings of potash will tricts unfavourable for the ripening of be unnecessary for cereals ; but where it wheat or barley, oats are the prevailing is deficient, a small allowance may be ex- crop after turnips. Oats are sown on all sorts of farms, pected to exercise a wonderful influence

on the crop. Here, as in general farm practice, it was found that superphosphate is more effective with the springsown than with the autumn- sown cereals. Barley after Corn . - In reference to

from the strongest clay to the lightest sand, and from the highest point to which arable culture has reached on moorland soil to the bottom of the low est valley on the richest deposit. The

the practice of growing barley after a extensive breadth of its culture does not crop of wheat, Dr Fream says :1 “ It may imply that the oat is naturally suited to be laid down as a general rule, applicable all soils and situations, for its fibrous

tothe country at large,that,on theheavier and spreading roots indicate a predilec soils, full crops of barley of good quality tion for friable soils ; but its use as food may be grown

with great certainty after among the agricultural population gener

a preceding corncrop, under the following conditions: The land should be got into good tilth. It should be ploughed up when dry, as soon as practicable after the removal of the preceding crop. In the spring it should be prepared for sowing by ploughing or scuffling, as early

ally , and its suitability to support the strength ofhorses, have induced its exten sive cultivation. Varieties of Oats. — The oat plant

thrives best in a cold climate, and is grown in the chief countries lying in the temperate zone. It comes to its greatest

in March as possible, if sufficiently dry. perfection in Scotland.

This is to a

The artificial manure employed should certain extent due to the climate, but contain nitrogen, as ammonia or nitrate the care which the Scotch farmer ex

( or organic matter), and phosphates. pends upon his oat crop also contributes From 40 Ib. to

50 lb. of ammonia (or its to this result.

The varieties which

equivalent of nitrogen as nitrate ) should occupy the greatest breadth are the be applied per acre. These quantities Common Improved or White oats, and would be supplied in 112 cwt. to 2 cwt. to a lesser extent Black or Tartarian.

of sulphate of ammonia, or 134 cwt. to 214 cwt. of nitrate of soda. With either of these there should be employed 2 cwt. to 3 cwt. mineral superphosphate of lime. Rape-cake is also a good manure for bar-

Common oat is the name by which farmers designate the variety which is commonly grown in the respective dis tricts in which they farm . For instance, in the northern counties, Sandy oats are

1 Rothamsted Experiments, 120 .

shire and western counties, late Angus ;

regarded as the Common oat ; in Perth

212

SEED - TIME .

in Roxburgh and Berwickshire, Blains- sows broadcast by one hand 16 imperial lie, &c. acres of ground in ten hours. Some men The following are the chief varieties : can sow 20 acres ; and double - handed

The Potato, Poland, Angus, Blainslie, Hopetoun, Sandy, Tartarian, Tam Finlay,

sowers will do even more than 20 acres. Harrowing after Sowing. - The

Red and Dun oats, Canadian oats, Swiss tines of the harrows should be particu larly sharp when covering in seed upon

oat, &c.

Sowing . — The sowing of the oat seed is begun with the common varieties of oats about the beginning of March. It is the custom in some parts to sow the improved varieties a fortnight after the common. The ploughed lea ground should be dry on the surface before it is sown, as otherwise it will not harrow kindly ; but the colour of dryness should be distin-

lea. After the land is broken in with a double tine, it is harrowed across with a double tine, which cuts across the furrow crests, and then along another double tine, and this quantity commonly suffices. At the last harrowingthe tines should be kept clean from grassy tufts, and no stones should be allowed to be dragged along by the tines, to the injuriousrub

guished from that arising from dry hard bing ofthe surface. On oldlea, or hard frost, a state improper to be sown upon. land, another single tine across or angle Every spot of the field need not be alike

ways may be required to render the sur

dry — even thorough draining will not face fine; and, on the other hand, on light ensure that, thoughspots of wet indicate soil a single tine along after the double where dampness in the subsoil exists.

one across may suffice. In short, the

Harrowing before Sowing . - Should harrowing should be continued until the the lea have been ploughed some time ground seems uniformly smooth and feels and from young grass, the furrow -slices firm under the foot. The head-ridges are

will lie close together at seed-time ; but harrowed by themselves at the last. when recently ploughed, or from old lea, Water - furrows. — If the land is liable or on clay land in a rather wet state, the to suffer from surface -water, water - fur furrow -slices may be as far asunder as to rows may be formed in the open furrow , allow a good deal of the seed to drop after sowing: But since underground down between them, and thus be lost, as drainage has become so general and thor

oats willnot vegetate beyond 6 or 7 inches ough, this practice has become almost a deepin the soil. In such states theground thing of the past. Machine - sowing. Almost every should receive a double tine or strip of the harrow before being sown.

This should farm with two or more pairs of horses,

be done in every case unless the furrows are small and packed quite closely. When oats are sown by hand upon dry lea ground , the grains rebound from the

and even smaller holdings, has its broad cast or drill sowing - machine . Hand sowing is thus being replaced by the machine. The practice in sowing oats

ground and dance about before deposit- with machines,whether broadcast or drill, ing themselves in the hollows, in rows, is similar to that in sowing wheat and accommodating themselves between the barley. To enable the drill to make crests of the furrow -slices, and do not so good work in sowing on ploughed lea, the

readily show bad sowing as upon a smooth surface must be well broken up with the surface. Were the ground harrowed along the ridges, so as not to disturb the seed in the furrow -slices, the crop would come up as if sown by drill; but as the land is cross-harrowed, the braird comes up

harrow . Where the surface is rough, and the furrows tough, the broadcast machine

broadcast.

cultivation of oats was much neglected.

would be preferable. Improvements in Oat -culture.

Until a comparatively recent period the

Quantity of seed . — The quantity of The prevailing idea amongst farmers seemed to be that any kind of culture, no matter how slovenly, was good enough in good heart, and in early districts, from for this crop. Even yet, amongst the 3 to 4 bushels of improved varieties is less advanced districts, no great improve

common oats usually sown is from to 5 bushels to the acre. In deep friable land considered sufficient seed.

ment has been effected in this respect.

A man does a good day's work if he It remained for the enlightened Scotch

SOWING OATS.

213

farmer to lead the way towards placing depth, and not laid over close. To de

the cultivation of this crop in its proper termine which opinion is the more cor position, as being one of the most im- rect, it should betaken into account that portant operations of the farm .

the roots of oats are fibrous, and permeate

One old writer informs us that “ of all the plants commonly cultivated in the field , oats seem to have the greatest power of drawing nourishment from the soil, and hence, are justly considered as

through the soil to a greater depth than the roots of barley. This being their character, a good depth of furrow will be best for oats. Much of course will de pend upon the depth and the character

greatly exhausting the land ;” and, by of the soil and of the subsoil; but as a way of proof, he tells us that “oats are rule, it is considered undesirable to plough generally the last crop which would re- lea shallower than 7 inches, to afforda turn any increase of the seed .” considerable amount of pabulum to the The principal reason is, we suspect, roots of the plants. that oats are a deep -rooted plant, and Thick and Thin Sowing. — An un

can search for food over a greater area certainty still exists in the minds of than the other corn crops.

farmers whether thick or thin, drill or

Ploughing for Oats.— Difference of opinion exists as to the depth to which lea ground should be ploughed for oats. One opinion is that a depth of 4 inches is sufficient, with the furrow -slices laid down close; others contend that the

broadcast, sowing of oats is the better mode. Experiments have been made on both these points. Mr A. Bowie, Mains of Kelly, Forfarshire, sowed , in 1856, oats at 5 bushels and 272 bushels the Scotch acre, on two farms, and the results were

land should be ploughed 9 inches in as follows: At West Scryne Farm . PI

Ooo

LO 18 Increase of stra cornwafter 214 bushels per acre over 5 bushels = 6 bushels at 255. per quarter, 1 7 = 95 stones imperial at 3 d ., O 7 = 24 bushels at 258. per quarter, Saving of seed 11

11

Total saving, At Mains of Kelly Farm .

9

42 14 2

after 24 bushels per acre over 5 bushels = 6 %4 bushels at 28s. per quarter, £Oi 103 Increase of corn straw

o

Saving of seed

8

9

Total saving, {2 2 Gross produce at Scryne after 24 bushels per acre seed = ii quarters 2 % bushels. = IO O Kelly

4

= 30 stones imperial at 4d . per st. = 24 bushels at 28s. per quarter,

11

11

11

.

11

O

7

11

11

Total,

21

272

Gross produce at Scryne after 5 bushels per acre seed = 10 quarters 4 % bushels. 9 1/4 Kelly 11

Total,

-

10

19

574

The land in both cases was pressed with duced i qr. 15/, bushel per acre more. the presser-roller. Experiments in drill. The experimenters recommend from 372 sowing with oats in Nairnshire gave these to 4 bushels of oats, and 3 bushels of results :

After 6 bushels per Scotch acre, 5 qrs. 24 lb. weight of grain 40 % lb. per bushel.

After 4 % bushels per acre, 6 qrs. weight of grain 39 % lb. per bushel.

barley, of seed per acre. Sowing Mixed Varieties. — Experi ments have shown that a mixture of

varieties of oats sown together may pro duce a heavier crop than when sown singly. For example : J. Finnie of

In another experiment, where 472 bushels Swanston obtained, when sown singly, of oats per Scotch acre were sown with the drill, and 674 bushels with the broadcast machine, the broadcast looked best throughout the season, but the drill pro-

from potato oats 74 bushels, Hopetoun 65, early Angus 63, sandy 56 to 61 ; whereas, when mixed, these results were obtained : Hopetoun 5 parts, and Kil

SEED - TIME.

214

drummie i part, produced 85 bushels; soda applied as a top -dressing give good Hopetoun and sandy, 80 ; Hopetoun and results when the land requires manuring. early Angus, 76 ; potato and early Angus, The nitrate is specially useful when a 66 ; and potato and sandy, 66 bushels.

bulky crop of straw is desired. Common

It thus appears that potato oats alone dressings consist of from 72 to produced 8 bushels more than when sown

cwt. of

nitrate of soda, and from 1 to 2 cwt. of

with either early Angus or sandy oats ; superphosphate. On light land a little that Hopetoun, with Kildrummie, pro- potash is sometimes applied with advan duced 20 bushels more than when alone, tage. Guano is also a capital dressing with sandy 15 more, and with early for oats. But the practice of top -dressing oats is Angus 11 more. Thus an average of 13 bushels more not general. The oat crop, indeed , re

per acre was obtained by mixing seeds ceives less manure in direct applications of oats of different varieties than when than any of the other ordinary farm

sown singly , and that from a space of crops — that is, when the oats follow ground which took 6 bushels of seed .

either grass or roots.

Of course when

It must be borne in mind that, in mix- the oats follow another corn crop some

ing varieties of oats, the varieties to be dressing is considered necessary. mixed should come to maturity at the

same time. It would be interesting to hear this physiological difference between

ROLLING LAND.

potato and Hopetoun oats explained— the potato yielding the larger produce by

The common land-roller is an imple itself, while the Hopetoun required other ment of simple construction, the acting

varieties to stimulate it to a larger pro- part of it being a cylinderof wood, of duction. Oats and Barley Mixed .-- Another

stone, or of metal.

Simple, however,

as this implement appears, there is

practice prevalent in the north of Scot- hardly an article of thefarm in which land is to sow a mixture of barley and the farmer is more liable to fall into oats in the proportion of 4 bushels of error in its selection. oats to i bushel of barley. Good results From the nature of its action, and its

ensue, especially on land where oats, intended effects on the soil, there are two after brairding, become thin or die out. elements that should be particularly kept

The gross produce is greatly increased, in view — weight and diameter of the and an excellent food for horses and cylinder. By the weight alone can the cattle is obtained .

desired effects be produced in the high It is more than probable that the est degree, but these will be always

greater produce which is thus obtained modified by the diameter.

Thus, a cy

from a mixture of oats and barley than linder of any given weight will produce from either alone, is that oats and barley a greater pulverising effect if its diameter search for their food in different layers is 1 foot , than the same weight would

of the soil — oats penetrating to a consid- produce if the diameter were 2 feet ; but erable depth, whilst barley confines its then the one of lesser diameter will be

search mainly to the upper portion of the much heavier to draw ; hence it becomes soil.

necessary to choose a mean of those

Manuring for Oats. — In its manurial opposing principles . In doing this, the requirements oats are not much different material of the cylinder comes to be from barley . They abstract a little more considered . nitrogen and potash, and about the same Wood , which is frequently employed

quantity of phosphoric acid. Oats re- for the making of land-rollers, may be quire more moisture than either wheat considered as least adapted of all ma

or barley, and delight in soils enriched terials for the purpose . Its deficiency of by decayed vegetable matter. Thus oats weight and liability to decay render it give large yields on land newly reclaimed , objectionable. Stone, though not defi or on land which has been for a consider- cient in weight, possesses the onemarked able time under grass .

disadvantage of liability to fracture.

Superphosphate of lime and nitrate of This of itself is sufficient to place stone

ROLLING LAND .

215

rollers in a doubtful position as to fit- cwt. But some think it better that the ness. Iron and steel are undoubtedly roller itself should be rather under these the most appropriate of all materials weights, and that the carriage be fitted for this purpose. up with a box, in which a loading of Diameter and Weight of Rollers. stones can be stowed , to bring the ma -There has been much discussion from chine up to any desired weight. Such a time to time as to the most advantage- box is, besides, useful in affording the ous diameter for a land - roller. The means of carrying off from the surface of preponderance of practical evidence is the ground any large stones that may to the effect that a diameter of 2 to have been brought to the surface by the 272 feet is, under every circumstance, previous operations. the one that will produce the best effects Divided Roller. — In a large and with a minimum of labour from the ani- heavy roller, in one entire cylinder, the mals ofdraught. In many cases, how- inconvenience of turning at the headlands

ever, rollers of less as well as of greater is very considerable, and has given riseto course, proportioned to the force usually in two lengths. This, with a properly applied , generally 1 but often 2 horses. constructed carriage, produces a very diameter are in use. The weight is, of the improvement of having the cylinder

The weight of roller, including the frame convenient form of land-roller. Fig. 275 corresponding to this, is from 10 to 15 is a perspective of the land -roller con a

d

Fig. 275. - Cast - iron land -roller. a a Carriage -frame.

6 Horse -shafts .

c Cylinder.

dd Iron stays.

Water -ballast Roller . — A very con structed on the foregoing principles, with the carriage-frame crossed by the horse- venient form of roller, made by Barford

shafts. The cylinder is in 2 lengths of 3 & Perkins, Peterborough, is represented feet to 3 feet 3 inches each, and 2 feet in in fig. 276.

It is made in two enclosed

diameter; the thickness of the metal is cylinders of wrought iron, formed so that according to the weight required. The by filling or partially filling the cylinders axle, in consequence of the cylinder with water, the weight of the roller may

being in two lengths, requires to be of bevaried as desired. These water-ballast considerable strength, and of malleable rollers are made of many sizes for field iron ; upon this the two sections of the and garden work, and are exceedingly

cylinder revolve freely, and the extremi- convenient to work and move about. A ties of the axle are supported in bushes water-baHast roller, 2 feet in diameter, in the semicircular end - frames. Two weighs about 11 cwt. when empty, and iron stay -rods pass from the end -frames 22 cwt. when quite full of water. Process ofRolling . – The rolling is to the shafts asan additional support to the shafts.

always effected across the line of ridges.

Excellent rollers are now made of steel Otherwise the open furrows would not sheets fixed on wrought or cast - iron receive any benefit from it. Although ends. the dividing of the cylinder into two

SEED-TIME.

216

parts facilitates the turning of the imple- land as to moisture must be considered . ment, it is not advisable to attempt to turn the roller sharply round, as part of the ground turned upon may be rubbed hard by the cylinders, with the result that young plants may be injured or killed.

The young braird on strong land is much retarded when the earth becomes en crusted by rain after rolling, so that such land in wet districts is in rainy seasons

not rolled until the end of spring, when the plant has made some progress, and

The rolling is sometimes executed in the weather continues dry. Light friable feers of 30 yards in width, hieing the dry land should be rolled immediately

horses one-half of the feering, and hup- after the seed is sown and harrowed, if ping them in the other half. This, how- there is time to do it. But the rolling of ever, is unnecessary with care at the one field should not be allowed to cause delay in the sowing of others in dry weather. There will

be plenty of time to roll the ground after the oat seed and

other urgent operations at this season are finished .

On the other hand, the

rolling is most effective in securing smoothness in the

surfaceimmediately after har Fig. 276. - Water-ballast roller.

turning. When the ploughman becomes fatigued with walking, it may be allowable for him to sit on the front of the framing, where a space is either boarded or wrought with hard -twined straw -rope,

rowing has been completed. And for the sake of the reap ing-machine a smooth surface

is of much importance. In preparing land for grass and clover seeds the roller is not, as a rule, used so much as it should be. An even firm seed -bed is of the utmost importance for

as a seat from whence to drive the horses these tiny seeds.

with double reins and whip. With this

indulgence, an old ploughman , employed GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CORN CULTURE. only in ploughing,could take the rolling when urgent work was employing the The sowing of the chief cereal crops stronger horses in the cart. has thus been dealt with very briefly.

Speed in Rolling. — Were a 6 -feet Much more might have been said on the roller to proceed uninterruptedly for subject, but there seems to be little ne

ten hours, at the rate of 272 miles cessity for describing at great length per hour, it would roll about 18 operations which are so simple as the acres ; but what with the time spent in cultivation of corn . Of all important the turnings and the markings -off of work upon the farm this is, perhaps, the

feerings, 10 to 12 acres a - day may be most simple and the most uniform in the methods of procedure. considered a good day's work. When of large

The simplicity and the universality extent of ground has to be rolled, it the general principles of corn cultivation is a good plan to work the roller from are well shown by Professor Wrightson

the weather is favourable, and a

dawn to nightfall, each horse or pair, as in the following admirable epitome : “ No business pursuit is easier than the case may be, working 4 hours at a time. In this way , 16 hours' constant corn cultivation, and this is why we have

rolling, from 4 in the morning till 8 such millions of bushels of corn thrown at night, may be obtained in the course in upon us. It is a cheap cultivation . of 24 hours, and from 25 to 30 acres All we have to do is to plough the land, rolled with one roller. throw on the seed, and scratch it in . Of Time for Rolling. — The usual time course we must do this at the right time

for rolling is immediately after the seed of the year, and in the proper manner. has been sown. But the condition of the When we take wheat or barley, or oats

ROLLING LAND.

217

[to be sown in the autumn or winter), the sheep left it, their manure would not after a root cropped on the land, a very be sufficiently intermixed with the soil,

general method of cultivation is as fol- and inconsequencethe barley would grow lows: We first plough about 4 inches irregularly in small rows, corresponding deep, then broadcast the seed upon the to the drills that had been manured for newly turned up fallow , and put the har- the turnip crop. rows on and give it a really good harPreparing Turnip -land.-During rowing, so as to break the compact furrow and cover the seed thoroughly — that is all. Protect it from the ravages of the birds, and in the spring of theyear roll

the time theland is gradually being pre pared for barley seed , as the sheep clear the ground of turnips, the stubble-land, which had been ploughed in autumn and

and harrow it, and that is pretty much in winter, and is to bear green crops A in the ensuing season, should be cross great deal of corn is taken after grass ploughed, and cultivated, as opportunity and clover crops ; and the cultivation of offers — that is, if the sowing of the oat the cultivation of corn after roots.

either oats or wheat, or barley after lea,

seed is also finished . Harrowing before Cross - plough press, and often sow the seed upon the ing . — The portion of the stubble-land pressed furrow and harrow it in . first to be cross-ploughed is for beans.

is much the same thing. We plough and

Again, in other cases we plough, Every winter - ploughed field for cross press, or heavily roll, harrow repeatedly, ploughing in spring is freed from large and drill. That again is the whole of clods by harrowing. The winter's frost the cultivation .

Corn crops sometimes may have reduced the clods of the most

follow peas or beans, in which case the obdurate clay soil, and the mould -board plan would be to dung the surface, and then proceed as before, ploughing in the dung, and either broadcasting or else producing a proper seed -bed with the use of the harrow, and drilling in the corn.” 1

of the plough may thus be able to pul verise them fine enough, while the lighter

soils may have no clods upon them . In this case it would seem loss of time to

harrow the ground before cross-plough

Insect attacks upon corn and other

ing, and some farmers do not then use

crops are dealt with in a special chapter.

the harrow ; yet, in the majority of cases, the harrowing will be found beneficial.

CROSS - PLOUGHING LAND .

One cannot be sure that, in the strongest

soil, all the clods have been reduced to

The first preparation for barley seed

the heart by frost ; and should any be

after turnipsis ploughing the land across buried by the cross - furrow while still

at right angles to the existing ridges. The surface of the ground where sheep consume turnips is left in a smooth state, trampled firm by the sheep, presenting no clods of earth but perhaps numbers of small round stones, which should be re-

hard, they will not afterwards be so easily pulverised amongst the soft soil as when exposed upon the harder surface of the winter-furrow . Then in the lightest soils, the harrows not only make a smoother surface, but intermix the surface dry

moved with carts before the cross-plough- frost - pulverised soil with the moister ing is begun. The small stones are use- and firmer soil below , as far as the tines ful for drains, or to repair farm roads,

of the harrows can reach .

There is not much time lost in harrow and the large stones for dykes. A plough then feers the ground for ing before cross-ploughing ; and although cross-ploughing. The reason that land it should require a double tine to pulver is cross-ploughed for barley, and not for ise the clods, or equalise the texture of

spring wheat, after turnips eaten off by the ground, it should be across instead sheep, is, that wheat thrives best when the of along the ridges, to fill up the open soil is firm and not too much pulverised furrows with soil, whether the land had -whereas the land cannot be in too fine been previously ploughed with gore-fur a condition for barley.

Moreover, if the

turnip-land were not cross-ploughed after

rows or not.

If time presses, the feeringsfor cross

ploughing may be commenced by one 1 Prin . of Ag. Practice, 136.

.plough almost immediately after the har

SEED - TIME.

218

ServerNam236

3

rows have started ; and if the harrows then return and finish the harrowing be cannot get away before the plough, the tween the feerings. plough can take a bout or two round the Thus, in fig. 277, after the first feering first feering till the harrows have reached e f across the ridges has been ploughed, the second feering ; or, still better, the the plough can either take a bout or two harrows can go along each feering, pre round e f, till the harrows have passed

paring the ground for the plough, and the next feering g h, or the harrows can zosobe strony 36

P

r

h

BITSSCOASE,

k

Stores

m

Werstas с

Fig. 277. - Field feered for cross-ploughing.

go along the line of each feering, at 30 prosecuting every kind of field -work ; for

yards’ distance, first e f, then g h, then besides avoiding damage to finished work, i k , and so along l m and n o in succes- it is gratifying to the mind that, as work

sion, and prepare the ground for feer- proceeds, the approach is nearer home ; ing, and then return and harrow out the while it conveys the idea of a well-laid

ground between e and g, g and i, i and l, plan to have the operations of a field In this way the harrowing commenced at the farthest end and

and 1 and n.

and feerings, and ploughing the feerings, finished at the gate, where all the im plements meet, ready to be conveyed to

may go on at the same time.

System of Cross-ploughing . — But if another field. The gate is likehome, and time is not urgent, the systematic way is in most cases it is placed on the side or to feer the field across, at 30 yards' dis- corner of a field nearest the steading. tance, from e to n, across the whole field,

Ploughing Irregular Fields.- Pecu

and the ploughs take up the feerings in liar forms of fields involve considerations succession. To illustrate this more fully, in field operations of more importance suppose that all or as much of the field than mere convenience — as loss of time.

to be cross-ploughed has been harrowed It is always desirable to commence a feer as will giveroom to a single plough to ingat a straight side of a field, whence in

make the feerings without interruption. striking off the feeringsparallelspaces of In choosing the side of the field at which the feerings should commence, it is a good rule to begin at the side farthest from the gate and approach gradually

ground are included. Wherethis precau tion is neglected, much time is needlessly

spent in ploughing a number of irregular pieces of ground . It is better to leave

towards it, becausethen the ends of the all irregularities of ploughing to the last ; finished feerings will not be passed, and and as an irregularity mustoccur along the trampling of the ploughed land be the side of a crooked fence, it is a saving

avoided. The convenience of this rule is of time to throw the irregular ploughing felt not in cross-ploughing only, but in to that side.

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

219

In applying this rule to fig. 277, it so have been finished before the ploughs happens that the straighter side of the entered the field , the ploughs all com field is nearest the gate b, and the crooked fence, c to d , farthest from it. The feering,

mence at once.

Ploughing the feerings is plain work ;

therefore,should begin along the side of but a hindrance occurs at the last and the straightest fence a b, and terminate in irregular feering at o n — notthat any in an irregular spacealong the crookedfence tricacy is involved in ploughing irregular

cd. A straight feering could, no doubt, pieces of ground, but theloss of time is be made at first near cd , leaving irreg- considerable. This feering is ploughed ularities between it and the fence ; but like the rest, till the open furrow of the the setting off that feering exactlyparallel head -ridge is reached ; and if the head with the straighter fence a b, to avoid

ridges are included in the feerings, the

making another irregularity at a b, would ploughing goes on till the ditch -lip or

impose considerabletrouble, and take up fence is reached ; but if the head -ridgeis more time than the advantage would compensate for avoidingpassing the ends of the ploughed ground along the sideridge, d to b, or of working from the gate

to be ploughed with the side-ridges , the last feeringshould be made at the open furrow of the head -ridge at on, and the bent head -ridge will beploughed with the 6 instead of to it. Let the first feering, side-ridges and upper head -ridge round then, be made about 7 or 8 yards from the field without leaving any unploughed

the fence a b, or from the ditch-lip of the space at s. Had the field been a true rec tangle, like the space included within the

fence where there is a ditch .

Ploughing Ridges and Feerings.Some farmers neglect the head -ridge in the cross -ploughing, and measure the feering from the open furrow which divides the head -ridge and the ends of the

dotted lines antb, the feering might have been struck from either fence, and there would have been no loss of time in plough ing alternate long and short furrows. Depth of Cross- furrow . — The depth

ridges. The head - ridges ought to be of the cross -furrow varies with the char ploughed at this time along with the rest acter of the soil. It is often, in good

of the field, for, if neglected now, the soil, deeper than the winter-furrow . The busy seasons of spring and early summer deepness is easily effected by the plough will draw away attention from them, till, passing under the winter-furrow and rais

what with trampling in working the green ing a portion of the fresh soil below it. crop and the drought of the weather, they If theunder soil is suitable, the 2 inches will become too hard to plough, and will of fresh subsoil mix well with the thicker

lose the ameliorating effects of sun and winter-furrow . Cross - ploughing the first furrow in air in the best part of the year. In cross-ploughing the ridges of the spring is unsteady work for the plough field , the head -ridges must be ploughed men, the open furrows presenting little in length, for they can never be cross-

resistance to the plough compared with

ploughed. But if it be desired to plough the head -ridges with the side-ridges,which form the head -ridges in cross-ploughing, and the side-ridges must be ploughed be fore the crop can be sown upon them, the first feering should be struck at 7 or 8 yards down the ridges from the side of the head -ridge, in the line of f e ; and feering is executed by throwing the furrow -slices right and left along the same furrow , as already described in_feering ridges in fig. 33, p. 108, vol. i. The next feering is h g, at 30 yards' distance from fe, and so on, feering at every 30 yards'

the crown of the ridge . The depth of the cross-furrow may

vary from 8 to 12 inches, 10 inches being quite common. Sometimes 3 horses are yoked in the plough, as in fig. 26, p. 97, vol. i., for cross-ploughing. Grubbers or cultivators are now exten

sively employed in spring tillage. To these operations fuller reference will be found in the chapter dealing with sowing turnips. SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

distance, to the last feering on. As each Any time after the middle of February feering is made, the ploughmen take it up in succession ; and should the feerings until the middle of May, when the

SEED - TIME.

220

weather is dry, grass seeds may be sown. affording herbage early in spring and They are generally sown in company late in autumn , before and after other with another crop ; and the crops they grasses have commenced or left off grow accompany are cereals.

ing.

Its long fibrous roots and creeping

habit are naturally adapted for moist situations.

VARIETIES OF GRASSES,

The grasses all belong to the natural

Alopecurus pratensis.

order Graminece. The following varieties are those principally used in agriculture,

(Meadow Foxtail.) Fr. Vulpin de prés.

Ger. Wiesen Fuchsschwanz.

and for the descriptions of these we are Roots fibrous, rootstock perennial. Stems I to indebted to Mr Martin H. Sutton, the 3 feet, erect and smooth . Leaves flat and scabrid ; sheath smooth and longer than its author of ‘ Permanent Pastures,' as revised

and greatly enlarged by his son , Mr Mar tin J. Sutton :

leaf ; ligule large and truncate. spike - like, cylindrical, and obtuse .

Panicle

Spike

Agrostis alba - var. stolonifera . ( Fiorin, or Creeping Bent Grass .) Fr. Agrostide blanche stolonifere. Ger . Fioringras.

Roots creeping, rootstock perennial and stolon iferous.

Stems 6 inches to 3 feet.

Leaves

numerous, narrow , flat , short, and usually scabrid ; sheath smooth ; ligule long and acute. Panicle spreading, with whorled bran ches. Spikelets small, one -flowered. Empty glumes larger than flowering glumes, un equal, smooth , and awnless. Flowering glumes slightly hairy at the base, with

occasionally a minute awn .

Palea minute

and cloven at the point. Flowers from July to September. Grows in pastures anddamp

places throughout Europe, Siberia , North Africa , and North America ( fig. 278).

Although none of the creeping bent grasses are considered particularly nu Fig. 279. – Meadow foxtail

(Alopecurus pratensis).

lets one- flowered , and laterally compressed . Empty glumes larger than flowering glumes, awnless , but hairy on the keel. Flowering glumes with straight awn inserted at the middle of the back .

Palea none.

from the middle of April to June.

Flowers

Grows

in meadows andpastures throughout Europe, North Africa, Siberia, and North -western India ( fig. 279). Meadow foxtail is one of the earliest

and best grasses for permanent meadows and pastures, and may also with advan

tage be included in mixtures for 3 or 4 years' lea. Fig. 278. - Fiorin, or creeping bent grass (Agrostis alba, var . stolonifera ).

It furnishes a large quantity

of nutritive herbage, produces an abund ant aftermath, and is eagerly eaten by tritious for cattle, yet this variety is all kinds of stock. The leaves are broad sometimes desirable in permanent mix- and of dark -green colour. The habit is tures, in consequence of its value in somewhat coarse, hence it is unfit for

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

lawns or bowling - greens, but its very early growth recommends it as eminently suitable for ornamental park purposes. It succeeds best on well-drained, rich, loamy, and clay soils, makes excellent

221

fresh than in a dried state, but its very pleasant taste, somewhat resembling highly flavoured tea, is discernible at all stages of its growth. In point of pro ductiveness, this grass is inferior to fox

hay, and should be included in a larger tail, cocksfoot, and other strong-growing or smaller proportion in most mixtures varieties ; but the quality is excellent, for permanent pasture. Meadow foxtail the growth very early, and the plant is admirably adapted for irrigation. It continues to throw up flowering stalks also flourishes under trees, and should be till quite late in the autumn. On ac

sown plentifully in orchards and shaded count of the broad foliage, this grass is ill adapted for grounds where short grass pastures. is indispensable ; but for parks and plea Fr.

Anthoxanthum odoratum . (Sweet -scented Vernal.) Flouve odorante . Ger. Gemeines Ruchgras.

Roots fibrous, rootstock perennial.

sure-grounds it is especially suitable, on account of its bright green colour.

Pas

tures in which this grass abounds natu

Stems rally ( such, for instance, as the extensive

tufted, erect, 1 to 2 feet,glabrous, and with sheep-grazing districts in Kent), produce few joints. Leaves hairy, flat, and pointed ; the finest mutton ; and, both in a young sheath ribbed and slightly hairy ; ligule state and when mixed with other varie hairy. Panicle spike-like, pointed at sum mit, uneven below . Spikelets lanceolate, ties, it is much relished by cattle and horses. It is valuable in hay, as its

flavour enhances the price, and it also yields a good quantity of feed after the hay crop is cut. It constitutes a part of the herbage on almost every kind of soil, particularly on such as are deep and moist.

Avena flavescens.

( Yellow Oat -grass.) Fr. Avoine jaune.

Ger . Goldhofer.

Rootstock perennial, creeping, and somewhat stoloniferous.

Stems 1 to 2 feet, erect,

Fig. 280. - Sweet-scented vernal (Anthoxanthum odoratum ).

one-flowered. Empty glumes in two pairs ; outer two much larger than the flowering glumes, unequal, hairy at the keels and pointed at the ends, but awnless ; second pair shorter and narrower than first pair, equal ; alsohairy and both awned, one with short straight awn inserted at the back near the summit, the other with long bent awn inserted at the centre of the back .

Palea

adherent to the seed . Flowering glumes small, glabrous, and awnless. Stamens two. Anthers large.

Flowers April and May.

Grows in fields, woods, and on banks throughout Europe, Siberia, and North Africa ( fig. 280 ).

To the presence of this grass our sum mer hay -fields owe so much of their fra grance that it should be included in all

mixtures for permanent meadow or hay. The scent is less distinguishable in a

Fig. 281. - Yellow oat-grass (Avena flavescens).

glabrous, and striated. Leaves flat, sheath slightly hairy ; ligule truncate and ciliated.

SEED-TIME.

222

Panicle spreading, with many branches,

on drained clays and rich soils generally

broad at the base and pointed at the sum

it grows luxuriantly. The plant is a mit. Spikelets small, three- or four -flowered, gross feeder, and must be liberally colour. shining, and of a bright yellow Empty glumes unequal, keeled , and rough. treated to bring it to perfection. The Flowering glumes hairy at the base and

toothed at summit, with slender twisted

seed needs to be buried more deeply than is safe with other grasses.

awn springing from below the middle of the Palea narrow , short, and blunt. back . Flowers June, July, and August.

Cynosurus cristatus. ( Crested Dogstail.)

Grows

in dry pastures throughout Europe, North Africa, and Asia ( fig. 281 ).

Fr. Cynosure cretelle.

Ger. Kammgras. Stems

Rootstock perennial, stoloniferous.

This grass may easily be discerned in July by its bright golden cluster of flowers, and is among the latest varieties

in coming to maturity .

The leaves are

of a pale - green colour, hairy, and al though they are not produced in great

abundance, are much relished by cattle. It affords sweet hay, and yields a considerable bulk of fine herbage. After the crop is cut for hay, a largeaftermath is produced . This grass thrives on cal careous land, but is useless in moist low -lying pastures.

tufted, height i to 2 feet, erect, smooth, and wiry. Leaves very narrow , ribbed , slightly hairy ; sheath smooth ; ligule short

and bifid. Panicle spike-like, secund. Spike lets many -flowered, ovate, flat, with a barren

spikelet consisting of emptyglumes arranged in a pectinate manner at the base. Empty glumes sharply pointed, shorter than flower ing glumes, unequal, with prominent rough Palea very thin, slightly ciliated. keels. Flowering glumes lanceolate, withshort awn at summit.

Flowers July and August.

Grows in dry hilly pastures throughout Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa ( fig. 282).

Crested dogstail is a fine short grass, Avena elatior .

and constitutes a considerable portion of

(Holcus avenaceus, Arrhenatherum avenaceum .) the herbage of sheep -walks and deer (Tall Oat-grass.) Fr. Arrhénathère élevée.

parks.

It is found in most meadows,

Ger. Hoher Wiesenhafer.

Rootstock perennial, widely creeping. Stems 2 to 4 feet, erect and smooth ; leaves scabrid

and flat ; sheath smooth ; ligule short and truncate.

Panicle erect

and sometimes

slightly nodding at the apex, widely spread ing during flowering, closed before and after .

Spikelets two-flowered. Empty glumes un equal and pointed. Flowering glumes two, the lower with long twisted awn , the upper

with short straightawn. July.

Flowers June and

Grows in meadows and pastures

throughout

Europe,

Africa,

Asia,

and

America.

A strong -growing and rather coarse grass of good feeding quality. The flavour is slightly bitter, and on this account cattle do not at first manifest a

liking for it, but when mingled with other grasses the objectionable character istic is imperceptible.

Although this

plant is classed among perennials, it can not be relied on as strictly permanent,

Fig. 282. -Crested dogstail (Cynosurus cristatus ).

and therefore we do not advise its em

ployment for a longer period than three whether used for hay or grazing. Sin or four years. For alternate husbandry, clair describes it as forming "a close

however, it may be freely sown among dense turf of grateful nutritive herbage, other grasses, and its presence will aug

and is little affected by extremes of

ment the weight of the crop. On poor weather.” From our own experience thin land tall oat-grass is useless, but and observation , we can fully indorse

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

223

the opinion of this eminent authority,

Europe, North Africa, North India, and

and recommend its being included in all best permanent mixtures. We have

Siberia ( fig. 283).

This well-known grass grows luxuri especially noticed the beneficial results antly in deep rich soils and low -lying obtained by its use with other grasses in meadows. For the enormous quantity

sheep -pastures; and it is generally be- of produce it yields, the rapidity with lieved that sheep fed on pastures con- which it shoots forth again after having

taining dogstail are less liable to footrot than when fed on pastures composed of the more soft-leaved varieties. On account of its close-growing habit and evergreen foliage, it is particularly valuable for lawns, pleasure - grounds, and other places kept under by the scythe.

tures for tenacious soils and damp situ

ations ; but in parks and ornamental grounds its tufty habit of growth renders

Dactylis glomerata . (Rough Cocksfoot). Fr. Dactyle gloméré.

been eaten or cut, andalso for the im portant fact of its being so much relished by horses and cattle, it is eminently suitable for sowing with other quick growing grasses for alternate husbandry. It should be included in permanent mix

Ger. Gemeines Knaulgras.

it inadmissible . It withstands drought well, makes excellent hay, and succeeds

Roots fibrous, rootstock perennial. Stems 2 to under trees, &c. 3 feet, erect, stout, and smooth .

It is very useful for

Leaves sowing in covers, if allowed to grow

glaucous, broad , flat, keeled , and rough ; without checking. sheath scabrid ; ligule long. Panicle secund, spreading below, close and pointed above.

Spikelets three to five- flowered, laterally compressed, and closely clustered at the end

Festuca pratensis . (Meadow Fescue.) Fr. Fétuque de prés.

Ger. Wiesen Schwingel.

Rootstock perennial, creeping. Stems tufted, 18 inches to 3 feet high, erect and smooth . Leaves flat and smooth ; sheath smooth ;

Fig . 284. - Meadow fescue ( Festuca pratensis ). Fig.283.-Rough cocksfoot ( Dactylis glomerata ).

ligule short. Panicle spreading, but closer

keel, pointed and endingin a short awn.

and narrower than in F. elatior, with fewer branches. Spikelets many- flowered, lanceo late. Empty glumes, shorter than flowering glumes, unequal and acute. Flowering glumes rough, and slightly awned. Palea acute and ribbed, with hairy nerves. Flowers

Palea bifid at summit, and fringed at base . Flowers May to August. Grows in pastures, woods, orchards, and waste places throughout

throughout Europe and Northern Asia ( fig. 284 ).

of the branches.

Empty glumes smaller

than flowering glumes, unequal, keeled, and hairy on upper part of the keel, pointed at the summit. Flowering glumes with hairy

June and July.

Grows on good pastures

SEED -TIME.

224

One of the earliest, most nutritious, longer than that of F. pratensis. The and productive of our natural grasses. growth, too , is more robust, of much Both in its green and dried state it is greater size in every respect, and it will eagerly eaten by all kinds of stock. It consequently produce a heavier bulk of

is useful for 3 or 4 years' leas, but hay or feed . The panicles also of the F. is especially suitable for permanent elatior are quite distinct from those of the pasture purposes. It is more adapted for moist than dry soils ; still it constitutes a considerable portion of the herbage of all high class pastures. Meadow fescue is

thus referred to by Commander Mayne, in his Four Years in British Columbia and Vancouver's Island ' : “Cattle and horses are

very fond of F. pratensis, or sweet grass, and it has a wonderful effect

in fattening them . I have seen horses

on

Vancouver's

Island,

where the same grass grows, which had been turned out in the au

tumn, brought in in April in splendid condition , and as fresh as

if they had been most carefully treated all the time.” Although particularly robust in habit, it never grows in large tufts, as is

the case with some coarse -growing grasses . The hay from it is plenti ful, and of excellent quality. Festuca elatior.

( Tall Fescue .) Fr. Fétuque élevée.

Ger. Hoher Schwingel.

Rootstock perennial, stoloniferous or tufted. smooth .

Stems 3 to 6 feet, erect and Leaves broad , flat, and

smooth ; sheath smooth ; ligule short. Panicle diffuse and nodding. Spike lets half an inch long or more, many. flowered, lanceolate. Empty glumes

Fig. 285. — Tall fescue

( Festuca elatior, var. fertilis).

shorter than flowering, glumes, acute and F. pratensis, being branched, bent, and unequal. Flowering glumes broad , rough; drooping, and composed of large clusters. and toothed at the apex. Palea acute and ribbed , with hairy nerves. Flowers June Those of the F. pratensis, on the con

and July. Growsin damp pastures and wet trary, are decidedly upright intheir early places throughout Europe, North Africa , and stages of growth, becoming slightly bent as the flower approaches maturity. On

North America ( fig. 285 ).

account of its luxuriant habit, we do not Some botanists consider the F. elatior

recommend the use of F. elatior where a

and the F. pratensis to be identical, and these grasses are consequently to be found in many botanical works bracketed together as synonymous. There is, how-

fine turf is required ; yet as aproductive grass, and onewhich is greedily eaten by stock, it may form a part of permanent mixtures for moist and strong soils where

ever, a decided difference, which is clearly the crop is intended for grazing, and also

manifest not only in theseed, but in the for irrigation purposes. It is admirably growth of the two varieties. The seed adapted for covers, in which its large of the true F. elatior is broader and seeds are useful as food .

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

Festuca heterophylla .

225

North Africa, North America, and Austra lia ( fig. 286 ).

( Various-leaved Fescue .) Fr. Fétuque feuilles variées. Ger. Wechselblätteriger Schwingel.

This grass is supposed to have received

Roots fibrous, rootstock perennial, tufted. its specific name from Linnæus, on ac Stems numerous, erect, and smooth . Leaves

count of its being so much relished by

various, dark green, lower ones folded, upper ones flat. Panicle diffuse. Spikelets many Howered. Empty glumes unequal, shorter

sheep ; and Gmelin, the eminent Rus sian botanist, says that the Tartars

rib and long awn. Flowers June and July. Grows in meadows and pastures throughout Central Europe ; introduced into Great Britain for cultivation in permanent pas

summer months in close proximity to

thanflowering glumes, with prominent mid . generally pitch their tents during the it, on account of its value to their herds. There is no question but that

on good upland pastures, especially if used for sheep grazing, this grass should This species is a native of France, form a large proportion of the herbage. tures.

where it is extensively grown, andwas In produce it is inferior to some others,

introduced to England in 1814.

It is but deficiency in quantity is more than

well adapted to our climate, and is valu- counterbalanced by its excellent nutri

able for parks and ornamental grounds, tive qualities. From its remarkably fine

for its beautiful dark -green foliage. It foliage it is particularly suited for lawns is also particularly suited to pastures, on and pleasure - grounds, which are con account of its large bulk of herbage ; but stantly mown. it produces little feed the same season after mowing.

Festuca duriuscula . (Hard Fescue.)

Festuca ovina .

(Sheep's Fescue.) Fr. Fétuque des brebis.

Ger . Schaf Schwingel.

Rootstock perennial, creeping or tufted. Stems 6 to 12 inches, erect, and densely tufted,

rough at the upper part and smooth below .

Fr. Fétuque durette.

Ger . Harter Schuingel.

Rootstock perennial, creeping. Stems 1 to 2 feet, erect, and tufted , but less so than in F. ovina. Stem -leaves flat, lanceolate , and striated ; sheath downy ; ligule long. Pani. cle erect and spreading. Spikelets many flowered, and larger than in P. ovina. Outer glumes lanceolate and unequal. Flowering glumes narrow, with a short awn . Palea

Fig 286. - Sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina ).

Leaves very slender, chiefly radical, upper ones rolled ; sheath smooth ; ligule long Panicle small , erect, con . and bilobed . tracted , and subsecund. Spikelets small, upright, and many - flowered. Empty glumes

Fig. 287. - Hard fescue ( Festuca duriuscula ).

shorter than flowering glumes, unequal, and acute.

Flowering glumes small, with min

ute awn ,

Palea toothed, with hairy nerves.

Flowers June and July. Grows in dry, hilly pastures throughout Europe, Siberia, VOL . II .

toothed , with hairy nerves. Flowers June and July. Grows in damp, hilly places throughout Europe, North Africa, Siberia, North America, and Australia ( fig. 287) . P

SEED-TIME.

226

This is one of the most valuable and

important of the smaller fescues, and its

presence in hay is generally indicative of superior quality. It comes very early, retains itsverdure during long -continued drought in a remarkable manner, and is one of the best of pasture grasses. All kinds of stock eat it with avidity, but especially sheep, which always thrive

smooth . Leaves short, flat, and broad ; ligule long, broad and pointed at apex. Panicle erect and branching. Spikelets oblong and many- flowered. Empty glumes unequal, flowering glumes scabrid, and blunt at apex.

Palea with ciliated nerves .

Flowers July and August. Grows in damp

places throughout Europe, Siberia, North Africa, and North America.

This grass is found growing naturally

well on the succulent herbage it produces. by the sides of ditches, pools, lakes, and

From the fineness of its foliage, and the rivers,which and is perhaps the only water avidity

fact of its resisting the drought of sum-

grass is eaten with by both mer and cold in winter, it is eminently sheep and cattle. The leaves are narrow ,

adapted for sowing in parks and orna- of a pale green colour, and succulent. It mental grounds. A large quantity of is valuable for moist situations, and

food is produced after the grass is cut thrives especially in the Fen districts. for hay. Lolium perenne. Festuca rubra . ( Red Fescue .) Fr. Fétuque rouge.

( Perennial Rye- grass.) Fr. Ivraie vivace.

Ger . Englisches Raygras.

Ger, Rother Schwingel.

Roots fibrous, rootstock perennial, sometimes

Rootstock perennial, with long creeping stolons. Stems erect, 2 to 3 feet.

Leaves flat and

rolled ; sheath hairy ; ligule long. Panicle spreading, and slightly drooping at apex. Spikelets many-flowered, of a reddish colour. Empty glumes unequal. Flowering glumes lanceolate, with a short awn. Flowers June and July. Grows in dry low -lying places near the sea, throughout Europe, North Africa, Siberia, and North America.

stoloniferous.

Stems 1 to 2 feet, bent at the

base, ascending, smooth, and slightly com pressed. Leaves flat, narrow , and pointed ; edges and upper surface scabrid ; sheath

smooth and compressed ; ligule short and blunt. Panicle spiked. Spikelets sessile,

Although this grass is considered by some to be merely a variety of F. durius cula, altered in habit by frequent culti

vation on dry soil, yet to the careful observer there will appear an apprecia ble difference between the two varieties.

The leaves are broader, of darker colour than the F. duriuscula , while the growth

is not so strong. The principal differ ence, however, is in the creeping habit of F. rubra, which enables it to live on loose, light, dry soils, where most other

grasses fail. Its creeping roots penetrate so deeply into the soil, as to enable the

plant to maintain a fresh and green ap pearance when other varieties are burnt

up. It is particularly adapted for pas tures by the seaside.

The nutritive

value of this grass when just in flower is

Fig. 288. — Perennial rye- grass (Lolium perenne ).

much greater than at an earlier period. Glyceria fluitans.

( Floating Sweet Grass.) Syns.- POA FLUITANS and FestUCA FLUITANS. Fr. Glycérie flottante. Ger . Schwimmgras.

Rootstock perennial, stoloniferous. Stems branched , floating or creeping, stout and

distichous, and many - flowered . Empty glumes, only an outer one to each spikelet, except in the case of the upper spikelet, which has two, lanceolate, smooth, distinctly ribbed, andglumes shorterobtuse, than flowering glumes. Floweri ribbed ,and with ng sometimes a minute awn. Flowers May and June ( fig. 288).

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

227

There has since 1882 been much dis- plant, which has occupied such a prom cussion as to the character and value of inent place in British pastures, has not rye-grass, and the part which it should prevailed . It has, indeed, been success

play in the formation of permanent and temporary pastures, the former in particular. In that year Mr C. D. L. Faunce de Laune of Sharsted Court, Sitting bourne, contributed a paper to the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England (vol. xviii., sec. ser ., part 1)

fully repelled by Dr Fream , Sir John B. Lawes, and others, who have demon strated the important and significant fact that rye-grass with white clover form the dominant constituents of many of the finest old pastures in the country, in cluding the celebrated feeding pastures

“ On Laying Down Land to Permanent of Leicestershire. The results of Dr Grass,” and there he condemned rye- Fream's investigations are recorded in

grass, and urged “ the necessity of elim- the Journal of the Royal Agricultural

inating ” it from all mixtures of seeds to Society, vol. xlviii., sec. ser., part 2. Although we have deemed it neces be sown in the formation of permanent pastures. In the same publication and sary to give this bird's-eye view of the through other channels he continued his “ Battle of Rye- grass," as the discussion denunciation of rye-grass, stating that has been aptly termed, we cannot remove “My observations lead me to believe that rye-grass from its wonted place in grass rye- grass is detrimental to the formation seed mixtures, whether for permanent or

of new pasture, not only because it is a temporary pastures. As to the relative short-lived grass, but because, owing to quantity of rye-grass and other grasses, the shortness of its roots, it exhauststhe hard -and -fast rules should not be insisted surface of the soil ; and when it dies, the upon. The quantities we have stated

bare space left is so impoverished that, will not suit equally well in all circum though grass seeds may germinate upon stances ; and while some may think it it, theyfail to live unless highly manured well to use still larger quantities of rye 12

grass, others may perhaps find smaller by accident or on purpose . Mr de Laune has certainly formed ex- give better results. cellent permanent pastures without the An article on perennial rye -grass in assistance of rye- grass, and it cannot be

The Field , on November 20, 1886, con

denied that muchgood has resulted, and tains the following information : more good will still result, from the dis-

" The modern evidence in favour of

cussion which he has aroused ; for it is perennial rye - grass, proving it to be a well known that farmers did not, as a true perennial,exists in the report, pre rule, give sufficient attention to the pared for Sir John Lawes by Mr Willis, selection of seeds for pastures, and it is on the flora of a pasture in Leicestershire, also more than probable that rye-grasses near Market Harborough. I am able to

sometimes bulked more largely in seed- give the following details : mixtures than was desirable .

“ After fencingoff a portion of the pas

Mr W. Carruthers, consulting botanist ture to exclude the cattle, the grass in to the RoyalAgricultural Society, joined the enclosure was allowed to grow for the with Mr de Laune in the controversy, in purpose of being botanically examined , so far as to contend that rye -grass is no when it was found that 75 or 80 per cent

more perennial than the wheat plant ; of the whole herbage was composed of that itwould die out in two years unless two species only – Lolium perenne (com kept free from seeding ; and that it should mon rye - grass) and Trifolium repens therefore be excluded from permanent (white Dutch clover). “The meadow in question was selected pastures. But he has recommended ryegrass for temporary pastures, and admits as the best old pasture' of the district. that if it were eaten close down and not Its soil was a ' maiden ' yellow loam 3 allowed to seed, “they might keep it feet deep, resting on gravel, which se cured natural drainage. It had not been alive as long as they like.”

But the attack upon this particular cut for hay within memory, and was de pastured every year by the following ex 1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., xviii., sec. ser., part 2

traordinary head of stock : Two sheep per acre throughout the winter, receiving

SEED - TIME.

228

12 lb. cotton and linseed cake each daily It is a common notion that wheat will for four months, and a little hay during not answer after Italian rye-grass. The latter part of winter when the grass is following opinion of the late Mr William

most scanty, and sixteen oxen, or one per Dickinson onthis point is worth con

sideration : “ Thirty sheep may be kept and remaining till October or November, upon Italian rye-grass, fed through hur

acre and two over, entered early in April,

when they were fit for the butcher. The dles, upon as littleland as ten can be kept oxen received no extraneous food, except

upon the common system upon common

6 lb. each daily of the same mixture of

cake during the last month. “ It is a general remark that the pas tures are good in proportion to the pro

duction of rye -grass and Dutch clover. " Lolium italicum .

( Improved Italian Rye -grass.) Fr. Ivraie d'Italie.

Ger. Itabienisches Raygras.

Roots fibrous, annual. Stems 4 to 6 feet, erect, stout, and somewhat rough . Leaves broad and succulent. Panicle spiked, erect, and

distichous. Spikelets many-flowered. Flower ing glumes with long awns. Flowers June and July ( fig. 289).

The Italian rye-grass was introduced into this country in 1831 by the late Charles Lawson. It is very distinct in its character and seed from ordinary rye

grass, and as it is not perennial, it is only suitable for alternate husbandry, and producing early feed in the spring for

sheep and cattle; but in permanent pas tures it is to be avoided entirely . For sewage cultivation it stands in the first rank of all forage plants.

It has produced extraordinary crops at various sewage farms. On account of its rapid growth, and for its succulent herb age, itis invaluable for early sheep feed . It may be sown with safety any time be

Fig. 289 - Italian rye grass (Lolium italicum )

tween Ifthealone, months February and Octo ber. 3 of bushels per acre is the grass ;and the finest crops of wheat, bar ley, oats, and beans maybe grown after quantity required ; but if sown on a corn the Italian rye -grass has been fed off the

crop with clovers, a much smaller quan- two years of itsexistence. Wheat invari tity will suffice. In the latter case, it ably follows the Italian - splendid crops should not be sown until the corn is up.

aregrown where wheat had not been grown

The mode of cultivation is exceedingly before." simple — harrowing the ground before and after sowing, and rolling subsequently, in good condition , three or four heavy

being all that is required . If the land is

Phleum pratense.

( Timothy, or Meadow Catstail.) Fr. Fleol des prés.

Ger. Timothygras.

cuttings per annum may be obtained , Rootstock perennial, somewhat creeping. Stems even without liquid manure ; but unI to 3 feet, erect and smooth . Leaves short, doubtedly, the more manure applied, flat, and soft ; sheath smooth; ligule oblong. especially in liquid form , the more abun

dant the crop ; and it is important that the liquid should be applied immediately after cutting

Panicle spike-like, cylindrical, elongate, and compact. Spikelets one- flowered, laterally Empty glumes larger than compressed flowering glumes, equal, each with stiff hairs on the keel and a short scabrid terminal awn .

SOWING GRASS SEEDS. Palea minute and pointed. ' Flowering glumes awnless, toothed ,and much smaller than empty glumes. Flowers end of June to August . Grows in meadows and pastures throughout Europe, North Africa , Siberia,

229

larger, webbed, keeled, and acute. Palea short. Flowers June and early in July.

Grows in meadows and pastures throughout Europe, Siberia, North Africa, and North America ( fig. 291).

and Western Asia ( fig. 290 ).

This variety in early spring presents a One of the most common of our mea

beautiful green appearance, and is easily

dow plants. In some parts of America distinguished from Poa trivialis by its it attains a great height, and forms the smooth culms and leaves. Being of a bulk of the grass hay of that country. more creeping habit than other Poas, it is sometimes condemned as exhausting In England it is largely cultivated in the soil. On account of its unusual

earliness and great productiveness at a period of the seasonwhen other grasses are comparatively dormant, it should be

Fig. 290.— Timothy ( Phleum pratense ).

conjunction with other strong- growing

Fig. 291. - Smooth-stalked meadow.grass ( Poa pratensis).

For early feeding timothy is superior to cocksfoot. It may be pas included in permanent pasture mixtures grasses.

tured for some time through the spring where early feed is of importance. Poa without damage to the hay crop. It pratensis flourishes in dry soil, makes succeeds well on soils of a moist and excellent hay and aftermath, and is val

retentive nature, and is keenly relished uable for garden lawns and ornamental by all kinds of stock, whether in a green grounds.

state or made into hay. In addition to its usefulness for permanent pasture, it possesses a high value for alternate hus bandry. Poa pratensis .

(Smooth -stalked Meadow -grass.) Fr. Paturin des prés.

Ger , Wiesen Rispengras.

Rootstock perennial, creeping and stolonifer. ous. Stems 1 to 2 feet, erect, smooth, and rather stout.

Leaves flat, rather broad and

slightly concave at the tip ; sheath smooth and longer than its leaf ; ligule short and

Poa trivialis.

( Rough -stalked Meadow -grass.) Fr. Paturin commun .

Ger . Gemeines Rispengras.

Rootstock perennial, somewhat creeping, but not stoloniferous. Stems 1 to 2 feet, rough and slender, erect .

Leaves flat, narrow ,

acute , and rough ; sheath rough and equal to its leaf ; ligule long and pointed . Panicle loose , spreading and pyramidal in shape. Spikelets two- or three- flowered, and com pressed. Empty glumes webbed , lanceolate, and nearly equal. Flowering glumes keeled

blunt. Panicle loose, spreading and pyram-

and acute . Palea short and slightly fringed. Flowers June to end of July . Grows in

idal in shape. Spikelets compressed , fourflowered. Empty glumes much webbed, lan-

meadows and pastures throughout Europe, Siberia , North Africa, and North America ( fig. 292).

ceolate, almost equal.

Flowering glumes

SEED - TIME.

230

This grass is somewhat similar in ap-

smooth .

Leaves narrow , pointed, rough on

pearance to P. pratensis, but the two

the surface and outer edges ; sheath smooth ;

varieties differ materially in habit and general properties. It will be seen, on referring to the illustrations, that the

ligule none or very minute. Panicle diffuse,

flower - stems of the P. trivialis are

ing glumes rather large, lanceolate, with three hairy ribs. Paleawith nerves slightly fringed. Flowers June and July. Grows in woods and shady places throughout Europe, Northern Asia, and North America ( fig. 293).

slightly drooping in habit, while those of

the P. pratensisare more erect ; that the ligule (or small tongue) of the leaf in the formerispointed, while in the latter it is

slender, and nodding ; spikelets lanceolate,

compressed . Empty glumes acute, nearly equal, sometimes slightly webbed. Flower

blunt. P. trivialis is adapted for good deep rich moist loams, stiff heavy clays, The great recommendations of this and irrigated meadows. It is unsuited grass are its perpetual greenness, and for dry upland pastures, and if sown in such positions will soon disappear. Opin

Fig.293. - Evergreen meadow -grass ( Poanemoralis sempervirens).

dwarf, close -growing habit. These quali

ties, as well as its reproductiveness, ren der it one of the very best varieties for Fig. 292. - Rough-stalked meadow.grass (Poa trivialis).

lawns or pleasure-grounds, and the fact that it thrives under the shade of trees

ions differ as to the merits of this grass, considerably enhances its value. It yields a good bulk of herbage, endures drought, only a and to beexperideclaring some secondbotanis variety. - rate ts Ourit own starts growth early in spring.

ments quiteconfirm Sinclair, who thus re fers to it : "The superior produce of this Poa over many other speciesof grass, its highly nutritive properties, the season at which it arrives at perfection, and the

Poa aquatica.

(Water Meadow -grass.) Fr. Paturin aquatique.

Ger. Wasser Rispengras.

marked partiality which horses,oxen, and Rootstock perennial, creepingand stoloniferous. sheep have for it, are merits which dis

tinguish it as one of the most valuable of those grasses which affect rich soil and sheltered situations." Poa nemoralis sempervirens. ( Hudson's Bay, or Evergreen Meadow - grass .) Fr. Paturin des Boisa feuilles persistantes. Ger . Wintergrünes Hain Rispengras.

Rootstock perennial, slightly creeping, but not stoloniferous.

Stems erect, smooth, and very stout. Leaves broad, rough, and with prominent ribs ; ligule short and truncate ; sheath smooth . Panicle spreading, with many branches. Spikelets many -flowered, oblong and com . pressed. Empty glumes unequal and short Flowering glumes short, broad, and with prominent nerves. Flowers July and August. Grows in wet places throughout Europe, Siberia, and North America .

Poa aquatica grows luxuriantly in the Fen counties, where it forms a rich pas

Stems 1 to 3 feet, erect, and turage in the summer, and constitutes

SOWING GRASS SEEDS. the chief winter fodder.

231

In districts VARIETIES OF CLOVERS.

which are wholly or partially flooded, it is entitled to increased attention .

It

The clovers belong to the natural order The

may be cut three or four times a -year, Leguminosa, genus Trifolium .

and produces an immense quantity of generic name is evidently derived from herbage on soils which will not grow thetriple leaves of the plants. other grasses. The seed is generally The following are the usually culti scarce . vated forms of Trifolium : Systematic Name. T. incarnatum

T. repens

Common Name. 07 “ Trifolium Meadow clover Alsike Dutch clover

T. minus

Suckling clover .

T. pratense . T. hybridum

Colour of Flower -head . Crimson .

Red or purple. Pink and white . White. Yellow .

Importance of the Clovers. — This porary Pastures,' Sutton, 2d edition,

tribe includes, therefore, the most valu- pp. 68, 69. able herbage plants adapted to European

“ Trifolium pratense perenne differs

agriculture — the white and red clovers. Notwithstanding what has been said of the superiority of lucerne, and of the excellence of sainfoin in forage and hay, the red clover for mowing, and the white

from broad clover in having a somewhat taller, smoother, and, except in its very young state, a less hairy stem , and a

stronger, less fibrous, and more pene trating root.

It

carries its

flowers

for pasturage, excel, and probably ever some way above the foliage, surpasses will, all other plants. Soils and Climate for Clovers.

The soil best adapted for red clover,

Trifoliumpratense, is deep sandy loam , which is favourable to its roots ; but it

will grow in any soil, provided it be dry. Marl, lime, or chalk promotes its growth . The climate most congenial to it is neither

hot, dry, nor cold. Clover produces most seed in a dry soil and warm temperature ; but as the production of seed is only in some situations an object of the farmer's

attention, a season rather moist, pro vided it be warm , affords the most bulky crop of herbage. Clover Seed . — Red - clover

seed

is

imported into Britain from America,

Germany, Holland , France, and even Italy, where it is raised as an article of What has been obtained from the last two countries has been commerce.

Fig. 294. — Perennial red clover ( Trifolium

pratense perenne).

found often too tender to stand an Eng broad clover in succulence and weight lish' winter. In Switzerland, clover seed of crop , and stands frosts much better. is prepared for sowing by steeping in “The root of perennial red clover

water or oil, and mixing it with powdered reaches down into the subsoil, enabling gypsum , as a preventive to the attacks it to obtain moisture and nourishment of insects.

in the hottest weather, when red clover Perennial Red Clover . - The peren- gives up from drought. This penetrating nial red variety — Trifolium pratense habit also affords a means of sustenance

perenne, or cow -grass

bears a great to the plant on land which is too poor

resemblance to the biennial in its general to grow broad clover, and makes it desir habits and appearance, and is thus accu- able to increase the proportion of this rately described in Permanent and Tem- seed for pastures on thin uplands.

SEED - TIME.

232

“ Perennial red clover has two charac- used for the alternate husbandry, for teristics which greatly augment its value : which the Trifolium medium is inadmis it does not begin to flower until at least sible on account of its creeping roots,

ten days later than broad clover, and its constituting what, in arable lands, is The nutritive powers termed twitch . . culent and eatable by stock long after of this species are superior to those of

more robust and solid stems remain suc-

broad clover has become pithy and the Trifolium medium . . . . It thrives withered .

Perennial red clover fills up better when combined with other grasses

the gap between the first and second than when cultivated by itself ; but this,

cuttings of broad clover, coming into indeed, is also the case with all the use at a time when there is no other valuable grasses. ... The slightly creep available green food for the horses of the ing root remains permanent inthe experi

farm , butit rarely gives a second crop of mental garden , while the roots of the common broad -leaved clover have almost “ Cow -grass produces comparatively disappeared in the third season from

any consequence.

little seed from its single crop ; whereas sowing: For permanent pasture, there red clover yields a good crop of seed fore, this variety ( Trifolium pratense

from the second cutting, after the first has perenne) is the only proper one to cul been taken as fodder. For these reasons,

seed of the perennial variety is necessarily high in price.”

tivate.” Meadow Trefoil. — Trifolium medium —meadow trefoil — is often confounded

Sinclair says, in his ‘ Hortus Gramin- with perennial red clover, otherwise so ens Woburnensis ': “ In the fertile graz- worthless a weed would never have been

ing lands between Wainfleet and Skeg- recommended as a valuable constituent for our permanent pastures on light soils, where it never fails, by its obtrusive character, to destroy the more valuable pasture-plants around it. Sinclair owns that " the Trifolium medium is inadmis

sible in alternate husbandry, on account

Fig. 295.-Red or broad clover ( Trifolium pratense).

ness in Lincolnshire , this true perennial

red clover ( Trifolium pratenseperenne) is abundant. . . . Last summer, when

examining the rich grazing lands in Lin colnshire, I found this plant to be more prevalent than any other species of clover.

The natural appearance of this

Fig. 296. - Perennial white clover

( Trifolium repens perenne ).

plant in these celebrated pastures is such

as to recommend it strongly for cultiva- of its creeping roots, constituting what,

tion. It being strictly perennial, and the in arable lands, is termed twitch ; " and root only slightly creeping, it may be the twitch is most abundant, and there

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

233

fore most troublesome, in light soils, not cattle, and grown with winter barley, or only in arable fields, but in pasture,

sown alone on wheat stubbles in August,

where it usurps the place of better it makes excellent fodder for sheep in the month of May.

plants.

It is strictly an annual,

Creeping Trefoil. - Trifolium repens and can never be sown without risk

-creeping trefoil, Dutch white,or sheep's north of the Humber. There are now in clover is indispensable for low -lying cultivation four distinct varieties - T. pastures, and is, indeed, better adapted incarnatum , T. incarnatum tardum , T. to pastures than to meadows. Curtis incarnatum tardissimum Suttoni, and -

-

affirms that a single seedling covered T. tardissimum album. more than a square yard of ground in

By sowing all these varieties same time in the autumn, the White Clover . — White clover is some- during which Trifolium can be times called shamrock, but it is not the cut, the following summer will

one summer .

true Irish shamrock .

In the eastern

tended to at least a month .

at the period fed or be ex

Whereas,

early Trifolium is sown alone, counties it is called white suckling, when the which fact causes it to be confounded it has to be all consumed in about a week, with Trifolium minus - yellow suckling, to prevent its getting pithy and worth which latter plant in Norfolk and Suffolk , singularly enough, is invariably called red suckling.

Alsike Clover . — Trifolium hybridum -hybrid trefoil, Alsike clover — is a

less.

Trifolium minus - yellow suckling is often confounded with Medicago lu pulina, yellow or hop trefoil. Suckling,

species possessing the properties of the red and white clovers, and was considered

by Linnæus a hybrid between them . It

Fig. 298. - Common yellow clover or trefoil (Medicago lupulina ).

however, is much harder, and more wiry in the stem , darker in the foliage, and has paler flowers than the Medicago. Fig. 297.- Alsike clover ( Trifolium hybridum ).

Although an annual or biennial, it is much more suited forpermanent pastures

is a native of the south of Europe, but than trefoil is, and is equally at home has been introduced into the agriculture on dry soils and strong land. Medicago lupulina . — Although not a of Germany and Sweden, where it is cultivated to considerable extent in the Trifolium , no account of the agricultural district of Alsike.

Its average duration clovers would be complete without refer

is three years, it resists cold well, it ence to this plant, commonly known under thrives in moist lands and under irriga- the names of trefoil, black medic, or hop clover. This is the earliest of all the tion , but is susceptible to drought. clovers to come to maturity in spring. Trifolium incarnatum.Trifolium — incarnatum , a most beautiful dark crim- On calcareous soils it is invaluable .

son -flowered clover ; makes good food for

These are all the species of clover that

SEED - TIME.

234

seem to deserve special notice, out of 166 described by botanists." Impurities in Clover . — The most

Ib.

Rye - grass . Red clover

Trefoil White clover

of clover seed are the seeds of dodder,

Suckling

3

22 %

frequently occurring impurities in samples

8 8

plantain , sorrel, dock , cranesbill, wild

carrot, self-heal, corn bluebottle, chick

Costing about 12s. 6d . per acre.

But a far better prescription ( 20 lb. in Varieties of Grasses down. For all), and one costing no more, is the one year's lea it has been usual for them following : Ib. weed , chamomile, and scorpion grass .

to consist only of red clover, Trifolium

pratense ; white clover, Trifolium repens; rye-grass, Lolium perenne; Italian rye. grass, Lolium Italicum ; and, on light soils, the yellow clover, Medicago lupu lina. These, in common parlance, are called the artificial grasses, because they

are sown every year like any other crop of the farm , and are of temporary existence. But of late it has been found very

Cocksfoot . Rye-grass . Italian rye - grass White clover Red clover

Suckling Alsike

3 1

432 12 I

Trefoil

Timothy

2 4/2

4 .

I

Two Years' Lca . - When a lea has to

desirable to include other strong growing remain down for two seasons, a slightly

perennial varieties, such as cocksfoot heavier seeding is required, and 24 lb. in and Timothy, even where the mixture is all should be sown. The following is an to remain down but one season , and they extremely useful prescription : Ib . are still more indispensable for 2, 3, 4, or 6 years' leas. The quantities sown

Cocksfoot .

2

vary but little over the country. The

Rye.grass . Italian rye - grass Timothy

6

seeds are proportioned according as the grasses are to remain for one year or longer. Seeds for Rotation Grasses.

4 3

Red clover Alsike Trefoil

272

Suckling

1

.

3

22

Every county and district has peculi: This will cost about 148. 6d. per acre, arities of climateand soil, which should butmust not be depended upon for more be taken into consideration when decid .

than two years.

ing upon the exact varieties and propor tions of the grasses and clovers sown .

For 3 or 4 foxtail Lea other valuable ,like Years', meado But the following mixtures will generally grasses wfescue, and

be found a useful standard to work by.

lucerne, may be included with advan

For One Year's Lea .-- Where clovers tage: 32 lb. should be sown per acre, are to be sown alone, 16 lb. should be

made up as follows : lb.

sown per acre, in the following propor lb.

Foxtail Cocksfoot . Meadow fescue ,

5

Rye.grass .

172

Italian rye - grass Timothy .

tions : Trefoil White clover Alsike Red clover

Suckling

2

I

2 I 12

4

272

612

White clover

2

I

Cow - grass

3

At a cost of about 12s. per acre.

Where rye -grass is the only grass used , 20 lb. in all should be sown, and the

Alsike

1

Suckling

I

Lucerne Trefoil

12 I

following will be found a desirable pre- Costing about 208. per acre. scription :

For 5, 6, or 7 Years' Lea, from 36 lb. to 40 lb. of seed should be sown per acre,

1 Don's Gen. Sys. Garden. Bot ., ii.— “ Legumen , ” and may consist of the following :

SOWING GRASS SEEDS. lb.

Perennial rye -grass Italian rye -grass

nent pasture will continue to increase. Still, soil and climatic influences must determine in a great measure the extent of arable land that can with profit be con verted into permanent pasture. Districts like the eastern and southern parts of

I2

8

Foxtail

I

Meadow fescue .

2

Hard fescue

3

Smooth -stalked meadow grass -g

2 2

Cocksfoot .

2

Cow - grass

112 12

White clover

WAN

Timothy

235

England, being dry, are better adapted for corn than grass, and a glance at the returns for the various counties will show

Suckling

that the proportion of land under grass Lucerne 12 is smallest where the rainfall is lightest. 292 Trefoil In the western and northern districts, I Alsike where the rainfall is heavy and strong At a cost which need not exceed that lands abound, the summer is colder, and of the foregoing mixture. thus grass preponderates.

The process of sowing these temporary

Permanent seeds like lea mixtures

mixtures is so identical with that prac- are generally sown in corn, and a wheat

tised in the sowing of permanent grasses, plant is perhaps best for this purpose, that the whole subject may be treated though oats and barley are much more commonly chosen.

under one head .

Grasses for different soils .It is

Grasses and Clovers for Permanent

impossible to give exact advice as to Pasture. the kinds and quantities of grasses and In Great Britain the laying down of clovers required,inconsequence of the ex land to permanent pasture steadily in- treme diversity of the soilsof the country,

creased during the twelve years up till but the following table will help greatly 1888, when the area under permanent to determine which varieties are most grass amounted to considerably more suitable for any particular soil under con than one-half of the cultivated land of sideration . An ample seeding per acre is

the United Kingdom . With the decline 28 lb. of the larger grasses and 12 lb. of in the price of wheat there is every clovers, &c.; and nearly all prescriptions reason to believe that the area of perma- include the following varieties : Grasses .

Agrostis stolonifera ( fiorin ) .

Alopecurus pratensis (meadow foxtail) Anthoxanthum odoratum (sweet vernal)

Especially suitable for Heavy and alluvial soils. Rich deep soils. Medium and light soils .

Avena elatior (tall oat -grass)

All soils.

Avena flavescens (yellow oat-grass) Cynosurus cristalus ( crested dogstail) Dactylis glomerata (rough cocksfoot)

Dry and calcareous soils. Medium and light soils. All soils .

Medium, light, and thin soils.

Festuca duriuscula ( hard fescue) Pestuca elatior (tall fescue)

Pestuca heterophylla (various-leaved fescue) Pestuca ovina (sheep's fescue) Festuca pratensis (meadow fescue) Lolium perenne ( perennial rye -grass) Phleumpratense (timothy grass)

Deep heavy soils, and clays. Rich deep soils. Calcareous and thin soils.

Medium and heavy soils. All soils .

Deep heavy soils, clays, and alluvial.

Poa nemoralis (wood meadow -grass)

Rich medium soils .

Poa pratensis ( smooth meadow.grass) Poa trivialis ( rough meadow -grass)

Light thin soils. Rich , heavy, and alluvial soils .

Standard Seed Mixtures. — The fol-

Various - leaved fescue

1

lowing prescriptions may be considered

Sheep's fescue

172

very safe standards :

Hard fescue . Red fescue

3

Good Loamy Soil. Ib .

2

Perennial rye grass Smooth -stalked meadow.grass

9

Rough -stalked meadow.grass

I

Foxtail . Sweet vernal Cocksfoot

2 %2 12

Wood meadow -grass

Meadow fescue

372

Dogstail Timothy

½

SEED -TIME.

236 I

Lucerne White clover

272

Cow.grass

2

Alsike .

112

Suckling

12

Mr De Laune's Mixtures.

In thedescription ofrye-grass reference will be found to the objections raised by Mr Faunce de Laune to the inclusion of

Yarrow

Costing about 358. per acre .

rye-grass in seed mixtures for permanent

Gravelly Soil.

pestures. Although , as indicated there, good reason has been shown why farmers lb.

should still put faith in rye-grass, it may nevertheless be of interest to produce

2

here the particular mixtures of seeds re commended by Mr De Laune for the

2

12 172

Red fescue Hard fescue

372

Perennial rye- grass

9

formation of permanent pastures on dif

ferent soils. They are as follows:1–

3

Wet

Soils.

Chalky Soil.

Soils.

372 192 192

Lucerne White clover

I

Ib. per Ib. per acre .

Foxtail

.

Cocksfoot

IO

I

2

acre .

O w A cow NN

Smooth stalked meadow -grass Wood meadow - grass Dogstail Timothy Cow - grass

Good or Medium

aw NW vo

Golden oat- grass Sweet vernal Cocksfoot Meadow fescue Various -leaved fescue Sheep's fescue

必 吃 必

Fiorin

Catstail Meadow fescue Tall fescue

Ib . per acre .

14 3 2

2 I

3

44

Trefoil .

Suckling Yarrow

Lotus corniculatus

Costing about 328. per acre.

Crested dogstail Rough meadow - grass

192

Hard fescue .

I

5 I

Sheep's fescue

I

Fiorin . Yarrow

1/2

2

I

1

I I

I I

I

1

I

I

I

I

I

Golden oat -grass

Clay Soil.

Cow - grass

Fiorin .

2

Foxtail

4 4 3

Alsike . Dutch clover

Cocksfoot Meadow fescue Tall fescue

Various- leaved fescue Hard fescue . Perennial rye-grass

I

Perennial red clover Ib .

Total lb.

2

.

41

40

38

I 2

As the germination of the seed and 112 9

Rough -stalked meadow.grass Timothy

4

White clover

I

172

Cow - grass

272

Alsike . Trefoil

172

the equal distribution of the plant de pend upon the accuracy of the process, the details of sowing should be carried out with due regard to the serious loss which failure certainly entails.

3

Time of Sowing . — The best time for

sowing depends much upon the weather, and no hard - and - fast period can be

Costing about 36s. per acre.

named.

Featy Soil. Ib.

Foxtail

2

Agrostis

4

Cocksfoot

212

Tall fescue Meadow fescue

472

Water meadow -grass Smooth -stalked meadow -grass

212

April may be properly regarded

as a safe and favourable month in which

to sow ; but if the seed -bed is ready, and

Rough -stalked meadow.grass

192

the land in working order by the middle of March, there need be no scruple as to putting in the seed. Sowing before is better than immediately after a shower, even supposing the land can be worked

Timothy

372

soon after rainfall.

Perennial rye-grass

9

Trefoil Alsike .

32

before rain gradually absorb moisture from the soil and dew until wet weather

I

I

192

White clover

1/2

Cow - grass

2

Costing about 348. per acre.

The seeds sown

1 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng ., xvii. , sec. ser., part 1 .

SOWING GRASS SEEDS.

237

sets in, and then the plants spring up hand -sowing on most farms. This is a with great rapidity. To sow later than most perfect machine for sowing grass the middle of May is most hazardous. seeds, distributing them with the utmost Methods of Sowing. — Grass seeds are precision, and to any amount, and so sown by hand and with machines.

The

near the ground that the wind affects but

hand -sowing is confined mainly to small little even the lightest grass seed. Its farms, while on moderate and large farms management is easy when the ground is the machine is almost universally used.

ploughed in ordinary ridges. The horse

Hand - sowing . - Sowing grass seeds starts from one head-ridge, and walks in

by hand is a simple process, although it the open furrow to theother, while the requires dexterity to do it well.

machine is sowing half the ridge on each

Clover and rye-grass seeds are so differ- side, the driver walking in the furrow ent in form and weight, that they should behind the machine, using double reins. never be sown at one cast. The sower On reaching the other head -ridge, the has little control over the grass seed, the gearing is put out of action till the horse,

least breath of wind taking it wherever on being hied, enters the next open fur it may His sole object is to cast the row from the head -ridge; and on the seeds equally over the surface, and, as gearing being again put on, the half of a they cannot be seen to alight on the former ridgeis sown, completing it with

ground, he must preserve the strictest the half of a newone by the time the regularity in his motions. Being small horse reaches the head -ridge he started and heavy, the clovers, even in windy from. Thus 2 half-ridges after 2 half

weather, may be cast with tolerable pre- ridges are sown untilthe field is all cision. It is pleasant work to sow grass covered. seeds by the hand . The load is comparThe seed is supplied from the head atively light, and the ground having been ridge, upon which the sacks containing it harrowed fine,and perhaps rolled smooth, were set down when brought from the the walking is easy.

steading

Machine - sowing. — But now the

The head -ridges are sown by them grass-seed broadcast sowing -machine, fig. selves. But the half of the ridge next

260, has superseded the necessity of the fence on each side of the field cannot

HETHE 126

0

2

1

3

Hittitutt

Fig. 299. -Grass-seed iron harrows, with wings and swing -trees. a b Main leaves of the harrows.

cd The 2 wings.

be reached by the machine, and must be the crown and open furrow , the furrow sown by hand.

brow being the guide for one end of the

When ridges are coupled together, the machine, and 2 ridges are thus sown at

horse walks along the middle between every bout. Where ridges are ploughed

SEED - TIME.

238

in breaks of 4 ridges in width, the fur- venient to hup the horses with these row -brow is the guide in going and the harrows. To avoid the inconvenience is crown in returning, while

sowing 2

to hie the horses at the end of the land

of the ridges; and the crown in going ings, round an intermediate unharrowed and the furrow -brow in returning, while ridge. Harrow Carriage. — Fig. 301 is a

sowing the other 2 ridges.

Speed of the Sowing - machine.- convenientand safe form of carriage for Were this machine to sow without inter- conveying harrows. This is much better ruption for 10 hours, at the rate of 27/2 for the purpose than the ordinary cart. miles per hour, it would sow about 45 acres of ground ; but the turnings at the landings , and the time spent in filling the seed -box with seed , cause a large deduction from that extent. Grass - seed Harrows. After the -

grassseeds are sown, the ground is harrowed to cover them in . For this pur

Fig. 301. - Carriage for conveying harrows, & c.

pose lighter harrows are better thanthe It consists of a frame of wood sparred in ordinary, which would bury clover seeds length to take on a pair of harrows too deeply in the ground . These light coupled with their master-tree, and in harrows are arranged (with wings) to breadth 372 feet. The hind part of the

cover a large breadth at a time, so that frame rests on crutches supported upon process. Fig. 299 is grass-seed harrows, the rim of which is below the top part of the sowing of grass seeds is a speedy the axle of 2 wheels, the upper part of

with wings, covering a ridge of 15 feet the frame; and the fore part rests upon wide at one stretch . The harrows have

a castor, which allows the carriage to be turned when desired . A horse, to draw

the carriage, is yoked to 2 eyes of the fore -bar of the frame by the hooks of the plough -chains. The harrows are piled one above the other on the framing.

Such a carriage may convey other arti cles to and from the fields.

Rolling for Grass Seeds . — The im

portance of thorough rolling in sowing grass seeds is not fully realised by the general body of farmers.

It is of great

moment that the small seeds should have

an even firm bed, and this can best be secured by rolling, which also helps to retain the moisture in the soil, a matter

of great importance in dry soils. Fig. 300. - Chain harrows.

Rough land, if dry enough, should therefore be rolled before the grass seeds are sown . The rolling will reduce the

clods before they become hard, and give

a set of iron swing -trees. Modern Eng- a kindly bed to the small seeds. If the lish harrows well suited for covering land is naturally dry, the roller is the grass seeds are shown in fig. 300, made more required to consolidate it after the

winter's frosts. On light loams and tur. Some nip soils, the roller is often with advan dexterity is required to drive these wide tage used, both before and after sowing,

by Woodrooffe & Co., Rugeley.

Working wide Harrows. -

grass-seed harrows. They should not be the ground. getting a turn of light har moved from one ridge to the adjoining, rows after receiving the seed. When strong land is in a waxy state, to turn upon a pivot , which might between wet and dry, the rolling had wrench off a wing. Besides, it is incon- better be deferred, while sowing the

as part of the implement would then have

GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

239

grass seeds may proceed, if the season , tice is to cover every kind of seed when or state of the crop amongst which the Sown. grass seeds are to be sown, is already Sowing with Spring Crops.- Al sufficiently advanced . though double-harrowing across prepares Crops accompanying Grass Seeds. the land on which spring wheat is sown

—Thecereal crops, amongst which grass for the grass seeds,these are not sown seeds are sown, are winter wheat, spring whenever the wheat is sown . The wheat

wheat, oats, and barley. Wheat on bare- may be sown any time during winter fallow clay sometimes growsso strong as or early spring, when the state of the to injure the young plantsof grassesbe weather and soil permit. But when fore it is reaped, butin lighter soils they wheat is sown at the latest period, the

are always safely sown amongst it. grass seeds should not only be sown then, There is little fear of spring wheat attain- but also amongst the spring wheat pre ing to such growth as to injure the viously shown ; as also amongst the win grasses amongst it.

Oats are the usual

vehicle by which to introduce grass seeds to the ground. Remaining but a short

ter wheat, should there be any in the same field.

It is worthy of consideration, in fields

time on the ground, they permit young in which wheat hasbeen sown at different grass plants to grow considerably before times, that the latest sown should first winter , and become able to withstand be sown with grass seeds, then the next the vicissitudes of that season . Barley, latest, and so on to the winter wheat. in some seasons, grows rank and thick , so The reason for this is that it is desirable

as to endanger the existence of the to finish the land most recently worked , grasses. Barley, treated as oats, receives in case the weather should change, and grass seeds in the same way ; but for prevent the finishing of the grass seeds grasses do not over the whole field . some reason or other, thrive so well with barley as with oats. Frost Injuring Clover Seeds . - Frost Unless the winter wheat is too for- injures clover seeds, and will even kill

ward, the latter end of March will be the best time to put the grasses in. If the plant is strong, the common harrows will be required to obtain a hold of the

them when exposed to it, so they cannot safely be sown very early in spring, nor

left without harrowing. But they run little risk of damage from frost in March

ground ; if weak, and the ground tender, when harrowed in, which is best done the grass-seed harrows will be better. with the grass-seed harrows, the roller Harrowing the Wheat - braird.— of course following. Winter wheat will be all the better for

If rolling the grass seeds amongst the

a harrowing in spring, even although

corn cannot be done at the time of sow

some of the plants should be tornup by ing on account of the raw state of the the tines, as it loosens the ground com- land, it should be done as soon as the pressed by the rains, and admits the air state of the ground will permit, as it is to the roots of the plants. After such a of vast importance to have a firm bed

harrowing, rolling will press the weak for the grass seeds and a smooth surface

plants into fresh earth , and induce an in reaping the crop . immediate tillering from the roots ; but should the plantshave grownrank, the rolling should be dispensed with , in case

GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

of bruising the stems. The difference between bruising and bending the stems of wheat by rolling should be considered , so that rolling be done or left undone. A cereal crop, on a rolled surface, affords great facility for being reaped at harvest. Many farmers sow grass seeds without harrowing them in, trusting that they

It will be interesting at this stage to contemplate the phenomena by which the seeds we have sown germinate and produce plants. The healthy seed of a plant is a living object. Though apparently lifeless to the sight and touch, it possesses the

may find their way into the soil amongst germ of life, and its vitality is capable the clods, and be covered by their moul- of exerting great force when excited into dering. But the safe and correct prac- action . What excites the vitality of

SEED-TIME.

240

seeds, we do not know , perhaps never to any extent for the use of plants. shall—it is a secret which Nature has It should be noted that it is the oxy. hitherto kept to herself ; but we do gen of the air that is of chief import know the circumstances in which seeds ance in germination. must be placed in order that they may But this air must be above a certain

begin to grow or germinate.

The proof temperature ere the seed will germinate

of the excitementis in their germination , -it must be above the freezing-point, which is the first movement towards the else the vitality of the seed will remain dormant.

production of a plant.

It is also desirable that the

Conditions essential for Germina- soil should be well pulverised, and not tion. — Now , the circumstances which as in fig. 302, where a seed is placed excite germination are the combined action of air, heat, and moisture.

These

must all be afforded in favourable con

ditions, before the seed will germinate and the plant grow satisfactorily. They may all be supplied to the seed, and its germination secured in the air as cer tainly as in the soil ; but on the de

velopment of a root, most plants would die if kept constantly in the air. The soil supplies all the requisites of air, heat, and moisture to the seed in a better

Fig. 302. --Cloddy and stony soil. a The seed .

b Hard clods.

CA stone.

state than the atmosphere could alone ; and it continues to supply them not only among hard clods on the one side, and for the germination of the seed , but also near a stone on the other, conditions

for the support of the plant, during its not likely to favour the development of entire life. strong regular plants. Moisture and Germination.— Fig. A vital seed placed in the soil is

affected by three agencies - 1,physical; 2, 303 represents the seed placed in a pul chemical ; and 3, physiological— before verised soil, the interstices of which are it can produce a plant. entirely occupied by water instead of air, Wh Air and Germination .-

en a

vital seed is placed in pulverised ground, it is physically surrounded with air ; for although the particles of soil may seem to the eye to be close together, on ex amination it has been found that the

interstices between the particles occupy

about 14 of a given volume of soil. Hence , 100 cubic inches of pulverised soil contain about 25 cubic inches of air.

Therefore, in a field the soil of which has been ploughed and pulverised, and cleared of large stones, to the depth of

Fig . 303. - Soil with water and without air . a The seed .

White spaces - pulverised soil. Black spaces - water.

8 inches, i acre of it may containabout 12,545,280 cubic inches of air ; and hence as well as the interior of all the pulver also, as every additional inch of depth ised particles of it. It is clear that,

pulverised calls into activity some 260 in this case too, the seed, being deprived

tons of soil, at 1.48 of specific gravity, of air, is not placed in the most favour so the ploughing up of another inch of able circumstances for germination. Be soil not before stirred and not hitherto

sides the direct exclusion of the air, the

containing any air, introduces into the water, on evaporation, renders the earth workable soil an addition of perhaps around each seed much colder than it nearly 11/2 million cubic inches of air. would otherwise be. Thus, by increasing the depth of pulver-

But total want of moisture prevents

ised soil, we can provide a depot of air germination as much as excess. Fig. 304

GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

241

shows the seed placed in pulverised soil, ground, the first change which takes and the interstices filled with air, with place in it is physical— it becomes in no moisture present between or in the

creased in bulk by the absorption of

particles of soil. In such a state of soil, moisture ; and being also surrounded by air, it only requires the requisite degree of temperature to excite its vitality into action . If there is no moisture present, as in fig. 304, it will remain in a state of dormancy until moisture arrive, and in

the meantime may become the prey of the many animals which inhabit the soil, eager for food, or be scorched to death

by heat. If it is placed in excess of moisture, as in fig. 303, its germination Fig. 304. - Soil with air and without water. a The seed .

White spaces — air and heat.

Dark spaces — dry pulverised soil full of air.

heat will find an easy access to the seed, and as easy an escape from it.

is prevented by the exclusion of the air, and its tissues are destroyed by macera tion in the water.

When the seed begins to germinate, a substance named diastase is formed at

the expense of its albumen. The func Fig. 305 represents the seed in soil tion of diastase is important. It is to completely pulverised. Between every convert the insoluble starch of the seed particle of the soil the air finds easy ac- into soluble dextrine and sugar ; to effect cess to the seed , and in the heart of every which change it seems to possess extra particle of soil moisture is lodged. All ordinary power, as one part of diastase that is here required in addition is a will convert into sugar no less than 2000 parts of starch . The diastase converts the starch which it finds into a useful

state for the support of the first efforts

of vegetation, and after having per formed this important function, it dis appears.

The Embryo.— “ Under fitting cir cumstances,” says Lindley, “ the embryo which the seed contains swells, and bursts

through its integuments ; it then length Fig. 305. – Soil with water and with air. a The seed.

White spaces - air and heat.

Dark spaces — pulverised soil with darker water.

ens, first in a direction downwards, next in an upward direction, thus forming a centre or axis round which other parts are ultimately formed . No known power

favourable temperature, which the season can overcome this tendency, on the part supplies, and germination proceeds.

of the embryo, to elevate one portion in

Composition of Seeds. — Thechemical the air, and to bury the other in the composition of seeds consists of organic earth ; but it is an inherent property and inorganic substances. The organic with which nature has endowed seeds,

are composed of 2 classes of substances, in orderto ensurethe young parts, when the nitrogenous and the non -nitrogenous; first called into life, each finding itself the inorganic, of earthy, alkaline, and acid in the situation most suitable toits ex ingredients. The nitrogenous substances istence — that is to say, the root in the consist of matter analogous to the caseine earth, the stem in the air . "

of milk, albumen of the egg and of blood, The Young Plant. — When the germ and of the fibrine of the flesh of animals; has shot out from the seed, it is found to

the non-nitrogenous consist of starch and be possessed of a sweet taste, which is mucilage, and of fatty and oily matters owing to the presence of grape-sugar in rich in carbon and hydrogen . the sap which has already begun to cir Changes incident to Germination .

culate through its vessels. There is little

-When a seed is consigned to the doubt that the grape-sugar is formed sub VOL. II.

Q

SEED-TIME.

242

sequently to the appearance of both dias- represents such a grain in a state of ger mination, one shoot having left the Seed dissected . — A seed, considered sheath, another just evolved, and a third physiologically in reference to its organ tase and acetic acid .

isation, consists of an embryo, which in cludes the germs of the root and of the stem , and of a cotyledon or cotyledons.

Fig. 306 represents a grain of wheat magnified, and so dissected as to show

its component parts. It consists of two

skins, an outer and an inner ner skin

The in is also

b

where the nutritive matters, called the starch and albumen, €

are situate. There is the little scale or

Component parts cotyledon through Fig-306.-of a grain of wheat. a a Outer skin ,

which the nutritive

b Inner skin .

matter passes in

c Scale or cotyledon . d Rudimentary plant.

the

sweet

d

state,

e Where nutritive mat- when the grain is

Fig. 307. — Wheat plant in the state of germination . a Shoot leaving the sheath .

c Shoot yet unevolved .

mentaryplant unite germinating, and b Another shoot just evolved dd Rootlets . by which it is ren dered most fit for the nourishment of the remains unevolved, while the rootlets are little plant ; and there is the rudimen : seen extending downwards. tary plant, from the base of which Different Methods of Sowing and roots or stems, or both , will afterwards Germination . essential are proceed . All these parts an y If Disadvantage of Broadcast Sow . to the growth of the seed.

one is absent the seed will fail to ger. ing.–Of all the modes of sowing seeds, minate.

Multiple Stems or “ Tillering. "-

none requires so much seed as the broad. However regularly the land may cast.

The seeds of most species of plants pos- have been ploughed, seed sown broadcast sess such a structure as that only i stem will braird irregularly-some falling into can proceed from them ; but in many the lowest part, some upon the highest,

agricultural plants, particularly in the some scarcely covered with earth by the cereals, which yield human food, a re . harrows, some buried as deep as the ruts

markable departure from this structure of tines have penetrated. To make the

is observed. In them the embryo plant land smooth by harrowing, previous to is usually thickened towards its base, and sowing the seed, would not cure irregular is so organised that, instead of i stem, 3 covering, since it is impossible to cover a or 4 may spring from i grain . d

The peculiarity mentioned may be ob served in fig. 307, where the rudimen tary plant has 3 projections in the lower part, while in other kinds of seed there would have been only I ; and from each of these 3 projections a rootlet

Fig. 308.- Well.ploughed regular furrow -slices. ciod Regularly ploughcd ſurrow -slices .

or a stem, or both , proceed when the grain is placed in the soil. The figure large seed as that of the cereals with tines without the assistance of a rough surface 1 Johnston's Lect. Agris. Chem ., 2d ed. , 221.228.

of mould. In fig. 308 the furrows are well and regularly ploughed ; but while

GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

243

it is obvious that the seeds, when scattered broadcast from the hand, will fall mostly in the hollows between the furrows, yet some will stick upon the points

irregular furrow -slices of fig. 311 , some are narrow and deep, some shallow, some too large, some of ordinary depth, and some too high and steep. The seed sown

and sides of the furrow -slices. The seeds

on these irregular furrows is shown in fig.

will thus lie in the ground, as in fig. 309, those which fell into the hollows of the

a

6

d

2010

furrows being thicker than the seedswhich

Fig. 312.-- Irregular positions of seed on ill. ploughed furrows.

Fig. 309. - Positions of seeds on regularfurrows. ee e Seeds fallen in the hollows of the furrows.

a Seed clustered and covered shallow . Seed clustered and buried deep. c Seed scattered and covered shallow . d deep . scat red and cover

fſ Seeds scattered upon tops and sides of furrows.

stuck upon

their tops and sides.

But it

312, where some are clustered together with a shallow covering, others also clus

is not at all likely that the seeds will be tered, but buried deeply, whilst many are so regular as represented. Some will be scattered irregularly at different depths. too deep and others too shallow in the Such a deposition of seed must make the braird come up irregularly ; and the plants

soil, whilst some will be left on the sur-

face. From irregular deposition, plants have not the chance of reaching maturity will grow

in irregular positions, as in fig. at the same time. In fig . 313, where the seed was covered 310, where some are in clumps from the deeply, the plants will come up late ; h h 9 g

b

c

Willy Fig. 310. - Irregular braird upon regular furrows. ggg Plants growing in clumps. hh Plants growing scattered .

Fig. 313.-- Irregular braird on ill-ploughed furrow .

bottom of the furrows, and others are

a Late plants. 6 Early plants. c Regular growth of plants.

straggling too far asunder. Where the

seeds have been deposited at different with shallow covering, they will come up depths, the plants will grow at more ir- early, and will push on in growth ; while regular heights than in the figure. the remainder, coming up regularly, will When the land is ill-ploughed, the case form the best part of the crop. Where

is still worse. Fig. 311 shows the irreg- a crop of cereals does not mature at the ular furrows frombad ploughing. Bad same time, the grain cannot be equal in the sample. Advantages of Drill Sowing - One

obvious advantage of sowing with a drill

over a broadcast machine, is the deposi Fig. 311. - Ill.ploughed irregular furrow -slices. a Furrow-slice too flat. b Furrow -slice too high .

c Furrow -slices too wide. d Furrow too deep.

Fig. 314. - Regular depth of seed by drill-sowing.

ploughing entails bad consequences in any crop, but especially in cereal ones, tion of seed at the same depth, whatever

inasmuch as irregularity of surface can- depth may be chosen. Fig. 394 shows not be amendedby a series of future the seed deposited at regular intervals. operations, as in green crops. In the The braird is shown at the same regular

SEED -TIME. 244

intervals in fig. 315, and its produce will Suppose that each seed produces i stem, reasonably be of the same quality. For andevery stem bears i ear containing the drill sowing the land has previously re-

ordinary number of 32 seeds, the produce

ceived all the harrowing it requires for the crop, and by the coulter or tongue of the machine the seed is depositedregularly at a uniform depth and thickness.

of 1 acre would be 96 bushels. How far this exceeds the usual return need hardly be stated. Rarely, indeed, have we known the produce of wheat to exceed 64 bushels Still there are many who prefer broad- on i acre, so that in this case 32 bushels, cast sowing, and, with careful preparation or 33 per cent of the seed, would be lost, while in an ordinary crop of 40

bushels the loss of seed would be 58

V V V W X W W W W Fig. 315. — Regular braird from drill-sown sced.

per cent.

The waste in barley seed is estimated thus : Chevalier barley at 57 lb. the bushel, and 75 grains to i drachm , avoir dupois weight, gives 665,242 seeds ; 4 bushels of seed sown on i acre, gives

of the seed -bed, and skilful performance 2,660,968 seeds ; and allowing i stem of the work of sowing, it will usually give from each seed , and i ear of 32 seeds, satisfactory results.

the produce would be 128 bushels ! Even

Drill sowing leaves a blank between with an exceptional crop of 64 bushels the rows of plants, which encourages the there would be a loss of 50 per cent, growth of weeds. On the other hand, while on the ordinary crop of 48 this system permits of hoeing after the bushels the loss would be nearly 69

plants are advanced considerably, and if per cent. this operation is carefully performed by In like manner the loss upon oats may

hand or horse-hoe it is usually found to be estimated, and will be found to be be beneficial to the crop.

often more than one-half the quantity of Dibbling.- Dibbling is distributing seed sown , seed by means of a dibble at given disIn all these cases only I stem from tances, and at a given depth in the soil. I seed is reckoned, but many of the seeds

The distribution by this system may produce 2 or 3 or more. The actual loss either be in rows or broadcast. The dif- of produce sustained is thus not so great of seed. is,, as Ano drilling dibblin betwixt ference ther view of the waste of seed is lling the t in dri in lines placed seed gis and tha m ng for s ces bli 2,595,510 seeds of wheat on i acre le : thi dis uni it at pla whi dib

tances inthe line. The object of dib- give 536 seeds to 1 square yard ; 2,660,968 bling is to fill the ground with plants seeds of barley give 550 seeds ; and with the smallest quantity of seed . The 5,879,808 seeds of oats give 1214 . In seed planted in lines with the dibble ap- wheat and barley the proportion of seed is pears as in fig. 314, and the plants like in proportion to their respective weights, those in fig. 315. The depth of the seed but in oats the seed is more than double

and brairding of the plants are as uni- in proportion to the weight, because of form as in drilling, but the plants stand the thick husk of the oats. independent of each other in dibbling. Waste of Seeds by different Meth As would be readily understood, dib- ods of Sowing.- P. M'Lagan of Pum bling is not suitable where any consider- pherston made experiments to ascertain able extent has to be sown, but it is very the waste of seed in sowing oats in the three different ways of dibbling, drilling, useful in filling up blanks. Waste of Seed.—When sown in all and broadcast.

The oats weighed 42 lb.

these ways in equal quantities, the waste the bushel. The dibbled holes were made of seed, as determined by experiment, is 6 inches apart, and 6 inches between the surprising. Wheat at 63 lb. the bushel rows, making 36 holes in i square yard,

gives 87 seeds to 1 drachm, avoirdupois and each hole was supplied with from weight, or 865,170 to 1 bushel. Now , I to 4 seeds, making the quantity sown 3 bushels of seed sown broadcast on the

from

peck to 4 pecks on 1 acre ; and

acre, gives a total of 2,595,510 seeds. the seeds sown drilled and broadcast

GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

245

were in the same proportion . In drilling inches into the ground. The results were and dibbling, the seed was inserted 372 as follows : Dibbled .

Drilled .

26 plants

32 plants

19 plants came up.

53 78

52 68

11

94

87

11

270

257

226

.750

.714

.628

From 36 grains sown 72

108 144

49 11

75

12

I 20

360 Percentage

11

11

Broadcast.

11 11

There is notmuch difference in the braird- 208 plants came up, giving a percentage ing of seed dibbled and drilled, which of .825. There were also sowed 24 pecks might have been expected, since the seeds to 1 acre broadcast, or 864 seeds to i were deposited much in the same position square yard, which produced 570 plants, giving a percentage of .671 , only a little

in the soil.

It is not easy to explain the disparity morethan in the former case of broadcast, when so many as 144 seeds were sown,

.628. Thus, the smallest number of seeds

involving a loss of about 34 per cent. The broadcast involves a loss beyond

gave

the largest return of plants brairded. G. W. Hay of Whiterigg, Roxburgh

the others of 162/3 per cent — an anti- shire, also made similar experiments at cipated result, since many of the seeds the same time, by dibbling and drilling

were unburied on the surface, or buried wheat, barley, and oats, and sowing oats too deeply . The seeds were sown on the broadcast. The dibbled seeds were put

19th March, and the thickest sown of into holes within

3 inches square to the

the drilled and broadcast brairded first number of 1 , 3, and 6 grains in each on the 16th April. Thick -sown seeds hole, which gave respectively 144, 432, always braird earliest.

The experiments were extended by

and 864 grains to the square yard . The seeds were sown on the 16th March, and

sowing 7 pecks of oats drilled, or 252 the plants counted on the 8th May. The seeds to the square yard, and from these results were these : After

After

After

144 seeds.

432 seeds .

296

Birley oats

97 95 129 135 125

864 seeds. 616

Sheriff oats

132

335 403 407 413 405

Wheat came up

.67

.69

.71 average .69

Barley

.66 .90

.79 .94

.79 .91

Of Wheat

Barley Hopetoun oats Potato oats

1009 plants came up.

687

1117 1332

11

800

823

1365

11

777

1315 1288

11

751

11

11

Percentage of Oats

.75 11

.92

On the 25th March similar seeds were square yard, and the plants counted on sown in drills at the same rates per the 8th May, when the results were : After

After

After

144 seeds.

432 seeds .

864 seeds.

105 86 139 137

327 318

652

1084 plants came up.

747

408

798

407

795

1151 1345 1339

Wheat came up

.73

Barley

.60 .96

.73 .73 .94

.75 average .74 .86 73 11 .92 .94

Of Wheat

Barley

Hopetoun oats Potato oats

Percentage of Oats

11 11 11

SEED-TIME.

246

On comparing the brairds of the drilled with the dibbled seeds in the barley and

Importance of economising Seed . - The questions to which such results

oats little difference is apparent, while the wheat incurs less loss of plants when drilled than when dibbled, inthe ratio of 1009 to 1084. Comparing the results

give rise are, What quantity is too thick and what too thin sowing ? and, What is the least quantity of seed to yield the largest crop ? The inquiry assumes much

obtained by both experimenters, we find

importance when we consider that from

that Mr Hay obtained a braird of 9/10 of 1/10 to 1/14 of all the grain grown in the the in dibbling drilling while country is every year put into the ground Mr seed M‘Lagan obtainedandonly 7/10, ;and, in as seed. A small fraction of either of these proportions saved would add a pro oats broadcast, 6'10. Tillering. – After a lapse of ten days, fit to the farmer to that extent. If 1 on the 18th May, when rain had fallen

bushel of seed could be saved on each

in the interval, the plants after broadcast acre, a simple calculation would show were counted, and were unexpectedly

that the gain to the farmer would amount

found greater in number than the seeds to a vast sum of money. The plants must have tillered Thick and Thin Sowing. — Thick after the rain, and the tillering was as- and thin sowing of seed is a subject of certained to be from : controversy among farmers. The saving of seed would be a sufficient argument in Plants. Seeds. Tillering. favour of thin sowing, provided the same 360 = one-sixth . 315 Barley Sown .

325

405 = one- fourth .

471 Sherriff oats

930

648 704 = one -sixteenth .

!!

520

double. one - fifth ,

666 Potato

The advanced state of the plants after

return were received . But the results have been found to vary. There are

many conditions to be considered in de ciding as to the quantity of seed to be Sown .

The nature and condition of the

the rain indicates that in spring oats soil, the climate, the quality of the seed itself, and even the character of the

tiller very strongly and rapidly.

Quantity of Seed . — Taking the re- season, must all be kept in view. spective quantities of seed sown on i

Hewitt Davis, Spring Park , Croydon,

square yard by both experimenters, they who occupied 800 acres of high -rented will be as follows on i acre : poor soil, upon a warm subsoil of chalk , Per acre.

Seeds .

Seeds.

36 per square yard = 174,240 = 1 peck. 348,480 = 2

72 108

!!

144

11

288

11

= 1,393,920 = 2

11

= 2,090,880 = 3

=

11

522,720 = 3

696,960 = 1 bushel.

432

11

576

= 2,787,840 = 4

720

= 3,484,800 = 5 = 4,181,760 = 6

864

stated that “ the practice throughout England is to sow 2 or 3 bushels of wheat to i acre, and the yield seldom reaches 40 bushels, and more commonly

less than 20 bushels, so that 1/10 at least of the crop grown is consumed as seed, whilst i single grain of wheat, planted where it has room to tiller out, will readily produce many 100 -fold. The

11

knowledge of these facts has induced Produce from different Methods

me, in the course of years, to make a

of Sowing. – Kenyon S. Parker made a variety of experiments, the results of

comparative experiment between drilling, which have clearly shown me that, in dibbling, and broadcasting wheat on dependent of the waste, a positive and clover lea, and the results show that serious injury of far more consequence is drilling produced more grain than dib- done to the crop from sowing so much bling ; while the straw was longer and seed. I bear in mind that,if so much be stronger, the ears larger, and the seeds sown as to produce more plants than the heavier in the dibbled, thus : space will allow to attain to maturity, the I acre.

bush . peck.

Broadcast

1

Drilled , at 12 in .

Dibbled

s

Weight per bush . Ib. qr. bush . gal. I acre .

3 produced 3 7

I

I

2

4

3

1

I

O

4

3

o

latter growth of the whole will be imped ed , and a diseased state will commence as

soon as the plants cover the ground, and continue till harvest.” The quantities of 63 seed Mr Davis determined on sowing, in 63% accordance with these reasons, are, for 62

NOuma

GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

247

14 bushel sown in August and September.

Rye

Winter barley Tares

September.

12 6 pecks

Oats

Barley

5

Wheat Peas

3

11

11

11

11

11

Beans

3 sowings in Aug., Sept., and Oct. January, February, and March . January, February, March , and April. September and October. December, January, and February. September and October.

The returns obtained by Mr Davis, after quantity for all descriptions of soil and these scanty sowings, were 5 quarters of climate - practice and experience alone

wheat, 13 quarters of oats, and 8 quarters must be the guide ; for although I am of barley per acre on " very inferior willing to admit that wheat tillers well land, ' ' from the manure available on the on this soil—loamy clay on tenacious farm . 1

clay subsoil—I find from repeated trials

Mr Barclay, Eastarch Farm , Surrey,

that it is not safe to sow much less than

drilled 272 bushels of wheat at 9 inches 8 pecks on an average. I now generally apart, and obtained 37 bushels at 6434 begin seed - time with 7 pecks as the

16. per bushel, and 70 trusses of straw, minimum , gradually increasing, as the value £ 16, 6s. He dibbled i bushel 3 season advances, to 9 pecks." 4 pecks at 9 inches apart, and had 37 On the comparative merits of thick bushels at 64 lb. per bushel, and 72 trusses and thin sowing, it has been contended of straw , at a value of £ 15, 125. 9d . He that experience has established that ,

sowed broadcast 272 bushels, and had 40 thick sowing is advisable on newly bushels at 65 lb. per bushel, and 84 broken - up land, containing a large trusses of straw, the valuebeing £18, is. amount of vegetable matter in an active Here broadcast and thick sowing pre- state of decomposition, when it is bene vailed. Soil, deep loam on chalk subsoil. ficial in repressing, by its numerous Mr Mechi, Triptree Hall, Essex, gave roots and stems, that exuberance of 4 pecks by Bentall's Dropper, and ob- growth which produces soft and succu tained 40 bushels of wheat. He gave lent stems, which are easily lodged, and 4 and 5 pecks on the same field by produce unfilled ears. Thin sowing has Bentall's Dropper and hand dropping, à tendency to make the roots descend

and obtained 48 bushels of wheat. He deeply ; and where a ferruginous subsoil gave 9 pecks by drill and dibbles, and exists, thick sowing keeps the roots obtained 32 bushels of wheat. " The nearer the surface, away from it. Thin

quality of the wheat was good, weighing sowing develops a large ear, grain, and 63 and 64 lb. per bushel ; the straw stem, but delays maturity. Thick sow strong and bright. The straw was larger ing on old land in high condition renders and longer, and the ears largest, when the plant diminutive, and hastens its thin sown . 80 acres." 3

Ihad only a 12 acre laid on maturity before the ear andgrain have

per bushel.

" This result,” W. Loft spring Thin sowing makes plants look

Here thin sowing prevailed. W. Loft, Trusthorpe, Lincolnshire, drilled marigold wheat at 5 pecks, and obtained 56 bushels 3 pecks, at 63 lb. per bushel ; and in the same field drilled 8 pecks, and they yielded rather more than 57 bushels per acre, at 63 lb.

attained their proper size. Thin sowing in autumn affords room to plants to tiller and fill the ground in early spring, while thin sowing late in spring does not afford time to the plant to tiller. Thick sow ing in autumn makes plants look best in winter, but gradually attenuates them in

says, “ is at variance with the opinions worst in winter, but to look better and of the advocates of thin sowing as to fuller as the harvest approaches. quantity of seed ; and indeed I do not

Different Methods of Sowing Com

believe that any specified quantity of pared pared..- On comparing the broadcast, seed can be laid down as the proper drilled, and dibbled methods of sowing 1 Davis's Waste of Corn by Too Thick Sow ing, 6-12.

the cereal grains, it must be owned that the broadcast incurs a loss of seed by

2 Jour. Eng. Agric. Soc., vi. 192. 3 Ibid., vii. 537.

4 Ibid ., ix . 283.

SEED - TIME .

248

some being exposed on the surface, and

Dibbling-machines. — The dibbling

others sent too deeply into the soil. machine first brought into notice was in Such effects are produced whether by vented by James Wilmot Newberry ,Hook hand or machine sowing, and cannot be Norton, Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire.

avoided until a machine is contrived to It is ingenious and elaborate in construc sow corn broadcast at a uniform depth.

tion, and deposits every kind of corn at

The drill does not work well in stony given distances, in any quantity, with the ground, which easily jolts the coulters to utmost precision. Fig . 316 is a view in one side, or they displace small stones, or ride over large ones ; while where land fast stones or subjacent rocks are near the surface, they would be broken . Where there are many stones the drill should not be used. Where the soil is fine, drill ing has the advantage of having the land smooth before the seed is sown , and then seed escapes disturbance by cross - har rowing.

g

d i

Dibbling may be done by a hand dibble, or with an implement having pins attached to the bottom of a spar of wood, and which pins are thrust into the

ground with a pressure of the foot. An to thrust small hand other dibblesmethod throughis,holes formed in a thin

Fig. 316.- Newberry's one-rowed dibbling machine. a a Stilts.

b Fore part of stilts . c Fore - wheel.

board of wood .

In all these modes the

d Hollow flat disc.

e Projecting points or dibbles. ſ Large outer ring. 9 Hopper. i Stay to support the machine.

seed is deposited in the holes at stated

distances - perhaps 7 inches between the perspective of a 1 -rowed machine. It rows, 4 inches apart in the rows, and 27/2 consists of a hollow flat disc, which con inches in depth.

The earth is put over tains the machinery that directs the corn When a man from a hopper into hollow tubes, 18 of

the holes with the foot.

uses a small dibbler, a convenient mode of keeping the lines straight is this : Take 2 long lines and stretch them along the side of the field, at a determinate distance

which are connected with and project from the circumference of the disc like thespokes of a wheel from its nave, and their points pass through a large outer

between them ; a b and cd are the 2 lines ring, which retains the hollow tubes or at a distance between them of a c and b d. distributors of corn in their respective al

6

с

-d

places, and prevents them sinking into the ground beyond depth. A fore-wheel, which the is requisite placed between

e

f

the extremities of the stilts or handles,

9

h

prevents the large outer ring being pressed

closer to the ground than needful. A Let him dibble in the seed along a b, and man pulls the machine forward by means

when at b, let him shift that end of the of a rope attached to the fore part of the line from b tof, and then dibble the seed stilts, or, what is better, a bridle and in from d to c, where let him shift the shackle might be mounted there, for yok

end of the line at a to e, which brings the line straightfrom f to e. Before starting with the dibbling from e, let him remove the end of the line at c to g, and then

ing a pony or horse to draw the machine. As the wheel is drawn forward by the horse, it turns round by contact with the ground, the projecting points of the hol

dibble the seed from e to f, where he low tubes acting as dibbles and making

shifts the end of the line from d to h, holes in the ground ; a portion of the which brings the line straight from g to dibbles, before leaving the ground, slides h . Shifting the line from f to i, he pro- up upon the upper part, making an open ,

ceeds as he did at b, and so on alternately ing through which the corn is deposited from one side to the other.

in the holes.

The corn descends of the

GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

requisite number from the hopper by means of feeding - rollers, moved by a pinion, which is set in motion by teeth placed on the circumference of the flat disc. The disc is supported in its centre by an axle revolving in its ends on plummer-blocks.

In using this machine, a

249

tors press every seed firmly into a solid bed, which is so small as to preclude the fear of its containing water , and yet completely buries the seed . By chang ing the cups, the quantity of the corn is regulated , as well as the description of corn,

With a machine having 6 deposi

man holds by the twostilts, while a man tors, 1 man can dibble i acre in io hours,

or horse draws the machine in thegiven so that the cost of dibbling may be easily line. The line not being in the line of ascertained by the rate of wages in the the body of the drill, a rigger is required district. for the horse to be yoked to . A stay In using the machine after the first supports the machine when at rest. This line is laid off straight next the fence, I -rowed dibble is said to be well suited the workman continues to keep the other

for sowing mangel seed on the top of lines straight at the stated distance by the drill.

the mark left on the ground by the ma

Another dibbling -machine, presented chine. The seeds areput in at 4 inches to public notice by Samuel Newington, apart in the rows, and the quantity is of Knole Park, Frant, Kent, is shown in varied by either altering the distance be fig. 317 — a view in perspective of one tween the rows, or increasing the number of seeds in each hole, but it is not desir able to exceed 3 seeds in i hole. The

cups which contain the grains are of 4 sizes, and can be easily removed or re placed by means of screws. As already indicated , dibbling is too slow a process for the modern necessities of farm practice, but on a small scale,

and for filling up blanks, it may be pur sued with advantage. Deep and Shallow Sowing.- An other circumstance which affects the re

lation between the grains sown and the plants produced, is the depth to which

the corn is buried in the ground. In ill ploughed land, when the corn is sown broadcast, falling between ill - assorted furrows, some of it may sink to the bot tom of the furrow -slice, where it will be buried, to become dormant or lose its Fig. 317. - Newington's 6 - rowed dibbling-machine.

vitality. Corn is differently affected by

having 6 depositors. The box in front contains the corn, and the points of the depositors are seen to rest upon the ground, which has been harrowed smooth

a considerable depth, whilst others be come dormant or die if placed at a smaller

for the purpose . The depositors place the seeds atthe desired depths, deeper or

depth of 9 inches, while oat seed buried 7 inches cannot be depended on to ger minate. This accounts for oats which had slipped to the bottom of the furrow slices of lea and perished. The risk of thus losing seed in fresh-ploughed lea

depth in soil, some sorts germinating at

shallower, being kept in their places by pinching screws. The machine is worked by taking hold of the upper rail by both hands, and, on pressing upon it, the de-

depth below the surface of the ground. A stem of barley has been traced to a

positors, when withdrawn, leave the re- induces us to recommend partial har

quisite number of seeds in each hole the rowing of ploughed old lea before the depositors have made, by the machinery seedis sown. in the interior of the machine. Bypress Wheat possesses a peculiarity in the ing down the upper handle, the deposi- growth of the root. The grain will

SEED - TIME.

250

bear to be deep - sown — not so deep will then be enabled to send up nourish Most ment to the crown by means of the pipe wheat seeds may of communication ."

as barley, but deeper than oats.

germinate at

a

Now the form which the plant assumes,

depth of 6 or 7 when sown near the surface, is different, as in fig. 319, where

inches, but sowing at that depth is

a is the seed with its

risky, for the crop

seminal roots ; b the pipe of communica

will likely be thin. After the germ of

tion between them

wheat has become

and the coronal roots

out a stem , it putsroots another

cc, a little beneath

set of about 1 inch below the surface. The

deeper

may

the surface d.

at a short distance

be

from the surface, the pipe of communica

called the seminal,

and the upper the

The

coronal root c being

tion is shortened to d

coronal root of the

the smallest degree.

wheat plant. Fig. 318 shows the posi

“ Hence it is obvi ous,” continues the

tion of the roots under the surface,

same writer, " that

wheat sown superfici ally must be exposed

where a is the seed with its seminal

to the frost, from the shortness of the pipe of communication germ b rising from it to the surface of placing the seminal 'root within reach of the ground at fi the frost. The plant, in that situation, Fig. 319. - Roots of shal.

roots C , and

the

low -sown wheat.

above which is the

has no benefit from its double root.

stem, with its leaves.

the contrary, when the grain has been

On

About 1 inch below properly covered, it depends almost en the surface f, at d ,

tirely on the coronal roots, which, if well

nourished during the winter, will send onal roots, e e, the up numerous stalks in spring ; and on are formed the cor-

office of which is

the tillering of the corn the goodness of

to form the site the crop principally depends; but if not well nourished there will be no tillering. A field of wheat dibbled, or sown in equi At whatever depth distant rows by the drill, always makes a the seed may have been sown, the coronal better appearance than one sown with the roots are formed at 1 inch below the sur- harrow . In the one the pipe of commu from which the til-

Fig. deep 318.- sown - Double roots of lers are sent forth. wheat.

face. “ As the increase and fructification of

nication is regularly of the same length, but in the other it is irregular, being

the plant depends upon the vigorous either too long or too short.”i The con absorption of the coronal roots, it is no clusions these statements would warrant

in practice are : That wheat sown before winter should be deeply covered with always the richest. I believe I do not earth, to be beyond thereach of ordinary err when I call this vegetable instinct. In frost ; that in spring the coronal roots the N. counties wheat is generally sown will set up abundance of tillers or stools ; late. When the frost comes, the coronal that wheat sown in spring should be

wonder that they should find themselves so near the surface where the soil is

roots, being young, are frequently chilled

lightly covered, the tillers being few ;

This inconvenience may , however, be that autumn wheat should be drilled to

easily prevented by sowing more early, secure the pipes of communication be and burying the seed deeper. The sem inal roots, being out of the reach of frost,

1 Georgic. Ess., i. 67-69.

GERMINATION OF SEEDS. tween the seminal and coronal roots

251

each kind, and as different seeds differ in

being long and uniform ; that spring bulk and weight, the numbers of each wheat should be sown broadcast ; and kind differed materially. A better plan that autumnal wheat should have a

would have been to have sown the same

smaller quantity of seed than spring number of seeds of each kind whatever wheat.

their weight, and the proportion which Depth for Grass Seeds.—Depth of came up of the plants would have been sowing affects no plants so sensibly as more easily ascertained than by the the grasses, Some experiments were method adopted. Each kind of seed was made at Glenbervie, Falkirk, to ascer- covered from 14 of an inch to 3 inches

tain the depth which the common grass of depth in the soil. They were sown on and clover seeds should be covered, to

the ist of July, and counted on the ist

produce the greatest number of plants. of August, and the results are shown in

41814

I

in .

in.

in .

in .

Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) 348

29

30

27

Italian ryegrass (Lolium Italicum )

276

20

Cocksfoot (Dactylus glomerata)

24 30

21

300 312 324

22

15

20

24 28

20

19 13 15 16

13

16

12

10

30

23

10

16 37

19

228

24

14

4

I

252 192 144

22

25

19

17

17 13

16

14

II

II

6

96

12

TO

8

4 6

( Poa nemoralis semperrirens) } Rib -grass ( Plantago lanceolata ) Red clover ( Trifolium pratense ) White clover (Trifolium ripens)

of Proportion plan

thatts

. up came

plants of No.

that came

21 8

II

II 7 II

5 9

2

9

4

4 2

12

9

6

4

I

124

.35

10

8

5

3

1

114

.38

12

7

6

3

I

94

.49

16

15

7

5

14 II

II

ΤΟ

8

4

3 4

1

0N0

Yellow clover (Medicago lupulina ) 1

198

14

9 13 6

9 6

9

4 5

2 2

4

2

::::

17

39

8

19

..

17

52

3 in . in .

::

192

528

in. in .

::: :N

300

274 272 234

IO

10

:: :oo

23

in .

:::

31

in .

..

Evergreen wood meadow- grass

348

20

16 13

in .

.

tensis)

Timothy grass or meadow cat's. tail (Phleum pratense major )

28

in .

一 99936

Large fescue (Festuca elatior ) Meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis ) Varied -leaved fescue (Festuca het erophylla ) Hard fescue ( Festuca duriuscula ) Meadow foxtail ( Alopecurus pra .

2

1 % 1 % 174

. up

COVERED AT

:: :ia

KINDS OF SEED EXPERI MENTED ON.

seeds of No. alto sown . gether

The same weight of seed was sown of the following table :

3840 349 303 232 181 144 118

74

37

21

14

9

145 I15 142 117

.57 .51 .38 .42

.36

190

•36

43

.18

134 85 42

.53 .44 .26 .43

1581

.46

38

&

In only 3 cases did the number of plants to be got by first rolling, then sowing, exceed 12 the seeds sown, those being then harrowing with a light-toothed or

perennialand Italian ryegrass and large chain harrow, and finally rolling. He is fescue—the average of the whole being thus opposed to rolling prior to sowing under 12 — viz., .46 . The clovers came grass seeds . up in small proportion, particularly the In such soil as prevails on Mr Speir's white, which is considered a hardy plant farm, which is not difficult to reduce to

in this climate.

Of the depths, the 14- a fine tilth, there will rarely be any

inch covering gave the largest return of necessity for rolling before sowing. Roll plants, and 16 per cent more than 72 ing is unquestionably beneficial when by inch.

the harrows a fine smooth surface cannot

Mr John Speir, Newton Farm , New- be prepared for the grass seeds. If chain ton, Glasgow , states that, in a series of or light-toothed grass-seed harrows will trials with grass and clover seeds sown

not provide a sufficiently deep covering

at different depths up to 1/2 inch, he for the seeds after rolling, then ranker obtained results which do not agree with

toothed harrows may be used.

The

these recorded at Glenbervie. Mr Speir object aimed at in using the roller before remarks that his experience does not sowing is to secure for the small seeds a

favour so shallow a covering as is likely firm level bed, where their regular ger mination will not be interfered with by 1 Trans. High. Agric. Soc., Jan. 1845, 341 .

clods and heights and hollows. Where

SEED-TIME.

252

this can be obtained without prior roll- root — is a valuable one in an economical

ing, there is no need to occupy time point of view. But for this property, with this operation . Depth of Sowing Turnip -seeds.The author of this work made an ex-

when the seeds of the cereals happen to be destroyed by insects under ground, or by the unfavourable state of the

periment on turnip - seeds, to ascertain ground or air for vegetation, or from the effects of deep sowing in com- the destructive effects of frost, or when

parison with shallow in the most favour- young plants are injured by insects as able circumstances for vegetation

a they appear above the surface, the crop

loose soil in the temperature of 75 ° would be so scanty that it would be in a vinery. Seeds of swedes, yellow ploughed up by the farmer ,and another Aberdeen, and white globe turnips were

substituted in its stead.

The extent of

sown, 40 of each , in friable soil taken tillering depends in some circumstances from under fine old pasture, at 1 , 2, 3, on the state of the soil and weather, and and 4 inches in depth in pots, and the the space allowed the plant to spread in.

plants which came up in time and in A loose soil, admitting the shoots of the radicles to penetrate easily, encourages

numbers were :

tillering more than a stiff hard soil .

Swedes. Inches

Plants

In pro

In

in depth . came up . days hrs.

From 40 seeds, !!

J! 11

I 2

I2

31 29

3

20

4

IO

5 6

8 Yellow Aberdeen . I 4 28 2 25 3 14 5 4 5 8

18 21

18 IO

portion . .77 .72 .50 .25

18

.70 .62

13

.35

14

.I2

White globe. 11

I

22

4 4 7

IO

18 I2

7

7

13

3

10

4

weather when moist and warm promotes

tillering

Unless plants have space for their roots, they will not tiller. Tillering implies an instinctive faculty in plants to search for as much food as they can, and this is strikingly exemplified in the

stronger or tillering plants overcoming and killing the weaker.

2 11

Yet wheat tillers best on a moderately firm clay soil in good heart. The

13 o

.55 .45 .30 .17

The question which such an occurrence gives rise to is, Whether it is better to

allow few plants to fill the ground by tillering, or to fill the ground at once

On comparing these results, the large proportion of plants coming from seeds at i and 2 inches in depth, compared with 3 and 4 inches, is very apparent;

with the requisite number of plants ? The answer to this question must be given conditionally. In naturally fertile soils, and in those rendered fertile by

while there is not much difference between 1 and 2 inches in depth. The proportion that came up at 4 inches was so small, it is possible that had the experiments been made in the open air, no

art, tillering will take place, and should be encouraged, inasmuch as the straw and ears of tillered plants are much stronger and larger than those of single

plants. In such conditions of soil, plants would have come up at all, since a small quantity of seed will suffice in

those which did come were puny. Of early spring, and it is in that season that tillering takes place in a sensible vigorous plants, the white globe the degree; but the seed must not be sown weakest, though the yellow Aberdeen so deeply nor so late as to deprive the the seeds the swedes gave the most

showed more weakness in penetrating 4 plant of time for tillering, so as to occupy inches than the globe.

The conclusions

the ground fully.

drawn are, that no turnip -seed should be The extent of tillering is sometimes sown deeper than 2 inches. In many remarkable. Le Couteur mentions a cases the coulters of sowing -machines downy variety of wheat which tillers to

place turnip -seeds too deeply in the the extent of 32 plants, and from 5 to soil.

10 stems are a common tillering for

Tillering. The property of the cereal ordinary varieties of wheat. Barley also plants to tiller or stool—that is, to send up a number of stems from the same

1 Le Couteur's Wheat Plant, 29.

FORAGE CROPS.

253

tillers, though late and thick sowing, ates by the beginning of August, each with quick growth, overcomes that tend- seed will afford four plants, or in all, ency. Oats indicate fully as strong a tendency to tiller as wheat. In weak

soils, and soils in low condition, the tendency to tiller is much checked,

1,760 plants At the end of August these will produce 5,280 In September these again 14,080

each single root being conscious of

And in November these

its inability to support more than its

last will produce

21,120

single stem . Hence the practice is to The time occupied in sowing the 440 sow more seed in low than in high con- grains, and dividing and transplanting ditioned land, and yet the ability to their produce , stands thus : Hours, min . support the larger number of plants is

in an inverse ratio.

Yet what can the

farmer do but sow as many seeds as will produce as many plants as will occupy the soil ?

The best way for him to

escape from the dilemma is to put the soil in high condition, and reap the advantages derivable from tillering. Destruction of Seed.—The great loss in plants compared with the numbers of seed sown may be accounted for from natural causes . Birds pick up seeds ex

wing,} soAugust,

taking up beginning, ) dividing into planting . August , end ,taking up dividing into planting . September, taking up 11 dividing into . !! planting . November, taking up dividing into 11 planting . .

440 grains, o

20

440 plants, o 1 1,760

20

1,760 1,760 5,280 5,280 5,280 14,080 14,080 14,080 21,120 21,120

10

3

30

1

28

3 10

30

11

24

!!

4 9

11

28

PI

II

23 9 44

10

14 42

14

130

49

33

4

posed on the surface after broadcast sow- Equal to 13 days 49 minutes' work at 10 ing. Many vermin, such as the rabbit, hours a-day. Of these 13 days, 5 days

devour the young germ as it penetrates may be reckoned for women and boys the soil, and many insects subsist on the occupied in taking up and dividing the stems and roots of young plants. plants, which, at is . 6d. per day, will Transplanting.-A mode of saving cost 78. 6d. The remaining 8 days are seed to a greater degree than by dibbling for men transplanting, at 14s. per week, and drilling,is by transplantation. This which will cost 18s. 8d . more ; both is done by sowing a small portion of 26s. 2d. per acre. The seed for the ground with seed early in the season, plants, 72 bushel at 48s. the quarter, or taking up the plants as they grow, 6s. the bushel, would cost 3s. The dividing them into single plants , and entire cost would be £ 1 , gs. 2d. The

transplanting them.

By thus dividing saving of seed from the ordinary quan

the plants as they tiller into single tity sown would be the difference of cost plants, at four periods of the season, a

between 12 bushel and 3 bushels, 158.

very small quantity of seed will supply as many plants as would cover a large extent of ground. Though wheat no doubt bears transplanting, yet the

So that the loss on the transplanting over sowing would be 148. 2d. Of course the cost of transplanting would vary with the rate of wages.

The best way of executing this plan is scheme would entail would be so great to dibble in the seed two grains in a

amount of manual labour which the

as to render it impracticable upon any hole, about 4 inches from each other, the considerable scale. plants to be taken up when in a proper This method, however, has been pur- state, and divided into five, which would sued with a certain measure of success in be as many at that time as could be had , the formation of permanent pastures. and then planted out at once, where they When it is desired to propagate a new are to remain, thus getting rid of all the

variety of grain quickly , this process of intermediate dividings. transplanting might perhaps be useful. It may therefore be interesting to pre

serve the following record of the details and costs of the operation : Suppose 440 grains of wheat are sown widely on the

FORAGE CROPS.

Forage crops may be defined as those

ist of July, and that every seed germin- which are grown for the sake of their

SEED - TIME.

254

leaves and stems, as distinct from crops to rely on turnip crops can also fall back Chief

on vetches, trifolium, rye, and winter

amongst the forage crops are the grasses and clovers. These have already been described, and here will be given some information regarding several other forage crops which may be grown to

oats, which, when autumn-sown, occupy the land at a period when it would prob ably otherwise be either fallow or grow ing weeds. These crops, if cut forgreen fodder just when they have attained their

grown

for seeds

and roots.

provide wholesome green food for farm maximum growth, might be converted live stock . These are vetches, lucerne, into silage, and the soil be still available sainfoin, rye, cabbages, rape, mustard, for growing swede and turnip crops the same year. There appears to be great maize , sorghum , and prickly comfrey. gain, from several points of view , in Sainfoin , lucerne, buckwheat, maize, and taking this course , and no doubt it has sorghum are confined to southern parts, been adopted largely since the ensilage where the climate is mild ; the others system was introduced some four or five may be grown in almost any part of the years since. In the first place, the tillage kidney-vetch , gorse or whin, buckwheat,

expenses need not be increased, and on

kingdom .

Importance of Forage Crops.- The tolerably clean land there wouldbe many growing of forage crops , particularly of less weeds by two croppings taking place instead of one. In nearly all cases where has not yet received from British farmers land intended for swedes and turnips is so much attention as it deserves. Our kept idle throughout winter and spring, acquaintance with forage crops is still three, and sometimes four, ploughings very imperfect, and the extent to which are given, the amount of additional they are capable of contributing to the cleaning being very great indeed.

crops to be cut and used as green food,

saleable produce of the farm is not fully Forage Crops for Heavy Land. understood or appreciated. Providing “ The assertion has often been made that

a plentiful supply of green succulent catch crops can only be advantageously food coming into use in succession all grown when the land is perfectly clean through the year is one of the greatest as well as in a good state of fertility;

objects of the stock-owner.

The forage but, in the course of correspondence with

crops at present in use, as they are now

practical farmers on the subject of this

known and cultivated, are far from ade- paper, I have been informed by a gentle

quate for this purpose, and assuredly no man of great skill and excellent judgment subject could more worthily engage the that he considers it by far the most eco attention or employ the resources of nomical and remunerative course on all

our great agricultural and experimental heavy or medium soils to sow vetches in bodies than furnishing to farmers the the autumn if the stubbles are foul, to knowledge and the means which would ensile the crop in June, and give the enable them to grow a more abundant land fallow working for six weeks, then supply of green food for stock through- to take a crop of mustard, to be sown out the year.

about the last week in August, for sheep

Forage Crops as Substitutes for feeding or for a second silage crop, as Turnips. — In a very useful paper upon may be most convenient. this subject in the ‘ Journal of the Royal

“ Many cases could be mentioned of

Agricultural Society of England ' (vol. the heavy Weald clay district of East xxv. part I., 1889), Mr Joseph Darby Sussex, and a portion of Surrey, having been greatly benefited by the introduc “ Cabbages, thousand -headed kale, and tion of the ensilage system . On the

writes :

kohl-rabi may be made use of as substi- farm of Major Cazalet, near Dorking, tutes for turnips and swedes as well as 300 acres being arable, no roots whatever mangels, and the cost of growing kale are grown, some 400 tons of green fodder

and kohl is not usually considered to be affording sufficientsilage for them to be Further, dispensed with. Lieut. -Colonel Couss

more than that for swedes.

while requiring less manure than man- maker, at Westwood , Guildford, in crop

gels, they are equally sure in succeed- ping 112 acres of arable, depends on ing well. Farmers who find it difficult mangels and thousand-headed kale, by

FORAGE CROPS.

255

appropriating 572 acres to each, which, provide green food in spring before a full with 3 acres to cabbages and carrots, and supply of grass is available. Sown be about 15 acres of trifolium and vetches, fore the winter frosts set in, usually dur

and a still larger area to Italian rye-grass ing September or October, this crop will for silage, make up his winter supply of generally afford agood cutting from the succulent food, unless able to grow some second week in May till end of June in swedes and turnip after the catch crops. northern parts, and still earlier in warmer On Mr R. Whitehead's farm , at Old counties. Vetches are often consumed

Paddockhurst, nearly 500 cattle and 400 on the land by sheep, this practice being

sheep, besides horses, are wintered chiefly confined mainly to southern counties. on silage, the manager, Mr Abbott, giving The importance of having a supply of it as his opinion that from 10 to 12 tons fresh succulent food at this season of the of silage per acre can be obtained at less year, when roots are wholly or nearly ex

than half the cost the growth of any hausted, and before the pasture fields can kind of roots would entail on this kind of land.”

sustain the animals, will be readily ac knowledged by all farmers, and it is sur

prising that winter vetches are not sown Vetches.

much more extensively than they are,

The vetch or tare belongs to the especially when it is remembered that natural order of Leguminosce, and the they are off the ground in time for a root cultivated tare or vetch is named Vicia or potato crop in the following season . sutiva. In the wild state it is a native Spring Vetches. — Vetches should be of Europe, in corn or cultivated fields ; sown at different times in spring, so as to

plentiful in Britain ; also in North afforda succession of cuttings when green America, about Fort Vancouver. Flower food is likely to be most urgently re purple. This is a very variable plant in quired. If the weather and the state of

the form of its leaflets, in the size of the stems, and in the colour and size of the seeds. The Vicia narbonensis, Narbonne vetch, and the Vicia serratifolia,

the land permit, the first sowing may be ingsmay take place every second or third week up till towards the end of June.

serrate-leafleted vetch, are cultivated on

It is advisable to sow small breadths at

the Continent.

made in February, and successive sow

Anderson has recom- a time, so as to have a succession of cut

mended the culture of the Vicia sepium , hedge-vetch ; and a writer in the Bath papers advocates that of the Vicia cracea, These are eminently tufted vetch. beautiful native plants, but too tiny in

tings when the crop is in full bloom. By judicious sowings at different times in autumn, winter, and spring, supplies of fresh -cut tares may be had from the end of April till October.

the leaf and attenuated in the stem to Information as to the feeding value of make them worthy of cultivation. There vetches, with analysis of vetches made

are 108 described species of Vicia — a into hay, is given in pp. 276 and 377, name said to be derived from vincio, to vol. i.

bind together, because the species have Use of Vetches.—The value of vetches tendrils by which they bind themselves as a forage crop for supplying green food to other plants. The Romans took care in summer and early autumn is not suffi

not to sow tares in dew or moisture, the ciently recognised. Where, from drought period of the day being some hours after sunrise, and no

more

was sown than

could be covered up before night. The vetch is a most valuable forage

or other causes, there is likely to be a carcity of food for stock in summer or autumn, a few successive sowings of spring vetches will come in very oppor

crop. It is hardy and prolific, and affords tunely. Then, in carrying stock from palatable and wholesome food for stock. the grazing season to the winter rations, There are two varieties, the winter and the spring vetch. The former, through

vetches will also be found most valuable. Vetches for Horses.

Horses eat

repeated sowing in winter, has acquired vetches with a keen relish, and thrive well upon them . They should be pro a hardiness that is quiteremarkable. Winter Vetches. — The winter vetch vided for horses during the harvest work, is often sown along with rye or oats, to and given in moderate quantities along

SEED - TIME.

256

with dry food. It is considered by many dom fail to do well with any sort of mo that on strong land there is nobetter or derate season, and with a full crop they

cheaper way of keeping farm -horses in smother root-weeds well out, and owing summer than by feeding them in the to the early cutting of the crop, seed stable or yards with vetches and a little dry food. Land for Vetches.- Vetches usually follow a grain crop . They thrive best on strong loams and tenacious clays, just

weeds have no time to ripen their seeds.

The land being bare comparatively early may be bastard fallowed, cleaned, and

sown with wheat or other winter growing crop.

Vetches, therefore, if well done to,

the sorts of soil upon which turnip cul- offer an excellent opportunity of keeping ture is most difficult. But they also afford down weeds, and of cleaning the land a good return on lighter soils. In some after the removal of the crop, thus leav cases vetches are sown upon strong land, ing it in good condition for what is to which is fallowed in summer as a pre

paration for wheat .

follow ." 2

In other cases tur

Lucerne.

nips or potatoes succeed winter vetches,

In warm climates, notably in the “ catch crop ” —and a most useful one southern counties of England, lucerne it is. is a prolific forage crop. It is the Medi Seed. The seed of vetches is usually cago sativa of botanists (Nat. Order Leg sown broadcast, but often in rows about uminosa ); roots sub -fusiform , stem erect, so that the latter come in as a sort of

8 inches apart. The quantity of seed flowers large and violet-coloured. Its varies from 272 to 372 bushels per acre. name is derived from that given by Di The seed is harrowed in the same way as

oscorides to Median grass .

a corn crop. In many cases , a little rye or oats is mixed with the vetches. The

said to have been brought to Greece from Asia.

Lucerne is

The Romans were well ac

as a forage grain helps to support the pliant bine quainted with its properties Hartlib of the vetch . About 2 bushels of vetches plant, particularly for horses. to i of oats or rye per acre would be

endeavoured to introduce its culture into

sufficient seed .

England in the time of the Common wealth, but did not succeed. It is culti

Cutting Vetches . — Vetches are most

valuable for feeding when cut just in full vated in many parts of Europe in the bloom , and before the seed has begun to field ; but “ it is very remarkable that form . It is thus important to sow small

this species of forage, to which so much

quantities at a time, so as to be able to importance was attached by the Romans, use the crop as it comes into bloom . has altogether disappeared from Italy. When vetches are grown for seed they are, We are assured by M. Chateauvieux that 93 of course, allowed to ripen, and are cut not a single plant of it is now to be seen. " When well laid down in suitable soil and harvested in the same way as peas. Manuring

Vetches.

Land

for

— deep calcareous loam , clean and in

vetches may be easily and cheaply man- good heart — lucerne affords several cut ured. Mr John Speir says : “ If the tings every year of excellent green food, land is in moderately good condition, it which is relished by both cattle and may receive a light dressing of farmyard horses. If kept free from weeds, the

manure, which it is preferable to let lie crop may remain productive for six or on the surface for a few weeks previous seven years. Weeds, however, are liable to ploughing in. Along with the dung, ing, to disturb it, and may cause it to be or at any suitable time before it or after ploughed up earlier. Land should there it, 3 or 4 cwt. of kainit should be sown fore be prepared with great care for lu over the unploughed land, and the same cerne . It should be well cultivated, and or more on the surface, as soon as the as thoroughly as possible cleared of weeds

land is ploughed and before it is har- of all kinds. Occasionally the year's pro rowed .” duce amounts to 30 tons per acre, and 20 1

Vetches and cleaning Land.— “ With tons are by no means rare .

such a system of manuring, vetches sel

2 lbid.

3 Dict. Gr. Rom. Anti. — art. “ Agricultura.” 1 Farming World Year -Book, 1889.

New edit.

FORAGE CROPS.

257

The seed is sown in April, in rows 10 flower ; and though much inferior to the or 12 inches apart, at the rate of 10 to 20 lb. per acre. One cutting will be obtained in the autumn of the same year, but it is advisable to leave a rank growth to protect the roots from the win

virgin hay, it far exceeds any other kind

as yet commonly propagated in Eng land ; and if it be a full crop by good culture, may amount to above 3 tons on an acre .

This is that sainfoin which

is commonly made, and the larger it is The Crop for Dry Seasons. — Lu- the more nourishing for horses. I have

ter's frosts.

cerne withstands drought wonderfully. It thrives best in a dry climate, and is therefore cultivated extensively on the continent of Europe. It is an excep-

known farmers, after full experience, go three miles to fetch the largest stalky sainfoin, when they could have bought the small, fine, leafy sort at home,for the

tionally deep -rooted plant, and is thus same price, by the ton. The next and

comparatively independent of rain. Sir last sort of sainfoin that is cut only for John Bennett Lawes has found it the hay is the full-grown, the blossoms being best of all the forage crops for a drought. gone or going off: this also is good hay, Lucerne is not suited for extended cul- though it falls short, by many degrees, of tivation in our moist climate. Professor the other two sorts. It makes a greater Wrightson remarks that, as a special crop crop than either of them , because it

for odd corners , it is well enough, but grows to its full bulk , and shrinks little 11 that as a competitor with our established in drying .' Sainfoin, like lucerne, is a deep -rooted fodder crops, it is nowhere. plant, and thrives best on dry soils in Sainfoin. a dry warm climate. It is grown exten Upon the calcareous soils of the south- sively, and with great success, on the ern counties of England, sainfoin has chalky soils of the southern counties of proved a most useful and reliable forage England.

crop. Belonging to the Natural Order Leguminose, it is the Onobrychis sativa, the cultivated sainfoin of botanists; roots sub-fusiform , stems erect, flowersinspikes or long foot-stalks, of a beautiful pink or

It is useful as an ingredient

in mixtures for temporary grass and hay, but is perhaps still more valuable as a forage crop grown by itself. If well laid down in clean suitable

land, it will endure, and yield liberally

flesh colour. Its generic name is derived for six or seven years. Itshould not be from the Greek, signifying plants grateful to the ass ; its ordinary name is evidently from the French, meaning consecrated hay — from its property of pro-

resown upon the same land for some twenty or more years. Indeed it is a

ducing an excellent hay.

a lifetime. Sainfoin is both cut and pas

common saying that land will not suc

cessfully carry sainfoin more than once in

Sainfoin Hay. — The sainfoin yields tured , and especially for sheep a run of

quality of haywhen old sainfoin is muchesteemed. by much the finest blossom comes out. - This cut before the

It is not a reliable crop on strong

hay, so cut before blossoming," saysJethro lands or in wet climates. Tull, " has kept a team of working store-

Land intended for sainfoin should be

horses, round the year, fat without corn , thoroughly clean and in good heart.

and when tried with beans and oats, The seed is best sown with barley or mixed with chaff, refused it for the hay. oats, and it may be mixed and drilled The same fatted some sheep in the winter with the grain seed. In other cases it in a pen, with only it and water ; they is drilled separately at the same time throve faster than other sheep at the

across the rows of the grain seed.

The

same time fed with peas and oats. The quantity of sainfoin seed used per acre hay was weighed to them , and the clear is usually about four bushels of un profit amounted to £4 per ton. They milled seed ; rough seed in the pod. made no waste, though the stalks were Sainfoin does not develop fully until the of extraordinary bigness ; they would second year, and it is therefore considered break off short, being very brittle. This a good plan to sow from 6 to 8 lb. tre grew on rich land in Oxfordshire. The second sort of sainfoin hay is cut in the VOL. II.

1 Tull's Husb. 174, 175 ( 1762 ). R

SEED - TIME .

258

foil (Medicago lupulina ) per acre along successful way, in a greater variety of soils or climates, than the Drumhead

with it.

It would be well to defer grazing the cabbages. With suitable manuring they

sainfoin until after the first cutting has may be grown on sand, loam , or clay, been removed. Young sainfoin is liable and on the sea -shore, or well up the to be damaged by being grazed too soon mountain-side. • The seed should be sown in a seed by sheep. bed about the middle of July, and the Rye plants transplanted from it to the field in

Rye makes a very useful forage crop. spring.

Planting may be done in any

It is wonderfully hardy, and may be suitable weatherduring March or April, sown in autumn or winter for spring use the best crops being usually obtained

as forage in northern parts, where even vetches cannot be depended upon. It throws up a rank growth, and although it is not so succulent as the vetch, it is, nevertheless, a valuable forage plant, affording, as it does, the earliest green food for sheep or cattle in spring. As already mentioned, it is often sown along

from the earliest plantings , all other things being equal. By planting moder ately early fewplants fail to catch root, and as they are rarely hurt by frost after being planted out, they have thus a much longer season in which to mature a full crop .

with winter vetches.

ways have their farmyard manure ap

Where possible, cabbages should al

For spring, forage, rye should be sown plied to them in the drill. The cabbage in autumn immediately after the re- is such a gross feeder that it is almost moval of a grain crop, at the rate of impossible to spoil it by excessive man uring. Any available quantity of farm about 3 or 4 bushels per acre . If the uring.

land isin good heart, or the crop well yard manure, from 20 tons per acre up manured with dung or superphosphate, wards, may therefore be applied, and and nitrate of soda or sulphate of am- whatever assistance the crop afterwards

monia, the rye will afford a large pro- requires can be made up by surface man duce in the following April, when it may uring with artificials. “ The drills should not be less than 28 be consumed on the land by sheep, or or 30 inches in width , and the plants cut and fed to cattle in the house. about 2 feet apart in the drill. Cabbages.

Plant

ing is best done by the dibble, although

The cabbage is a most suitable plant some people prefer the spade. grown

for field culture.

It is not

so

“As soon as the plants have thor

extensively as might be expected, when oughly taken with theground, and have one considers the vast amount of whole- begun to spread their leaves across the some food which it is capable of produc- drill, they should receive from 1 cwt. to ing. The variety most largely used is 2 cwt. of nitrate of soda or sulphate of the Drumhead or common cattle cabbage.

ammonia per acre. For a first manuring

It is the Brassica oleracea of the Natural this is best applied by dropping a little Order Cruciferæ .

at the root of each plant, 1 cwt.doing as The cabbage succeeds best on deep much good at this date, applied in this

good loams, with porous or well-drained manner, as 2 cwt. applied broadcast, the subsoil, and it also does well on wellfarmed strong clays. It is a gross feeder, and requires liberal manuring and deep tillage. Land to be planted with cabbage in spring should be deeply cultivated in the autumn or early in winter, and should be well cleaned of root -weeds. In a paper on “ Forage Crops ” in the Farming World Year - Book, 1889, Mr

plants being so far asunder that a large proportion of such a soluble manure runs to waste. Before the crop is earthed up for the last time, it is always advis able to apply 1 cwt. or 2 cwt. of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, no mat ter how much manure may have been applied in the drill. This is best sown broadcast, after the drills åre grubbed John Speir says : and before the crop is earthed up. By “ Probably no ordinary farm green this means the whole nitrate is turned crop admits of growth in a moderately over on the top of the roots of the plants,

FORAGE CROPS .

and under their wide-spreading leaves, so that it is protected from washing, no matter whether the season prove wet or dry. Manured in this way, an enormous

259

sica of the cabbage sort, which is much esteemed as food for the sheep-fold. This variety may be sown about the end of April,on rich well-prepared land, at the

crop of cabbages can be grown almost rate of 4 or 5 lb. of seed per acre, and any year, on nearly any kind of land . will produce a bountiful yield of excel “ Few who have not seen a crop thus lent food for sheep in the autumn. manured can form any idea of the weight Mr Russell of Horton Kirby, Dartford,

which may be produced, even under unfavourable circumstances; and certainly for autumn consumption no other crop will produce anything like the same weight of leaves and of an equal feeding value.

Kent, writing of thousand-headed kale, says : " The least known and most de sirable of any green crop I have ever seen ; it is a plant that produces more food

per acre than any other ; does not dis Utilising Cabbages.— “ Cabbages are agree with any stock, nor does it im

well suited for consumption by any kind poverish the land. With me it has never of farm stock, but for dairy cows they caused sheep or lamb to blow or scour. are particularly valuable. They are Eighteen perches a -day with a little oat usually given to the animals raw , al- straw have kept 270 sheep for three

though a few people give them boiled or steamed ; this, however, is generally considered to be unnecessary . In ordinary seasons the Drumhead cabbage will be

months, without the loss of one. ” Mr Russell sows the bulk of his crop towards

the end of April for use in autumn and early winter, and in August he sows

ready to use from the beginning of Oc- about 20 acres, to be fed off in April and May of the following year. From 4 to 5 lb. of kale-seed is sown per acre. it is always crop the “ In consuming Transplanting Kale . - Thousand best to begin by using the largest and tober till the New Year.

-

ripest cabbages first, as these are the headed kale gives the best return when ones to suffer most by frost. In the the plants are raised in a seed -bed, and interval the smaller and greener ones planted out like ordinary cabbage. A

increase considerably in size, and the common plan for feeding purposes is to labour so spent is doubly repaid by the sow in a seed -bed, early in August, and better preservation of the crop, as the transplant into well-prepared land, well

small green cabbages suffer little from even severe and protracted frost. “ Where early cabbages are grown for table use, a crop of considerable value is

dunged, in October and November. This should afford an abundant growth for

folding in the following summer. If re quired, a moderate dressing of nitrate of

got in autumnfrom the second growths. soda would force on the growth of the Along the sea -shore of the southern coun- plants. ties, thousand -headed cabbages may be Consuming Kale. — Thousand -headed grown

after early potatoes. Those come kale thus grown, mayeither be consumed

in very handy in spring for feeding ewes by sheep being folded upon it, or by the and lambs, when other green food is heads being cut off and consumed by extremely scarce .”

sheep on pasture- land.

If by the first

The storing of cabbages is dealt with method the stems are not too closely at p. 159, vol. i. Cabbages are usually eaten or peeled by the sheep, the plants regarded as an exhausting crop. This will throw out new leaves, and afford a

however, is only partially true. They supply of delicious green food in the fol are certainly gross feeders, and require lowing spring. In cutting off the heads heavy manuring; but if they are con- the bottom leaves should be left, and by sumed on the farm the exhaustion does taking care not to injure the stocks by not arise.

either eating or cutting, and not allow

About 7000 cabbage plants are re- ing them torun to seed, the plants will quired to plant an acre. The produce endure, and supply useful fodder for sev on good land under liberal and skilful eral seasons. treatment may reach from 50 to 80 tons per acre. Thousand -headed kale is another Bras-

Rape.

Rape (Brassica napus, Natural Order

SEED - TIME.

260

Cruciferæ) is grown to aconsiderable ex- Cruciferæ) makes a very useful catch tent as autumn food forsheep in the fold . crop. It grows up very rapidly, being The main crop is usually sown in June, but small patches may be sown as early as April, to afford successive folds of green food as they may be required.

ready for consumption on the land by sheep in about eight or nine weeks after being sown. The white mustard may be sown in southern counties after

Rape is usually ready for consumption an early corn crop, about a peck of about three months after being sown. seed being sown broadcast. It is some About 5

lb. of seed per acre is sown in times also sown in spring before a late

rows about 15 inches apart. The land crop. In many cases it is sown to be ploughed should be well dunged, and a dressing of

from 2 to 4 cwt. per acre of superphosphate along with the seed will be useful. Rape delights in fen or peaty soils rich in vegetable mould. It is sometimes sown upon reclaimed peaty land, and consumed by sheep, thus helping to reduce the rough soil to a useful condition. In some cases rape is sown after an early crop of potatoes, and consumed early in winter .

Rape should be hand-hoed like turnips,

under as a green manure. For this pur pose it is also very useful. Besides afford ing useful manure itself, it helps to pre vent the waste of nitrates, which, instead of being washed away in drainage-water —which would probably happen if the soil were bare-are stored up in the growing plant. Other Forage Plants. Furze, gorse or whin ( Ulex europaus,

but is not so carefully thinned, although Natural Order Leguminosa ) as a for it undoubtedly affords the largest yield age crop has been noticed in vol. i. p. when the plants are thinned out to from 268. veen the rows The kidney -vetch is regarded by some 12 to 14 es apart. weeds must be kept down by the horse- as a useful forage plant.

Professor

hoe or drill-harrow .

Wrightson thinks it worthy of a trial, Rape is sometimes sown along with and says that it ought to form an ingre

vetches, the vetches being sown broad- dient in mixtures of permanent pasture This mixed seeds intended for light and thin soils, in crop affords admirable green food for which this plant finds its most suitable cast over the rows of rape.

sheep. Rape is also, in some cases, sown in seed -beds, and planted out like cabbages. It is well suited for clay lands when it is sown early and consumed in summer and early autumn, when these lands will bear sheep without injury.

position. Maize and sorghum are both recom mended as forage plants for southern counties. They are undoubtedly unsuited to northern districts, and until they have been more firmly established in this

Then the early removal of the crop ad- country we think it well to speak of them mits of the land being prepared in good with caution in this work. As to their feeding properties, and in regard to the

time for wheat.

Rape will afford a second crop if the attempts to grow them in England, some plants are not destroyed, or too closely information will be found in vol. i. pp. eaten down when first folded.

The

276, 277 and 320-322.

The character of prickly comfrey almost as bulky as the first, is not so (Symphytum asperrimum , Natural Order

second crop however, although often

wholesome for sheep. It is considered Boraginec) asa forage crop is also re injurious to ewes in lamb, and lambs do ferred to in vol. i. p. 277. For odd cor not thrive well upon it.

ners it is undoubtedly a most useful crop.

Rape is known to possess high fatten- It requires heavy manuring. It is peren ing properties. It is better to give it nial, and the plants are dibbled in 18 along with other foods, such as after- inches apart, in rows from 18 inches to 2 math, cabbages, vetches, &c., than by feet apart. itself.

Buckwheat is also of some use as a

It is very susceptible of injury from frost, and can seldom be Mustard (Sinapis alli, Natural Order sown with safety earlier than May. forage crop .

Mustard .

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