The Book of the Farm [2, 2 ed.]

Table of contents :
Front Cover
ib 218 221 225
PRACTICE-SUMMER
229
ON THE HAY GIVEN TO FARM HORSES, -
The Hay-Knife,
242
243
244
246
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF HEMP,
The Foot-Pick,
247
249
Espalier Form of Training Hops,
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE TURNIP,
Drill,
Newberry's One-Rowed Dibbling Machine, 292 Newington's Six-Rowed Dibbling Machine,
The Double Roots of Deep-sown Wheat,
The Body of the Double Mould-
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF KOHL-RABI,
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF THE CARROT,
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF RAPE,
TAE RATIONALE OF THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS,
Soil with Air and without Water,
ON REPAIRING THE FENCES OF PASTURE FIELDS,
The roots of Shallow-sown Wheat, 295 Secure Mode of Fastening the Hang- ing Post of a Field-Gate,
ON THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT CATTLE,
The Side View of a Ripe Fat Ox, 297 The Hind View of a Ripe Fat Ox, 298 The Front View of a Ripe Fat Ox, 299 The View of the Back of a Ripe Fat Ox,
The Measuring of a Ripe Fat Ox, to ascertain its Weight, sinking the Offals,
Plan of the Cart-Steelyard,
Transverse Section of the Cart- Steelyard, 303 Longitudinal Section of the Cart- Steelyard,
ON MARES FOALING, -
113
The Bush-Harrow,
The Head-Cap, or Hood, fitted on the Sheep, 306 Sheep Bot-Fly-Estrus ovis, 307 Sheep Bot Larva-Estrus ovis, 308 Sheep Ked-Melophagus ovinus,
Maggot of the Checkered Blow-fly -Sarcophaga carnaria,
Cock-Chafers-Melolontha vulgaris,
ON THE PASTURING OF CATTLE IN SUMMER,
The Scoop for filling the Water- Barrel,
The Cattle-Bot and Larva-Estrus boris,
Larva and Pupa of the Cattle Cleg --Tabanus bovinus,
OX THE TREATMENT OF BULLS IN SUMMER,
The Bull's Ring in the state to be inserted in his Nose,
The Bull's Ring as fastened in his Nose,
The Bullock-Holder, 317 Swivelled Spring-Hook,
ON THE PASTURING OF FARM-HORSES IN SUMMER,
The Cleg or Gleg - Hæmatopota pluvialis, 319 The Horse-Bot-Gasterophilus equi,
A Horse-Fly-Chrysops cæcutiens, 321 The Horse Forest-Fly-Hippobosca equina,
The Patent Scythe with bent Sned,
A Scythe Strickle, 324 Scythe Stones,
ON THE WASHING OF SHEEP,
Sheep Washing,
The Wool-Shears,
The First Stage of Clipping
The Second Stage of Clipping a Sheep, 329 The Third and Last Stage of Clip- ping a Sheep,
A new Clipped Sheep,
ON THE ROLLING OF FLEECES, AND ON THE QUALITY OF WOOL,
The Rolling of a Fleece of Wool, 332 A Fleece of Wool Rolled
The White-Shouldered Wool-Moth - T'inea sarcitella,
The Weighing and Packing
Wool, Page | Fig 335 The Wingless Female of the Bean
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BEANS,
Plant-Louse-Aphis fabæ, 336 The Winged Male of the Bean 123 Plant-Louse- Aphis fabæ,
The Striped Pea-Weevil-Sitona 124 lineata,
The Milking of Ewes, 339 The Punching-Nippers for Sheep,
ON THE DRAFTING OF EWEB AND GIMMERS,
The Buisting-Iron for Sheep, 139 341 The Branding-Iron for Sheep and 140 Cattle,
The English Hay Tedding-Machine,
The Hay Horse-Rake,
The Hay Hand-Rake, 345 The Hay Hand-Rake,
over the Site of a Hay-Stack when 145 it is building,
Putting the Swathes of the Sown 146 Grasses into Winrows,
The Hay Horse-Rake cleaning the ib intervening Ridges between the 161 Winrows,
The Threshing of Rye-Grass Seed 165 in the Field,
The Hand-Flail,
The American Hay-Rake,
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT,
The Weed-Hook,
Smith's Steerage Horse-Hoe,
Long and Short Shares for the 168 Horse-Hoe,
The Wheat Stem-Fly - Chlorops 173 pumilionis,
The Structure of sound Wheat
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BARLEY,
Husk, 358 Sound Barley-Seed, 180 359 Diseased Barley-Seed, 360 Winged Male of the Turnip-Flower
ON SUMMER-FALLOW,
ON THE REAPING OF TURNIP SEED,
Plant-Louse-Aphis floris-rapæ,
Wingless Female of the Turnip- ib Flower Plant-Louse-Aphis floris- rapce,
Ground Plan of a Milk-House in ib relation to the Kitchen, in a Farm- 189 House, 363 Plan of Cheese-Room, &c , for a ib Farm-House,
Wedgewood-Ware Milk-Dish, 192365 Green Glass Milk-Dish,
| 366 Wooden Milk-Dish, ib 367 Zinc Milk-Dish, 197 | 368 A fixed Milk-Cooler of Marble, or 201 of Wood lined with Metal,
The Milk-Sieve, 202 370 The Cream-Skimmer, 371 The Cream-Jar,
The Wedgewood Table-Churn, 373 The Agitator of the Table-Churn,
The Box-Hand-Churn, 205 375 The Agitator of the Box-Hand- 207 Churn,
The Butter Print Mould and Hands, 208 377 The Butter-Spade,
The Curd-Cutter,
| 379 The Curd-Breaker,
114
PRACTICE-AUTUMN
ON THE SOWING OF THE STONE TURNIP, AND ON THE SOWING OF TURNIP FOR SEED,
ON THE PICKING AND DRYING OF HOPS,
251
ON THE PULLING, STEEPING, AND DRYING OF FLAX,
ON REAPING WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, AND RYE,
ON REAPING BEANS, AND PEASE, AND TARES, WHEN GROWN FOR SEED,
ON REAPING BUCKWAEAT,
ON THE BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO THE GRAIN CROPS,
ON LIFTING POTATOES,
ON SOWING WHEAT IN AUTUMN,
115
ON SOWING BARLEY IN AUTUMN,
253
ib
ON ELECTRO-CULTURE,
ON THE ROTATION OF CROPS,
ON THE FERTILITY OF SOILS,
116
ON THE MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS,
ON THE ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO POULTRY,
ON THE DIFFERENCES IN THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF FARMS,
ON THE JUDGING OF LAND,
ON THE MODE OF OFFERING FOR A FARM,
ON ENTERING TO A FARM,
ON CHOOSING THE SITE, ON BUILDING, AND ON THE EXPENSES OF ERECTING
ON THE FARM-HOUSE,
ON INSURANCE AGAINST FIRE AND DISEASE,
ON THE PLANTING AND REARING OF THORN-HEDGES,
ON THE BUILDING OF STONE FENCES,
ON EMBANKING AGAINST RIVULETS,
ON THE DRAINING OF LAND,
ON IMPROVING WASTE LAND,
ON TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING,
268
ON THE LIMING OF LAND,
ON FORMING WATER-MEADOWS,
ON IRRIGATION,
ON THE BREAKING-IN OF YOUNG DRAUGHT HORSES,
ON SLAUGHTERING OXEN, SHEEP, AND PIGS,
ON THE POINTS TO BE AIMED AT IN BREEDING THE MOST PERFECT FORMS IN LIVE
ACCOUNT OF SOME OTHER BREEDS OF CATTLE AND SHEEP,
ON THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING,
ON CROSSING,
ON THE WAGES OF FARM-SERVANTS,
ON THE CARE DUE TO THE IMPLEMENTS,
ON CORN MARKETS,
CONCLUDING EXHORTATIONS TO THE YOUNG FARMER,
INDEX,
269
ib 271 ib ib 273 ib ib 276 ib 277 ib 279 ib 283 284

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BIBLIOTHEQUE DU PALAIS DES AT

|

15

THE

BOOK

OF

THE

FARM

1

PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, EDINBURGH

VILLE DE LYON Biblioth. du Palais des Arts

Stec mar t

le . RY POULT

Garmyage

PLATE XIV .

132507

THE

BOOK

OF

THE

FARM

BY

HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E.

Wherefore , come on , O young Nhusbandman !

O 10B 91

Da

S IO Ukinda Learn the culture proper toukoh AT FO N A DO N 9

۱}}(

5

1013 11

SECOND EDITION - IN TWO VOLUMES

VOL.

II .

VILLE DE LYON Biblioth . du Palais des arts

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS

EDINBURGH AND LONDON MDCCCLI

CONTENTS

OF

VOLUME

II.

PRACTICE - SUMMER . Page

1 26 28 33 35 46 87

SUMMARY OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS, AND OF THE WEATHER IN SUMMER, ON THE HAY GIVEN TO FARM HORSES,

-

ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF FLAX , ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF HEMP, ON THE PLANTING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE HOP, ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE TURNIP ,

ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF KOHL - RABI,

ON THE PLANTING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF THE CABBAGE , ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF MANGOLD - WURZEL ,

88 90 94

-

ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF THE CARROT, ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF PARSNIP , ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF RAPE,

99 101 103 105

ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BUCKWHEAT, ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE SUN - FLOWER,

ib . 106 110

ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF MADIA, ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF MAIZE, TAE RATIONALE OF THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS,

ON SOWING BROADCAST, DRILLED, AND DIBBLED - THICK AND TNIN-AND AT 114

DIFFERENT DEPTHS,

128 130

ON REPAIRING THE FENCES OF PASTURE FIELDS, ON THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT SHEEP, ON THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT CATTLE ,

ON MARES FOALING , ON TAE PASTURING OF SHEEP IN SUMMER , -

ON THE PASTURING OF CATTLE IN SUMMER,

OX THE TREATMENT OF BULLS IN SUMMER, ON ON ON ON ON

THE THE THE THE THE

WEANING OF CALVES, PASTURING OF FARM- HORSES IN SUMMER, SOILING OF STOCK ON FORAGE PLANTS, WASHING OF SHEEP, SHEARING OF SHEEP, -

.

139 153 158

169 180 184 186 190 196 200

ON THE ROLLING OF FLEECES, AND ON THE QUALITY OF WOOL,

206

ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BEANS, ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF PEASE,

216 218 219

ON THE WEANING OF LAMBS,

vi ON ON ON ON

CONTENTS .

THE DRAFTING OF EWEB AND GIMMERS , THE MARKING OF SHEEP, HAY -MAKING , THE SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT,

ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BARLEY , ON ON ON ON ON ON

THE SUMMER CULTURE OF OATS, THE SUMMER CULTURE OF RYE , THE SUMMER CULTURE OF POTATOES, SUMMER -FALLOW , THE REAPING OF TURNIP SEED, MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE,

Page 223

225 226 245 252 253 254

256 261 267 268

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

SUMMARY OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS, AND OF THE WEATHER IN AUTUMN ,

ON THE SOWING OF THE STONE TURNIP, AND ON THE SOWING OF TURNIP FOR SEED, ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON

THE SOWING OF WINTER TARES, THE SOWING OF RAPE IN AUTUMN , THE SOWING OF CRIMSON CLOVER IN AUTUMN , THE SOWING OF BOKHARA CLOVER, THE SOWING OF RED CLOVER FOR SEED, THE SOWING OF ITALIAN RYE -GRASS IN AUTUMN , THE PICKING AND DRYING OF HOPS, THE SOWING OF WINTER BEANS, .

ON THE PULLING , STEEPING , AND DRYING OF FLAX, ON THE PULLING, STEEPING , AND DRYING OF HEMP, ON REAPING WHEAT, BARLEY , OATS, AND RYE, ON REAPING BEANS , AND PEASE , AND TARES, WHEN GROWN FOR SEED, ON THE CARRYING AND STACKING OF WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, BEANS, AND PEASE, ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON

REAPING BUCKWAEAT, HARVESTING TAE SUNFLOWER , HARVESTING MAIZE, THE COMMON JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE , THE BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO THE GRAIN CROPS, PUTTING THE TUPS TO THE EWES, THE BATHING AND SMEARING OF SHEEP, LIFTING POTATOES , STORING POTATOES, SOWING WHEAT IN AUTUMN , SOWING BARLEY IN AUTUMN,

ON SOWING PEASE IN AUTUMN ,

ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON

SOWING SEVERAL VARIETIES OF GRAIN TOGETHER , PLANTING POTATOES IN AUTUMN , THE EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES , ELECTRO - CULTURE , THE RATIONALE OF THE APPLICATION OF SPECIAL MANURES , THE ROTATION OF CROPS, THE FERTILITY OF SOILS, THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT PIGS, THE MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS , THE ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO POULTRY,

300 309 310 311

ib .

312 313 314 315 320 321 326

328 354 355 374 375 ib . 377 ib . 384

387 395 400 403

409 410 411

412 413 444 448 455 464 468

471

478

CONTENTS .

vii

REALISATION . Page

ON ON ON ON ON

THE DIFFERENCES IN THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF FARMS, CLIMATE AND ITS EFFECTS, THE JUDGING OF LAND , ESTIMATING THE RENT OF A FARM , THE MODE OF OFFERING FOR A FARM ,

482 485

494

ON NEGOTIATING THE COVENANTS OF THE LEASE,

497 503 505

ON ENTERING TO A FARM ,

512

ON THE STOCKING OF A FARM ,

516

ON CHOOSING THE SITE , ON BUILDING , AND ON THE EXPENSES OF ERECTING THE STEADING ,

ON ON ON ON ON ON ON

THE FARM -HOUSE , COTTAGES FOR FARM -SERVANTS , INSURANCE AGAINST FIRE AND DISEASE , THE PRINCIPLES OF ENCLOSURE , AND ON SHELTER , THE PLANTING AND REARING OF THORN - HEDGES, THE BUILDING OF STONE FENCES, WIRE FENCES ,

ON EMBANKING AGAINST RIVULETS ,

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIELD -GATES, ON THE DRAINING OF LAND ,

ON IMPROVING WASTE LAND , ON TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING , ON THE LIMING OF LAND , ON FORMING WATER -MEADOWS,

ON ON ON ON

IRRIGATION , THE TREATMENT OF DRAUGHT STALLIONS, THE BREAKING - IN OF YOUNG DRAUGHT HORSES, THE BREAKING - IN OF YOUNG SADDLE -HORSES ,

ON TRAINING AND WORKING THE SHEPHERD'S DOG , ON SLAUGHTERING OXEN , SHEEP, AND PIGS, ON THE POINTS TO BE AIMED AT IN BREEDING THE MOST PERFECT FORMS IN LIVE STOCK ,

DESCRIPTION OF THE ANIMALS WHOSE PORTRAITS ARE GIVEN IN THE PLATES, ACCOUNT OF SOME OTHER BREEDS OF CATTLE AND SHEEP, ON THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING ,

ON ON ON ON ON

THE SELECTION OF PARENTS IN BREEDING , BREEDING IN - AND - IN , CROSSING , THE HIRING OF FARM -SERVANTS, THE WAGES OF FARM - SERVANTS ,

ON THE FARM SMITH , JOINER, AND SADDLER,

518 537 542 548

550 558 588 593 596 599 604 651 657 665 671 677 680

683 686 688 690 706 709

717 728 730 733 735 737 741 746

ON CORN MARKETS, ON FARM BOOK -KEEPING ,

749 751 757 761

CONCLUDING EXHORTATIONS TO THE YOUNG FARMER ,

777

ON THE CARE DUE TO THE IMPLEMENTS , ON MAKING EXPERIMENTS ON THE FARM ,

INDEX,

LIST OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOL. II.

ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. Fig .

Page 65

Page Fig.

242. The Hay-Knife, 243. Crosskill's Clod -Crusher, 244. Side View of one Wheel of the Clod -Crusher.

26 267. The Singling of Turnips, 28 268. Turnip Flea -Beetle - Haltica 29 269. Larva of the Flea -Beetle,

245. Hepburn's Double-Conical Land Roller,

ne

morum ,

ib .

narum ,

30 271. Winged Male of the Common Tur

247. The Foot-Pick ,

35

250. TheSquare Method of Planting Hops,

251. The Quincunx Method of Planting Hops,

252. Espalier Form of Training Hops, 253. The Wire -Worm and its Perfect

Beetle - Cataphagus lineatus,

254. The East-Lothian Turnip -Sowing Drill, 255. The Seed -Barrel,

36

257. The Vertical Section of the Seed

Distributor, 258. The Turnip -Barrow for Sowing One Drill,

ib .

Turnip Plant-Louse --Aphis rapa ,

Louse - Aphis brassica, -

274. Wingless Female of the Swede Plant-Louse-- Aphis brassicæ , 37 275. Two and Seven Spotted Lady - Birds -Coccinella biet septempunctata , 38 42 276. Ichneumon Fly - Aphidius rapæ , 277. Cloddy and Stony Soil, 43 278. Soil with Water and without Air, 279. Soil with Air and without Water, 47 280. Soil with Water and Air,

ib . ib .

78 78 79 111 ib . ib . ib .

48 281. The Componentparts of a Grain of Wheat, 49

113

282. A Plant of Wheat in the State of

Germination, ib . 283. Well-Ploughed Regular Furrow Slices,

114

ib.

50284. The Position of Seeds when Sown

259. The Two-Rowed Turnip and Bone

on Regular Furrow -Slices, 285. Irregular Brairding from even Re gular Furrow -Slices,

Dust Sowing-Drill, 260. The Plan of the Two -Rowed Turnip

51

and Bone-Dust Sowing Drill, 261. Smith's Drop -Sowing Drill, 262. The Body of the Double Mould Board altered to a Scuffling

52 286. Ill-Ploughed Irregular Furrow

Plough, 263. Wilkie's Horse -Hoe with Parallel Motion,

62 288. Irregular Braird on Ill-Ploughed

53

Slices ,

287. Irregular Deposition of Seed on Ill. Ploughed Furrow -Slices, Furrow -Slices,

115

ib . ib . ib . ib .

ib. 289. Regular Depths of Seed by Drill

264. The Common Drill-Grubber,

63

265. Wilkie's Drill-Grubber and Harrow ,

64 290. Regular Braird from Drill- Sown

266. The Turnip or Hand Draw -hoe,

ib .

puit

77

273. Winged Male of the Swede Plant

256. Geddes' Two-RowedTurnip-Sowing Drill,

nip Plant-Louse -- Aphis rapa ,

75

272. Wingless Female of the Common

248. The Trenching-Fork with Three Prongs,

74

270. The Turnip Saw -Fly - Athalia spi

246. The Norwegian Harrows,

249. The Trenching-Fork with Two Prongs,

73

Sowing, Seed,

ib.

116

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page | Fig.

Fig.

Machine,

122

123

Plant-Louse- Aphis fabæ ,

292. Newington's Six -Rowed Dibbling Machine,

293. The Double Roots of Deep-sown Wheat,

295. Secure Mode of Fastening the Hang ing Post of a Field -Gate,

lineata ,

ib. 338. The Milking of Ewes, 339. The Punching-Nippers for Sheep, 130 340. The Buisting-Iron for Sheep,

296. TheSide View of a Ripe Fat Ox, 297. The Hind View of a Ripe Fat Ox, 298. The Front View of a Ripe Fat Ox,

140

141 143

301. Plan of the Cart -Steelyard,

145

302. Transverse Section of the Cart Steelyard ,

146

303. Longitudinal Section of the Cart ib .

Steelyard, 304. The Bush -Harrow ,

161

343. 344. 345. 346.

307. Sheep Bot Larva - Estrus ovis,

308. Sheep Ked - Melophagus ovinus, 309. Maggot of the Checkered Blow - fly -Sarcophaga carnaria ,

Grasses into Winrows,

348. The Hay Horse-Rake cleaning the intervening Ridges between the Winrows, in the Field ,

ib . 350. The Hand-Flail, ib. 351. The American Hay-Rake, ib. 352. The Weed-Hook , 353. Smith's Steerage Horse-Hoe, 166

310. Cock -Chafers - Melolontha vulgaris, 311. The Scoop for filling the Water

168

Barrel, 312. The Cattle -Bot and Larva -

173 Estrus 177

boris,

313. Larva and Pupa of the Cattle Cleg --Tabanus bovinus, 314. The Bull's Ring in the state to be inserted in his Nose,

315. The Bull's Ring as fastened in his Nose, 316. The Bullock-Holder,

The Hay Horse-Rake, The Hay Hand -Rake, The Hay Hand -Rake, The Mode of Erecting a Rick - Cloth

over theSite ofa Hay -Stack when it is building, 347. Putting the Swathes of the Sown

165

306. Sheep Bot-Fly - Estrus ovis,

354. Long and Short Shares for the Horse-Hoe,

355. The Wheat Stem -Fly - Chlorops pumilionis, 356. The Structure of sound Wheat and of Smut-Ball compared, 357. The Kernel of Barley within the

Husk , 358. Sound Barley -Seed, 180 359. Diseased Barley-Seed ,

178

360. Winged Male of the Turnip-Flower Plant-Louse - Aphis floris-rapæ , 182 361. Wingless Female of the Turnip floris

181

317. Swivelled Spring-Hook , 318. The Cleg or Gleg - Hæmatopota

ib .

rapce ,

188 362. Ground Plan of a Milk -House in

320. A Horse-Fly - Chrysops cæcutiens, 321. The Horse Forest-Fly - Hippobosca

189

House,

363. Plan of Cheese -Room , &c., for a Farm -House, ib .

364. Wedgewood -Ware Milk -Dish ,

325. Sheep Washing,

192365. 193 | 366. ib. 367. 197 | 368.

326. The Wool-Shears,

201

327. The First Stage of Clipping a

369. The Milk -Sieve, 202 370. The Cream -Skimmer,

Sheep ,

ping a Sheep,

330. A new Clipped Sheep, 331. The Rolling of a Fleece of Wool, 332. A Fleece of Wool Rolled up,

333. The White- Shouldered Wool-Moth -T'inea sarcitella ,

334. The Weighing and Packing of Wool,

229 230 231

ib .

232 236

238

Green Glass Milk -Dish , Wooden Milk - Dish , Zinc Milk -Dish , A fixed Milk -Cooler of Marble, or of Wood lined with Metal,

371. The Cream - Jar, 203 372. The Wedgewood Table -Churn,

373. The Agitator of the Table-Churn , 204 374. The Box-Hand-Churn , 205 375. The Agitator of the Box-Hand 207

242 243 244 246

247 248 249

251 253 ib . ib . 268

268

relation to the Kitchen , in a Farm

ib.

bent

328. The Second Stage of Clipping a Sheep, 329. The Third and Last Stage of Clip

226

Flower Plant-Louse - Aphis

pluvialis, 319. The Horse-Bot - Gasterophilus equi, equina, 322. The Patent Scythe with Sned, 323. A Scythe Strickle, 324. Scythe Stones,

218 221 225 ib .

349. The Threshing of Rye-Grass Seed

305. The Head -Cap, or Hood, fitted on the Sheep ,

Cattle,

ib. 342. The English Hay Tedding-Machine,

300. The Measuring of a Ripe Fat Ox, to ascertain its Weight, sinking the Offals,

ib .

139 341. The Branding-Iron for Sheep and

299. The View of the Back of a Ripe Fat Ox, -

217

337. The Striped Pea -Weevil - Sitona 124

294. The roots of Shallow -sown Wheat,

Page

335. The Wingless Female of the Bean Plant-Louse - Aphis fabæ, 336. The Winged Male of the Bean

291. Newberry's One-Rowed Dibbling

ix

Churn , ib. 376. The Butter Print Mould and Hands, 208 377. The Butter-Spade, 378. The Curd -Cutter, 209 | 379. The Curd -Breaker,

269

ib . 270

ib. 271 ib . ib . 273 ib . ib .

276 ib .

277 ib .

279 ib . 283 284

-

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

X

Page | Fig.

Fig.

380. 381. 382. 383.

The Cheese- Vat, The Stone Cheese -Press, The combined Lever Cheese-Press, The Cheese -Turner,

285 433. The Potato-Graip , ib. 434. The self-delivering Potato-Washer, 286 435. The conical and prismatic forms of 287

384. Plan of a Steading for a Dairy Farm ,

385. Plunger - Churns fitted up with Power,

386. The Cheese-Fly - Piophila casei, 387. The Cheese-Maggot,

388. Longitudinal Section of the Hop Drying-House,

Potato -Pits,

400 439

436. The Soot-Sowing Machine, 289 437. Electro-Culture Apparatus,

446

438. View of the Side of a fat Pig, 290 439. A trussed Roofof Wood,

470

297

529 530 541

440. A trussed Roof of Iron ,

ib . 441. A Rain -Water Cistern , 317

442. Plan of a small Hind's House of one Room ,

389. Plan of the Hot Water Pipes in it,

ib. 443. Plan of a large Hind's House of

390. Progress of Ripening in aStalk of

one Room , 329 444. Plan of a Hind's House with two

Oats,

391. The Toothed Sickle, 392. The Smooth -Edged Sickle,

330

ib .

Rooms,

545 ib .

447. Section of the Foundation of a Hind's House,

546

rooms in a second storey, ib.

-

395. An ordinary Stook of Corn, 396. A Barley or Oat Stook hooded,

334 448. Method of contracting the Top of

397. The Sheaf-Gauge,

398. Reaping with the Hainault Scythe, 399. The Cradle -Scythe for Reaping, 400. The common Reaping-Scythe,

335 449. Top of a Chimney for preventing 338 the down-draught of Smoke, ib. 450. The Shelter afforded by even a 339 low Wall against a cutting Blast,

401. The Hand Stubble -Rake,

340 | 451. The Plan of setting off Fences

ib .

403. A Gaitin of Oats,

404. 405. 406. 407.

The Swedish Stook , The Corn and Hay Frame, Transverse Section of the Frame, The Corn and Hay Cart,

parallel to each other, 341 | 452. A Hand - Pick ,

343 453. A Ditcher's Shovel, 353 454. A good Thorn Plant, 356 455. Plan to prevent Water Lodging in ib , 357

408. Robertson's improved Corn and Hay Cart,

547

a Chimney, .

402. The Mowing of Corn with the Scythe in Heads,

557 559

560 ib . ib .

561 563

358 457. A Thorn -Plant, prepared for plant ing,

359

410. Old form of Throw -Crook,

ib . 458. Finished Hedge- Bank, 360 459. Modes of describing a Curve in the

412. The best forin of Throw -Crook,

ib .

the Hollows behind the Bank of

a Hedge, 456. The Thorn -Bed,

409. Coiled -up Cart-Rope , 411. Another form of Throw -Crook,

544

332446. Elevation of double Hinds' Houses,

394. The Corn -Band ready to receive the cut Corn,

543

ib. 445. Plan of Hinds' Houses having Bed

393. Arrangement of the Reapers in a Band -Win ,

Page 397 399

ib .

Corner of a Field ,

ib . 566 ib . 568

413. The Straw -Rope Spinner, 414. The process of making a Straw

360 | 460. Bad effect of a Scarcement, 461. The Switching-Bill ,

Rope, 415. A Straw -Rope coiled up,

570

416. A Bunch of Drawn Straw ,

361 642. A correctly switched Thorn -Hedge, 362 463. A breasted -over Thorn -Hedge, with ib . the Hedge Bank and Face worn

417. The Building of a Stack of Corn ,

365

418. A Stack Trimmer,

366 464. The Cutting-Bill,

419. Making the Stool for a Corn -Stack, 420. The Lozenge mode of roping the Covering of a Corn -Stack, 421. The Net-Mesh mode of roping the Covering of a Corn -Stack,

ib . 465. The Hedger's Axe, 466. The plashing, and laying of an old 367 Hedge, and the Water- Tabling of

572 573 ib .

down ,

a Ditch,

422. The Border method of covering

368 467. The Mode of Water - Tabling a Hedge-Ditch,

and roping a Corn -Stack , 423. A pyramidal Boss and Tressle, 424. A prismatic Boss, 425. The Rook Battery,

369 468. The Dead -Hedge of Thorns, 372 469. The Stake-and -Rice Dead -Fence, ib. 470. The common Wooden Paling,

426. A Bath-Jug,

382 471. Turf-Fence to a Thorn-Hedge, 388 472. The Hedge Spade,

427. The Bath - Stool for Sheep , 428. Bathing Sheep,

389 | 473. The Dutch Hoe,

429. Wilson's Sheep - Dipping Appara tus,

ib. 474. The Hedge Weed-Hook , 475. The Hawthorn Butterfly, Pieris 391

Rack, 431. The Potato Raiser or Brander,

575 576 578

579 ib . 580 581 ib . ib . 586 589

395 | 477. Expedients for increasing the heights of a Dry -Stone Dyke,

591

478. Four Watering-Pools formed by two Dykes crossing,

592

396

432. The Potato - Raiser attached to a

Plough,

cratægi,

476. The Building a Dry -Stone Dyke,

430. Kirkwood's Wire Sheep - Fodder

569

ib .

xi

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig .

Page

four fields,

592

ing of Dykes, 481. Straining-Post , with Sole and Stay

ib.

under-ground, 482. Straining-Post, with Planks under

593

521. The Drain Stone-Rake, 522. The Drain Stone-Beater, 523. A Small Drain Filled with Broken

Stones,

ib . 524. The Triangular Coupled Stone Duct,

ground ,

483. Straining- Post, with Standard and Embankment

Dyke

and

525. The Tile and Stone Drain , 594 | 526. Tile Double Duct for a Main Stone Drain , ib .

Stay above ground, 484. A Malleable -Iron Straining-Post, Dry - Stone

Substrata of Deep Drains,

520. The Drain Stone-Harp or Screen,

480. A Clumpof Trees within the meet

485. An

Page

Fig.

519. The Instruments for Boring the

479. One Watering -Pool common to

against

tised in Ireland,

a

486. A Rectangular Gate- Frame with Diagonal Strut, 487. A Common Field -Gate,

ib.

531. The Larch Drain - Tube,

532. The Calderwood Peat- Tile Spade Tool,

601

ib . ib .

533. The Peat- Tile for Drains,

ib. 534. A Plan of Sheep-Drains on a Hill

490. An Iron Field-Gateon the Tension

of impervious Subsoil,

602 535. An Open Sheep-Drain in Grass,

Principle,

491. An Angie Iron Field -Gate, 492. Miles' Wooden Field -Gate with Iron Heel-Post,

ib. 536. A Covered Sheep-Drain in Grass, 537. Draining the Face of Railway Cut tings, ib .

493. The Spirit-Level Set for Observa

538. The comparative efficacy of Drains

tion ,

497. Draw -Earth Drain -Scoop, 499. The Drain-Gauge, 500. The Levelling Staff, for testing the uniform fall in Drains, 501. The Trowel for Drains, 502. The Drainer's Plumb Level,

Declivity, 613 539. The descent of Water on a Ridge

646 ib .

into a Drain on each side,

615 540. The ordinary position of Substrata 618

647

in reference to the Surface Soil,

619

649 652 654 656

543. A Drain -Water Meter, ib . 544. A Mattock , ib. 546. Wilkie's Turn -Wrist Plough,

with a Main , 505. Parallel Drains in the same Plane

of inclination of the Ground,

547. The Mode of ordinary Subsoil Ploughing, 548. Read's Subsoil-Plough , 621 | 549. The Tweeddale Subsoil Trench Plough, 622 550. The Tweeddale Subsoil Trench 621

506. Drains improperly made parallel irrespective of the inclination of the Ground,

552. The Plough -Slide, 553. The Carriage for conveying Har

the

Ground,

508. The Narrowest Drain Spade, 509. The Pushing Drain - Scoop, 510. The Small Tile and Sole-Drain ,

511. The Cylindrical Pipe-Tile, 512. Cylindrical Pipe- Tiles connected by a Collar,

ib .

ib. ib. 624 ib .

by Lobes,

Field , 518. The Positions of Planks and

Wedges to prevent the Sides of Drains Falling in ,

659

660

665 672 675 683

rows, & c .,

554. 555. 556. 557.

The The The The

ib . 664 ib.

Bed -Work Water -Meadow , Catch -Work Water-Meadow , Breaking -Bridle Bit, Shepherd's Dog , .

689

558. The Scotch Mode of Cutting up a 625

Carcass of Beef,

-

692

559. The English Mode of Cutting up a

513. Cylindrical Pipe- Tiles connected Horse Shoe Pipe- Tile, Egg -Shaped Pipe-Tile, Egg-Shaped Pipe- Tile Drain, Ground Plan of a Thorough -Drained

658

Plough and theTweeddale Plough in operation, 623 551. The Iron Hammer Nut-Key,

507. Drains made parallel in accordance of

ib . 648

Drain ,

ib . 542. A Concrete Pipe- Tile,

620 545. The Levelling-Box, or Scoop,

503. Drain - Tiles properly set upon Tile Soles, 504. The junction of a Common Tile

514. 515. 516. 517.

645

ib. 541. Displacement of Pipe- Tiles in a

498. The Narrow Draw -Hoe for Drains,

with the inclination

ib. 642 ib .

Across and Along Ridges on a

607

494. Different Forms of Ducts for the Inclined Planes of Drains, 495. The bad effects of too great a dis tance betwixt Drains, 496. The Narrow Drain Spade,

639

ib . 640 ib . ib . 641

598 528. The Edging-Iron, 529. The HorizontalSpade, 600 530. The Shouldered Bog -Drain ,

488. The Kilmory Wooden Trussed Field -Gate, 489. An Iron Field -Gate with Iron Posts and Stay,

ib . ib . ib.

527. A Plan for Draining Bogs as prac

Face

Rivulet, -

635 637 ib . 638

ib .

Carcass of Beef, ib . 560. The Scotch Mode of Cutting up a Carcass of Mutton , 626

693 695

ib . 561. The English Mode of Cutting up a Carcass of Mutton, 628 562. The Scotch Mode of Cutting up a Carcass of Pork,

696 698

563. The English Mode of Cutting up a 634

Carcass of Pork,

699

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig.

Page

564. The Short-Horn Ox, 565. The Short- Horn Bull,

709 | 581. The Head of a Black - Faced Ram , 710 582. The Head of a Black -Faced Ewe,

566. Mr Hopper's Short-Horn Bull, Belville, · 567. View of the Back and Chest of Belville, 568. The Short-Horn Cow , 569. The Draught- Horse,

570. The Draught-Stallion, 571. The Draught-Mare,

572. The Leicester Ewe and Lamb, 573. The Brood Sow ,

574. The Common Fowl,

575. The Head of a Long-Horn Bull, 576. The Head of a Hereford Ox,

577. The Head of West-Highland Ox, 578. The Head of an Angus Ox,

579. The Ayrshire Bull, 580. The Head of a Cheviot Tup,

Fig.

Page 721

722

583. The Head of a Tup of the original ib .

Breed of Scotland ,

584. The Head of a Southdown Tup, 711 711

585. The Head of a Boar, 586. The Vertical Section of the Head 712 of the Adult Horse, showing the 713 Teeth and the Nervous system 714 in connection with them, 715 ib . 716 717 718 ib . 719 720

721

ib .

723 724

725

587. The Vertical Section of the Head

of the Adult Ox, showing the Teeth and the Nervous system in connection with them,

726

588. The Vertical Section of the Head

of the Wild Boar, showing the Teeth and the Nervous system in connection with them , 589. The Sack -Lifter,

727 759

--

THE BOOK OF THE FARM

PRACTICE SUMMER SUMMARY OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS AND OF THE WEATHER IN SUMMER.

a very beautiful instance of design and adaptation in this. The grand stimulat ing agent in all terrestrial action, at least

2959. As spring is the restoration of

in a natural view of it on the surface of

life to vegetation, and the season in which the earth, and the intensity of this action, the operations of the field again become is made up of two elements — the portion active, so summer is the season ofprogress of the twenty -four hours during which the in vegetation, and in the operations of the sun is above the horizon, and the altitude field, none of the greater ones of which are of the sun above that horizon. Both of

begun or terminated, but only advanced these, in either bemisphere, increase as a step towards their maturity in autumn. the sun declines towards the hemisphere, The advancement of the larger field ope- or rather as the hemisphere inclines to rations involves no difference of principle the sun ; though, as the first of these is the in their execution, but the minor operations apparent result of the second as a reality,

which accompany them, and the changes our using the one expression or the other they effect in the aspect of the larger ones,

does not affect the result.

The increase or

in the most agreeable season for work in decrease of altitude is the same, with the the year, invest all the operations of sum- same changeof declination, in all latitudes ;

mer with peculiar interest, and even de- but the variation in time above the hori light.

zon increases with the latitude : conse

quently, the higher the latitude thegreater 2960. “ Summer is the bloom of the the change of solar action with the year," as Mr Mudie truly observes— “ the same change of declination. The change period during which all the growing and in declination increases from the solstice living children of nature, which wax and to the equinox, and diminishes from the wane with the revolving seasons, are in equinox to the solstice. Thus the increase

the spring -tide of their activity, and of solar action begins to slacken at the when all those general agencies by which vernal equinox in March, and gradually they are stimulated are working to the diminishes till it becomes 0 at midsummer; very top of their bent.

Summer after this the decrease commences. This,

is, both in the literal and the metaphysi- however, is only in so far as depends on the cal sense, the season of blossoms; and, altitude of the sun ; for the other element,

as the blossoms make the fruit, the time of the time which the sun is above the hori

them is really the most importantof the zon , goes on increasing till the longest whole. In our middle latitudes, there is day, or day of the solstice. Thus, inthe A

VOL. II.

VILLE DE LYON Biblioth . du Palais des Arts

2

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

advanced part of the summer, there is a diminished increase of the momentary intensity of the solar action, and a lengthening of its daily duration . What is given

is highly elastic, and feels balmy and

bracing,indicated by the high position of the mercury in the barometer; at another the mercury descends, and almost always

to the presence of the sun above the hori- suddenly, to the lowest point, followed by zon is taken from its absence below it ; blasts of wind and a deluge of rain, imi and thus, as the summer advances towards tating the tornado of the tropics.

The

the longest day, all that works by the heat of the air so scorches us as to cause us action of the sun works with his increase to seek the shade, and the thermometer

of intensity, and for a longer time. After marks its intensity ; and shortly after, a the longest day is past, both elements of chilling gust, accompanied with hail, sud the solar action diminish, slowly at first, denly brings down the thermometer many and more rapidly afterwards, until the degrees. The air to -day is so calm and summer merges in the autumn. Near the breathless, that not a ripple is visible even

equatorthe changesarecomparativelysmall, on the broad bosom of the great ocean ; and they increase with the latitude; and to-morrow a hurricane agitates its waves the differences in this respect are whatmay to a height dangerous tothe safety of the be called the celestial differences of the

mariner. Not a cloud is seen at times to

character of summer in different latitudes; but terrestrial causes modify them so much, that the practical results, as observed, are very different from whatthe celestial theory

stain the purity of the blue vault of heaven ; at others, the thunder- cloud hovers over the earth, and blackens its surface with

a portentous shadow .

would give. Still, any one who thinks but for a moment will not fail to discover

2962. Such changes, in summer, are

how beautifully the season of bloom is se- usually sudden and of short duration, and cured from violent action either in the one

are requisite to preserve the healthy state

way or the other. This is enough to con- of the atmosphere. vince us that the action which goes on in the production of nature during the summer is really the most important of the whole year ; for it is performed with the maximum of power in the agents, and the minimum of disturbance in their operation. That resistance of winter, which but too

Did rain not fall

in large quantities, the vapour absorbed by the increased capacity of heated air for moisture would accumulate in the at mosphere, and form perpetual clouds and supless days. Did no cold strata of air move about to condense the warm , the warm , containing a large quantity of va

often shrivels the young leaf, and blights pour in solution , would always be elevated the early blossom in the spring, is van- beyond the reach of the earth, and there quished and completely stayed from mak- waste its latent heat. The sheet-light ing any inroad till the seasonal purposes ning passing from cloud to cloud, the most of nature are accomplished ; and the ar- common display of electric action in sum

dour of the stimulating causes which have mer, restores the electric equilibrium of

vanquished the destructive one are slack- the air, and the forked lightning relieves ened, so that they may not injure that both the earth and the air. Did not the

which, during the struggle of the early hurricane at times force its way through

part of the year, they have preserved. All

the calm and settled air, the same portion this, too, is accomplished by means so of the atmosphere would always remain

verysimple, that their simplicity proves the over the same locality, and become viti

most wonderful part of the whole, for it is ated by the breath of animals and the nothing more than the planes of the annual exhalations from decaying vegetables. and daily motions of the earth intersecting If the dews failed to descend upon the

each other atan angle ofabout23° 28'; and grass, the pastures would soon become the line of intersection passing through parched by the meridian fervour of the the equinoctial points of the diurnal summer sun . Thus, the active agencies of orbit.” nature are all required to preservethe air in a healthy state for animals and vege 2961. The atmospherical phenomena tables, and they operate in the most bene of summer are of the most varied and

ficial manner in summerthe season of the

complicated nature . At one time the air intensest action of the solar rays.

1

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

3

2963. The influence of the laws of and we cannot help admiring the delight

nature, which effects such changes in the fully benevolent design with which this atmosphere, also affects the condition of the period of life-- the grand period of fitness and disposition to observe — and the sum mer of the year, the season when, beyond the Lawgiver as to place the summer of the all others, nature is inviting to obser year in the situation of greatest safety in vation , and fitted to reward its exercise, the year's revolution, so onght the sum- are adapted to each other. But though the mer of the life of man to be placed in the summer is, in especial manner, valuable situation of greatest safety among the and inviting at the age we have named stages of his appointed time on earth. as corresponding to it in ourlife upon earth, Nature does this in the caseofall irrational yet every human being, from the earliest human race ; “ for if the laws of nature, " says Mr Mudie, “ have been so framed by

animals which belong whollyto material dawn ofobservation to the final close, may nature, and are, of course, in complete find much pleasure in the summer, if they obedience to material laws. In so far, seek it aright. too, as man is under the laws of material

nature, he is under their protection . But 2965. “ Though summer is unquestion man, even considered as body or animal, ably the most delightful portion of the is not wholly under the protection of these year — the one which, above all others, is

Jaws ; for from the moment that the mind hailed and enjoyed by every one who has has acquired the requisite degree of expe- senses to perceive, or a heart to feel, and rience which prompts him to the exercise a mind to understand the great goodness of his young judgment, he begins to exer- of the Creator in placing man in a world cise it, andthis takeshimself place long he summer of so manyis and so sweet enjoyments — yet is able to regulate evenbefore in what not a season of which we can

those who have had larger experience con- mark the beginning or the end by fixed sider very simple cases.

days in the calendar, or of which we can

This is a period at which the burden of say that it has definite characters which bodily labour of every kind should be belong to itonly,and to noother of the year. lighter than at any other period. It is Even with us, in the comparatively mild usually the time of most rapid growth, latitude of Britain, where none of the sea and therefore the one of greatest com- sons run into extremes, we cannot say that parative weakness in the whole system . summer is absolutely the warmest time of It is the time when the body is most sub- the year ; because we sometimes have a

ject to consumption, and to various other very warm day in the spring, which, pro diseases from which, if this time is fairly bably from the contrast with the general

got over, there is comparatively little to character of the season , we feel fully more fear in after life ; and, suchbeing the than we do many days in the summer. So case, we may very naturally infer that it is also there are often days in the autumn

the time when the bodily constitution is upon which we feel the heat more oppres rather confirmed in strength or given over sive than we do upon summer days; though

to feebleness. It is also the time at which this may in part arise from the greater

the deepest impressions are made; because length and comparative coldness of the it is then that the keenness of the senses to observe, and the readiness of the mind to receive and retain the result of the ob-

autumnal nights. 2966. “ Limited as the island of Britain

servations, are most usually upon an equa- is to a range of only about six hundred

lity. The time of perfect equality may miles in the meridian , which is just about be earlier in some cases and later in others; one-tenth of the quadrant from the equa but we believe we have truth on our side tor to the pole, there are very great diffe when we say, that at some time within

rences in the character and economyof the

the limits of ten years, the perfect equipoise summer in different parts of it; and these of the balance between the senses and the are still further increased by differenco of elevation above the level of the sea, and mind actually takes place.

other local causes. In general, the double 2964 .

66

This is in fact the summer of

season of activity, and the pause during

life to which we have already alluded ; the very vigour of the warm and dry

4

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

season , are much more marked in the

tude by turning it to proper account. southern part of the island ; while in the Crops of grain , pulse, and of artificial

extreme north they may be said to be grasses, especiallythe leguminous ones altogether unknown. In those remote parts the tall growing clovers, the lucerns, and there are hardly any spring flowers, and the sainfoins, retain the humidity in a very few autumnal ones. On elevated wonderful manner ; and all the legiiminous places, the snow will retreat before nothing crop - plants, which completely cover the short of summer ; and it returns, in occa- ground, are understood to give it more by sional showers, even in June. Thus, sum- this means than they take from it by any nier is hardly gone when the snow returns other, and thus to be ameliorating crops in and maintains its ground till next sunimer. stead of scourging ones ; but, in order to When the duration of summer is so brief,

do this, they must completely cover the

there can, of course, be few instances of

ground, so as to exclude from it all scorch

second flowering or growth in plants, or of ing action of the sun. Plantations, copses

secondbroods in birds.The plantsanalogous of trees, hop -gardens, and all other vege to the early flowerers of the southern parts table shadowings, while keeping the are not many ; and of the summer birds scorching heat of the sun from the ground, which make the southern groves and cop- in the times of its extreme strength, have

ses so gay with their songs, the far greater similar effects, only differing a little with part do not reach the extreme north .

the nature of the plants, and the varying

demands which their roots may have upon first place, the summer is too short ; and, the soil, for that ill-explained and under in the second place, there are few or no stood something which theyare generally groves for them to visit ; and in some of supposed to derive from it. În bleak the lonely moors there, one may wander the situations, a wonderful acceleration is often There is a double reason for this.

In the

livelong summer's day without hearing produced by plantations of evergreen coni any sound of bird , save the hoarse croak feræ , especially of the common Scotch

of the hooded crow, or the peevish and fir, ( Pinus sylvestris ,) which is at the melancholy twite ' of the mountain same time one of the inost valuable as linnet.

timber. And there have been many in

stances of a plantation of this kind yield 2967. " Viewingour own country, there- ing a good rent during the time that it fore, limited as it is in range of latitude, stood ; and then, when it had come to the we may say that the summer is cleft in growth most proper for cutting down—the

twain in the warm and dry places of the but-ends of the tree for ordinary deal tim earth by the ardour of the summer drought, ber, and the top -cuts for pit-props, used in which comes in the maximum of that the collieries the surface upon which it season , and has an enervating infnence on stood bad accumulated so much soil dur

vegetation ; and that the two segments ing the time of its standing, that very little approach each other as we proceed north- expense sufficed for converting it into corn ward, meeting so as to form only one sum- land, capable of bearing excellent crops. mer at different distances, according as the

surface is higher above the level of the

2969. “There are instances in which the

sea , with an unbroken progress in vege- vegetables that man has sown or planted, tation maintained by the presence of an have of themselves furnished no small por

adequate supply of moisture. 2968.

tion of that auxiliary power of the reten tion of humidity in the fields which enables

“ But the extra heat which par- the whole of that surplus of summer heat, above what the natural condition of the

ches the dry plains in summer is actually a store provided for man, and provided wbere he cannot find anything in art to answer the samepurpose . Man can neither cart the sunbeams into his fields, nor col-

place requires, to be converted to useful purposes.

There are other results equally

striking and profitable as these. In many parts of the uplandswbicb, not many years lect and retain them in reservoirs ; and ago, were in the naked and unproductive therefore the bounty which gives him this state wbich is common to such places when

summer surplus is a bounty for which he they are neglected, the most advantageous

ought, 'nay,is bound, to show his grati- results have been obtained from belts and

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

5

clumps of planting, and the bringing of the there was an approximation to the char surface into cultnre. While they remained acter of the season of burning drought, as

in a state of nature, the summers were in- it shows itself in the seasonal desolation tolerably hot and dry, and thewinters were of tropical plains ; and as there was no

excessively cold, with heavy falls of snow , power in the average temperature of the frequently coming on about the middle of year to produce the bulbous and tuberous January, and sometimes renewed in March plants, which so speedily bring beauty —so that they lay long, and field labour upon those plains when the rains do set could not be begun until the season was in, the general character of the whole was

far advanced. This rendered the grounds sterility. immediately adjoining of little value for tillage, and the wastes themselves of as little for pasturage, as the people in the vicinity had nokeep for cattle during the long winter,and sheep were altogether out of the question . When a few cattle were kept in such places, they were in a sad

condition in the spring, from the scanty supply and bad quality of their winter food , wbich consisted almost wholly of straw, unripened, black, sodden, and sapless, from the effect of the autumnal rains. In consequence of this, when the cattle

2971. “ It is not probable that at any

time the seasons, in the most neglected parts of Britain, ran into such extremes as this ; but still they were very different from what they are now , and had far more

pernicious effects in injuring the health of

man, and reducing the produce of the fields to a very small fraction of that which, by proper management, they now regu larly afford . 2972. “ This may seem to be treating

were put out to the npland, after the sun of the desolation of winter rather than the bad brought up the grass, a man had to be bloom and beauty of the summer, and it is

sent along with them , to lift them in the not a subject of bloom or beauty certainly ; case of their lying down and falling, as but still it is a summer subject, and one

they had not strength to regain theirlegs the knowledge of which is far more useful by their own exertions. The change of than any descant that could be written on

food had also very unwholesome effects the most lovely feature of the most delight upon them , and many used every year to ful and propitious season. The real cause die of murrain, a disease which was under- was the improper management of the sum stood to be infectious — so that, if it once mers — in the suffering of that part of it broke out, it was difficult to say to what which God has obviously provided forman,

length it might not proceed . The country as that element of successful cultivation people went so far as to say that crows which he cannot obtain by his own exer

and ravens, which are certainly not very tions, to run to waste ; and thereby allow delicate birds, were sometimes poisoned by ing that which has evidently been created the carrion of cattle that died of this for being the blessing of art, to become the malady ; and when they found these bane of nature. dusky-coated prowlers on the moors hang ing about the outskirts of the herd, they 2973. “ It is pleasant to view the con

always concluded that these birds smelt trast produced, when this surplus of sum death ' among the cattle.

mer energy is seen and appreciated, and so made to perform useful work in its own

season ; and though at that season the The short summer effect is delightful, and greatly beightens

2970. “ What has been stated was not

the whole of the evil.

came on so very hot that the dry pastures the charm of the summer ,it is not confined

were burnt up ; the little patches of culti- to that season, but extends to the whole vated ground in the neighbourhood were year, rendering every season more healthy hardened like bricks ; and the crops late and productive, and greatly adding to the

sown, from the length of time the snow enjoyment of life. lay, could not rise with any vigour in the main stem , or at all “ tiller' at the roots,

2974. “ When the excessive ardour of

so that they never so covered the ground as the summer is tbus turned to good account, to shut out the searching influence of the in the promoting of growth, and cooled by spring. Thus, as the summer advanced, evaporation constantly going on from fields

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

6

of corn coming into bloom : when the bean that subject, appear to have been very and the red clover give the full volume of satisfactorily conducted, and the theory

their combined perfumes to the lightest which he established by these experiments zephyr that fits from field to footpath ; and is the one now embraced by all philo

when the fields are cultivated up to thepower sophers. “ Aristotle and many other of the season, the little zephyrs do sport at writers," says Dr Wells ,“ have remarked, these shortjourneys as if theywere specially that dew appears only in calm and serene

commissioned to sweeten your path as you nights. This remark of Aristotle, how walk along ; when the hay-field, ready for ever, is not to be received in its strictest the scythe, plays in gentleundulations, as if sense, as I have frequently found a small

it were a sea of beryl ; when the rich pas- quantity of dew on grass, both in windy tures, starred over with the sweet though nights, if the sky was clear or nearly so, lowly blossoms of the white clover, breathe and in cloudy nights if there was no wind. balm and honey combined, and the indus- If, indeed, the clonds were high and the trious bees are flitting from flower to flower, weather calm, I have sometimes seen on softening the air with their mingled hum grass, though the sky was entirely hidden, of delight ; when the fresh breeze from the no very inconsiderable quantity of dew.

copse faces you as you pass, and the trem- Again, accordingto my observation, entire bling poplar by the brook salutes you with stillness of the atmosphere is so far from all its leaves ; when the birds, many of being necessary for the formation of this them from transequatorial climates, are fluid, that its quantity has seemed to me

enjoying their meridian siesta, in order that to be increased by a very gentle motion they may pour forth their gratitude in of the air. Dew, however, has never been vesper or in matin song ; and when man, seen by me on nights both cloudy and

and all thatbelongs to him ,living or dead, windy. If, in the course of the night, speaks of plenty, and comfort, and high the weather, from being calm and serene,

health, and full of grateful enjoyment should become windy and cloudy, not then, then it is summer, such as becomes

only will dew cease to form , but that

rational man ina land highly privileged which was formed will either disappear or by a bountiful God : and you require no diminish considerably. In calm weather, verbal definition ." * if the sky be partially covered with clouds, more dew will appear than if it 2975. The atmospherical phenomena of were entirely covered, but less than if it summer are not only varied , but are of a were entirely clear.

Dew probably be

very complicated character, difficult of ex- gins in the country to appear upon grass, planation, and apparently anomalous in in places shaded from the sun during calm occurrence . These are dew , which is a and clear weather, soon after the beat of great deposition of water at a time when the atmosphere has declined ; and I have

nota cloud is to be seen ; a thunder storm , which suddenly rages in the midst of a calm ; and hail, which is the descent of ice and congealed snow in the hottest

frequently felt grass moist in dry weather several hours before sunset. On the other hand, I have scarcely ever known dew to be present in such quantity upon grass as

days of the year. Each of these anoma- to exhibit visible drops before the sun was lous phenomena requires explanation. very near the horizon, or to be very copious till some time after sunset.

It also con

2976. Dew.—The phenomenon of dew tinues to form in shaded places after sun is familiar to every one residing in the country. In the hottest day of summer, the shoes become wetted on walking over a grass -field about sunset, and they may be wetted as thoroughly as in wading

rise ; and if the weather be favourable, more dew forms a little before, and in

shaded places, a little after sunrise, than at any other time. The forination of dew, after it has once commenced, continues

through water. The late DrWells inves- during the whole night, if the weather tigated the phenomena of dew more closely remain still and serene. During nights His experiments, that are equally clear and calm , dew often

than any other person .

as detailed in his instructive essay on appears in very unequal quantities, even * Mudie's Summer, p. 1-64.

7

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

7

after allowance has been made for any former than in the latter time, in conse

difference in their lengths. One great quence of a previous precipitation of part source of their difference is very obvious ; of it. The reason, no doubt, is the cold

for, it being manifest,whatever theory be of the atmosphere being greater in the adopted concerning the immediate cause latter than in the priorpartof the night." * of dew, that the more replete the atmo sphere is with moisture, previously to the

2977. Theories of the formation of dew

operation of that cause, the morecopious have been proffered by many philosophers, will be the precipitation of moisture in the atmosphere, which must likewise tend to increase the production of dew. Thus dew, in equally calm and clear nights, is more abundant shortly after rain than during a long tract of dry weather. It is

from the days of Aristotle to the time of Dr Wells ; and these have been referred to in (176,) as also the observations of Du fay on the perspiration of moisture from the earth, (177.)

more abundant during S. and W. winds, 2978. To measure the quantity of dew than during those which blow from the deposited each night, an instrument is N. and the E. Dew is commonly more used called a Drosometer . The most

plentiful in spring and autumn than in simple process consists in exposing to the summer; the reason is, that a greater open air bodies whose exact weight is difference is generally found between the known, and then weighing them afresh temperature of the day and the night in after they are covered with dew . Accord

the former seasons of the year than in ing to Dr Wells, locks of wool divided

the latter. Dew is always very copions into spherical masses of 3.4 inches diame on those clear and calm nights which are ter, are to be preferred to any other thing

followed by misty or foggy mornings ; the for measuring the deposit of dew. ull turbidnessof the air in the morningshow- circumstances that favour radiation equally

ing that it must have contained , during contribute to the formation of dew. Å the preceding night, a considerable quan- body that is a good radiator and a bad tity of moisture. I have observed dew to conductor of heat, will therefore be cover

be unusually plentiful on a clear morning, ed with a very abundant dew. Thus glass which had succeeded a clondy night. For becomes wet sooner than the metals ; or the air having, in the course of the night, ganised bodies are wetted more quickly lost little or no moisture, was in the morn- than glass, especially when they are in

ing charged with more watery vapour small fragments — because, as the heat than it would have been if the night had passes with difficulty from the one to the

also been clear. Heat of the atmosphere, other, that which is lost is not replaced by if other circumstances are favourable ,- that which is transmitted from the inte which, according to my experience, they rior to the surface of the body. Thus locks seldom are in this country,-occasions a of wool are very well suited to these ex great formation of dew . For, as the periments, and become covered with a

power of the air to retain watery vapour in a pellucid state, increases considerably faster while its temperature is rising than in proportion to the heat acquired, a decrease of its heat in any small given

very abundant dew. The moister the air is, all other things being equal, the more considerable is the quantity of dew that falls in a given time. Thus, it is entirely wanting in arid deserts, notwithstanding

quantity during the night must bring it, the intensity of nocturnal radiation . In if the temperature be high, much nearer our country, nights with abundant dews

to the point of repletion before it be acted may be considered as foretelling rain ; for upon by the immediate cause of dew, than they prove that the air contains a great if the temperature were low. I always quantity of the vapour of water, and that found, when the clearness and stillness of it is near the point of saturation. Dalton

the atmosphere were the same, that more dew was found between midnight and sunrise than between sunset and midnight, though the positive quantity of moisture

computed the amount of dew which an nually falls at 5 inches. In fine weather, in the evening, the vapour plane being destroyed, and the nubific principle, as

in the air must have been less in the Mr Forster observes, ceasing to act, the * Wells On Deu , p. 1. 1815.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

8

vapour so deposited comes down in dew . left in the mouth a sharp and burning after Dew , however, is not the result always taste . On examination, these grains were of the stratus cloud, and it differs from the found to be the tubercles of the ficaire,

wet mist of the cirro -stratus of the lower

Ranunculus ficaria,a plant verycommon

atmosphere.

in Silesia . In the middle of June the leaves

and stalks of this plant dry up, and the 2979. As supposed depositions from the

tubercles having but loose hold of the

air, which take place usually in summer, ground, the wind sweeps them off their and accompanied chiefly with rain, are the sites, and the rains then carry them to a dis showers of remarkable substances, such as tance, but no one has seen then fall from sulphur, blood, corn , fishes, and others, the clouds. The seeds of the Melampy which have been said to have occurred in rum nemorosum , of the Veronica hædera

several places, and which I mention more folia, and of others, have been known to be as matters of curiosity than of importance, thus transported by wind and rain to con with the view of correcting the popular siderable distances from their habitats. ideas entertained of them . Showers of

Sulphur.- Formerly, and even at the

2980. Showers of Animals . - One has

present day, flour of sulphur has been said frequently to fall with rain ; after heavy showers, quiet waters have been found covered with a yellow dust, which, being easily inflamed , was believed to be sulphur.

frequently heard of the fall of fishes and frogs from the air ; and the common idea is that they had been taken up by water spouts into the clouds, and thence let fall upon the earth with the rain ; and it has

Accurate researches have proved that the even been asserted that they have fallen

dust was nothing else than the pollen of from the sky in calm weather.

“ To all

certain flowers, and of pines in particular, these assertions,” remarks M. Kaemtz, “ I which had been swept off by the wind and know no other answer than that which precipitated by the rain. The nature of one of the most distinguished naturalists

the pollen depends on that of the vegetables of the age made to one who assured him a certain distance

that he had seen such a phenomenon with Schmeider believes that, in March and his own eyes : ' It is fortunate,' he said, April, it is the pollen of alders and filberts; " that you have seen it, for now I believe in May and June, that of pines, elders, it : had I seen it myself, I should not have

that grow within

birch ; in July, August, and September, believed it." "

that of lycopodium , typha, and several species of equisetum . Showers of Blood.

2981. Dry Fogs. - From 29th May to

-Red spots have been found on the ground 1st July 1783 a dense dry fog was seen and on the waters, which were believed to be spots of blood. Microscopic researches have proved that those colourings arose from innumerable vegetables or animals, some filling the waters, and others — inor-

over the greater part of Europe. The fog was not an aqueous vapour, but a true smoke.

Veltmann ascertained that simul

taneous with it great peat-bogs were burn ing in Germany that dry summer, as also

ganic substances in the form of powder- were great volcanic eruptions in Calabria falling on the ground, were found colour- and Iceland, the hot lava from which burn ed with iron or hydrochlorate of cobalt. ed much vegetation and many dwellings. Showers of Corn . After heavy rains, In the dry summer of 1839 a similar dry

bodies have frequently been found on the fog was occasioned by burning bogs.* ground that possessed a distinct analogy to grains ofcorn, and appeared to be com2982. Summer Electricity. - The na posed of farina ; but were found not to be ture and sources of electricity have already

the grain of the cereals, nor had they fallen been fully explained from (123 ) to (130.) from the air. In June 1830 were found

As summer is the season in which elec

near Greisau, a village of Silesia, after a tricity is most active in displaying its rain storm , a certain number of small bodies existence, a few remarks on its condition

of a vegetable nature, on places covered in this season seems appropriate. Its usual with turf. They had the taste of farina, but state in the atmosphere is generally be * Kaemtz, Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 106, 465.

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

9

lieved to be positive, and that it increases above the surface of the earth : these ap in quantity as we ascend. In Europe, the pear to act as conductors of the electricity

observations of M. Schübler of Stutgardt from the upper regions. Cavallo ascer intimate that the electricity of the precipitating fluids from the atmosphere is more frequently negative than positive, in the proportion of 155 to 100 ; but that the mean intensity of the positive electricity is greater than that of the negative in the ratio of 69to 43 ; and that different layers or strata of the atmosphere, placed only at

tained, froma set of experiments per formed at Islington in 1776, that the air

always contains free positive electricity, except when influenced by heavy clouds near the zenith. This electricity is found strongest in fogs, and during frosty wea ther, but weakest in hot weather, and just previous to a shower of rain ; and to in small distances from each other, are fre- crease in proportion as the instrument - quently found to be in different states.* used is raised to a greater elevation. This, It appears also, from recent observations indeed, necessarily happens; for as the

by Schübler, that the electricity of the air, earth's surface is, cæteris paribus, always in calm and serene weather, is constantly negatively electrified, a continual but positive, but subject to two daily fluctua- gradual combination of its electricity with

tions. It is at its minimum a little before that of the air is constantly taking place sunrise : after which it gradually accumu- at its surface , so that no free positive

lates till it reaches its first maximum at electricity can be detected within four feet 8 A.m. in May; and then diminishes until of the surface of the earth .” I it has descended to its second minimum. The second maximum occurs in the even2984. Thunder -storm .-- Although the ing about two hours after sunset ; and presence of electricity is thus accounted then diminishes at first rapidly, and next in for, its manifest action in a thunder

slower progression during the whole of the storm is not easily analysed. Storm night, to present again,on the following clouds are at first small, and they rapidly

day, the same oscillations. It is probable become larger by accumulating all the that the exact time of its increase andde- vapours around them, when the sky is crease is influenced by the seasons. The generally seen of a pale-blue colour. At

intensity increases from July to January, times storm -clouds are formed in the and then decreases ; it is also much more horizon, where they remain either isolated intense in the winter, though longer in or unite together. Their characteristics

summer, and appears to increase as the are, that the cirri found in the upper part cold increases.

These fluctuations may of the atmosphere pass to a

state of

be observed throughout the year more thick cirro -cumulus, through the cumulus, easily in fine than in cloudy weather. to a compact and uniform mass of cumulo stratus.' The entire mass presents remark

2983. “ Among the causes modifying able opposition of light - one part being the

electric state of the atmosphere," ob- denselyblue-black, others ash- gray - and

serves Dr Bird, “ must be ranked its if the sun is near to setting, a yellow or

hygrometric state, as well as probably the orange colour may pervade the entire mass.

nature of the effluvia which may become volatilised in any given locality. Thus,

Saussure bas observed , that its intensity

2985. The formation of storm - clouds is

is much more considerable in elevated and preceded by a slow and continued fall of isolated places narrow than in and con- the barometer, as must be the case when fined situations : it is nearly absent in cirri occupy the sky. The calmness of

houses, under lofty trees, in narrow courts the air, and a suffocating heat, due to the and alleys, and in enclosed places. In want of evaporation on the surface of our warm places, the most intensely electric bodies, are circumstances quite character

state of the atmosphere appears to be that istic. The heat does not proportionately in which large clouds and dense fogs are affect the thermometer, and is peculiar to

suspended in the air, at short distances the lower strata of the air, for it decreases * Forbes's Report on Meteorology, vol.i. p.253. I Bird's Elements of Natural Philosophy, p. 209.

of Journal of Science and of the Arts, No. IV.

10

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

rapidly with the height-- twice as rapidly a zigzag form , though in reality it is of the form of a helix, or spiral screw , we

as in ordinary circumstances.

call itforked. Theunequal conductibility 2986. The electric fluid accumulates of the air explains this course of lightning, in the clouds of vapour.

When two as well as its bifurcations. The third

clouds, thus provided with electric matter kind, ball lightning, passes slowly from beyond theirusual state, are not far from the clouds to the earth, and is visible for each other, the electricity of the one al- several seconds ; whereas the lightnings ways becomes positive, and that of the of the other two kinds do not last for the

other negative. Being in the opposite millionth part of a second, according to states ofelectricity, they attract and ap- the observations of M. Arago. proach each other ; and when the approach comes within the distance in which the 2989. Lightning is generally of a daz

force of the positive electricity is able to zling white colour, and when the electric overcome theresistance of the air between spark is sent through vacuo, it is always the positive and negative clouds, the fluid of a blue colour, which would seem to leaves the positive and enters into the indicate that the true colour of electricity

negative cloud in lightning in such quan- is blue. Now, as electricity is known to tity as to restore the equilibrium of both. promote vegetation, ( 135 to 150, ) and as The forcible passage of the fluid causes such a concussion in the air between the two clonds that its vibrations, striking against the earth and mountains, cause

the blue rays more greatly accelerate

vegetation than any of the others, (193 ) the exciting action of electricity in plants may be connected with its blue colour.

the noise which is heard in thunder . 2990. The motion of the electric fluid

2987. The time taken by the electric is most commonly from the clouds to the

fluid to pass from one cloud to another is earth, though numerous examplesexist of inappreciable, but the velocity of sound is its having followed an opposite direction . calculable. For every 41 seconds of time It is probable, however, that in most cases which elapse after seeing the lightning to of electric explosion, the fluid leaves hearing the thunder, the cloudsare situate both clouds, or the cloud and the earth, at as many miles from the auditor. Far at

one time .

However this may be, the

sea, wbere are no objects for sound to be stroke always goes in the most direct line, reflected from , thunder is very seldom even through substances of the least con

heard ; whereas in a mountainous country ducting power. Animals are frequently

it inspires terror, though, being mere struck,because their fluids easily conduct sound , it can do no harm ; while the light- the Auid ; while the shock given to the

ning, which can do harm , does allthe body seems to be through the nervous mischief it can before we are aware of its system . presence.

2991. Hence lightning -conductors, call

2988. Lightning is of three kinds. If ed paratonnères, have been recommended the lightning joins two clouds, whose not only to draw off the fluid quietly from

height isnot equal, the sky appears irregu- the atmosphere into the earth, which they larly illuminated . If the lightning goes certainly do when attached to houses, but from a cloud to the earth , we observe a

also with the view of lessening the number

narrow train of dazzling light, surrounded and virulency of thunder-storms, whịch it by a less intense light. We observe the is doubtful that any number of conductors

same train when it joins two clouds of would effect -- since at Zurich, and its equal height, because there is no lower vicinity, the houses are studded with cloud in this case to hide it from our view. conductors, and storms are not less rare The two sorts of lightning are of course there than elsewhere.

identical, and we naine them differently because they affect our sense of sight

2992. Electricity emits

a peculiar

differently. When weremark a point of odour, somethinglike sulphur, or perhaps light which is not clearly defined ,we call rather garlic. This odour is generally it sheet lightning. When lightning is of attributed to the discharge of minute par

1!

!

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

11

ticles of metal from the conductor of the strata of cumuli exist beneath, the clouds electric machine ; but Professor Schoenbein

make a vertical exchange of lightnings.

of Basle considers it to arise from an ele- We must therefore assign to storms a

mentary body, which he calls ozone, libe- great height, in contradiction to the gene

rated from combination by the decompos- rally received opinion, and no storms have ing action of electricity, and which, in its been measured at a lower position than electrical characters, resembles chlorine, 4000 feet from the earth to the lowest part bromine, and iodine ; and it has been of the lowest clouds. stated that he has actually decomposed nitrogen into hydrogen and ozone.

2996. On a serene evening, in summer , we often see after sunset intermittent

2993. The noise of thunder is not lights that illumine a great portion of the always the same, for when it falls direct sky, and these are called heat lightnings. to the surface of the ground, those near hear a dry noise of varying power, which 2997. When a storm is situated below ceases immediately ; while those at a dis- the horizon, we observe in the evening,

tance hear a series of noises rapidly suc- and during the night, very brilliant flashes ceeding each other, completely different of lightning - while no thunder is heard , however from the volleys of thunder. M. because the storm is too fardistant from Dove explains these varied noises thus : With a flash that falls directly, the noise caused by the first explosion is heard at the same instant as the last ; while in a horizontal flash, the noises produced at

the observer for the noise of the thunder

to reach his ear. Every one may con vince himself that lightnings are reflected through the air with great intensity on a dark night. When a storm is in the W.,

the greater distances arrive later than the and the remainder of the sky is serene,

others, and a flash whicb extends over we have only to turn our back to the 2000 yards will produce a noise which storm to see the lightning reflected in the will last 7 seconds. In the zigzag light- E.

ning the noise reaches the ear at different 2998. In a thunder- storm , says M. intervals ; and it is at the angles that the noise is strongest, on account of the com- Tessan, “flashes of lightning, of a terrible pression of the air, and hence the unequal brilliancy, succeed each other with extreme

intensity of the sound. The rolling of rapidity, and are almost instantly followed thunder is thus explained by M. Arago : by tremendous claps of thunder,which are

“ Lightnings only occupy a point in space, themselves succeeded bydelugingshowers.” and give place to a short and instantaneous noise . Multiple lightnings, on the contrary, are accompanied by a rolling, because the different parts of long lines

But though the order of the phenomena is obvious, and well understood, yet the ruling cause of the order is a matter of dispute - it being yet unsettled whether the storm pro

which the lightnings occupy are in general duces the electricity or the electricity the found at different distances, and the sounds storm . M. Tessan, following the order of

which are there engendered, either suc- phenomena, supports the latter view ; and

cessively or at the same physical instant, Kaemtz supports the former with this must employ times gradually unequal in reasoning :-“ A flash of lightning passes order to reach the ear of the observer . ”

the zenith, and before the clap of thunder,

but rarely afterwards, the rain or hail 2994. All thunder - storms may be escapes in torrents from the cloud ; the divided into two classes, the one class being drops at first in a line inclined to the due to the action of an ascending current, horizon, and then return to a vertical and which only occurs in the hot season ; direction.

It is commonly stated,” he

and the other class is the result of a con- observes, “ that the rain is the effect of the flict between two opposite winds, and is lightnings tearing the clouds; but it is the gust of wind condensing the vapours the cause of the winter thunder -storms. into large drops, having first driven them 2995. Thunder-storms in summer al-

into a horizontal direction : hence, the

ways commence with cirri, and when escape of electricity, and the clap of

these become thicker, or when several thunder. As a proof that this condensa

12

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

tion precedes the lightning, the rain often the day, and seldom in the night. In falls before the noise ofthe thunder is England hail falls most in winter ; and at

heard . Now , the latter travels 333 metres Plymouth , according to Mr Giddy, in the ( 1092 feet) per second ; if, therefore, the

course of 21 years, its recurrence in each rain was an effect of lightning, it would month was, in Times . Times , follow that the drops of water would bave July, I fallen with a velocity at least equal-a January, 23 August, 0 February, 25 velocity which they never have, even at 25 September, 5 March , the end of their fall.”* 2999. Thunder -storms are of great use

April, May, June,

27 7 5

October, 17 November, 22 December, 43

in the economyof the atmosphere. The In August is absolute zero, and in Decem surplus electricity is disposed of to the ber is the maximum . The appearance of earth, the surplus vapour is condensed and sent down to the earth in rain , the air is prevented from becoming stagnant, the extraneous matters floating in the air

hail-clouds seems tobe distinguished from other stormy clouds by a remarkable shad ing ; their edges present a multitude of indentations, and their surfaces disclose

are brought down to the earth, whether here and there immense irregular pro these be in a solid or gaseous state, ( 290 tuberances. Hail seldom falls in deep valleys surrounded by mountains. It falls

to 295.)

more on the sea -coast than in the interior

3000. Hail. — The fall of ice from the of a country. atmosphere in the hottest weather is a 3002. Noise frequently accompanies or phenomenon not easily solved. That both snow and ice are required in the formation precedes a fall of hail. It is probably due ofbail there cannot be a doubt. “ The form

to the hailstones beating against each

of hailstones varies. They are nearly other, or to the conflict of contrary winds.

uniform when they fall on the same

The latter are frequently so violent that

level ; and in the same storm they have the hailstones are transported in a hori fallen smaller on the tops of mountains zontal direction. It is often observed that

than on the plains. Change of tempera- the wind blows in puffs, and that each of ture or wind alters the form of bail. On 7th July 1769, M. Adanson observed six -sided pyramids fall ; but the wind changing to N.E., changed them to convex

them is accompanied with a torrent of hail. If the bail falls as usual at intervals, bailstones, which are at first driven hori zontally, finally mingle with the drops of

lenses, and so transparent as to transfer rain ; and in the end there is nothing but objects without distortion. Hail is some- rain, the drops falling vertically on the times attended with spongy snow, which surface of the earth . may have formed the interior of the hail stone, while its exterior was transparent

3003. Although bail-storms are very

ice. It has been supposed from this, that violent, they occupy but a very limited the different portions have been formed space. They will occur at the foot of under different circumstances.

Leslie mountains and in the plain, while nothing

imagines the spongy texture to result from

but rain falls on the mountains adjoiving,

an atom of water having been suddenly and in their march they leave a narrow

frozen, and particles of perhaps rarified train of bailstones. pyramidal form fell at Aberdeen on 29th 3004. Both the barometer and air suddenly driven into the centre. The

November 1823. The usual form of hail

thermo

meter are affected by hail-storms. The

is a concentric lamellar structure, with a barometer falls on the approach of a hail

stellular fibrous arrangement .” +

storm , and immediately after the storm

has passed the temperature falls, and the 3001. Hail generally falls in the hottest contrast is the more severely felt in con hours of the day in Spain, Italy , and sequence of the great heat prior to the France. It falls in Europe generally in approach of the storm . The lowering of the * Kaemtz? Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 345-368. + Encyclopedia Metropolitana - art. Meteorology, p. 129.

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

13

temperature for two or three weeks after the formation of hail-have been erected

a severe bail-storm , would indicate that in parts of the Continent, to save the vine such a storm has a much greater effect yards from the hail ; and if electricity is upon the atmosphere, and must therefore connected with the formation of hail, these

be much more extensive, than the space should have some such effect, but there covered by the fall of hailstones would are no authentic records of their utility. Indeed, Kaemtz asks, are not forests a

lead us to believe.

collection of living paragrêles, and yet

3005. As to the formation of bail, the they are not spared by bail. Vegetable difficulty of accounting for the retention of the masses of ice in the free atmosphere, as observed byProfessorForbes, is certainly verygreat. Volta's theory, than which none is more satisfactory, and certainly none

points possess great powers of conduction. According toMr Pine of Maidstone, a blade of grass is a betterconductor of electricity than a steel needle, and that the spines upon thorns, gooseberry bushes, and indeed

more ingenious, is thus particularlyexplain- ' the whole creation of buds and leaves, have ed by Kaemtz:-Evaporation is favoured by the property of silently drawing off and the solar rays striking the upper part of the conducting away electricity. cloud ; the air above is very dry ; the elec tric state of the clouds favours evaporation. 3008. Sleet.— Very small hailstones are

Of two clouds, the one upper the other termed sleet. They are mostly spherical. becomes in a state ofpositive, and thelower, and of a whiteness approaching to that of in consequence, in that of negative electri snow. The largest are sometimes sur

lower, the upper is first formed ; the upper Isolated ones are opaque, frequently soft,

city ; the snow -flakes of the lower stratum rounded with a slight film of ice. They fall of clouds are in the same electrical condi- in winter and spring during gusty weather,

tion with it ; they are therefore repelled and rarely accompany storms,but always and attracted by the upper stratum ; as soon fall during gales ,and when the weather

as they touch it they partake of its electri- is variable, and such gusts of cold wind city , are repelled, and fall to the lower seem a necessary condition for the forma cloud, into which they penetrate ; they are tion of sleet.* again repelled, and so on. These attrac tions and repulsions may last for several

3009. Clouds. - The forms of the clouds

hours, during which time the grains unite in summer are very distinctly marked. in masses, and condense around them the When a deposition of vapour is taking surrounding vapours, which they convert place in the highest part of the atmosphere, into ice ; they strike against each other, the cirrus appears (242;) and when it and originate the noise which is heard ; soon disappears, it is a sign of fine weather ; when the bailstones have attained a certain but instead of disappearing, it may descend size, the lower cloud can no longer retain a little lower, and be converted into the

them , and resisting the action of gravity, cirro-cumulus (250, -an elegant, light, they traverse the stratum and fall to the flocculent cloud so often seen in a fine earth. The violence of the storm is ac- summer day. A farther deposition changes

counted for by the meeting of two oppo- this small cloud into the larger cumulus, called the day -cloud in summer, because it disappears in another form in the even The contact. tated of at the moment precipi N. wind prevails, and accounts both for ing, ( 245.) The cumulus is distinctly re

site winds, the N. and the S. The hail

the cold which succeeds and the rapid for- presented in Plate XIII. oftheLeicestertup mation of hail.

near the horizon, where it frequently takes up its position for the greater part of the

3006. Pieces of straw , and in Iceland day, resting on the vapour plane. When a volcanic ashes, have been found within large cumulus rises from the horizon in the hailstones.

daytime, with white towering heads, it is a sign of a storm or fall of rain from that

3007. Paragrêles - tall posts erected for quarter ; and the wind will change to that

drawing off the eleccricity, and opposing direction in the course of the next twenty * Kaemtz' Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 387 and 582.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

14

four hours. This threatening cloud , called may judge of the immense mass of cumulo -stratus, is given in Plate VIII., of water required daily to supply the wants the Draught Mare. In calm serene even- of vegetation. And when we know that

ings in summer, the day -cloud descends evaporation, besides, carries an incredible and subsides in the bottom of valleys, or quantity of vapour direct from the surface spreads itself in hollows of the open coun- of the ground into the atmosphere, it may try, covering the ground like a lake or a more excite our surprise where all the re sheet of snow, as seen in moonlight, when quisite moisture can be derived from , than it becomes the true stratus cloud. Tall that too much has been provided. objects, such as trees, steeples, and even elevated ground , jut through this cloud like 3013. The quantity of rain which falls rocks and islands in a lake.

The air is in the summermonths, as we have adopted

then perfectly calm, the temperature de- them, taking the mean quantity as 1, is,

lightfully warm , and the intenseness of the according toM. Flaguergues, in silence is broken only by the snipe drum ming in its curious somersaults in theair-

by the harsh ventriloquous cry of the corn craik amongst the grass — or by the occa sional barking of the watch -dog at some distant homestead .

May, June, July,

0-0847 0.0765 0.0544

0.2156 .

The morning after

such a night is sure to usher in the sun in 3014. The number of rainy days in the bright and peerless splendour, whose steady same months, according to the same autho

heat soon evaporates the sheet-like stratus rity, is as follows: cloud from the valley and hollows, ele vating it, in the form of the beautiful,

compact, day- cloud, above the mountain

Days.

In May, June, July ,

15-8 11 : 8 16 : 1

top or vapour-plane. 43 7

3010. The effect of larger masses of

cloud, and especially cumuli, on the small-

3015. Ofthese quantitiesmuch the largest

er clouds in their vicinity is evidently proportion of rain in the same time is de marked in summer. The approximation rived from thunder -storms, though of course of clouds towards each other is always at- an entire rainy day may supply more tended with some alteration of their ap- than any storm . When rain falls in a

pearance , and clouds are constantly ope- shower to the extent of 1:18 inch in a day, rating on and altering each other's forms. the low plains of Europe become inundated,

Analogy leads us to refer all such changes while at Joyeuse 8.84 inches have been to the operation of the different states of known to fall in that time. In noun electricity in the clouds nearest each other, tainous countries such showers are not rare, because the winds frequently blow 3011. Rain . — The character of the rain with violence in several contrary directions. in summer is refreshing ; for even in a

rainy season , thongh we may feel displeased at being kept by it within doors on a summer day, we feel assured that it will in a great measure be absorbed by the immense mass of vegetation which is in constant activity during this season .

3016. It is stated by Kaemtz that, if on the N. of the Alps and the Pyreneesthe wind always blew from the N.E., no rain would ever fall in Central Europe, and that if it always blew from the S.W. it

3012. Since the experiments of Dr

3017. The boundary -line of the pro

would never be fair .

Hales proved that a sunflower plant, 34 vince of summer rainsin Europe proceeds feet high, and an ordinary- sized cabbage, W. from the Carpathian mountains to

on the average perspire 22 ounces of the N. of the Alps, through the middle of water every twenty -four hours, and conse- France, the west of Holland, and by the

qnently absorb at least that quantity, * we north part of the Gulf of Bothnia, through * Hales' Statical Essays, vol. i. p. 12 and 15.

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

15

the White Sea to the Arctic Ocean,* and 3022. A day wind betwixt the moun it includes all that large portion of Europe tains and plains exists in the same manner to the E. of it.

as the land and sea breezes, though to a less degree.

3018. Every one may have observed rain to fall without the appearance of a

3023. The alternation of all these winds

cloud. When the equilibrium of the higher is explainedby the unequal heating of the

regions is violently disturbed , especially land and of the sea , and of that of the when any cold N. winds come into col- mountains and the plain ; and as conti

lision with those from the S., it may nents are hotter in summer and colder in happen that rain falls from a serene sky. winter than the contiguous sea, the sea

Large drops are seen to moisten the earth, breeze ought to predominate in summer , and yet atthe zenith the sky is blue. The and the land breeze in winter . vapours condense into water, without pass ing through the intermediate state of vesi-

3024. In summer, when the wind is

cular vapours.

Humboldt gives several variable, rain is indicated, and also when examples of the kind, and Kaemtz remarks the wind blows along the surface of the from his own observations that the fact is ground and raises the dust towards the not very rare, having observed it twice or face.

When currents of air are seen to

tbrice annually. I have frequently ob- move in different directions, the upper one served this phenomenon .

will most probably ultimately prevail. When it is uncertain whether there be any

3019. Winds. — The character of the breeze, the lifting up of a wetted finger winds in summer in this country is gentle will instantly feel the current, and indicate and refreshing

the quarter from whence it comes.

3020. This is the season for the land

3025. In summer, especially in July,

and sea breezes. In fine weather, on the is perceived in the sea -coasts, no movemento'clock in the mornair until eight or nine ing, when a breeze from the sea gradually

the wind blows chiefly from the W.— the E. at this predominance of W. winds over season attaining its maximum ; and at the same time the N. winds become more com

rises, and increases in strength to three mon ; whence it follows that the mean o'clock in the afternoon, when it decreases, direction of the wind in this season is N. and gives place, after a short period of of the annual mean. calm , to a breeze from the land towards the 3026. When the wind blows strongly sea , which rises soon after sunset, and at-

from any quarter, even from the S. W., tains its maximum of velocity and extent which is the warmest wind in summer, for at the moment of sunrise. two or three days in succession, the tem

3021. The direction of these two breezes perature of the air is diminished, sometimes

is perpendicular to the coast line, but if as much as 20 °, and seldom less than 10°. another breeze arises at the sametime they are modified in various ways. On the E.

3027. When small whirlwinds are seen

coast of this island, if the wind blows from raising the dust upon the roads or fields, the E. the sea breeze will be strong, and it is a sign of dryweather. I remember the land breeze weak ; and on the W. coast, seeing, in the neighbourhood of Berlin, a the land breeze will be stronger than the large and beautiful whirlwind, in a hot sea breeze.

These effects will be the con-

calm day, raise the sandy soil of a field,

trary with a W. wind. In a wind from in a perpendicular direction, to a great the N. or the S. both the land and sea height in the air, and move majestically breeze will be changed in their direction away out of sight . respectively to the N.E. and S.W.

The

sea breeze is very weak in gulfs, and

3028. Evaporation . - In proportion as

the land breeze is as weak on promon- the sun rises above the horizon the eva tories. poration increases, and the air receives * Johnston's Physical Atlas - Meteorology, Map iv.

E

PRACTIC

16

- SUMMER .

every moment a greater quantity of tant element in nature, for the promotion

vapour. The fact of the rising of the of vegetation in summer. We have al vapour from the ground, may be dis- ready considered its nature and composi tinctly observed in summer,by the flick- tion, ( from 189 to 194.) Its properties ering with which distant objects are seen through the vapour. But as the air opposes an obstacle to the formation of vapour ( 229,) it becomes further and fur-

are most evidently manifested in this sea son , and these have beenshortly and for cibly enumerated by Dr Lindley. “ It is to the action of leaves," he observes— “ to

ther removed from the point of saturation, the decomposition of their carbonic acid and the relative humidity becomes more and of their water ; to the separation of and more feeble. The rate continues the aqueous particles of the sap from the without interruption, until the moment solid parts that were dissolved in it ; to

.when the temperature attains its maximum . In summer the absolute quantity of vapour increases in the morning, but before mid -day the maximum occurs, and

the deposition thus effected of various earthy and other substances, either intro duced into plants, as silex and metallic salts, or formed there, as vegetable alka

in different months it occurs sooner or loids ; to the extrication of nitrogen, and

later. The absolute quantity of vapour then diminishes, until the time of the highest temperature of the day, without however attaining a minimum so low as

probably to other causes as yet unknown that the formation of the peculiar secre tious of plants, of whatever kind, is owing. And this is brought about principally, if

that of the morning. As the temperature not exclusively, by the agency of light. rises during all this space of time, it follows, Their green colour becomes intense , in that the air is farther and farther from the proportion to their exposure to light point of saturation : after having attained within certain limits, and feeble, in pro

its minimum, the quantity of vapour again portion to their removal from it; tilſ, in increases very regularly until next morn- total and continued darkness, they are ing, while the air becomes relatively more entirely destitute of green secretion, and and more moist.

become blanched and etiolated . The same result attends all their other secre

3029. Vapour being the result of the action of heat on water, it is evident that its quantity must vary in different seasons. The relative differences in the tension of the vapours of water in the spring and

tions ; timber, gum, sugar,acids, starch ,oil, resins, odours, flavours,and all the number

summer seasons, are as follows: In February, it is March,

4.749 5.107

less narcotic, acrid, aromatic, pungent, as

tringent, and other principles derived from the vegetable kingdom, are equally influ enced , as to quantity and quality, by the amount of light to which the plants pro

ducing them have been exposed .” +

6.247

April, Their sum,

16.103

3031. To show the advantage that summer possesses over all the other seasons

as regards light, it is only requisite to In May, it is

7.836 10.843 11.626

June,

July,

state its comparative duration in the re spective months of the seasons, as we have

divided the year, and it will then be seen that summerenjoys more than double the light of winter, a half more than spring, The quantity of vapour attains its maxi- and a third more than autumn. Thus, mum in July, the month in which the air IN WINTER . is driest. We thus see that evaporation November has 8 hours 10 minutes of light a -day. 30.305

is nearly twice as active in summer as in

spring.*

...

7 7

8 ...

41

3030. Light . - Light is a most impor * Kaemtz’ Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 85, 92.

+ Lindley's Theory of Horticulture, p. 52.

...

mean of 7

44

...

December, January, Making a

::

Their sum,

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS. IN SPRING.

hence it is that they illuminate the vault

February , has 9 hours 30 minutes of light a -day. 11 14

49

mean of 11

49

determine the insensible transition be

3033. Heat. - We have already con 11 16 45 44

mean of 16

...

creases with that of the latter.

:::

17

...

...

...

25

to ( 162. ) As beat always accompanies light with the solar rays, its intensity in

:::

34 23

::

12

...

sidered the properties of heat from (158)

:::::

...

Making a IN AUTUMN. August, 14 September, ... 12 October, 10 Making a

tween day and night.

:::::

...

...

IN SUMMER . 16 May, June, 17 July, 16

mean of

of heaven, light up terrestrial objects on which the sun does not shine directly, and

:::::

March, April, Making a

17

The acti

nometer and heliothermometer, as well as the pyreheliometer of Pouillet, bave all been employed to measure that intensity, and the results seem to be satisfactory.

It would appear that a very large propor tion of the heat of the solar ray is absorbed

in passing through the atmosphere, and 3032. Besides its existence for a greater

that the proportion is increased as the

number of hours each day, light is of sun approaches the horizon . The results greater intensity in summer than in the of some experiments made by Professor

other seasons; because it is then trans- Forbes of Edinburgh , with M. Kaemtz, in mitted through the atmosphere at a higher 1832 at Brientz, and on the Faulhorn in angle. The light of the sun or of the Switzerland, are interesting, and rather moon, in its passage from the meridian, is startling — to learn that so large a propor dazzling, whilst we can gaze at either tion of the solar heat is absorbed by the body when near the horizon, because their atmospheric air. It appears that the rays cannot so easily penetrate through bundle of calorific solar rays, on enteriug the thick stratum of atmosphere they have into our atmosphere, is composed of two there to traverse, and many of them are sorts of rays ; the one easily absorbable by

absorbed. If it were possible to measure the atmosphere, the other absolutely re the intensity of solar light at different fusing all extinction ; the former form

elevations, we might indicate the quan- nearly 0.8, and the latter 0-2 of the num tity of the absorption of those rays. The ber. The law of the extinction of the actinometer of Herschel and the helio- rays of the first order is a geometrical thermometer of Saussure have been em- progression, according to thehypothesis of

ployed for the purpose, but unsuccessfully. Bouger, Kaemtz, & c., such thatthe verti Messrs Fizeau andFoucault, more recently, cal transmission through the atmosphere, bave tried to effect the purpose by taken from its base, the level of the sea ,

Dagnerrean plates, and they have mea- to its superior limit, reduces the 80 absorb sured the intensity of light by its chemical able rays out of each 100 to 33. It fol effects ; and they regard it as very pro- Jows from this theory, that the portion of bable, that the luminous radiations ofwhite the heat which is not absorbed in the case

light possess optical and chemical inten- of vertical transmission, instead of being sities in the same ratio . Light and heat 75 per cent of the extra atmospheric heat, are so intimately connected with the solar is only 53 per cent. Calculating serene

rays, that it is difficult to separate the two and cloudy days, we thus see that the manifestations, so that the measure of the earth does notprofit bymore than a very intensity of the calorific rays may also be small portion of the* sun's rays that arrive regarded as that of the luminous. On at theatmosphere.* considering the nature of this absorption of the solar rays by the atmospheric air,

3034. Prognostics. - In summer, when

we must necessarily conclude that a por- falling stars appear, some feature of the tion only is absorbed — others are allowed cirro -stratus may generally be seen about.

to pass, and a third portion is reflected ; They indicate the approach of a thunder * Kaemtz? Complete Course of Meteorology, pp. 150, 403. VOL. II .

B

18

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

storm .

Fire - balls are not uncommon in And,

warm summer nights, particularly when cirro-cumulus, cirro-stratus, and electric

When clouds appear like rocks and towers, The earth ' s refreshed by frequent showers.

clouds abound . 3041. The summer flowers consist of

ranunculus, goatbeard, harebell, scar 3035. The barometer remainspretty the let lychnis ,poppy,lily, and rose ; and

stationary in summer, and comparatively high, any remarkable oscillation being a with numerous suchlike flowers the ground sudden fåll before a violent wind from the is literally covered with a profusion of

S. W. It was an observationof Dr Dal- beautiful creations. ton, that in summer, after a long continu ance of fair weather, with the barometer

3042. The metrical proverbs connected

high, it generally falls gradually, and for with the summer are not many. one, two, or more days, before there is mnch appearance of rain. If the fall be sudden, and great for the season, it will

probably be followed by thunder.

May.

A cold May and a windy, Makes a full barn and a findy.

May , comes she early, or comes she late, She'll make the cow to quake.

3036. The thermometer is also steady

and high, only indicating a great fall dur ing a hail-storm .

Beans blow - before May doth go. A May flood - never did good. Shear your sheep in May — and shear all away. A swarm of bees in May Is worth a load of hay.

3037. The air is clear and dry in sum

mer, the clouds high, and the wind breezy. The changes from this state are occasioned by thunder and hail storms, and such changes are always sudden and violent.

Look at your corn in May, And you'll come weeping away. JUNE.

Look at your corn in June, And you'll come home in another tune. Calm weather in June - sets corn in tune.

3038. Animals are numerous in sum

mer, and constantly in the air, and their covering of hair and feathers being pecu liarly sensible to the changes of the atmo sphere, give rise to such motions in the

animals as are significant of approaching changes in the weather. Ducks,geese, all

JULY.

A swarm of bees in July—is not worth a fly. A shower in July , when the corn begins to fill, Is worth a plough of oxen, and all belongs theretill .

No tempest, good July ! Lest corn come off blue by.

waterfowl, theguinea - fowl, peacock , crows,

frogs, and sparrows, make much noise be-

3043. Among the superstitious prognos

fore a fall of rain . Bees roam but a short

tics connected with the weather still in

distance from their hives, and ants carry existence, it is mentioned that if St Ur

their eggs busily before rain. Magpies ban’s day, 25th May, be fair, the Germans chatter much before wind. Spiders cover count on a good vintage, but if stormy,

everything with their gossamer when the the reverse is said to be indicated. The weather is to continue fine. forty days' rain ascribed to St Swithin, on the 15th July, is another well-known 3039. Wild flowers indicate changes in superstition, and may be ranked among the atmosphere as sensibly as animals. those originating in atmospheric pheno

Chickweed expands freely and remains mena ; for although the placing of the open fully, in a continuance of fine weather. prognostic to the account of St Swithin is When it, with the trefoil and convol- palpably the effect of ignorance and cre vulus, contracts its petals, rain may be dulity, yet, if rainy weather occur about expected .

the 15th July, it will be oflong continuance, as whatever weather sets in soon after

3040. Particular forms of clouds also the summer solstice is of long continuance, indicate both steady and changeable according to reference in many jour weather, as thus :

nals of the weather.

The influence now

If woolly fleeces strew the heavenly way,

ascribed to St Swithin used to be shared

Be sure no rain disturbs the summer day.

by St John the Baptist, and by St Paul.

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

19

St Margaret's day, 20th July, used to have hours, or happen above once a -year. If it some curious superstitions connected with begins torain an hour or two before sun it, relative to the fecundating power of rising, it is like to be fair before noon, and this lady's festival, quite at variance with continne so that day ; but if the rain begin

her character as a virgin martyr. Probably an hour or two after sun-rising, it is like

it may be connected with the circumstance, to rain all that day, except the rainbow that heifers are commonly put to the bull be seen before it rains.”. about this period of the year. 3046. Rainbow .- As showers of rain

3044. Among many remains of augury extant at the present day, may be mentioned the common practice of nailing up dead kites, crows, owls, hawks, weasels,

fall most frequently in summer, so is the rainbow most frequently seen in that sea son.

For the formation of a rainbow it

is sufficient that the sun strike drops of

and other rapacious animals against the water with its rays, and thus may be seen doors of barns, stables, and outhouses — a rainbows on clouds, and even on terres

custom which originated in an endeavour trial objects. In order to see a rainbow, to terrify their living compeers, and to it is necessary thatour face be turned away warn them not to obtrude themselves.

from the sun, and directed towards the rain

drops falling in the opposite direction of 3045. The Shepherd of Banbury's rules

the heavens. What we then see is an arc

affecting the weather of the summer quar- composed of the prismatic colours, ( 191.) ter are these : - “ In summer or harvest, arranged in parallel and concentric arcs, when the wind has been S. two or three the centre of which is formed by the

days, and it grows very hot, and you see shadow of the spectator's bead. When two clouds arise with great white tops like arcs appear, they are concentric on the towers, as if one were upon the top of an- same centre. In the interior bow , which other, and joined together with black on is the more frequently seen, and the colours

the nether side, there will be thunder and of which are the more vivid, the violet rain suddenly. If two such clouds arise, colour is within and the red without, and

one on either hand, it is time to make consequently, the red space is greater than haste to shelter. If you see a cloud rise the violet; and when two arcs appear, the against the wind , or side-wind, when the cloud comes up to you, the wind will blow the same way that the cloud came ; and the same rule holds of a clear place , when all the sky is equally thick except one clear edge . If the clouds look dusky, or of a

outer one has the colours reversed , and con sequently the violet rays predominate . The colours are more or less vivid in pro portion to the intensity of the rays of the sun ; and hence it is that lunar rainbows rarely exhibit the prismatic colours, being

tarnish silver colour,and move very slowly, merely whitish or yellowish . it is a sign of hail ; and if there be a mixture of blue in the clouds, the hail will

3047. The conditions under which the

be small, but if very yellow , large. Small inner bow is formed , are, that the ray scattering clouds that fly very high, es- from the sun, in passing through the drop

pecially from the S. W., denote whirl- of rain, is refracted towards the opposite winds . The shooting of falling stars side of the drop, where it is reflected, and through them is a sign of thunder . Snu- directed again by another refraction to den rains never last long ; but when the wards the eye. The different prismatic

air grows thick by degrees, and the sun, colours are reflected to the eye under dif moon, and stars sbine dimmer and dimmer, ferent angles . The red ray, in these cir then it is like to rain six hours usually. cumstances, subtends an angle of 42° 23' ;

If it begin to rain from the S., with a high and the violet ray only 40° 29' ; so that wiud for two or three hours, and the wind the width of the arc is 1° 54'. falls but the rain continues, it is like to

rain twelve hours ormore ,and does usually

3048. When the ray is twice reflected

rain till a strong N. wind clears the air. on the back of the rain drop, before it

These long rains seldom hold above twelve reaches the eye, a double bow is observed ; * The Shepherd of Banbury's Rules, p. 27, 41 .

20

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

and the angles formed by the different colours, in this case, is for the red 50 ° 21 ', and for the violet 53° 46' ; the width of the arc being 3° 25'.

by their exterior surface, whilst the drops placed below do send them , and these, not withstanding their divergence, vaguely illuminate the space situated beneath the bow . *

3049. A third and a fourth bow may be

formed ; but the intensity of the light from

3053. The prognostics connected with

these is so feeble that they are rarely seen. the rainbow are the following :-After a I have at times observed a triple bow.

long drought the bow is a certaia sign of rain ; and after much wet, of fair weather.

3050. I have hitherto considered only a single drop of rain, and as it moves rapidly, the image from it can only last for a moment; but if a great number of drops fall in succession in the same direction, each of them will produce an image in the same place, and the sensation produced by the colours will remain permanent. It is evident that, as the various colours subtend different angles with the eye, only one person can see the same rainbow.

When the green is large and bright, it indicates rain ; and when the red is the strongest colour, both wind and rain are indicated . If the bow break up at once, there will follow serene andsettled weather. When the bow is seen in the morning, rain will follow ; if at noon, settled and heavy rain ; and at night, fair weather. The appearance of two or three rainbows indi cates fair weather for the present, but settled and heavy rain in two or three days after.

3051. When the sun is in the horizon, 3054. The appearance of twilight, de the bow appears a semicircle, with an pending on the state of the sky, foretells

apparent diameter of 41°. When the sun to a certain extent the weather of the is 41° above the horizon, the apex of the following day. When the sky is blue, bow will be a tangent to the plane of the and after sunset the western region is horizon. If the sun is still bigber, the covered with a slight purple tint, we may

bow will be seen projected on the ground, be sure that the weather will be fair, and the colours will be very pale. When especially if the horizon seem covered the sun attains the height of 52°, a rain- with a slight smoke. After rain , isolated bow cannot be formed at noon in summer. clouds, coloured red and well illuminated, When the head is elevated above the announce the return of fair weather.

A

plane of the sun, as on a mountain , a twilight of a whitish yellow, especially

larger portion of the arc is seen than the when it extends to a distance in the sky, semicircle, in proportion to the height of is not a sign of fair weather for the fol the mountain, from whence may be seen the lowing day. We may expect showers circle complete. When the head is ele- when the sun is of a brilliant white, and vated above the cloud, a red circle will be sets in the midst of a white light , which seen projected upon it, the rays of the sun scarcely permits us to distinguish it. The

from which will subtend an angle with the prognostication is still worse when light eye of 42° 23',and the apparent diameter cirri, that give the sky a dull appearance, appear deepernear the horizon ; and when the twilight is of a grayish red , in the 3052. When a vividly coloured rainbow midst of which are seen portions of a deep

of the circle will also be 42° 23'.

is projected on a dark cloud, the sky is red that pass into gray, and scarcelypermit much darker above than below the bow, which difference is the more striking when the sun is low. This is a phenomenon opposite to that connected with halos. If

the sun to be distinguished. In this case , vesicular vapour is very abundant, and we may calculate on wind and approaching rain.

we follow the course of the sun's rays in a

rain drop, we shall see that the drops situ-

3055. The signs drawn from daybreak

ated above that in which the bow is

are somewhat different. When it is very

formed do not send us the rays reflected red, we may expect rain ; wbilst a gray * Kaemtz? Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 440-4 .

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

21

morning announces fair weather. The or slightly connected, lying at rest or reason of the difference between a gray gently floating along, serene weathermay dawn and a gray twilight is, because in be confidently expected. A change of this

the evening the colour mainly depends on settled state is presaged by the wind sud cirri, in the morning on a stratus, which denly rising, by close continuous cirro soon yields to the rising sun ; whilst the strati gathering into an unbroken gloom,

cirri become thicker during the night. If and by that variety (of cirrus) known as at sunrise there is enough of vapours for the goat's-hair or gray-mare's-tail. Some the sun to appear red, it is then very pro- times a few fleecy clouds skim rapidly be bable that, in the course of the day, the tween the superincnmbent vapour and the ascending current will determine the for- earth's surface, and are the forerunners of snow or rain," (the scud). “ Should the mation of a thick stratum of clouds.* cirri 'not pass away with the immediate

3056. According to the opinion of Dr fall, but extend towards the horizon, and Kirwan , after forty-one years' observa- present their troubled edges towards the tions, it would appear that a dry summer zenith, there will be stormy weather for was followed by a dry autumn 5 times ; some time. When a modification of the

by a wet one, 5 times ; and a variable one, cirro -stratus is forined to leeward, thick in 12 times. À variable summer was fol- the middle, and wasting at both ends, with lowed by a dry autumn only once ; a wet its side to the wind like a ship lying to, it one , 3 times ; and a variable one, 12 indicates continued wind. After a clear times. frost, we sometimes see long whitish

coloured streaks of cirrus, ( cirro -stratus,) 3057. After a dry summer, the proba- whose two extremities seemingly approach

bility of a dry autumn occurring, is as 5 to each other as they recede fromthezenith. 16 ; a wet one, as 5 to 16 ; and a variable one as 6 to 16. After a wet summer, the probability of a dry autumn is as 1 to 5 ; à wet one as 3 to 5 ; and a variable one as

This appearance is vulgarly called Noah's ark ; and if it point from S.W.to N.E., we expect a thaw from S.W. Small blackish boat-shaped clouds rising in the W., and

1 to 5.

moving sideways, indicate a thaw , with

little or no rain. A short glare of red in

3058. In the beginning of any year, the the E., about sun -rising, portends a rainy probability of a dry summer is as 16 to and windy day. When the sky shines 41 ; of a wet one, 20 to 41 ; and of a

from the watery exhalations around the

variable one as 5 to 41 .

mid-day sun, rain or snow will soon follow ; when it has a green appearance to the E.

3059. It may prove useful to such of or N.E. , frost and snow. A crimson red you as may engage in pastoral farming, to in the W., after sunset, indicates fair

know the prognostications observed in weather; a purple red indicates sleet. pastoral countries; and I cannot do this Atmospheric changes are more likely to better than in the words of the Rev. Dr bappen a few days afternew and full moon Russell, minister of Yarrow .

It may be than in the quarters. The point when she

noticed that some of the prognostics have changes seems to have little influence; if already been enumerated ; but the concur- in the N.W. or N.W. by W., it is often rent testimony of certain prognostics, in succeeded by boisterous weather. When

high and low parts of countries, serve to her horns are sharp and well-defined, we confirm the more strongly the proba- look for frost ; when she is wbitish and bility of their truth . “ When there is a not very clear, for rain or snow . If the copious deposit of dew ," observes Dr new moon seenis to embrace the old, very

Russell, “ and it remains long on the stormy weather is likely to follow .

.

grass — when the fog in the valleys is Halos are seen only when the cirro -strati slowly dissipated by the sun's heat, and are slightly but equally diffused over the lingers on the hills—when the clouds ap- sky ; the sun or moon seems to wander

parently take a higher station, and espe- through the storm ,” which is at no great cially when a few cirro -strati appear loose distance. One side of the balo is often * Kaeintz’ Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 413.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

22

open or imperfectly formed , owing to the keenly, when flies keep near the ground,

denseness of the vapour, and points to the (shown by swallows, which feed upon the quarter from which the storm is approach- wing, flying low,) we look for wind and ing

.

Aurora borealis is most

rain .

But the most wonderful instance of

likely to appear in changeable weather, atmospherical changes is upon those crea and is often followed by a S.W. wind. tures that burrow in theground.

The

From the appearance of falling stars, it earth -worm appearing in abundance indi may be inferred that the equilibrium of cates rain . In like manner, the mole the atmosphere, held probably by the seems to feel its approach, as, a day or agency of electricity, is destroyed. They two before, he raises more billocks than

generally forbode wind, and when many of usual ; and when, after a long severe frost, them are seen, they are faithful though he begins again to work, it will soon be silent monitors, warning us to prepare, come fresh . The effects of electricity are with the earliest dawn, for the coming well known both on the atmosphere and storm. There is often much lightning in on animals; and the deposition of aqueous the night, both with and without clouds, vapours, with the relaxing damp near the which announces unsettled weather, especially if it be whitish in colour.

surface of the earth, which in certain states

takes place, may give rise to this increased When the wind shifts to the west, after activity."*

rain from S. or S.W., it generally fairs up, or there are but a few showers. Frost and snow from S.W. are forerunners of bad

3060. The strong and refreshing smell which is felt sometimes when showers

weather. If the wind turn suddenly from first fall, after a long drought in summer, S.W. or S. to N.N.E. , while this is accom- is not an invariable attendant on them, panied with a smell resembling that of coal even under the circumstances which seem smoke, a severe storm will follow .

to indicate a strong positive electricity, The lower animals, but such especially as such as the rising of the barometer in rain. are in a state of nature, or exposed in the The highly electrified water of summer open fields, are very susceptible of atmo- thunder-storms produces this smell the

spheric changes. Sheep eat greedily before a storm , and sparingly before a thaw. When they leave the high parts of their range - when they bleat much in the even-

strongest; and it is weakest with the cold, and perhaps even electric rain, which sometimes falls after the condensation of a spreading sheetofcirro-stratusinto nimbus,

ing or during the night, we mayexpect with a cold atmosphere. severe weather. Goats seek a place of 3061. I think every one, besides per shelter, while swine carry litter, and cover themselves better than ordinary, before a sons of a nervons temperament, lave felt storm .

Wind is foretold by the cat the truth of the following observations of

scratching a post or wall — and a thaw, Mr Forster, on the effects of certain states when she washes her face, or when frogs of the atmosphere on the bair of the head : come from their winter concealment. The -" In people of what are called nervous gathering of grouse into large flocks, the and susceptible constitutions,” he says, “ I diving of sparrows in dry dust, the flutter- have frequently noticed a remarkable va ing of wild - ducks as they flap their wings, riety in the appearance of the hairs on the the dismal lengthened howl of sea- gulls in head : they have appeared at times dimi an inland place or around lakes, the

nished in quantity ; at others, superabun

mournful note of the curlew, the shrill dant. I have examined them carefully in whew of the plover, the whet -whet-whet

each of their states, and found their appa

of the chaffinch perched upon a tree, the rent diminution to consist in the shafts crowing of the cock at unusual times — all themselves becoming smaller, drier, losing prognosticate rain or snow. When the their tension, and lying in closer contact. fieldfare, redwing, starling, swan, snow- I was once inclined to attribute their

fleck, and other birds of passage, arrive closer contact to a diminution of their soon from the north, it indicates an early electricity, by which they would become and severe winter. When goats bite mutually repulsive: this, however, does * New Statistical Account of Scotland Yarrow , Selkirkshire, p. 31-4.

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

not seem sufficient to account for their de-

crease insize. The shaft may possibly be organised throughout, and itsenlargement

23

Tension of vapour for 59º9 = 26.83.

Mean fall of rain in England in May,

may be caused by an increased action of

June,

its vessels; there may also be an aëriform perspiration into its cavity, on an increase of which it may be more distended ; and

July ,

1.37 inches . 2.71 1.66

Mean of summer,

1.91

the increased size and tension of the shaft

may result from the co -operation of these two causes. The increased size, strength, and tension of the hair, appear to accom-

pany health, while the opposite state seems to be connected withdisorder. The sym-

Prevailing winds in England in E. to N.

May, June, July,

W by N. to N.E. W. by S. to E.

Number of storms in the west of Europe in summer is 52:5 in 100.

patbies between the skin and stomach have

been frequently adverted to by physiolo- is Number 3 in 100.of hail -storms

gists : the skin has been found to be alter

nately dry and hot, moist and hot, dry and cold, moist and cold ; and these varieties have been attributed to varieties in the

state of the stomach, between which and the skin a very direct sympathy is believed to exist."*

in England in summer

Aurora borealis observed in

May, June, July,

184 times. 65

87

Number of fire -balls seen in

May, June, July,

46 20

47

3062. Variety of states in the hair of The least number of fire- balls occurs in

animals is frequently observed in all June, and doubtless the length of the clays classes of the domesticated animals ; and in summer allows a great many of these the difference is invariably ascribed either meteors to pass unperceived. to the pleasant or disagreeable state of the air, or to the functional derangements or

3064.

No

circumstance

shows

so

activity of the stomach and bowels. As strongly the inconvenience to farming of the food in pasture is nearly always the arranging spring and summer according same, any change of the condition of the to the calendar months, than in directing hair of animals in summer on pasture, must the sowing of thenumerous sorts of crops, be ascribed to the changes observable in which must be undertaken at the end of the the state of the atmosphere ; and from the one and the beginning of the other season.

recognised sympathy existing between the skin and the stomach, the changes in the be ascribed to hairmaysafely of thethe state from altered states of the air. arise

The sowing goes on progressively of one crop after another, from the sowing of at the turnipsmay beans in February to that ofperiod be end of June ; and all that

regarded as spring, in as far as field ope

3063. Mean ofthe atmospherical pheno- rations are concerned, and yet the latter mena occurring in summer is as follows : - date brings us a great way into summer. This being the case, many of the crops Mean of the barometer in England in May, June, July ,

30:03 inches. 29.98 30.04

Mean of summer ,

Thus flax may be sown in April as well

as May, and kohl-rabi may be begun to be sown in March as well as in May, ac cording to the mode of culture followed . 54.6 613 630.8

Mean of summer

ment of summer as at the end of spring.

30-05

Mean of the thermometer in England in May, June, July,

may as well be sown at the commence

59 ° 9

As regards the crops, therefore, about to be sown at the commencement of summer, it must not be deemed an absolute requi site to sow them at that season .

T'he

proper time for sowing each crop is speci fically mentioned, irrespective of the place

* Forster’s Researches about Atmospherical Phenomena , p. 180.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

24

3071. The brood mare now brings forth it may happen to occupy in the spring or summer season, as we have divided these. her foal, and receives immunity from The real point to attend to is, the order of labour for a time. succession in which the different crops 3072. Hay -making is represented by follow each other ; and which they inva-

riably do every year. With this explana- poets as a labour accompanied with un tion, the description of the sowing of the alloyed pleasure. Lads and lasses are crops will be continued. doubtless then as merry as chirping grass hoppers; but haymaking is in sober truth 3065. All the root crops are sown just a labour of much heat and toil, the wield now, beginning with kohl-rabi, and ending ing of the hayrake and pitchfork in hot

with the turnip. The land for all these is weather, for the live-long day, being no worked,cleaned, drilled, dunged, and child's play. The culture of the turnip is a most 3073. The separation of the lamb from important and busy occupation , affording much occupation in singling and hoeing the ewe is now effected, and the marks of the plants the greater part of the sum- age, sex , and ownership are stamped upon sown.

the flock .

mer .

3066. The period bas now arrived for

3074. The forage -plants on farms in the

disposing of the fat cattle to the butcher or neighbourhood oftowns are now disposed dealer, as they are never put to grass. of to cow - feeders and carters. The fat sheep are also disposed of, except when it is desired to take off their fleece

3075. Butter and cheese are made on

before parting with them , when they are dairy -farms as often as the requisite sup allowed to pasture until the season becomes ply of milk will warrant. warm enough for them to be shorn .

3076. Summer, of all the seasons, is the 3067. Before any of the stock is put on most appropriate for the farmer to make grass, it is the duty of the hedgertomend seriousattacks upon weeds, those spoilers every gap in the hedges, and to have the of his fields and contaminators of his

gaps in the stone walls, and the gates of grains. Whether in pasture, on tilled ground, along drills of green crops, amongst

the fields in grass put into repair.

growing corn, or in hedges, young and

3068. Young cattle, sheep, and cows, old, weeds are daily exterminated ; and

are now put on pasture, to remain all Cattle and sheep graze well together, as the former bite the grass high, and the latter, following, bite it still lower. For the same reason , horses and cattle

summer.

the extermination is most effectually ac complished by the minute and painstaking exertions of female field -workers; for which purpose they are provided with appropriate implements.

graze well together. As both horses and sheep bite low, they are not suitable com-

3077. This is the season in which all

panions on pasture; and horses, besides,

manner of insects attack both crops and

often take delight in annoying sheep, by stock, much to their injury and annoy ance. biting and kicking them . com

3078. Although yet early, preparations

menced until the weather becomes as warm

are made in summer for the next year's

3069. Sheep -shearing is never

as notto chill the sheep, after the priva- crop. The fallow land is worked,cleaned, tion their coats wool. of

of

andmanured, and perhaps also limed, to be in readiness for the wheat seed in

3070. Horses now live entirely another autumn.

sort of life, being transferred from the thraldom of the stall-collar in the stable

3079. The top -dressingof growing crops,

to the perfect liberty of the pasture- field, with specific manures, isa recent introduc and none of the animals enjoy themselves tion into farıning. The subject is not yet there more heartily. matured, from want of sufficient experience

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

in the peculiar action of each specific, but

25

ner at the same time. When field -workers

enough is already known of that to en- labour in connexion with the teams, they courage the farmer to employ them, in the must conform with their hours of labour . fittest state of the weather and the crops.

3080. The hours devoted to field -work in summer vary in different parts of the country. On the Borders itis the practice to go as early as 4 o'clock in the morning to the yoke, and the forenoon's work is over by 9, and time is given for rest in the heat of the day. The afternoon's yoking commences at 1 o'clock, and continues till 6. Thus 10 hours are spent in the fields. But in other parts of the country,the morn-

3082. The long hours of a summer day, of which at least ten are spent in the fields --the ordinary high temperature of the air, which suffuses the body of the country labourer in constant perspiration - and the fatiguing nature of all field-work in sum mer, bear hard as well on the mental as the physical energies, and cause him to seek rest at a comparatively early hour of the evening. None but those who have experienced the fatigue of working in the

ing yokingdoes not commence till 6 o'clock, fields, in hot weather, for long hours, and, on terminating at 11, only two hours can sufficiently appreciate the luxury of

are allowed for rest anddinner till 1o'clock, rest —a feeling truthfully expressed in when the afternoon's yoking begins. In these beautiful lines : most places the afternoon yokingdoes not commence till 2 o'clock, and , finishing at

6, only 9 hours are spent inthe fields, or it is continued to 7 o'clock . In other parts,

only 4 hours are spent in the morning yoking, when the horses are let loose at 10 o'clock, and, on yoking again from 2 to 6 in the afternoon, only 8 hours are devoted to

work in the fields, the men being employed elsewhere by themselves for 2 hours. This practice is pursued where the ploughmen are made to do the work of field -workers, and a large number of draughts are kept. Perhaps the best division of time is to yoke

“ Night is the time for rest.

How sweet, when labours close, To gather round the aching breast The curtain of repose Stretch the tired limbs, and lay the head

Upon one's own delightful bed !” JAMES MONTGOMERY.

3083. Every operation, in summer, re quires the constant attention of the farmer. Where natural agencies exert their most active influences on vegetation, he requires to put forth his most active exertions to co operate with the very rapid changes they produce. Should he have, besides, field

at 5 o'clock in the morning, loose at 10, experiments inhand,the demands upon his yoke again at 1 , and loose at 6 in the attention and timewill be the more urgent,

evening, giving 3 hours of rest to man and and he must devote both, if he would reap horse at the height of the day, and 10 the greatest advantage derivable from hours of work in the field .

3081. Day -labonrers,when not working

experimental results. 3084. Summer is the only season in

along with horses, as well as field -workers, which the farmer has liberty to leave home usually work from 7 to 12, and from 1 to without incurring the blameof neglecting

6 o'clock in the evening, having one hour his business, and even then the time he has for rest and dinner. When labourers take to spare is very limited . Strictly speak their dinner to the field, this is a conve- ing, he has only about a fortnight between nient enough division of time; but when finishing the fallow and the commence they have to go home to dinner, one hour ment of harvest, in which to have leisure is too little for dinner and rest between

to travel.

Such a limitation of time is to

the yokings — and rest is absolutely neces- be regretted, as a journey once a year to sary, as neither men nor women are able witness the farm -operations conducted in to work 10 hours without more than an other parts of the kingdom , would en interval of an hour. It would be a better lighten him on many uncertain points of arrangement for field -workers to go to work practice. Such an excursion could not be at 6 instead of 7, and loose at 11 instead undertaken by a farmer , who is generally of 12, when they have to go home to din- a man of observation, without bis acquir ner ; but if they take their dinners to the ing confidence in good and receiving con field , one bour is sufficient for rest and din- viction against bad practices. A journey

26

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

exhibits mankindin variousaspects,elevates could not otherwise have. The person themind above local prejudices,and affords who cuts the stack is usually the steward,

a clearer understanding of places and customs, when reading about them in the publications of theday. As husbandry is a progressive art, a ramble of a few weeks in different parts of the country cannot

and in using the knife he kneels upon the part he is cutting off, with his face to the body of thestack . This form of knife requires considerable strength in its use, and unless the edge is kept remarkably

fail to enlighten the most experienced far- keen with a whetstone, and the hay firm ,

mer, much beyond what he can observe it makes bad work. The bay-knifeI pre around him and peruse in books by always fer is of the form of the dung-spade, fig. remaining at home. By intrusting the 191, which, being used standing, is wield fallow operations to his work people, he ed with much more force, and makes a might in occasional seasons have as much deeper cut ; and, having two edges, it as a month to spend in useful travel. cnts equally well to the right and left, whereas this knife cuts only to the right. ON THE HAY GIVEN TO FARM HORSES .

In cutting off a dace or breadth of hay, the end ofthe stack should be left in aper pendicular form, and horizontally straight.

3085. The hay -stack is never broken in When the dace is not all cut down to upon until the horses get hay in spring, the ground, straw should be placed on

and this is delayed a longer or shorter time, the top of the portion left, to preserve the for horses on the farm . Where good bean- workers carry the hay into the hay -house

according as there is other nourishing food hay becoming wetted by rain. The field strawabounds, the bay may be saved until later in the spring, when that sort of straw becomes too dry ; but on farms where no beans are grown, the horses should have hay whenever theseed - time is commenced,

as the cutter throws it down with a fork ,

and build and tramp it in regular mows, in the manner straw is mowed in the straw

barn from the threshing -machine, ( 1763 ) to make it easier for the ploughmen to

whether with spring -wheat or with oats. take the hay in armfuls to their horses. The site of the hay -stack in the stack -yard S, Plate II., is at n, opposite the hay-house 3087. Hay is supplied to work -horses H., and adjoining the work -horse stable at will; and ,as I have already said, when 0. The site of the hay -stack may be seen treating of their feeding in winter, strong in the isometrical representation of the ones will eat about 30 lb. a -day, besides stack -yard in Plate I. their corn , which may be 10 lb. more,

( 1444.) These quantities imply that the 3086. As much of the stack is brought hay and corn are given in their natural in as will fill the hay-house, and the hay is state, but when cooked the quantities vary , thence distributed to the horses. Each as has been stated in ( 1438 and 1444.) portion of the stack cut off should be 4 or 5 feet broad , and the implement

3088. Considerable waste of hay is in used for doing it is the hay-knife, fig. curred in the hay-racks, fig. 105. The 242, which represents its usual form . ploughmen stuff the rack not only full, but Fig. 242.

It will be observed in squeeze the bay firm , from a mistaken the figure, that the line notion that they cannot give too much at of the back of the blade

a time to their horses ; but when horses

is not at right angles find hay in a compressed state, and are to the handle, a posi-

unable to select the morsels they like,

tion which gives the they toss some upon the litter, which, after cutting edge of the being trampled on, is thrown into the knife an inclination to dung -yard . The cattle there eat it, and the line of section, and prefer it much to straw , because it is

consequently affords hay, and bas acquired a saline taste from it, in its downward the stable, so it cannot be said to be stroke, a force to cut entirely lost ; still, if it is desired to give the straws of hay in hay to the cattle also, it should be THE HAY- KNIFE .

succession which it given them in a clean state and proper

HAY GIVEN TO HORSES .

27

manner, rather than in this way. To which are administered at the same time.

avoidsuchwaste, therefore, small quan- the same specific gravity, which is littleabove tities of hay should be put into the racks

that of water. The bulk of the allowance there

at a time, and frequently ; but the surest fore depends upon its weight, and it will thus way to prevent waste of food is to chop be perceived that a highly nutritious food,which forthis reason would occupy little space , would the bay and bruise the corn . objectionable. Thus a cart - horse belonging to be

Boussingault, required to 33 lb. about 26 thelb.samequan and from food everyday, of solid 3089. Yonng horses should alsoreceive M.

bay after the stack has been broken up, tity ofwater. The bulk of thisallowance, when straw becoming too hard and dry after masticated and brought to a state to be swal March ; and hay serves, besides, to im- lowed, is more than 9 cubic feet. Now, if a

prove their condition, and prepare them few timesmore nutritivefood, as oil-cake,were for grass.

substituted, its bulk would be reduced to 51 cubic feet. The animal would not feel satisfied with this last allowance - it would still feel

3090. Feeding cattlenever receive bay hungry,and the food, in so concentrated a state, would disagree with it. On the other hand, if in Scotland, being considered too expen food of much less nutrition were substituted for sive food for them . In England, meadow the hay, such as wheat straw, the allowance that hay is given to feeding cattle either alone, would afford the samedegree of nourishment with some straw , but more frequently chop- would become too bulky to be eaten in the course ped bay and straw together, or in union of a day. It is therefore absolutely necessary

with oil-cake, or with linseed prepared. to take the bulkof thefood to be allowed into

Indairy farms cows always receive hay ever consideration :the belly must be filled ; what may be the nutritive quality of any article, after having calved, and it is partly given it must be given in a certain quantity'; and in

them in the form of steamed chaff, and the case ofsuch a substance as oil-cake, the con

partly as dry fodder. 3091. In Holland the horses in winter,

sumption to fill the stomach would cease to be in any kind of proportion to the nutritive equi valent. The best food for horses has long been admitted

to be hay and oats incombination,

and at all times when not on grass, receive neither article alone having the same happy

chopped hay and straw, with not much effect that the two together produce. Hay In Belgium , about Bruges, farm alone would be too bulky, oats alonewould not

oats .

horses receive about 35 lb. of hay and 7 be bulky enough ; but the horse is not particular his food, as barley in the southern countries replaces oats and answers equally well — though lb. of oats a -day, and in lieu of15 lb. of in

bay, 73 lb. of carrots. Near Courtray, it may reasonably be doubted that oats and hay 10 lb. of straw is given with 15 lb. of might be replaced by roots and tubers. Experi hay and 7 lb. of oats. Their drink is also ence,however,has proved that a cart-horse may

nutritive, being composed of water with

have half his allowance in roots and tubers, and be supplied with sufficient nourishment. M.

some oil-cake dissolved in it, and sweetened Boussingault has found that 100 parts of good

with rye -meal or buck -wheat flour.*

meadowhay is equal to the following quantities of roots usually given to horses :

3092. According to Boussingault, hay may be assumed as the most common or universal of all kinds of fodder. It is in some sort the staple food of the animals that are particularly attached to an agricultural concern , and may therefore be

appropriately made the standard of comparison for all other kinds of food or forage. Hay, how ever, varies greatly in point of quality, but in an average of kinds and states, the proportion for the standard should consist of 1:15 percent ofazote ,

To 280 parts of potatoes by analysis 280 400 400 400

Jerusalem artichokes Mangold wurzel, Swedes, Carrots,

315 by experiment. - 311

} ..

546 676 382

It may be concluded that the nutritive equiva lent of the potato , mangold -wurzel, Jerusalem

and 11 per cent of water , that is,about 8} per artichokes and carrots, asthey are inferred from cent of albumen and gluten, and the remainder

the amount of azote they contain , may be adopted

woody fibre. It is this last ingredient which

without detriment to the health of horses.

gives an important value to hay as a fodder, for,

they err at all, it is that they assign equivalents somewhat too high, making their actual nutritive

independently of the circumstance that the stomachs of animals are able to digest a certain proportion of the woody fibre, its bulk is neces-

sary for the digestion of the more nutritious

If

power less than these numbers give it — so that, a portion of the hay of the standard allowance

being substituted for its equivalent of root, the

parts of itself and of other food , such as oats, diet will be improved. + * Radcliffe's Agriculture of Flanders, p . 259. + Boussingault's Rural Economy, Law's Translation, p. 522.48.

28

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

3093. The composition of the ash of hay is as yielding coarse fibre, and on the latter Meadow -hay . Rye grass hay. the crop would be too scanty. Soil in BOSSINGAULT . THOMSON .

follows :

18:11 1.35

Potash , Soda ,

29.03 2:44

.22-95 16:36 8.82 6.75

Lime, Magnesia ,

Oxide of iron , alumina, & c ., Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Chlorine , Silica ,

0-64 5.63 3.08 2-97 31.03

64.57

100-00 100.00

98-15

1.69 5-97 . .

2-70 2:59 37.89

too high a condition also causes flax to grow rank and branching, and the fibre

8.03 2-17 6.50 4.01 0:36 12:51

coarse .

3097. The finest condition of the flax

crop is best attained by sowing it after a corn crop or after lea — as, after a green

Percentage of ash in the dry state ,

}

6-00

6-20

crop that has been manured, it grows too

5-89

rank and coarse .

When grown after lea,

flax may be raised on stronger soil than 3094. Good old hay is long and large, hard after any cereal crop. and tough ; colour inclining to green rather

3098. Whether after cereals or lea, the

than to white ; has a sweet taste and fragrant

smell, and when infused in hot water producesa land to be cropped by flax should be hay absorbs moisture,and becomes heavier. A ploughed early in autumn, to receive the full influences of the winter frost, as

truss of good old hay weighs 56 lb.

it cannot be in too fine a state of pulveri

change a horses appear. sation for receiving the fax seed. To 3095.Badhaywill ance in two days, evenwith an unlimited quan- obtain this state of the soil, the cross

tity of corn. The kidneysare excited by it to ploughing should beexecuted as earlyas

extraordinary activity.

this disease is always perfectly transparent,is possible in spring, ( 2613, ) taking care not

discharged very frequently and in copious pro- to do it in wet weather, or when the soil fusion. The horse soon becomes hidebound, is in a wet state, as the least dry weather emaciated, and feeble. His thirst is excessive. afterwards will render the soil hard and He never refuses water, and he drinks as if he would never give over. The disease does not difficult to pulverise. Any clods left on

produce death,but it renders the horse useless, the surface, after a double turn of the

and ruins the constitution . Musty hay is said harrows, should be reduced by rolling ; to be bad “ for the wind, " and it is certainly so but there are other implements better for every part of the body.t adapted for pulverising the soil than the

smooth roller, fig. 222. ON THE SOWING AND SUMMER TREATMENT OF FLAX .

3099. Crosskill's clod -crusher . — This is one of the most efficient implements of its

class, and is represented in perspective in 3096. The flax plant requires a deep fig. 243, where a a is the roller, six feet

mellow loamy soil, abounding in vegetable inlength, and 30 inches in diameter ; b a matter, and equally removed from strong cast-iron end frame, at each end of the clay and thin gravel — on the former the roller, bolted to the wooden frame c c, to

plant would grow too strong and branchy, which are bolted the horse shafts d d . Fig. 243.

CROSSKILL'S CLOD -CRUSHER .

* Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 390. + Stewart's Stable Economy, p. 184-6.

29

THE CULTURE OF FLAX .

The frame ends b are placed upon the 3101. This implement has been but axle e, the ends of which are prolonged partially used by Scottish farmers within

to form arms on which wheels are placed, these few years, though it is extensively and kept on by means of cotterels, for the used in England - perhaps on account removal of the roller from one field to of the much greater extent of clay soils, anotber. When the wheels are to be which are most subject to induration. placed or removed, a hole is dug in the Where the implement has been used in ground under each wheel, while the roller Scotland, the results have proved equally rests on the ground. favourable on strong and light soils — in pulverising the former and consolidat 3100. The roller consists of a number

ing the latter. The price is a bar to its

of toothed wheels, supported on four-

introduction into Scotland,as the smallest size is £ 18 . The weight ofthe implement

feathered arms, and an eye formed in the

centre fitted to move easily on the axle is 26 cwt. ; it forms a good draught for two

e of the roller. Fig . 244 shows a side horses, and frequently for three. view of one of those wheels, by which its action upon the soil may be easily understood . When

3102. Hepburn's double conical land roller. - Another implement of this

Fig. 244.

such a great

class is the double conical roller, in

number

vented by J. Stewart Hepburn , Esq.

of

of Colquhalzie, near Creiff, Perth

angles, acting like so many

shire.

The leading feature of this im

brought into

plement is to give the roller a conical form , and to add to it a series of trans

contact with the indurated

conical surface.

wedges, are

verse parallel flutings carried round the

clods, they in fallibly split them into nu

merous frag ments, and the SIDE VIEW OF ONE WHEEL OF

repetition of

Two of these conical

frustums are placed in one frame, base to base, but having their axes so inclined that the fore part of the periphrasis, and also those parts which lie on the ground, THE CLOD - CRUSHER ,

shall be in a straight line.

Fig. 245 re

presents this implement in perspective in

the process produces a well pulverised sur- the most approved form , where a a is the face. The effect is quite different from framework, similar to that of the common that of the plain roller, fig. 222, with land-roller, fig. 222, surmounted by three which, if a clod does not crumble down at

horse shafts 6 bb, for yoking two horses

once with its pressure, it is forced into the abreast. The three pendant bars co o soil in a solid state.

carry the axles of the two cones d d , in Fig. 245.

HBPBURN'S DOUBLE CONICAL LAND- ROLLER .

30

PRACTIC

E

- SUMMER .

clined as above described . A light frame move outward in a circle, and being re e is attached to carry the scrapers which strained by the bearings in which they clear the flutings of adhering earth.

revolve, their surface will produce a crush .

ing and abrading action well adapted for 3103. The effects of this form of roller the pulverisation of the soil.* upon the surface are peculiar and impor

While the smooth cylindrical roller 3104. Norwegian harrows. — Another acts merely by its pressure on the rough pulverising implement which has recently

tant.

soil, the conical form as here arranged been introduced into practice, is the Nor will, besides acting by direct pressure, wegian harrows. Fig. 246 is a view produce a strictly pulverising effect, for in perspective of these harrows,where a aa the cones having a constant tendency to is a frame, supported by two wheels 6, Fig. 246.

k

THE NORWEGIAN HARROWS.

which give locomotion to the machine. The into smaller ones, and the third row splits lower bars of the frame a support three those smallest pieces into still smaller ones ; axles, in the same plane, threading a num- so that, by the time the clods have under

ber of discs containing each 6 long rays c, gone those various splittings, they are pro which, being loose, revolve round their bably sufficiently pulverised ; but if not,

centres by successive insertions of their they may be so by another similar process points into the ground. The frame a is of splitting.

prolonged in a triangular form to d , where it is supported by the pivot-wheel e.

3106. Swedish land -roller.-- A pulver

The apparatus fg, for lowering and raising the axles of the rays c, to give them a deeper and shallower insertion into the soil, is moved by the screw h, which is put

iser of the soil has lately been introduced into this country by Mr James Slight of Edinburgh, from Sweden, where it is ex tensively and successfully used in the

in motion by turning the winch by its farming of Gottland. In construction it handles i. The horses are attached at k. is simply the skeleton of a cylinder formed of wrought-iron ribs, of a triangular forin , 3105. The action of this machine is to placed longitudinally round two cross

reduce large clods into very small ones, armed rings, which are the ends of the by the insertion ofthe points of the rays cylinder, and through the centresof which c into them, to split them into pieces by passes the axle upon the ends of which a

their reiterated action. The larger clods frame -work and shaft, similar to the com are split into smaller pieces by the first mon land -roller, fig. 222, are mounted. row of rays, the second row splits these It is made in two lengths, for the conve * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xi . p. 471 .

THE CULTURE OF FLAX .

31

nience of turning round, and as the ribs linseed beyond a year old should never are placed with their angles outwards at be sown. 2 or 3 inches, they are well adapted for 3112. To facilitate the weeding of the pulverising clods. In the trials that have been made of this roller in the neighbour- flax crop, it has beenrecommended to sow

hood of Edinburgh, in 1849, it has proved the seed in rows, in the ribs formed by the its efficiency as equalling any other of its small plough, fig. 230 ; but it is obvious class.

that such a practice would cause the plants along the outer sides of the rows to throw

3107. The soil being thus well pulver- out branches very much to the injury of ised, it should be finely harrowed, and the fibre. rolled smooth with the land - roller, fig.

3113. To save the weeding of the flax Linseed being a very slippery seed, and crop altogether, it hasbeen recommended to 222, before being sown with the linseed.

very difficult to be sown by hand, it is apt to sow grass seeds amongst it; but those who to be laddered , ( 2320,) and I have never recommend this practice, do not consider

heard of it being sown with a machine. that it is bad busbandry to sow grass It should be taken hold of by the thumb seeds with any crop that followsa corn crop and two foremost fingers, like grass seeds, without manure, or with one after lea. ( 2647,) and thrown forward in sharp casts, with short quick steps, and, being dark 3114. Although the flax crop does not coloured, 'may easily be observedto fall bear dung to beapplied beforeit is sown, A

upon the rolled ground. It is thus usually a top-dressing of bone-dust of 10 or 12 sown broadcast .

bushels to the acre , is recommended after a white crop , and is said to make the fibre

3108. The quantity of seed used depends on the object of sowing the crop. If for the fibre alone, the seed should be thickly sown, from 2 to 2 bushels to the

finer.* The Belgians profusely top-dress their flax grond with liquid manure, in which have been dissolved both rape cake and nightsoil, to the extent of 2480

acre ; if for seed, less seed should be sown ; gallons to the acre.t Were a top - dressing

and if for both fibre and seed, perhaps 2 applied to the flax crop , containing its bushels are ample.

essential inorganic ingredients, as phos

phoric acid, magnesia, and potash, ( 1263,) 3109. The seed should be covered very I have no doubt it would tend to produce shallow in the soil, not exceeding half an a superior quality of fibre or seed ." New inch ; and the best implement for covering limed land is detrimental to the flax it is the grass-seed harrow , fig. 232. crop . 3110. Linseed may be sown at any 3115. The only care required by the time, according to the state of the weather, flax crop in summer is to keep it free of from the middle of March to the first weeds, which will probably appear above

week of May ; and perhaps the best time ground as soon as the crop itself; and as is about the middle of April.

soon as the flax plant shall have attained the height of an inch, so as to be identi

3111. Linseed is of an oblong lenticular fied from weeds, the ground should be form , having as smooth a surface as to freed of them. The flax being best cul

appear oily,and it should feel heavy and tivated in broadcast, and thickly sown, seem plump and fresh . It is obtained of the only practicable way of weeding the the finest quality for sowing from Russia, ground is with the band; and as the plant of the variety called Riga kindt,which the is not of a succulent nature, but firm Dutch obtain for their sowing seed from and elastic, even when young it is not in

Riga. It weighs about 52 lb. per bushel, jured by the weeders kneeling or ly and affords 840 seeds to 1 drachm weight, ing upon it in the act of weeding. The ( 1323.) As good seed is of great import- weeding should be done effectually, and if ance in the success of the flax crop, so once done, the weeds will not again * Warnes' Suggestions for Fattening Cattle on Native Produce, p. 8, 1st edition. + Radcliff's Agriculture of Flanders, p. 42.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

32

trouble the crop in clean ground , before and especially from Odessa, is peculiarly it grows beyond danger ; and although infected with it.” * A thorough weeding

hand-weeding costs several shillings per will remove this pest from the soil before acre, according to the state of the ground, it has the power of injuring the lax-plant. the increased value of the crop will more

than repay the cost. 3116. Besides the common surface and

3118. The flax, Linum usitatissimum , from the Celtic Lin, a thread, is in the class and order

Pentandria of Linnæus; in the order Lineæ of thePentagynia natural system of Jussieu ; and in

root weeds which infest the soil, according the class Hypogynous Ecogens ; alliance 36, to its nature, there are others specially Geraniales; order 183, Linacea ;genus 1 Linum, the natural system of Lindley. The plant is found amongst flax : of these, one is the of scattered more or less over most parts of the common Gold of Pleasure, Camelina satica, globe. the seed of which is imported among the flax -seed , and the grown plant may be 3119. The meal of the seed of the common flax kdown by its attaining from two to three is used for poultices. The infusion is demulcent

feet in height, having smallyellowflowers, and emollient. The oil,mixed with lime water, has been a favourite application to burns. The and very large pouches on long stalks. 3117. But a more troublesome weed

tenacious and delicate fibre obtained from this plant forms the most beautiful of our linen

fabrics.

than this is the flax-dodder, Cuscuta Eu

3120.usedThe oiltheextracted from linseed ( 1323) is ropæa, inasmuch as it adheresparasitically much in arts. The best is that which

to the fax plant, and materially injures is cold drawn. The warm drawn is obtained its fibre ; while the Gold of Pleasure may by heating the seed by steam to a temperature of be pulled out separately from the flax. 200° Fahrenheit; and as the heat liquifies the The babits of the flax -dodder are these :

oil, no doubt more is obtained of it by this pro

than the cold one. The oil is expressed by putting both the cold and the hot seeds into flan “ It is a plant which germinates in the cess

ground, and sends up a slender threadlike stem, which , twisting itself about, soon touches one of the stems ofthe flax amongst which it is growing. As soon as this

nel bags, and subjecting them to enormous pres sure by means either of wedges driven by weighty

hammers, orof thehydraulic press, ( 107.) This oilmaybeused in fattening cattle, (1322.) Cold

drawn linseed oil is the best substance for polish takes place, the dodder twists itself round ing furnitureof mahogany.

the flax, and throws out from the side next

to its victim several small processes, which 3121. The compressed husk left in the bag, penetrate the outer coat or cuticle of the after the expression ofthe oil, takes the form of a cake - theoil-cake. The English cake weighs fax, and act as suckers, by which the about3 lb., and sellsfrom £ 10to£ ll per1000.

parasitical dodderappropriates to its own The oil-cake imported from Denmark, Holland,

use the sap whichhas been prepared in the or America , is sold from £7 to £ 9 per ton. At flax, upon which the growth of the flax £7 the priceisthree farthings thepound, and at depends. The dodder then separates itself £ 11,it is about one-pennytwo-tenths. At id. the pound the price is £ 9, 6s. 8d. per ton. That

from the ground, and relies solely upon which comes from Flensburg in Schleswig -Hol nourishinent,

producing stein is esteemed the best of the foreign cake. the flax for its long slender leafless stems, which attach The machinery abroad being generally inferior themselves to each stem of flax that to that of this country, the foreign cake may be

supposed to contain more oil than the English, comes in their way: Thus large masses of which conjecture chemical analysis has confirmed

, the crop are matted together, and so much ( 1268.) weakened as to become almost useless. This plant produces great quantities of 3122. Mr James Bruce, Waughton, East Lo seed, which is usually threshed with the thian, made experiments in 1844 ,to ascertain the comparative value of English and foreign oil flax -seed, and sown again with it in the suc cake in the feeding of sheep; and on two lots of ceeding year. Several years since, I took twenty dinmonts each , having as much Swedish

considerable trouble to ascertain if all turnips as they could eat, with 16 oz. each daily

foreign flax -seed was mixed with that of of oil-cake,which was as much as they would eat, English and the,when other on cake, experiment theforeign thedodder,and was led to the conclusion one fromlottheon 1st of January

that the Americanfax -seed is nearly free commenced , to the 1stMarch, the increase of from this pest, and that that from Russia,

weight from the English cake over thatof the

* Gardeners' Chronicle for 10th February 1844, p. 189.

---

33

THE CULTURE OF HEMP.

foreign was as 209 lb. are to 150 lb. , after a consumption of 1182 lb. of cake by each lot.

3127. The price of linseed in 1849 for sowing is from 53s. to 56s., and that for crushing from

But to show the uncertainty of results from only

428. to 448. the quarter.

one experiment, other two lots of dinmonts of 20 each were fed in the same manner, and these

3128. The Greeks preferred a very different would not eat inore than 13 oz. of each kind period from ours for sowing the flax crop, their of cake daily, and the result of this experi- authorities saying that“ flax likes places that are ment was the converse of that of the former , miry, but it is sown from the autumnal equinox namely, the increase from the foreign cake over to the day before the nones of January.”+ that of the English was as 207 lb. are to 167 lb., 3129. " Formerly the seed of the ilax was oc after a consumption of 880 lb. of cake by each lot. So the results of the one experiment neu- casionally used with corn to make bread, but it considered hard of digestion, and hurtful to opposite was nature tralise those of the other, while the

of the results could not be accounted for, farther the stomach.

In a scarcity of corn which hap

than the less consumption of 3 oz . daily by each sheep, of cake, might possibly have some effect on its relation to the quantity of turnips consumed, and this relation may have affected all thesheep alike. Such a suggestion may be regarded as of trifiling import upon the general condition of an

pened in Zealand in the sixteenth century, the inhabitants of Middleburgh had recourse to lin seed, which they made into cakes, and which caused the death of many of the citizens who ate of it, causing dreadful swellings of the body and

experiment; but when we know that a very slight difference of food or of exercise may affect the functions of the animal economy at any time, we should not regard such a difference affecting animals as of trifling importance.

of Britain, and yet it would appear that flax seed

face."' I 3130. The flax plant is stated to be a native

was not sown in England until as lately as A.D. 1533, when it was directed to be sown for the

making of fishing - nets.s 3123. In another experiment by Mr Bruce, to ascertain the effect of oil-cake on the quality of manure voided by cattle fed on turnips, on comparing the produce of turnips from 20 cubic yards of dung in the common state with 20 cubic

ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF HEMP.

yards containing 26 lb. of cake in each cubic yard, he found an increase of 1 ton 11 cwt. 47 lb , of turnips from the caked manure.*

3131. Hemp requires a deep rich mel low moist alluvial soil.

3124. Oil -cake, independently as an article of food, or of manure, is an excellent medicine for

3132. Agreeing with manure, hemp

live stock, preventing constipation ofthe bowels, may be cultivatedas a green crop, but the giving unat- quality of the fibre willbe finer when the and the hide a sweetnessof tainable Mr Wilson coat by to other means. of Eding manure is applied to the soil in autumn

ton Mains, in Berwickshire, tells

me, that, ever since he has given oil-cake to his calves after be- upon the stubble, than immediately on the ingweaned insummer,they have not been affect- sowing of the crop in spring. Twenty

edwith the usually fatal complaint of the quar- tons of dung are required to the acre for

ter-ill;andhe has experienced this beneficialeffect the production of a good crop of hemp. for many years, without any external application of setons. By administering oil-cake to my cows after calving, I certainly prevented them being

3133. The land should be cross-plongh

affected withthe red -water, (2242.)

ed in spring, and harrowed and cleaned, and pulverised, as in the case with flax or 3125. I have already given the composition of potatoes, or any other such crop ; but as

) and of the ashesof linseed ,( 1263 ;) ( 1262,oflinseed linseed, the quantity imported into this country

the

young hemp plant is very susceptible

to 1845, ( 1264 ;) the price oflinseed oil, and of its of frost, the land does not require to proportionin theseed,( 1323;)and ofthe compo- be prepared for the seed before the end of be sown

sition of English and foreign,linseed cake, as April,when the seed may

.

well as that of their ashes, ( 1268 and 1269.) 3126. Linseed and oil-cake are imported duty

3134. There is no doubt, as the fibre

free, and since ( 1264) was written, the parliamentary returns give theimportation of linseed in 1847 at 439,512quarters, and in 1848, 796,013 quarters. In 1847, of oil-cake and rape - cake therewere imported 61,978 tons, and in1848,

should be both fine in quality and uniform in texture, that the hemp plant should be cultivatedbroadcast; but as it grows to the considerable height of 6 feet, and as cer tain processes of the cultivation require

73,029 tons, ( 1267.)

* Transactions of the Highland andAgricultural Society, for July 1846, p. 376. + Owen's Geoponika, vol. i. p. 87.

# Phillips' History of Cultivated Vegetables, vol. i. p. 208.

& Haydn's Dictionary of Dates — art. Flat. VOL . II.

с

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

34

the work -people to be amongst the crop, about 6 feet, and was in bloom at the time.

the most convenient mode is to place the In England it is grown in many localities, plant in rows ; and as plants are placed but perhaps most successfully in Suffolk most like the broadcast fashion when the rows are narrow , the best instrument for

making such rows is the ribbing plough,

and Lincolnshire .

3138. Hemp would no doubt be bene

fig. 230, or ribbing coulters, fig. 231,which fited by a top -dressing of some manure, make the rows from 9 to 14 inches a after it fairly assumed form of a plant; sunder, according to the capability of the and as pigeons' dung is the considered by many soil to produce alarge or small plant. cultivators as good manuring for bemp,

guano, to the extent of 2 or 3 cwt. the

3135. To secure a fibre of fine quality acre, would perhaps be the best ingredient

the plants require to be set close together; for the top -dressing. and for this purpose from 24 to 3 bushels

of seed are requiredto the acre. The seed is large, of a flattened orbicular shape, grey-

3139. The hemp, Cannabis sativa, belongs to the class and order Diæcia Pentandria of Lin

ish -brown colour, fresh aspect, somewhat næus,which have the male and female flowers on

oily lustre, and feels light in the band. The seed should not be older than thatof the preceding crop. Prove the seed by

different plants, and on which account it is un known, when hemp-seed is or sown, whether the plants produced willbe male female. In com

mon parlance, the plant which bears the seed is

rubbing it between the hands, and if it iscalled themale,whereasitis the female. Hemp of the order Urtiaceæ of the natural system of

suffersthis without breaking, and becomes Jussieu, and is therefore closely allied to the brighter, it is good. The bushel of seed common nettle ; and it is of the Diclinous Eco weighs about 40 lb., and the seeds afford gens - alliance 19, Urticales —order 86, Can 200 to the drachm weight. The seed nabinaceæ - genus Cannabis of the natural sys

should be sown by hand along the ribs, or stem of Lindley. Stem upright, from 5 to 8 feet,

it may be sown broadcast over the ribs, strong andbranching: Its valuable fibre makes the cordage of India,and our ships. It a native of the and barrowed lightly along them with the cooler parts of is notis cultivated there

grass-seed harrow, fig. 232, and the plant forits fibre,butforits intoxicatingproperty. Dr will come up rows. The ground rein

Lindley says that " it appears to owe its narcotic

quires to be watched after sowing until the properties to the presence of a resin which is not in Europe. This resin exudes in India plants are in leaf, to keep off the birds found leaves, slender branches, and flowers; collectedintomassesitisthechurras,or ofthe finch tribe, which are very fond of from when the eating hemp- seed, and even the young cherris, of Nepal. Its odour is fragrant and

plants are injured by them — the

capsules narcotic , its taste slightly warm , bitterish, and .” The hemp plant of India is a legumen of the seed, being brought above ground acrid of the order Fabaceæ , Crotolaria juncea, the sun by the embryo, are greedily devoured by hemp, which affords a coarse fibre, from which those birds.

bagsand low -priced canvass are largely prepared .

3136. The rows admit of the ground 3140. " According to the observation of Vau. being easily kept free of weeds with the cher of Geneva, the seeds of Orabanche ramosa lie many years in the soil unless they come hand hoe or horse boe in summer, but the will in contact with the roots of hemp, the plant upon hemp plants will soon grow up and over which that species growsparasitically, when they

top the weeds, which will be kept down immediately sprout. The manner in which the seeds of orabanche attach themselves to the ing not to break down the young plants, plants on which they grow has been observed by Schlauter. This writer states that they only seize as they will never rise again. seedlings, and are unable to attack roots of

ever after. Care should be taken in weed

in the possession of the late Mr James

stronger growth .”" + 3141. An oil is expressed from the seed of hemp, which is “ employed with great advantage in the lamp, and in coarse painting. They give a paste made of it to hogs and horses, to fatten them . It enters into the composition of black

Meldrum.

soap, the use of which is very common in the

3137. The hemp plant is not suited to the climate of Scotland.

I have seen it

cultivated there but once, and that in the farm of Kinnear in Fifeshire, when it was It grew in a flat holm of small

extent, and had attained the height of manufacture of stuffs and felts ; and it is also 基*

Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom , p. 265, 549, and 610.

THE CULTURE OF THE HOP.

35

used for tanning nets."* The proportionof oil be subjected to the extreme temperatures from the seed varies from 14 to 25 per cent.

prevailing every day ; but it should rather 3142. The price of hemp-seed in 1849 is for the be to the north on gently sloping ground,

smallandthe large from 34s. to 36s.the quarter. to receive a modified temperature ,and to It is used for feeding birds, and those of the finch , be away fromthe force of the prevailing tribe are remarkably fond of it. S.W. winds. The sloping ground will also favourable in evadin pre be g the blights composit hollow val. grounds valent

ion of hemp-seed,according

3143. The

in the flat

of

to Bucholz, is as follows : 19.1

Oil, Husk , &c .,

Woody fibre and straw , Sugar , & c., Mucilage, Soluble albumen , ( casein ?) Fatty matter ,

38.3 5.0 9.0

3148. The preparation of a new hop ground, after its thorough drainage, should

24.7 1.6 0:7

be the trenching of the soil to the depth of 24 feet, which may be effected in this

100-0

spaces of 15 feet in breadth to the length of the hop -ground. Let the surface mould

1.6

.

Loss,

leys.

manner :-Let the ground be laid off in

3144. The composition of the ash of the hemp seed is this :

Potash , Soda, . Lime,

21.67

Magnesia,iron Oxide of

0-66 26.63 1.00

,

Phosphoricacid, . Sulphate of lime, Chloride of sodium ,

Silica,

0.77 34.96

to the depth of 15 inches, and 3 feet in breadth across the 15 feet space, be taken

away with the common spade, fig . 237, to the opposite corner of the other side of the ground, to be ready to finish the trenching when it arrives at that point ; and should

0.18

a portion of the subsoilbe required to be

0.09 14.04

stirred , to make up the 15 inches of the

surface so taken away, let it be so ; and 100.00

Percentage of ash,

5.60+

ON THE PLANTING, AND THE SUMMER

should the spade not be able to cut the subsoil, let the foot-pick, fig. 247, be em ployed to loosen it for the spade.

3149. The foot-pick , fig. 247, is a very

CULTURE OF TIIE HOP.

Fig. 247.

efficient implement

for

stirring the subsoil, when

3145. Formation of a new hop ground.

in an indurated state . It stands 3 feet 9 inches in

-The soil for the hop should be deep and mellow , and if resting on a fissuredrock ,

height. The shank is of iron , three-quarter inch square at the neck , under the eye through which the

so much the better. An old garden , or an old meadow, forms the best site for a hop

ground. In every case the ground should be dry, that is, not subject to stagnant water, and, if not naturally dry, should be made so by thorough drainage.

cross handle passes, and it

is 14 inch broad at the tramp. The tramp is

movable, and may be shift 3146. To afford sufficient room for the

ed to either side of the

roots of the plants, the drain in a hop

shank to suit the working

ground should not be less than 4 feet deep,

foot of the labourer, and

and the distances between the drains

it remains

may

be from 15 to 35 feet, according to the porousness of the subsoil. The expense may be stated at £6 the acre.

firm at

16

inches from the point, which inclines a little for

ward, to assist the lever THE FOOT - PICK .

power of the implement in

3147. The exposure of a hop -ground loosening hard soil, or removing large should not be directly to that of the meri- stones. The cost of a foot-pick is 6s. 6d. dian sun, because then the plants would The implement is used in this manner : * Wisset'sTreatise on Hemp, which contains the sentiments of the best authorities on the cultiva † Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 381 and 921 .

tion of this plant.

36

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

The workman raises it by the handle two-pronged fork, fig. 249, will remove with both his hands, with the point bend- them outof the ground with more ease to the men, and the subsoil ing away from him , and thrusts the point Fig. 219. with force into the ground, and works it

be equally well subdivided

down with the pressure of his foot upon the tramp, until the instrument has penetrated as far as the tramp. He then pulls the handle towards him, and the sbank acting

and broken .

as a lever upon the surface of the ground, as a fulcrum , the point raises the ground before it, or displaces any stone that may

lie in its way. Should the ground be too hard to be affected by the power of the man's arms alone, he increases the power

by pushing with successive impulses against the handle, upon which he sits, with the

weight of the lower part of his body. 3150. Three men work best together when thus trenching hop -ground. All use

the spade alike when the surface mould is of the requisite depth, and no picking is

3152. When the bared

space of 3 feet in breadth, 15 feet in length, and a spading in depth of 15 inches , bas

been

fork

trenched by the 3 men, to

the depth of the length of the prongs of 15 inches, the entire depth trenched will be 30 inches. The land is then manured thus :

-Let a large dunghill of well-prepared and mixed

farmyard " dung be ready, near at hand to the hop

THE TRENCHING- ground, and whenever each

FORK WITH portion of the ground has required ,butwhen picking is needed, after TWO PRONGS. thus been trenched, letsome a little of the surface has been removed, one man removes the surface, another picks of the dung be put upon the trenched part 82, to the extent of the subsoil, and the third, generally the with the graip , fig. master workman, follows and shovels up 40 or 50 cubic yards to the acre. The the loose earth. dung is spread equally and trampled firmly down, not to be easily displaced .

3151. After

the surface has

thus

been removed, all the men take each a 3153. Then, upon the dung, let the sur trenching-fork , such as fig. 248. Tbis face soil of the next breadth of 3 feet be

instrument consists of three connected thrown to the depth again of 15 inches, by

prongs of iron, 15 inches in length, and 1ļ the same process as formerly described. inch in depth at the neck, tapering to a The surface turf should be placed over stout point. The prongs the dung, with the grass face downwards, Fig. 248. are connected with a hose, and the succeeding soil and subsoil mixed into which a wooden helve, over the turf by chopping with the spade, with a short cross handle, and rendering the entire soil uniform and is fastened . The entire firm . Every large stone in the soil should

fork stands 3 feet 9 inches be thrown aside for drains, or breaking in height, and costs 5s. It into road metal. I have been the more

is used by thrusting the particular in describing the fork -trenching, prongs into the subsoil with as well as that by the spade here, where the pressure of the foot,

first allusions to the subjects have been

like the common spade; and made, that the process may not again using the helve as a lever, have to be described. the workman forces the

prongs through the sub-

3154. In this manner let the entire

stance of the subsoil, which hop-ground be spade and fork trenched, is thereby ripped up into and manured below at 15 inches in depth :

pieces, which are so far and such a mode of trenching and manur displaced, and deprived of ing has the advantage of removing all the all the stones of a larger large stones of the subsoil and soil, to the size than the spaces between depth of the trench ; ofplacinggood manure

THE TRENCHING PORK WITH

the prongs.

Should the

15 inches under the surface soil, to nourish

THREE PRONGS. stones be very large, the the roots of the hop plants when they

THE CULTURE OF THE HOP.

37

reach it ; and of maintaining the natural setting off the ground for the planting of relation subsisting betwixt the soil and the young plants. There are two methods

subsoil. The trenching should be finished of arranging the plants in a hop-ground by the end of autumn, at latest before the one in squares, and the other in quincunx ; winter weather sets in ; and in that state and of these two modes, the quincunx is

the soil may remain until spring, and de- the preferable, because the plants, stand rive all the meliorating effects of frost and ing independently, are more exposed to sun rain . and air ; a greater number of plants are placed on the same extent of ground, in 3155. The cost of such a mode of the ratio of 1 20 to 100 ; and the ground can

trenching is considerable, but as the part be cleaned nearer the plants with the horse trenched with the fork is done at less cost hoe. In fig. 250 is shown the square than by the spade, in proportion to the

Fig. 250.

depth stirred, the depth of 2 feet will cost no more than about 20 inches with

the common spade ; because, in fork

trenching, the soil has not to be lifted up and turned over, but only stirred in its own place. The entire cost will, of course,

depend on the quantity of stones to be removed, and the indurated nature of the soil and subsoil to be overcome ; and, taking these at their worst 'state, the expense will

not likely exceed £7 the acre, including the putting in the dung.

3156. To avoid such an expense, it has been recommended to plough and sub soil the ground simultaneously, the com THE SQUARE METHOD OF PLANTING HOPS .

mon plough going before and turning over

the soil, or a skim -plough going before method, in which the hills of hops, such and turning over a thin furrow of the turf, fig. 240, followed by the common plough covering the turf with soil, and then the subsoil plough to stir the subsoil in the last plough furrow. This process may stir

as a, are each surrounded , in a triangu lar form , by three poles. In cleaning the ground with the borse -hoe from b to c, one pole is closely passed at each hill on the right, and two poles are as closely passed

the soil to the depth of from 15 to 18 on the left hand ; and the same happens

inches, but when done, however well, is in cleaning the ground from d to e. On inefficient compared with the thorough cleaning the ground in the direction at trenching described above ; and although this may at first cost more than the combined ploughings, yet, in a case of establishing a hop - ground which has to remain perhaps formany years, the most substantial and the most satisfactory operation,

right angles to the former, as from ftogand h toi, one pole is passed closely on both hands at each hill. The intersecting lines b c , andde, by $ 9 , and hi, represent the spaces of ground stirred by the horse -hoe; and it will be observed that while a square

and the most economical too, in the long piece of ground included byevery fourhills run, is trenching by the spade and fork .

is stirred twice, a considerable space in the

angles on each side of the single poles in the 3157. Early in spring, in the end of square piece of ground surrounding each

March, the surface of the hop-ground bill is left untouched by the hoe, which should be harrowed and rolled, and reduced must be cleaned by manual labour at an to as fine a tilth as practicable ; and from enbanced cost. 150 to 200 bushels of lime to the acre, according to the nature of the soil, should 3159. In fig. 251 is shown the quin be applied to the surface and harrowed in. cunx method , in which a is a hop hill,

surrounded by three poles set in a triangu

3158. Everything is now prepared for lar form , as in the square method ; but

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

38

bere it will be observed that in stirring the they are to remain permanently; and in ground with the horse- hoe, from b to c,and the other case, the sets are planted on a from d to e, in one direction, and from 6 to f, and from g to h in another direction, and from d to i, and from k to 1 in a third direction , the ground is not only all stirred Fig. 251.

piece ofground for a year, to produce roots before being permanently inserted in the hills. With the cut sets is the risk of one or more of the plants dying in the hills before striking root, and, therefore, more are planted than are absolutely re quired ; and should they all succeed in every hill, it becomes too crowded with plants. The number thus planted, is 5 in each hill. With bedded sets, as the

others are termed, is little danger of loss ; and therefore only 3 are planted in each hill. Of the two methods, I would always prefer the latter, although the other is most practised, merely, perhaps, because it

saves the trouble of transplanting the young plants, and of havingto provide a piece of ground for rooting the sets in.

Bedded sets can no doubt be purchased ; but some one, in that case, must take more

trouble than will supply himself, in pre THE QUINCUNX METHOD OF PLANTING HOPS .

paring the plants for others.

Mr Lance

close to each pole, wbich is as near the hop mentions the raising of plants from seed, plants as any horse implement can ap- but when it is considered that no reliance proach them , but the greatest proportion can be placed on the varieties raised from

ofit is twice, and some of it thrice stirred. seed, this does not seem an advisable plan, Of the two methods, therefore, the quin- except for experiment to originate new cunx not only saves much manual labour in cleaning the land, but stirs it the oftener.

varieties.* 3162. A hole is made in each hill where

3160. The maximum distance between the pin was stuck in on setting off the

the plants is regulated by the combination ground; and before the plants are set into of the power of the soil, and the nature of it, some rich compost, consistingof rotten the variety to produce the largest develop- dung, earth, and lime, is put into it, for

of plant; and the minimum distance encouraging the growthofthe young roots, keep the ground clean. In the former the manure below. The rooted plants are is determined by the room required to and to give them strength to strike down to

case, the distance should not exceed 7 feet; set with their roots outwards, and their and for the latter purpose, it should not be stems inclining a little inwards, in triangu less than 5 feet. Taking 6 feet as a lar order, and aboutsix inches apart ; and

good medium distance, the number of on the earth being pressed around them hills in the acre will be 1194 in the quin- over the stems, a ring is made on the cunx order, and 1031 in the square. The ground around each hill to mark its place. distances are set off by means of a mea suring chain, and pins are stuck into the 3163. There are many varieties of bops sites of the future plants. cultivated, and some are greater favourites

in one locality than others, being best 3161. Young plants are produced in suited to the soil, and also to other circum

two ways, but both by cuttings from the prunings of the bines of the former year's growth, after the crop has been gathered from them . In the one case, the cuttings

stances prevailing in the locality. Some of the best varieties are the Golding, the Canterbury, the Grape, Jones, andCole gates, names directly derived from indi

are inserted directly into the hills, where viduals, places, and character of the pro * Lance's Hop Farmer, p . 53.

THE CULTURE OF THE HOP.

duce of the plant.

Whichever kind is

chosen, it is desirable to have only one variety within one hop -ground, or 80 separated as to be distinct from each other in the same ground, because the picking of the hops in the same piece of ground

should take place at the same time, and different varieties require to be pulled at

39

Brought forward , £25 Setting off 1194 hills, at 6 feet

12

0

0

2

0

0 14 1 0

0 0

apart, .

Planting 1194 hills of bedded sets, at 2s. 6d. per 100, Compost for 1194 hills,

3582 bedded plants, at 6d. per 100, 0 17 0 Twisting the young bines , and re pairing the hills in autumn, 0 15 0

different times. And it is also desirable,

£29

0

0

in choosing different varieties, to have

them to succeed one another in ripening, One man at 3s., an assistant at 23., and 2 that too much work may not be thrown boys at 6d. each, 18.-in all 68.—will set upon the workpeople at one time. Keeping of 3 acres a -day: 2 men at 2s. each, 48., these distinctions in view , it would seem and 1 boy at 6d.-in all 4s. 6d.—will plant

that the Golding or Canterbury may be 600 hills a -day. taken as

one variety, the Grape as

3166. In the first year of a new hop Some of the Jones are recommended, as ground, the soil between the bills may be

another, and the Colegate as the latest.

the broken and short poles answer to sup- cropped with a green crop, manured for itself, in order to keep the ground clean ,

port them.

and cause it to make some return for the

3164. Whatever varieties are chosen, great outlay incurred in converting it into as all sorts of hops are diæcious, it is neces- a bop -ground. sary to have male plants amongst the female which bear the crop. Many hop 3167. During the summer, the young farmers contemn the male hop as be- plants will put out bines, which must be

ing useless ; but experience has suffi- supported by inserting beside them an old ciently proved, and common sense supports pole or stob, and fastening them to it. it, that when male plants are present to When bedded sets have been employed, impregnatethe female, the crop is always a small crop of hops may be expected. better and heavier. To secure their ser

vices, therefore, a hill of male plants should

3168. In autumn, after the bines have

be planted at every 10 or 12 hills, which died down, they should be cut off, and a will give a proportion of one malehill to small mound of earth put over them, to every 100 or 120 hop -growing hills. A remain all the winter. Some leave the bines few extra hills of males on the side of the

on until after the ground is dug in spring,

ground whence the prevailing winds blow, but the mounding the youngrootspreserves will tend still more to secure the impreg- them safe all winter against frost. nation of the female flowers.

The effect

3169. Digging . - As regards the treat fancy, since the impregnated flowers are ment of the growing plants of a hop always larger, firmer, and heavier, and ground, the soil is dug over in spring, as never growso loose and open as the spu- early as its state will permit in March ; rious ones. and this is done with a three- pronged tool named a hop -spud, having the forks or of the impregnation is not a matter of

3165. These are all the particulars re- speens broad and flat, or with a square speen quisite for the furnishing of a new hop- which turns over the several pieces ofthe

ground; and the expense per acre attend- soil raised at each stroke. An experienced ing them is as follows: Draining, Spade and fork trenching,

band, with either of these implements, will .

Manure, 50 cubic yards, at 3s.,

£6 0 7 0 7 10

0 0 0

Lime, 200 bushels, at 6d., and spreading,

.

Harrowing and rolling, Carry forward,

turn over the ground more easily for bim self than with the common spade, which obliges him to lift as well as turn it over. Digging costs from 18s. to 20s. the acre.

5

0

0

0

2

0

3170. Manuring . – The annual produce

0

of a hop -ground, consisting of the hops and bines,being very considerable, and as

£25 12

40

PRACTICE - SUMMER.

the perennial nature of the plant does not the sets or shoots of last year that were permit it to be placed in the category of tied to the poles; and which, from having those plants of the farm which follow each earth put on them the preceding sum other in any given rotati it is necessary mer, swell out to four or five times their to manure the ground every year at least original size, and form what we call sets

once, if not twice. The first manuring or cuttings ; and it is the cutting them off after the crop may be given in the autumn at the right part that should be particu or in spring, and if in the latter, the larly attended to, or great injury may be

time to do itis before thedigging of the done. It is therefore necessary that the ground commences. The best plan is to person cutting them should ascertain

apply the manure twice a -year - in the exactly where the crown of the hill

spring, with farm -yard manure and rags, is, that he may not cut them too low and during the summer with some assis- or too bigh ; and the place where they tant, as guano, rape -cake dust.

Of farm- should be cut off is between the crown of

yard dung, from 25 to 30 cubic yards the bill and the first joint, for it is around should be given to the acre. Black mould the set close to the crown where the is an excellent application about the crown best and most fruitful bine comes. If the of the roots, and from 80 to 100 single set is pared off down too close to the stock

borse-loads should be put on the acre. The or crown, it takes away the part from dung and mould may be carted on the ground, if its state permit; but the manure applied and dug in in summer should bewheeled on to the land, and the operation will cost about 1s. per 100 bills. Woollen rags cost £6 per ton, and from 12 to 20

where that bine conies, as little buds are seen ready to shoot forth at the time of

cutting, which, if cut off, the bines come weakly and few . On the other hand, if the set is cut off above the first joint, wbich sometimes will be the case, if the cwt. per acre will be required. Woollen man in cutting does not pay the attention waste or shoddy may be had for £4 per to it be ought, the bines which come from ton, and from 20 to 30 cwt. per acre will that or any other joint bigber up the set be required.

grow fast , but are coarse, hollow, or what

we call pipey, and unproductive: all such 3171. Guano and rape -cake dust are should be discarded at the time of tying.

convenient applications, in June and July, Consequently the operation of cutting or to be made around the plants and spread dressing, on which the future well-doing over the surface and loed in with horse- of the plant so much depends, is not left labour in damp weather . About £4 of so much to the judgment or skill of the cost of either, to the acre, will suffice for operator as to his care and attention .

one.manuring . Some seem to doubt that Many planters have their hops dressed

the summer manuring does any good, but by the day, paying extra wagestopersons experience has proved, by comparative ex- in whom they can confide to do itwith care . periment, that the yield of crop is con After all the old bine and runners, as the roots and small rootlets near the surface siderably increased by it. are called, are cut and trimmed off clean ;

3172. Dressing the shoots. After the some fine earth is pulled over the crown, manuring and digging in spring, the shoots and a circle made round with the hand of the bops are dressed, and cuttings made picker, to intimate where thehill is before

from them . These are nice operations, the young shoots appear.” The male hills The dressing cute them , otherwise the success of the should be finished before the end of March.

and require an experienced hand to exe- are particularly marked. future will be rendered doubtful. A recent It costs 6d . per 100 hills. author, Mr Rutley, writes thus particu larly on this subject. After stating that

3173. Such of the sets as have two or

a boy or woman opens around the stock more joints are selected to make a new hop of the hill, with a small narrow hoe, a ground with , or sold for that purpose ; but little below the crown of the hill, “ a man the cuttings should only be taken from the

follows with a pruning-knife and a small most healthy bines. hand hoe, with which he clears out the earth on the crown of the bill between

3174. Poling.-- Everything is now ready

THE CULTURE OF THE HOP.

for the reception of thepoles — for, the hop being a climbing plant, it is necessary that they be supplied with poles sufficiently strong and long to support them effectually. The best poles are of yew , next of chestnut, then larch, ash, willow , oak cut in winter, Scots fir, birch, alder, beech ,

41

hill, as shown in figs. 250 and 251 : they are set from 18 inches to 2 feet apart,

according to the strength of the plants to be supported. An instrument like the fold -pitcher, fig. 63, makes a hole deep enough to give the end of the pole a firm hold of the ground, which should

in the order enumerated . As three poles be as many inches in depth asthe pole are required for each hill, every acre of is of height in feet. The pole is pusbed

hop-ground requires 3600 poles. They cost down to the very bottom of the hole, and 1s. per foot the 100 poles - tbat is, poles if it have any crook or set at the lower of 20 feet in length cost 20s. the 100, or end, it is placed inwards to be out of £36 the acre . They last from 3 to 5 the way of the horse in cleaning the years, according to the wood they aremade ground ; and the top should have a lean

of ; and thus,atthe longest, 700 poles per outwards, to give room to the bines to acre are required to maintain the stock of branch ; whilethe body of the pole should be as upright as possible, in order to give poles in an efficient manner. it the strongest position. The cost of poling 3175. To lessen this great expense , it and sharping is from 1s. to 1s. 6d. per 100 bas been suggested to employ stout wire hills of three poles, according to the size

to support the bines between a few strong of thepoles and the nature of the ground ; poles; and I have no doubt, now that wire and the carrying of new poles into the is extensively employed in field fencing, ground costs from ld. to 3d. per 100 that it might be as usefully employed in poles.

hop -grounds.

The bines could be spread

and tied with freedom on such wires, for

3178. Many modes have been devised

exposure tosun and air, and the tyings of setting thepoles. A mode adapted by could be effected with great ease and Mr Knowles, in Kent, seemsto combine the advantages of affording shelter to the hop

precision.

ground, and of training the bines for the

3176. The poles, when about to be set, are chosen in conformity to the variety of the hop they are intended to support ; for if longpoles are set beside a low -growing hop, the plant will be drawn too much up

greatest production. The weather side of the ground is poled four hills deep, with 21 -feet poles in rows from end to end. To these are lashed similar poles, placed horizontally from pole to pole about eight

and prove unproductive; and, on the other feet abovetheground ; and each row of such hand, if the poles are too short for the lashed poles is bound to the nearest one, plants, the tops of the plants will bend by means of horizontal poles similarly

down and not branch out,and the crop will lashed and placed at right angles to them be smothered . Much, however, must be from the outside to the inside rows. By left to chance in this matter, as a favour- these means a phalanx of poles offers able season for vegetation will cause a short a sufficient resistance to the wind, and

variety of hop to grow tall, and a stinting year will prevent the tallest attaining their proper height. The poles are new sharped at the ends every year ; and, when sharpening them, trial should be made of each pole, whether it be strong enough

shelters the whole ground; and this plan has proved a means of increasing the quantity of hops grown on the outside row , which is covered with from 13 to

14 feet of hops from the top, and branched and clustered most heavily on the cross

above the sharpened point to bear a slight poles, thereby showing the advantage blow , and if it cannot, it would have broken of keeping the tops of the plants firmly off in high wind, and caused much incon- fixed, instead of allowing them to swing venience and loss. Whenever a pole proves about in the wind. The increased ex doubtful, it should be cut short and sharped, pense of poling a ground in this way is to be used by a lower class of plants, or 30s. the acre, besides an extra hand at

by the young plants in a new hop- ground. the poling; but the saving in a windy season is considerable, both in hops and 3177. Three poles are set around each poles.

PRACTICE - SUMMER.

42

3179. The best hops grown at Lewis- and when above that height ladders are ham have been trained horizontally in the used, which stand independently upon espalier form , as represented in fig. 252, the ground. The tying begins aboutthe on poles 5 feet high,and 3 feet apart, with end of April. Fig. 252,

3182. From 18 inches to 2 feet of the lower end of the bines should be stripped

of their leaves, to allow air to get to the crown of the roots, and to dig about the hills during the summer. Some hop farmers cut off the branches of their bines for a considerable height above the ground,

which seems an unnecessary practice inany case, and in the case of those hops which shoot out bines near the ground it must

be positively injurious. The stripping costs 2s. the acre.

In some seasons, as of

wind, the young bines are apt to lose their head, or leading shoot, in which case one or more lateral branches will have to be ESPALIER FORM OF TRAINING HOPS.

removed, to allow one to take the lead, and this one should be carefully trained to

a long pole or two at such intervals as may the pole. In every season some of the be desired, fixed to the top of the horizon- poles will be blown down by the wind, tal ones to keep them steady. A plant is and in such cases the common practice is set at each stake, and the rows are formed to tie the bines to an adjoining pole ; but

one way across the field. This method may a better plan is to sharpen the bottom of be adopted with success where poles are the broken pole and push it into the ground

scarce, and where theground is exposed to again, and although shorter than itshould winds. All the male plants should be placed be, it will keep the bines in a better state on the long poles, that their farina may drop of preservation for ripening the crop than when tied to another plant, to the injury on the female flowers on the lower ones. of both plants. The repairing of blown 3180. Immediately after the poles are down poles will cost about 58. an acre.

set, the ground is horse-hoed as deeply as possible, and all weeds making their appearance eradicated ; and this operation is

3183. After the bines have all been tied up, and the leaves stripped below , which

conducted through the summer, as oppor-

will be about the first or second week of

tunity offers. Some object to the employ- June, the ground around the hills where mentof horse labour in a hop-ground, but the horse -hoe could not touch should be it is cheaper than hand labour, and equally dug over with the spade or spud, and effectual.

will cost from 38. to 8s. tbe acre. This

digging is necessary for the double purpose 3181. Whenever the bines shoot to a of loosening the earth about the crown,

length to be fastened, they are tied to the and the bills, trodden down by the tiers. poles. Three of the best bines are selected If the ground is rough in the alleys, it to be tied toeach pole, and the rest are cut away. The bines are tied by women —a woman and her family, or by single women—and the job is taken by the piece at 88. the acre. The ties are made with withered rushes, which cannot injure the stems of the bines against the poles ; and the tie is made with a slip -knot, so that the tying may give way as the bines enlarge in diameter. The tyings are done

should be harrowed, and even rolled, to render the tilth as fine as possible. Besides these operations, earth is placed upon the places where the bines had been cut off, and this is requisite to stop the fresh shoots rising up fromthe stools — to keep the weeds under - to support both the bines and the poles — and to strengthen the shoots that will be the cuttings and the bines of next

year. Earthing is done to the end of June,

from near the ground up to 5 feet above it, and costs 3d. the 100 hills. This finishes

43

the summer treatment of the hop in as far are fortunately enabled to furnish a pretty as the manual labour is concerned, but complete account of one of the most com the horse -hoe must be used until the crop becomes ripe, in order preserve the ground in a loose state for the roots of the plants, and to overcome surface weeds. *

mon kinds ; and as the family is a very natural one, we may thence derive a pretty correct notion of the natural history

earliest enemies is the Wire-worm . This

3185. “ The character of wire -worms

of the whole. Any mode of treatment which checks the depredations of this 3184. The hop -plant is subject to the species will probably be equally effectual attacks of insects and other maladies in in regard to the others. the course of its growth. Amongst its

insect is the larvæ of a tribe named Elate- generally is, that they have a long, slender,

ridæ , or click -beetles, which are readily and cylindrical body, covered by a tough known by having the sternum produced crust,which has occasioned the above name.

behind a strongspine, fitted to enter a They are composed of 12 segments, fitting groove in the abdomen, situated between closely to each other, and are provided with the intermediate pair of legs, as thus described by the Rev. Mr Duncan : “By bringing these partssuddenly into contact," he observes, " the insect is enabled to spring

6 conical scaly feet, placed in pairs on the three segments next the head. The latter is furnished with short antennæ , palpi, and

two strong mandibles or jaws.

The

to some heightin the air, and thus recovers species alluded to as being well-known is its natural position, when it happens to the larva of Cataphagus lineatus. When fall on its back, which it frequently does full -grown it is about seven lines long,

when dropping from plants tothe ground. a line being the twelth part of an inch, A special provision of thiskind is rendered and rather less than a line in breadth, necessary , in consequence of the shortness as a, fig. 253.

The shape of the body

and weakness of itslegs. Upwards of 60

Fig. 253.

different species of wire -worms occur in Britain , and it is probable that a consider

able proportion of them feed upon our most valuable cultivated plants. The same species of larvæ does not appear to confine itself to one kind of food ,but attacks in a

discriminately the roots of corn and other grasses, as well as esculent roots, such as turnips, carrots, radishes, & c. But it is at

the same time deserving of notice, that, as a strong similarity prevails among larvæ specifically distinct, it is probable that different kinds may often have been con founded , and a more correct knowledge may prove them to be more restricted in

ootb

eat ராட்டி

THE WIRE - WORM AND ITS PERFECT BEETLE CATAPHEGUS LINEATUS ,

their choice of food than is at present sup- would be perfectly cylindrical were likely by what is observed in analogous tirely of an ochre yellow colour, except the cases . We are as yet acquainted with the anterior part of the head, which is brown : posed : this at least is rendered not un- the back not a little depressed . It is en

metamorphoses and habits of avery small for some time after a change of skin, it is

number of these insects ; and it is there- white. Owing to the rigid consistency of fore highly desirable that, wherever a de- the skin or crust, the larva can scarcely

structive wire -worm prevails, it should be contract its body, but, being composed of traced to the perfect condition. This, rings or segments, it is flexible enough however, is attended with considerable from side to side. These rings are 12 in

difficulty, owing to the length oftime they number, the three nearest the head each continue in the larvæ state, extending in provided with a pair of conical legs, and many instances to several years. But we the caudal segment having a fleshy tubercle * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. ix. p. 532-563.

-

-

THE CULTURE OF THE HOP.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

beneath , which_serves the purpose of a it is likely to feed on the cereal and other useful grains. This is the Hypnoidus terminating in a point, and is remarkable riparius, a small insect of a brassy -black for having two circular holes, like two colour, with pale reddish legs." brown points in the surface, as in b. It 3188. Fortunately, the wire-worms find is difficult to conjecture the use of these, unless they be a kind of stigmata which numerous enemies amongst the same class seventh foot. The last-named is conical,

»*

serve for respiration ; but the real stig- of creation of which they form a part. mata are placed along each side, appearing like small brown points from thefourth to the eleventh segment inclusively. The whole body is smooth, with a few scattered hairs. The pupa into which the larva changes, is nearly white, with two black points over the eyes; the length about The front has two brown three lines. projecting points, and the abdomen consists of 10 rings, the last of which termi-

“ Concealed, therefore, as the wire-worms

are in the earth," observes Mr Curtis, " and armed with a coat of mail which

will withstand most external assaults, a little ichneumon -fly, probably a Micro gastor, discovers their retreats, and punc turing the sutures of the skin, in all pro bability which are the more membranous, deposits her eggs in the body of the worm, to feed upon the muscles, and thus destroy

nates in two short spines. The perfect in- this enemy to the cultivator.” That shin sect c, which issues from the pupa, is of a ing black beetle which inhabits wet and brown colour, thickly covered with short damp localities, Steropus madidus, des

pubescence. The antennæ d are about the troys the wire-worm with its mandibles. length of the head and thorax, with the The small tick, Uropoda umbilica, in

radical joint long and thick. The under fects the perfect beetle of the Cataphagus side of the body is dusky and pubescent; obscurus ; and the brilliantscarlet-colour the legs obscure yellow : length e about ed harvest-bug, Leptus phalangii, already four lines, breadth 14. This insect occurs referred to in (2956,) as the Acarus au in considerable plenty throughout the tumnalis of Shaw, infests another species

country, in green fieldsand pasture lands, of wire -worm beetle, Elater ruficaudis.t and isusually found creeping among the

herbage, or lying at the sides of stones; it is scarcely ever observed on the wing.

3189. I have been the more particular in giving a detailed description of the wire -worm , as many insects, such as centi

3186. “ Another species, at least what pedes, which inbabit the ground and injure

is usually regarded as such, occurs in the crops are so called ; and a remarkable similar places, and generally in much instance of such a mistake has been com greater abundance, at least in Scotland, mitted by Mr Lance, in assuming the wire namely Cataphagus obscurus. This insect worm to be a scolopendra.I is so closely allied to that above described that it may readily be taken for a variety

3190. As a trap to catch wire-worms,

of it ; andthere is little doubt that the de- potatoes cut in two,and turnips sliced, may scription of the larva of C. lineatus, will be buried around the bills, and examined

apply almost equally to that of C.obscurus. daily and replaced, by which means many From the great abundance of the latter, it may be destroyed, as the insects will leave may be presumed to be the species which the roots of the hop to regale on these esculents. commits most injury in this country . 3187. “ There is another species, which

3191. Other insects, besides the wire

occurs more plentifully in ploughed lands worm , injure the hop. The caterpillars of throughout the south of Scotland, but the ghost-moth, Hepialus humuli, which which we have never heard charged with are of a rather glossy cream colour, with similar depredations. Yet there is no the head brown ,and a scaly patch on the doubt that the larva is a root worin, and, neck, feed on the root of the hop, and it

from the places the perfect insect freqnents, changes in May to a dark-brown pupa ; * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture,vol. viii. p. 101-3. + Journal of the English Agricultural Society , vol. v. p. 209-227. Lance's Hop Farmer, p. 73.

THE CULTURE OF THE HOP.

but this insect is more common in grassy

45

taken to plant the same kind of hop as

places in June, and not unfrequent in that cultivated in the ground. In Flan churehyards, and hence its name.** A flea- ders, the hop - ground is not cultivated above beetle, not unlike the turnip -beetle, com- , five years, when it is rooted up, and the mences its attacks

upon the young leaves

soil cultivated with ordinary crops.

and heads of the hop as soon as they appear, 3194. The hop, Humulus lupulus, belongs to stopping their growth, and even quite destroying them. When the shoots attain the sameplace in the system of plants as the last described plant, the hemp, that is the class and

six inches or more , the insects may be order Diæcea Pentandria of Linnæus, some plants brushed off into any receptacle beld to re having male flowers and others female flowers ; to ceive them. A more formidable foe is the the natural order Urtiacece of Jussieu ; and to hop aphis, which commences its attacks the Declinous Exogens — alliance 19, Urticales after the flea -beetle has ceased, about the

order 86, Cannabinaceæ — and genus Humulus, of the natural system of Lindley.

latter end of May, when the bines have reached four or six feet up the poles, on the under side of the small leaves near the

3195. “ The bine and leaves of hops have been used for tanning light skins, " as Mr Lance in

head of the bine. The attack of the plant-

forms us, “ instead of oak bark, and

has louse is called a blight, though that is been taken out for the process by Mra J.patent P. New

another disease occasioned by the growth man, London . of a parasitic fungus. The hop in some 3196. “ In Sweden the stalks of hopsare success seasons recovers from the attack of the fully converted into strongcloth for sacking and aphis, as in 1807, 1834, and 1846 ; but in coarse bags for hops, for which purpose the stalks

others it is almost entirely destroyed, as in

are gathered in autumn, soaked in water during the winter, and in the succeeding spring, after

1837 ; while it is remarked that the same

being dried on stoves, are dressed like flax.

ground is not attacked in two successive seasons .

The natural enemy of the aphis,

3197. “ A coarse sort of brown paper has been the

Aphis humuli, is the larva of the lady-bird, made from the bines of the hop, at a mill in Coccinella bipunctata, and one or more of neighbourhood of Maidstone. the ichneumon - flies, which deposit an egg

3198. “ Hop bines are also used as binders for

within the body of the aphis, the larva the sheaves of corn andbean haulms. from which destroys the enemy. 3199. “ The prunings are also cut into pieces

3192. Besides by insects, the hop is as-

and stacked for winter provender for cattle and

them ,their bitterness sailed by a parasiticfungus, commoncalled horses,whicharefondof constituting an excellent stomachic. The bines themould,because the plantsseemmoulded. require carefulharvestingtopreserve them.” It is most subject to this disease in moist warm summers, and its effects are most

3200. The tender shoots of the hop in spring

disastrous, as it deprives the plant of the may be used as a pleasant bitter salad ; and " in Flanders, where the hop is cultivated, the prin cipal culturebeingfrom Brussels to Álost,they paris it forming ; but flower the of power tial in its attacks, confining itself to cer- use

the young shoots in the same way as aspara gus, tied in bunches, boiled and stewed , and eaten with butter and gravy. Such bunches are sold in the vegetable markets.

tain spots and localities.

3193. The power of some hop -grounds 3201. “ From the young leaves and offshoots to produce a great crop every year, when external circumstances do not occur to pre- of the bine, after being dried, an extract is ob

which will dye woollens of a fine cinna vent it, is extraordinary. Many grounds tained, mon brown. The expressed juice of the bine is have borne crops for upwards of half a cen well known amongst French chemists, as afford tury, and some exceed in age an entire ing a permanent red -brown colour.” + century. It must not be supposed, how 3202. According to the analysis of Mr Nesbit, ever, from this, that any plant that was planted at the formation of the ground 94 oz.of the Golding hop leares, dried at steam remains alive such a length of time. heat, lost 14 oz. of moisture, and leftd 84 oz. of

Whenever a plant or an entire hillindicates dried leaves. Thedried leaves,burne toashes, gave 572 grains, being at the rate of 164 per itshould be removed, cent. Of the yellow grape hop leaves, 14.oz. symptoms of decay,ted e

and another substitu ; but care should be lost of moistur in drying 1 g 02., and left 12 oz. * Stephens’ IUustrations of British Entomology, vol. i. p. 6. + Lance's Hop Farmer, p. 17 .

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

46

of dried leaves. The dried leaves, burned to ashes, been described for that crop from (2732) to

gave25 per cent of mineral matter.The com- ( 2736.) Having drilled up as much land

position of the ashes was as follows :

as will allow the dunging to proceed with

Golding Hop Yellow Grape

out interruption, thatprocess is carried on

leaves .

Hop leaves.

Potash , Soda,

12.48 0.32

2.29

then the ploughs proceed as in ( 2752.)

Lime,

41.46 1.99

32.28

This mode of dunging is the same as re commended for drilled beans, ( 2433,) and

Magnesia,

Sulphuric acid, Phosphoric acid, Phosphate of iron , Carbonic acid ,

.

4.20 2.02

6.24 3.63 3.68

2.93

0.54

16.54

more fully described for potatoes.

The

21.25

only difference between preparing the land forturnips and potatoesis, that,as turnips

7.92

4.58

are later in being sown , more time is found

10.14

20.38

for cleaning the land thoroughly for them,

100.00

100.00

Chloride ofsodium ( com

mon salt,) Silica ,

as described in ( 2749 and 2750) ; and

5.13

on which account another ploughing or another grubbing, according to the cir cumstances of the weather, may be given

3203. Of theGoldinghop bine, 1 lb. 24 oz. dried to the land before the process of dunging ata steam heat, lost 1 } oz. of moisture, and left 1 lb.

is commenced .

oz. of dry bine. The dry bine burned ,

gave 353 grains of ashes, being at the rate of nearly 5 per cent. Of the yellowgrape hop, 2 lb.

3205. When the land is to be manured

12 oz. of bine,dried, lost 4 oz. of moisture, leav- with farm -yard dung, it is first drilled ing 2 lbs. 78oz. ofdry bine. The dry bine, in in the single mode, ( 2389,) as being the being burnt,gave 5.1 percent ofmineralmatter. best andmost expeditious; but as the The composition of the ashes was as follows : Golding Hop Yellow Grape

Potash ,

18.62

12.97 2.32

ing the seed, the best ploughman should

29.59

3.15

17.39 12.61

2.63

3.14

5.22

8.14 2.06 1.55

Soda,

Lime, Magnesia, Sulphuric acid ,

Phosphoric acid, Phosphate of iron ,

0.31 ...

Phosphate of alumina, 23.51 Carbonic acid, Manganese , Chloride ofsodium ( com ...

mon salt,)

drills for turnips must be formed of exact

ly the same distance , to accommodate the working of the drill-machine for sow

bine .

4.95

Chloride of potassium ,

7.38

Silica,

4.64

100.00

Hop bine.

24.18 a trace . 9.98

be desired to form those drills.

3206. When farm - yard dung is alone used for manuring the turnip crop, the

quantity applied generally differs from 12 to 15 tons the acre, according to the sort of turnip — the Swedish variety receiving the larger quantity, and the white the

5.66

smaller . In the neighbourhood of towns,

100.00 *

much more manure isapplied to the turnip crop - as much as 32loads ofatleast 15cwt.

ON THE SOWING , AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE TURNIP.

each of town manure the acre, and upwards of20 tons of farmyard dung. The moredung the turnip receives it willyield the heavier and more valuable crop ; still, if the far

mer depend entirely on the sources of the 3204. I shall now take for subject farm for manure , he cannot apply a large the culture of the turnip, because it is the quantity to one crop, without depriving

most important root-crop cultivated, and others of their share. After the dung bas whatever relates to it may easily be been ploughed in by the double mode of applied to the culture of every other of the drilling, ( 2397,) the land is ready for the root-crops cultivated on the farm , such as seed . kohl-rabi, mangold -wurzel, carrot, and the

like, although one or all of these may be

3207. Of the varieties of turnips usually

sown earlier than the turnip . The turnip occupying the same place in the order of crops as the potato, the land is prepared for it in precisely the same manner as bas

cultivated on the farm , I have already given a sufficient account, from (843) to (854.) The Swedish turnip should be sown about the 15th May, and 3 lb. of

* Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. vii. p. 212-217.

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

47

seed to the acre will suffice. The seed turnip seed is the same, 9d. the pound, varies in price from 9d. to 1s. a pound, and the quantity sown of both may be the

according to the supply. The next hardy same. A little saving in turnip seed is turnip, the yellow, should besown immediately after the swedes are finished with a smaller quantity of seed , 22 lb. to the acre — the seed being smaller, more of

of no great importance, unless when one farms on a very large scale; and if fresh seed only were used, much smaller quan tities than those specified would suffice.

course are found in the same measure.

The white turnips may be sown any

3208. Two-rowed

Turnip -drills. -

time from the beginning to the end of Turnip seed is always sown with a drill June, and in England they are seldom sown before July, for, if sown too early, according to the climate, they are apt to run to seed. The price of the yellow and white

machine, and one of the most efficient and simple sowing drills which sowsseed alone is the East Lothian turnip -drill. Fig. 254 is a view in perspective of this drill;

Fig. 254.

d

d

6 m

m

THE EAST- LOTHIAN TURNIP - SOWING DRILL.

in which a a is the bed -frame, consisting embrace the upper part of the drills, and

of two transverse and three longitudinal revolve upon a shaft passingthrough the bars, to which are mortised three upright lower ends of the upright bars . Of

bars b b b. Stay- braces c c are attached the two seed -boxes 99 , one is shown to the bed -frame by bolts, though in many thrown open, and they are attached to the of the inferior machines these are omitted, iron bows h h, through the ends of which

greatly to the deterioration of their the axle also passes, whereby the whole strength and durability. The horse shafts becomes movable upon the axle. The dd are bolted to the transverse bars, sup- bottom of the boxes is formed funnel ported by stay -braces e, and furnished shaped, terminating in a nozzle which with the usual horse mounting. This passes between the sheathes i i of the coul

machine sows two drills at a time, and, to support it upon two of the drills of land, two rollers ff, which are both motive and compressing, are provided one for each drill, and so curved longitudinally as to

ter for conveying the seed from the boxes to the ground: the bottoms of the boxes are firmly attached to the bow h.

Con

necting rods k k are attached to the seed box frame, for regulating the depth of the

PRACTICE – SUMMER .

48

coulter in the soil. The seed -barrels are are punched out, each three varying in mounted on axles within the box frame g, size from a sixteenth to an eighth of an

the outer extremity of which is furnished inch diameter, but all in the same order A separate band is fixed in the end of the rollerf, and both then fitted to the first,closedwith a clasp with a pulley m, corresponding to another from more to less.

made to move by means of a jack -chain.joint, and capable of being slid round, to The handles ll move upon the joint l', and a smallextent, upon the interior band, and when elevated draw the coulters i i out of is, besides, provided with a pinching- screw ,

the ground, and when depressed by the by which it can be fixed at any point weight of the hand, keep them steady in within its range of motion, which does not the ground. An important function of necessarily exceed one inch. The movable this machine is its self-adjustment to the band is likewise divided into six equal width of the drills. This is accomplished parts, and at each division a perforation is by the width between the pendants b6 made larger than any of those in the in being greater than the length of the terior. By these arrangements the mov

rollers, together with their attached able band can be placed so as to expose pulleys and iron bows h, which admit any ofthe three sets of the six perforations of a ready lateral motion of the rollers, of the inner band, whereby a greater or

with their accompaniments of bow, coul- lesser quantityof seed can be sown accord soon as the ing to circumstances. In the figure, the machine is put in progressive motion, and perforations are seen on the outer band; ters, and seed -boxes, so

the curved rollers feel any unequal resis- the clasp -joint also is seen near the upper

tance right or left. Any such unequal side b of the figure ; and the pinching resistance, on either end of the rollers, draws it immediately to that side where the resistance is felt, until it is fairly adjusted to the slope of the drill ; the effect

screw and slit, by which it can be fixed or moved, are seen in the middle of the figure. The slider d covers a hole by which the barrel can be filled or emptied of seed .

in this case being produced entirely by the

action of the sloping sides of the drill against the conoidal sides of the rollers.

3210. This machine is furnished with a

pair of small covering rollers, made of any hard wood, mounted in light iron frames or

3209. Fig. 255 is a perspective view of shears, which are hooked on to a bolt in

the seed -barrel, detached from its seat ; the coulter-frame, and are thus dragged Fig. 255.

bebind the machine. These rollers are not considered as forming an essential part of

this drill, though they serve to compress light soils from drought, but on heavy soils a crust would be formed on the sur

face, should rain fall afterwards.

The

figure giveu here is from the machines as manufactured by Mr James Slight, Edin burgh. The price of this drill, in the ordinary state for sowing seed alone, ranges from £ 5 to £6, 10s. 3211. Several varieties of this drill are THE SEED- BARREL.

to be met with, in which the chief differ a a is the axle or spindle in which it re- ence lies in the mode of communicating

volves, and on the longer end of which motion to the seed -barrel, and of throwing

the pulley is placed. The barrel is formed it out of gear.

This last particular may

of tin-plate, in two conical frusta, joined be regarded as a defect in the machine

base to base, with a cylindrical band b just described, and undoubtedly it is a de interposed between the two, and the fect; but the question is simply whether it is more economical to lose a balforonepercent hard wood. The band 6 is usually di- of seed every year, or pay a considerable vided into six equal parts, and at each addition in price to the original cost of the point of division three small apertures machine, which the adoption of the disen

truncated ends are closed with discs of

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

49

gagingI am principlewouldincur Formy ratherthan wantseedthepwhen ower of stopping part, so fond of having. everything the issue of the desired. in the best state it can be obtained, that I

would willingly pay the additional cost

3212. Fig. 256 gives a view in perspec

Fig. 256 .

b

GEDDES TWO - ROWED TURNIP - SOWING DRILL.

tive of a variety of turnip -drill, contrived Fig. 257 is a transverse section of this,

by Mr Geddes, Cargen Bridge, Dumfries- d d being the interior surface of the box, shire. Its construction of parts is much

Fig. 257.

the same as that already described , but the depression of the parts forming the frame

work gives the machine an appearance of compactness and strength .

The bed -frame

a a is a plank, b are the pendants upon which the frame -work is supported upon the axles of the curved rollers e e.

The

horse shafts c are bolted on the plank a,

and the handles d d are jointed to it, and, being embraced by open guards, per mit the elevation and depression of the coulters by means of the chains k k, according to circumstances: gg are the seed -box frames ; h are spur- gearing, shown exposed, by which the seed axles are moved ; and i i are the bind covering wheels.

THE VERTICAL SECTION OF THE SEED - DISTRIBUTOR .

in the bottom of wbich an opening is made to receive a brass roller b, having a groove running round it. The roller is mounted on an axle a which is pro longed to a sufficient distance beyond the

box for receiving the last wheel of the

series already described, the connexion 3213. The distributing apparatus in with which gives motion to the roller b. this machine is peculiar, and bas been con- A slider c is attached to the interior of the sidered to contain its principal merit, and box, and capable of nice adjustment by a supposed to afford a more correct means screw or otherwise. The lower end of the

of graduating the quantity to be sowo than slider, which comes in contactwith the the common seed-barrel, fig. 255. This roller, is formed with a tongue thatenters

apparatus is very simple; the interior of into the groove, and the adjustment of the the seed -box is formed into a semi- cylin- opening between the point of the tongue der, which may be of wood or of tin -plate. and the bottom of the groove determines VOL. II.

D

50

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

the quantity of seed to be delivered . The or more pairs of horses ; but for farms of a

expense of this machine, in consequence of small class, having only one pair of horses, the wheel- gearing, is greater than that of a smaller class of machine might answer the purpose ; and on this account I give the

the machine above described.

perspective view of a machine which sows

3214. One-rowed turnip-drill.-- These one drill at a time with seed alone in fig. machines are suitable for the larger class 258, which consists of a frame of timber of farms, such as those which employ two formed of the two handles a a framed Fig. 258.

b

THE TURNIP-BARROW FOR SOWING ONE DRILL.

upon a broad transverse bar which carries the seed-box. Besides the broad bar, a round stretcher is introduced near the point of the stilts, chiefly intended for the attachment of a drag -rope; an iron axle is placed below the frame, running in bushes or small pillow -blocks, and the two wheels b b are fitted to it, one of them fixed, the other running free. Two iron legs c c are bolted to the stilts, with stretcher and braces to render them steady. A toothed

The pull may be too much for one man's strength, when a pony or horse should be employed. The price is from £ 2, 5s., to £ 2, 158. 3215. But turnip seed is not always sown alone, it being also deposited along with granulated manures in the drills. Such granulated manure has hitherto chiefly been bone -dust, though certain composts have recently been recommended

spur -wheel d is fixed upon the axle, and

as substitutes or assistants to bone-dust.

this acts upon another e of equal size fitted Guano cannot be distributed by means of upon the spindle of the seed -barrel, which any drill hitherto known, on account of

last is of the same construction as fig. 255. its clammy consistence, which, if natural, The seed -barrel is mounted in the casef, maybe rather troublesome to get rid of ; and the wheel e can be disengaged from but if produced by water being poured the driving -wheel. The bottom of the into the guano, to increase its weight, it seed -box isformed into a funnel, termin- may be overcome by evaporation, though

ating in a director-pipe, as seen at d, the process would certainly be attended which descends into the sheath of the with trouble and expense. The practical

coulter h. The coulter is simply a bar of consequence hitherto of this inconvenience hardwood, set in the transverse bar of the has been to distribute the guano by the

frame; and fixed at the proper position by hand. Bone-dust is admirably deposited means of a wedge, and shod at the bottom with the machine about to be described. with a strong sheet -iron sheath. One man pushes the machine forward along a

3216. Two- roued turnip and bone

drill by the stilts, and a boy or another dust drill.–Fig. 259 exbibits a view in man pulls it forward by means of a rope. perspective of a turnip -seed and bone-dust

_

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

51

drill, and although apparently of very been said of this class of machines. The complicated form , its description may be bed - frame a a, is constructed in a similar easily understood from what has already manner to those of the corn -drills. The Fig. 259.

6

d

FI

THE TWO- ROWED TURNIP AND BONE -DUST SOWING DRILL .

axle of the carriage, which passes across and under it, is supported on pillow -blocks. The wbeels 6 b are added to support the great weight of the manure: one of them being fixed dead upon the axle, carrying

ported by the iron pendants i. Two lever handles k k are jointed to the front bar of the bed -frame, and to them are attached the connecting rods f'f' ; whose lower ends bring the operation of the coul

the latter round with it, and thus forming ters under the control of the person who

the mover of the actiug parts ; the other takes charge of the levers k k . An iron being left at liberty to revolve on the lever is also jointed upon the front bar : axle, for the convenience of turning the its bandle, extending backwards to k', machine round. The horse -shafts c care serves to disengage the action of the bolted to the two foremost transverse bars. manure -distributors from the motion of The seed -barrels, are enclosed in theboxes the main axle ; and as the motion of the

d d , through which axles pass ; and each seed - barrels is taken from that of the axle carries a pulley, one of which is seen manure-distributors, all the secondary The two manure hoppers e e are

motion ceases on the movement of the

constructed with a cast-iron bottom , havinga narrow opening, and in length equal tothe breadth of the entire bottom for the reception of the manure -distributing wheel ; f f are pressing rollers, of the same

lever k ', and is again brought into action by moving it in the opposite direction. The motion of the manure-distributoris conveyed by small spur -wheels, and the

form and dimensions as those of the com-

from the shaft of the former.

at d '.

seed-barrels are driven by separate chains These

mon drill. Each roller is also furnished wheels are so placed in relation to the

with a coulter-frame 9 g, which carries opening of the hopper, as to be quite close the coulters h h, and has also the usual extent of lateral play, whereby they possess the property of adjusting themselves to the drills, -of carrying the coulter-

to the fore- end of the opening, while an aperture is left at the opposite end suffi ciently large to pass the largest allowance of manure to be given out; and in

frame and coulter along with them, and order to graduate this quantity, a sliding of securing the object of the seed being sluice é é is attached to that side of the

always sown directly in the middle of the hopper, and is adjusted by means of a drills. The pressing- roller axle is sup- screw at the top. By these means, the

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

52

area of the discharging orifice can be

3217. A more distinct idea of the work

regulated to any desired quantity pering of this machine will be formed by the acre . The motions for the discharge of following plan, represented in fig. 260, the seed and manure are produced from where a a is the frame, b b the carriage the wheel b, which is placed on the main wheels, the main axle b'b', and the horse

axle, and gives motion to a similar wheel shafts c c, broken off. The seed -barrels, placed upon the manure axle. with their separate spindles and pulleys, Fig. 260. ‫افلے‬

‫الاط‬

@

OI

4

m

m 1

THE PLAN OF THE TWO - ROWED TURNIP AND BONE - DUST SOWING DRILL .

are seen in their position at d d andff, is yet as free of that fault as it is perhaps the boxes being removed, mounted on the auxiliary shaft ſ, which carries also the manure-wheels e e , and the clutch -wheel h. This last wheel, which carries ronnd the auxiliary shaft, runs loose upon the

possible to attain, while the essential objects are kept under command. The graduation of the discharge of manure is attainable by it to any desired limit, and the discharge is also regular and uniform .

shaft, but can at pleasure be put in con- The means of engaging and disengaging nexion with the clutch - fork i, which slides both the seed and manure gearing is per

upou the shaft, and moves at all times fectly efficient and simple. From the with it. The loose wheel h is also con- materials and labour necessarily expended

stantly in gear with the driving -wheel g, in the construction of a machine of this which is fixed upon the main axle, and at kind, the price is consequently higher all times, when the machine moves, keeps than the common two-row drill, being the wheel h in motion, while the sowing- £ 11 , 10s. Machines of this particular

gear is at rest. The lever k is jointed construction have only been made by to the front-bar, and has hold of the clutch- Mr James Slight, Edinburgh. fork . The lever handles 1 l are jointed below the front- bar a, andextend backward

3219. The drop -drill. - Not content to a convenient distance, their chief duty with depositing the bone-dust in a con being to lift the coulters, and keep them tinuous stream , regarding that as a waste at a uniform depth in the ground. of manure, several parties have proposed to drop the manure at such specific inter 3218. The machine thus described may vals as to suit the turnip crop, after the

be considered as one of the best of its plants have been thinned ont to their

kind, and, though apparently complicated, ultimate distance from each other along

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

53

the drill. This object has been attained by the Messrs Smith of St Ninians, near by the drop-drill, as it has been called, Stirling. because it drops the manure in small 3220. This improved one-rowed drop quantities at determinate intervals ; and the best that has yet appeared of that drill is represented in perspective by fig. form is that introduced to public notice 261. In this machine the general prin Fig. 261.

n

5

k

SMITH'S DROP - SOWING DRILL.

ciple is, that a metal trunk receives the tributing wheel, to carry the wiper-wheel manure from the ordinary distributing f. The sheath g slides up and down the wheel, and being provided with a valve, sbank plate h,to regulate the depth at capable of being opened and shut at cer- which the manure should be deposited.

tain intervals, the manure is retarded in The discharging valve within the trunk its descent within the trunk by means of carries at the end the lever k. The lower the valve, until the requisite quantity is extremity of the seed trunk is seen at l. collected , when the valve, being suddenly The regulating screw for discharging the opened, makes the deposit, and is again manure out of the hopper is at 0. The

shut. The bed -frame a a is supported on pressing roller is p, wbich, following, two carriage wheels b b, to ease the pres- covers in the seed and the manure, and

sure of the manure upon the tops of the consolidates the soil in the drill. Though drills. The bed -frame has a central bar, the machine only sow's one drill, it requires which supports the manure hopper n and to be drawn by a horse ; and that the the manure trunk behind it. The axle of horse and man who drives him may walk

the wheels carries a spur-wheel c, which acts upon the pinions d and e, the first being upon the shaft of the manure-distributing wheel, the second upon that of

in the bottom of the drill, the bar to which it is yoked is placed at one side of the bed -frame, of which q is the yoke-bar or beam , supported by the stay-rod r , and the seed -distributor. The shaft of the 8 8 are the handles supported by the pinion d extends beyond the manure -dis- stay t.

54

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

3221. In sowing with this machine, the cially with those manures held to be effect of the combination of its machinery the most active, such as bones, guano, and is to be thus understood. The carriage- the like - for here the manure is laid into wheels being three feet in diameter, or 113 the rut, the earth of which partially falling inches in circumference, the wheels will in and mixing with it, thereby reduces its

turn once round while the machine passes intensity ; and the seed is dropped upon over' that space. The main spur-wheel this mixture, instead of falling directly will also make one revolution in the same amongst the manure, as is generally the space ; but, as the pinions upon the case with machines which sow the seed axle of the seed and the manure distri- and manure continuously. It is said that butors are just half the diameter of the a more speedy and vigorous vegetation is other, they will each make two revolu- produced by this than by the continuous

tions while the machine is moving over mode of sowing ; but it may yet be de 113 inches ; and as the wiper-wheel has serving of observation , whether the more

six wipers, each revolution of it will lift speedy development of the young plant the valve six times, or twelve times in the

does not arise from the circumstance of the

space of 113 inches, making twelve depo- seed, under this mode of treatment, being sitions of manure in that space, which is deposited nearer the surface of the soil, 94 inches to each nearly. In the same than it is when put in immediately behind manner the seed -distributor, which also a coulter ; and, viewing the subject in this makes two revolutions in the same time light, it may suggest the question, whether or space, and as it has six little cups or deep sowing alone may not be the cause of perforations, it will discharge twelve times, the protracted vegetation so often and so as before, in 113 inches. Then, the seed- seriously experienced in the turnip crop ? depositor being placed 94 inches distant It is well known that the vegetation of all and behind the manure ; and as they are

seeds is decidedly affected by the depth at

arranged to drop at the same instant, the which they are planted in the soil, so much manure -deposit will be always one space in advance of the seed, and the seed will be dropped over the immediately preceding deposite of manure.

so, that at or beyond certain depths the seeds lie perfectly dormant; the depth, however, requisite for producing this effect varying considerably with the nature and qualities of the seeds. Thus, a potato-tuber

3222. The saving of manure in the first will vegetate if within 2 feet of the surface, instance, by the use of the drop -drill, appears to be considerable, since it has been frequently asserted that 10 or 12 bushels of bone -dust per acrewill produce a braird

but theprocess will be verymuch retarded ; the seeds of some Cruciferæ , again, to which family the turnip belongs, are sup poșed to become dormant, though not

equal, if not superior, to 16 or 18 bushels dead, at the depth of ordinary ploughing. put in by the continuous mode. In the There need be no surprise, then, though we view of its more general adoption, the should find the vegetation of the turnip form of the machine must be changed retarded to the extent of days, or even from the single to the two - row drill, a weeks, from the seed being deposited at

change of which it is quite capable, and 2, 3, or even 4 inches,asis sometimes done, which may be done at less than double below the surface . The subject, as regards

the expense of the single machine . In the turnip crop alone, appears to me de its present form , the process is too slow serving of careful experiment, and, if de for large farms; and on any such, the termined in the affirmative, much disap additional expense of the double machine pointment and loss may be prevented by

is not to be put in comparison with the adopting due precautions to insure sowing advantages of despatch in sowing. The at proper depths. But independently of price of the single machine is about £6 ; the consideration of the relative positions if extended to two rows, the price would of the seed and manure, which are favour not exceed £ 10. able, there are practical objectionsto drop ping the manure at wide intervals. The

3223. Apparently some advantages intervals should vary according to the kind are derived from this successive mode of of turnip sown. Swedes should be placed

depositing the seed and manure, espe- more apart than yellow or white turnips,

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

55

and the last rather wider than the yellow, great as to induce to theemployment of because they have generally larger bulbs. the rollers at all times.

The mechanical

Whatever distance the intervals may be, it effect of the hind rollers is to fill up the

is evident that the young plants, which rut made by the coulters, and to smoothen have sprung directly from the influence of the top of the drills. Now, the utility of

themanure,will be more forwardin growth this smoothening and compressing of the and larger in size than those which have top of the drills is, not only to prevent the

risen from the soil alone between the heaps drought reaching beyond the surface of of manure. All the plants, therefore, the ground — which , in both light and

should be removedfrom between the heaps strong soils, is an advantage — but to ren of manure, and only one plant left at each der the singling of the young turnips more heap.

But suppose that a careless field- easy and certain ; and after the sides of the

worker should remove all the good plants drills have been pared by the scuffler, fig. from a heap of manure, a gap would be 262, it will be found that theturnip-plants left in the crop of double the proper dis- are much more easily singled when the tops tance, and the loss will be irremediable ; of the drills bave been smoothened than but when such a mistake occurs in a con- when left rough with a rut ; because the tinuous deposition of manure, little loss hoe displaces every individual plant more will accrue, because the adjoining plant certainly when onthe surface than at the bas as good a chance as the one removed bottom of a rut, where the plant is com

by mistake, to advance in growth, and paratively out of reach, and partially ont therefore to supply the deficiency . The of sight of the field -worker. A larger por

growing plant, too, will afterwards have a tion, too, of the drill ispushed away with better chance of obtaining a full supply of the hoe when singling is performed in the food when it is distributed continuously, by bottom of a rut ; the dung is more apt to

sending forth its fibrous roots into the be torn up along with the plant; and the space around it not occupied by plants, plants cannot be singled so young ; for, than when confined to food within the until they have reached a certain height limits of a given space. We should expect above the edges of the rut, it is not safe to

the success of a plant in the former posi- touch them with the hoe at its bottom, tion to be as great as in an open border, whereas on a smooth surface they may be when compared to the state of another singled very young. The advantages ofa plant with its roots confined within the smooth surface are not imaginary, for I have experienced all the inconveniences

limits of a flower -pot.

enumerated when I have been induced to 3224. I would make a few remarks on

remove the hind rollers in damp weather,

the effects of the too common disuse of the hind rollers of the turnip -drill. There is no doubt that rollers make the best work when the surface of the ground is dry, and

from the desire to proceed with the sowing before the ground was perfectly dry on the surface. A scraper is of use on the hind rollers, but still they cannot make the

as little doubt they make bad work when rollers work wellwhen the ground is damp. thesurface is damp, and that when the On carefully weighing the disadvantages surface is wet theyshould not be used at all. The finer the surface of the ground has been pulverised, those different effects of rollers are the more evidently manifested. This being the state of the case , when the ground is damp, the sowing of

of both modes, I am convinced of the supe riority of the smooth drills, inasmuchas I consider the most proper singling of the plants to be of much greater consequence to the future crop than any injury that can arise from waiting 2 or 3 hours in the

the turnip-seed will be delayed until the morning until the ground becomes dried of the roller, and, in the delay, the fate of rather work that time longer in the even

ground become sufficiently dry for the use with the sun and air ; and I would much

the crop may be materially affected for the ing, than sow turnip seed in land in a worse . On the other hand, the disuse of damp state without the hind rollers. This

rolling causes a positive inconvenience in resolution, however, would not induce the singling ; so that it is worthy of con- me to fix the rollers so as they could not be removed , for the option of removal

sideration whether the inconvenience is so

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

56

should rest with the farmer, who should again when the machine begins to sow new act according to the particular state of the drills. weather and the soil.

3226. The same remarks apply to the 3225. The land having been dunged and use of the one -rowed sowing machine, fig. drilled, and the sowing machine prepared , 258, when turnip seed alone is sown, let us first take fig. 254, which sows with a full manuring of farm -yard dung. tbe turnip seed alone, and the first use 3227. When bone -dust is used as the made of it is in sowing the Swedish turnip seed. The quantity of seed required , I sole manure for the turnip crop, the land have said, is 3 lb. the acre, because, the is somewhat differently prepared for the

for seed of swedes being large, that quantity seed from what has been describedbeing On the land plants against all the chances of failure ready to be drilled up, it is drilled at once is given to secure the necessary number of farm - yard manure.

connected with old dead seed, and the in the double method , (2397,) and is then numerous casualties to which it is sub- ready for the manure and seed to be depo

jected in the soil by insects, cold, and sited in it by the sowing machine . It dronght. The seed-box of the sowing- would not answer to drill the land by machine should never be above three the single method, as the drills would be

quarters filled with seed, to allow the seed too imperfectly formed for the seed. to fall easily through the holes. Swedish turnip seed requires a larger sized hole of

3228. The machine for sowing bone

the seed-box than either yellow or white dust, along with the seed, bas been de turnip seed.

A tin funnel is the most scribed under fig. 259. The bone-dust is

convenient means of filling the seed-box most conveniently taken to the field in a

from the seed -bag. The drills should be cart, fig. 175, the body of which slopes on browned or dried on the surface before the its trams on a bead -ridge when the horse machine is made to sow the seed, as other

is taken out.

A field -worker takes the

wise the coulter will make a large and manure out of the cart in a rusky,fig. 201 , rough rut in the drill, and the covering which is most conveniently filled with a rollers will become clogged with earth; lime shovel, fig. 233. Both hoppers are

and therough rutting would he bad work, filled to the top with the bone-dust: their even with the covering rollers removed. exact contents should have been previously One of these machines could sow a great ' ascertained ; and the seed -boxes are filled

breadth of land in a day, but it is seldom in the manner described above (3225.) that it can be employed throughout a When the machine has been entered by whole day, for two reasons : one is, that the horse at the end of the first two drills, the soil is seldom in a dry enough state in the sowing gearing is put on and the horse

the morning to be sown with it; and the bid to go on, the man_guiding the other reason is, that a sufficient quantity machine by the handles. To ascertain if of land will not be dunged and split in the the machine is sowing the proper quantity course of a day to keep a machine going of the bone-dust in the acre - namely, 16

constantly, because one plough canonly busbels, or two quarters — it should be cal can plough, so that 3 ploughs will only known quantity of bone-dust in the hopper

split one-third more land in a day than it culated beforeband how many yards the

split 5 acres at most of drills in a day, and should sow along the two drills to distri thus one machine could hold 4 ploughs bute the proper quantity : one bushel will splitting drills ; and as the dunging is sow 30 yards 9 inches along two drills, at carried on at the same time, few farms

16 bushels the acre .

are so large as toemploy 4 ploughs split 3229. The action of bone-dust on the ting drills. In like manner are the yellow and white turnip seeds sown through soil, and its consequent power to produce smaller holes of the seed box ; and as a large turnip crop, is not yet well under

both those seeds are sinall, 24 lb. the acre stood, the means employed being appar of each will suffice. At every landing ently so inadequate to the results received .

the sowing gear is disengaged, and put on Up to a certain quantity used, this manure

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

57

has an evidently beneficial effect, but, be- nearer the bone-dust is placed to the tur yond that quantity, no apparent benefit is nip seed ,the quicker does the seed vegetate, derived from its use, in as far at least as and the morethe plantisencouraged togrow . the crop is concerned. I have tried to In sowing by hand, the manure is not

raise turnips with different quantities of placed near the seed, in so far as the sower bone -dust, varying from 12, 16, 20, to knows ; and when the seed is sown by it 24 bushels to the acre, and found the self, after the bone-dust has been covered crop improved up to 10 bushels ; but the up by the drill, the sowing-machine is as quantities beyond that, even to 24 bushels, likely to deposit some of it away from ,

produced nogreatereffect on the turnips as near the manure, and hence an irregular

in the same field, and on the same sort of braird may be the consequence. Bono late agricultural preceptor, Mr George does not affect its vitality. Guano, on

soil, than 16 bushels. More than this, my dust, though in contact with turnip seed, Brown, when he farmed Hetton Steads, in the contrary, affects the vitality of seeds, Northumberland, raised as good crops of and should thereforebe applied by the hand

turnips, as did 16 bushels of bone-dust, at a different time from sowing the seed. with only 8 bushels of bone-dust, combined 3231. The effect on the soil of so small with an indefinite quantity of sifted dry of bone-dust is surprising. I qnantity a boneof 8 bushels yet and coal-ashes; dust,or an indefinite quantity ofcoal- ashes, have liſted a portion of the manured soil when applied separately, produced a very of a drill with my hand before the turnip poor crop of turnips. It is therefore un .

seed had germinated, and felt it very warm,

necessary, in so far as the crop of turnips and found it agglutinated together in a is concerned, to sow more than 16 bushels lump with a greasy matter, and the lump of bone-dust alone, or 8 bushels with coal- interspersed partly with a white mould, and partly with minute fibres of plants. ashes, or street manure . When the turnip seed gerininates, wbich 3230. In some parts of the country, it will do in 8 or 10 days, according to the particularly on the Borders, bone-dust is state of the weather, its radicle strikes

sown by hand either along the drills made into the greasy mass of earth, and sends up in the single way ( 2389,) and which out an immense number of white fibres

are then split in the double way ( 2397,) around and through it. Its cotyledons imposing the trouble of a second drilling; then expand upwards, in two rudimentary or it issownon the flat ground, and covered smooth leaves, and immediately thereafter

by drilling in the double way. In both the two true leaves appear ; and these last cases the turnip seed is sown afterwardsby are called rough leaves, because they feel

itself, with the common two -rowed sowing rough on account of the small sharp spiculæ machine. The only reasonI haveheard in which cover the surface of every leaf of favonr of sowing bone-dustby hand, instead the common turnip: The rudimentary

of machinery, is the saving the cost of the leaves of the Swedish turnip are not rough machine ; but whatever advantage is but smooth, the plant not being a true

gainedby this saving, it is, I think , evi- turnip, buta species ofcabbage,which all dent that the machine must deposit the bone-dust much more regularly than the band ; and as to the cost of a machine, the saving must be trifling, as hoppers for containing bone-dust can be attached, and made to be removed at pleasure from the ordinary sowing-machine. I always used a machine of this form myself, and found it to answer the purpose well : it was constructed like fig. 259.

have smooth leaves. They are, neverthe less, termed the rough leaves. The smaller bone -dust is ground the more active it is as a manure, because it then mixes most

intimately with the soil, though its action continnes a shorter time; and, on the other band, large or drilled, or inch -bones, as they are called, remain longer in the soil undecomposed, but produce less immediate

But, in a case of effect. On these accounts, bone -dust is the

this kind, accuracy of work is a more im- more valuable manure for turnips, and inch portant consideration than the cost of a bones for the cereal crops.

small machine, although it should only be used for a few weeks every year. There

3232. A better method than using bone

is, besides, the value of the fact, that, the

dust alone, as a manure for turnips, is to

58

PRACTICE - SUMMER.

applyit in conjunction with farm -yarddung. soils, (346 ;) and if a substance can be Thebenefit accruing from the combination easilymadewhich will secure a crop of tur of the two manures is, that the bone-dust nips on heavy land, it is a very valuable promotes the quick germination of the tur- commodity. nip seed, and supports the plant until it sends its roots downwards, where it finds 3235. Sulphated bones may be used

the dung ready to snstain its future alone in raising turnips, or in conjunction growth. The quantity of farm -dung, when with farm -yard dung. When used alone, thus used, is reduced to 10 or 12 tons, perhaps 200 lb. of bones and 100 lb. of oil and the bone -dust to 8 bushels the acre . of vitriol may suffice for an acre, for the

The result is generally very satisfactory ; quantity has not yet been definitively and , even on strong clay soils, a crop of settled by experiment; but it is better to swedes may be raised with this mixture use it with farm -yard dung, when 10 or 12 of manures. The seed and bone-dust are tons of dung and lcwt. of bones,with 56 lb. sown withthe bone-dust sowing -machine, of vitriol,will be sufficient for the acre to

fig . 259, taking care not to dip the coulters raise a fair crop on comparatively heavy so deep as to disturb the dung below, which land. should have been well rotted, and covered in with the drills formed in the double

method, ( 2397.)

3236. According to some experiments made by Mr Pusey, and at his request by

others, it would appear that, when bones 3233. Of late it bas been deemed better have been fermented with coal-ashes and

to use bone- dust in combination with sul- even pure sand, their efficacy is stronger

phuricacid, or ratherthe oilof vitriol as sold than inthe form of dust, probably from the in the shops, than by itself, or with farm- fermentation disintegrating the bones to yard dung. The effect of the action of the the smallest degree, and thereby rendering acid on the bones is to reduce them to a them more easily mixed with the soil. The

pulpy mass, which is made in this manner: method of fermenting bone -dust in this -Mixa givenquantityof vitriol with twice manner is to mix 4 cart-loads of bones with its bulk of water, in any convenient vessel, as many of sand, or mould, or sawdust, when the mixture will evolve a consider- in a flat-topped heap. The bones should

able degree of heat. Put into alarge tub be thoroughly drenched with water, and or trough double the weight of bone-dust the other materials moistened.

In a few

as of acid used, and pour the mixture of days, such a heat will be generated in the

acid and water gradually, and by times, heap as to render it unbearable by the over it. An action will soon be observed hand. As the outside of the heap will not

arising from the escape of carbonic acid be heated so much , it should be covered gas, and in time, on stirring, the bone- with sand . Whether the heat should be

dust will be entirely dissolved, and form allowed to die out before the heap is used a mass with the acid and water. The is a point still unascertained , but a large mass may be dried with riddled sawdust, heap makes better manure than a small dry ashes, or fine dry vegetable mould ; one; so do unboiled and fresh bones, than

and the granulated powder thus prepared, boiled or stale ones. Large bones may be may be sown eitherbyitself, or in combina- reduced by fermentation in this way, by tion with farm -yard dung, with the bone- turning the heap over at the end of a dust sowing-machine, fig . 259. Uncrushed fortnight and watering it afresh, and at the

bones willanswer the purpose as well as end of a month very few whole bones will crushed, but the acid will take much longer remain . Broken bones will of course be time to act upon them. more quickly reduced than whole ones. 3234. The material thus obtained has

3237. Should this method of reducing

been called the superphosphate of lime, but bones prove successful, it is a much cheaper a more correct name would be sulphated and simpler mode of doing so than with bones. It is found to have a greater power vitriol. A farmer tried a comparative of raising turnips on clay soils than bone- experiment for Mr Pusey, and found that dust. No doubt bone-dust operates more 4 bushels of fermented bones gave the

beneficially on light (347 ) than on heavy same yield of swedes as 16 bushels of bone

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

59

dust unprepared, and 2 bushels of sul- England to sow turnips broadcast on the phated bones. Mr Pusey himself found flat ground, instead of on drills, as in Scot

by experiment, that 8} bushels of heated land; and the reason I have heard stated bones and sand, at a cost of £ 1 , Os. 9d.,

in vindication of the broad - cast method is,

yielded 134 tonsof turnips; while 17 bush- that it resisted thebad effects of droughton els of bone-dust, at a cost of £ 2, 6s. 9d., the land in summer. No doubt excessive and 44 bushels of sulphated bones, at a cost drought in summer is inimical to the full

of £ 1 , 2s. 9d., only yielded 134 and 144 development of the turnip, and it is on this tons respectively ; and he also found that, account that the turnip crop fails so fre

by increasing all those quantities one-half, quently in Germany; but, for my part, I no greater results were obtained . *

cannot see how a broad -cast crop can screen

the ground from drought more effectually

3238. Guano has proved itself an excel- than one in rows, since the plants have lent manure for turnips, and being as easily procured, and as easily carried and applied as bone-dust, it has become a very favourite manure, and is more generally applicable to every class of soil than bone-dust. It cannot be applied by machine, on account

to grow and be thinned out toproper dis tances, and the ground stirred to get rid of weeds, in both cases : and as the weed ing is done by hand instruments in the case of the broad -cast crop, it is not so effectually done as with horse -hoes in of its clammy state as sold in the market; the crop in rows. The dung, being spread but it may be sown by hand out of a broad -cast for a broad -cast crop, cannot

sheet like corn, and it may be mixed with promote the growth of the crop at its early dry ashes or mould. When used by itself, stagesowell as when deposited in rows; 5 cwt. the acre are required . When used and I think it cannot admit of doubt, in conjunction with farm - yard dung, 3 cwt. that the same quantity of manure placed the acre will suffice .

immediately under the seed should pro mote the growth of the young plant more

3239. When applied with farm dung, rapidly than whenspread over a large sur the land receives a differenttreatment than face ofground. Now itmust be admitted, when bone -dust is used. After the dung as regards the turnip plant, that the more has been spread in the drills, ( 2749 and rapidly it grows in its early stage,the more

2750,) the grass-seed harrow, fig. 232, is quickly it will cover the ground from passed a single time along the drills, drought, and be beyond the reach of in which has the effect of drawing some of the soil off the drills upon the dung. The guano is then sown by hand over the harrowed drills, at the rate of 3 cwt. to the acre, and it does not come directly in contact with the dung, though it is scattered over the surface of the ground. Instead of the harrows, I have seen it recommended

habits of those which attack the turnip, that they become innocuous after the full developmentof the leaves. I do not think that the sowing of turnips in drills renders them invulnerable to the attack of insects, or the injury of drought; but, these effects being seasonal, the drill system places the

to employ a sort of scraper, which extends

crop more immediately under the control

sects - as it is well known, in regard to the

across two drills, having two bars ofwood of the cultivator, inasmuch as it secures to shod with iron, which, on being drawn him the whole powers of the manure at

forward by a horse, scrapes the earth from once, and enables him to clean the soil in the top of the drills uponthe dung in the the shortest time with the assistanceof horse

bottom . Such a device, I have no doubt, labour. Besides, the period of sowing the will answer the purpose, but it possesses crop should be chosenso as to avoid such

no advantage over the grass-seed harrows. casualties. If drought istoo great in July, The drills are then set up in the double or insects too powerful, the crop should be

method , ( 2397,) and the turnip seed is sown earlier, and though it should reach sown with the common drill, fig. 254, maturity sooner than desired, it may be which finishes the work.

stored until the season of consumption arrives; or it might be sown later, as in

3240. It is not an unusual practice in August, when the genial climate of the * Journal of the Enylish Agricultural Society, vol. viii. p. 418, and vol. ix. p. 630.

60

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

south of England—where the nights are ground prepared in autumn, only numbered

warm as well as the day, affording every 141 roots, and weighed as much as 109 day thegrowthof two ordinary daysin Scot- stones,showing the weight of each root to land, where the nights are always cold — in be 10 lb. 13 oz.* This instance proves sufficient time to mature the crop before the that land for Swedish turnips may be end of October, which is as early as the prepared in autumn, and a heavy crop

turnip crop is required for consumption obtained on drills as wide as 32 inches, in that part of the country - the grass and from plants 15 inches apart. till then continuing good. Were the soil, too, properly cleaned before the crop

3242. A somewhat similar success at

is sown, comparatively little labour would tended the trial of raising turnips on strong be required to keep the ground free of weeds clay -land, at ordinary distances, by Mr

in suinmer, and the drought would not Peter Thomson, Peffermill, near Edin theu have much effect upon it. To ren- burgh. As soon as theground was cleared der the culture varied, part of the turnip of tares, he cross-plougbed it with a deep

crop might be taken after winter vetches, furrow early in October ; harrowed, which, on being cleared off the ground in grubbed, and drilled it in the single time by feeding sheep, or by cutting for way, ( 2389,) at 28 inches asunder, but, forage,would allow the land to receive a owing to the unfavourable state of the weather, was prevented applying the dung

short fallowing before the end of July.

until December andJanuary, when 32single

3241. Nor is the much earlier fallowing horse-loads the acre of street manure were and cleansing of the turnip land impracticable in England, since the corn crops are frequently cleared from the fields by the end of August, when the stubble could be

covered in with the common plough. In March, the ground was found in a fine state, but, as it was rather foul with weeds, the drills were harrowed a double tine, the

broken up, harrowed,cross- ploughed, clean- soil stirred between them with the drill ed , drilled, and even dunged ,before the grubber, fig. 264, and set up with the double

arrival of winter, as has been proved in mould -board plough, for forming drills, fig . Scotland, by the practice of Mr James 214, and again set up by the same, just Scougall, at Balgone, East Lothian , on the farmof Sir George Grant Sutrie, Bart., in the autumn of 1841, when he drilled and dunged good turnip-land, at 32 inches apart in the drill, and otherwise finished its tillage. Purple-top swedes were sown

before sowing the seed of the green -top yellow turnip on the 15th, and of the white globe on the 25th and 26th of May. The yield in autumn was 32 tons of turnips the acre, including tops. The field had been

dunged five yearsbefore, and twice since on the 10th of May 1842, the plants thin- top -dressed with 8 bags of 4 bushels each ned to 15 inches apart, and the matured of soot to the acre.t Were such modes of crop was drawn and stored by the middle cultivating the turnip adopted in the south

of September following, when the ground of England, I have no doubt certain and was sown with wheat. On comparing the abundant crops would be raised in spite of

produce of this mode of culture with the drought and insects,and theslovenly prac usual one of working the turnip -land in tice of broad -cast culture give way to the spring, and at the usual distance of 28 inches between the drills and 12 inches be-

more scientific modo of the drill sys After all, it has never yet been tem .

tween the plants, the ground prepared in proved that broad -cast sowingprevents autumn yielded, in 429 links measured the turnip plant from being affected either along a drill, 82 stones of turnips, where- by drought or insects. as the land worked in spring yielded only 58 stones, whilst the number of turnips in 3243. On strong soils it is difficult to the 82 stones was only 238, and that in

obtain a braird of turnips in a dry season ,

the 58 stones was 276 — making each tur- on account of the hard and cloddy state of nip 4 lb. 13 oz. in the former, and only the surface of the drills, which is generally

2 Ib. 15 oz. in the latter number. A single induced by the land having been ploughed horse- load of turnips selected from the in early spring in a rather damp state, • Mark - Lane Express, October 17, 1842.

+ Ibid, November 21 , 1842.

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

61

and becoming hardened by subsequent young state better than the kinds in use .

drought in May. In these circumstances As no turnip is yet known which possesses it not unfrequently happens that the plants the latter property to a greater degree than come np ina puny state, and very scantily, the kinds in use, it is requisite to sow a and are afterwards devoured by the flea- kind which will come early to maturity, beetle, so that the land is re -sown with and this the white stone turnip will do, white turnips in June. which, thoughsown late in July,will be ready for use by the end of October. If a few

3244. To avoid such serious incon- very early turnips are desired, as in Sep veniences, it has been recommended to tember, the stone turnip, sown immediately drill up the land in the beginning of win- after the white ones in June, will afford ter, to dung it fully, and to let it remain the supply. in this state all winter, to receive the

frost. In the spring the scuffler, fig. 262,

3247. It is of importance to fix the re

is passed along the drills to kill the sur- lative proportions ofground to beoccupied face weeds. The drills are harrowed a by the different kinds of turnips.

If

little down with the drill harrows, fig. 220, turnips are to be early begun to be eaten, a short time before the sowing of the seed ; more white should besown, as they should and the seed is then sown either by itself, last to the end of the year; and if turnips or better with the manure- drill, fig. 259, along with sulphated boues, which act more beneficially on strong soils than common bone - dust. By this mode of treating a strong soil, it becomes fine on the surface by means of the frost and air, and

are likely to be late in spring in being consumed, more swedes should be sown, to last four months. The intervening period of about a month is occupied with the yellows.

is in the best state for encouraging a braird.

3248. If it is desired to manure a large

But it must be borne in mind that unless field with sheep in the lattor part of the the land be clean , it cannot be so treated ; season, the field should be sown half with

for were it foul with couch - grass, the working and manuring of it would so encourage the growth of that weed, that the summer culture of the turnip plant would be almost impracticable. 3245. It has occurred to me, that one

swedes, and half with yellows, with white alternating with both . The yellows are led off and stored, while the white are taken to the steading to the cattle, leav ing possession of the field to the swedes. If it is desired to manure the field early with the sheep, it is sown with yellows

cause of the scanty braird of turnips, in and white, and the white are led off to seasons unfavourable to vegetation, is the the cattle, and the yellows left in posses too deep sowing of the turnip seed .

The sion of the field . Thus the extent of ground

coulters of most of the turnip -sowing desired to be occupied by any kind oftur machines are set to go too deep into the nip may easily be arranged, and its manu soft ground of raised drills, and when they ring by sheep secured to that extent with

are also inmovable, they cannot fail to any kind of turnip desired . deposit the seed deeper than desired in

such drills. I have made experiments on 3249. The young turnip plants may be the germination of turnip seeds, sown at expected to make their appearance above different depths, the coinparative results of ground in the course of eight or ten days which I will mention wben I come to treat at soonest, and later if the weather is un favourable to vegetation. When the plants of that interesting subject. have attained about 3 inches in height, it

3246. It may happen on account of the state of the weather, or its own condition in regard to hardness, or to foulness from weeds, that the ground cannot be prepared in proper time for sowing the or dinary kinds of turnips when it becomes expedient to sow a kind which will either

is time to prepare the ground for their being singled at determinate distances. The first preparation is passing the horse hoe between the rows of plants. 3250. Horse - hoe or Scuffler. The double mould -board plough, fig . 209, is

come to maturity, or stand the winter in a convertible into a scuffling or cleansing

62

PRACTI

CE

- SUMME . R

plough, or horse-hoe. To effect this, the 262, is formed ; the portions of the beam hinge-pins of the mould-boards are with- and handle being cut off, and the remain drawn, and the mould -boards removed, ing portion of the beam is a , and of the

when the implement represented by fig. handles, are bb, exhibiting also their junc Fig. 262.

2

DO THE BODY OF THE DOUBLE MOULD BOARD ALTERED TO A SCUFFLING PLOUGH .

tion with the tail of the beam. The body ing it to the double mould -board state, frame cc is of an irregular rhomboidal it is only necessary to remove the scuf form , whereof the front bar d forms the flers gg and hh, and the feathered share e. shield, and the lower bar, the sole-shoe m.

The two wing bars g g are jointed to a stud 3251. The effect of this horse - hoe in the that projects from the beam on each side soil is to loosen the earth between the at k." A quadrant barf is attached to the rows of drills, or, if fon ), to under - cut all

two stilts at f, and the ends of the wing- the weeds that exist in that space, or to bars, having a mortise formed to receive such breadth as the two scufflers h h may be

the quadrant, are moved upon this to any set; the upright part of these coulters per required width, and secured by the screws ii. A second mortise is punched in each wing -bar to receive the scuffling coulters h h , which are thinned off to a knife- edge

forming a species of paring along the sides of the two contiguous rows. If the land is in good order, and tolerably clean, stirring it with this scuffler will be suffi

in front, and bent inward below till the cient; but if overrun with weeds, one or points stand 6 inches to the right and left other of the drill -harrows or grubbers of the shanks. A double-feathered share will be found necessary to prevent a re e is fitted to the head d of the body- frame, vegetation of the weeds. which completes this simple horse-hoe, and

the change from the one state to the other

3252. Fig. 263 exhibits Mr Wilkie's

is effected in a few minutes, for, in return- horse -hoe with parallel motion, in which Fig. 263.

IN

MA

2 WILKIE'S HORSE -HOE WITH PARALLEL MOTION.

the two back tines have their tails jointed, pivots placed in the middle of their length, at a b c d , to two transverse parallel bars, attached to the tail of the beam . By the which traverse to a small extent upon motion of these, a perfect parallelism of the

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

63

tines is preserved, capable of being se- the form that may be useful in a great cured at any required width by pinching- field - grubber is not applicable to an im screws. This is the most perfect mode of adjustnient for the tines of a hoe of this construction - three -tined — but it does not apply to those of more than three, and is

plement such as this ; for it seldom occurs, and ought never to be the case , that a drilled green crop is so overrun with weeds

as to require a self-cleaning tine.

perhaps too refined for a field implement. The self-cleaning form of the tines has been

3253. Thecommon drill-grubber, fig. 264, adduced in favour of this implement, but is a light and convenient implement drawn Fig. 264.

指

d

9

THE COMMON DRILL -GRUBBER .

by one horse. It consists of a central beam a b c, the neck part of which is bent upwards, and puuched at the front for the passage of the stem of the wheel. The wing-bars b d , carry the tines g 9 g ,

in others lengthened out to 9, and in many cases the tines are plain-pointed. It is

frequently also made with the tines stand ing in a zigzag position ; but, except in the second pair of tines, this is of little

6 in number, and the central beam car- importance, as those behind the second are

ries the front tine at b . The wing -bars sufficiently apart to prevent them becom are each furnished with a quadrant-bar ingchoked with weeds. The price of this riveted into the wings at dd ; the tail of grubber is about £ 2, 10s. the quadrants, passing through the mortise

at c, are secured by a pinching -screw fix-

3254. In this class of implements, we

ing the wings at any required width. The find a very handsomely constructed one, wing -bars are extended backward, and bent upwards to form the handles c c. To the point of the beam is affixed a simple bridle ſ with a cross-web and shackle, giving a small range of yoke right and left. The front wheel, whose office is to regulate the

known as Wilkie's drill grubber and har row , which is represented in fig. 265. This implement is constructed with a beam a b, and a pair of handles c c attached to the

tail of the beam , one on each side. It has no proper body- frame, but is merely a

depth of the grubbing, is usually 8 or 9 skeleton, the grubbing parts of it being the inches diameter, and the tines g are forged with duck feet slightly pointing forward. In many localities this implement is used for all the purposes of horse-hoeing, except the process of paring or of earthing up ; and, having cheapness as well as utility as a recommendation,it is very generally

three tines or coulters d ef. The foremost one d is set in a coulter -box in the beam, and

terminates in a double-spreading feather or duck’s- foot point; the two others, e and

f, are continuations of the two wings, which are capable of adjustment by the quadrant bar g. The effect of the tines on the soil

approved of. It is, however, subject to is somewhat similar to that of the scuffler, variety in the different districts where it is fig. 262, paring and undercutting ; but

employed: in some it is shortened to 5 tines, the implement is furnished with an appen

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

64

dage in the attached 6-tined barrow i, depth by means of its suspenders, and to which completes the operation at one turn . breadth by means of its two small quad The harrow is capable of adjustment to rant -bars. The regulation of depth is Fig. 265 .

ZEL42 WILKIE'S DRILL- GRUBBER AND HARROW.

aided by the wheel l bung in the shears n, pare the soil from the plants as near as which is jointed to the beam at a, and to possible without touching them , and the which also is attached a shackle and hook drier and finer the state of the soil , the nearer they may work to the plants.

o for the draught. The price is £4, 15s.

In rough and damp soil, the clods,raised 3255. In stiff soils, the broad - feather and disturbed by the coulters, will be apt to

shares will with difficulty be kept in the ground ; and, from their great length and breadth, will have the effect of consolidating that part ofit which they pass over, into a hard crust. The harrow is an important part of the implement, but adds considerably to the draught ; and the im-

fall upon the plants when the conlters are placed too near to them . In scuffling turnips the ploughman requires to be constantly on his guard, to guide the implement in the middle space between the row of plants on each side of him ; and on entering and fin ishing every landing, he should take care

plement, upon the whole, is too heavy for that the horse does notturn too sharply one horse being able to produce efficient upon the head-ridge, and cause the coul work with it.

By lightening the entire ters to cut off some of the plants from the

structure, and altering the form of the tine, ends of the drills. Scuffling admits of it might be rendered a very useful horse- walking at the rate of three miles in the hoe. hour or more, and is a very expeditious

process, when the land is pretty clean. 3256. A ploughman is set to work the 3257. The scuffling having cleared part scuffler, fig. 262, and he takes one of his horses while the other one is resting, each of the ground in a yoking in advance , the

horse working one yoking every day whilo singling is ready to commence. The im at this work. On farms having a large plement used for singling turnips is repre breadth of turnips, two scufflers may be sented in fig. 266, and is named the tur.

thus engaged. As the work of scufiling nip-hoe. It consists of a thin iron plate is easy compared to ploughing, the aged horses, or mares suckling foals, are em ployed at it.

Fig. 266. b

Should the companion to

the mare with foal be a horse or a mare

without a foal, the mare and her foal are sent to pasture, while her companion works THE TURNIP OR HAND DRAW - HOR . all the day. The steadiest horses, in wbat e ever state they may otherwis be, should a, faced with steel 7 inches in length and 4

only be employed at scuffling, else by inches in breadth , withan eye b, altached to unsteady walking the implement may its upper edge to receive the shaft c, usually cnt up the plants right and left.

The made of fir, to make the implement as light

ploughman should provide donble reins to in hand as possible . The shaft should not the horse. In setting the wings of the exceed 3 feet in length , though in some scuffler, the coulters should be brought to parts of the country it is 44 feet, whilst

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

in others as short as 33 inches. The shorter it is the better for the work, as it enables the field -worker to bowcloser to the ground; but as this position is really severe for the back, the shaft in some places is made as

65

ing faces will last longer than that which has only one ; but the utility of the im plement is sacrificed for the sake of its durability, as it is evident that the nearly

square end of the hoe, in fig. 266, is much long as to allow the field -worker to more likely to separate a bunch of turnip

stand nearly upright, in which position, plants while pushing them away from a the eye

and hand being both far removed single one, in a firm and decided manner,

from so small an object as a young turnip than the sharp point of a triangle, over

plant, the worker cannot command the which the separating plants are apt to fall implement so effectually in the thinning upon the one which it is desired to retain. process, as when the hands are placed The price of a hoe such as in the figure is 2d. tbe inch along the face, without the

nearer the working part of the hoe.

helve, and when made entirely of steel, 3258. The consequences are, that num- which is unnecessary , it is dearer, while

bers of the plants are removed by awk- the triangular hoes are 4d. the inch round ward pushes of the hoe, and the singling all the three faces. is done very slow. Other forms of hoe are in use, such as the triangular, with 3259. The attitude of the workers, the

the handle attached to a hoserising from best method ofusing the hoe, and of arrang the centre of the equilateral triangle. This ing the field -workers at singling, is endea form has been constructed on the supposition voured to be represented by fig .267. This

that the hoe which possesses three work- work is performed by the field -workers of Fig. 267. m

xa

‫و‬ ‫سرهدنده من‬

THE SINGLING OF TURNIPS .

the farm , and they are placed at every 2 of the next drill i k, so that the side of rows, beginning at one side of a field, the the worker is presented to the drill to be first worker getting the charge of the first singled. The shaft of the hoe is held near and second drills, the second of the third its end with one hand, while the other and fourth, the third of the fifth and sixth , band, being that of the side in front, is

and so on with the rest of the workers. The placed a little in advance. The foremost

reason for this particular arrangement, in- hand indicates whether the person is right stead of giving a drill to every worker, is, or left handed, as it is rare to find a that each may have sufficient room to worker that can single turnips equally work, and, baving 2 drills each, thewhole well with either band. The foremost band of workers have the less seldom to hand is steadied by being partially rested shiſt their ground. on the bend of the leg of the same side, as is particularly shown in the figure o.

3260. It is not easy to give a short account of the mode of using the hoe in singling turnips ; but the following directions may serve to show the leading requisites to perform that operation in the best

The hoe, on its face being held downwards chiefly by the weight of the body of the worker against theground and the plants, when as many plants are removed along manner . On commencing to single a with the earthbehind them , by the forward drill 1 m, a foot is placed on each side push, as the length of the face of the hoe VOL. II.

and in a horizontal position, is pushed

66

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

covers ; and in this action the plant des- up c d, she returns down 6 a. All the tined to be left single falls overif tall, or figures in the cut are represented going up a little to one side - partly from the want singling the first drills of their stints of support of the other plants, and partly of two drills each. from taking away some of the soil from

Only 3 figures are introduced in the cut, but the number of

its root. The body of the worker is then workers employed depends on the size of brought back to its former position, and the farm . thusan oscillation of it forward and back

ward is maintained in the act of singling. In pushing away the next portion of the plants, one side of the hoe takes care not to touch the plant last singled , while its other side covers the plants next to the one intended to be left growing, which also falls over, and is left single, and so on, plant after plant. The leaving the

3264. On shifting the workers from one stint to another, the worker next the

side of the field which has yet to be singled forms the pivot upon which the rest turn. Thus theworker on the drill c d, on finish ing the drill b a , shifts to the drill next a b, not seen in the cut, forming the pivot for the rest to turn , the worker m going to

preserved plant single constitutes the the left side of her, and theworker o takes difficulty of the operation ; for, if attention np her position on the left side of the worker and dexterity are not both exercised, the m. This alternate shifting, whilst it keeps plant will be dragged up by the roots every worker in her own relative place, and

with the slightest hold by the hoe of a prevents confusion, divides the space to be portion of a leaf; and although the leaves gone over by each worker every day equal. are not touched, its stem or root may be in tertwined with those of the adjoining plants.

3265. In using the hoe, it is not an uncommon practice, both in England and

3261. It is found, that the best mode of avoiding these difficulties is to single the plants before the leaves ofeach plant become somuch expanded as to be confounded

Ireland, to make regular gaps with it in the rows of plants, and to leave the singling to boys or girls by the hand, who thus act as assistants to men, who form the gaps

with those of the adjoining plants, or the with the hoe. No doubt turnips may be stems become so drawn up as to inter- singled in this way, but at greater ex twine with those of the others. It is . pense ; and it intrusts the selection of the

also found, that in pushing the hoe is a plants to be left single to mere boys and much more certain mode of leaving the girls, who cannot be supposed to know plants single than in drawing it towards so well as experienced adults the proper the worker.

ties which make one plant to be preferred

to another.

Indeed, I consider the em

3262. The plants are represented on ployment of boys and girls in singling their sides in the row n o, fig. 267. They turnips a questionable policy, because they

receive no injury by falling over, and if cannot work as fast as an experienced

the weather is at all favourable, they will band of field -workers ; and thus working have nearlyrecovered their upright posi- much slower, as might be expected of all tion by the following day ; and it hasbeen inexperiencedpersons, they retard the pro ascertained that all that portion of the gress of the whole working band, as these stem which was drawn out of the earth ,

wish not to leave their young companions

being the part left exposed above the very far behind. The want of skill also ground, is converted into bulb. causes them to destroy many plants that should have been left, and this is a much

3263. When the first row has been greater evil than retarding the work. Two

singled, the second is singled, by the work- young workers are put for an old one on ers moving in the opposite direction from one drill, but this deranges the balance of the first; and, when the second drill bas the whole band, and does not attain the been singled, the bout is finished and the object desired - of keeping the entire work

singling of that part of the crop completed. Thus, on going up the drill 1 m, the worker returns by the drill k i ; on going up g h, she returns by fe; and on going

uniform in time. Rather than this should be done, young workers should be put by them selves in anotherpart ofthesameoranother field. Girls must acquire a knowledge of

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

67

this work, to make them expert when they turnips to a distance of 9 inches, and of

become workers; but to acquire their know . those of Swedes at 12 inches, the first ledge they should at first be placed in a part of a field which offers peculiar facilities for singling, such as a smooth state of the ground, and the most proper age of the plants ; and so circnmstanced they

consideration is, whether the plants have

brairded so equally over the field as to allow you to preserve those distances between them . Being satisfied that the germination of the seed is pretty equal

should learn to single at leisure, from in- over the field, it ought to be your endea

structions received from an experienced vour to single the plants at the stated distances of 9 inches for white globes, and worker who superintends their work. of 12 inches for swedes. The hoe, fig. 266,

3266. Singling turnips should only be commonly in use is 7 inches long in the prosecuted when the ground is dry , and mouth, so in either case plenty of room is the plants themselves also dry, as they left for the boe to play between the plants. then separate from one another and from

If care were really bestowed in theuse of

the ground more readily. Whenever the the hoe, there cannot be a doubt but that the ground becomes cloggy on the hoes, even plants would grow at the stated distances,

with a slight shower, the work should be and produce as weighty crops, at the res suspended until it again becomes dry pective weights of bulb, as are indicated enough.

in the table in (877.) In like nianner, were the after boeings of the crop to

3267. In Scotland the distance between

receive as much attention, no cutting

the rows of turnips has been fixed on, con- away the single plants, and no making

ventionally no doubt, at 27 inches, which is a very convenient distance for drilling up the land in the first place, with the common or double mould -board plough ; for dunging it with the ordinary tilt cart of the common width between the wheels ;

of blanks would occur, and the estimated weight of the crop would be realised in overy case. But instead of bestowing care, field -workers are too often left to themselves — when talking, the proverbial failing of women, occupies their attention

and for working the'implements employed more earnestly than the work intrusted in turnip culture, such as the sowing drills, to them . Plants are pushed away with and thesucceeding scufflers and drill-bar- out regard to the space leftbetween them ;

rows. On a consideration of the size of and, even when superintended, many the bulbs of turnips, and the nature of the women are so disingennous as to stick the respective kinds of turnips cultivated, the plants they cut into the places they grew distances fixed on between the plants in on . In gravelly soil it is difficult for the drill are 12 inches between the plants the best workers to use the hand-hoe

of Swedish turnips, and 9 inches between well, as a corner will sometimes slip those of yellow turnips and white globes. Where the soil is naturally fertile, and sheltered, and known to promote vegetation generally in a luxuriant manner, those distances may be increased to the manifest enlargement of the plants and bulbs - 80 that the matter of distance must be left to

off a small stone, and cut through or remove a plant against the will of the

worker. In all stony soils particular atten tion is required in the singling and boeing of the turnip plants. Instead, therefore, of stewards being anxious merely to gather a large number of field -workers to

be fixed, in each case , by the judgment of the singling of the turnips, their anxiety

the farmer, in the circumstances in which should be evinced to obtain a number of the particular crop is placed. practised hands, in whom they can place confidence for their attention and skill .

3268, From what I have said of the

effect of 1 or 2 inches between the turnips

3269. Should blanks occur in the ger

decreasing the weight of a crop by several tons per acre, in (878 ,) the singling of this crop ought to be regarded as one of the most important operations that demands your attention. If you wish to single the plants of white globe

mination of swedes, either from loss of vitality in the seed, or from the effects of the weather, they may be filled up by transplanting those taken out, which will grow as well as the common cabbage ; but the true turnip , the white globe or

68

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

yellow , does not transplant, and any tioned. It is necessary for expedition attempt to fill up blanks with them only that two persons be employed in the ends in disappointment. When first intro- transplanting — one to prepare the plants, duced into this country, the plants of the other to transplant them . One spade swedes were raised from seed sown in ful is then taken from the barrow , and

the garden, and afterwards transplanted with a knife divided into three or four in the field ; but any such preparation pieces, one of which is taken into the is unnecessary, as the best of those which hand and carefully drawn asunder, so as were pushed away in the singling are to lay open the roots of the plants with as taken . I have repeatedly tried to fill little injury to them as possible, and tak up blanks in drills with carefully removed ing hold of the leaves of the one that plants; and although most of them grew , appears uppermost, draw it gently out they never attained the size of those raised with as many of the little balls of earth direct from the seed. Mr Howison of and dung adhering to its tender roots as

Crossburn House, Lanarkshire, adopted a practicable, and place it in one of the mode of transplanting swedes on strong saucers. In this way, when the saucers

land, which deserves attention, and may have been carefully illed with the plants be extensively practised in a season un- laid in regular rows, the transplanter

favourable to the growth of the swedes may commence his operations. He should on such soil .

“ In an open piece of then, with a short dibble not thicker than

ground,” says Mr Howison, " I raise drills his finger, make a hole which should only at the distance of 12 inches from centre to reach to the dung ; and then lifting up a centre, in each of which I place a layer plant by its leaves drop it into the hole,

of short dung, closely laid on , on which the and with the fingers of both hands press turnip -seed is pretty thickly sown, and the earth gently around it. In this way afterwardscovered with inch offine mould. two drills may be planted at the same The breadth of the drills at top should not time.

His follower with the barrow will

be more than 4 inches, so that the earth be able to supply him with prepared plants; and plants may be more completely lifted and, from my experience, the two men

together by the spade, when to be trans- should be able to finish one rood of ground

planted. The time of sowing should be in the course of the day, if the plants are regulated according to the purposes in- & inches distant from each other. I may tended ; and as a fall of ground converted into drills will produce plants sufficient for transplanting 3 or 4 acres, it is better always to have a superabundance. As to

here warn the transplanter against using plants that have not one or more balls of dung or earth adhering to their roots ; for if hedoes, the chance of their growing

the best age for taking up the plants, I will be very small." The advantages bave found no difference in their success attending this mode of transplanting

from the time they have got their proper swedes are stated by Mr Howison to be leaves, until theyare 3 or 4 months old ; three :- “ It enables the farmer to fill up however, those intended to remain long, the blanks of a turnip or potato field with should be thinned out in the rows. I good plants of swedes . It is more certain need scarcely mention , that in dry weather of procuring a crop than sowing the

they should be carefully watered , which in turnips over again : this was exemplified so small a space can easily be done. Hav- on the farm of Green Burnside, Lanark ing provided a wheel -barrow , a garden shire, in 1839, tenanted by Mr James spade, and a couple of flower - pot saucers of Cassie, when in October of that year

ravages of a large size, I with the spade lift up its the crop that had escaped thetrans

breadth of one of the drills, taking care

the fly was excellent ; the

planted

that the spade enters below the roots of very good, but the turnips not so large in

the plants . This spadeful is then care- general as the first. The third advantage fully placed in the barrow , and the same operation is repeated until the quantity of plants wanted is taken up. When that is done, they are then removed in the barrow to the field, where they are transplanted with the implements above inen-

is, that, although sown on the same day as the others were transplanted, none attained the size of an egg , which I believe is always the case with late-sown turnips , although the result is difficult to be accounted for. I may, in conclusion , men

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

69

tion another advantage, that it is best 3272. In England the singling of tur performed in wet weather when all other nips in broadcast costs 6s. the acre, and field -labour is at a stand. I consider the second hoeing 2s. the acre.

In drills

rainy and cloudy weather as of the utmost the cost is from 28. 6d. to 58. the acre importance to successful transplanting; and with horse-hoeing: and in taskwork from so much so , that I prefer waiting weeks to a halfpenny to one penny the 100 yards

attemptingit in sunny and dry weather.”* along a drill; and the second hoeingfrom a half to two- thirds of the singling. 3270. The quantity of work done in singling turnips varies in different parts of

3273. After the plants have been the country . In the midland counties of singled, the drill-grubber, fig. 264, is used , Scotland it is estimated to take 3 women with a single horse, between the drills,

to single 1 Scotch acre in a day of 10 to level the lumps of soil which have hours, and there the long- shafted hues are been pushed away with the hoe, and to

in general use, and the women work with shake the clumps of plants asunder that their backs upright. In other parts one

they may not continue to survive, which

woman will single half an English acre in they would, were they not separated, if a day of 10 hours, and there short- shafted the weather proved favourable to growth. hoes are used , and the women work with bent backs. One summer I superintended 3274. The field - workers then hoe the 16 field -workers, and they singled about ground, by which they remove the weeds

90 imperial acres in 8 days of 10 hours from betưeen the plants, and loosen the each, which was equal to 2 roods 32 poles soil immediately around them. Each a - day to each worker. This is above the worker takes one drill, not two, as in the average rate of work, but the weather was

case of singling, because, boeing close

exceedingly fine all the time, the land together, they can see at once whether mellow and dry, the plants of a proper all the ground has been hoed over, which

age, whether of swedes or of white globes, it should be, whether a weed is seen or and the women were all experienced hands. I set one of them , a steady hand, to lead the band, whom she carried on like clock-work. She herself preferred to

not. The hoeing is done by setting a foot on each side of a row of plants, and, grasping the hoe short, the earth is loosen ed with it around every plant- care being

work with a hoe only 33 inches in length, taken that none of the plants arecut through which allowed her to bow down to her by the root under ground with the hoe. work, which she performed, in conse- Each worker taking a row of plants be quence, in the mostperfect manner. The tween her feet, there is no chance of her boes of the rest were 36 inches in length. jostling her neighbour. All plants left A rest of 20 minutes was given them at doublein the singling are removed by the

each mid -yoking. If the time occupied hand, and every weed pulled by the hand

in resting be deducted from the 8 days, which grows too near any plant for the the work donewas exactly 3 roods to each worker every day. To save fatigue in walking home at the end of the mid-day yoking , they brought their dinners to the field, consisting of barley and pease bread, and a bottle of milk. I took my

hoe to remove, and if its removal were attempted by the hue, it might cut the plant through. The hoeing should be be gun before the weeds become too strong,

though the singling should not be inter rupted for the sake of the hoeing.

bottle of milk and loaf of home-made bread

3275. When the hoeing has been ac to the field , and enjoyed the repast at the hedge-root with genuine relish, in as light- complished-and it should be conducted hearted company as ever undertook labo- with much care — the scufiler, fig. 262, is rious work. again passed between the rows of plants, to pare away a little of the ground from the 3271. At these rates of work, the sing- plants with its curved coulters, while it ling of turnips in Scotland costs from 28. to undercuts the roots of every weed that 1s. 2d. the acre in the drill system . may be remaining. Such a paring was * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiii. p. 513.

70

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

formerly done with the small plough, fig. numerable minute fibres interlacing one 230, when it also bore the name of the another, proceeding from the roots of the

paring-plough. Requiring to go a bout turnips, on both sides, which had not yet between every two rows of plants to pare

attained the form of a bulb.

A similar

away the soil on both sides, it performs the work slowly, and the scuffler paring the drills as well, it cleans the middle of the drills better, at one landing.

appearance may be observed when a spi der's web becomes visible with dew or mist on a furze bush . Having traced these delicately minute fibres to the roots of the plants, by means of the dew, it oc 3276. A second hoeing, similar to the curred to me to be an error in practice to first, finishes the manual operations of the work in the turnip land after the develop

turnip culture.

This boeing is quickly ment of those fibres, as there is no doubt

performed, as, by this time, very few plants will have been left donble, and the weeds will have been thoroughly eradicated ; and, if not, the weather must have

that these are sent out for a special pur pose connected with the growth of the plants. The setting up should either be concluded before these fibres begin to grow,

been unfavourable for their destruction. or be abandoned altogether; and I ap Both this hoeing and the first may be at times retarded by the workers having to attend at hay-making, as it unfortunately happens that turnip culture and hay -making have to be conducted at the same time. And even the singling of the later-sown turnipsmay be retarded by the bay-making. On account of such conflicting operations, the ingenuity of the steward is, at this season, much taxed in arranging

prehend more injury will accrue to the crop from disruption of those fibres than from want ofa channel to carry off super fuous surface -water from even undrained land : for, as to drained ground, such chan nels are of no use, there being no surface water to run off, the rain being absorbed by the soil as fast as it falls. The fibres are not to be seen after the dew has evaporated, except on the most careful examination of

the field-labourers, so as to avoid the least the surface of the soil. The same pheno loss in the condition of the crops respect- menon may be partially observed amongst ively requiring immediate attention. potatoes; but the fibres from their roots

spread more under the immediate surface

3277. The time has now arrived for of the ground than those from the turnip. setting up the drills with the double mould- Such isthe desire of most farmers to set broad plough, fig. 209. I am of opinion up the drills, that I have seen the double that this, in most cases, is an unneces- mould -board plough smashing the leaves sary piece of work ; and certainly, on of the potatoes and turnips after they had dry turnip - soil and on thorough -drained completely met across thedrills. On rather land, it is so, for two reasons - namely, that strong undrained land it is prudent to set flat ground is the best form for sheep up turnips with the double mould -board

to eat turnips upon in winter; and that, plough, fig. 209, in case of the occur or

a considerable inclination, hollow rence of a wet autumn, otherwise it is drills serve only as channels for surface- better to omit the operation.

water to carry away the best of the soil to the bottom of the inclination. There is,

3278. The weeds most troublesome in

besides, the objection of setting up or work- the turnip -ground are the common couch turnips after the grass, Triticum repens ; the wild mus ing in any way amo leaves are spreading across the drills ; and tard, Sinapis arvensis; knot grass, Poly this objection is founded on a fact connected gonum aviculare; wild radish, Raphanus with the growth of the plant which I shall raphanistum , and a few others. Of these mention. Early one summer morning, I the couch -grass is most troublesomewhile observed a whiteness, like hoar-frost, be- singling the turnips; as, in removing it, tween the rows of young turnips before its ramifying underground shoots, inter their leaves bad met across the drills.

twining the young roots of the turnips, fre

Knowing from the temperature of the air quently bring away the plants with them . that the phenomenon could not be hoar-frost, This weed should, if possible, be entirely

I examined it particularly, and found that removed from the ground before the tur it arose from the deposition of dew on in- nip seed is sown. The knot- grass, having

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

71

a cluster of small bulbs for its root, when not a single weed will be seen in spring they are removed a large bole is left in their when the land is ploughed up for spring

place, and several plants may be brought wheat or barley . I had a favourable opportunity of witnessing, one season , a

away along with them . This weed should

alsobe removed as completelyas possiblebe- corroboration of what I am now recom fore the crop is sown . The wild mustard be- mending. I had a field of 25 acres so foul comes troublesome on account of its great of couch - grass, that it was utterly impos

numbers, covering almost the surfacesible to clean it in time. After removing

of the ground with its bright yellow the roughest part of the wrack to a com flowers ; but it is chiefly in the neighbourhood of towns that it appears to so great an extent, from the use, it is said, of the police manure. When allowed to stand so

post, the land was dunged and sown with white globe turnips, and the result was precisely what I have stated above. I may mention that the turnip sowing

long as to produce flowers — and it is a machine, which has movable coulters and

plant which runs very rapidly through its handles, is the best adapted for sowing courses — its stem is difficult to cut with the

foul land, the coulters passing over the

hoe ; and if any plant removed by the roots larger masses of weeds instead of displacing has attachment to the soil by even a single fibre, it will flourish as if it bad never been

them .

disturbed . Appearing only with the crop,

3280. In conclusion of the turnip cul

this weed cannot be removed from the soil

ture, after all the manual operations of it

before the turnips are sown.

are finished , the surface between the rows

The wild

radish, though not plentiful, is difficult to of turnips should be levelled with the drill eradicate bythe toughnessof its stem , and grubber, fig. 264. This operation should the vitalityof its roots. It also onlyappears be concluded some time in August, and, after the crop is above ground. The red at all events, before the commencement

shank, Polygonum amphitrum , is difficult of harvest, let that be ever so early. The to cut with the hoe. Whatever be the weed, crop requires no farther attention, until it should be entirely severed from the

the season arrives for pulling and storing

ground. Weeding cannot be practised in the turnips at the commencement of win singling the crop, as the entire attention ter, and these I bave fully explained from

must be directed to the single plant to be (808) to (834. ) preserved, although every weedin the way has a chance to be removed. Weeding is 3281. From (383) to (433) I have

professedly practised in hoeing the crop, given a list of plants regarded as weeds and it is in the first hoeing that the most that infest the different kinds of soils, and

effectual manual weedingis given, the which indicate to a certainty the nature second hoeing being chiefly required to stir of the soil upon which they grow. Such the surface of the soil around the plants. of those plants as are grasses, and oc The scuffler and drill harrow are powerful cur as a constituent of natural pasture, means of removing the weeds between the are useful, and should be encouraged ; rows of plants. but wherever they occur in cultivated arable soil, they are doubtless weeds and 3279. The land should be made quite should be eradicated. What seems to me clean before sowing the turnip crop; but a good definition of a weed is — when any when it has been allowed to run exces- plant is found growing where it should not sively foul to weeds, rather than be too be, it is a weed. For example, a stalk of

late in sowing the crop by cleaning the wheat in a bed of tulips in a garden is a land, and rendering it too fine, that is, deaf, (356,) sowthe crop in its propertime ; and provided the weeds, chiefly the couchgrass , can be kept down by the horse and

weed, and would be removed, and, in like manner, a tulip in a wheat field is a weed, and should be eradicated. When you con

sider the number of the plants mentioned hand hoe, until the luxuriance of the leaves in the paragraphs above referred to,-and

cover the drills, the weeds will be smother- the number is not intended to include all ed under them and rot, and serve partly that occurs as weeds in the fields, but only

to support the crop ; and after the turnips as those decidedly indicative of the nature havebeen eaten off by the sheep in winter, of the soil uponwhich they respectively

72

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

grow , and when you consider that they all culture of the turnip have been finished, are weeds in cultivated fields, in the sense and while the leaves of the plants are

of the above definition , --you may imagine expanding, and especiallyif there appear how actively the farmer should be employ- anythinglike a cessation in their growth, in the first cloudy ed in extirpating them in the season they it is of importance, present themselves in the greatest activity. or moist weather - and if such do not

The entire number of them do not make occur, dewy mornings and evenings their appearance simultaneously, since to administer a slight sprinkling , by plant, from each hasits season of efflorescence and ma- hand, of guano around each The women turity ; and were one allowed to grow , 1 to 2 cwt. to the acre.

until another was ready to be removed, workers, provided with coarse aprons, such is the vigour of growth in wild plants, will do this well by the band, and an that the former would shed its seeds and apron will contain as much as will soon occupy the ground to the exclusion suffice for a long drill, going and coming to ofthecultivated plants. The farmer should the headridge , where the cart with the allow them no such indulgence, and their guano'should be. Let the women each intrusive tendencies should be checked take a drill, and then no drill or plant will

betimes. Partly for this purpose the land be missed, nor any one receive more than

is ploughed before winter, that the roots its due allowanceof the manure . and seeds of weeds may be directly des 3283. The turnip belongs to the order Tetra

and indirectly dynamiaSuliquosa of Linnæus ; to the natural frost and exposure,alagentscomtroyed otherbynaturalatmospheric by order of Cruciferæ in the system of Jussieu, from minuting the soil, so as to render their the cruciate form of its petals ; and to the Hy mechanical removal by the roots compara- pogynous Erogens — alliance 27, Cistalis - order tively easy . By perseverance, it is quite 123, Brassicacea -- division 3, Orthoplocec - sub

- genus Brassica, of the possiblefor the farmer to get quitofevery divisionBrassicidiæ natural system of Lindley.

weed which propagates itselfby the root, although it is impossible to prevent weeds

3284. Cruciferc.— The crucifers are a very

appearing among his crops which origi- natural and inportant family ofplants, and, if we nate fromseed,many ofwhich are brought see regard their geographicaldistribution, weshall that the temperate zone is their favoured from a distance by the wind ; and it is quite

possible,even as regardsthese, to prevent region, according to De Candolle: their maturing the flower and seed. In summer, weeds thrive in the greatest luxu riance, and summer ought tobe the season for the farmer to employ his most active means for their destruction. A principle

Species.

In the frigid zone of the northern hemisphere

205

In all the tropics ( and chiefly in the mountainous 30

regions)

In the temperateſ of the northern hemisphere, 548 zone

{ of the southern hemisphere, 66 } 634

affects the vitality of weeds, which should According to Humboldt's statistics of the princi

never be lost sight of in attempting their pal families of plants, it would also appear that the crucifers have the maximum of their species

destruction ; and he who practises it will in the temperate zone, and decrease as well to infallibly prevent their coming to maturity. ward the equator as toward the poles. They It is a well-known law of vegetation, that are almost unknown in the torrid zone, if we the elaboration of the sap is effected by the consider the mountain regions between 7,670 and

leaves of a plant, and it is the elaborated 10,870feet in height,wherethese plantsscarcely form one eight-hundredth of all the phanæga

sap which enables it to sustain its exist mous plants. In the temperate zone their quo ence .

By preventing the development of tient in Europe is one-eighteenth ; in America the leaves, and consequently the elabora- only one-sixtieth ; in the frigid zone one

tion of the sap, the life of the plant will the twenty-fourth. The scarcity of this family in temperate zone of America is a remarkable

be sacrificed . The simple plan, therefore, circumstance. Schouw , inhis botanical division

ofdestroying all sorts ofweeds,is to de- of the globe into 25 phyto-geographical regions, prive them of their leaves as soon as they

places the crucifers in thesecond, whereinthey

appear.

extend over northern Europe and Asia from the southern limits of the first region to the Pyrenees, the the Balkan the mountains, the Caucasus, mean temperature of and Alps, the'Altai,within

3282. After all the manual and implemental operations in connexion with the

36 ° to 570 *

* Johnston's Physical Atlas - Phytology, Map No. 1 .

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

73

3285. “ The universal character of crucifers," nips bears the same proportion to the respective says Lindley, " is to possess antiscorbutic and distances of the bulbs in the drill, so as to make stimulant qualities, combined with an acrid the waste of seed in each 27 to l . It must not be flavour. The officinal species are among the supposed, from these results, that 1 oz. 6 drachms commonest of all plants, and only require to be troy of turnip seed will suffice to sow an acre, named. They are found to contain a great deal for many of the seeds may want vitality, and of nitrogen, to which it is supposed is due their many others, in sowing, are no doubt buried When the too deep to vegetate with the rest. Abundance animal odour when rotting. acrid flavour is dispersed among an abundance of turnip-seed not only secures a full braird , and of mucilage, various parts of these plants become tends to draw the plant quickly to a state for a wholesome food, such as the root of the radish being singled, but quickness, combined with and the turnip , the herbage of the water -cress, the abundance, of growth, is the best safeguard cabbage, and the sea -kale. According to Müller, against the injurious attacks of insects, the water-cress contains iodine. Sulphur exists 2390. Turnip Flea -beetle. — The insect which in the oils of mustard and horse -radish to the extent of about 30 per cent. The oil from their first infests the turnip -plant, and attacks its seeds is one of their more important products. seed-leaves, is the turnip flea-beetle, Haltica nemorum , fig . 268, usually, That from rape is in very general use, and the Fig. 268. though improperly , desig residue, rich in nitrogen , is largely employed by nated the turnip - fly, which the fariner as manure or cattle -food, under the is a very different sort of name ofoil-cake, ” (rape-cake it should be, oil-cake insect. The flea -beetle is a being obtained from linseed .) “ Another ofthe oil coleopterous or hard -shell plants is Camelina sativa, or gold of pleasure ; ed insect, capable of either penetrating the ground or

but its cake is said to be too acrid for cattle : brooms are made from the dry haulm ." *

of bearing a considerable 3286. The Swedish turnip is named by bota nists Brassica campestris, rutabaga ,and its speci fic characters are, according to Don, “ leaves rather fleshy, covered with glaucous bloom ; first ones rather hispid or ciliated, lyrate, toothed ; the rest cordate, stem clasping, acuminated,

pressure . " It is a small insect,” says Mr Duncan , 66

scarcely one-eighth of TURNIF FLEA- BEETLE -HALTICA NEMORUM .

an inch in length. It is smooth, shining, and of a

brassy black colour, with

partly pennatifid ; is a native of Britain, Lap

a slight tinge of green ,

land, Spain, Transylvania, and in the Crimea in

particularly on the wing-cases ; the antennæ

fields.

black, with the second and third joints, and the

apex of the first, of a pale colour. The thorax 3287. “ The common turnip is the Brassica is convex above, and pretty deeply punctured ; rapa, having the radical leaves lyrate, destitute the wing- cases are much wider than the thorax, of glaucous bloom, green, covered with bristly likewise thickly and irregularly punctured, each hairs, middle cauline ones cut, upper ones en- of them with a pale yellow or slightly sulphur tire, smooth. Native throughout Europe in coloured stripe running along the middle, curved inwards posteriorly, and not reaching quite to cultivated fields, and their borders.” + 3288. After a gravelly knoll of about 30 feet in height had been cut through, in forming the

railway from Belfast to Lisburn , I observed a

the extremity ; the under side of the body and thighs black ; all the tibiæ and tarsi of a pale hue. This little insect feeds on the turnip , which it attacks both in its perfect and larva

When the plants have acquired some state . the sides of the embankment, formed by wheeling degree of strength ,andthe foliage is considerably the gravel from the knoll. The leaves of all developed, the injury done by it is insignificant; the plants were beautifully expanded, of a dark but unfortunately its favourite foodis the young

large number of wild turnip plants growing on

plant, just as it is beginning to unfold its coty .

green colour, and quite healthy, but not even the rudiment of a bulb was forming.

ledon leaves. These it consumes with the utmost

3289. The waste of turnip -seed, by the time the turnips are singled, is surprising. From 24

avidity, both as a larva and full-grown insect ; and when it abounds, the field is often wholly stripped of its crop in a very short time. In

Ib. to 3 lb. of seed is sown in the acre, and as in (877 ) 25,813 plants of white globes at 9 inches apart; 23,232 of yellows, at 10 inches apart; and 19,360 of swedes, at 12 inches apart, can grow on an acre on drills at 27 inches asunder ; and as 1387 seeds of swedes, 1645 of purple top yellows,

and 1800 of white globes, weigh one drachm, it follows that 1 oz. 6 drachms of seed of troy, or

deed their powers of mastication are surprising for creatures of such small size .

An individual

who confined a few , for the purpose of observing their habits, found that they consumed 10 young

turnip -plants every day. This may serve to give an idea of the extent of their devastations when

their numbers become excessive. They are found to attack the turnip plants as soon as the

14 drachms of avoirdupois weight, are sufficient latter make their appearance ; and one of the difficult points to determine is, how they are seed is as 27 to l. It is a remarkable fact that produced so speedily and so opportunely. In for the above crops ; so that the waste in turnip-

the respective weight of the seed of those tur- regard to the turnip saw - fly , and lepidopterous * Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom , p . 353.

+ Don's General System of Botany and Gardening, vol. i.

.

242-5.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

74

insects, the process is obvious, the eggs being laid upon the plant by the parent fly, and the

other instance. Parallel examples are of fre quent occurrence amongst insects.

Unless the

larvæ evolved more or less speedily , but after eggs of the common flesh - fly were hatched with the lapse of some considerable time. The ap- extreme rapidity, the Jarvæ, when they appear, pearance of the plant and insect being in the present case almost simultaneous, it has been thought difficult to conceive how the same pro-

would neither obtain their food in perfection , nor fulfil the useful purposes for which they are now subservient.

cess should be gone through."* Various conjec tures have been formed to account for the early

3292. The remedies against the attacks of this

appearance of this insect on the turnip -plant.

insect are, I fear, of a hopeless character ; at

“But these conjectures,” continues Mr Duncan, least, it is better to prevent their appearance may now be referred to merely as matters con- than wage war against them when they do ap nected with the past history of this insect, and pear, as,even in the efforts to effect their destruc as showing the difficulty that has been expe- tion , the farmer is the chief sufferer. The pre rienced in tracing it throughout its different forms and changes. This, however, has been recently done by Mr H. Le Keux, and we are no longer in doubt as to the points alluded to. This observer found that the sexes pair from April to September, during which period the

rentive measures seem to be to keep the land in as clean a state as possible of all weeds, and especially of those of the cruciferous kind, such

as wild mustard and charlock , which are the special favourites of this beetle ; to sow the tur nips in drills instead of broad - cast ; but whether

eggs are deposited on the under side of the rough

it is this difference in the culture of the crop

leaves of the turnip . The female insect appar, ently does not lay above one egg daily — in a

which makes it less vulnerable, I do not know , although the attacks of the turnip insects, being

week, ten pair were found to layonly forty -three less frequent in Scotland than in England, would eggs. These eggs are very minute, smooth, and partaking of the colour of the leaf. They are hatched in ten days, and the maggots, fig. 269, an eighth of an inchlong, are Fig. 269. pale, fleshy, and cylindriDRABAD cal, with six pectoral feet, LARVA OF THE FLEA

BEETLE .

the eyes dark, and a dark patch on the first and last segments of the body ; im-

mediately eat through the

lead the mind to such a conclusion ; to sow the

seed thick and of the same age, for it is found that the more rapidly the plants grow at first,

they are the less often attacked ; to put the seed for some time before it is sown amongst flour of sulphur, and sow the sulphur amongst it. The late Mr Airth informed me, that when he farmed

the Mains of Dun, Forfarshire, his young turnip crops were often very much affected, and even destroyed, by these insects, but after using the

lower skin or cuticle of the leaf,and form winding sulphur, he never suffered loss - though his neigh burrows among the pulp, upon which they feed. bours did,who would not use the same precau The thickness of the leaf is sufficient to afford

them ample scope for this, and they may be seen at work in their galleries by holding the leaf up to the light. These maggots or larvæ are full. fed in 16 days, when they bury themselves in the earth not quite 2 inches below the surface , selecting a spot near the bulb, where the turnipleaves protect them from wet and drought. They enter upon their chrysalid state in the earth, and the beetle emerges in about a fortnight. About

tion - for the eighteen years he possessed the farm . It may be that the juices of the plant are so affected by the sulphur as to cause disrelish for it, while the disagreeable odour arising from the sulphur strewed in the soil may drive the insect away. The sulphur was found in no degree to injure the vegetative powers either of seed or of plant. Being a simple preventive, it is worth trying by those whose crops are usually affected by insects.

thirty days carrythe insect through all its dif ferent stages; and of these, ten are passed in the

3293. As a remedial measure , a long -haired

egg state, six as a maggot, and fourteen in the

hearth-brush switched along thedrills by field

chrysalis. There appear to be 5 or 6 broods in

on the foliage of plants in their larva state, and afterwards derive their aliment from other sub-

workers would cause the insects to fall from the plants better than any board or net ; and if quick lime were strewed immediately upon the plants, as recommended from the experience of 102 practical farmers of the Doncaster Agricultural Association, their destruction would likely be

stances, the general law seems to be, that a much

more certain .

the season.”+

3291. In the case of those insects which feed

longer duration is assigned to the larva than to the perfect insect; and it may be that this is not observed in regard to such as always consume vegetables, because in either of these

conditions they serve the same purposes in the economy of nature, to which the prolonged

3294. Turnip Sar -fly. — The insect which com mits the greatest ravages on the turnip crop, after the one just described, is the turnip saw fly, Athalia spinarum , fig. 270. It belongs

to the order Hymenoptera,having 4 membranous

existence of the larvæ bears reference in the wings, and it is denominated a saw -fly from the * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii. p.353. + Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, vol. ii. p. 24.

# Report of the Doncaster AgriculturalAssociation on the Turnip -fly, 1834. A fuller account of the Haltica nemorum , by Mr Curtis, will be found in the Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. ii., p. 193-213.

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP . use and appearance of the instrument with which it deposits its eggs. It is placed at the extremityof the abdomen of the female on the under side : and is so constructed, that it combines the Fig. 270.

75

several times, and most of these moultings are attended with a slight change in the colour. After casting their last skin, they are of a dark

lead or slate-gray colour, paler beneath. Mr Curtis states that they are some nes green , a colour which we never saw them assume, for in general they are not liable to much variation in this respect. Like most of the other larvæ of

their tribe, when touched , or in any way dis turbed, they coil themselves up, and remain mo When full grown , the larvæ

tionless.

cease to eat, and allow themselves to drop from

the plant that nourished them to the ground, in which they usually bury themselves, or they take

x

shelter among rotten leaves, moss, & c. When examined after a short time, they are found to

be completely enclosed in a cocoon , composed of two distinct layers of silk . The inner layer is of a fine satiny lustre, and when the cocoon is

THE TURNIP SAW - FLY - ATHALIA SPINARUM.

opened , it appears as if it had been washed with a

properties of a saw and auger. It is distin

guished by the following characters: - “ Head

solution of silver. When the fly is fully matured, it makes its exit by gnawing with itsmandibles

wider than long ; deep black, with three ocelli in the centre; eyes oval ; antenna black above,

a hole in one end. The larvæ are known in dif ferent parts of the country by the names of black

and for the most part dull yellow beneath; caterpillar, blacks, niggers, canker, &c. labrum and pulpi, light yellow ; thorax, black above, with a triangular space in front; the scu-

3296. “ The loss they occasion to farmers is very

tellum and a spot behind it, reddish orange; the considerable, but data cannot be easily obtained collar, which is rather long and slender, black on the sides, and yellow in the middle ; abdomen rather short, entirely orange-yellow , inclining to red, with a small black spot on each side of the

to form an estimate of its amount .

In some in

stances the crop is wholly destroyed, and where the caterpillars are most numerous, the injury

they occasion to the plant appears in the dimi.

first segment; legs likewise orange-yellow , the nished size of the bulb, its vegetative functions tarsi paler, approaching to whitish ; the tip of being impeded by the partial consumption of the the tibiæ, and of each of the tarsal joints, black ;

leaves. A belief at one time pretty generally

the tibiawith two spines at the apex, and the prevailed that they did not attack the Swedish joints of the tarsus each with a very slender lobe turnip, and they certainly seem less partial to beneath ; extremity of the ovipositor, black ; that plant; for, examining a field in which swedes wings yellowish at the base ; the costa and stigma black . Length , 3 to 34 lines, exclusive of the antennæ . Antennc, short, and somewhat clubshaped, 9 or 10- jointed in the male, but generally with the appearance of 11 joints in the female, the radical joint slightly thickened at the extremity, the second shorter and ovate, the third, as

alternated with the ordinary kind, the caterpillar was found much less plentiful in the former, and

in many places did not appear at all . The late Earl of Leicester, hɔwever, lost in 1836 upwards of 200 acres of swedes by them, and that plant

by no means escaped in other parts of the coun try. They are said to have attacked the mangold

long, or longer, than any two of the other joints wurzel, but this seems not at all probable. ” My taken together, the remainder decreasing somewhat in lengthto the terminal one, which is large and ovate.

3295. “ The flies which appear in the early part of summer, and deposit their eggs on the young turnip plants, have probably survived the winter under ground in the pupal state, enveloped in their cocoon. Emerging from them as soon as the milder weather is confirmed, in their winged state, the females immediately lay their eggs,

own turnips never suffered from insects but in one season, when the swedes were partially at tacked by this saw -fly after they were singled. The leaves were eaten to the stem , and the crop seemed as if it would be lost, but it recovered and

produced a fair one after all. 3297. “ Unfortunately , ” adds Mr Duncan, “ it is more easy to describe their depredations than to suggest an efficient remedy of easy application.

A distinguished delineator of insects,who has

afterwhich they very soon die. The eggsap- published a beautiful figure of the fly, expresses pear for the most part to be placed round the outer margin of the rough leaves. In favourable weather they are hatched in a short time, and

his belief that it is not difficult to destroy them, for if they were brushed off the leaves, it seems they are unable to crawl upon the ground and the young larvæ immediately commence their recover their station ; they consequently perish attack on the plant. At first these larvæ are of unless they are full-grown at the time; but as a deep black colour, and, of course , small size ; there is a constant succession from August till but they grow rapidly, and in the course of a few near November, the operation of drawing a weeks attain their full dimensions. In the hurdle or board over the turnips ought to be re course of their growth , they change their skin peated at intervals during that period .'* of * Curtis's British Entomology, vol. xiii. folio 617.

76

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

course , this method can be effectual only on the abdominal portion of the body is thus left at supposition that the caterpillar is unable to

liberty, and it is either borne curved inwards, as

crawl; it might have been presumed, however, in the gooseberry saw -fly, Nematus grossulariæ , that it did not receive such a complement of legs merely as a matter of form , and accordingly the slightest observation shows that it can move about with facility ." * Rain will destroy the

or projects into the air in variously - contorted and singular postures, as is remarkably the case with the willow saw -fly, Nematus capreæ , and the larvæ of Hylotoma rosa , the rose saw -fly,

caterpillars; ducks are very fond of them. I

which has the extremity of its body almost al

have often thought that women and boys might

ways raised and curved in the form of the letter

be employed to whisk them off the plants, and though they would not thereby. be destroyed, theywould be much annoyed , and, during the time

S. Additional distinctive characters might be mentioned-such as the form of the eyes, which are pretty large in the false caterpillars, and

the annoyances were repeated, the crop might

placed one in each side of the head; while in true

advance as far as to escape serious injury. The

caterpillars they are small , almost invisible

most effectual destruction would be that of the

points, disposed in a circle. These peculiarities

fly itself before it lays its eggs. It is very sluggish in its flight, does not fyfar at a time, and may be easily caught by hand, or with an ento-

will suffice to distinguish the two tribes, and it is of importance to be able to do so, as they are

mologist's net. Swallowsare useful assistants in

tion. The body of false caterpillars is generally

capturing these flies. Each fly so destroyed would prevent the coming into life of from 250 to 300 caterpillars. It has been ascertained that a boy of ten years of age can gather 180 caterpillars in an hour; and a troop of young ducks, preceded by a boy or girl to switch them to the ground, would destroy them in great numbers. Young fowls are also efficacious, but old ducks

composed of 12 segments, but the incisures are distinctly defined , and liable to be confounded with the transverse wrinkles which thickly cover the whole surface. Many of them are marked with bright and varied colours, but the ma jority are of one colour. In this respect they often undergo a remarkable change after they have cast their last skin, the colour becoming entirely unlike what it was before, so that it is impossible to recognise the same individual. This change, indeed, extends even farther than

and old fowls do not work well.

3298. Caterpillars.-- As the term caterpillar is so frequently used in reference to insects, it is

right to be able to distinguish between true and false caterpillars. The larvæ of the saw - fly are called false caterpillars, from the general re-

often associated together in the work of destruc

to colour, for such kinds as are furnished with tubercles or spines in their earlier stages, lose them at their last moult, and become smooth ;

semblance they bear to the larvæ of butterflies

that of the gooseberry species, Nematus grossu lariæ , for example, loses the black tubercles,

and moths, to which the name of caterpillar is

which made the surface appear as if chagreened.

properly applied. A very slight examination,

Like the fies which they produce, these larvæ

however, soon shows decided marks of distinction. Caterpillars, properly socalled , have never more than 16 feet, while the larvæ of saw -flies have generally from 18 to 22 ; a few have only 6 --a circumstance which again distinguishes them from true caterpillars, in which the number of

are sluggish and inactive, seldom moving from the place where they fix themselves, unlesswhen requiring an additional supply of food . When not engaged in feeding, or when apprehensive of danger, most of them roll themselves into a circle, sometimes with the tail elevated in the centre. The greater number lie exposed on the foliage of plants, but others take up their abode in the interior of the slender shoots, and feed

these organs is never below 10. Another mark

of distinction is afforded by the structure of the feet. In lepidopterous larvæ , the abdominal legs are surinounted by a coronet of small hooks, which is never found to be the case in those of

on the immature pith ; others lodge in the inte rior of fruit, and cause it speedily to decay.

false caterpillars, as they are simple mammiform protuberances. This minute difference, which

3299. Turnip weevils. - A very small weevil,

can only be detected by the microscope, has, scarcelyone line in length , of a uniform black however, a material influence over their habits, colour, slightly tinted with metallic blue on the and often enables us to distinguish between the elytra, the latter with punctured lines, the respective kinds at first sight. The coronet of Ceuterohynchus contractus, is found occasionally hooks converts the membranous or abdominal legs of caterpillars into efficient instruments of

associated with the turnip flea -beetle, Hal.

prehension , and they accordingly fix their body by means of them to the place of position, while the head and anterior part remain free. The

that plant. This species does also good by attacking that pestilent weed , the wild mustard,

tica nemorum , feeding on the young leaves of

Sinapis arvensis. Another species, Ceuteroh ynchus pollinarius, attacks the nettle, Urtica dioica, a mere points of support, incapable of clinging to troublesome weed near buildings ; and a third,

abdominal legs of the others, on the contrary, are

an object, and the larvæ consequently fixes itself Ceuterohynchus assimilis, occasions the knobs on by its pectoral or fore-legs, which are much

the roots of the wild radish, Raphanus raphanis

developed for the purpose. The whole of the

trum, one of the most troublesome weeds which

*Quarterly Journal ofAgriculture, vol. vii. p. 562-566. Other accounts of this insect will be found in Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Entomology , vol. i . p. 186; Journal of the Royal English

Agricultural Society , vol. ii. p. 364-389; Newport's Observations on the Turnip Saw -fly; and in Newman's Letters of Rusticus - On Blight, p. 99.

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

infest cultivated fields, particularly those in which the turnip is cultivated .

77

vures light brown ; tips of the thighs, shanks, Fig. 271.

3300. Aphides.- That multitudinous tribe of insects, named the Aphis or plant-louse, sends a few of their number to attack the turnip crop,

and their attacks are chiefly directed against the Swedish turnip . Mr Curtis says that there are 3 if

not 4 species of aphides which live upon the turnip ; one he has found under the rough leaves

of the English varieties, as well as one which he believes to be distinct ; another appears to be attached to the swedes, and the last is secreted amongst the flower stalks. I cannot enter fully upon this extensive and interesting subject, and must refer you to Mr Curtis' paper.* I shall only add a few words descriptive of the nature

WINGED MALE OF THE COMMON TURNIP PLANT LOUSE - APHIS RAPÆ .

feet, and claws, black.

Abundant beneath the

and peculiarities of that very curious tribe of leaves of the common turnip the whole of July, insects , the aphides, from another author : “ As

&c.

Fig. 272.

It is at once

the vegetable world, and, like them ,are so nu merous as to darken the air. The multiplication of these little creatures is infinite, and almost

distinguished from the other species by its long tubes and small apical cells of the wings. The cross ed lines below repre

Providence has endued them with

sent the natural size

almost every animal has its peculiar louse , so has almost every plant its peculiar plant-louse ; and, next to locusts, these are the greatest enemies of

incredible .

privileges for promoting fecundity, which no other insects possess : at one time of the year they are viviparous, at another oviparous; and what is most remarkable and without parallel, the sexual intercourse of one original pair serves for all the generations which proceed from the

of the body and of

the expanse of the wings. Fig. 272 is the female

female for a whole succeeding year. Reaumur

COMMON TURNIP PLANT

has proved, that in 5 generations, one aphis may

LOUSE - APHIS RAPÆ .

be the progenitor of 5,904,000,000 descendants ; and it is supposed that in one year there may be

of the

same species magni. WINGLESS FEMALE OF THE fied . It is bright

green , shagreened ;

horas fuscous, except at the base ; eyes, tips of shanks, and feet, black . The small figure on the left represents the

20 generations.” Bonnet says there may be 30. aphis of the natural size, and the figure below

“ This astonishing fecundity exceeds that of any represents one of the natural size just excluded. known animal, and we cannot wonder that a

creature so prolific should be proportionably injurious : some species, however, seem to be more

3302. Fig. 273 is the winged male of the aphis which infests the Swedish turnip and cabbage

so than others. Those that attack wheat, oats, and barley, of which there are more kinds than

Fig. 273.

one, seldom multiply so fast as to be very noxious to those plants; while those which attack pulse

spread so rapidly, and take such entire possession , that the crop is greatly injured , and sometimes destroyed by them .” + Mr Walker enumerates 6 different states of the aphis - winged oviparous

female , wingless oviparous female ; winged vivi parous female ,wingless viviparous female ; wing ed male, and wingless male . The wingless female

is the parent of the winged females ; the winged female is generally oviparous, while the wingless female is generally viviparous. An oviparous individual never becomes viviparous, nor a vivi

WINGED MALE OF THE SWEDE PLANT- LOUSE APHIS BRASSICÆ,

parous one oviparous.I

plants, the Aphis brassicæ , magnified, the lines below representing the natural size of body and 3301. Fig. 271 represents the winged male of expanse of wings . Generally pea-green ; horns the common turnip plant-louse, Aphis rapæ ,mag. setaceous, longish and black, aswell as the head , nified. Its characters are ochraceous,hornsmode- collar, and disc of thorax ; several blackish bands rately long, setacious, two first joints black, third more or less perfect across the body ; tubes short ochraceous at the base ; head blackish ; collar and stoutish, black at the base ; wings irredescent, ochraceous and brown, disc of shining black ; stigma pale green ; nervures strong, piceous, abdomen greenish ; wings irredescent, the ner- apical cell large, and the first furcate one wider

* Journal of the English Agricultural Society,vol.iii. p. 49-56. + Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Entomology, vol . i. P. # Newman's Letters of Rusticus -- On Blight, p . 68.

174.

78

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

than the species above; legs black, base of thighs green . Fig. 274 is the female of the species. Slightly mealy ; ge-

a secretion from the aphides, and that ants devour this honey -dew , and a sweet, clear, liquid honey it is.

I have often watched an ant go from one

Fig. 274.

nerally of a yellow- aphis to another, stand behind each, and gently er green than the squeeze the body with its fore legs ; perhaps one male ; third joint of aphis in ten, not more, will give out a small drop the antennæ och- of honey, as clear as crystal, which the ants in raceous, following stantly swallow . The ants take much more care black ; eyes two, two

of the aphides than the aphides do of themselves :

large spots on the

they are sad, dull, stupid creatures. It is very

crown , and one on

pretty to see the licking and washing, and cleans

each side of the col-

ing, and caressing which the ants constantly be

lar, black ; abdomen very large and

stow on them . " *

heavy ; spiracles, se-

3305. “ Protected as the aphides are in the

veral dots upon the

wrinkles of the leaves, which they themselves

back, and a few have caused by the pumping up and extravasa WINGLESS FEMALE OP THE SWEDE PLANT- LOUSE APHIS BRASSICÆ .

transverse streaks

tion of the sap, it is, I think," observes Mr Cur

beyond the middle, tis, “ impossible, in the open field, to apply any black ; tibia short

effectual remedy for the extirpation of this pro

and black, as well as the legs ; base of thighs

lific tribe. When it is in our power , the best

greenish. The small figure on the left repre- plan would be to cut off the diseased leaves as sents this aphis of the natural size. “ As far soon as the presence of the insects is detected , as my observation goes,” says Mr Curtis, “ the and crush them completely under foot ; or put swedes have suffered most from the aphides ; the

under sides of the curled leaves being sometimes densely covered with them of all sizes. The old wingless females are seen resting in August,

them into a sack, and carry them away to be destroyed with boiling water." 3306. Lady-birds.— “ Fortunately, no tribe of

September, and October, surrounded by their insects has a greater number of natural enemies young broods, with here and there a winged to keep it in check than the plant-lice. One of male walking lazily over his kindred . The leaves

are frequently, at the same time, gray with mil-

the most conspicuous and efficient enemies are the Coccinellæ , of which about 30 different species

dew ; but that is a distinct disease. It is said

have been noticed in England. Lady-birds pass

that, in a very dry autumn, early sown turnips seldom escape the mildew, which is a species of fungus forming a whitish powder over the leaves, and readily brushing off. The leaves thus affected soon become yellow, dry , and brittle ;

the winter in the crevices of palings and trunks

of trees, &c., and are ready to come out with the slightest increase of Fig. 275 . heat in spring. They eat into the side of the aphis, and thus destroy many daily. The two most com mon species are the

and , at an early stage, this disease seems to en courage the aphides, owing to the plants not being healthy and able to resist such attacks.

I may observe that I have seen myriads of

TWO AND SEVEN SPOTTED Coccinella bipunc LADY - BIRDS - COCCINELLA tata , and secreted in the leaves of the crumpled brocoli two- spotted BI ET SEPTEMPUNCTATA . as late as the end of November, when they were of lady-bird-a small all ages and sizes, both winged and apterous.” insect of 24 lines long, in fig . 275 a ; and a larger one , Coccinella septempunctata, seven 3303. Honey-dero. - " Whether any of the spotted lady-bird, which is 31 lines long, and above aphides deposit the sweet liquor called nearly 3 broad, fig. 273 b ; both of the natural honey -dew upon the turnip leaves, ” remarks Mr size.

Aphis brassicæ under cabbage leaves in July,

Curtis, “ has not yet been observed ; but I have never seen the ants occupied in visiting the in-

fested leaves for the purpose of collecting the saccharine matter which exudes from the two abdominal tubes or ducts, and which is also dis-

charged from the extremity of the bodies of some species. The exudation of this honey, which passes off through the tubes, and chrystalises in cold weather, may be a necessary means of disposing of any surplus secretions arising from the constant supply of sap which is passing

3307. Ichneumon Ay. - Another active enemy of the aphis is the ichneumon fly, Aphidius rapæ of Curtis, fig. 276, magnified.

Antennæ shorter

than the body, composed of 14 joints ; basal joint beneath, as well as themouth, ochraceous ; head and thorax shining black ; abdomen spindle shaped and pitchy in colour, attached to the trunk by a narrow ochraceous pedicle ; wings four, irredescent, superior, with a narrow fuscous stigma, from which issues, beneath, a short

through the stomachs of these little leeches, and

curved nervure, and there is a large elongate .

which they may not have the power of discharg-

trigonate cell at the base : legs six, slender, and

ing fast enough by the usual organs. "

bright ochreous, variegated with dark brown ;

length 1 } line, expanse of wings 24. The small 3304. A writer assuming the name of Rusticus says— “ I am quite convinced that honey-dew is

cross lines at the left side represent the natural

size of the fly with the wings expanded . This fly

* Newman's Letters of Rusticus - On Blight, p. 108.

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

79

hosers about plants infested by the aphis, and the

streaked across with black ; they have a mark

female soon fixes on a female aphis, pierces her with her ovi Fig. 276.

terior wings, which expand if inch. The cater

egg , and then proceeds to another, and

stripe, having a tendency to become reddish on the upper side. The spiracles are white , sur

resembling the letter W on the disc of the an

positor, lay- pillar is greenish or brownish ,with a dark stripe visible ; ing a single along the back, on which a pale line isyellowish

thus

inocu-

the sides are marked with an obscure

rounded with black.

The White line brown

lates a consi-

eyed moth , Mamestra oleracea , is of a rusty-brown

derable number. As the

colour, the fore-wings at times slightly clouded,

aphis imbibes

the cross-lines obliterated. The caterpillar red dish or yellowish -brown, with a dark line along

the juice of the back, and another on each side, and beneath ICHNEUMON FLY-APHIDIUS RAPÆ .

the plant, the

the latter a white line ; underside and feet light

little maggot which has hatched in her body hourly increases

brown . The Gamma or Y -moth , Plusia gamma, is easily recognised by the silvery character on

in size , until the exhausted aphis dies. As there are many generations of ichneumon flies in a

its fore-wings resembling the letter Y, or rather the Greek y, upon a variegated dusky -brown

summer, it follows that they are most formidable ground. Head and thorax ash-gray ; theabdomen enemies to the plant- lice.

of a lighter hue. It expands from 1f to lì inch. The eggs of this moth are very beautiful, being

3308. Turnip-leaf Miners. — There is a class of of an orbicular shape, with elevated ribs, and slen insects called turnip-leaf miners, the larvæ of

der, transverse, raised lines. They are chiefly

which destroy the energy of the leaves of turnips, laid on the under side of leaves, sometimes singly , under surfaces, in the manner which is now ascer .

but more commonly in small clústers. When the caterpillars reach maturity, they are green , with

tained to be the case with the turnip flea -beetle.

6 white or black lines along the back , and a faint

by boring galleries between their upper and

One is the Drosphila flara, which forms its yellow streak on each side; the breathing pores dwellings so carefully under the upper cuticle of black. They possess only 4 abdominal feet, and the leaves that not a trace of them can be seen

2 anal ones, thus indicating an approach to the

on the under side. Its length is 1 line. The larva of this insect is destroyed by two little para-

geometric or looper caterpillars. The chrysalis, which is pitchy-brown, is inclosed in a white

sitic hymenopterous flies, the Ceraphron niger, woolly cocoon, spun between the folds of a leaf, and the Microgaster viridis. The other leaf-miner is named Phytomyza nigricornis, which is bred from the under sides of the turnip leaves, where the maggots form long irregular galleries inside of the lower cuticle, and these miners are not

or among herbage. The moth flies about in the day with much rapidity, keeping the wings, when feeding, in constant vibration . They may be seen, often in great numbers, hovering in this

I line in length .

manner about a turnip -field, over the yellow blossom of the charlock and field -mustard , or the blue heads of the scabies and devil's-bit.t There

3309. Moths. - Lepidopterous insects, that is, those of the butterfly and moth kind, afford several species injurious to the turnip crop. One is the

is no moth more shy and difficult to catch by day, for it will seldom allow any one to come near it, but whether it detects the approach of man by its eyes, which sparkle like living rubies, or by its

visible on the upper side of the leaf. The fiy is

turnip diamond -back moth, Cerostoma xylostella . hearing, is not known : it darts off, however, in an instant, when disturbed, and stops again a few yards off, or entirely vanishes. There is, per haps, nothing but hand -picking, or switching the turnip- plant , to get quit of these insects. The Large White cabbage butterfly, Pontia brassicce, lays eggs in clusters, of 20 or 30, on the under long fringe. Its length is 24 lines. The cater- side of the turnip leaves. The caterpillars are half an inch in length, slen- green before and yellow behind, when young, but, pillar is green, about der and tapering to both ends. They are exceed- when matured to full growth , are 1.5 inch long, ingly active, and on the slightest touch wriggle and as thick as a small goose-quill. They chiefly themselves off the leaf they are feeding, and let attack the Swedish turnip. They are destroyed When at rest the wings are closed and deflexed, and the horns are projected forward in a straight line. It is more or less brown. The upper wings are long and narrow , and when closed form 2 or 3 diamonds upon the back ; the inferior wings are lance -shaped , and of an ash -colour, with a very

themselves downby a silken thread, and remain

by the ichneumons Microgaster glomeratus and

suspended until the cause of alarm subsides. As

Pimpla instigator, and by the cynips Pteromatus brassicce and pontiæ . The Small White or tur nip butterfly, Pontia rapæ , as its name implies, is another enemy to the turnip. The superior

many as 240 have been counted on one leaf, and

such is their avidity, that not the smallest vestige of a green leaf is left by them . This larva is

destroyed by a black ichneumon, named Campo- wings of the male are tipped with black, and the inferior have a black spot on the upper edge ; the brassica, will live on the Swedish turnip . The female is similar, but has 2 large black spots like forelegs are ash-brown, clouded with ash- gray wise beyond the centre of the superior wings ; plex paniscus.* The cabbage- moth, Mamestra

* Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. iii. p .68-72. + Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xiii. p. 167.170.

80

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

underside of the same white,apex yellow , and 2 nip with her proboscis, and deposits an egg in it ; black spots beyond the middle, the lower one and the young maggot, which is fat and whitish , sometimes obliterated ; inferior wings yellow , often of a bright flesh -colour, lives on the sub freckled with black. Length of male 8 lines, and stance of the bulb. Except in affecting the beauty expanse of wings 2 inches. The eggs are not unlike and symmetry of the bulb, this insect does no those of the cabbage -butterfly; but the caterpillar great harm to the turnip. * is totally different, being entirely green , and so densely clothed with minute hairs, as to be velvety.

3311. A plan of destroying moths in vineyards

They have a yellowish stripe down the back, and has been tried by M. Audouin with success, and another along each side. They are more than 1 inch long, and about as thick as a crow quill.

The small oval eggs so deeply embedded in the pulpy substance of the back of someturnip leaves, are laid by the Chrysomela betulæ, a brilliant shining or green oval beetle, with undersides, horns, and legs black, and about 1 } line long.

which consists oflighting lamps covered with bell glasses smeared with oil, when the light attracts the insects, and they are captured on the glass. Such lights are much more effective than open fires of brushwood .

In this way 200 lamps the first

night, and 180 the following nights, placed at 25 feet apart, in 4 nights in August 1842, in a

vineyard of 4 acres extent, and lighted for 2 3310. Besides the leaves, the turnip is attacked by insects in the bulb, among which noxious insects are many large caterpillars, called by far-

mers and gardeners surface grubs, which commit very extensive depredations uponturnips. Among

hours each night, destroyed these numbers of

moths in the respective nights — 30,000, 14,405 , and the two last nights 9260; in all, 53,660. Of these it was reckoned that three -fourths were

females, which, supposing they would have laid these is the caterpillar of the Triphæna pronuba, 150 eggs each , caused a destruction of 6,000,000 of eggs. Many moths, I apprehend, might have times very plentiful in hay-fields, where it will been caught besides, while flickering round the the Great yellow underwing. This moth is some-

rise from the swathes when disturbed , and alight again in another swathe. The Noctua or Ægros tis exclamationis, the Heart and Dart moth, so

lamps, with an entomologist's net. +

named from the markings of the wings resem-

in allusion to the anbury, says that it is a large excrescence produced below the bulb ; and when

bling the note of exclamation ( !), and a heart and

3312. The Anbury in Turnips - Mr Marshall,

a dart, affords a caterpillar of a dull lilac colour, with a lurid space down the back of more ochreous hue, which is a most destructive animal to crops of turnips at every stage of their growth,

this was just forming, and not larger than a green walnut, the anburies were as large as a goose's

it forms a round hole in a vertical direction about

veins or string -like vessels may be seen dispersed

2 or 3 inches deep in the earth . At the bottom of this it remains during the day, unless it be dark and moist, and at night it emerges from its burrow , and commences an attack upon a plant

through the tumour. When turnips are affected with this disease, the tops become yellow , and flag in the heat of the sun, and its existence is thus readily distinguished. He says it has been attri buted to the land being too long continued under this green crop ; but it is certain that the anbury appears on land where turnips had never before been grown. He, however, considers that it pro ceeds from the formation of an insect in the vessels of the tap-root, by which the course of the sap is divided, and instead of the natural bulb an

egg, irregular in form , with excrescences be low , and not unlike races of ginger depending it being very apt to separate the crown from the from them . After arriving at maturity, they ex root. The grub of the Noctua or Ægrostis sege- hibit a putrid fermentation, and emit a most tum is a very formidable assailant in the more offensive smell. When the anburies are divided, advanced state of the turnip plant, near to which they are hard ; but with the assistance of a lens,

by eating round the neck of it, and eventually detaching the upper part from the root. In this

way singled Swedish turnip-plants may be destroyed one after another until very few are left. The rook is useful in searching for this grub, and in quest of it will also tear up the piant. Young pigs are fond of it, and would dig for it in a turnip -field, were it not that they would dig up the plants at the same time. There seems no ready means of getting quit of this pest. The excrescences which frequently disfigure the turnip bulb,

excrescence is produced. He recommends that the diseased plants should be removed as soon as possible, and the earth stirred about those that

remain ; and he adds, that it may be wholly

by well preparing and richly manuring and are not confined to any particular variety of avoidedsubject to produce anbury . If the disease

turnip, on being opened will be found to contain

lands

a small maggot. This is produced by the Ceu-

were occasioned by the puncture of insects, better

terohynchus pluerostigma,the turnip -gall weevil. cultivation would not abate its virulence, but It is very similar to the turnip-seed weevil, but

rather increase it, as the turnip would thereby be

is black instead of gray ; the wing -cases are not so rough or strongly tuberculated at their extremities, and all the thighs have a small tooth

rendered much more palatable to them .

The

beneath. It is not uncommon in hedges from May to August, and, closely contracting all its

truth is, all such diseases arise from poverty of the soil, either from want of manure when the soil is naturally poor, or rendered effete by overcropping. Labour, clean, and manure the

members when alarmed, it looks like a black seed, The female pierces a hole in the rind of the tur-

soil fully, according to the condition it presents, and no anbury will appear, unless it may happen

* Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. iv. p. 103-121. + Gardener's Chronicle for 1843.

# Marshall's Rural Economy of Norfolk, vol. ii. p. 33.

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

81

in peculiar seasons, which always counteract the

knolls, where sheep would take to and rest on for

effects of culture, and affect plants in a manner similar to want of nourishment. This disease is not so prevalent as it was 30 years ago, be .

light loamy turnip -soil, on an open bottom, is

cause the culture of the turnip is now better

land, or any soil resting on a retentive bottom ;

the night. In conformity with this circumstance, much more apt to produce the disease than clay

understood, and the ground is manured with and it prevails more in dry than in wet seasons. Hence in the wet seasons of 1816 and 1817 it

greater liberality.

3313. Insects are invariably found in the bulbs of turnips diseased with anbury, but they are the effect and not the cause of the disease, as the habits of the insects so found clearly indicate.

The principal insects are the winter turnipgnat, Trichocera hiemalis, belonging to the family Tipulidæ , and one or two of the rovebeetles, principally of the genera Aleochara and Oxytelus, of the latter of which the sculptured

rove-beetle , Oxytelus sculpturatus, is the most common .

Both these kinds of insects are to be

found among dung after it has been a few days dropped, and in rotten turnips, particularly in the diseased parts.

was but little felt in Roxburghshire; whereas in the dry summers of 1818 and 1819, and particu larly in 1818, it was both extensive and destruc

tive. Hence also Roxburgh, with its light soil, was always more affected thanthe neighbouring county of Berwick with its heavy soil. The ultimate effects of the disease are to produce a distorted bulb like a boxer's glove, with fingers and thumb, which are longer or shorter, smaller or larger, in proportion to the bulb. The leaves are unhealthy in colour, and the top has a tend ency to shoot. Inequalities occur in the bulb which collect water, the freezing of which in winter causes premature decay of the bulb. The texture of the bulb becomes fibrous, its juice tastes acrid like the skin, and the smell is some

3314. Fingers and Toes in Turnips.- Of this what putrescent. Hence the disease affects the disease Mr Dickson says : - “ It occasionally hap- weight of the crop, as also its nutritive properties pens that turnip -plants, instead of swelling and as an article of food for live stock.t forming bulbs, send off numerous stringy roots,

which soon decay and come to no account. It

3315. The analyses of the tops of turnips, as

occurs most generally when the crop is sown on

well as of the bulbs attached to them, have been

fresh land, and no remedy issaid yet to have been discovered to prevent it. More perfect tillage, and the use of such measures as have a tendency to render such lands more mellow and friable,

made by different chemists. In conducting such analyses of the tops, it has been found that the proportion of the water in them to the ash , taken in both the wet and dry states, is as follows, according to Professor Way and Mr Ogston :

may perhaps be beneficial." *

No doubt the dis-

ease has been observed on fresh virgin soil, that had beforedborne a crop of turnips; it has never been remarke in a long experien land ce,thatbut

Turnip-ton

Water. High . Low ,Mean 90.0 79.0 85.5

Ash . Ash -dry. High . Low . Mean | High . Low . Mean 2.64 1.19 1.84 18.00 8.00 12.98

which had often carried turnips was most affected by this disease . The county of Roxburgh was much afflicted with it, and it continued to increase

for 30 years ; but latterly it has decreased, and

The mean numbers are those of 30 different

analyses, and not of the highest and lowest quan tities ; but it is evident that the percentage of

may now be said to have disappeared, in conse

water and ash varies with tolerable uniformity,

quence of the superior manuring of all the crops and the larger liming of the soil, and the same experienced may resultremark, has beenhowever, here that everywhere. spurious seedI wiil

portion of water contained in different parts of the

have the same effect on the turnip, in unfavour able seasons, as want of manure, and the injurious effects of weather, such as was the case in Scot land in the season of 1847. The disease affects

the turnip plant from the period of singling to the first hoeing of the crop. The plant becomes flaccid, and the leaves assume a yellowish hue, but do not die, nor does the plant bear the slight. est mark of insects ; and when once affected never gets free of the disease, and continues to live and

both above and below the averages given. 3316. Professor Johnston ascertained the pro

tops of turnips, before and after the formation of the bulb. Thus Mean per cent.

From June 28 to July 26, the water in the entire top was,

88.49

From Aug.2to Sept. 27, water in the top,

85.42

at the bottom ,

90.22

The conclusions which these results warrant are , that the proportion of water is greater when the

never come in contact, but, on finding interrup-

plants are young and succulent ; that the per centage of water in the lower part of the top is greater than in the upper; and that the average quantity of water in the lower part is greater than the mean of the whole green part, includ ing leaves and stalks.I

tions, assume irregular forms. The interruptions are the ends of drills and the hollows of fields.

3317. The composition of the ash of the tur

grow in size . The disease never affects a whole

field at once, nor does it run along drills, but invariably begins in spots which increase in diameter, and spread out into large patches, which patches

The patches never commence in hollows or drill- nip-top, as ascertained by Professor Johnston, is ends where water may lodge, but on the driest

as follows :

* Dickson's Practical Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 666. + Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. i. p. 429. # Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, for July 1848, p. 281-3. VOL . II.

F

82

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

Potash, Soda,

28.65 5.41

Lime,

23.27 3.09 0.86 9.29 12.52

Magnesia, Oxide

iron,

Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid , Chlorine, Silica ,

This table exhibits wide differences in the com position of the ash of the turnip-top, the phos phoric acid of one specimen being double that of

others. We are prepared for this, observes Pro fessor Way.

In the growth of plants of this de

scription , the construction of the materials is

16.05

supposed to go on in the leaves from which the

0.86

vegetable matter, when fully worked up, de scends into the tuber, and is there deposited .

.

100.00

The leaves would contain, therefore, not only

Percentage of ash from 14. to 20.

their own proper mineral constituents, but the greater part of the excess of such bodies which

Professor Johnston says there is no doubt the proportion of ash varies very much with the period of the plant's growth, and with the part of the tops which is burned for the collection of ash .* The variety of turnip from which the

had entered the plant. The ash of the top differs

from that of the bulb chiefly in containing less phosphoric and sulphuric acid, less potash, but a great deal more lime. On comparing the con tents of the column of mean results with that of

analysis was taken is not mentioned, but in a case Professor Johnston (in 3317,) a great difference the following results were obtained in illustration

will be observed to exist in the composition of

of these remarks :-Percentage of ash obtained turnip - tops derived from different localities. from green turnip-tops, collected from the 2d of August to the 27th September from the top, 3319. It may be useful to give the relative mean , 2.19 ; from the bottom, mean, 1.75. From quantities of the mineral matter, in pounds weight, the same, when dried at 212 ° Fahr. top, mean, contained in one ton of the tops of each of the 16.84 ; bottom , mean, 18.21 . The conclusions which these results warrant are, that the propor

kinds of the turnips given in the above table :

tion of mineral matter in the tops increases with

Dale's Hybrid . lb ,

Skirving's Swede.

the age of the plant ; that the average quantity

Ib .

of mineral matter in the green part of the turnip is greater in the highest than the lowest part ; and that in the tops dried at 212° Fahr., the proportion of mineral matter is greater in the lowest than in the highest part. As regards this change of place in the proportion in the mineral matter in the tops when green and dried, ProfessorJohnston gives an explanation, which you should bear in mind when comparing the results of chemical analyses in other things : - “ This difference arises from the circum

Potash , Soda, Lime, Magnesia, Oxide of iron ,

9.08 ) 3.616.205.18

1.23 12:57 13.26 9.37 12:18 11.76 1.16 1.39 0.47 1.79 1.17 1.33 0.29 0.16 1.55 0.33 2.15 2.71 1.22 5.87 1.29 4.57 5.33 1.79 3.51 3-20

Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Chloride of sodium , 5.48 4.51 4.81 11:40

Mean of six speci Inene . Ib .

6-08 1.12

11-29 1.16

0-72 2-60

4.36

3.46 6.15

6.77 0.85

2-02 1.73

Chloride of potas

sium , . Silica,

stance that the lower part contains the largest percentage of water. The present case is only one of many illustrations of the fact, that the relative

5.09 5.49

Green Top White . Ib .

3.55

0.91 0.50

0.34

0.92 3-69

41:39 37-98 23-00 47 11 34.91 36.23 Percentage of ash ,

1.97

1.95 1.19 2.25

1.82

proportions of mineral matter , in green products, are not to be received as real indices ofthe rela-

tive proportions in which this mineral matter exists in the dry substance of the plant.” +

3320. The leaves of turnips contain much more common salt, chloride of sodium, than the bulbs, and the quantity is considerable in some cases, the second column of Dale's hybrid above exhi

3318. The following table exhibits the compo- biting an amount of it of 11 lb. to the ton, or sition of turnip-tops of the respective varieties of about 9 oz. to every owt. of the green tops. May the turnips mentioned in it, as ascertained by not this circumstance in part explain the action Professor Way and Mr Ogston : Green Top White .

Meap of six speci . mens ,

11:56 20.79 13:53 12:35 12.68

15:21

Skirving's Swede.

Potash , Soda , Lime, Magnesia , Oxide of iron , Carbonic acid , Phosphoric acid ,

12:43

Dale's Hybrid .

2.84

4.60

2-62 3:18 1.75 3.57 2.85 3.02 0.66 0.61 3.09 0.80 6.18 12-97 1382 6.10 14.64 4.85 6.21 4:58 11-70 3.15

2-09

.

8:04

2.81 1.68 9.98 6.77

1.84 16:56

1:14 1:26 7:35 2.05

5-04 3.99

99.96 99-93 99-98 99.96 99-96 99-94

Percentage of ash ,

of soda and potash, and organic salts of these

bases, oxalate, tartarate, & c., and which are known as purgatives, exist largely in turnip -tops. I

28.49 30-38 35:10 24-27 28-73 28.49

Sulphuric acid , 1036 12.20 671 699 7.83 8.43 Chloride of sodium , 12:41 10-31 18-02 22:70 10-67 15:30 Chloride of potas sium , Silica ,

of turnip- tops in causing purging in sheep when they are first turned upon this food from pasture ? The other alkaline salts, such as the phosphates

1.97

1.95 1:19

2:25

1.82

3321. A rather singular result was obtained by Mr Johnstone, Lang- Liddesdale, Wigtonshire, on transplanting swedes on land which he had

not got ready for sowing them in at the proper season. He sowed some seeds of Skirving's swedes in a bed in April 1847 , and transplanted the plants from them as late as the 22d of June. From ten to twenty days afterwards, the transplanted

plants running into flower, some of them were pulled up, and others cut over near the ground ; when, in about fourteen days afterwards, bulbs

* Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p . 385.

T Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, for July 1848, p. 283. # Journal of theEnglish Agricultural Society, vol. viii . p . 176-84.

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .

83

began to form , and new stems and leaves were

-namely, barley, hay, pasture, and oats - were

put forth luxuriantly. He then cut over others which had lowered, and the same results fol lowed. Finding the new leaves succulent and

all better in their respective years.

delicate, he caused them to be pulled as green

bear that had been buried for an indefinite time

3325. Thus Marchand found the bones of a

food for his cows, and continued to do so during

at a shallow depth—where moisture and air may

the season , three times, never imagining that the

have been supposed to have exercised their

bulbs would ever be of any value. Meanwhile,

influences very actively - not to have differed

however, the bulbs enlarged untilthe latter end

very materially in composition to other bones of

of October, when two were pulled, and one a bear that had been buried deeply, except in ani weighed 18 lb., the other 15 lb., with scanty

mal matter, as is shown in the following table :

stem and leaves, because the former ones had been cut down not long before.

Bones of the Bear buried .

3322. The question, after such treatment of the Deep. Shallow .

bulbs, was, were they deteriorated as food ?

From an analysis made of them by Professor

Johnston, it would appear they were not - as may be seen from these figures : In the natural state .

Water,

Dried at 2120.

90.95

1.28 Protein compounds, Sugar, gum , fibre, &c., 7:17

79.23

0-60

6.63

100.00

100-00

Ash of phosphates, .

14:14

Animal matter , Phosphate of lime, Carbonate of lime,

Sulphate of lime, Phosphate of magnesia , Fluoride of calcium , Oxides of iron and manganese , Soda ,

Silica, :

16.2 56-0 13.1 7.1 0.3 2.0 2.0 1.1 2.2

4.2 62-1 13:3 12.3 0-5

100-0

100-0

2.1 2.1 1.3 2.1

That substance must be a valuable manure

which resists decomposition for a long time,

The nutritive power not having been diminished, while it imparts nourishment to the roots of is it probable that green food may be obtained all summer from the Swedish turnip , and enlarged size of bulb for winter in the same season ? The subject deserves to be experimentally investi-

plants as they require it.

gated, when only a true answer will be obtained

determined by Dr Thomson :

3326. Bone is a dense substance , as will be seen by the specific gravity of different kinds as

to the question. I think, however, that the transplanting process is merely incidental, and

Os femoris of a sheep, Tibia of a sheep,

cannot affect the result ; for it is evident that the plant will produce new stems and leaves, and

Ilium of an ox, Human os humeri,

2-0329 1.8353 1.7479

Vertebræ of a haddock ,

1.6350+

consequently bulb, whether it had been grown from seed sown at one place, or sown elsewhere and transplanted in that place. *

2.0345

It thus appears that the bones of sheep are den ser than those of oxen.

3323. Bone- dust . - Bone -dust has now com-

3327. Bones contain a large proportion of

pletely established itself as a valuable manure ;

water, the quantity of which is greatest when

and I believe that, with the exception of farm-

the animal is young, and the interior of the bone

yard dung, there is no substance we know upon

spongy, varying from 33 to 15 per cent in the

which we may place more implicit reliance, in one or another of its states, as a fertiliser of the

former and from 20 to 80 per cent in the latter case , in different animals.

soil, not even excepting guano. 3324. One of its most valuable properties as a manure is its durability ; and in thisrespect it is superior to farm dung and guano.

Bones, even

in their reduced state, when applied in large quantities, as ) } ton and upwards on the acre , as

3328. Bones are composed of organic and inorganic matter, the former consisting of fat and cartilage, the latter of earthy matter. The inorganic matter varies in the bones taken from different parts of the body. When the fat has been removed, the proportion of earthy matter

is done by the farmers of Cheshire, will evidence their existence as a manure after the lapse of 20 years. This result arises from the slowness of the decomposition of their organic matter in the soil. I pulled off 4 acres of turnips raised with

to cartilage is as follows, according to the experi

bone-dust, and four acres adjoining in the same farm -yard dung to the acre ; and the crop was not only betterafter the bone-dust than after the

64:7 pig, birds, 66.2 66 :1 fishes, In the earthy matter the bones of different ani

dung, but the crops that followed in the rotation

mals do not thus vary much. The earthy mat

field, which had been raised with 15 loads of

ments of Dr Stark : Earthy matter .

Bones of the ox contain , horse,

64.5

66-7

and Agricultural Society, for March 1848, p . 241 . * Transactions of the +Highland Thomson's Animal Chemistry, p. 234.

Cartilage 35-5 33 3 35-3 33.8 32.9

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

84

ter consists chiefly of the carbonate and phos- the French have long been in the practice of phate of lime ; and Dr Ure says, " that the bones steaming them for two or three days in continu of the ox are three times richer of the phosphates

ance in the making of soup .

of lime and magnesia than those of man, and

hence we may conclude that as manure they are

3332. It is the opinion of both Sprengel and Liebig, that it is the earthy portion of the bone, and particularly the phosphate of lime, which is 3329. When bones are boiled, a large propor alone useful as manure in bone -dust. Some tion of the fat and cartilage pass into the water. experiments may have warranted such a conclu The fat is skimmed off the surface of the water, sion ; but others , on the other hand, would lead to and is used by the candle -makers ; the water, the conclusion, that it is only the organic part of when boiled down, makes size for the stiffening bones which is useful in manure. Such results of certain kinds of cotton goods. The bones, would depend upon the degree in which the soils

more valuable." *

after being boiled, contain more water than they experimented on at the time had been previously did before, and when ground into dust make as

supplied, from other sources, with organic or

good manure as when fresh, according to the inorganic matter. “ The most striking change," opinion of some. But it is evident thatthe loss

as Professor Johnston observes, “ undergone by

of the fat and cartilage must deteriorate the value of bones as a manure for general application. It is probable that the additional water obtained by the boiling may facilitate the decom-

loss of organic or animal matter they had suffered . The relative proportions of the phosphate and carbonate of lime had been comparatively little

bones buried at the roots of trees, was the large

position of the bone -dast in the soil, and thereby altered. The main effect, therefore, produced by bones, when buried at the roots of trees, as

give to the boiled bone a factitious value.

particularised in the table in ( 3325 ,) and their 3330. The organic parts of bones, when heated first effect, in all cases, must be owing to the to redness in the open air, are dissipated, and the animal matter they contain --- the elements of the earthy matter is left in the form and bulk of the animal matter, as it decomposes, being absorbed original bone. The calcined bones, which are by the roots with which the bones are in contact . very brittle , and easily reduced to powder, get He who candidly weighs the considerations the name of animal charcoal, but its proper above presented, will, I think , conclude, that the name is bone-black, which constitutes a valuable whole effect of bones cannot in any case be manure in some cases .

ascribed exclusively either to the one or the other of the principal constituents. He will

3331. Bones, when subjected to theaction of believe, indeed, that in the turnip husbandry the steam heat, equal to a pressure of 35 lbs. to the inch, becomespongy and brittle, and may be

organic part performs the most permanent and most immediately useful office , but that the

reduced easily to powder. This process has earthy part, nevertheless, affords a ready supply lately been introduced to notice by Mr Black- of certain inorganic kinds of food, which in many hall of Edinburgh, as a means of reducing bones

soils the plants could not otherwise easily obtain.

to powder in a more economical manner than by Hewill assign to each constituent its separate the powerful machinery which is necessary for and important function ,being constrainedat the the construction of a bone- grinding mill. But the analyses by Dr Anderson make it appear that steaming deprives bones of much animal matter. Thus, in two instances, steamed bones gave of 12-66 13-86 Water , Animal matter ,

Bone -earth ,

27.37 59.97

19.90 66-24

100.00

100.00

And that of bones in three states gave, from Water , Animal matter, Bone- earth,

Inch bones ,

Bone -dust .

Entire bones ,

10.00 41.88

14.89

48.12

10:39 42.60 47.01

37:04 48:17

100-00

100.00

100.00

same time to confess -- that, while in very many

cases the earthy part of bones applied alone would fail to benefit the land , there are few cultivated fields in which the organic part ap

plied alone would not materially promote the growth of most of our artificial crops." I 3333. The comparative value of bones and farm - yard dung was ascertained by Dr Henry R. Madden. This is his analysis of both : Bone -Dust.

Water, Organic matter, Inorganic matter,

100.00

Hence the loss of animal matter is as 27 to 40 ;

and hence, also, if crude bones cost £ 4 the ton, steamed bones would cost £5, 6s. 8d., besides the

expense of steaming.+ It has been more recently stated that steaming bones at a pressure of 50 lb. to the square inch, reduces them to a state of pulp.

11 :5

577 30.8

FARM- YARD DUNG,

Water,

45.535 43-565

Organic matter, Inorganic matter,

10-900 100-000

That the steaming process will deprive the bones 3334. Another analysis gave of azote in bone of most of their organic matter is evident, since * Ure's Dictionary of the Arts -- art. Bones.

+ Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, for July 1849, p. 22. # Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 789.

THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP. dust 1 •77 per cent, in farm -yard dung .45 ; so that, with respect to azote, these substances stand comparatively thus in Total organic matter, Soluble matter,

Bone -dust. 38-50 10-20

Easily rendered soluble, 41.50 Azote , Saline matter ,

3339. Although it is improbable that you will keep bone-dust over the year, it being more pro

10.750

fitable to put it into the ground , yet in case you should have any left over, or should purchase a lot cheap out of season , it may be proper to let you know how to keep it in the best state until

1.77

14.250 -450

55.00

10.900

1

Easily dissolved do., 2.9 Azote, Saline matter,

become dry, and be in a good state for passing through the sowing-machine.

Farm - yard dung. 33.565

Hence 1 ton bone- dust equals, as regards1 ton farm - yard dung. Organic matter, Soluble matter ,

85

3.9 5

Earthy phosphates, 18:3 If all the various degrees in which bone-dust is superior to farm -yard dung be added together," concludes Dr Madden, “ 1 ton of it equals 30 tons of dung ; but as only 16 bushels of bone-dust are applied to the acre, which, at 47 lb. per bushel, weigh 7 cwt., this quantity is equal to 104 tons of dung ." *

66

3335. Bone -dust is less efficacious as manure on clay than on light land ; nor does land which has been recently limed experience the same

benefit from bone-dust as land devoid, or nearly so, of lime.

it is used . It is this : whenever you get it, you should put it on a dry pavement floor, as a damp one quickly rots it . It will heat, but not so strongly aswhen it was grinding, and it will heat every time it is turned, which it should not be. It should not be kept in the bags, as it will

soon rot them, as I have experienced, nor should it be kept upon or under a wooden floor, as it will rot it ; nor should it be kept near horses and cattle, as they evince a strong dislike to its smell ; and horses actually become restive and troublesome on feeling the smell it emits.

3340. Heating has the effect of increasing the weight of bone-dust from 47 lb. to 49 lb. per bushel, and this increase is no doubt effectedby the heating taking off the angles of the particles, and allowing them to come closer together in the bushel. The colouris also changed to blue and yel low, and, on examination with the microscope,the mass containsnumbers of minute insectslike mites.

3336. Bone-dust is obtained from those who

grind bones, with heavy and costly machinery , constructed for the purpose, and bone-mills are

3341. The consumption ofbone-dustas manure must have been great before the introduction of

guano ; and, even in my own experience of its use, large seaports . Hull is the great emporium of it rose in price from 28. 6d. to 3s. 6d. the bushel,

now common over the country, at least in all the

this article. When bone-dust is purchased on ship -board, it is almost always adulterated with old plaster, brick -dust, ashes, & c ., and should

on account of the increased demand, which con tinued to increase until the use of guano was

therefore be purchased direct froin the grinder-

known . It is now imported duty -free, and its price has receded to the original amount of 2s.

from one, if possible, on the spot. To avoid such

6d. the bushel.

adulteration , an association of farmers was formed a few years ago in Perthshire to import

bones, rape -cake, &c., and grind them at their own mills under the superintendence of a manager in whom they had confidence, and they thus supplied themselves with genuine manures.

3342. By a parliamentary return , the quantity of bones imported from abroad in 1847 was 29,646 tons, and in 1848, 32,582, the increased 2936 tons

implying an increasing demand for bone manure, notwithstanding the use of guano.

3337. Bone-dust is best conveyed from the mill in sacks, and 40 bushels will fill a double-

huano, meaning dung, so spelt by the Spaniards.

horse cart and sow 2 ! acres.

It is an excrementitious deposit from myriads

It weighs 47 lb.

3343, Guano .---Guano is the Peruvian word

per bushel. It should be immediately emptied of cormorants, flamingos, cranes, &c. and is found out of the sacks and kept in small heaps in a in the highest perfection in the small granite cool shed until it is used, as it is very apt to heat ; islands 10 miles from Chincha, off the coast of and one consequence of recent heating is, to Peru, in latitude 14°, to Paquica, on the coast of become lumpy and troublesome to sow by the Bolivia, in latitude 21 ° S. Little or no rain bone -dust sowing machine, fig. 259, though other- falls in this district, and it is to the desiccating wise it is not injured but rather improved by it. effect of the sun that the valuable state of the guano is to be ascribed. Rain falling in the dis 3338. If fresh bone-dust just obtained from tricts beyond those latitudes, the guano from the mill is desired to be heated at once, which it Chili is not so good as that obtained from the should be if it is to be kept for a few months, Peruvian port Iquique, having undergone a cer the process is much accelerated by the addition of a little sifted coal-ashes or earth, and as much water as will make the whole mass only damp,

and by turning it over several times until it is incorporated ; and in 48 hours the heat will be

so great that you cannot hold your hand in it. The heat will gradually subside, the mass

tain degree of fermentation .

3344. If guano be compared with the excre mentitious matter from man and the mammalia, it will be found to be very superior, imasmuch as the urine and dung of that class of animals are

evacuated separately, and each has its own

* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 529-31.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

86

peculiar action on vegetation ; whereas in birds

Silica ,

the excretions both of the kidneys and intestines

Undefined

are contained in the cloaca, whereby the volatile elements of the former become combined with the

more fixed components of the latter : and guano should be a richer manure than the excrements

1.25

organic 9.52 14.73 1.00 ?

matter, Matter Urate of ammonia, insoluble ) Oxalate of lime, in water .

of the mammalia, on account of its being pro duced by sea -fowl which live entirely on fish , without admixture of vegetable matter.

1-23

Subphosphate of lime, 22.00 Phosphate of magne 4.50 53-00 0:32 siaand ammonia , 100-00 9.80

ciate the value of guano as a manure, that they

3349. Two samples of guano were analysed in 1847 by Professor Johnston,one of which was ob

bring the nitrate of soda from the interior to the

tained in 1846 and kept in a dry room, the other in

coast to exchange for guano, though thenitrate is much cheaper. The farmers themselves collect

1847, both from Messrs Meyer & Co., Liverpool. He also analysed in 1848 two samples, one of

3345. So much do the farmers of Peru appre

the nitrate and purify it. From ordinary applica- Chilian and the other said tobe Peruvian, both ob tions, the returns from the nitrate upon maizeis tained from Glasgow .

All the analyses were

only 15 to 1, while that from guano is 300 to l. made at the request of Mr Cranstoun of Core were these : Hence the Peruvian proverb-Huano, though no house, Lanarkshire. The results 1848 . 1846 . 1847 . saint, works many miracles. 3346. Pure Bolivian guano possesses these

properties :—Pale yellow brown colour, dry, partly pulverulent, partly concreted, in small lumps, with small' fragments of granite inter of the pulverulent Specificthegravity spersed.without granite 1:60, of the concreportion

Water,

Peru . Peru . vian . vian , 7.83 15:14

Chi lan . 5.03

Peru vian . 8.70

Organic matter with ammonia 59.85 51.64 12.75 55-73 cal salts,

Common salt, sulphate of soda, with a little phosphate of pot ash and soda ,

12-24

• 67 15.86

6.23

29-72 47 35 26-48 Phosphates of limeand magnesia, 15-15 0.97 2-26 10-27 0.72 Carbonate of lime,

tions 1.66, mean 103.

Insolublesiliceousmatter,

of decomposition . The Chilian guano always emits such a smell. Genuine guano, when burned

The Peruvian guanos of 1846 and 1847, obtained

No ammoniacal smell should be felt, and when present it is a sure proof

3:39

1.71

8-74

2:14

99-43 99.14 100.00 100.00

on a hot shovel leaves a white ash of phosphate of direct from Meyer & Co., proved excellent; and lime and magnesia.

that of 1848 was also good, and much better than the Chilian used at the same time, and for

3347. Guano has been found on the coast of the same purposes. Africa, in the island of Ichaboe, and in Saldanha Bay, and on account of the high price of Peruvian , 3350. After many analyses of guano of the best these African deposits were highly prized; but as description, Dr Urewasenabled toestablish the fol the supply from them was scanty, it was soon ex lowing formula as an average result, and which hausted. The guano from those sources was of has reference solely to its agricultural value : a very inferior description to that from Peru. I Azotised animal matter, including urate of have heard that a recent visit to Ichaboe has

ammonia, together capable ofaffording

discovered new deposits of guano there, so that the

from 8 to 16 per centof ammonia by

birds must have returned to their former haunts.

slow decomposition in the soil, .

Water, Were these deposits placed under responsible Phosphate of lime,

authority , as are those of Peru, it is probable that

ammonia,

taken as individual caprice and interest dictate .

Siliceous sand,

the substance in its best state, its composition should be a standard for comparison : Ammonia .

Sulphate of potash, 6.00 0.95 4.62

1.00

0.34 0:50 0-89

ammonia,

together containing from 5 to 9 parts of 13 . 1.

100

3351. Guano is adulterated to a great extent, and one sample, offered to the public by adver tisement as Peruvian , Dr Ure found to contain the following ingredients :

Sulphate of ammonia,

2.00

Oxalate of ammonia , Water ,

3.23 8.50

Common siliceous sand, Sulphate of iron , or copperas, Phosphate of lime, Organic matter from bad guano, &c. to give it a smell, . Moisture, .

ammonia, , 14:32 Muriate of ofammonia 3.00 Phosphate soluble | Sesqui - carbonate of

Matter

in water.

nia, ammonia, phosphate of magnesia ,

Common salt,

with a little sulphate of soda ,

12. to 25 .

Phosphate of ammonia, sulphate of ammo

they might yield a continued supply of good manure,but ifleft to commercial rivalry,the birds will again be driven away, and the guano will be

3348. Dr Ure, among many analyses of guano, made an elaborate one of a sample from Chincha ; and as this sample may be regarded as a type of

50 8. to Il .

.

32-0 28-0 5.2

4.0 with 23.3 7.5 100-00

Soluble organic mat ter and urea ,

8.95 47.00

This stuff had a specific gravity as high as 2:17 produced from the salt,sand, and copperas ; and,

THE CULTURE OF KOHL - RABI.

87

when burned in a hot shovel, left ablack fused for the climate of Scotland, although it it analysed by a competent chemist; andin gardens. In Ireland it has been success

shouldtherefore purchase guano withouthaving maybe raised in favoured spots, such as guarding the interestsof farmers in this respect, fully cultivated for years. the late Agricultural Chemistry Association of Scotland was eminently useful. The Highland

3357. As kohl- rabi holds the same

andAgriculturalSociety of Scotland in their position, as a crop, as theturnip, its cul chemical department will be equally protective of the farmers' interest.

The sure way to pur

ture is very similar; but while turnips af

fect the lighter soils, kobl-rabi thrives on Messrs Gibbs ofLondon, or Messrs Meyer & Co. tbe stronger, so it may be raised where Liverpool, who are theaccredited agents of the turnips cannot be. The stubble -land in of Peruvian government in this country. the beginning of winter is either gathered 3352. Peruvian guano is always high-priced up with gore-furrows ( 749 and 756) or in this country, being seldom below £ 10 the ton, cast with the same, ( 755 and 756.) In chase genuine guano is to order it only from

notonlyon account of its superiority toother kinds - and the longer voyage no doubt incurs a larger freight than the African- buttheexport: duty imposed on the shippers from Bolivia en African guano is hances the value £ 3 a ton .

spring it is cross-ploughed, ( 2613,) drilled in the single way, (2389) manured in the drill, ( 2749) redrilled in the double way, ( 2397,) and made ready for the seed,

sold for £5 or £6 a ton, and the Chilian for £7 .

as in the case of turnip culture. All these

operations should be gone through by the the importation in 1847 was 82,393 tons ; in 1848, 1st of May, and before the land for the 3353. Guano is now imported duty -free, and

71,414 tons, which gives a falling off of 10,979 earliest of the turnips is required.

tons in one year, which, at 8 cwt the acre, indi cates a want of the means of manuring for 79,860

3358. Either of two modes may be

acres in1848 compared with 1847,+ but the in- adopted in cultivating kohl-rabi — to trans

period would manure 11,248 acres,at 16 bushels plant plants, or sow the seed. If the me thod of transplanting is adopted, a piece

the acre .

of good ground in a favoured aspect should

3354. About 4 or 5 cwt. is the quantity of be prepared in February or beginning of guano which experience has ascertained to be March, by deep digging and manuring, required for the acre when applied alone, and 3

cwt. in conjunction with farm -yard dung.

and sowing the seed in rows of 12 inches apart, and not very thick in the row . The

ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREAT-

the hand -hoe, fig . 266, which it should

MENT OF KOHL - RABI .

occasionally be, not only to keep down

rois admit of the ground being hoed with surface-weeds, but to loosen the soil for

3355. Kohl-rabi, or the turnip -rooted the encouragement of the growth of the

cabbage, is a plant of recent introduction plants. The plants should be raised and into the agriculture of Britain.

Atten- carried to the field to be transplanted,

tion was directed to it in consequence of in the manner already described for trans

the properties it possesses of withstanding planting swedes, (3269 ) in the first week dronght, and being little subjected to the of May, before the sowing of the swedes attack of insects - properties which impart abont the 15th of May. As damp and to it an intrinsic value over Swedish tur- cloudy weather is the most favourable state

nips. Still it was a question whether it of the air for transplanting plants, it would afford a large enough crop to be- should be chosen for the purpose; and the come a substitute for swedes; and it ap- operation may be forwarded or retarded be pears, from recent experience, that it is fore orafter the ordinary time, for the sake capable of affording, in certain localities at of obtaining the assistance of such weather. least, a heavy crop. 3359. But as transplantation is attended

3356. Agreeing with heat and drought, with considerable trouble, the crop is it may suit the climate of the south of equally secure when sown in the seed ;

England, to which it has hitherto been and the seed may be sown either by itself, confined ; but it is, I suspect, too delicate with the common turnip -sowing machine, * Ure's Dictionary of the Arts, and Supplement - art. Guano.

+ Parliamentary Return, 26th February 1849.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

88

fig. 254, or along with manure , with the

3363. Two varieties of kohl-rabi are

bone-dust sowing-machine, fig. 259. The cultivated — the green and the purple. The quantity of seed may be the same as green gives the heavier crop, but the pur swedes, namely 3 lb. the acre . And as ple the more nutritious one. bone -dust is not favourable to strong soil, 3364. Specimens of kohl -rabi have the manure selected should be bone -dust

prepared with oil of vitriol, termed sul- been raised in Scotland weighing from phated bones, (3233. ) The seed is dear- 5 lb. to 7} lb. each ; in Ireland, indivi it costs 2s. 6d . per lb.; on which account, dual bulbs have attained the weight of

it has been recommended to be sown 14 lb.; and in England they commonly with manure with the drop -drill sowing- reach from 8 lb. to 10 lb. machine, fig. 261 , or dibbled in at intervals 3365. As kohl-rabi stands in the same position along the drill. I think the saving would not compensate for the trouble of dibbling, in the Linnæan ,Jussieuan, and natural system of Lindley, as the turnip , it is unnecessary to re or the purchase of a drop - drill machine. peat the particulars which have been already given in (3283.) Its specific name is Brassica

3360. When the seed is sown, the crop oleracea, caulo-rapa, alba ,of De Candolle, and,as is singled the same as turnips with the this name indicates, it is a variety of the common

hand-boe, (3259,) and the intervals left cabbage. Its peculiar character is in having its between the plants may vary from 12 to 15 inches, according to the vegetating power of the soil. The cleaning of the ground with the scuffler, fiy. 262, and with

stem uppermass, extremity swollen intoanda large towards globularitspulpy in consistence

texture somewhat resembling a Swedish turnip ; from and near the summit of which mass the leaves,which are smooth, and of various shapes

and shades of colour, are produced. The taste the drill-grubber, fig. 264, is the same as of the pulpy mass is very similar to that of the

in the case of the turnip, (3256 ;) but when heart of the stem of the cabbage. the finishing operation is arrived at, the 3366. The kohl-rabi is used in Germany as a ground between the rows should not be

left somewhat flat, as recommended for vegetable for thetable. In whateverway it the turnip, (3277,) but raised with the is cooked, it is a coarse, harsh vegetable ; and yet we hear people in this country recommend, double mould - board plough , fig. 209, as ing its culture in the gardens of the poor, as a high as just not to cover the bulb upon the suitable esculent for their use ; but why the

stem of the plant, and this setting up should vegetables eaten by the poor labouring man and not be executed until the bulbs have his family should be coarser than those for other attained the size of a man's hand.

people, it is difficult to perceive. If mere bulk of crop is a recommendation of it for the poor, the Swedish turnip becomes bulky enough

3361. With 16 tons of good farm-yard for such a purpose, and it is actually better

dung, and 4 or 5 cwt. of sulphated bones tasted, even when ,plain boiled, than the heart to which that of the kohl stem of a cabbage likened. to the acre, a crop of from 20 to 30 tons rabi has been verytruly

may be expected to be raised. Kohl-rabi

will yielda heavier crop than swedes on

3367. The kohl- rabi is an excellent food

clay land, but not so heavy on turnip soil. for cowsand horses, and, when boiled with A sprinkling of2 cwt. of guano to the acre, grain for their use, will afford them truenourish

around each plant after they are singled, ment . The leaves may also be used, having en would tend to increase the size of the bulb should be removed with a sparing hand, else the materially.

3362. The advantageswhichkohl-rabi is said to possess over Swedish turnips by those who bave cultivated it in Eng

enlargement of the bulb will be prevented .

ON THE PLANTING, AND TIE SUMMER TREATMENT OF THE CABBAGE.

land and Ireland , are these :-cattle, and

especially horses, are fonder of it ; the

3368. The cabbage may be usefully

leaves are better food ; it bears transplant- and successfully raised on a farm ; and, ing better than any other root ; insects do occupying the same position in the order not injure it ; drought does not prevent its of cropping as the turnip and potato, it is growth ; it stores quite as well or better ; planted on the fallow break . It likes a

it stands the winter better ; and it affords rich deep soil with a considerable propor food later in the season, even in June.

tion of clay.

THE CULTURE OF THE CABBAGE.

89

3369. The cabbage, up to the time of treatment may be from 30 to 40 tons the laying the dung in the drill, is cultivated acre . In Scotland, the drumhead cabbage

in precisely the same manner as are tur- has yielded in the field from 17 lb. to 22 1b. nips and potatoes. As the cabbage re- of individual weight, with the stem and quires much manure, 20 tons to the acre

under leaves ; and from 10 lb. to 14 lb. of

of farm - yard dung should be given, and at solidly - hearted leaves. There are a great least 2 cwt. of guano sown by haud over many small cabbages in a crop, but at 10 the dung. The drills are then set up in the lb. of solid heart in each plant, the yield double form , ( 2397 ;) and just before the should be 43 tons 4 cwt. the acre . plants are planted on the drills, a light roller, of the form of fig. 222, should flatten 3373. The under leaves should never be their tops, andreduce the soil on them to a plucked from the close-headed cabbage, fine state . The turnip -sowing machine, but be allowed to drop off. Those of the fig. 254, with the coulters removed, will open -hearted sorts, and of the kales, may do this work well with its curved rollers.

be removed by the hand, and the growth

of the remaining ones will be increased. 3370. Cabbages may be raised by sow

3374. The application of 2 cwt. of sul ing the seed inthe drill, aswith turnips, or by transplanting prepared plants. The phated bones to the acre, around each plant,

transplanting is much the preferable and would greatly increase the size of the secure plan for raising cabbages. The plants close-headed cabbage, and the leaves of the are prepared in this way : Plough, or dig with the spade, a piece of ground, which has grown early potatoes or tares for the horses in harvest, with a sprinkling of manure upon it, and sow the cabbage seed, either broadcast, which is the common mode, but better in rows at 12 inches

open -hearted kinds. 3375. In autumn the cabbage plant is subjected to the attacks of insects, and particularly to that of the well-known cabbage butterfly Pontia brassicæ, with white wings and black tips, which pro

apart, and fence the plot from trespassers duces the long, beautiful, green caterpillars, during the winter. Hoe the ground be- familiar to every one who frequents a

tween the rows, and keep it clean. From garden. the end of March to May, take the best of the plants in the manner described in

3376. The cabbage occupies the same place as transplanting Swedish turnips (3269,) and the turnip and kohl-rabi in the systems of botany. The specific name of the drumhead cabbage---so transplant them in moist or dull weather named, I suppose, from its resemblance in size and

on the vewly prepared flattened drills, at shape to a drum , is Brassica oleracea , capitata 2 feet apart; and at this distance, with 27 depressa, and of the Scotch cabbage, Brassica inches between the drills, 9680 plants will oleracea, capitata spherica alba, of De Candolle, 893. ) The large savoy, cape, or drumhead be required for the acre. When pur (savoy, with its solid-like globular form of head, chased from nurserymen or gardeners, the and wrinkled leaves, being both hardy and pro plants cost 58. the 1000. ductive, might also be cultivated in the field . The tall purple German green is so cultivated . 3371. The summer treatment of the

cabbage, as regards scuffling, hand - hoeing, drill-grubbing for the destruction of weeds and the pulverisation of the surface,isin

3377. The ash left by burning the dry leaves of the cabbage leave the following ingredients,

according to the analysis of DrFromberg :

all respects the same as that of the turnip.

Potash,

The earth should be laid toward the stems

Soda, Lime,

double mould-board plough, fig. with onthefinishing 209, the operations, to assist in steadyingthe plants, as, when the heads be come heavy, the wind is apt to cause the stem to work a hole around it.

Magnesia, Oxide of iron ,

11.70 20.42 20.97 5.94 0.60

Phosphoric acid,

12.37

Sulphuric acid ,

21.48

Chlorine, Silica ,

5.77 0.75 100.00 *

3372. The crop expected from such * Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 384.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

90

I have given thequantity ofmineral matter taken low, and the globe orange, which pames from the soilby a crop of 20 tons of drumhead truly indicate their respective characters ; cabbage at (894.)

and where the chief reliance of winter

3378. In the neighbourhood of large towns, food is placed on beet in preference to farmers raise the drumhead and common gar- turnip, all the varieties ought to be cul den cabbage to supply the market gardeners for tivated, since the globe orange thrives

planting in spring, in the manner describedin best on light soil, and the long yellow (3370.) The plants are cleared off the ground is in a better state for use in the early early in spring, and the ground sown with spring

wheat. Good plants fetch about half-a-crown part of winter than the long red . The the thousand . circumstance of beet not being a safe root to give to cattle, until it has been some

3379. The turnip -rooted cabbage , Brassica time out of the ground, is the only objec dolle, is little known in English culture,though tion,and it is a seriousone, to their indis it is cultivated in the fields of thenorth of France. criminate use. Its root is white or red, and its neck and pitioles greenish or purplish .

It has a woody short

3383. One and the other of these varie

stem, produced by the formation and decay of ties will grow on any soil intermediate

the leaves;and as new leavesare formed by the from a gravel to astrongclay, on neitherof central bud of the stem, the lower leaves drop

off, and thus the top of the bulb assumes the ap- which classes of soil will any one succeed. pearance of a stem .

Dr Neill observes that it

has a root under ground as sweet as a Swedish turnip.

3384. The climate of Scotland does not

seem to suit mangold-wurzel. I tried it

3380. The cow -cabbage, or Cesarean kale, in Forfarshire for three successive years Brassica oleracea, acephala arborescens, of De on the best land I possessed, wbich had as Candolle, which created so much interest a few well been long in cultivation as in a fresh years ago, only deserves a passing notice. " This state, but failed in two seasons ont of the plant,” says Don , " is almost similar in habit to the palm kale, and it lasts four years without three ; and the successful crop was but a

fresh planting .InLa Vendée,it is said to at- poor compensation compared to turnips. tain the height of 12 or 16 feet. In Jersey this

In England it succeeds well, particularly

plant is sufficiently hardy,and thereit grows in the eastern counties, and in the north from 4 to 12 feet.

The small farmers there feed

their cows with the leaves, plucking them from the stem as they grow , leaving the crown at the top. The stems being strong , are also used

by them for roofing small outhouses. When the

of Ireland I have seen very heavy crops

of the long red on drained bog. 3385. The mangold-wurzel being a

gathering of the leaves is finished at the end of green crop, is subjected to precisely the the year, the terminating bud or crown is boiled, same culture as the turnip up to the point and is said to be particularly sweet. It is not

sufficiently hardy tostand theclimate of Britain, of ploughing the dung in the drills, and unless planted in a very sheltered situation ." *

need not berepeated here. The quantity of farm -yard dung given is the same as to Swedish turnips - 16 tops the acre, with 3

ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREAT-

cwt. of guano, sown upon the dung before being covered in the drill. The land should

MENT OF MANGOLD - WURZEL .

thus be prepared for the seed early in

3381. Mangold -wurzel, a species of beet, April, and not later than the beginning of is a very important green crop, and may be May. regarded as next so to the turnip. It con

tains a sweet nutritious juice, which seems well adapted forthe supportofcows in milk, as it imparts none of the acrid flavour which the turnip does. This root, therefore, ought to be valued on every dairy farm .

3386. The seed of mangold -wurzel

being covered with a rough integument, cannot be sown with a turnip -machine having the common seed -boxes . Perhaps Geddes' turnip sowing-machine, with the

mode of feeding the seed described in fig. 3382. There are several varieties of 257, might answer the purpose ; and Mr

mangold-wurzel fitted for cultivation in Raynbird of Suffolk refers to a one-horse the field ; the long red, the long yel- drill which sows three rows of seed at * Don's General Dictionary of Botany and Gardening, vol . i. p. 229.

THE CULTURE OF MANGOLD -WURZEL .

a time, over three acres in two hours. *

91

3388. When the weather is favourable,

Newberry's wheel-dibbler has also been the plants should make their appearance used. I have never seen a machine cap- above ground in 8 or 10 days. The able of sowing mangold -wurzel seed well, scuffler , fig. 262, is first sent along the and one that will sow two drills at a drills to pare their sides, and cut down time, like turnips — and roll the drills be- any weeds in the intermediate space ; and fore and after the sowing with a light I may say at once that the entire clean

roller — is preferable, for management, to ing process, during thesummer, is precisely one having three drills. Mr Miles uses an the same as for the turnip. The plants iron wheel, upon the circumference of are hoed out with the hand-hoe, fig. 266, which are placed iron studs at 18 inches apart and 24 inches in projection, to act as dibbles in forming holes along the top of the drill ; but a projecting stud from the circumference of a wheel in revolution must make a hole much ragged on one side. In lack of a machine, I tried a plan of sowing which answered very well, and which I would prefer to any dibble - it was this : A light roller flattened and made even the tops of two drills at once,

at from 14 to 18 inches apart, according to the strength and rich state of the land;

and this is the time to fill up the blanks in the crop, by the transplantation of the best plants which had been singled out. 3389. Mangold -wurzel is raised in rows on the flat surface as well as in drills,

and this is chiefly practised on thestrongest species of soils, when the manure is plough ed in at the commencement of winter.

when the soil had become dry after the The seed is dibbled in by hand, or with

ploughing of the dung. A field -worker followed , and made a light rut along the top of the drill with the corner of a handhoe, fig. 266 ; another worker dropped the

Newberry's dibbler, referred to above, (3386,) or with a flat piece of wood 5 or 6 feet long, furnished with short dibbles, in the holes made by which the seed is drop

seed along the rut in the givenquantity , ped by the hand . In the flat culture sow 4 tb or 5 ib to the acre - steeped or in a drying with the common dibble, giving it a state as desired ; dry sand being mixed twist with the wrist to keep the hole open with it, in either state, to allow the more until the seeds have been dropped into it

easy separation from each other ; and a by a field -worker, a man and woman sow

third worker followed and levelled the ing an acre a day, is apt to make the earth, which had been raised up in making dibble holes in strong soil receptacles for the rut, over the seed with the back of an

water.

But there isno method so good of

iron garden rake. The sowing was thus raising green crops of all kinds as in drills ;

conducted quickly , though a sowing-ma- and if rough clods are dreaded in strong chine that rolls the drills at the same land, let the land be drilled and manured

time would be preferable. A roller fol- in winter, as has been recommended in the lows the sowing, and terminates the whole case of raising turnips on strong soils, (3244. ) One objection to the flat culture operation. on strong soils seems to me to be insuper 3387. A difference of opinion exists able — that the roots are apt to set out lateral whether or not the seeds of mangold -wur- shoots, after the soil is set up with the zel should be steeped in some liquor before double mould -board plough. being sown . Mr Raynbird conceives they should be sown dry, and, on trying an

3390. By some experiments instituted

experiment with steeped and dry seeds, by Mr Pusey, on the effects of certain found that 10 of the dry germinated, manures on the growth of mangold -wur

whilst the largest number of the steeped zel, it would appear that, in doubling that appeared was only 6, and these had farm -yard dung from 13 loads to 26 the been steeped in water for 14 hours. I acre, only one ton additional was obtained ; prefer the dry seed , as being safest from and that, of various ingredients used , no

the effects of frost anddrought,both which effect exceeding 5 tons the acre, beyond may be expected at the season mangold- what badno manure at all, was produced wurzel seed should be sown.

with the exception of 3 cwt. ofguano, and

* Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. viii . p. 213.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

92

7 cwt. of woollen rags, each along with 13 wurzel leaves is not serious, the crop re

loads of farm - yard dung, which produced covering after the larva have dropped into 36 tons the acre. The conclusionsatwbich the ground to be transformed into pupæ , Mr Pusey arrived are sensible, and are thus expressed :-“ The two principal results of the experimentseem to be — that there is in some soils a limit beyond which an additional dose of dung is of no use. This result, if confirmed , would be inte-

from which emerge the beetles. A very destructive t insect is the common dart

moth, Noctua or Agrotis segetum , is generally of a reddish -brown, but sogreatly in the tint of the upper as to besometimes of a clay colour.

which varies wings It is

resting in theory. In actual farming there in length from 8 lines to three- quarters of is not much danger of our erring in that an inch, and its expanse is from 1

to 2

direction, as to our dressingsof dung ; and inches. The moth issometimes seen flying in some parts of the country this would not, in multitudes about the tops of hedges,soon perhaps, be a very safe doctrine to dwell after sunset, in June and July. The larva upon.

The other inference, a more prac- is smooth and shining , and of a pale lurid

tical one, is, that it is more profitable to ochreous colour, faintly freckled, with a use some artificial manures in conjunction broad space down the back, often rosy, and with dung, than to use either singly. a few short hairs scattered over the body. Thus guano and woollen rags, used singly, It does great mischief to young mangold added to my crop only 5 tons the acre. wurzel plants, the roots of which it cuts

The single dressing of dung added only 11 through just below the crown, and it tons, and doubling that amount of dung attacks the potatoes as they are pusbing did no good ; but guano combined with out of the ground, and is exceedingly vora cious. One cause of the great mischief bined with the same amount of dung, each arising from the attacks of the caterpillar gave an addition, not of 16 tons of roots, of this species, is its capability of travel the same amount of dung, and rags com-

according to theireffects when used singly, ling at a very rapid rate from one spot to but of 20 tons, yielding each 36 tons — a another ; and in this way, as soon as a produce very large indeed for land which, caterpillar has eaten through the root of a four years ago, when I took it in hand, was young plant, it marches off in quest of an said to be incapable of growing a turnip.” * other, and thus the evil is greatly multi plied. The grub which attacks the oat

3391. Like all the succulent green crops, plant in spring, fig. 223, also injures the mangold -wurzel is subject to the attack of mangold- wurzel plant by dividing the insects. It was at one time believed that young root about an inch below the sur this root was exempt from such attacks, face of the ground. Insects which injure but the experience of the few years bypast the parts of crops under the ground are has produced an opposite conviction. The much more destructive in their effects than mangold -wurzel plant, as soon as it ap- those which injure the leaves and buds of pears above ground, is attacked by the plants. larva of a beetle, named Silpha opaca. 3392. It is not an unfrequent practice The eggs are probably laid in the earthbut this remains to be proved — and the larva are hatched in ten or twelve days,

to strip off the under leaves of the man

gold-wurzel plant in summer, as fodder

and when full -grown are four to five lines for cows and pigs ; but the practice, as These are shining black, may be supposed,is injurions, as seenfrom

in breadth .

comprising 13 segments, including the an experiment made by Mr R. Rand, head. They have 6 short legs. From Hadleigh, Suffolk, in 1842. He selected

1844 to 1847 they completely ate down 3 portions of mangold -wurzel, containing the leaves of the mangold -wurzel in the each 7 square yards, and from the first por counties of Londonderry and Tyrone in tion he stripped 4 or 5 of the under leaves Ireland ; and what is remarkable, the same on 8th of July, 6th of August, and first week insect, though abundant in England, does of September ; from the second portion he no harm to that crop there. The ultimate stripped the same number at each period

effect of these attacks on the mangold- of the 6th of August and the first week * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. vi. p. 532.

+ Ibid. vol. viii. p. 407.

THE CULTURE OF MANGOLD -WURZEL.

93

of September; and from the third por- were carefully cleaned and weighed, and tion none were stript at all. The roots the produce was as follows: From 1st portion, 47 } lb. net weight, or 14 tons, 13 cwt. O qrs. 27 lbs. per acre . 2d 3d

52

61

...

16 16

...

1 16

0

2

...

2 0*

3397. The German name of the field beet was 3393. Roots of mangold -wurzel have been grown in Scotland as heavy as 15 lb., atone time a matter of dispute, but is now set

and crops obtained of 38 tons to the acre ,

tled to be mangold -wurzel, which literally means the root of the white beet. The former phrase

at Largo in Fifeshire, where the land is of mangel-wurzel meansthe root of scarcity, and fine quality. From 5 lb. to 8 lb. each root used by Von Thäer, in common with the former, would be near the ordinary mark ; but in to denominate the field beet. His opinion is, seasons of late frosts, of which there are that the field beet is a hybrid betwixt the red

too many in Scotland, the mangold -wur- garden, beet and the white sugar beet - a not improbable conjecture. S

zel has no chance of succeeding there. 3398. Mangold -wurzel seed has a remarkable

3394. The plants of mangold -wurzel appearance. It proceeds from a capsule which, are very apt to run to seed when exposed when green, is soft and fleshy, and, when ripe,

to drought early after having been singled hard,and somewhatwoody in texture,and into outin the rows; and the seed from plants, imbedded. The seeds,with their persistent rough which had prematurely run to seed, en- capsule, are so large and heavy as only to require

courages that tendency in the future 184 to weigh a drachm . plant still more than drought. 3395. The mangold-wurzel belongs to the class and order Pentandria Digynia of Linnæus ; the

3399. I have given the composition of mangold wurzel in (854,) and the ashes of the bulb and leaf, as ascertained by Professor Way and Mr

natural order Chenopodiæ of Jussieu; and to Hy- Ogston, contain ingredients as follows : pogynous Exogens -- alliance 38, Chenopodales

1. Of the yellow globe beet.

order 195, Chenopodiaceae - genus Beta, of the natural system of Lindley. Its specific name is Beta vulgaris campestris,of the order Chenopods, which are closely allied to the Nettleworts. Its leaves are reddish or reddish green ; roots thickly fusiform , globular, or spindle-shaped, of a dullish

Bulb .

23:54 19-08 1.78

Potash , Soda,

Lime,

Magnesia, Oxide of iron ,

red colour on the outer surface, and marbled white and red of various shades in the interior.

Carbonic acid, Phosphoric acid,

One globular variety is of dull orange colour on the outer skin , and another spindle -shaped is

Sulphuric acid , Chloride of sodium , Silica ,

similar in colour.

Leaf 8:34

12:21 8.72

1.75 0.74

9.84

18.14 4.49 3.68 24:54 2.22

6.92 5.89 6.54

1.46

37.66 2-35

99.96

99.93

1.02

1.40

3396. A white variety, called the white sugar

beet, Beta vulgaris campestris alba, has longbeen

Percentage of ash ,

cultivated in France for the sugar which it yields. Many mills are at work in that country for the manufacture of the sugar.t It was the policy of Buonaparte to encourage the culture of this root, in order to render the French people independent

Bulb ,

Leaf.

Potash,

29-05

27.53

of sugar from our colonies. The scheme succeeded

Soda,

in France, but the climate of Britain is unsuited to this delicate root. The physical characters

Lime,

19-05 2.17

which serve to show that this beet is of good qua

Oxide of iron , Carbonic acid ,

5.83 9:06 9.10 0.48 6.11 4.39 6.26 29.85

lity for sugar, are its being firm , brittle, emitting a creaking noise when cut, and being perfectly sound within. The degree of sweetness is also a good indication. The 45th degree of latitude appears to be the southern limit of the successful growth of white beet, in reference to the extrac

tion of sugar. Dr Ure states that he has obtained 5 per cent of good sugar from white beet grown near Mitchemin Surrey.I

2. Of the long red beet.

Magnesia, Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid, Chloride of sodium , Silica,

Percentage of ash,

2.79 0.56

21.61 3:11

3:31 14:18

4:11

1.35

99.94

99.96

1.00

1.91

* Henslow's Letters to the Farmers of Suffolk - Letter xiv. + Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol.ii. p. 922.

# Ure's Dictionary of the Arts - art. Sugar, p. 1210. Thäer's Principles of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 589 -- Shaw and Johnston's translation

PRACTICE - SUMMER.

94

3400. Mineral matters in pounds in one

ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREAT

ton of

MENT OF THE CARROT. Mean of

Mean of

three speci-

three speci

mens of bulb .

mens of leaf.

Ib .

Ib.

Potash, Soda,

4.99 3.02 0.41 0:43 0.12 0-66 0.65

2-52 3:31 3.27 0.52 1.94 2.20

5.29

12.82

0:54

0.76

16:11

35.20

Lime,

Magnesia, Oxide of iron,

Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid, Chloride of sodium ,

Silica,

7.86

3403. Although the carrot is a green crop, and occupies the same course of cropping as the turnip, it is raised gene rally on so limited spaces of ground that

it has never assumed the importance of a crop of the farm as its value deserves. Its limited culture may have arisen from cer tain inconveniences attending its culti vation, such as that it requires a particu

lar kind of soil, very deep ploughing-the dung applied in the unusual season of winter, wben the land of the fallow break

3401. “ The chief features in the composition is not likely to be free of weeds, a second ofthe ash of the bulb, arethe large proportion of manuring when the seed is sown,and some

alkali present in it ascarbonates,but existing difficultyattending the sowing of the seed. in the vegetable itself no doubt in great part in

These are all unusual items of practice,

the form of nitrates, which are wellknown to be constituents of beet. Phosphoric sulphuric acid, and lime, are found in the acid, mangold bulb ash in smaller quantity than in that of the turnip. The high percentage of common salt, chloride of sodium ,in beet is remarkable : in one case it constitutes one-third, in another one-fourth , of the entire mineral matter. The ash of beet leavescontain more phosphoric and sulphuric acid,

which I have no doubt continue to ope rate as obstacles against the extended cul tivation of even so valuable a root as the carrot. On however small a scale it is cultivated, every particular of the process of cultivation must be attended to as if the crop occupied as large a space as the

more lime and magnesia, but less alkali, and á turnip. smaller amount of alkaline carbonate, than that

of the bulb. It contains, however, like the bulb, a very considerable quantity of common salt.

3404. The best soil for the carrot is a

The ash of bothbulb and leat'evidences a partial deep sandy loam. It will not succeed at substitution of soda for potash . Weight for all on tenacions soil of any kind, nor one weight, the leaves are considerably richer in resting immediately upon a retentive sub phosphoric acid than the bulbs ; and they also soil, whether of clay or rock, and much contain a very much larger proportion of mag- less if either are undrained . The alkalies predominate in the bulb, whilst common salt, although abundantly present in both, is found in larger quantity in the leaf

nesia.

than in that of the turnip ."

3405. As the carrot has a long fusiform root, which grows almost entirely under ground, it is evident that it must have a

3402. Itmaybeowingtotheeffects ofthelarge deep soil; and such a depth of soil must quantity of common salt contained in mangold wurzelandturnips , that the milkof cowsde- either be natural or artificially made so,

creases when fed exclusively on raw mangold. before the root can be expected to arrive at wurzel, or that abortion is brought on ewes in lamb when placed wholly on turnips in winter, and their milk deficient when the lambs are

dropped. It is a well-known fact that, when ewes

a perfect proportion of length.

3406. While treating of sea-weed as a

in lamb have been principally fed on Swedish manure, I mentioned that it was so used

turnips, for some time before the lambing season , for raising carrots, ( 2110,) by people in that their lambs are small and unhealthy, and certain parts of the coasts of Scotland, themselves are deficient of milk. The effect may

light sandy soil. This is the mode arise from the circumstance ofthe largequantity in of raising carrots practised by the feuars of common salt contained in turnips diminishing the secretion of the liver, and the effect would of the parish of Barrie, Forfarshire, on be aggravated by a free use of common salt being sandy soil, and it deserves imitation in

given toewes on turnips ; and it is,besides, known similar circumstances. They begin a trench

that incipient disease ofthe liver is favourable of2 feet deep in the sand in autumn, after to the production of fat, and hence the high con dition of the ewes or lamb on turnips, and espe

a white crop, and, collecting sea -weed as it

cially if salt is attainable at pleasure.*

is washed ashore after storms in the course

* Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. viii. p. 185-190.

95

THE CULTURE OF THE CARROT.

of winter, they half - fill trench after trench should be applied in drill ; and as it need

with it, till the break of soil allotted to not be much reduced by fermentation, Of cour se

the carrot crop is manured . other manure

the drills should be deep, and formed

would answer the same pur. in the double mode, (2397.) The quan

pose as sea-ware, but when it can be found in sufficient quantity for the gathering and carriage, it affords a cheap manure for the purpose . Of farm -yard manure, horse-

tity applied should be 25 tons to the acre. Afterthe dung has been covered in the double mode again, the land remains in that state until next spring.

dung is found to be best when treated in thismanner as sea -ware is.

In the end of

3408. About the end of April the seed

April, or beginning of May, ruts are form- is sown, and carrot seed should always be ed with the hoe in rows of about 14 steeped in water before being sown, and it

inches apart, and old rotten dung is sown is steeped in this way: The bag containing along the bottom of them to insure the the seed, which should be in the quantity brairding of the seed on so poor a soil as of 6 lb. of the best quality tothe acre, and loose sand generally is, the seed is sown upon the dung, and the soil raked over it. The plants are thinned out by the hand, at about six inches asunder, and the ground

an indefinite number of pounds more when of doubtful soundness — which it will cer tainly be if older than one year — is placed in a vessel of water and allowed to soak

kept clean by hand and hoe together. The for 48 hours ; and this process should be carrots grown by the sea -weed in this gone through eight or nine days before the manner, in loose sand, are not only excel- seed is sown. After the soaking, the seed lent in quality, but clean, long, and juicy, is spread about a foot in thickness upon as may be witnessed in the Dundee market the barn floor, to encourage its germina in autumn and winter. The culture in tion, which will take place in six or seven

this case is on a small scale, but may be days, according to the stateof the weather. extended to any degree where the cir- When the seed is observed to be chipped it

cumstances are similar. At the price of should be sown, and it is prepared for £ 3, or £3, 10s. the ton, and with a crop sowing by being intimately mixed with of not more than 10 tons to the acre, a fine drysand to about 4 pecks to the acre, considerable sum may be annually realised seed and sand together. by the labouring and industrious cottar. Instead of rotten dung in the spring, guano 3409. About the middle of April, should

might be employed, and in case of injury the drilled ground bear evidence of sur to the seed from the guano, the seed should face weeds, the drill-harrow , fig. 220, be mixed with a quantity of the sand. should harrow along the drills, and the drill-grubber, fig. 264, remove the weeds 3407. The land intended to bear the between the drills.

At this time, 2 cwt.

carrot crop, should be ploughed in the of guano should be carefully sown by band

stubble immediately after the harvest is along the top of the drills. The setting over, to have time to clean it, should it be up double mould -board plough, fig. 214, foul, before the bad weather in winter. should place the mould again upon the As the soil is light, the mode of plough- drills, and give them again their proper ing it will be by casting, (755,) fig. form ; and a light roller, such as the con 22; and, when ploughed, a second plough cave rollers ofthe turnip sowing -machine, should follow in the furrow of the one fig. 254, without the coulters, will make

turning over the surface, in order to stir the tops even and smooth. The seed the soil to the depth of 14 or 16 inches. should be preparing in the steeping and

Reid's two -horse subsoil- plough, to be germinating processes, to answer the time afterwards figured and described, will answer a similar purpose. The land will now be ready for the dung ; for the manure for carrots must be put into the ground

of these last operations; and the large quantity of sand with which it is mixed will protect it from immediate contact and

injury from the action of the guano.

before winter, the nature of that root not

agreeing with fresh dung, which causes it

3410. I have never yet seen a properly

to divide into a number of roots, each so constructed machine for sowing seedswith fibrous as to be unfit for use .

The dung rough capsules, such as those of mangold

1

96

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

wurzel and carrot ; but as carrot seed is naturally deep and rich, and loose, this mixed with so large a quantity of finesand, mode of culture is not so well suited for the I dare say the sowing part of the bean- field as that in drills; for with deep -plough

barrow , fig. 219, might be so adjusted ing to any extent, there is no possibility of as to answer the purpose. Failing any burying dung so deep, and affording the machine, a rut should be made along the crop such a depth of soil, as in the drill top of each drill with the corner of the and both these conditions are essential to

hand -hoe, fig. 266 ; the seed and sand sown the successful cultivation of the carrot. by hand in the rut, and covered with the earth raised by making the rut about an 3415. Carrots are also sown broadcast, inch in depth, with light iron rakes. The upon the flat surface; but, excepting in very rollers of fig. 254, on being again passed small patches, this mode of culture is not along the drills, finish the operation. suited to the use of implements of the field, and the clearing of the ground of 3411. The varieties of carrot cultivated weeds must therefore be expensively exe in the field need not be numerous, as one

cuted by the hand.

or two kinds are all that are desirable. 3416. Insects infest the carrot crop in The white Belgian carrot now stands at the head of all the varieties for certainty the root, stem, and flower. The plant of crop, beauty of root, and sweetness of no sooner makes its appearance than it taste . It is not long,-thick at the crown, is attacked by aphides, the Aphis dauci,

and tapering to a point. It grows wholly which are scarcely larger than cheese under ground. The Altringham is a good carrot - long, blunt in the end, rather irregular in its taper, and of an orange tinge in its colour. It grows a considerable

mites, of a uniform pale green colour, with 6 legs, 2 horns, and no wings. Their pre sence is indicated by the yellow foliage, and, in pulling up the plant, the roots are

height above the ground. The long red is sound and clean, but the crown is not only also a good carrot, of a deep red colour, discoloured , but, on opening the embryo long in proportion to its thickness, and leaves, numbers of the aphides are found concealed . has a comparatively small heart. 3412. The use of the guano is to start

3417. The root of the carrot is affected

the seed and support the young plant, with a disease named the rust, in which until its long root reaches the dung below , the crop gradually dies off, loses its saccha

wbich it will not be long in doing. The rine qualities, and, changing to a ferrugin from twenty to twenty-five days,and when complaint is occasioned by the larvæ of the

young germ will appearabove ground in ous colour, becomes of little value. This

it is about an inch in height, it is time to carrot-fly, Psila rosæ , eating galleries

single out the plants to 6 inches apart in along the roots which they inhabitthrough the drill, which is best done by the band, the summer, when they become pupæ in the in the case of the long-rooted carrot.

earth, but a new brood hatches in summer

Scuffling, fig. 262, and drill-grubbing the every three or four weeks. This fly is 3 ground between the drills, fig. 264 ,to make lines long, of a pitchy black ; the wings lie the land clean and to stir it, are executed horizontally along the back when at rest,

in precisely the same manner as for turnips. and extend beyond the tail, and when ex panded extend to 5 lines. The maggots are 3413. Besides light true soils, carrots ochreous and shining, cylindrical, pointed are successfully raised on reclaimed bog at the head and obtuse at the tail, resem

that has some alluvial matter in it. The bling cheese-hoppers, though they cannot culture is the same as on earthy soil, the leap, and are exceedingly transparent, manure being deep buried ; and as dried every internal part being visible. When moss is very porous in texture, the carrot

cavities bave been opened by this maggot

is enabled topush its long root through it in the rest of the carrot, large numbers of the millepede, Polydesmus complanatus, with comparative ease. and of thecentipede, Scolopendraelectrica, 3414. Carrots may be raised in rows on assist in extending the depredations. An

the flat ground, but unless the soil is other caterpillar, the larva of the ghost

THE CULTURE OF THE CARROT.

97

moth, Hepialis humili, also eats into the white Belgian carrot is 9 or 10 tons the root of the carrot and injures it.

acre greater, in the same circumstances, than that of the red varieties.

In Bel

3418. Mr Curtis gives the recipe of a gium the produce of the white carrot is composition of sand and spirit of tar, 160 bushels the acre, the individual carrots to prevent those insects injuring the carrot weighing 1} lb., making the crop about 4 root. Take 4 bushels of sand and mix tons the acre , raised with 21 tons of man

intimately with them one gallon of the ure, half of farm -yard dung and half from spirit of tar. The mixture is to be ap- the privies. plied along the drill, and if a space of half a foot in breadth upon the top of the 3422. Hares and rabbits are so fond of the

drill is dressed with it, the quantity named carrot that, unless the crop is protected will dress about 1300 yards along a drill. where they abound, it will have a poor

If it is applied in the drill when that is chance of coming to maturity ; and unless formed in winter, the spirit of tar may kill

the fence erected round the crop is a close

the young larvæ in the soil ; if in spring, one, it will not be able to exclude these

the female fly may be deterred froin de- wily depredators.

I believe the only

positing her eggs, and it will no doubt be as successful when the crop is sown, as it is the smell of the spirit of tar which is the obnoxious ingredient to insects. As carrots are not cultivated over a large extent of ground in any oneplace, this remedy may be easily applied, both as regards its

effectual fence is a close paling of laths pushed into the ground, supported near the top and bottom with horizontal spars nailed to them, and the whole held steady by

cost and the ease of its application.

it might be made fencible by interlacing s'ems of broom , or whin, or branches of

stobs driven at intervals into the ground

to act as shores against the paling . If a conimon 3-sparred paling already exists,

3419. The larvæ of the flat-bodymoths, spruce fir, between the spars. A dead Depressaria cicutella and depressella, bore fence of thorus also forms a complete into the stems of the carrot, causing the fence. leaves to stint and decay ; and the larvæ .

3423. On account of the land for carrots of the gray carrot- blossom flat-body moth, Depressaria daucella, commit great bavoc having to be cleaned and manured before on the floral umbels of the carrot. winter, the culture of thatroot is not likely

to be extended in Scotland, where the

3420. Few agricultural seeds are so harvest is not unfrequently late, and little difficult to obtain in a good state as those time left for cleansing operations after it. of the different varieties of the carrot ; and It is true that, should the potato crop oc

this is partly to be ascribed to the injuries cupy a less extent of ground in future than occasioned by this insect, and greatly also it has bitherto done, the time that would

to a wet state of the weather, the form of be saved from attending on that crop might the umbels being favourable to the reten- be bestowed on the carrot in the end of tion of much moisture, which either pre- autumn, and it would thus come in for a vents impregnation altogether, or destroys share of attention which it has not hitherto the vitality of the seed .

Of all the varie- received. Both it and mangold -wurzel

ties, the seed of the Altringham is the most requiring to be taken up and stored in difficult to obtain pure, for though obtained autumn,( 836-37-38,) wheat would follow from selected roots, its produce is often them. Trivial as the circumstance may appear of the partiality which bares and unlike the parent stock . rabbits exhibit for the carrot, it will con

3421. Altringhain carrots have been tinue to operate as an obstacle to its ex grown at Falkland in Fifeshire, of crop tended cultivation, for the trouble of fen

1834, that have weighed 5 lb. each. In cing in the crop so closely cannot be good hazel loam , on the honie farm of generally practised . Blair- Drummond in Perthshire, 29 tons of carrots have been obtained from the acre ;

3424. Notwithstanding these considera

but from 16 to 20 tons are a good crop. tions, I have dwelt the longer on theculture

It is said generally that the produce of the of the carrot, as it is a root suited to the G VOL. II.

98

PRACTICE - SUMMER . WAY AND

climate of Scotland, on which account it

JOHNSTON .

may take the place of the potato, the cul

Young red

ture of which cannot now be pursued with

the same degree of confidence it has hither

Potash , Soda ,

to received .

Lime, Magnesia ,

3425. The carrot stands in the class and order

Pentandria Digynia of Linnæus ; in the natural

order, Umbelliferæ of Jussieu ; and in Epigynous Exogens - alliance 55, Umbellales -- order 295,

carrot. 46.37

12.92 15.38 2.12 0.90 4.65

Oxide of iron , Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Carbonic acid , Chloride of sodium , Silica ,

Apiacece - tribe 12, Daucidæ - genus Daucus, of the natural system of Lindley.

3426. Umbellifers are “ natives chiefly of the northern part of the northern hemisphere, in

OGSTON .

White Belgian Old red carrot - mean carrot. of 5 specimens. 32.44 46.87 8.12 13.52 8.83 6.58 9.06 3.96 0.37 1.10

8.09

10.48 6.30

6.43 3.14

10.62 1.62

6.55 17.30 6.50 1.19

100.00

100.02

99.94

8.55

The carrot is rich in alkalies, much resembling

the turnip- the latter yields more sulphates, the former more carbonates.

habiting groves, thickets, plains, marshes, and waste places.

They appear to be extremely

3430. The ash of the leaves contain :

rare in all tropical countries, except at consider

WAY AND

able elevations, where they gradually increase in number as the other parts of the vegetation

acquire an extra-tropical or mountain character. Hence, although they are hardly known in the plains of India , they abound on the mountains of Himalaya. They are , however, not uncommon in the southern hemisphere, where they belong principally to hydrocotylids and malinids. The umbelliferous is one of those large orders in which plants occur with extremely different secretions. They all appear to form three different principles : the first, a watery acrid mat

JOHNSTON .

Potash , Soda, . Lime, Magnesia , Oxide of iron ,

Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Carbonic acid , Chloride of potas sium ,

as the hemlock ; the second, in excess, converts absence of the two renders them useful escu-

lents, as celery, fennel, samphire, parsley, and the roots of carrots, parsnips, and skirrets ; and the third causes them to be carminatives and pleasant condiments, as anise, carraway, cori-

48.50 4.53 18-58 2-04 1 +6 3:36

5-05

19.08 5.80 34.10 4.48

9:33 2.10

1.94 100.00

Leaves . 7.12 10-97

26.53

32-64

4.95 0.71 3.60 7.75

2-92 2.40 1-67 6.20 17-82

8.17 14:54

Silica ,

White Belgian carrot - mean of 3 specimens .

27.04

2:40

Chloride of sodium , 14:54

ter ; the second, a gum -resinous milkysubstance ; and the third, an aromatic, oily secretion . When the first of these predominate, they are poisons,

them into stimulants, as the assafotida ; the

OGSTON .

red Young red carrot. Old carrot Leaves. Tops . Stems.

5.04 22-69 1.69

13-67 4.56

100-00 100-001

99-97

“ The ash of carrot-leaf is peculiar in one re spect,” observes Professor Way : " of the alka lies, potash, and soda, the latter greatly predo minates. This is, in reality, an important as well as a singularcircumstance. The alkali soda is much more available for agricultural purposes than potash, especially as the results we have

ander, and cummin, used in veterinary practice.”* obtained would induce a belief that a plant can obtain this alkali from common salt -- the common

3427. The carrot, Daucus carota , has white flowers, with a solitary red or purplish barren one in the centre of the umbel; bristles of the seed slender, and as the same becomes ripe, the umbel acquires a contracted and concave form ; leaves

tripinnate ; leaflets, pinnatifid ; stems, rough and furrowed ; root, fleshy and fusiform , biennial. The generic name, daucus, is derived from the Greek, signifying hot, implying pungency ; and the specific term carota, is from the Celtic car, meaning red, the colour of the root.

est of all salts. If any plant be foundto content itself with this alkali, such plant will undoubt

edly be more easy of artificial culture than others which require potash, and refuse to take soda in stead of it: it is not said that this is the case with the carrot, but attention is drawn to the uni

formity of the result in the case of the leaves." 3431. Mineral matter in one ton of carrot-roots and of leaves, in pounds : Mean of

Mean of

five specimens. threespecimens.

3428. The composition of the carrot has been

given in (854). The proportion of water in the carrot is as follows: Young red carrot .

roots . leaves . stemg.

Water ,

87.08 76-83 86-58

Old red carrot .

Old white carrot .

roots . tops . roots . tops. 80.21 75-97 | 80-23 74.16

Roots . lb.

6.59

6.64

Soda , Lime,

2.71 1.77

9.67 30,24

Magnesia , Oxide of iron,

0.80

2.58

0.22 1.73 1.31

2.36

Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid, Chloride of sodium , Silica,

3429. The ash of the root of the carrot is as follows, from two authorities :

Leaves . Ib ,

Potash ,

1.42 0.24 6.79

1.64 5.61 11.95

4.46

75.14

Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom , p. 775. + Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, for July 347, p. 67-68 .

THE CULTURE OF PARSNIP .

99

Although the ash in the leaf is greater than in than the carrot, and yet it may be raised the root, and varies much more greatly in the upon sand, and even peat, if sufficient different specimens, yet in the entire plant the manure be applied. mineral matter will be found far more constant in quantity and composition, than in either the

3437. Its culture should be precisely that ofthe percentage ofash, or of the proportion of cropin the fallow division of the farm , and root to leaf. * root or the leaf taken separately ; the variations

which occur being counteracted by the alteration of the turnip and the carrot, being a green

3432. A mode of raising thecarrot is practised in Belgium which we would consider slovenly and expensive. The seed is sown broadcast with the lastturn of the harrows, with a cereal crop in spring , and when the crop is harvested the car rot hasacquired a very moderategrowth, and the land is weeded by hand and thestubble also removed, the field -workers going down on their knees and wearing a peculiar dress for the pur pose, no fewer than 20 weeders being required to

requiring a deep soil for the growth of its fusiformroots. This root, however, is not impatient of immediate contact with ma nure like the carrot, so that the land may be drilled and dunged in spring instead of winter,as is donefor the carrot. Pars nips should receive 25 tons of farm -yard dung in the drill, and 4 cwt. of guano sown over the dung, as described for the turnip

the acre. Theproduce is about half ofthe regular crop, (3239,) and the land then drilled up crop. Each horse is allowed 25 lbs. of carrots in the double form , (2397,) or with the a day without bay, and cows receive the same setting -up double mould - boardplough, fig. quantity, upon which they yield good butter 214 ; though it is improbable that this both as to quantity and quality.t

plough is able to cover so much manure

3433. The farmer may raise as much carrot seed as to supply his own wants. The largest

as the carrot and parsnip require. 3438. Parsnip seed is contained in a

and best roots are inserted in some convenient

piece of ground in October orNovember, or in the broad thin capsule, and is very light.

end of February, inrows27 inches apart,asdeep Even when good, 10 lb. will be required as to have two or three inches of earth over their crowns.

The only care required during the for the acre . Care should be taken that it

summer is to keep the ground clean ,partlywith be fresh and new. It should be steeped hand -hoeing and drill-grubbing, fig . 264. The in water before it is sown, as it would

seedwill be ripe in autumn, and as birdsdo not otherwise lie long in the ground before it

disturb it, the crop does not require to be would germinate ; but after being soaked, cipalumbel of each plant, whichwill not only if sownin very dry soil, it is apt to be de

afford the ripest and largest seed, but the most prived ofits vitality. The sowing-machines vigorous plants. The umbels are very liable to at present in use are not well adapted for be affected with mildew in damp weather. The the sowing of this seed any more than that yield of seed may be expected to afford from

of the carrot and the mangold -wurzel ; but on being mixed with sand, after being the London market, near Weatherfield, in Essex. soaked, it may be sown in the rut, made in

if lb. to 5 lb. per rood of 16 feet square . A considerable quantity of carrotseed is raised for

the top of the drill with the corner of the

3434. Much carrot seed is annually imported hand-boe, fig. 266, or with the bean-drill

and, by the tariff of 1846 it pays barrow, fig.219;but it would be more ex fromHolland, of 5s., and when from any British pos a duty

session , 2s. 6d. the cwt.

peditiously sown in the rut, out of the bands

of two or three workers, than with that machine. ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF PARSNIP .

Rakes cover the seed with soil

very well, and a rolling with concave rollers of the turnip- sowing machine, fig. 254, without the coulters, finishes the

3435. The parsnip requires a milder sowing of the crop in a neat manner. climate than Scotland generally affords; but it grows well in England, and in per3439. Parsnips should be singled when fection in the island of Jersey, both as ever the plant can be discriminated. The regards the quality of the root and the scuffler, fig. 262, clears away the surface weeds in the first instance. The singling weight of the crop .

is made at a distance of 8 inches apart in 3436. It will grow in a much stronger soil the drill the stems and leaves, spreading * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. viii. p. 192-6. + Radcliffe's Agriculture of Planders, . 76. Vii iy

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

100

more than those of thecarrot ,require more violates every rule of good husbandry, room . The after-boeing and cleaning of such is the nature of the climate that the

the land of the weeds with the drill-grub- crop yields 27 tons and upwards the acre ber, fig. 264, are conducted in the same -a quantity, Colonel Le Couteur states, manner as those for the turnip and carrot. which is “ nearly sufficient for 10 cows

The drill should be set up with the double during the 6 winter months, according to mould -board plough, fig. 214, to heap the the calculation of the Flemings.' » *

earth as much about the root as possible, as in the case of the carrot.

3441. The parsnip is subjected to the attacks of a few insects. The maggots of

3440. The parsnip may be raised in the parsnip miner, Tephrites onopordonis, rows in the flat ground, as well as the are hatched from May to July, and feed

carrot, but the same reasons given for the upon the parenchyma or pulp of the leaf, cnlture of the carrot in the drill (3314) will causing large blisters upon them ; and apply to that of the parsnip. Colonel Le Couteur describes the broadcast mode pursued in Jersey in the following terms :“ An old grass lea is broken up by some persons in September,by othersjust before

when two or three larvæ are feeding on the same leaf, the blisters unite and form large discoloured patches, but otherwise the mischief is not serious. The caterpil lars of the flat- body moth, Depressaria

the parsnip-land is sown. The former I pastinacella, infest the parsnips left for consider to be the best mode. When the turf seed, and often much injure and diminish is well rotted, 20 tons of stable manure per the yield. They prefer theparsnip to the acre are spread over the land.

A trench

carrot seed, and on this account the growers

is then opened through the centre of the of carrot seed sow some parsnips beside field , between 2 and 3 feet wide, and, them , by which to lure the insect from the where the soil will admit of it, from 1 foot carrot crop. These caterpillars are gray to 18 inches deep. A 2-horse plough then ish blue, with the head, thorax, and pec turns the manure and about 3 inches of toral feet, black ; upon each of the seg

soil into the trench, and is immediately ments are 6 distinct little black dots, pro followed by a large trench- plough with 3 ducing single minnte hairs ; the sides and or 4, and in many cases here, with 8or 10 the belly are yellow , and the abdominal horses, which turns one foot or more of clean feet are dotted with black. They live in soil upon the manure and turf, when the July upon the flowers and young seeds of land has been recently skim -ploughed. the parsnip. There seems to be no better

Thesoil is then harrowed,and the pars- modeofridding parsnip crops of these nip-seed, quite new, is sown at the rate of caterpillar pests than hand -picking, and 3 or 4 lb. to the acre, and lightly harrowed. shaking the umbels of the lowers over a When the plants are one inch high, they vessel for them to fall into. The flower of are weeded. The plants, from the first, the parsnip is not nearly so liable to be should be thinned out to 6 inches apart, affected by insects, damp, or mildew, as and, according as the soil is good, should be the carrot, on which account the crop of again thinned out to 9 inches or more at seed is a surer one — though it should be

the second hoeing. In a dry season it is borne in mind that it will not retain its well to observe that moistening the seed vitality beyond one year.t with wet sand and earth, and stirring it

daily, to be sown in the first moist wea3442. It is quite easy to raise as much ther, or after a shower, will forward its seed of the parsnip as is required on any growth a fortnight.” I may observe that farm. Transplantsome of the best roots in this method of cultivating any green crop a spade- dug piece of ground in February, does no credit to Jersey agriculture. Just at 2 feet apart in every direction,and insert conceive a green crop taken after lea — 8 or them with their crowns under the surface of 10 horses being employed in a trench- the ground. The ground should be kept

plough - the land dunged before being clean with the band-hoe until the leaves of trench -ploughed.

But notwithstanding the plants cover the ground. The shoots

this objectionable mode of culture, which will become strong stalks, and produce * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. i. p. 419.

+ Ibid . vol. ix . p. 190-4.

-

THE CULTURE OF RAPE .

101

large umbels of seed, which will ripen in potatoes destined for that purpose.” It is an autumn. From 1{ lb. to 4 lb. of seed, being excellent food forcows , and its fattening pro ver

y light, may be expected from a square perties I have already noticed in (896.)

rood of 16 feet, dependent on the nature 3446. Parsnips are cultivated in the drill of the season, and escape from the attacks method in Jersey as well as the broadcast , as

do not injure it, though , thus described by Colonel Le Couteur .“ The s. ds Bir ifof ins theectsee areds not gathered from the land," he says , may be prepared as in the method . In one case I found the umbels as they ripen, they are very apt broadcast by spreading a portion of plants to answerwell to be blown off by the wind. the manure on the surface of the ploughed land,

and then earthing it up into small ridges, one

3443. I have seen a statement of the

foot apart, with a double mould -board plough.

The seed is then sown on the top of the well ridge rolled in,which succeeded extremely expense of cultivating an acre of parsnips, and

and the return obtained from it in 1847 The hoeing was performed with a horse-hoe in. upon the Cappoquin homefarm in Ireland, the drills, and the plants were cross-hoed with a belongingto Sir Richard Keene, Bart. The hand-hoe. This mode does not appear so neat cost of cultivating the imperial acre, in-

as the following : as

when the land is well harrow

the seed broadcast, harrow cluding trenching 16 inches deepwith the ed plants appear,hoe andandrolllevelled whenthe it ; then, sow it

spade, ploughing into drills of 27 inches into drills, eitherwith a horse-hoe orhand -hoe. apart, manuring with 40 tons of farm-yard A drill-machine will be the best method if one dung, singling, hoeing, weeding, rent, could be found to sow parsnip seed regularly

taxes, and planting 400 cabbage plants in mine sowsit much tooprofusely. The parsnips the spacos which failed, was £11, 158. 4d . require hoeing and thinning as in thebroadcast husbandry.” + It seems strange practice to us The return was 20 tons of parsnips the to convert a crop into rows by sending an imple

acre, which were sold in Cappoquin mar- ment through a broadcast braird . ket at 4d. the stone, or £ 2, 13s. 4d. the 3447. The composition of the parsnip root I ton, amounting to £53, 6s. 8d., and the have given in (854,) and the composition of the cabbages fetched £3, 6s. 8d., at 2d. a ash, whether of the root or the leaf, has not yet

piece, averaging 14 lb. each in weight. been ascertained by the chemist. After deducting the cost, the sum realised from the acre was £ 44, 183. ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREAT

3444. The parsnip is placed in the class and

MENT OF RAPE.

order Pentandria digynia by Linnæus ; in the natural order Umbelliferce by Jussieu ; and in the natural system of Epigynous Exogens — alli

3448. Rape is cultivated in this coun ance 55, Umbellales - order 295,Apiacie - tribe try, not for its seed, as is the case on the 8 , Peucedanidæ - genus Pastinaca , by Lindley. Continent, but for its leaves as a forage plant, and a more wholesome food for

3445. The parsnip, Pastinaca satita edulis, sheep is not raised on the farm . has leaves pinnate or compressed ,downy beneath ,

and generally shining above ; leaflets broadly ovate , cut, and serrated, terminative, three-lobed ;

3449. It may be raised to be consumed colour of the flower yellow ; root fleshy, thick, at two different seasons -autumn and and fusiform ; biennial. It derives its generic spring. To be consumed in autumn name from the form of the root being like a it should be sown in summer, and for dibble, pastinum . This root has long been an

inmateof the garden , and was formerly much spring consumption it should be sown in

used. In thetimes of Popery itwas the farmer's autumn. The culture up to the sowing of

Lent root, being eaten with salted fish, to which the seed, in either case, is precisely the it is still an excellent accompaniment. “ In the for turnips . Inwithout England, in the; manure north of Scotland,” Dr Neill observes, “ parsnips same richer assoils, it is sown are often beat up with potatoes and a little butter ; of this excellent mess the children of but in Scotland the crop would not repay

the peasantry are very fond, and theydo not fail thetrouble were it attempted to be raised to thrive upon it. In the north of Ireland, a without manure, though it does not require

pleasant table beverage is prepared from the the same quantity of farm -yarddung as

roots, brewed along with hops. Parsnip wine the turnip ;10 tons the acre being suffi

is also made in some places ; and they afford an excellent ardent spirit, when distilled after a

cient to raise a good crop, or 16 bushels

similar preparatory process to that bestowed on

of bone-dust, or 4 cwt. of guano — the

* Don's General System of Gardening and Botany, vol . iii. p. 354. + Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. i. p. 420-1.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

102

manures being applied respectively as di- renders the culture of rape both convenient rected for turnips. 3450. The culture of this plant ceases

and useful.

3454. In the progress of growth, the

after the sowing of the seed, as the crop rape is attacked by insects. The green is not thinned out like turnips or the other veined white butterfly, Pontia napi, is so rooted green crops, the object being to named because it feeds chiefly upon the raise a sufficient number of stems to pro- rape .

The superior wings bave tips of

duce a large crop of leaves, for which powdery black , and the nervures grayish,

purpose 2 lb. of seed to the acre will inferior wings have a black spot on the suffice ; and as the seed is large compared upper margin, and the dark nervures shin to that of the common turnip, and about ing through. Caterpillars are delicately the size of that of the swede, that quan- green, clothed with velvety hairs.

The

tity will not produce too many plants to male butterflies are nearlythree- quarters stand in the drill. Rape seed affords 810 of an inch long: The larva of this species seeds to one drachm , and weighs about 53 lb. to the bushel . The turnip sowingmachine, fig. 254, is used for sowing the seed, using one of the larger -sized holes in

is destroyed by the ichneumon, named Hemiteles melanarius. Hand -picking, and young fowls to pick up the larvæ as they areswitched off the plants, is the

the seed -box. When weeds make their most easy mode of getting quit of them. 3455. Sheep are very fond of rape as

appearance before the plants are suffi ciently advanced in height to keep them down, the scuffler, fig. 262, drill grubber,

food ; and that it is nourishing food the

fig. 264, and double mould - board plough, fig. 209, must be put in requisition to remove them , and place the ground again in its proper formand state.

experience of every farmer who has culti vated it can testify. By an experiment

made on Barteliver farm in Cornwall, it appears that 14 acres of rape, sown at three periods, from 13th May to 10th

3451. Rape will grow on almost any July, supported 80 sheep from the 2d of soil, and certainly well on clay, on which July to the 2d of November. On the it requires less manure than on hard loam ; 10th of August, 10 wether hoggs of those but it grows on none so well as on drained sheep were weighed, and they were 146 moss resting on a clay subsoil. The ashes lb. each, and on the 21st September they of the surface of a peat-bog, pared and were again weighed and were then 166 burned, form excellent manure for rape lb. each, making an increase of weight of on drained moss .

20 lb. in six weeks — that is, an increase of 10s. a -head in 6 weeks, at 6d. the 1b.*

3452. Rape is raised to be consumed

by sheep, by folding on the land, as a 3456. The rape is placed by Linnæus in the mode of manuring fallow ground. This class Tetradynamia ; in the natural order Cruci is a common practice in England, for the feræ by Jussieu; and in Hypogynous Exogens

double purpose of manuring the soil and alliance 27, Cistales -order 123, Brassiace 3, Orthoplonde - genus Brassica. The rape fattening sheep; and to attain both ends tribe the botanical characters of is Brassicanapus, the rape seed is sown in May, and the crop which are leaves smooth , of a grayish-glaucous is ready for being folded on in July or hue, radicle ones lyrate, stem ones pinnatifid and August.

crenated, uppermost ones cordate lanceolate, clasping the stem ; siliques devaricate spreading. Native country not known. This species of rape is well suited for culture in winter, and is allied

3453. In Scotland, sheep are never fattened on rape,the crop being appropriat- to the common turnip in its nature. ed to ewes, to bring them into season for

the tup, and to hoggs in preparation for 3457. The rape of the Continent is Brassica turnips. For these purposes it is not ne- campestris olifera, or colza ,a variety of cabbage cessary to sow the rape seed until the allied to the Swedish turnip, and is best suited for summer culture. It is distinguished from the

beginning of July, after the termination of other rape byitsleaves being hispid ,those of the turnip seed at the end of June, which the other being smooth. Its produce also,when * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. vi. p. 430.

THE CULTURE OF BUCKWHEAT.

103

compared to the other, is greater by 955 to 700 supported on the potato, as long as it was available for the purpose ; but now that 3458. The colzaiscultivated in Mecklenburg and no implicit confidence can be placed on

according to Gujac.*

rape oil, used for the purposes of illumination

that crop , and in consequence it will in future fetch a large comparative price, it

and in manufactures. In Holstein the cropof seed

will be prudential in the farmer to consider

Holstein for its seed , out of which is expressed

is great,being 4000 lb.the acre,or nearly 36 cwt., wbat plants may be substituted for it in which yields from 40 to 70 per cent of oil. supporting these useful races of live stock, 3459. The cake left on the expression of the with wholesome food, at a reasonable cost.

oilfrom the seed is called rape-cake,andis more Fortunately, thereare other plants which used in this country as a specific manure than may beemployed for the purpose. Buck for feeding. Its price is from £ 4,108.to£ 5, wheat, Polygonumfagopyrum , makes ex 10s. the ton, and is free of duty on importation.

cellent food for pigs; theseeds of the com 3460. Rape -cake, when subjected to chemical

mon sun -flower, Helianthus annuis, fatten

analysis , yields the following constituents, poultry ; the madia, Madia sativa, is according to Dr Henry R. Madden : Organic matter,

Water, Soluble in cold water , in hot water,

10-5 24 : 7 4 :8

10-5

in weak potass, 31.5 in strong potass, 10.2

85-5

Destroyed by heat, Earthy phosphates, Silicate of potass ,

for the same purpose ; and the dwarf varie ties of the Indian corn or maize, Zea

4:0

1.0 100-0

mays, are capable of supporting the horse as well as the fowl. Whatever may

14 :3

3:01

favourably spoken of on the Continent,

100·07

be the results attending the cultivation of these plants, a trial of one or more of

them, by way of experiment, should be made in many localities of Scotland ; and

3461. Thequantity of rape seed imported in then perhaps, ere long, they would become 1847 was 47,523 quarters, and in 1848 it was 129,967, free of duty . The rape -cakes imported

naturalised to the climate.

in those years were included in the returns of

oil- cakes imported, as stated in (3126.)

3464. Buckwheat is not well suited to the variable climate of Britain . It pos

3462. The plants enumerated from the bean

sesses the advantage of growing best on farm : not that any one of these plants are sandy soil, which is too poor to carry cultivated every year upon the same farm, for barley, and in such heat and drought as to the rape , are those usually cultivated on a

space might not be found in some farms for the

are too great for oats to bear.

In the

cultivation of so large a variety of plants ; and circumstances of heat and sandiness of it is improbable any farm contains soofdiver permit sified a soil as tothat the cultivation such soil, then, it might be cultivated where no cereal grain would grow ; and on the light cannot turnips and Beans . a variety of crops be cultivated to a large extent on the same soil of a farm , in a sheltered situation, farm , the soil best suited to the foriner being un- it might be attempted, especially on new genial to the latter. Nor is it convenient to sow trenched ground, without manure, in pre a large breadth of turnips and of rape in the same season . Should the weather prevent the paration of a green crop. Much manure sowing of turnips in their proper season , it would be more prudent to employthe labour and manure

would encourage the growth of the plant, and prevent the formation of seed. This

allotted forthem to raise rape a few weeks after plant is very impatient of frost, and, were the turnip season , to be consu by the stock med in late autumn or early winter, when cows are as fond of rape as sheep are, than to attempt to

it sown as early as to appear above ground before frost had left for the season, the

raise turnips too late. In choosing, therefore, crop would inevitably be destroyed. It the various crops enumerated and described above, should , therefore, not be sown sooner than those should be selected which are best suited to the last week of May in England, and of the soil cultivated, to be atthe andwhen weather to thethe which may prevail season state of the June in Scotland : and late sowing is in

work is ready to undertake the sowing of a crop . no case unfavourable to the plant, as it

grows quickly, and produces its seed in ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER CUL-

the principal part of the flower in Septem

ber. The land is very easily cultivated for buckwheat. Having been ploughed in 3463. Poultry and pigs were greatly winter, from the oat stubble, by casting TURE OF BUCKWHEAT.

* Don's General System of Botany and Gardening ,vol. i. p: 242. + Prize Essays ofthe TỈighland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 529.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

104

the ridges together, (755,) fig. 22, it should and bear seed in succession, till the frost destroys

be cross-ploughed ( 2013) in spring, bar- the plant." * rowed, and picked free of weeds, after

3467. This plant has not yet been satisfactorily

which recast, and again harrowed and hand- examined bychemists:thecompositionofits weeded. As abundance of time will be greenWater, stems, according to Crome, is 82-5

found to clean the land thoroughly before the time arrives for sowing the seed, it may be ploughed in any way thought most expedient, should the land show symp-

toms of foulness; but, if not, a passage of

the grubber, fig. 215, will prevent the sur-

4.7

Starch,

Woody fibre, Sugar, Albumen, Extractive matter and gum , Fatty matter, Phosphate of lime,

faceweeds becoming troublesome. From 1 to 2 bushels of seed are sufficient to the

10-0

0-2 2-6 ?

100-0

acre, and is always sown broadcast, though sometimes recommended to be drilled

3468. The composition of the seed of the buck

in rows at 12 inches apart. After the wheat, according to Zennick, is this, but which seed has been sown and harrowed in, the is declared imperfect 26.9 crop requires no further care until the

Husk , Gluten, &c.

10.7

harvest. The land should be cultivated for a green crop after the removal of buck-

Starch ,

52.3 . 8.3 0-4

Sugar and gum , Fatty matter,

wheat.

98.6

3465. Buckwheat stands in the order Octan

dria Trigynia of Linnæus ; in the natural order of Polygoner of Jussieu ; and in Hypogynous

3469. The ash of the seed of the buckwheat, according to Bichau, consists in the following

Exogens - alliance 37 , Silenales - order 191,Poly- proportions of the ingredients : gonacea -- tribe 2 , Polygonea -- genus, Polygonum , of the natural system of Lindley . The character of this family of plants is, that while the

leaves and young shoots are acid and agreeable, the roots are universally nauseous and pur gative ; and to these are added a third — that of

astringency.

Potash,

8.74

Soda, Lime,

20.10 6.66

Magnesia,

10:38

Oxide of iron,

1.05 50-07 2.16 0-69

Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid, Silica,

3466. “ Buckwheat, Polygonum fagopyrum ,”

99.85

Fagopyrum esculentum of Tournefort, " is said to be found wild in Persia , " observes the late 2.125 Percentage of ash , Rev. Mr Rham. “ The cultivation of it ,accord ing to some authorities, was introduced into Europe by the crusaders; according to others, the 3470. The quantity of nutritive matter derived Moors introduced it into Spain from Africa ; and from an acre of buckwheat, yielding a crop of hence it has in France the name of Bled sarrasin. 30 bushels, 1,300 lb., is of husk, 320 lb.; starch , The name of buckwheat is a corruption of the sugar, & c .650 lb.; gluten, & c. 100 lb .; oil or fat, German buch -weizen, which signifies beechwheat, 5 lb. (?) and saline matter, 21 lbs.+ from the resemblance of the seed to that of the beech-tree . It is called wheat because, when ground, it produces a fine farina, which resembles that of wheat in appearance. The botanical name of the genus, Polygonum, is taken from

3471. Buckwheat, which grows to a height of about 30 inches, is extensively cultivated over a great part of Northern Europe, as well as in Brittany, in Siberia, and on the table-lands of

the angular form of the seed , and the specific

Central Asia. It is understood to be a native of

name , fagopyrum , from its resemblance to the

Asia, and to have been imported into Europe in

beech-mast. Buckwheat grows with a strong herbaceous, cylindrical, and branching stem of a reddish colour, about 2 feet high . The leaves, which are ivy-shaped , are placed alternately on

the fifteenth century. The seeds of the buckwheat are in some countries used as food, the mealy albumen being mixed with a portion of wheaten

the stems. The flowers grow in bunches at the end of the branches, and are succeeded by black

ture ofcordials, but it is chiefly used as a green

angular seeds, formed of four triangles, being thus nearly regular tetrahedrons. The plant is

fodder. I

an annual, and the flowers appear very soon after

flour, of which a coarse breadis made. It is also

used by the distillers at Danzig in the manufac

3472. Buckwheat imported in 1847 was

it is out of the ground. They continue to blow 22 917 quarters, in 1848 only 205 quarters ; and } * Riiam's Dictionary of the Farm - art. Buckwheat. + Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 377, 893, 917, 928.

I Johnston's Physical Atlas -- l'hytology, Map, No. 2.

THE CULTURE OF MADIA.

105

of buckwheat meal in 1847, 386 cwt., in 1848, the ground between the plants, in the 194 cwt. A duty of 1s. the quarter is payable on buckwheat, and 44d . the cwt. on buckwheat

rows, is best cleaned with the hand -boe.

meal.

The crop may now remain until harvest.

ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER CUL-

3475. The sunflower belongs to the class and order Syngenesia Frustranea of Linnæus ; the natural order Compositæ of Jussieu ; and to

TURE OF THE SUN - FLOWER.

Epigynous Ecogens- alliance 50, Asterales order 273, Asteracec - sub -order 1 , Tubuliflora

3473. The sunflower consists of two sub-division 4, Senecionidea - tribe Coreopsidea species, the tall and the dwarf. The tall genus Helianthus. A bland oil abounds in the

is what is best known in this country, seeds of many species of this extensive family of

though the dwarf is the favourite inFrance, plants. Among themost remarkableis the com sunflower, mon

whose large, sweet, nut-like seeds as its leaves also afford an excellent food are very palatable and wholesome, and which for cows. We shall confine our observa- yield 15 per cent of oil. The tall sunflower is

Helianthus annuis, which, at one time , was a more common inmate of the flower garden than

tions to the tall species.

it is now dwarfcharactersofthesunflowers species is Helianthus in 3474. The tall sunflower requires a deep, dicus specific . .TheThe

mellow, rich soil, andalso a large quantity of manure. Its long and strong stem renders it unfit to be grown in drills like turnips : the roots would not have a sufficient

flowers yellow ; heads large and nodding ; pe

are leaves all cordate,rough, and three-nerved ;

hold of firm soil to counterbalance the

America ; introduced in 1569.

duncles and stalks thick, the latter from 4 to 6 feet high ; branched ; annual. Native ofSouth

great leverage power of the tall stem. It

should, however, be grown in rows, otherwise the ground would not be easily kept free of weeds.

ON THE SOWING , AND THE SUMMER CUL TURE OF MADIA .

pre

Its culture may

3476. Of this recently introduced plant cisely that of the turnip up to the point of applying the manure, which should be Mr Lawson says that, “ in its native coun ploughed in broadcast instead of in drills, try the madia has long been cultivated for and the quantity of farm - yard dung so its oleaginous seeds, the produce of which

ploughed in should not be less than 20 is deemed by many even superior to that tons to the acre . Before the land is har- of the olive and poppy. In Europe its rowed, 4 cwt. of guano to the acre should culture was first attempted in 1835 by M. be sown npon the surface, and then the Bosch, royal gardener at Stuttgard, since

land should be harrowed both along and which period it has been greatly ex across the ridges, to make it fine.

After

tended, and that with the utmost success,

this the small ribbing -plough, fig. 230, under the patronage of his majesty the should make ribs alongthe ridges at 27 King of Würtemberg, and others. The fol inches apart, into which the seed should lowing is extracted from a communication be sown, by hand, along the ribs, at the received along with a quantity of seed of rate of 7 or 8 lb. to the acre.

As sun

the madia in 1839 :-'From its valuable

flower seeds are not heavy and easily dis- property of enduring winter and spring turbed in their place, it would be proper frosts, the madia may either be sown in autumn or spring, the ground being pre

to cover them in the ribs with the hand-

rake, instead of even the lightest harrows. viously well pulverised. Four pounds of The guano will cause the seed to germi- seed will suffice for sowing an acre in nate soon, and the dung below will support drills, and about six pounds for the same

the plant, through its fibrous roots. When spacebroadcast. The young plants should the plants have shot up sufficiently high be thinned out, so as to stand at least 4 or

to be distinguished, they should be thinned 5 inches apart. The crop should be reaped in the row to 12 inches apart ; and , as the when the earliest seeds acquire a gray rows are on the flat, the thinning will better colour, and disposed in handfuls to facili

be done by hand, leaving the best plants, tate drying, after which it should be im than with the hand -boe , fig. 266.

The

mediately thrashed out, as, if stacked in

root weeds may be eradicated with the the haulm , the viscid matter which adheres scuffler, fig. 262 , and the surface once after- to the foliage would cause fermentation.

wards with the drill-grubber, fig. 264, while

The seeds should afterwards be washed in

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

106

warm water, to cleanse them of the same the Sphenogynee. The madia, Madia satira, viscid or gelatinous and strong -smelling thecultivated or oil-seeded madia, hasthese generic specific characters :-Receptacle substance. The crop on an acre of pop- and seedsandnaked ; involucredouble ,theouter

pies averages 12 bushels, which yields usually 8-10 leaved, and much larger than the about 22 lb. of oil per bushel, or in all

inner, which is composed of many leaves and

264 lb. at 6d. = £6, 12 ; while an acre of scales. Plant upright, with numerous diverging madia produces on an average 26 bushels branches, and, together with theleaves and in volucre, covered withlanceolate,entire,and of seed,each of which yields about 17 lb. hair more or down; leaves a very viscid glandulous of oil, or in all 442 lb. at 6d.= £ ii , 18. or less clasping; flowers inconspicuous, yellow ,

Chemical analysis shows that 100 parts of and much crowded at and near the extremity of madia oil contain 45 of elain , ( fluid fat,) the branches. Annual ; 14 to 2 feet high. Na

40 of stearin, (margarine, or solid fat,) and tive of South America. 15 of glycerine, a sweetish glutinous sub stance . »

3480. According to Souchay, the seed of the madia sativa contains the following ingredients in its ash

3477. Professor Lindley observes, in regard to this remarkable plant, that it is ' a Chilian plant, lately introduced with success into the agriculture of the drier parts of Europe. Madia oil expressed without heat is described as transparent, yellow , scentless, &c., and fit for salads;

Potash ,

9.53

11.24 7.74

Soda ,

Lime,

15.42 1.08 54.99

Magnesia, Oxide of iron ,

Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid, Chlorine, Silica,

its cake is said to be good for cattle. It 100-001 produces, in dry climates, as much oil per acre as poppy ; in comparison with colza Itwill be observed howlarge a proportion of soda, as 32 to 28 ; linseed as 32 to 21 ; and magnesia, and particularly of phosphoric acid, olives as 32 to 18 ." *

3478. Mr Lawson further observes, that 'a quantity of madia sown by us in the vicinity of Edinburgh, in May 1839, ripen

the madia contains.

ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER CUL TURE OF MAIZE.

ed seeds in August following ; but the un

3481. Indian corn , as it is commonly usually rainy weather caused many of the called ,butmore properly maize, is un plants todampoff after flowering. A por- suited to the climate of this country; but

tion of the seeds, which was sown immedi

as many varieties of this plant exist, and ately after harvesting, produced plants 2 or 3 inches in height that autumn, many of as Schouw observes, in hisaccount of the geographical distribution grasses of the «grasses, which perished in the course of the win- that maize of allthecultivated ter ; but the remainder, although weak in has the greatest range of temperature,” it

spring, recovered sufficiently to produce a is,perhaps, possible toselectone variety

that may succeed so far in our climate as

July. Upon the whole,” Mr Lawson con to afford a means of supporting poultry, seems every probability without having recourse

cludes, “ there

to any of the

that, in ordinarily favourable seasons, the of grain cultivated for the use of madia sativa might be grown very success species man . It would appear that two varieties fully in Scotland .” +to It theculture adapted thewould turnipseem wouldthat in ripen their seeds in the course of our sum in ordinary seasons - orchicken one called by the French every respect suit this plant,and the rich- mer Maïs-à-Poulet, corn,

ness of its seed could not fail to prove brought from Egypt,which ripensits seed nourishing food to poultry and pigs. 3479. The madia is in the same botanical posi

in 120 days from planting, but the crop derived from which is so scanty that it

tion as the sunflower, excepting in the natural does not repay the trouble of cultivation ; system of Lindley, where it is in the tribe of the other is called the Forty Days' Maize * Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom , p. 707. + Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual - Supplement, p. 57-8. # Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 383.

THE CULTURE OF MAIZE.

107

not that it ripens its seeds in 40 days from fallowor green crop break, as a prepara planting, but because the male flower is tion of it for wheat in the autumn. ready to fecundate the crop in 40 days 3484. The culture of maize is the same from planting, and the seeds come to maturity in 140 days after being sown, or in as that for the turnip, up to the dunging of

about 5 months. To this latter variety Mr Keene has, in 1849, directed the attention of the British farmers, remarking that the reason of thewant of success attending the culture of the maize by the late Mr Cob-

the drills ; and as we have already seen in Peru bythe application of guano,( 3345,) it would be proper to sow 4 cwt. of guano over the 20 tons of farm -yarddung, given

how greatly the crop of maize is increased

bett was, because he cultivated an Ameri- as the manuring, before covering the dung

can variety, which are all known to be in the drill in the double mode, (2397.) late of ripening in Europe ; but it appears, 3485. The seed should be selected from by a letter in the Gardeners' Chronicle of the 31st of March 1849, from Mr James P. the middle of the ear, as being there the

Cobbett, that the Maïs Quarantain,orForty Days' Maize of the French, and “Cobbett's corn ,” are precisely the same plant. In fact, Mr Cobbett obtained bis corn from

best and strongest. It is no matter what colour it bears, whether dark purple, light red, yellow, or white, as it will not pro duce seed of the same colour, but only as

Artois in France, and there was no want many of the same colour in the same pro of success in his cultivation of it, but that portion. The seed should be steeped in at that time ( 1828) no interest was at- water for 24 hours before being sown, and

tached toits cultivation in this country. the quantity required is 6 pecks the acre. But now that substitutes must be found for It has been recommended to steep the seed

the potato, in the success of the cultivation in the same sort of liquor as wheat is, for

of which we can no longer place implicit the prevention of smut, as the maize is reliance, for the feeding of the live stock, liable to the ergot fully as much as the which was chiefly supported on the potato, rye. Cobbett denies that the maize is the maize may now receive that attention affected by any disease or any insect, and to which it was not entitled under differ- perhaps the kind he cultivated may bave ent circumstances. The question now is experienced immunity from disease in this

simply whether Cobbett's or any other country; but no doubt exists that maize is variety ofthe maize may be raised in this affected with ergot, for, according to Roul country with a reasonable expectation of lin, it is very common in Colombia, and success; and it appears that it is worthy of the use of it is attended with a shedding of a trial.

the hair, and even the teeth, of both man and beast.

Mules fed on it lose their

3482. The better the soil the better will hoofs, and fowls lay their eggs without the

the maize grow , but it will grow with pro- shell. Its action upon the uterus is as per culture in soils not of the finest quality, powerful asthat of rye-ergot,or perhaps provided they be warm , sheltered from

more so. The country name of the maize

strong N.W.'winds, exposed well to the thus affected is Maïs peladero. This state sun, be free of bottom wet, and not of ment, however, as Professor Lindley re marks, requires confirmation . * tough tenacious clay. 3483. As the maize does not occupy the 3486. The time for sowing maize seed ground very long, it may be cultivated in is an important particular in the culture of England on the land which has borne the the plant. The young plant is very sus winter tare or rape, which has been eaten ceptible of frost, and should the seed be down in spring with sheep, and the maize sown as early as to have no assurance of is removed in time in autumn for the sow- freedom from frost, the plants may be so ing of wheat. In Scotland, there being affected that, although theymay not die,the

no winter tares,it may succeed winter rape, leaves may become yellow, and the growth where that is grown ; but where not more backward than that of plants raised

grown, the maize may occupy a part of the from seed much later sown. The frosts of * Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom , p. 115.

108

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

April and the droughts from the east winds pear, for they were in the ground long in May are dangerous periods, and ought before the corn, and they claim their right to be avoided. Mr Keene gives an appa- of primogeniture, and act upon that right. rently infallible rule in theappearance of They will not rise to the same height with

the cock -chaferMelolontha vulgaris in the the corn plants ; but their inferiority in air, as indicative of the temperature in point of height will be made up for in

which maize may be sown in safety, and numbers, and the poor corn plant, if left this period usually occurs from the middle to itself, will soon be a Gulliver, when to the end of May. No apprehension need bound down by the Lilliputians.” + It is

be entertained of the crop being too late, recommended by Mr Keene to protract the for the floweringof the plant will then take ultimate thinning for some time, that the place in the finest part of the season, in plants so taken out may be used as green July, and even early frosts in autumn will food. But this is not the object of the not injure the fruit within its covering. culture, which is to produce a crop of seed ; and to do so in the best manner, the ground

3487. In sowing the seed, Mr Keene should be allowed to exert its fullest powers recommends the dropping it in the drills for that purpose, by the removal of all between the finger and thumb at distances superfluous vegetation, whether of weeds

of 3 inches, and then to cover it in plough- or of superfinous plants. For the same ing the drill.*

But such a procedure reason , no roots or baricot beans ought to

would be too rough treatment of the seed be sown in the drills of maize All catch of a plant that requires the tenderest care crops are no better than robbers of the we can bestow. A better plan is to cover plants among which they are sown. the dung in the drill before sowing the seed ; and as the seed should not be buried

3489. After another drill-grubbing, fig.

beyond 2 inches in depth, the top of the 264 , and hoeing, to remove the surface drills should be rolled with the concave

weeds, the maize plants will grow with

roller of the turnip sowing -machine, fig. 254, without the coulters, a rut of about 2 inches deep made along the top of the drills withthe corner of the hand -hoe, fig. 266, and the seed then either dropped by hand into the rut, or with the beandrill barrow, fig. 219, at 3 inches or thereabonts apart, covered over with the earth cast up by the rutting with the hoe, and

great rapidity, perhaps an inch a -day, until the flower spike appears; and so far from other plants being allowed to compete with the principal crop, the suckers which spring from the roots of the standing plants should be removed, and on removing them both hands should be employed — one in . stripping down one sucker, and the other another sucker,in the opposite side, at the

the drills again rolled with the concave same time. The suckers may be used as

rollers, which will finish the work in fine green food by the pigs ; they should not be style.

given to cows, as green maize invariably

causes a decrease of milk in them , though 3488. The spikes of the young plant it enriches the butter. “ The maize now

may be expected to break the ground in lances out its flower from the seed about 6 or 8 days. As the ground at this sheath,” says Mr Keene ; " then the seed season is easily overrun withi weeds, the cob forms, and sends forth its pretty

scuffler, fig. 262, will have to eradicate drooping yellow , red, or bronze-colonred them in the space between the drills, and pare away the soil from the sides of the drills iu preparing for the singling. When the plants have attained 3 or 4 inches in

silkeu feather, falling down gracefully upon the smiling head of corn. The flower-stalk shoots up rapidly ; its growth is marvellous, and the broad dark green

height, they are singled to a distance of 9 flag -leaves of the healthy crop denote the inches apart with the hand -hoe, fig. 266. strength of the vegetative power which is Cobbett, in his own humorous style, thus rapidly pouring into the whole system of alludes to the weeding: “ Let us now sup- this splendid plant. As this begins to re

pose the corn plants to be 3 inches high. treat, the graceful feather shows sigus of Long before this weeds will begin to ap- withering ; the sap no longer circulates * Keene's Facts for Farmers — Maize, p. 6.

+ Quoted by Amicus Curiæ in Maize against Potato, p. 130.

THE CULTURE OF MAIZE .

109

with the same vigour ; it is time to confine the harvest. The plants are never laid

the remaining strength tothe cob, and with rain or broken down by the wind, the flowering-stalk iscut off by a draw of though the latter may cause some of them the knife, atan inch higher than the first to lean over a little. joint above the cob. Women do this, walking along the rows; and when they 3492. Maize is of the class and order Trian have thus gathered a handful of 12 or 15 dria Digynia of Linnæus ; of the natural order Gramineæ of Jussieu ; and of Endogens - alliance flower- heads, they bind them round with 7 , Glumales - order 29, Graminacece - tribe 2,

a leaf, and hitch the little bundle, stalk- Phalaracec - genusZea. The maize, Zea mays, end upwards, on the stick of the standing has male andfemale organs in distinct flowers, stem , whereexcellentwinter it hangs for 4 or 5 days to dry, minal but on spikes the same plant :male in branching ter becoming food for cattle.” ; female in a concealed spike or

The criterion for removing the flower-beads elongatedreceptacle, proceeding from the joints of the culm or stalks ; calyx a two-valved blunt is when all the farina has completely glume ; corolla a two-valved glume ; style one,

quitted the tassel, and the tassel is long and pendulous, protruding considerably dead and dry ; also a perfect deadness of beyond the leafy envelope of the seed spike'; the end of the silk of the cob, where,

seeds solitary, immured in an oblong common

instead of the bright green that appeared receptacle. before, gracefully hanging down, a little 3493. Maize is also called Turkish wheat. bunch of withered -up and brown-looking “ The origin ofthis plant has been disputed. In stuff is seen .

The farmer should choose the equatorial countries of America, maize is

his time for topping, when the weather is cultivated, according toHumboldt,at anelevation when not cultivated in wet and unfavourable for other work ; ofthe7,600 fields InandEurope, open feet. for its grain, as green

neither need it be all done at one time, fodder, its northern limits extend to latitude47º. unless the plants are in a fit state for the

It is cultivated in abundance between La Maas

operation. Mr Keene's Forty Days’ Maize and La Flèche, (lat. 48°,) for feeding fowls. only bears one cob, which contains about From this the limitis traced with some difficulty, around Paris to Frankfort on the Maine, (lat. 500 30 '.) Farther east its limits are not ascertained. In the plain of Brandenburg ( lat. 52° 30') it

48 seeds.

3490. In the case of localities in which yields abundantly, but is little cultivated, and frost is felt until late in the season , it is that only for fodder. In Eastern Europe it banks of Dneister, ( lat. 49º possibletoraiseplants of maizeina piece occurs beyond onthistheitslimits aretheunknown isan;) .Maize

of good ground sheltered from frost ; and

when they have attained a height of 8

annual plant, which only requires heat in sum mer, and is not influenced by the cold of winter.

or 9 inches, to transplant them in the In North America, maize is cultivated more ex

prepared drillsat 9 inches asunder, and tensively than in Europe ; in the interior of its northern limits reach the parallel of in case some of the plants die, to reserve Canada, lat. 50°. The highest point at which it has been Europe is the village of Lescans, a few to fill up the gaps. The transplan- cultivatedin tation may be deferred until the third inthe departmentof Basses Pyrenees, situated, week of June, when all dread of frost is at 3,280 feet above the level of the sea. This is above the limits of the vine, which only reaches

an end.

2,620 feet .” * According to Schouw , in respect of the predominating kinds of grain , the earth

3491. In finishing the summer culture may be divided into five grand divisions or king of the maize, the drills are set upto their doins. The kingdom of rice ,of maize, of wheat,

original form with the double mould-board of rye, and lastly of barleyandoats. Rice, plough, fig. 214 ; and this operation should maize,and wheat, are the most extensive, and rice supports the greatest number of the be completed before the plants have at the human race . The maize has the greatest range

tained snch a size as to come in contact

with the horse or implement. The flower ing season is so critical to the maize, that

of temperature.t 3494. I have already given the composition

nooperation should be permitted thatwould of maize in (1303,) and of the composition of in the least agitate the plants; and for this

the ash of the grain of the maize in ( 1304. )

reason windy weather is unfavourable Every bushel of maize leaves about a pound of ash . I shall now give the composition of the for the crop at that stage of its growth. ash of maize straw , grownnearGratz by Hrus The

crop ,after being

set up, remains until

chauer:

Johnston's Physical Atlas — Phytology, Map No. 2. + Edinburgh Nero sophical Journal for April 1825.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

110

Potash, Soda ,

14:46 39.92

Lime,

4.93

Magnesia,

1.84

Oxide of iron ,

Phosphoric acid , Sulphate of lime , Chloride of sodium , Silica, .

Percentage of ash,

4.78 12.69 11.00 11:44 0:73

0-90 11.76 1.01

22-39

6.29 18.89

0-55 35.05

100-00

100.00

2:30

6.50

1:37

living object. Though apparently lifeless to the sight and the touch, it haslife, and

its vitality is capable of exerting great power when excited into action. What the agent is, and how it acts, which excites the vitality of seeds, we do not know, and perhaps never shall know-it may be one of the secrets which nature

will keep to herself ; but we do know the circumstances in which, when seeds are placed, vitality is invariably excited,

Professor Johnston makes these important and the proof of thisexcitement is furnished regard to the great discrep by their germination, which is the first general remarks,in the results in these two analyses. ancy between

“ Between these results we observe great differ

movement towards the production of a

ences, both in the total percentageof ash left, plant. and in the proportions of every one of the con . stituents which the ash contains. This is by no means unexpected, but it illustrates a fact, that

3498. Now the circumstances which

our knowledge of the inorganic constituents of excite germination, are a combination of plants of the function performed by them in air, beat, and moisture. These must be the several parts of plants — and of the propor- afforded in the mostfavourable conditions,

tions required most perfectlyto perform these before the plant will grow. They may several functions — is yet in its infancy." *

all be supplied to the seed, and its ger

3495. The importation of maize in 1847, the mination secured in the air as certainly as year ofthe Irish famine, was as great as 3,608,312 in the ground ; but on the development of quarters, and in 1848, 1,586,771 quarters. of the radicle, the province of which it is to

maize mealin 1847, 1,448,837 cwt., and in 1848, penetrate into the soil, the young germ , quarter is payable on maize,and of4f .the cwt. instead of growing upwards, woulddie, were it kept constantly in the air. The

on maize meal.

earth supplies all the requisites of air, heat, and moisture to the plant, in a much THE RATIONALE OF THE GERMINATION OF

better state than the air can of itself,

and the soil continues to supply them , pot only at the period of its germination , but 3496. Now that we have proceeded during its after life. A vital seed placed SEEDS.

through the whole course of the seed -time, in the ground must be affected by three incidental to spring and to the early part agencies, one physical, another chemical, of summer, and the finishing of which ter- and a third physiological, before it can minates for a time one busy period of produce a plant. farm operations, it will prove useful to rest a while from actual labour, and 3499. Physical.— When a vital seed

consider the principles upon which the is placed in pulverised ground it is sur success of the operations we have been rounded with air ; for although the par conducting, chiefly depends. By obtaining ticles of soil may seem to the eye to be a clear view of the circumstances which close together, on examination it is found best promote the germination of the seeds that the interstices between the particles

of the crops we have been sowing, and of occupy one-fourth of a given quantity the earliest growth of the plants arising of soil.

Hence, 100 cubic inches of

from them , we shall be enabled to conclude pulverised soil contain no less than 25 cubic whether or not the practice we pursue, inches of air. Therefore, in a field , the

in sowing seeds, is calculated to afford soil of which has been ploughed and pul those circumstances which best promote

verised to the depth of 8 inches, every

their germination and the growth of the acre of it will contain 12,545,280 cubic plants from them .

inches of air ; and hence also, as every additional inch of depth pulverised , calls

3497. The healthy seed of a plant is a into activity 259 tons 5 cwt. 32 lb. of * Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 375.

THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

111

soil, at 1:48 of specific gravity, (119,) so able circumstances for germination. Be sides the di Fig. 278.

the ploughing ofthe soildeeperevery inch

S2s 8&

introduces into it an additional 1,568,160 cubic inches of air. Thus, by increasing

rect

exclu

sion ofthe air, the water, on

the depth of pulverised soil, we can pro vide a depot ofair to any extent for the use of seeds. Suppose that as much as 3

evaporation,

renders

bushels of wheat are sown on the acre,

the

earth around each seed much colder

2,104,704 seeds will be sown, ( 1856, ) so that each grain will have about 6 cubic

than it would SOIL WITH WATER AND WITHOUT otherwise be.

inches of air in a soil 8 inches deep. 3500. But this air must be above a cer

AIR.

The evils of

tain temperature ere the seed will germi- the excess of moisture are evident from nate - itmust be above the freezing point, this figure.. else the vitality of the seed will remain

dormant. A pulverised state of the soil

3502. But total want of moisture pre

affords great protection to the seed from

vents germination as much as excess. Fig.

a considerable depression of temperature, and the more finely it is pulverised, the

279 shows the seed a

more it will resist the induction of cold

placedin pul

from without, and the less will it radiate the heat from within . The less finely the soil is pulverised, such as in fig. 277,

verised soil, and the inter

Fig. 277.

stices

filled

where a seed

with air, but

a is placed

no moisture

among hard clodsb, on the one side,

tween and in

and near stone

the

C

a on

other ;

with a few CLODDY AND STONY SOIL .

Fig. 279.

is visible be SOIL WITH AIR AND WITHOUT WATER ,

the particles of soil.

In

such a state of soil, heat will find an

easy access to the seed, and as easy an escape from it.

The evils of the want

particles of of moisture, and of excess of heat, are fine earth evident from this figure.

hard by, neither the clods nor the stone can afford the seed any air, which can only be supplied through the few particles of pulverised soil; but cold is easily trans

3503. Fig. 280 represents the seed a com

mitted by stone from the atmosphere, with

verised ; be

in soil

Fig. 280.

pletely pul

which it communicates by its upper sur

tween every

face, and by which also the internal heat is

particle

easily radiated into the air. It is clear then, that, in such circumstances, seed is not placed in favourable circumstances for

access to the

its germination. The advantages of pul

seed ; and in

verised soil are evident from this figure.

the heart of every par ticle of soil

of the soil the

air finds easy

SOIL WITH WATER AND AIR .

3501. Besides by clods and stones, the be excluded by water. Fig. 278 moisture is lodged. All that is here re

air may

represents the seed a placed in a pulver- quired in addition is a favourable tempe ised soil, the interstices of which are en- rature, which the season supplies, and ger tirely occupied by water, instead of air, mination proceeds.

as well as the interior of all the pulverised particles of it.

It is also clear that, in

3504. Chemical. - The chemical com

this case too, the seed , being deprived position of seeds consists of organic and of air, is not placed in the most favour- inorganic substances. The organic are

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

112

composed of two classes of elements, the

3507. Heat, if now present, assists the

azotised and the non-azotised : the inor- elements of air and moisture to excite the

ganic of earthy, alkaline, and acid ingre- vital principle into action. It expands dients.

The azotised elements consist of the air contained in the numerous cavities

matter analogous to the casein of milk, of the seed, produces distension of all the albumen of the egg and of blood, and of organic parts ; and, their irritability being

the fibrine of the flesh of animals; the thus excited, the seed cannot be destroyed non -azotised consist of starch and muci. but with death. lage, and of fatty and oily matters rich in 3508. Immediately on the enlargement 'carbon and hydrogen. The proportions of

the starch, and of the mucilage, do not vary of bulk by the moisture, and the excita much in most seeds ; but in other respects tion to vitality by heat, a chemical change

the composition varies considerably - in takes places in the constitution of the seed. some the gluten predominating, in others The vital principle decomposes the water the oil, and by which the distinctive quali- absorbed, fixes its hydrogen for future purposes, and its oxygen , uniting with ties of the plants are characterised . * the carbon of the seed, forms carbonic acid, 3505. A seed, when fully ripe, contains a which is parted with by the respiratory large proportion ofcarbon or mucilage, and, organs into the air, and of the seed into as long as it continues to be charged with the soil, most of the ingredients of the either, it is unable to grow . It is only latter absorb it. The carbon is thus got rid able to grow when placed in circumstances of untilthe proportion is reduced to the in which it can get quit of a large propor- amount best suited to its being appropriated

tion of the carbon or mucilage, and this it by the embryo plant. The evolution of the is enabled to do when sown in the ground. carbonic acid may be one source of the heat which becomes manifest during germina

3506. When a seed is consigned to the tion, just as Liebig has pointed out the ground, the first change which takes place source of animal beat by a similar cause

in it is physical —it becomes increased in in the animal economy. It thus appears bulk by the absorption of moisture. If that oxygen is essential to germination, the moisture is presented to it in the pro- since no seed will germinate in hydrogen, portion represented in fig. 280, it is placed nitrogen, or carbonic acid. in the most favourable circumstances for

3509. When the seed begins to germi germination ; it then receives moisture and air, and only requires the requisite nate a substance named diastase is formed

degree of temperature to excite its vitality at the expense of its albumen. The func into action. If it is placed in want of tions of diastase are important, being to moisture, as in fig. 279, it will remain in convert the insoluble starch of the seed

a state of dormancy until moisture arrive, into soluble dextrin and sugar ; to effect and in the mean time may become the which change it seems to possess extraor prey of the many animals which inhabit dinary power, as one part of diastase will the soil, eager for food, or be scorched to

convert into sugar no less than 2000 parts

death by heat. If it isplaced inexcess of moisture, as in fig. 278, its germination is prevented by theexclusion of the air, and its tissues are destroyed by maceration in the water. In favourable circumstances, besides the direct effect of theabsorption of moisture in increasing the bulk of the seed, it softens and expands all its parts ; many

of starch. The diastase is formed at the base of the germ ; and as the seed shows the first signs of germination there, the diastase converts the starch which it finds there into a useful state for the support of the first efforts ofvegetation,and, after hav ing performed this important function, it disappears.

of the dry and soluble parts become fluid ; sap or vegetable food is formed, and a sort

3510. Acetic acid is formed in the

of circulation established, which communi- chemical changes effected by germination, cates between the more remote parts of but whether it or diastase is first formed , after germination commences, is uncertain . the embryo. Boussingault's Rural Economy--Law's translation, p. 19.

-

THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

119

The action of dilute acids gradually light the leaves of plants absorb carbonic changes starch into dextrin, then into acid and give off oxygen, and seeds ex cane sugar, and lastly into grape sugar. posed to light follow the same law ; but

After the acetic acid has been ejected by in the process of liealthy germination, car the plant, it may serve to dissolve lime, bonic acid is given off and oxygen absorb and other earthy matters contained in the ed. Hence to attempt to germinate seeds soil, and Liebig conjectures this to be an in the light is to reverse the order of nature ; and the best way to exclude the ligbt is to cover the seeds with earth.

especial function of this acid.

3511. “ Under fitting circumstances," says Professor Lindley , the embryo which

3514. In oily seeds having no starch

theseed contains swells, and bursts through mucilage takes its place, wbich,being easily its integuments ; it then lengthens, first in dissolved, transfuses itself into the circula a direction downwards, next in an up- tion, and is converted into dextrin or

ward direction, thus forming a centre or cellulose, as the case may require. axis round which other parts are ulti mately formed .

No known power can

3515. Turnip and carrot seed have no

overcome this tendency, on the partof the starch, but they contain pectic acid, wbich embryo, to elevate one portion in the air, being changed into dextrin, leaves car and to bury the other in the earth ; but it bon and oxygen to be used as the occasion is an inherent property with which nature may require. has endowed seeds, in order to insure the

young parts, when first called into life,

3516. Physiological.- A seed consi

each finding itself in the situation most dered in reference to its organisation con suitable to its existence -- that is to say, the sists ofan embryo, which includes thegerms of the root and of the stem , and of a cotyle don or cotyledons.

root in the earth , the stem in the air."

3512. When the germ bas shot out from the seed , and attained to a sensible length,

3517. Fig. 281 represents a grain of

it is found to be possessed of a sweet taste, wheat magnified, and so dissected as to compon show which is owing grape to the presence

of

Fig. 281.

its

ent

sugar in the sap which has already begun to circulate through its vessels. There is

parts. It consists of

little doubt that the grape sugar is formed

and an inner - a a the outer, and b the inner

two skins, an outer

subsequently to the appearance of both diastase and acetic acid . * “ With the

skin : b is also where the nutritive matters, called the starch and

assistance of this saccharine secretion ,”

continues Professor Lindley, " the root, technically called the radicle, at first a

albumen , are situate,

mere point, or rather rounded cone, ex

and these constitute

tends and pierces the earth in search of food ; the young stem rises and unfolds its cotyledons, or rudimentary leaves, which, if

the whole seed ; c is the little scale orcoty THE COMPONENT PARTS ledon through which

they are exposed to light, decomposo car-

OF A GRAIN OF WHEAT. the nutritive matter

bonic acid, fix the carbon, become green, passes in the sweet state, when the grain and form the matter by which all the

pre-

is germinating, and by which it is rendered

existing parts are solidified. And thus a most fit for the nourishment of the little plant is born into the world ; its first act plant ; d is the rudimentary plant, at the

having been to deprive itself of a principle base of which 3 tubers may be seen, from ( carbon) which, in superabundance, pre- which as many roots or stems, or both, vents its growth ; but, in some other pro- will afterwards proceed ; and e is the point portion, is essential to its existence." where the nutritive matter, the little scale,

and the rudimentary plant, are united.

3513. It is easy to comprehend why All these parts are essential to the growth light is prejudicial to germination. In of the seed, since, any one being absent * Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 221-8.

+ Lindley's Theory of Horticulture,p. 8-10. VOL. II .

H

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

114

by accident or design, the seed fails to spring.

ON SOWING, BROADCAST, DRILLED, AND DIBBLED - THICK AND THIN— AND AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS.

3518. The seeds of most species of plants possess such a structure as that only one stem can proceed from them ; but in the

3521. Broadcast sowing. – Of all the modes of sowing the seeds of the cereal

grasses , and particularly in the cereal crops, none requires so much seed as the

ones, which yield human food, a remark- broadcast. The usual quantity of seed able departure from this structure is sown is 3 bushels of wheat, 4 bushels of

observed. In them the embryo plant is barley, and 6 bushels of oats to the acre. usually thickened towards its base, and is Thirty years ago the quantities of seed so organised that, instead of one stem, 3 or sown were larger, viz. :-4 bushels of

4 usually spring from one grain ; and, in wheat, 6 of barley,and 7 of oats. These some cases ,the number of stems is so great quantities I myself have sown. almost to exceed belief. as

Fig. 282.

3522. However well the land may be

Thepeculiarity ploughed, the seed sown broadcast will

mentioned may braird irregularly — some falling into the be observed at

hollowest part of the surface, some upon

the highest, and some being scarcely which is the covered with earth by the harrows - some

C,

282,

fig.

rudimentary sliding gently into the rut after the tines plant, having 3 have passed , whilst others are carried projections in as deep into the ruts as the tines them the lower part, selves penetrate. To barrow the land

while in other smooth ,previous to the sowing of the seed , would not cure the inconvenience of irre there would gular covering , since it is impossible to kinds of seed

have only been cover so large a seed as thatof the cereals, one ; and from

N A

merely with the action of the tines of the

harrows, without the assistance of a rough projec- surface of mould. On smooth harrowed

each of these

T

three

tions a rootlet

ground the seed would be left on the sur

or a stem , d or face, and even harrowing, as presently b or both , pro conducted, leaves many seeds exposed, to ceed when the be picked up by granivorous birds. What

A STATE PLANT OFGERMINATION WHEATIN THE grain is placed I have stated may be illustrated by the OF

.

in the soil.

following figures, where from c to d, fig.

283, are represented furrows, well and re

3519. Fig. 282 represents such a grain in a state of germination , one shoot a having

Fig. 283,

left the sheath , another b is just evolved , and a third c remains unevolved ; and d d are the rootlets. It is this peculiarity of

structure which compensates , in somede gree, for the great loss sustained from the de

WELL - PLOUGHED REGULAR FURROW- SLICES,

struction ofseed, on sowing thecereal crops. gularly ploughed ; but it is obvious that although the seeds will fall successively 3520. The force of the vegetation of a more into the hollows between the furrows single seed is as great as to raise a weight than upon the sharp points, when scattered of 200 lb., as has been proved by its split- broadcast from the hand, yet some will fall ting hollow balls, in the manner the Flo- on the points and sides of the furrows.

rentine academicians measured the expan- The seeds will lie in the ground, as shown sive force of freezing water, ( 644.) In in fig. 284, where those are thicker at e,

1847 a small fungus upheaved from its bed which fell into the hollows of the furrows, alarge flag-stone in a foot pavement in one and thinner at f, which stuck upon their of the squares of Edinburgh.

apex, or on their sides.

But even their

BROADCAST AND DRILL -SOWING .

115

position will not be so regular as is here is shown in fig. 287, where some seeds are represented,where all the seeds are at the clustered together and covered in a shallow same depth from the surface, for some will

Fig. 287.

Fig. 284.

b

C

d

f

wovon IRREGULAR DEPOSITION OF SEED ON ILL THE POSITION OF SEEDS WHEN SOWN ON REGULAR FURROW - SLICES ,

PLOUGHED FURROW - SLICES .

manner at a ; others also clustered , but

be deeper than others, some too deep, and buried deep, at b ; whilst many are scat others too shallow , whilst not a few will tered irregularly at different depths, at c

have been left exposed on the surface. and d . It is obvious, from such a deposi From such a deposition, as in fig. 284, the tion of the seed, that the braird must come up

plants will come up in theirregular manner in a very irregular manner, likely to affect represented in fig. 285, whereg are clumps the future progress of the crop ; for we Fig. 285. k

9

h

have only to look at such a braird to be convinced that the plants have not all the

same chance of arriving at maturity at the same time ; and, if a crop does not mature alike, the grain cannot be alike in the sample. In fig. 288, where the seed was Fig. 288. b

IRREGULAR BRAIRDING FROM EVEN REGULAR

FURROW - SLICES.

of too many plants, and h straggling ones too far asunder. But in reality , theseeds having been deposited at different depths, the plants will present greater irregularity of height than is shown in fig. 285.

IRREGULAR BRAIRD ON ILL- PLOUGHED PURROW - SLICES ,

3523. But when the land is ill ploughed, sown very deep, it will produce plants the case is still worse . Fig. 286 shows the that will come up late, as at a ; while that Fig. 286. b

covered in a shallow manner will send up

plants early, as at b, which will push on in growth when the weather is favourable,

and get far in advance of the late ones at The remainder at c, coming up in a more regular manner, will form the best part of the crop. a.

ILL- PLOUGHED IRREGULAR FURROW - SLICES.

irregular manner in which the furrows are

3524. Drill-sowing. - One evident ad

placed by bad ploughing . Bad ploughing vantage of sowing with a drill over a is attended with bad consequences at all broadcast machine, is the regular deposi seasons, in forming the seed-furrow for tion of the seed at one depth, whatever any kind of crop, but particularly for a depth may be chosen . Fig. 289 represents cereal one, inasmuch as irregularity of sur- the seeds deposited at regular intervals, face cannot be amended in this by the from a to a. The figure is supposed to be

cleansing implements in future operations, a cross section of the ground,as also of the as mightbe the case in a green crop. Seed Fig. 289, sown on the irregular surface of fig . 286, where a is a narrow deep furrow , b a shal

low one, c a large one of ordinary depth, and d one having a high and steep side, will be covered in an irregular manner , as

.00

REGULAR DEPTHS OF SEED BY DRILL - SOWING ,

116

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

seeds in the lines of rows as sown with tion may either be in rows or broadcast, the drill. The braird is shown also in though commonly it is in rows. The dif cross section from the drilled seed in fig. ference betwixt dibbling and drilling is, 290 from c to c, where the plants seem all that the latter places the seed in continu ous lines, wbile the former places it in Fig. 290. rows, at intervening distances in the row . с

The object of dibbling is to fill the ground

with plants with the least quantity of seeil. The seed when sown in rows with the

dibble appears as those in fig. 289, viewed along one row , and the plants from them REGULAR BRAJRD FROM DRILL - SOWN SEED. come up as shown in fig. 290, standing of the same height and strength, and their at intervals when also viewed along a

produce may reasonably be expected tobe row . The depth of the seed and the equal of the same quality. What makes drilled brairding of the plants are as uniform as seed be certainly retained at a uniform in the case of drilling, while the plants in depth is the harrowing of the land into each dibble hole stand independent of the a smooth state before the drill sows the rest. seed .

3527. The waste in seed . When sown 3525. Certain as the result of the in all these ways in equal quantities, this is

drill - machine is in depositing the seed at surprising, as may be determined both hy a stated depth, there are objections to reason and experiment. Wheat at 63 lb.

sowing corn in rows, which all drill-ma- the bush.el gives 87 of its seeds to the chines do, that are not applicable to drachm , or 701,568 to the bushel, (1856 ,) broadcast sowing ; and could the seed be in apothecary's weight, or 865,170 in deposited at a uniform depth in broadcast, avoirdupois weight. Now , 3 bushels of

the objections would be disposed of. One seed are sown on the acre, or 2,595,510 objection to all grain crops placed in rows grains of wheat. Suppose that each grain is, that the air,having free access along produces one stem , and every stem bears

the rows, encourages the growth of weeds; an ear containing the common number of todestroy which ,certain implements, named 32 grains, the produce of the acre should horse and hand boes, are used to stir the be 96 bushels ; but the heaviest crop in

ground. And, as in their progressive growth Scotland seldom exceeds 64 bushels the the plants throw out innumerable root- acre, so that 32 bushels to the acre, or 33

fibres in every direction, in search of food, per cent of the seed, is lost in the best those which occupy the open space between crops,and 58 per cent in an ordinary one the rows aredestroyed in common with the of 40 bushels. weeds ; and although no estimate can be formed of the amouut of injury which 3528. The waste in barley seed may be

plants sustain in such destruction of their estimated thus: -Chevalier barley at 57 lb. root- fibres, it is consonant to reason that the bushel, and 75 grains to the drachm , those fibres must be essential to the wel- gives 547,200 grains to the bushel, apothe

fare of the plants, otherwise they would cary's weight, (1911,)or 665,242 avoir not be sent forth by them . It would dupois weight. Four bushels of seed are therefore be worth while to ascertain by sown to the acre, which gives 2,660,968 experiment the comparative results derived from depositing seed broadcast at a uniform depth with the same quantity of seed drilled in rows at a like depth. The drill-sowing machines commonly in use are described under figs. 205 and 206.

grains to the acre ; and taking one stem from each grain, and the produce of an ear at 32 grains, the produce should be 128 bushels; but the best crop in Scotland does not exceed 60 bushels, which gives a loss of 53 per cent on the best, and of

62, on an ordinary one of 48 bushels. 3526. Dilble- sowing. - Dibbling, or 3529. In like manner the loss upon dibble sowing, is the distributing of seed bymeans of a dibble at givendistances, at a oats may be estimated. The potato oat of uniform depth in the soil, and the distribu. 47 lb. the bushel, and 134 grains to the

DIBBLING .

drachm , gives 806,144 grains to the bushel, apothecary's weight, ( 1930,) or 978,968 avoirdupois weight. Six bushels of oats are sown to the acre, which gives 5,879,808 grains to the acre ; and taking one stem

117

soil ; but the broadcast method involves a loss of seed beyond the others of 168 per cent — an anticipated result, since many of the seeds were necessarily left unburied on the surface, and some perhaps buried too

from each grain, and the number of grains deep by the barrow tines. Theseeds were in an ear at 44, the produce should be 264 all sown on the same day, the 19th March, bushels ; but the largest crop in Scotland and the thickest sown of the drilled and I know of, is 114 bushels to the acre, and broadcast brairded first on the 16th April.

a poor one is 36 bushels. The loss of seed For three nights after that, severe frosts on the best crop is more than one-balf, occurred, which may have had a more in and on the poor one six -sevenths.

jurious effect on the shallowest covered seed of the broadcast than on the other

3530. Another view of the thickness of kinds of sowing. Every one of the brairds seed as sown is this :-2,595,510 grains of seemed quite thick enough for a crop. wheat the acre give 536 grains to the square yard ; 2,660,968 grains of barley 3532. Mr MʻLagan extended the expe

give 550 grains to the square yard ; and riment by sowing 7 pecks of oats drilled, 5,879,808 grains of oats give 1214 grains or 252 grains to the square yard, and from

to the square yard. In the cases of wheat these 208 plants came up, giving a per and barley, the proportion of seed is in centage of 825. He also sowed 24 pecks proportion to their respective weights, to the acre broadcast, or 864 grains to the

but in the case of cats the seed is more square

yard, of which produced plants, than double in proportion to the weights giving a percentage of570671, only a little of the grains, probably because the weight more than in the former case of broadcast. of oats is made up by that of its thick husk. Thus, 7 pecks of oat seed gave the largest return of plants brairded .. Still the ulti

3531. Mr M‘Lagan, junior of Pum- mate yield from the respective quantities

pherston, Mid-Lothian, made experiments of seed sown has yet to be ascertained. at my request in the spring of 1849, for

the purpose of ascertaining the waste of

3533. Mr Hay of Whiterigg, in Rox

seedin sowing oats inthethree different ways of dibbling, drilling, and broadcast. The oats weighed 42 lb. the bushel. The dibbled holes were made 6 inches apart,

burghshire, also performed similar experi ments for me at the same time, by dibbling

and drilling wheat, barley, and oats, and by sowing oats in broadcast. The dillled

and 6 inches between the rows, making 36 seeds were put into holes within 3 inches

holes in the square yard, and each hole square to the number of 1 , 3, and 6 grains was supplied with from one to four seeds, in each hole, which gave respectively 144, making the quantity sown from one peck 432, and 864 grains to the square yard . to four pecks the acre ; and the seeds sown The seeds were sown on the 16th March drilled and broadcast were in the same 1849, and the plants counted on the 8th

proportion. In drilling and dibbling, the May. The results were these : seed was inserted 34 inches into the ground. After After

The results were these :

144

433

seeds . seeds .

Dibbled .

Drilled .

52 68 87

Of Wheat sown , 97 Barley , 95 Hopetoun 129

Percentage ,

270

257

226

*750

•714

.628

616

1009 plants came up .

687

1117

403

800

1332

407 413 405

823

1365

125 132

777 751

1315 1288

•67

.69

*66

•79

oats ,

Potato oats, 135

Birley do. 360

296 335

:::

120

53 78 94

:

49 75

864

Broadcast.

From 36 grains sown , 26 plants , 32 plants, 19 plants came up. 72 108 144

After Seedo.

Sherriff do . Percentage of

Wheat

There is not much difference in the braird

came up ,

Barley ,

•71 average 69 79 75

-94 -90 -92 91 ing of the seed sown dibbled and drilled, Oats , excepting the case where four seeds were sown; and this might have been expected, 3534. On the 25th March similar seeds since the seeds in both ways were deposited were sown in drills at the same rates per much in the same circumstances in the square yard, and the plants counted on

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

118

the 8th May, when the results were the ing ones, which were dibbled and drilled, following :-

and their advanced state in that time is an After After

After

indication that plants sown in spring tiller very quickly, after brairding, in favour

144

432

864

seeds . 105 86

Beeds. 327 318

Seeds. 652

747

1151

} 139

408

798

1345

Potato oats , 137

407

795

1339

of Wheat sown , Barley, Hopetoun oats ,

1084 plants came up .

::

3536. Taking the respective quantities of seed as having been sown on the square yard, both by MrHay and Mr M'Lagan, the quantities will be as follows onthe

Percentage of Wheat came up ,

Barley , Oats ,

-73

* 75

-60 96

73

* 75 average 74 .86 •73

94

92

able weather.

-94

acre : -

On comparing the brairds of the drilled

Grains.

Grains.

with the dibbled seeds, the barley and oats

do not exhibit much difference, but the wheat incurs less loss of seed when drilled than when dibbled, in the ratio of 1009 to

1084. On comparing the results obtained by Mr Hay in the cases of dibbling and drilling oats with those by Mr M‘Lagan,

36 per sq. yd.

1 peck per acre .

174,240

348,480

2 522,720 = 3 696,960 I bushel 1,393,920 = 2 3 2,090,880

72 108 144 288 432

576 720

- 2,787,840 = 4 - 3,428,800

5

4,181,760 = 6

864

Mr Hay obtained a braird of nine-tenths of the seed sown in both cases ; while Mr

3537. Mr Kenyon S. Parker made a n d seven -tenths; and, M‘Laga broadcast, he comparative experiment between drill sowing oats of obtaine the caseonly in

obtained a still smaller braird, namely, ing, dibbling,andbroad -casting wheaton clover lea, and the results show little dif

six -tenths.

ference between the drilled and dibbled

3535. After a lapse of ten days, on the crop with Newberry's dibbler,the differ 18th May, when rain had fallen in the in- ence only consisting in the straw being terval, the plants sown broadcast were longer and stronger,and the ears and grain

counted, and they were unexpectedly found bolder in the dibbled. in greater number than the seeds sown. The plants therefore must have tillered in the course of the ten days during the rain, and the tillering was ascertained to

be to the following extent : Seeds.

Plants .

315 Barley produced 360 325

405 930

bush . peck.

qr. bush .gal.

Weight

the acre .

the acre .

per bush , lb.

Broadcast, i 3 produced 3 7 1 Drilled, 1 2 4 3 1

62

4

63

at 12 in., Tillering. one-sixth. one -fourth . double .

Dibbled,

4

10

3

0

63

3538. Mr Thomas King Thedam , Little ments upon wheat deposited in eight differ 666 Potato do... ent quantities, dibbled at the same dis the in On account of the wet weather course of the ten days, these plants were tance, each having 40 holes, upon a space 471 Sherriff oats

Braxted, Essex, made, in 1848, experi

648 = one- fifth . one -sixteenth 704

520

longer in being counted than the preced- of fourteen square feet, with these results , Rate of

No. of Amount of Grains Grains per SOwn . square

Grains in each hole .

1 2

5 6

7 8

Rate of Seed per acre .

foot.

40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320

3

11 14 17 20

Pecks. 1 2 3 4

7 8 9

Pints. 3 6 10 12

3 6 9

Amended rate , Number ofWeight, in cluding according to the ears

quantitiesgiven produced . in (3536.) Pecks. 0 1 2

Pints . 14 12 10 8

Ounces .

4 5

14 4

67 97 157 170 174 242

6

2 0

224 222

3

7

straw and chaff .

12

16 26

265 264 40 36 38

THICK AND THIN SOWING .

“ The produce of a sheaf of wheat grown last year, and weighing 12 pounds, was 4 pounds net, or one-third of the gross; this season 12 pounds gross produced only 3 pounds net; therefore, as there are

119

have been much discussed and experimen

ted on by several parties, but none has expressed himself so conclusively on it as Mr Hewitt Davis, London, and farmer of Spring Park , near Croydon , in Surrey.

43,560 square feet in the acre, only one Mr Davis' farm contains 800 acres of high

ounce of wheat is required per square foot rented poor soil; bnt Scottishfarmers should to produce 2,722 pounds, which will be made acquainted that this farm stands amount by weight to something more than on a warm subsoil of chalk , an advantage 42 bushels, at 64 pounds to the bushel. which no farm of theirs possesses. Of

The foregoing experiment was made upon his practice, Mr Davis says, that the a gravelly soil,ofa tenacions quality, and practice throughout England is to sowtwo subject to grub and wireworm ; and the or three bushels of wheat to the acre, and .crop that surrounded my experiments was the yield seldom reaches 40 bushels, and from 6 pecks of seed per acre, drilled with more commonly less than 20 busbels, so 10 rows upon a 7 -feet stetch, and was that one- tenth at least of the crop grown in generalappearance much better than is consumed as seed, whilst a single grain

anyof thatgrown upon this thin -sowing ofwheat, planted where it has room to the greatest result was obtained from 240 hundred fold. The knowledge of these grains in the given space, which is here facts has induced me, in the course of the

system .” This experiment indicates that tiller out, will readily produce many

stated at 7 pecks 3 pints the acre ; but as last fourteen years, to make a variety of

the number of grains in a given space is made to show a larger quantity of seed by Mr Thedam than the calculations of Mr Hay and of Mr M'Lagan make it, I have

experiments, the results of which have clearly shown me that, independent of the waste, a positive and serious injury of far more consequence is done to the cropfrom

inserted a column of amended rates in the sowing so much seed . I bear in mind, that,

above table, by which the quantityof seed if so much be sown as to produce more

which produced the greatest result is alter- plants than the space will allow to attain ed to 5 pecks 4 pints, from 7 pecks 3 pints. to maturity, the latter growth of the whole will be impeded, and a diseased state will 3539. The question to which these par- commence as soon as the plants cover the ticular data give rise is, what quantity is ground, and continue till harvest. In too thick or too thin sowing, or what is consequence, I have gradually reduced my the least quantity of seed that should be proportion of seed - corn to less than a third sown to yield the largest crop ? The in- of what it was my practice to sow ; and quiry assumesmuch importance when we this reduction I have accomplished to the consider that from one-tenth to one- four- very evident improvement of my crops." teenth part of all the grain grown in the The quantities of seed which Mr Davis has country is every year put into the ground at length determined on sowing, in accord as seed. However small a fraction ofeither ance with these reasons, are, for of these proportions could be saved by an Rye, . . If bush , sown in Aug. and Sept. September other mode of sowing, would increase the Winter barley, 2 ...

profit of the farmer to that extent. If one bushel of seed could be saved on the acre, the quantity of seed saved would amount to 2,403,198 quarters, according to

Tares,

Oats,. .

Barley, Wheat,

the data furnished by Mr Couling to the Pease , House of Commons - the number of arable

.

Beans,

1) 6 pecks

S three sowings in Aug. Sept. & Oct. Jan, Feb. March .

3

Jan. Feb. March ,and April. Sept. and Oct.

9 9

Sept. and Oct.

5

1 .

.

.

Dec. Jan. & Feb.

acres in the kingdom being 19,225,583 - a It will at once be observed that the times

quantity of grain considerably exceeding of sowing here specified would not suit the annual import of foreign wheat for most of those crops in Scotland , and on the long period from 1801 to 1844.* this account alone the English farmer will always possess a great advantage over the 3540. Thick and thin sowing of seed Scottish . The results obtained by MrDavis, * Porter's Progress of the Nation, p. 138, 159.

120

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

after such scanty sowings, are 5 quarters barley per Scotch acre respectively, the of the best wheat, above 13 quarters of Scotch being one- fifth larger than the in oats, and above & quarters of barley to the perial acre . More recently, however, I acre on “ very inferior land,” from the have curtailed these quantities by nearly a bushel per acre, and, so far as I can judge, with manifest advantage to the crops. The

manure available on the farm . *

3541. Mr Mechi, of Tiptree Hall, Essex, straw is much more bulky, and the grain continues his experiments of comparative decidedly greater in quantity ; and, if sowing between onebushel and two bushels sown earlyenough, quite equalin quality the acre, and the advantage is in favour of to wbat it was under the thick -sowing

thin sowing, though the results are not system. I am persuaded that, were I to uniformly in favour of it, the products drill the seed either with a machine or a varying from 3 bushels 3 pecks to one plongh, I could safely and economically bushel the acre in favour of thin sowing, dispense with another bushel per acre .

and half a peck the acre in favour of thick Wbile making these remarks in favour of sowing. But it should be borne in mind that Mr Mechi’s thick sowing is only 2 -bushels the acre - a quantity equivalent to the thin sowing of many farmers.

thin sowing, I am not yet a convert to the English system of infinitesimal small quantities of seed, such as two or three pecks per acre, and can easily conceive circumstances under which this sowing

3542. Mr B. Hunt, Basingstoke, tried would be positively injurious.” Experi an experiment of thick and thin sowing of ence here also indicates the propriety of wheat on clover lea, betwixt 6 pecks of sowing in moderate quantity. seed to the acre, which produced 5 quar ters the acre, and 10 pecks of seed, which 3545. On comparing thebroadcast, drill

notonly produced 6 quarters the acre of ed, and dibbled methods of sowing the grain which was 4 16. the sack heavier, cereal grains, from what has been said on but half a ton ofmore straw. The results obtained by Mr Hunt have a tendency to uphold thick sowing, and he istherefore of the opinion that it is not safe to sow less than 7 or 8 pecks of good seed. As he

the subject, it must be owned that the broadcast method, which is the most com mon one throughout the country, imposes a loss of seed by the barrowing, which not only leaves soine of the seed exposed on does not mention the mode in which the the surface, but takes perlaps as many seed was sown, I conclude it was the com- too deep into the soil. These effects are mon mode of broadcast. produced whether the seed be sown bythe hand, ( 2316,) or by the broadcast machine, 3543. The experience of Scotland as to fig. 204, and cannot be avoided as long as

thin sowing is as yet limited. Mr Hay of Whiterigg tried an experiment in the spring of 1848 with wheat after turnips, by sowing 1.4 bushel against 3 bushels the acre, and the result was that the thin

the broadcast modes of sowing, as pre I think it would bedesirable could a plan be contrived of sowing grain broadcast at a uniform depth . It would be more econo

sently practised, are persevered in.

sown gave a greater produce by a small mical than dibbling or drilling, inasmuch quantity of strawand grain together, the as the horse and hand- hoeingof the crop chief advantage being in the saving of would be saved. seed ; but that the thick sown gave rather more than 2 bushels the acre more of

3546. A saving of one- tenth of the seed

grain , which was 1 lb. heavier the bushel.t corn is secured by using drilling or dibbling 3544. Mr John Haxton, Drumnod, in Fifeshire, thus expresses himself on this subject : — “ My own practice,” he says, “ used to be to sow 4 bushels of wheat after green crops, 5 bushels of early oats, 6 bushels of late oats, and 5 bushels of

machines instead of the broadcast, and wbich of these should be chosen njust be determined by other considerations than the proportion of plants produced by each, since both are nearly alike in that respect, from the thick as well as from the thin sowing.

* Davis On the Waste of Corn by Too Thick Sowing, p. 6-12. + Journal of Agriculture for January 1849, p. 638 .

THICK AND THIN SOWING.

121

3547. The drill does not work well in rived at the stage when their wants are of stony ground, it easily displacing the the most necessitous description ; and the coulters, or the stones are displaced by the struggle terminates in the least vigorous coulters, or the coulters ride over the tops ones dying off, and leaving the stronger, of some of them ; and where landfast which would have been as numerous with stones or the subjacent rock lie near the thinner sowing, but which in consequence

surface, drills would be certain of being of the struggle have been much impeded broken. The dibble is prevented pene- in growth ,and by which the ears and trating into the ground by even a small grains continue small, and yield a small stone,but perhaps no barm accrues to seed return. Thick sowing is advisable on newly

from depositing it upon stones under the broken up land, containing a large amount surface of the ground. With the exception of vegetable matter in an activestate of of such inconveniences, of which many instances might occur in Scotland, drilling or dibbling grain is preferable to sowing it broadcast as practised. One great advantage those possess is making the surface fine by harrowings and rollings,before the seed is sown, after which it is not disturbed

in its position. Reference to figs. 289 and 290 at once shows that the deposition of seed at a uniform depth is more likely to

decomposition , when when it is beneficial in re decomposition, pressing, by its numerous roots and stems,

that exuberance of growth which produces soft and sncculent steins, that become lodged and produce unfilled ears. Thin sowing has a tendency to make the roots descend deep ; and where a ferruginous subsoil exists, thick sowing keeps the roots nearer the surface, away from it. Thin sowing develops a large ear, grain,

produce a uniform crop than that at irre- and stem , but delays maturity. Thick gular depths and irregular distances, such sowing on old land in high condition ren as broadcast sowing necessarily deposits it. ders the plant diminutive, and hastens its maturity before the ear and grain bave

3548. On the comparative merits of attained their proper size. Thin sowing thick and thin sowing, experience has yet in autumn affords room to plants to tiller much to teach. The direct saving of seed and fill the ground in spring, while thin

effected by thin sowing recommends it at sowing in spring does not afford time for once for adoption ; but if this advantage the plant totiller much. Thick sowing in were all — unless the crop it produced were autumn makes the plants look best in win always good, of which there is no con- ter, but it gradually attenuates them as stant assurance — it would not produce a the spring advances . Thin sowing makes conviction of its superiority over thick them look worst in winter, but tobecome sowing. In so doubtful a position we may more full as the barvest approaches. You safely take the middle course, of sowing a thus see thata moderate quantity of seed moderate quantity of seed ; for I believe no of the cereal grains is the most prudent

doubt exists of very thick sowing, as practice to adopt generally ; and where

bitberto pursued, having wasted a large exceptional cases occur, as noticed above, proportion of the seed . In sowing, any the judgment must be particularly exer more than in other practices of busbandry, cised ; and after experience has certainly no absolute rule will apply to allcircum- established the most proper quantity for stances, and manyconsiderations should be every particular case, the difficulties of taken into account before a particular rule sowing will be removed, and its economical be adopted. I should say that farmers are, benefits realised .

generally, blamable for the lavish manner in which they throw the seed into the

3549. I have already described the

ground, and subject themselves to consider- mode of sowing grain broadcast, (2333 ) able loss in sowing more seed than the most and also in drill, (2339 ;) it now remaius extreme conditions of soil and season to describe the sowing of it with the dibble, warrant. The great evil of too thick sow- which is done by manual operation or with

ing, is the crowding the plants together machines. Dibbling may be performed by into a space where neither sufficiency of the band with a band dibbler as potatoes air or of room for their roots are pro- are in gardens, or with pins attached to vided. A struggle for existence between the side of a long piece of wood, and

the plants commences after they have ar- thrust with the foot into the ground, or

122

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

with small hand dibbles, thrust through is placed between the extremities of the

holes formed in a thin board of wood. În handles a a, prevents the large wheel f all these modes the seed is deposited into being pressed closer to the ground than is the holes so formed at stated distances of needful. A man pulls the machine for

7 inches between the rows, 4 inches apart ward by means of a rope attached to the in the rows, and 24 inches in depth, bythe stilts at b, or, what is better, a bridle and hands of boys and girls, and the earth is shackle might be mounted there, for yoking put over them with the foot. The cost of a pony or horse to draw the machine. As

these modes of dibbling grain is from 5s. the wheel is drawn forward by the horse, to 73. 6d. the acre, and of pease and beans it turns round by its action on the ground, from 38. 6d . to 4s. the acre. the projecting points e of the hollow tubes acting as dibbles and making holes in the

3550. But machineswill no doubt super- ground, one portion of which dibbles, before sede hand labour in dibbling grain, should leaving the ground, slide upon the other that mode of sowing be ultimately adopted, half, making an opening through which the and they can do thework at one -third of the seeds are deposited in the holes. The seed expense incurred by the band. The dib- descends to the requisite number, from the

bling machine first brought into notice,and which is yet the most perfect of its class, was invented by MrJames Wilmot Newberry, of Hook Norton, Chipping Norton , Oxfordshire. It is a very ingeniously

hopper g , by means of feeding- rollers, moved by the pinion, which is set in motion by teeth placed on the circumference of the disc d. The disc is supported in its centre by an axle revolving in its ends on plum

constructed machine, and rather elaborate mer blocks.

In using this machine, a man

in its construction, which will always holds by the two stilts a a , while a horse maintain its high price ; but it deposits draws the machine in the given line. This every kind of seed at given distances, in line not being in that of the drill, a rigger any quantity, with the utmost precision . like that of the drop- drill, fig. 261 , is here Fig. 291 is a view in perspective of one of required for the horse to be yoked to . The stay i supports the machine when at Fig 291 . rest. The price of the 5 and rowed dibbles is £ 60, that of the one -rowed on wheels £ 13, and a hand one, without

wheels, £6. This one-rowed dibble is said to be well suited for sowing mangold -wur zel seed on the top of the drill. ſ

3551. Since then a dibbling machine has been presented to public notice by Dr Samuel Newington, of Knole Park, Frant, near Tunbridge Wells, in Kent.

Fig. 292

is a view in perspectiveof one having six depositors : the box in front contains the seed, and the points of the depositors are NEWBERRY'S ONE - ROWED DIBBLING MACHINE.

seen to rest upon the ground, which has

the forms in which this machine is made, been barrowed smooth. The depositors being one -rowed . It consists of a hollow are made to deposit the seed at the desired Alat disc, d , which contains the machinery depths, elevating or depressing them, and that directs the seed from the hopper 9 keeping them in their places by pinching into the hollow tubes, e , 18 of which are screws. The machine is worked by tak connected with and project from the cir- ing hold of the upper rail by both bands, cumference of the disc d , like the spokes of and, on pressing upon it, the depositors, a wheel from its nave, and their points pass whenwithdrawn, leave the requisite num

through the larger outer ring f, which re- ber ofseeds in each hole the depositors have tainsthe hollow tubes or distributors of seed in their respective places, and prevents them sinking into the ground beyond the requisite depth. The fore wheel c, wbich

made, by the machinery in the interior of the machine. By pressing down the upper handle, the depositors press every seed firmly into a solid bed, which is so small

TILLERING OF ROOTS.

123

as to precludethe fear of their containing and, whenat b, let him shift that end ofthe line from b tof, and then dibble the seed in By changing the cups, the quantity of the from d to c, where, let him shift the end water, and yet completely buries the seed.

seed is regulated, as well as the description of the line at a to e, which brings the line of seed. With a machine having 6 deposi- straight from f to e.

Before starting with

tors, a man can dibble an acre in 10 the dibbling from e, let him remove the end of the line at c to g , and then dibble the seed from e to f, where he shifts the end of the line from d to h, which brings

Fig. 292.

the line straight from g to h. Shifting the line from f to i, he proceeds precisely as

he did when at b, and so on alternately from one side of the field to the other. 3553. Another circumstance wbich af fects the relation between the seeds sown

and the plants produced, is the depth to which the seed is buried in the ground.

In ill-ploughed land, such as in fig. 286, seeds sown broad - cast falling between ill assorted furrows, sink to the bottom of the

furrow slice, where they are buried so deep as to become dormant or lose their vitality.

Seeds are very differently affected by depth, some sorts germinatingfrom a con NEWINGTON'S SIX -ROWED DIBBLING MACHINE .

siderable depth, whilst others become dor

mant or die, if placed at a comparatively hours, which makes the cost about 2s. the small distance below the surface of the acre .

In using the machine after the first ground. I have traced the stery of a plant line is laid off straight next the fence, the of barley as far as 9 inches below the sur

workman continues to keep the other lines face, from which depth it had penetrated straight at the stated distance by the mark left on the ground by the machine. The seeds are put in at 4 inches apart in the rows, and the quantity is varied by either altering the distance between the rows, or

the ground from theseed whenceit sprung ; while oats, buried 7 inches deep in the soil, will die. This accounts for the ab sence of oats, which have slipped down between the furrow slices of lea, where

increasing the number of seeds in each they perish. The risk of thus losing the hole, but it is not desirable to exceed seed sown on old lea, the furrow -slices of

three seeds in each hole. The cups which which are difficult to be laid close to each contain the seed are of four sizes,and can other in ploughing, induced me to re be easily removed or replaced by meansof commend the partial harrowing of the screws . The price of a machine with six surface of ploughed old lea before the depositors, which is the usual size, is £2, 10s. seed is sown, ( 2491.) The roots of barley strike downwards a considerable depth, 3552. When a man uses a small dibbler,

which indicates that barley -seed should

a convenient mode of keeping the lines have a deep seed -furrow , as I recommended straight in sowing is this : - Take two long in (2689 ;) but the roots of oats spread and

lines and stretch them along the side of keep near the surface, like those of the the field to be sown, at a determinate dis- Scots fir and the beech, and hence oats tance between them ; a band cd are the two

thrive better upon shallow gronnd than

lines at a distance between them of a cand

barley.

bd . Let him dibble in the seed along ab, a

-6 d

3554. Wheat possesses a property in its roots common to both barley and oats. The seed will bear to be deep sown — not

e

f

9

h

so deep as barley, but deeper than oats,

i

and not deeper than 6 or 7 incbes ; and

124

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

after the germ has become a stem , it puts being out of the reach of frost, will then out another set of roots about an inch be- be enabled to send up nourishment to the Fig. 293.

low the surface. The

crown, by means of the pipe of communi

deeper may be called the seminal, and the upper the coro-

cation .”

nal root of the wheat

3556. Now the form which the plant Fig. 294.

plant. Fig. 293 shows the arrange

assumes, when sown near the surface, is dif ferent from this, and

ments of the roots

is seen in fig. 294,

under the surface,

where a is the seed

where a is the seed

with its seminal roots ;

its seminal

b the pipe of commu

roots c, and the germ b rising from it to

nicationbetween them and the coronal roots

the surface of the

ground at ſ, above

c c, which are a little beneath the surface d .

which the stem , with its leaves, are seen .

ing at a less distance

with

The coronal root c be

About an inch be low the surface at d

from the surface than

are formed the coro nal roots e e, the office of which is not

munication is shorten

before, the pipe of com ed to the smallest lon gitude. “ Hence it is obvious," continues the same writer, that

only to maintain the plant, but to form

SHALLOW SOWN WHEAT. wheat sown superfici the multiplication of ally must be exposed to the frost,” while

the site from which

the plants proceeds the life of the plant is placed in jeopardy when it sends forth “ from the shortness of the pipe of com

its tillers. At what- munication ," placing the seminalroot with ever depth the seed in reach of the frost. The plant, in that

mayhave beeninches, sown, sitnation, has no benefit from its double from root. On the contrary, when the grain has been properly covered, the seminal formed at one inch and coronalrootsare kept at areasonable 2 to 5 the coronal roots are

at d, the difference

distance. The crown, being well- nourished

DOUBLE ROOTS of being the length of during the winter, sends up numerous THE DEEP SOWN WHEAT. the connecting tube stalks in spring. On the tillering of the a b, according to the depth the seed had corn the goodnessof the crop principally depends.

been deposited.

A field of wheat dibbled , or

sown in equidistant rows by the drill, al 3555. “ As the increase and fructifica- ways makes a better appearance than one tion of the plant depends upon the vigorous

sown with the harrow . In the one, the

absorption of the coronal roots, it is no pipe of communic ion is regularly of the wonder that they should find themselves same length , but at in the other is irregu so near the surface where the soil is always lar, being either too long or too short." the richest .

I believe I do not err when In the

I call this vegetable instinct .

3557. The conclusions which the fore

northern counties wheat is generally sown going statements warraut are evidently late.

When the frost comes, the coronal

these :—that the wheat sown before winter

mots, being young, are frequently chilled . should be as deeply covered with earth as This inconvenience may, bowever, be easily to be beyond the reach of injurious frost,

prevented,by sowing more early, and bury- say 4 or 5 inches ; that in spring the ing the seed deeper.

The seminal roots

coronal roots will set out from the estab

* Georgical Essays, vol. i. p. 67-9.

DEPTH OF SOWING.

125

lished plants abundance of tillers or stools ; clover seeds should be covered, to pro that wheat sown in spring should be lightly duce the greatest number of plants. The covered, little exceeding one inch ; that the same weight of seed was sown of each tillers or stools will be few ; that there- kind, and as different seeds differ in bulk

fore the autumn wheat ought always to be dibbled or drilled to make the pipes of communication long, and of uniform length ; that spring wheat may be sown broadcast; and that autumnal sown wheat should have

and weight, the numbers of each kind differed materially. I think the better plan would bave been to have sown the same number of seeds of each kind, and the proportion which came up of the plants

less seed than that sown in spring.

would have been more easily ascertained than by the method adopted by Mr Stir

3558. Depth of sowing affects no plants ling. Each kind of seed was covered from so sensibly as the grasses. The late Mr a quarter of an inch to three inches of Stirling of Glenbervie, near Falkirk, made depth in the soil. They were sown on

the following experiments to ascertain the 1st of July and counted on the 1st of the depth which the common grass and August 1844. No. of seeds

KINDS OF SEEDS EXPERI

Propor. No. of tio n of plants plants

COVERED AT

sown

that

13

1

14

16 13 10 13 10

19 10 9 13 6

348

31

23

20

18

12

9

300

30

23

10

15

10

8

192

17

17

16

15

12

7

52

39

37

19

16

tail, Phleum pratense major , Evergreen wood meadow grass, Poa nemoralis sempervirens, )

528 228

24

14

4

1

Rib grass, Plantago lanceolata ,

252 192 144 96

22 17

25 16 11 10

19 14

17 11 4 6

14 11 3 4

Cocksfoot, Dactylus glomerata , Large fescue, Festuca elatior, heterophilla , Hard fescue, Festuca duriuscula , Meadow Fox -tail, Alopecurus pratensis,

11 9 2 4 2

6

4

1

5

3

1

6

3

1

15

7

5

0

11 8

10 4

8

6

11 7

11 9

9

up.

198 145 115 142 117

.57 .51 .38 .42 .36

124

.35

114

.38

8

4 5

6

2

::::

1

2

::

6 8

..

13

12

::

Yellow clover, Medicago lupulina ,

20

21 8 5 9

14

3900 358 303 241 181 144 118 90 65

..

Red clover , Trifolium pratense , White clover, Trifolium repens,

29 24 30

..

Timothy grass or Meadow Cats'

that came

up.

:

Meadow fescue , Festuca pratensis, Varied leaved fescue, Festuca

came

3

:

19 13 15 16 12

348 276 300 312 324

2

:

28

27 30 20 21 15 22 20 24 2816

Perennial ryegrass , Lolium perenne, Italian rye grass, Lolium Italicum ,

24

27

+ 22 , inch, inch, inch . inch .inch. inch . inch , inch . inch. inch , inch . inch

NON

1

..

alto gether.

..

MENTED ON

37 21 14

9

94

.49

190

.36

43

.18

134 85 38 42

.53 .44 .26 .43

1581

.40

It will be seen from this table that in only may have been induced in the young three cases did the number of plants come roots, from the seeds having been sown

up exceeding one half ofthat of the seeds in soil in a green -house, where the tem sown, the largest proportion being in that of the perennial rye grass — the average of the whole being under one half, viz. 40. The clovers came up in a smallproportion, particularly the white, which is generally considered a hardy plant in this climate. The rye grasses came up much better than the clovers. Of the depths, the quarter of an inch covering gave the largest return of plants, and 16 per cent more than

perature would be more conducive to reproduction than that of the open air. This experiment, therefore, though evi dencing much loss of seed, shows a more favourable result than should be expected in the field . 3559. The scanty braird obtained from the large number of turnipseedssown, there being about 292,600 seeds of swedes sown

half an inch; and to show that the quarter in the double drill on every acre, while only of an inch is the most favourable depth for 19,360 plants are required, it has fre all the seeds, most of them gave more quently occurred to me that many of the plants than the seeds sown, which indi- seeds are buried too deep in the drill by cates a tillering from the roots before the

the conlters, and that this circumstance

germ had penetrated the soil; and this might account for the want of sufficient * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, for January 1845, p . 341.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

126

braird on strong soils in unfavourable sea- greater weakness than it in penetrating sons, for even that small number of plants. from 4 inches in depth.

The conclusion

This point cannot be exactly ascertained I would draw is, that the seeds of the in ordinary times, as it requires the concomitant circumstances of strong soil and an unfavourable season in which to conduct the experiment; but I made an ex periment in the summer of 1849, in June, to ascertain the effects of deep sowing in comparison with shallow in themostfavourable circumstances for vegetation — a free

swedes should notbe sown deeper than 3 inches, those of the yellow Aberdeen 2 inches, and of the white globe if inch. 3560. The property ofthe cereal plants to tiller

or stool-- thatis,to send upa number of stems fromthesame root — isa valuableone in an econo mical point of view. But for this property, when the seeds of the cereals happened to be much de

soil cherished in the high temperature of a stroyed by insects under ground, or by the un

vinery. Seeds of swedes, yellow Aber- favourable state of the ground or of the air for deen, and white globe turnips were experi- vegetation,or from thedestructive effects of frost, or when the young plants are destroyed

mented on, 40 of each of which were

by insects as they appear above the surface, the

placed in friable soil taken from under fine crop would be so scanty on the ground that it old pasture, at 1, 2, 3, and 4 inches in ' would most probably be ploughed up by the far depth in pots, at 8 o'clock in the even- mer as profitless, and another substituted in its

ing of the 6th of June, and the plants stead. The extentof tillering dependson the of soil, weather,and the space al came up at the time and in numbers as circumstances lowed the planttogrowin. A free soil,admitting follows :

the shoots of the radicles to penetrate easily,

encourages tillering, other circumstances being

SWEDES. Inches Plants In in depth . came up. days. Hours. 4 31 12 From 40 seeds 1 2 29 5 18 3 4

20 10

6 8

21

18

In pro portion . • 77 • 72 • 50 .25

YELLOW ABERDEEN . 1

::::

2 3

4

28 25 14 5

weaker ones.

4

10

4

18 13 14

5 8

•70 .62 35 .12

3561. When the cereal plants find abundance of room in which to shoot their radicles around,

they do so vigorously, with an apparent deter WHITE GLOBE. 1 2

:i

equal, more than a stiff hard soil. The weather when moist and warm promotes tillering. Unless plants have space for their roots, or are crowded together, they will not tiller. Tillering implies an instinctive faculty in plants to take advantage of all the food that will support them, and it is strikingly exemplified in the stronger plants in a crowded state, overcoming and killing the

3 4

22

18 12

7

4 4

7

7

10 13 0 13

•55 .45 .30

.17

On comparing these results there will at once be seen the large proportion of plants produced by the seeds sown at 1 and 2 inches in depth, compared with those at 3 and 4 inches. The proportion at 4 inches

mination to occupy it to the exclusion of other plants ; but when they are not crowded together, and are not more numerous than to occupy the ground fully, they exhibit no tendency to tiller. The question which such an observation gives rise to is, Whether it is better to allow few plants to fill the ground by tillering, or to fill the ground

at once with the requisite number of plants ? The answer to this question must be given conditionally. In naturally fertile soils, and in those rendered fertile by art, tillering will take place, and should be encouraged, as the

was so small that it is quite possible that straw and ears of tillered plants are much stronger and larger than those of single ones.

if the experiments had been conducted in the open air, instead of in a warm vinery at a temperature of about 75º Fahrenheit, no plants would have appeared at all, since

In sucha condition ofsoil, a small quantity of seed will, therefore, suffice, evenin early spring, as it is in that season alonethat tillering takes place in asensible degree; but then the seed must not

sown so deep, or so late , as to deprive the those which did appear were quite puny. be plant of the time requiredby its tillering to

Of the kinds ofseeds sown, the swedes gave occupy the ground fully. The extent of tillering

the most vigorous plants, these being al- is sometimes remarkable. Colonel Le Couteur ways the largest sized seed. Of the other mentions a downy variety of wheat which tillers the extent of 32 plants,* and from 5 to 10 two kinds, the white globegave generally to stems are a very common tillering forordinary

the weakest, being the smallest sized seed,

varieties of wheat. Barley has also tillered as

though the yellow Aberdeen showed much as wheat, though generally this species of * Le Couteur On the Wheat Plant, p. 29.

TRANSPLANTATION OF WHEAT.

127

grain shows less tendency to do so than either the same manner as the seed, out of the same wheat or oats, the last indicating fully as strong a tendency as wheat. In weak soils, and in those

hopper, in which a division is made to separate the seed from the manure ; and both fall through

in low condition, the tendency to tiller is much

spouts, one placed behind the other. The ad

checked , each plant being as if conscious of the

vantages resulting from this mode of sowing

inability of the soil to support more than itself.

wheat on spongy soil are, that the horse does

Hence the practice is to sow more seed in low

not tread on the seed, and the seed requires no

than in high conditioned land, and yet ability to covering in with the harrow ; but the state of the support the larger quantity of seed is just the soil for which this method of sowing is adapted reverse. Still, what can the farmer do than af- would be entirely changed by thorough draining.t ford the soil as much seed as will certainly pro 3564. A mode of saving seed to a greater duce as many plants as will occupy the soil fully ? It would be imprudence in him were he degree than by dibbling and drilling, is by trans to act otherwise, though a large proportion of plantation. This is done by sowing a small

the seed should be ultimately lost. The best way portion of ground with seed early in the season , for him to escape from such a dilemma is to put the soil in high condition, and reap the advantages derivable from tillering.*

taking up the plants as they grow , dividing them into single plants, and transplanting them . By thus dividing the plants, as they tiller into single plants, at four periods of the season , a very small

3562. The great loss in plants compared to the numbers of seed sown, may be accounted for from natural causes. Birds pick up seeds exposed on the surface after broadcast sowing.

quantity of seed will supplyas many plants as would cover a large extent of ground. Though wheat no doubt bears transplanting very well,

Many vermin , such as the rabbit, devour the young germ as it penetrates the soil, and many insects subsist in the grub state on the stems and

yet as the scheme implies the use of much ma nual labour, it is questionable if it will repay

the expense.

The proposed method has been

tested by experiment, and the question of com

thus :—Suppose 440 roots of young plants ; but I suspect that most parative expense stands of wheat are sown on the 1st of July, of the seed destroyed is so by insects before grains , on the supposition that every seed germi it germinates. We have seen how much of the and nates, by the beginning of August each seed will ingredient of the seed is converted into grape afford 4 plants, or in all, 1,760 plants. sugar, just at the germination of the radicle At the end of August these will living animal is fond ofsugar, every as and (it3512;) 5,280 produce is natural in the very numerous coleopter In September these again 14,080 ous insects which inhabit the soil, especially in And in November these last will spring, when the insect creation generally bursts produce 21,120 .

.

into active life, to revel on the large quantity of

sweet food presented to them at thetimethey The time occupied in sowing the 440 grains, and are most in want of food - in the grub state. dividing and transplanting the produce of them , The myriads of voracious grubs existing on the grain sown, cannot buthave a sensible effect on the limited quantity consigned to the soil. Were it not

stands thus :

forthe quickness ofgermination and vegetation,it

August beginning ,

is quite possible that all the seed sown might

1,760 1,760 August, end , taking up 1,760 dividinginto . 5,280 planting 5,280 September , taking up 5,280 dividing into . 14,080 planting 14,080 November , taking up • 14,080 dividing into 21,120

lost, even although that state of weather also tends to retard the development and suppress the numbers of the insect race .

sowing,

440 grains

} taking up dividing into .

planting

.

.

.

.

3563. A mode of drilling wheat similar in

planting

.

0

440 plants,

21,120

20 20

1

::::::::::

thus be devoured ; and accordingly we find that, whenever the weather is such as to retard germination , the largest quantity of the seed is

Hours . Min .

July

3 1 3

10 4 9

28 11 14 42

10 30 28 30 33 24 23 9 44 4

14

effect to ribbing with the small plough, (2628 and 49 130 2630 ,) is accomplished with the common plough and a single horse, and, if necessary, any species Equal to 13 days, 4 hours' work, at 10 hours a of dry manure may be deposited in the furrow . day. Of these say 13ļ days, 5 days may be The seed is dropped out of a hopper placed in reckoned for women and boys occupied in taking the bosom of the plough , the quantity of which up and dividing the plants, which, at 10d. per is regulated by a grooved axle, made to revolve day, will cost 4s. 2d . The remaining 81 days by a small wheel, which receives its motion by are for men transplanting, at 10s. per week, or being carried along the ground with the plough. 1s. 8d. a day, which will cost 148. 2d. more ; The immediate effect of the operation is to cover

both 18s. 4d. per acre. The seed for the plants,

the seed -wheat with the plough -furrow , which half a bushel at 44s. the quarter, or 6s. 6d. the prevents its being thrown out by the frost in bushel, would cost 2s. 9d . The entire cost spring in soft and spongy land, and to cause the would be £ 1 , 1s. ld. The saving of seed from crop to grow in rows 9 inches apart. The pul- the ordinary quantity sown would be the diffe verised manure is sown at the same time and in rence of cost between half a bushel and three * British Farmers' Magazine, No. vi . old series, p. 15, 1827. + Mark Lane Express for November 24, 1842.

128

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

bushels, or 139. 9d. So that the loss on the taking possession of the pasture fields, it is transplanting over sowingwouldbe 7s. 4d . “ In necessary to inspect the state of the fences theonly way of executing this plan is todibble enclosing them ,and to put them into such in the seed, 2 grains in a hole, about 4 inches repair as to offer no temptation to the stock from each other, the plants to be taken up when to scra ble through neglected gaps, to the

they are in aproperstate, and divided into 5, injury notSometimes only of the good fence,deal but ofwork them

which would be as many on an average at that selves.

a

of

is

time as could skilfully be made, and then planted

outat once, where they are to remain, thus requiredto put grass-fields in a proper state for the reception of stock , owing principally to the nature of the soil, and 3565. Suppose this methodwere adopted, the partly to the state of the weather. number of grains of wheat required for 1 rood getting rid of all the intermediate dividings." *

would be 391,040, which would be about half-a bushel, at a cost of 2s. 9d.; and, consequently,

3567. On every kind of soil, the small

about half-a-bushel ofwheat will plant 195,520 stones lying upon the pasture should be holes. If each hole gives 5 plantson anave- gathered by the field -workers, and carted

or to beItbroken of drains, for theforusethe rage, which may be reasonably expected, there away may farm -roads. into metal

would be at the disposal of the farmer about

977,600 plants,a quantity sufficient to plant3 happen that the throng ofother field-work

acres at 18 inches apart.

planting so many plants, suppose they are taken may prevent the assistance of horses and

up,separated, and planted again by, say, 25 per- carts being given for this purpose, in which ers, in all50persons, and allowing each planter in small heaps upon the furrow -brow of

sonstaking up, dividing, and supplying 25 plant- case the stones should begathered together boys and girls at 6d. per day — they would take

every other single ridge; but in doing this, it should be remembered that many such 3 acres would thus be £8, 15s. Wheat-seed for 3 heaps of stones occupy much ground, and, days to do it in. The cost of transplanting the

acres, sown in the usual way of 3 bushels to the acre, would cost £2, 9s. 6d. at 44s. the quarter.

of course, prevent the growth of as much

The whole matter would stand thus :

grass, so that it is much better practice to cart them away at once, although the gathering should be delayed fora few

Cost of half bushel of wheat, Cost of dibbling quarter of acre , Cost of transplanting 3 acres,

Cost of sowing 3 bushels of wheat, Loss on transplanting 3 acres,

£0 2 0 1 8 15

9 3

0

£8 19 0 2 96 £6

9

6

Or £2, 3s. 2d , the acre .

days, and even after the stock have been put into the fields. When carts are used, the stones are thrown directly into them ; whereas, in making heaps, they require to be carefully put together, which wastes time, and they have to be removed after Some farmers are regardless of all . gathering the stones from the grass-fields to be pastured ; while all acknowledge

ON REPAIRING THE FENCES OF PASTURE

that those for hay ought to be cleared of

FIELDS .

stones to save the scythes from injury

when cutting the grass. On clay soils few 3566. Having placed in the ground the or no stones are found, and in wet weather seeds of all the crops which will be ma-

no cart should be allowed to go, or stones

tured in the course of the following be gathered, op new grass on any soil. autumn , we must now bestow some at tention on the treatment, during summer, 3568. Every field, whether of new or of the live stock, for whose special use are old grass, should be rolled with the smooth those crops of roots, and straw , and forage, roller, fig. 222, some time before the

the culture of wbich has hitherto occupied our time and skill. The live stock are supported in summer chiefly on pasture grasses and forage plants. We shall first consider the management of pastures, as they come first into use, and then we shall

stock enter it ; and it is clear that the ground cannot receive all the benefits of rolling as long as stones are allowed to remain on its surface.

The best time for

rolling is when the surface is dry, not when hard as well as dry ; for whengrass,

treat of the forage plants ; but before particularly young grass, is rolled in a * Gardeners' Chronicle for October 1843.

REPAIRS OF FENCES.

129

wet state, it becomes bruised and black- The stones left on making the repairs ened, but, when dry, it is elastic, and should be immediately removed. able to bear the pressure of the roller

without injury.

Light land will bear

3571. In making repairs in all sorts of

rolling at any time when the surface is fences, it should be borne in mind to keep dry ; but plants are liable to be bruised at a passage for the shepherd from field to fieldwhen looking after his flock . Such on clay land, and such land in a soft state facilities are afforded by leaving small becomes hardened or encrusted by rolling. openings at the corners of fields, or by The rolling of heavy land thus requires placing wooden stiles across the fence; and all times between the roller and hard clods

consideration ; but a good criterion of its it is better for the fences that these are being in a fit state for the roller, is when made at once, than thatthe shepherd should

the clods crumble easily with the pressure of the foot, and do not press flat, or enter whole intothe soil. The rolling is always given across the ridges, (2475.) After rolling, thegrass is found to grow rapidly,

have afterwards to make them for himself. He is the best judge of where they should be placed, in theshort cuts to be taken from field to field .

if the weather is at all favourable.

3572. Besides the fences, the gates of grass - fields require inspection andrepairs,

3569. While the surface of the field is so as they may be put into a useful state thus preparing for the reception of stock, for the season. When a post is broken,

a new one should be the hedger should be engaged in repairing or a bar awanting,carpenter, and the iron the fences of thorn hedges. In this he is supplied by the frequently assisted by the shepherd, and work should be repaired by the smith . in case of no professed hedger being on the farm , the shepherd himself undertakes

3573. The most convenient position for

the duty. The repairing chiefly consists a gate, for easy entrance into and egress in filling up gaps, which are rendered from a field , is at the end of one or both fencible by drawing a thorn branch be- beadridges, whichare always regarded as tween the hedge roots, or by driving a the boundaries of fields. couple of stakes into the face of the hedge 3574. Field -gates should always be bank behind the gap, and nailing 2 or 3 short railson them, orin wattling them with made to fold back upon a fence, to open

branches of trees or of thorn, or by setting beyond the square, and not to shut of a dead hedge uponthebedge-bank . There themselves. When they shutofthem should nothing be placed in the gap, as is selves, and are not far enough pushed often done, to theprevention of thelateral back when opened, they are apt to catch extension of the thorn -plants on either the wheel of a cart when passing, and to

side to fill it up, which the shoots will be broken , or the post to be snapped as do in time in a narrow gap. A wide gap under by the concussion; and as self-shut

may require to be filled up with living plants, or with layers from the hedge on both sides. Every gateway in a field, not required for the season , should be filled up

with a dead hedge.

tinggates are often left unfastened bypeople who pass through them , requiring greater attention than is usually bestowed on such

matters, the stock, particularly young horses, wbich seem to take delight to loiter aboutgates,would then escape from the field.

3570. Stone-fences should be repaired Young horses loiter about gates to rub by a dry stone mason, and all they re- against them, to prevent which it is neces quire is chiefly the replacing of some sary to wattle thorns into the bars. cope- stones, and the rebuilding of any stones in the walls, that may have been 3575. I have found an excellent plan driven down by violence. It is seldom of fixing a hanging post is to dig as nar that the stones 80 driven down will repair row a hole as is practicable for the pur

the dilapidations, so that a few fresh ones pose, 3 feet deep, and at the bottom lay a

should be laid down at the gaps for the flat stone of about 15 inches square, and use of the mason . Every gateway not 7 or 8 inches thick , through the centre of required for the season should be built np . which is cut a hole of 8 or 9 inches in VOL . II .

I

130

PRACTICE

SUMMER .

diameter, to take in the lower end of the of a spruce tree, with the branches sawn off post, dressed with the axe to fitthe hole. square, not quite close to the trunk , and the

Earth alone is then put in spadefuls into the stubs thus left are rubbed smooth by hole, and made firm around the post with a scratching,

rammer up to the surface of the ground, in which is sunk the stone, at the edge of

the upper face of which the heel-post of the

ON THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT SHEEP.

gate is made to rotate in a shallow hollow

made to fit it. Fig. 295 shows the different Fig. 295.

3577. When last treating of sheep, in regard to the lambing of ewes, we left the ewes and lambs upon the young grass,

(2555,) at wbich time the sheepwere feed ing on turnips, in the mannerdescribed in the early part of winter (940) ; and they continue there until all the turnips allotted to them are consumed .

3578. When the turnips allotted them are all consumed , and thetime has arrived

for the last of the turnip land to be

ploughed up for barley, ( 2685,) the hoggs receive a change of treatment. The wether- hoggs are either sold to the dealer off the turnips, or put to grass till shorn of their wool, and then disposed of. The circumstance that determines which of

these ways they should be treated, is the state of the wool and mutton markets.

If you find, on examination,that the hoggs are in a condition to realise as much SECURE MODE OP FASTENING THE HANGING - POST OF A FIELD -GATE .

money off the turnips as they probably will, after being kept a month longer on

parts of this mode of fastening the hang- grass, and washed and shorn , it is more ing -posts of field -gates; where a b is the profitable to dispose of them at once ; and hole into which the post d is sunk, and c besides this, should you fear the extent of the stone in the hole e, of which the end of grass to prove insufficient to support them the post is inserted and secured . Water in improving condition till they are shorn, passingthrough the stone, the end of the a necessity exists for parting with them

post will be preserved ; and further so by immediately off the turnips. But should being in the bark, smeared with coal tar, you find the grass able to maintain them and the upper part d is planed and paint- in condition, and that the wool market will ed. The earth is rammed hard into the probably be brisk , it would be advisable to pit a b to the surface of the ground, in retain and shear them. which is sunk at f a stone, on which the

3579. If you determine on selling the heel-post of the gate rotates. Part of the bedge fence of the field in which the wether-hoggs, you should first ascertain gate is placed is shown, as also the crook their value ; and in attempting this you on which the gate ishung ,in the gate -post will perceive, that a sheep wearing its above d .

coat of wool cannot be subjected to the ordinary rules of measurement ; nor can

3576. Every pasture- field should be pro- its true weight be found by weighing it vided with one good rubbing - post stand- alive, since the weight of the wool enters

ing 6 feet in height above the ground. It as a disturbing element into the calcula should not be so rough as to injure the tion, and the value of that material de skins of the animals, or so smooth as not pends on very different circumstances from

to titulate the skin.

Perhaps the best that of mutton . A new -shorn sheep may

material for a rubbing -post is the trunk be either weighed or measured, and its

DISPOSAL OF FAT SHEEP .

131

value ascertained very nearly. The eye the progress of the inside has increased,

and the hand alone must be employed to until a fattening disposition has been en judge of the value of a rough sheep, and couraged by the acquired condition ; and nomore certain way of acquiring a correct the result is, that the space between the judgment of the weight exists than by intestines and loin is filled up with net and

handling it, except by slaughtering one kidney fat. By this time, the cellular of average size and weighing the four spaces around each fibre of muscle has quarters.

received its share, and the fat deposited

there in quantity gives the meat the 3580. Hoggs, when put on turnips in marbled appearance. The interfibrous winter, are generally lean ; for although spaces are the last to receive the fat ; but they had been in good condition as lambs after the deposition has begun, every when weaned from their mothers in sum- other part simultaneously receives its share, mer, their growth in stature is so rapid , the back and kidneys receiving the most, that their flesh is but little intermixed with the former becoming nicked, that is, the fat. For the first few weeks on turnips, fat is felt through the skin to be divided

and in the most favourable circumstances into two portions, from the tail-head along as to quality of food, warmth of shelter, dryness of land, and pleasantness of weather, they make no apparent advancement in condition ; they rather seem to fall off, the wool looks collapsed, and indicates a tendency to delicacy in the sheep, in consequence , I suppose , of the turnips operating medicinally on their constitution

and the hollows between the breastbone and the inside of the fore-legs, andbetween the cod and the inside of the thighs, com pletely filled up. When in this state, the

as an alterative, if not as a laxative. But

sheep is said to be fat or ripe.

immediately after that trying period for young sheep, particularly trying in bad

the back -bone to the top of the shoulder, the tail becoming thick and stiff, the top of the neck broad, the lower part of each side of the neck towards the breast full,

3582. When the body of a sheep is en

weather, has passed, when the grass has tirely overlaid with fat, it is then in the been got rid of, and the stomach and in- most valuable state as mutton ; bnt few testines have become accustomed to the sheep lay on fat equally over their body more solid food of the turnip, their im- one lays the largest proportion on the provement is marked , the wool seems rump, another on the back, a third on the longer and fuller, the carcass fills out, the ribs, a fourth on the flanks, a fifth on the eyes become clear and full, and the gait parts adjoining the fore- quarter, a sixth on

firm and steady. They then thrive rapidly, those of the hind-quarter, a seventh lays and the more so the drier the weather,

on more fat on the inside, and an eighth more on the outside. Out of so many parts,

3581. The formation of fat in a sheep combining any two or more together, you placed to be fattened, commences in the may expect to find, in a lot of fat sheep, inside, the net of fat enveloping the intes- a considerable variety of condition ; yet

tines being first formed, and a little fat any one sheep is as ripe in its own way as deposited around the kidneys. After that, any other. the fat makes its appearance on the outside, and first upon the end of the rump at the 3583. Taking these data for your guide,

tail-head, whence it moves along the back, on both sides of the back -bone, to theneck, spreading out to the bend of the ribs. It is then deposited between the muscles, par-

youwill be able,by handling, to judge the condition of a sheep in its progress towards ripeness. A ripe sheep, however, is easily known by the eye, by the fulness exhibited exhibit

allel with the cellular tissue. Meanwhile in all its external parts.

It may

a

it is covering the lower round of the ribs deficiency of fat in some parts, but you descending to the flanks, until the two easily perceive that those parts will never sides meet under the belly, from whence become so ripe as others; and the defici

it proceeds to the breast in front, and to ency arises no doubt from some constitu the cod behind, filling uptheinside of the tional defect in the animal, because,other fore legs and thighs. While all these wise, no reason should exist why every depositions are proceeding on the outside, part should not be alike ripe. The condi

PRACTICE - SUMMER.

132

tion of a sheep obviously not ripe cannot muscles — is the thickness of the flank, the altogether be ascertained by the eye ; it fulness ofthe breast, fulness from shoulder must be handled — subjected to the scrutiny to shoulder across the neck ; stiffness of the hand. Now the hand scrutinises and thickness of the root of the tail, and

by discretion. A full-looking sheep need breadth of the back of the neck . Hence

not be handled on the rump, as it would the sole object of feeding sheep on turnips not seem full elsewhere until fat had been is to lay fat upon every bundle of fleshy A thin-looking sheep should be handled on the rump ; and, if no fat is felt there, it is useless handling elsewhere, since none exists. Between these two extremes of condition, every

deposited there.

fibres, called muscles, which are capable of acquiring it ; for as to bone and muscle, these increase in weight and extent inde pendently of fat, and fat only increases the thickness of the muscles.

variety may be inet with ; on which ac count examination by the hand is the rule

3584. I have spoken of the turning of

to judge a fat sheep, that by the eye a fat sheep, which is done in this way. alone the exception ; but the hand is much Standing on the near side of the sheep, or assisted by the eye, whose acuteness detects its left side, put your left hand under its deficiencies andredundancies at once. In chin, and seize the wool there, if rough — if

handling a sheep, the points of the fingers otherwise, the skin ; place your knees, are chiefly employed, and the accurate still standing, against its ribs, then lean knowledge conveyed by them, through forward a little, extend your right arm practice, of the real state of the condition over the far loin of the sheep, and get a

is truly surprising, and conveys a convic- firm hold of its flank, by the wool and tion to the mind of an intimate relation existing between the external and internal condition of an animal. So intimate is this relation, that the practical maxim, in the judging of stock of all kinds, has long been established, that no animal will appear ripe to the eye, unless as much fat

skin, as far down as you can reach. Lift the sheep fairly off the ground, with the assistance of your arms and knees, and then turn its body towards you upon your left knee placed under its near ribs, and drop it upon its rump on the ground with its back to you, and its hind-feet sticking

had previously been laid oninthe inside out and away from you. This is an act as its constitutional habit will allow. The which really requires strength, such that, application of the rule is easy - whenever if you cannot lift the sheepoff the ground, fat is seen or felt onthe outside, the inside you cannot turn it ; but practice teaches a

had previously received a deposition. In sleight in doing it, beyond mere physical tracing the progress of the fat on the out- strength. The art consists in jerking the

side, a relation also exists between the sheep off its feet at once, before it suspects parts.

Thus, when you find the rump what you are going to do ; for, when it

nicked on handling, you expect to find fat suspects, it is surprising how it contrives on the back ; when you find the back to retain hold of the ground with the nicked, you expect the fat to have pro- point of the hoof of the near hind - foot, ceeded to the top of the shoulder and over which, if you cannot lift off the ground,

the ribs ; and when you find the top of the shoulder nicked, you expect to find fat upon the neck, and on the under side of the belly. To ascertain its existence below, you will have to turn the sheep, which is done by setting it upon its rump, with

you cannot turn the sheep. I remember seeing four shepherds defeated in the at temptto turn 5 dinmonts belonging to the late Mr Edward Smith, Marledown, Nor thumberland. None of them , not even the tallest and strongest, conld turn all the 5

its back inclining against your legs, sheep, and one, a short, stout man, could and its hind -feet pointing upwards. In not turn one of them . The ability to turn this position you feel and see whether or a sheep easily, is not to be regarded as a

not breast and thighs are completely feat ofstrength or dexterity in ashepherd, filledthe up :

Still the criterion to know but a necessary qualification in connexion the real state of the inside of the sheep with many important operations connected —the largeness of the mass of fat on with the management of sheep. the kidneys, weight of net and thick

ness of layers between the abdominal

3585. The eve hoggs are alwaysretained

DISPOSAL OF FAT SHEEP .

133

on the farm , as from them is supplied the Butchers purchase chiefly in the market

waste of ewes, and they are shorn of their towns in which they reside, though they importance increasing their condition off lots which will not bear the long journeys

wool in duecourseof time. It is of less also attend fairs, and pick up a few fat the turnips by putting them on the best of the dealers ; in which case they pay ready money and liſt immediately, as

grass, which the wetherhoggs should occupy

until they are disposed of. Nevertheless, dealers do. But when they purchase on the ewe hoggs should not be allowed to the farmer's premises, they usually lift so fall off in condition, in case of injuring the many at a time, according to agreement, quality of their wool. and pay only for what they lift. Every farmer should avoid this practice, as every

3586. Farmers of mixed husbandry time the butcher comes for a lot, the sheep have seldom any other class of sheep feed- have to be gathered , and the whole handled, ing on turnips than the hoggs, which are that he may take away only those which

bred on the farm , and perhaps a few draft suit his present purpose ; and in the com ewes which had not become fat enough on motion thus made, probably every week , the aftermath grass in autumn. Occa- the whole stock are disturbed by the shout

sionally, from want of a good market, oring ofmen and the barking ofdogs, amongst

from want of condition , dinmonts (924) which the butcher and his dog are not are retained to be fed on turnips ; and, when the least noisy or least active . Besides this happens, their disposal is subjected to meeting purchasers at home, farmers the same considerations as that of the take their stock to fairs and market- towns ; hoggs.

and at fairs they meet both sorts of pur

chasers, while, in the market towns , the 3587. When dinmonts or wethers (925) butchers rule paramount. When a dealer are seen in quantity feeding on turnips, purchases on the farmer's premises, he lifts they have been purchased for the purpose, his lot at any time of day that best suits and are in technical language called a

bis own arrangements. He begins to lift

fying stock ; and this is the practice fol- the first lot in the more distant part of the lowed by farmers in most arable districts country, and, proceeding on the road in at a distance from large towns, in follow- the direction of their destination, he lifts

ing which they become dealers of sheep, lot after lot, until the whole are gathered and are subject to the fluctuations of the to the amount of many hundreds. In this markets for profit or loss. 3588. Fat sheep are purchased from

way he may lift a lot in the forenoon on

one farm , and another in the afternoon ou another, which is a much more satisfac

farmers both by dealers and butchers. tory way for the farmer to have his stock Dealers buy from farmers in wholesale, and lifted than the one the butcher chooses to sell to butchers in retail; so they constitute adopt. a sort of middlemen ; but, unlike most middlemen, their avocation is fully as use3589. The many casualties attending

ful to both parties as to themselves, inas- sheep sent to market, should cause the much as they purchase at once the whole farmer to consider the case well before he disposable stock of the farmer, and, assort- undertakes to send them there at his own

ing it, they present it in the most suitable risk. The expenses of the journey will form at the markets which the different cost at least 1s. a-head, and their jaded classes of their customers, the butchers, are appearance in the market, especially if the

in the habit of frequenting. They buy at sheep have been overtaken by bad weather, fairs, or on the farmer's own premises. In may lower their price 2s. or 3s. a -bead the former case they pay ready money, more; and, besides, the fees of the market

and lift the stock immediately ; in the have to be paid . But if he cannot dispose latter, they pay at the time the stock is of them at home, which sometimes happens, lifted by agreement. Dealers chiefly buy he has no alternative but to send them to at the country fairs, where they have market on his own account. ample choice , and only purchase on the

farmer's premises when stock happens to 3590. On determining to send them to be scarce, and prices likely to advance. market, the sheep require to be selected

134

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

for the purpose, and divided into equal be started on theirjourney about mid - day lots, and each lot marked in a particular in winter, and in the afternoon in summer. manner. The sheep selected for market They should not begin their journey when are the best conditioned at the time, to too full or too hungry. When too full, ascertain which it is necessary to handle they will purge on the road, and when too the whole lot and shed the fattest from the hungry, they will lose strength at once.

rest, and this is best done about mid -day, Let them walk gentlyaway ;and, as the before the sheep feed again in the after- road is new to them, they will go too fast at first, to prevent which the drover should

noon .

go before them , and let his dog bring up

3591. The sheep should also be marked the rear. In a short time they will assume with keil, or ruddle,as it is called in England - the ochry -red ironstone of mineralogists, which occurs in abundance near Platte in Bohemia .* The keil-mark is

the proper speed, about one mile in the hour. Should the road they travel be a green one, the sheep will proceed nibbling their way onwards at the grass, along both

put on the wool and ou any part of the sides ; but if a turnpike, especially a nar body you choose, the purpose being to row one, the drover will require to exert identifyyour own sheep in case of being all his attention in case of meeting and of

lost inthe fair. The parts usually chosen being passed by every class of vehicles,to for marking Leicester sheep are on the avoid injury to his charge. In this part wool at the top of the shoulder, back, rump, of their business drovers generally make far and nearribs. The mark is made in

too much ado, both themselves and their

this way :-Prepare the keil by wetting it dogs ; and the consequence is, that the and rubbing the part to be used upon a sheep are driven from side to side of the stone. Take hold of a small tuſt of wool at road more than is necessary . On meeting

any of the above parts with the right hand a carriage, thedrover should go forward, fingers, and seize it with the left hand insteadof sending his dog, and point off,

with the palm upwards, between the fore with his stick , the leading sheep to the and middle fingers, and colour the wool in the palm of the hand with the prepared keil. Short-woolled sheep are usually marked on the head, neck , face, and rump,

nearest side of the road, and the rest will follow as a matter of course, while the dog should walk behind the flock , and bring up the stragglers. Open gates into

or with a bar across the shoulders, and fields are sources of great annoyance to

generally too much keil is put upon them . drovers, the stock invariably making en The lots are keiled in scores and half-

deavours to go through them.

On obsery

scores, in large or small lots, according to ing an open gate before, the drover should

the value of the sheep, and the character of send his dog behind him over the fence, to the market.

be ready to meet the sheep in the gateway. When the sheep incline to rest, let them 3592. The selected ones are put into a lie down. Before nightfall the drover field by themselves, where they remain should inquire of lodging for them for the

until the time appointed them to start night. Upon drove-roads, farms will be arrive. If there be rough pasture to give found at stated distances, with food and

them , they should be put upon it, to get quit of some of the turnips in them. If there be nosuchpasture, a few cut turnips on a lea-field will answer. Here all their

lodging for the drover and his flock at a moderate charge. In winter it is requisite to put them into a grass-field , and supply them with a few turnips or a little bay. If

hoofs should be carefully examined, and turnips or bay are laid down near thegate

the loose horny skin removed, but the of the field they occupy, the sheep will be firm portion of the horn should not be ready to take the road in the morning ; touched . Every clotted piece of wool but, before lodging them for the night, the should also be removed with the shears .

drover should ascertain whether the road

is infested with stray dogs, which, if it be, 3593. Being thus prepared, the sheep the sheep should be taken to the safest should have food earlyin the morning, and spot in the field and watched all night. * Jameson's Mineralogy, vol. iii. p. 245.

DISPOSAL OF FAT SHEEP .

135

Manydogs thatlive in the neighbourhood of ale - house. Though exposed all day to drove-roads, and particularly village dogs, the air, and even feel cold, he should avoid are in the habit of looking out for sheep to drinking spirits, which only produce tem worry, at some distancefrom their homes. porary warmth , and for a long time after Short of sitting up all night, the principal superinduce chilliness and languor. Much precaution that can be used under an appre- rather drink ale or porter during the day, hension such as this is, for the drover to go and reserve the allowance of spirits he

frequently through the flock with a light, be late in retiring to rest, and up again early in the morning. The apprehension regarding dogs is not solely on account of

gives himself until the evening, when he can enjoy a tumblerofwarm toddy beside a comfortable fire, before retiring to rest for the night. The injunction to refrain

the loss sustained by the worrying, but when sheep have been disturbed by dogs, they will not settle quietly again upon that journey. The first day's journey should be a short one, not exceeding 4 or 5 miles. Allowing 8 miles a -day for a winter -day's

from spirits during theday will sound odd to the ear of a Highland drover ; but though a dram may do him good in his own mountain - air, and while taking active exercise, it does not follow that it will do him as much good on a drove-road in the

travel, and 10 miles in summer,and know- low country, when walking at a very slow ing the distance of the market by the des- pace, in wet or dry weather. I believe

tined route, the sheep should start in good raw spirits do more harm than good to all time, allowance being made for unfore- drovers who indulge in them. He should seen delays, that one whole day's rest may also have a good knife, by which to re be secured to the stock near the market.

move any portion of horn that may seem to annoy a sheep in its walk ; and also a

3594. The farmers' drover may either small bottle of amixture of tobacco-liquor be his own shepherd, or a professional and spirit of tar, with some cloth and drover hired for the occasion.

The flock twine, to enable him to smear and bandage

knowing the shepherd, he makes the best a sheep's foot, so as it may endure the

drover, if he can be spared as long from journey. He should be able to draw a home. A hired drover gets 28. 6d. a -day littlebloodfrom asheep in case of sickness. of wages, besides travelling expenses, and Should a sheep fail onthe road, he should he is intrusted with cash to pay the dues be able to dispose of it to the best advan incidental to the road and markets, such tage ; or becoming ill, he should be able as tolls, food, ferries, and market custom .

to judge whether a drink of gruel or a

A drover of sheep should always be pro- handful of common salt in warm water vided with a dog, as the numbers and may not recover it so as to proceed ; but nimbleness of sheep render it impossible ratherthan a lame or jaded sheep should

for one man to guide a capricious flock spoil the appearance of the flock, it should along a road subject to many casualties; be disposed of before the flock is present not a young dog, which is sure to work ed in the market.

and bark with agreat deal more zeal than

judgment, much to the annoyance ofthe 3595. Railroads now afford easy means sheep, but a knowing, cautious tyke. The of transit for sheep to markets, to all places, drover should have a walking-stick, a use- and when the distance to market is consi

ful instrument at times in turning a sheep derable, and the sheep valuable, such a mode disposed to break away from the rest. Å of conveyance ought to be preferred to shepherd's plaid he will find to afford driving them on the road. The advantages

comfortable protection to his body from of railroad transit are, that the sheep need cold and wet, while the mode in which it not leave home on a journey so soon by per

is usually worn leaves the limbs free for baps many days,and, being a shortnumber motion. He should carry provision with of hours on the journey, they feel, at its him, such as bread , meat, cheese, or but- end, neither jaded nor hungry, and will, ter, that he may take luncheon or dinner therefore, enter the market in much finer

quietly beside his flock while resting in a condition than off a long journey on foot. sequestered part of the road, and slake his The shepherd should accompany the sheep thirst in the first brook or spring he finds, in the train, and have them conducted to

or purchase a bottle of ale at å roadside the market at the proper hour. The cost

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

136

of conveying sheep by railroad is that of morning, arising from the dealers finding the truck , which contains alarger or smaller the condition ofthe stock below their ex

number, according to the sizeof the sheep. pectation. The market is never better for The charge of the truck is by the mile, the farmer than when it begins brisk early and the longer the distance the less is the in the morning, and the stock are all sold charge by the mile.

off early. These are the vicissitudes of a

market; they are interesting, demand at

3596. Under every circumstance, when tention, and are worthy of examination . you have determined on sending your You will frequently observe a trifling cir sheep to amarket-town, it is the best plan, cumstance give a decided tone to a mar after the journey, to intrust them to a ket. A dealer, for instance, who generally salesman, rather than stand in the market buys largely, and who has bought for many with them yourself, as you cannot know years in that particular fair, will make the the character of the butchers so well as he prices of the day byhis purchases; so that

does, nor can you know what classof pur- other people, particularly sellers,observing The con- the prices given by him , will sell briskly venience attending the employment of a and with confidence. There is no use, at

chasers your lot may best suit.

salesman is now generally felt, as it not any time, of asking a much higher price only saves the personal annoyance of at- than the intrinsic value of yourstock, or tending a market, but your money is re- than you will willingly take; for, although initted to you through a bank in the course

your stock may be in particularly fine

of the day. The only precaution requi- condition , and of good quality, and there site in thematter is to become acqnainted fore worth more than the average price of with a salesman of judgment, for as to the market, still their value must conform honesty, if he possess not that, he cannot to the rate of the market, be it high or show his face in any market. In attend- low, and it is not in your power to con

ing country fairs, where are no salesmen , trolit, though, should prices dissatisfy you must dispose of your stock yourself. you, you have it in your power to take

Before attending the fair, you should make your stock homeagain. There is a com up your mind what to ask for the mon saying applicable to all public mar stock, in accordance with the current kets, and is now received as a maxim , be market prices; but, notwithstanding these, cause indicating the truth , that “ the first you may have to take more or less cash offer is the best” —that is, the first offer than you anticipated , as the actual state from a sincere buyer, for there are

of the market is regulated by the quality and quantity of the stock in it, and by the paucity or numbers of purchasers who may appear. After your sheep are placed you should inquire of friends of the state of prices before you sell, and on doing this

people to be found in all markets who, having no serious intention of buying at

market price, make a point of offering considerably below it, with the view of catching a bargain from a greenhorn , or from one tired of standing longer in the

you may find the market in a most per- fair, and they sometimes succeed in their plexing state from various causes. Thus, tactics; but such people are easily dis there may be too many sheep for the buy- covered, and cannot deceive any but inex ers, when the market will be dull, and perienced sellers. remain so all day. Or the stock may be 3597. There are certain rules which, by scanty for the buyers, when a briskness may start in the morning and continue tacit consent, govern the principles upon until the whole stock are sold off. Or which all public markets of stock are con there may be briskness in the morning, the ducted, and they are few and simple.

buyers purchasing — dulness at mid-day, A custom is payable for all stock pre buyers declining - and briskness again in sented at fairs, exigible by the lord of the

the afternoon, buyers becoming eager. Or manor, or by other recognised authority . there may be excessive dulness in the After entering the field , your stock can morning, occasioned by the buyers lying take up any unoccupied position you

off andbeating down prices, and, finding choose , appointed for the particular kind they cannot succeed, buy briskly all after- of stock you have to show. No one, on noon .

Or there may be dulness in the pretence of purchasing, has a right to in

DISPOSAL OF FAT SHEEP.

137

terfere with a lot which is under inspec- break away from their own flock, and mix

tion by another party. Neither haveyou with another, when there is not only diffi any right to show your lot to more than culty in shedding them out, but those into one party at a time, unless both parties whose lot yours have strayed, may show

consent to it. When a bargain is made, unwillingness to disturb their stockfor the there is no necessity for striking hands, or sake of rectifying your blunder, though exchanging money, as an earnest of it. it is in your power to follow your stray When a bargain is finished, a time may be stock and claim it anywhere. stipulated by the purchaser for liftingthe stock ; and until they are delivered to him , 3598. Steam vessels carry live stock to or his accredited agents, they continue at the Smithfield market, in London, in large

the risk of the seller. When connted over numbers every year; and although stock before the purchaser, the price becomes cannot be carried by vessels so quickly as immediately due. When the money is on railroads, and are subjected, besides, to

paid, there is no obligation on the seller the effects of storm in a sea voyage, they to give a discount off the price, or a luck- suffer much less deterioration in them penny, as it is termed ; but purchasers, than by travelling a long journey on foot.

sometimes to humour the whim of the It hasbeen ascertained that a journey of seller, offer the price demanded, on con-

400 miles on land causes a loss of 6 stones

dition of getting back a certain sum , to out of 50 stones, or 12 per cent ; whereas

bring the price to their own ideas. Some- the loss by steam is only 2 stones out of times, when parties cannot agree as to the 50 ; and, besides this great loss itself,

price, the offerer proposes to abide by the the state of the remainder of the flesh is decision of a third party, but in doing this, worth 6d. a stone less after land travel. you virtually relinquish the power to sell When stock are sent to graze after a jour your own stock. Sometimes bills, and ney, they require a month to regain their

bank-post-bills, are tendered by dealers in former state on pasture, whereas the steam part or entire payment of their purchases; carried are again in the same state at the but it is in your power to refuse any form of cash but the legal tenders of the country, such as Bank of England notes, or gold, or silver. If a bill of exchange or promissory note is proffered instead of ready money,

end of a fortnight. Land travel renders the juices of the meat of fat stock in an unnatural state, while, on being carried by

steam , these are not sensibly altered. Heavy and high - conditioned stock, travel

you are quite entitled to refuse the bar- ling by land long distances, inevitably gain ; for theusage of trade in a fair inn- sink under the attempt, whilst by steam plies the conditionof ready money,* or you their condition is preserved with compara may demand a higher price to cover the tive ease. The time spent on a land

risk of the bill being dishonoured. The journey is of consideration in regard to notes of a bank you know to be good should altering the tone of the stomach of the

admit ofno question. After the stock are animals, when amore expeditiousmode of chaser. Some dealers' top's-men , the men respect railroad travelling is eminently

delivered, they are at the risk of the pur- travelling would preserve it — and in this

who take charge of theirmaster's lots after superior to any other mode of transit. delivery, demand agratuity fortheirtrouble, which you are at liberty to refuse. All 3599. When you determine sending these rules, in as far as relates to money stock to London, you should establish a

and the delivery ofstock,apply to the stock correspondence with a live-stock sales purchased by dealers on your own farm . man, who will pay all charges of the jour When you purchase stock at a fair, people ney or voyage, and at market, and remit

will be found on the ground willing to the balance in course of post.

The charges

render your drover assistance in taking by sea consist of freight, which varies with them out of it, and of setting them fairly on the distance, commission, hay or grass on the road. Such people are useful on the board, dnes, wharfage, hay or grass on occasion, as it may happen, especially in shore, and cost of driving to market. By

the case of sheep, that one or more may railroad the cost consists of the value of * The Farmer's Lawyer, p. 143.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

138

the truck , hay or grass at the station, and and their mutton is bought for the colliers the cost of driving to market; and there with avidity. The long-established and are market dues in both cases. You will famed Morpeth market is now transferred

never transmit meat to the London market, but you should be well acquainted with all the pieces into which a carcass of beef or mutton is cut up there, that you may know whether your stock is of the descrip-

to Newcastle, as a consequence of the opening of the Berwick and Newcastle railway. In Smithfield, in London, on Monday, Southdown sheep are to be had in great perfection aud beauty, and the

tion to supply the most valuable pieces of mutton they afford finds the most favour ineat ; without which knowledge you can- in the metropolis. not be certain whether your stock ought 3602. Fairs, according toSpelman, were first to realise the top prices. instituted in England by Alfred, in the year 886.

3600. When you send sheep to London They were established generally by order of Gregory VII. in 1078, and

were termed Perice , on your own account, they should be of atwhich the monks celebrated the festival of the following description, to command the their patronsaint:the vast resort ofpeople occa

best prices ;and unless they are so, you sioned a greatdemand forgoods,wares,& c.* had better dispose of them at home. They Fairs were firstheldinchurchyardsonSunday, and afterwards the principal street of towns, should be ripe, compact, and of light where a cross wasin erected . weight; carrying a large proportion of lean on the back, loins, and shoulders, 3603. M'Queen estimated in 1836 the per with a full round leg, and handsome car manent stock of sheep in Great Britain at 19,800,000 of long -woolled , and cass . Such a form , of 14 lb. to 20 lb. a 28,200,000 of short-woolled .

quarter, will readily take, but most so at 16 lb. to 18 lb. the quarter. The nearer

In all,

48,000,000+

in form and quality they approach the Southdowns, the nearer they will com3604. We shall see what proportion of this mand the top price. True -bred Che number of sheep find their way every year to viots, and the Black -faced Linton breed, Smithfield it was In 1841 1,435,090

approach near the Southdown, and coin mand a high price. Half-bred sheep, between Leicester tups and the above sorts of Cheviot and Black -faced ewes, afford

1842 1843

99

1844 1845 1846

1847 1848

valuable mutton. The old Black -faced breed are too thin, and are styled goaty in Smithfield, and when only half- fat - half meated, as the phrase is — fetch but middling

19

99

1,655,370 1,817,360

1,804,850 1,539,660

1,527.220 1,505,650

1,353,720

Average of the 8 years, 1,579,786

prices, however good the flavour may be. Pure- bred Leicesters are too fat, unless

3605. The number 1,353,720, presented in the in 1848, was divided in each month of

market young, and not exceeding 20 lb. a - quarter, the year in thefollowing proportions :

but above that weight they realise an inferior price , and a Jifference of id. a lb. may constitute all the profit on their export. This last remark applies to every breed of sheep, and shows the expediency of only exporting the best forms, and finest, not fullest condition.

In January, February, 99 March, April, May, 99

June,

July , 9 August, September, » October,

91,880 75,160 72,010 82,310

102,230 152,730 147,200 153,280

161,230 114,760 108,770 92,160

3601. The Edinburgh weekly market » November, » December , on Wednesday contains Black -faced sheep 1,363,720 iot ction, st Chev the and in the highe perfe on of mutt the and good, very are also Itis necessary toremark that the numbers here both is bought by householders. In New . stated were the total numbers exhibited , from seen ought to be deducted the number which are Wednesday which castle market on Leicester sheep in the highest condition, madetheir reappearance at a future market-day, * Haydn's Dictionaryof Dates -- art. Fairs. + M'Queen's Statistics of the British Empire, p. 21.

139

DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE .

3610. Like sheep, cattle are disposed

and which hasbeen estimated to amount to 100,000 in the course of the year.

of to the dealer or butcher either at home

3606. The numbers of sheep imported into London from abroad , duty free, in 1848 were as

or in the public markets in towns, or fairs in the country, and the same rules exist

follows in the respective months : In January , February , March, April, May , June, » July, 97 August, "

» September, 9 October, November, December,

Sheep . 4,608

Lambs . 47

1,167 2,341

14

2,479

3611. The ox lays on fat in precisely the same manner as the sheep, ( 3581.)

4,781

28

9,591 8,705

74 302

14,266 21,681 10,669 13,424

871

3612. Prior to disposing of your cattle, either to dealer or butcher, you should estimate their weight and value, and, in

239

judging cattle, the procedure is somewhat

9,334

77 111

99

· In 1847,

as regards the payment and delivery of cattle as of sheep.

103,046 126,247

1,763 4,088 *

different from that of sheep, inasmuch as the hair of cattle not hiding the form as wool does that of the sheep, the eye is more used than the hand ; and, in the case of ripe fed cattle, the eye alone is con sulted ; but the hand, as well as the eye,

3607. Itmight besupposedthatthedecrease is brought into usein judging of lean

numberwasof occasioned the 1844, sheep presented inSmithfield cattleput on to grass or to fatten on tur insince by the importation vips. When you look at the near side of a ripe ox in profile, which isthe side always numberof sheep sold in Smithfield in 1848, was begun with, imagine its body to be in of foreign sheep duty free, but this circumstance does not appear to be the cause ; for the total

under the average of the 8 years by 122,920, a

scribed within a frame of wood of the

numberconsiderably more than theimportation form of a rectangled parallelogram , whose of foreign sheep into London that year. The very

depressed state of trade in 1848is a more likely length is horizontal, as in fig. 296 ; and if cause of the comparative decrease of the num

Fig. 296.

ber presented to market ; and the same cause had

evidently a similar effect in decreasing the num ber of the foreign importation.

3608. The numbers of sheep imported, duty free, into the United Kingdom from the Conti nent, in 1847 and 1848, were as follows : Sheep, Lambs,

1847 .

1848.

139,371 3,349

128,093 2,177

Total of sheep imported , 142,720

d

9

130,270+

enorming ON THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT CATTLE .

THE SIDE VIEW OF A BIPB PAT OX .

the ox is completely filled up in allpoints, 3609. The cattle fed on turnips all win- bis carcass will occupy the frame about as ter and spring, are sufficiently fat to be fully as in the figure ; but in most cases disposed of to the dealer or the butcher deficiencies will exist in various parts,

by the time all the Swedish turnips are not that every deficiency willoccur in the consumed, which may be about the end of same animal. The flank a, for example, May and even the beginning of June. may be shrunk up, and leave a large space About that time the grass is in a fit state above the line of the frame ; the brisket b

to be pastured by cattle, but the fat cattle may descend much farther down ; the rump are never put on grass, and are disposed c may be elevated above the line of the

of out of the hammels, or from the stalls, back ; the middle of the back d may be to dealers or butchers .

much hollowed below that line ; the top of * Bell's Weekly Messenger, January 1849. f Parliamentary Return , 26th February 1849.

140

PRACTICE - SUMMER.

the shoulder e may be elevated above it ; whether the hook -bone k appears to con a large space may be left unfilled at the nect itself easily with the rump c on the hams f.

one band, and with the ribs d on the other,

or projects or sinks in. In all these alter 3613. A similar survey should be made natives, the former are the correct, and

behind the animal : the imaginary frame the latter the objectionable forms, and the Fig. 297.

inscribing

the correct ones should be arranged in the

hind- quarters in following manner, to constitute points in this view , being perfection : a square, as re

3616. The line from the shoulder e to 297, where the the hook-bone k, fig. 296, should be parallel

presented in fig.

breadth of the to the back -bone . The line on each side

hook - bones, a of the ribs d to e, on the one band, and to to a, is carried k on the other, should not fall in with the as far down as line of the back, but be a little nearer, and

the houghs, cc ; and the closing between the legs THE HIND VIEW OP A RIPE is also well fill-

almost as high as the back -bone, with the ribs falling in a rounded form down the side. The loin above, from k to d, should be perfectly flat, and on the same level FAT OX. with the back -bone, and drop suddenly ed up. down the side, and connect itself with the 3614. Then go in front of the ox, and rounding of the last three ribs. The point

imagine the outline of the body inscribed of the hook -bone k should just be seen to be within the same project, and no more ; and thed space ally Fig. 298. square frame, as tween it and the rump e shoul gradu in fig. 298. The sweep in a rounded form to the narrower

shoulders, from breadth of the pelvis, on each side of the a to a ,are nearly tail head as in fig. 297. The utmost bend of the same breadth as across

of the ribs is atg, through which a straight line should touch every point, from the

the hook -bones, front of the shoulder to the round. The

a to a, in fig. triangular space of the neck comprehend 297.

Having ed above h should gradually taper from the shoulder- point to the head. The line

thus obtained an

idea of the out- of the back should be straight from e to line which a fat c ; the tail should drop perpendicularly THE FRONT VIEW OF A RIPE ox should bave, from e ; and the belly should sweep in a FAT OX . in all the views somewhat level line, not too high at a nor

it can be taken , let us attend to the filling drooping at l. There are thus three straight lines along the side of a fat ox, one along the back from e to c, a second 3615. On looking again at the near- through the top of the ribs g from h to i.

up of the areas within the frames.

side view, fig. 296, observe whether the and the third from the lower part of the ribs g are rounded , and nearly fill up the shoulder through the flank a to the but projecting point of the shoulder h, and the tock f. round i .

Observe whether the shoulder

is flat, somewhat in the same plane as the 3617. Proceeding to bebind the ox, fig. ribs, or more prominent or hollow ; and 297, the space between the hooks, from whether the space behind the shoulder a to a , should be level, but a little rounded

is filled up or hollow. Observe whether off at both sides, and the bone at thetop

the shoulder -point h is projecting forward of the tail project a little upwards. When and sharp, or rounded off; and whether the muscles on each side of the rounds, the neck, between e and h, sweeps finely below the hook-bones a, are fuller than

into the shoulder, or is flat and small. the hooks, it is no deformity, but when Observe whether the muscles at i and f no fuller, they are right. The muscles at are full and rounded, or thin and flat; and the buttock, at cand c,at the lower end of

DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE.

the small rounds, should sweep gradually towards the hockjoints of the legs. The closing should be filled to furnish the rounds fully,but freely,for packed roundsprevent easy motion of the hind -legs. Sometimes the tail lies in a channel formed be-

141

and stronger, and the flesh less valuable, and it has also the effect of thinning the flank a. Flatness of the rib is also accom panied with a hollowness of the space be hind the shoulder, giving to that part of the body a contracted appearance. The

tween the rounds and buttocks, but this is sharp shoulder and hollowribs are accom not commonly the case .

panied with a projecting shoulder joint h, which again causes a thinness of the neck.

3618. On going to the front view , fig. The rump- bone at c frequently rises 298, the shoulder-top should be broad, upwards, spoiling the straight line of with its sides naturally rounded, and the the back ; and depriving the rump be muscles below it upon the shoulder-blades at a a should always project farther than the breadth of the shoulder-top ; and in this respect the fore -quarter differs from

tween k and c of flesh, where it becomes bollow, deteriorating the value of the most valuable parts of the hind -quarter. A projecting hook - bone k also thing the

the bind, where the muscles below the muscles below it, and as far back as the

hook -bones do not project beyond them , rounds; and this is accompanied with an for if they do, the hook is too narrow. enlargement of the opening at the closing, The shoulder points should not be promi- fig. 297. nent, but rounded off with the muscles of the neck into the brisket, where the front of 3620. Whenever the shoulder becomes

the neck comes from the head to the thin and narrow , viewed in front, fig. 298, The brisket projecting a little ' the shoulder-points are much wider than

breast.

forward, falls in a rounded form to the the shoulder-top ; and while this is the lowest part of the body, and fills out on case , the brisket below never becomes fat, both sides to the fore -legs. The fore-legs and then the fore- legs stand too near each are usually farther apart than the hind, other. but the hind at times, when the cod is large and fat, is even more apart. The fore and 3621. A great commendation of a fat hind quarters are more nearly alike in ox is a level broad back from rump to

weight, when the fore and hind legs stand shoulder, as the whole flesh on that equally apart.

Fig. 299.

space, seen when view ed from above, fig.

3619. The objectionable deviations from

299, is of the most

these points are as follows:-In fig. 296 , a hollow back at the ribs d is bad , show. ing weakness of the back-bone. A high

valuable description ; where the triangular space included be

shoulder at e is always attended with a sharpness, having the effect of bringing the shoulders, fig. 298, too close. A long

tween a b c is the

rump, the triangular space between a do the loin , and the space

distance between the ribs d and hook -bone

k, fig. 296, makes the loins hollow , gives the ox what is called a washy appearance ,

between d and e, de

which is always prone to looseness of the bowels, and washiness is also accompanied

are the ribs.

with an inordinate breadth of hooks, from a to a, fig. 297. A sharp projecting hook

is always accompanied with fiat ribs at g , fig . 296, and flatribs make a hollow side, which bears little flesh, and pushes the

flecting on each side, All the

points of a fat ox that have been enumerated

be

can be judged of by the eye alone, and most judges employ THE VIEW OF THEBACK no other means ; but

OF A RIPE FAT OX. the assistance derived viscera into the lower part of the abdomen, causing the belly to droop considerably from the hand is important, and in a pupil below the line of the frame. With this caunot be dispensed with. conformation, the yellow - coloured, tough, insensible integument of the belly, having 3622. The first point handled is at the

a greater weight to bear, becomes thick tail-head , fig. 296, although the least fat

142

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

here is obvious to the eye, and sometiines the lower than the upper part of the body. it attains anenormous size, amounting to These are all the points that require touch deformity. The hook -bone k is touched, ing when the hand is used , and in a high and should be well covered ; but if the conditioned ox , they are gone over very

bone be easily felt, both the rump between rapidly. the hook k and tail -head c , and the loin from the hook k to the ribs d , may be ex3623. By the former part of these rules pected to be hard and deficient of flesh . you will be enabled to judge by the eyeof To the points ofthe fingers the flesh upon the points of a fat ox,which ought to be

the ribs g should feel soft and thick when filled up ; and, with the assistance of the the ribs are round ; but when flat, the flesh hand, you will ascertain the degree of per feels hard and thin from want of fat. The fection which the most valuable points of skin, too, on a rounded rib , feels soft and an ox have attained. On putting those mobile, and the hair thick set, soft, and

rules in practice as opportunity offers, ex

mossy, both indicative of a kindly disposi- periencewill teach you to estimate the

tion to lay on flesh and fat. The hand, on weight of an ox, not its live-weight, but grasping the flank a, finds it thick, when the the weight of beef and bones it will yield internal tallow is abundant, as well as the after deducting the weight of the offal,

codfat and large, and, op lookingat itfrom which consists of the skin, head, entrails, behind, seems to act as a cushion between and loose tallow . The farmer is entitled the hind -legs, to keep them asunder. The to the value of the entire weight of the

palmof thehand passed along the lineof the beef and bones at the current prices; and back from the tail-head c to the top of the the profit of the purchaser is confined to shoulder e, points out the hard parts upon the value of the offal : these form the basis

it, and when all feels soft and pleasant,the farmer of the agreement between him and the flesh good Hollowness behind generally is

.

the

. The offals are

equal to

shoulder h is a very common occurrence ; the value of one -fifth of the ox, so that

and when it is filled up with flesh and fat, an ox of £25 value in beef and bones, the flesh of the fore-quarter is good. You should leave the purchaser £5 for profit, would scarcely believe the difference of the feel of the flesh betwixt a lean and fat shoulder. A high narrow shoulder e is attended with a ridged back-bone, and lowset narrow books k , a conformation named razor -back, always accompanied with a deficiency and hardness of flesh along the

though the offals are worth sometimes be low, and sometimes above that value. If the buyer is a good judge of cattle, be knows the exactvalueof the beef, and will endeavour to make such a bargain with the farmer as will not only leave his profit on the carcass, but cover his expenses of

back, where the best flesh of a good ox droving and slaughtering. Dealers con should be. This conformation is always in- stantly in practice generally make pretty dicative of a slow and obdurate feeder. good bargains for themselves, according to

The shoulder point h should be covered, the prices at the time the bargain is made ; and feel soft like the point of a good hook- but their purchases are subject to fluctua bone, and in that state indicates a well- tion in price, which may fall without an filled neck-vein, which runs from that adequate cause, and occasion serious loss ; point to the side of the head. The shoul- or may rise as causelessly, and leave a der point is more often bare and prominent handsomer profit than was anticipated - s0

than the hook -bone. When the neck - vein that the profession of a dealer resolves is so firmly filled up as not to allow the into a speculation, the issue of which is points of the fingers to enter into the in- involved in uncertainty at all times,

side of the shoulder point, it indicates Dealers formerly made large fortunes, abundance of tallow in the inside ; as also when breeders estimated the value of their does the fulness between the brisket and own stock with uncertainty, and when

inside of the fore -legs, andthe projection dealers invariably purchased in a rising When the flesh market, but now w - a -days few make for becomes heavy on the thighs, making a tunes, owing to competition, to greater sort of double thigh, the thigh is called skill in the farmer estimating the real forward of the brisket.

lyary, and it indicates a tendency in the value of his stock, to the great expense whole flesh of the ox to grow rather on incurred in taking cattle to suitable mar

DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE .

143

kets, and to the uncertain incidents of a what principle the rules given in books is roving profession.

founded I cannot say, unless on the as sumption that the body of the ox is a hollow

3624. As long as farmers trusted to their judgment only, when they had few opportunities of exercising it, in estimating the value of stock , dealers had an advantage

cylinder; for a sufficient number of experi ments have not yet been instituted to as certain theexact relation subsisting betwịxt the bulk of an or's body, and the weight

over them , and the advantage still exists of the flesh and bones upon it. to some extent, but assistance is now af

forded farmers to ascertain the nett weight

3626. Several such rules exist. Sup

of cattle by measuring their bulk , or pose an ox is 5 feet in length and 7 feet

weighing their gravity. The live-weight in girth. One rule is, Multiply the square of cattle is easily ascertained by placing of the girth in inches, by the length in the ox upon a steelyard, and the nett inches, and divide the sum by 7344, and weight is ascertained by multiplying the the quotient is the weight desired. For live weight with thedecimal .605, if the example :

ox is ripe fat, and if not, by .55 — that is to say, that the offals and fluids ofa lean ox weigh about as much as the beef and bones, An ox should not be weighed immediately after it has taken food , when it will be too heavy, but after it has chewed the cud, and is again ready to eat.

84

Square the girth in inches,

Multiply by the length in inches,

7056 60

Weight.

Divide by 7344 )423360 (57 st. 8 Ib.

3627. Another rule is, Square the girth in feet, multiply the sum by the length in

3625. Ascertaining the weight by mea- feet, and multiply the double sum by the suring the body of the ox is a more con decimal .238, and the entire sum is the

venient method than weighing ; and when weight desired. For example : the measurement is correctly taken, and the ox of an ordinary size , the result is

Square the girth in feet,

pretty accurate. Suppose fig. 300 repre-

Multiply by the length in feet,

Fig. 300 . Multiply by the decimal,

And the weight is ,

{ 49 5 245 .238 58-310 stones .

th

wi

3628. A third rule is, Multiply half the girthby itself in feet, and thesum by the length in feet, and the double sum gives the weight desired. For example : 3.5

Multiply half the girth by itself in feet, ( 3.5 Multiply by the length in feet,

Weight, THE MEASURING OF A RIPE FAT OX, TO ASCERTAIN ITS WEIGHT, SINKING THE OFFALS.

sents an ox whose weight is desired to be ascertained by measurement. The mode

12-25 61-25 stones.

Here is an average excess of 34 stones above the first and second rules. 3629. A fourth rule is, Divide the live

is, measure with a tape line from the top weight by 8 and multiply the quotient by of the shoulder a to the tail -head b, which 5, and the sum gives the nett weight. For gives the length ; then measure round the example :

body at c to d, immediately behind the

The live weight of 57 st. dead weight by the

shoulder, which gives the girth ; and on rule in (3624 ,) of .605 is 92 stones. Divide by consulting any table calculated for the 8992(11 Multiply by purpose, at the corresponding figures of thelength and girth ascertained, the pro And the nett weight is 574 st . duct will givethe nett weight. Upon

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

144

3830. A fifth rule is shortly this :Girth 2 x 5 lengths

3634. Accurate measuring would easily be acquired, and the result would ever be correct, were the form of the ox always

Weight.

21

Square the girth, }} Multiply by 5 times the length , Divide by

perfect, which it very seldom is, the fore and hind quarters being frequently un

49 25

equal; and the degrees of condition various. The judgment is called into exercise to

21) 1225 ( 58 st. weight.

makeallowance for those differences, and

3631. Thus many rules exist by which the allowance may be made somewhat the measuring and weighing of cattle may in this manner :- When the fore- quarter ascertain their nett weights, and many seems heavier than the hind, the line books of tables are found in which those should be extended nearer the head than the weights are calculated to one's hand. A exact top of the shoulder a , fig. 300 ; and

sliding scale conveniently carried in the in like manner, when the hind-quar

pocket, indicating at a glance the weight, ter is heavier than the fore, the line should with reference to the length and girth of be stretched a little beyond the tail- head animals, is sold by the philosophical instru- b. In regard to the girth, it is a very common fault in the carcass of an ox to

ment makers.

be contracted behind the shoulder ; the ac

tual girth of which gives a result below slaughtered in Dublin in 1828, weighed 12 the truth. It is very rare to find the girth cwt. = 96 st. = 1344 lb. The offals filled out beyond its proper form . The tape line must therefore be applied with weighed, lb, oz . judgment. The line is most conveniently 3632.

Lord

Farnham's

Devon ox,

Blood, lost, Feet, Head and tongue, Kidneys, Hide,

Heart, liver, and lights, Guts and contents , Fat,

22 8 18 30

5 7 0 0

divided into feet and tenths, instead of eighths, because the multiplication by de cimals is the easiest. As an illustration

4

0

of the practical effects of misapplying the

80 25 135 152

0 0 4 0

tape -line, I may state, that one inch only

25

0

504

0

1344

0

840

0

Weight lost by evaporation from the carcass ,

Live weight,

.

Equal to 60 stones,

added to the girth and length, assumed in the above examples, makes an increase in

the above weights of upwards of 2 st. The addition of one inch to the length is a mis take easily made when the ox stands with his head down ; and a similar error may as easily be made in the girth, when the ox stands with his back raised . Experience

alone can give proficiency in measuring The rule by measurement in ( 3628 ) comes cattle. I knew a steward in Berwickshire nearer the truth than those founded on who so successfully measured cattle, and live weight either in (3624) or (3629.)* had so many opportunities of verifying his measurements, that the measured weight 3633. After repeated trials by Mr Robert of an ordinary ox, whether fat or half lean, Stephenson , Whitelaw, East Lothian, on a differed only from 1 st. to st. of its real

number of oxen of the samo weight and weight. age, of the relative proportions of their live and dead weights, the following con-

3635. To an ox from 40 to 70 stones

clusions were come to — that every 100 the tables in books apply pretty near, when lb. of live weight gave of the measurement is made with judgment ; Butcher meat, Tallow, Hide, Entrails and offal,

57 7 per cent. 8 0 5.5 28.8

100.0

but in weights below and above those figures, the tables are at fault. I have no instances to adduce of error in very

small weights, but many in large ones, and shall only adduce one. A short

horn white ox, belonging to Mr Boswell Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iv. p. 552.

145

DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE .

Irvine of Kingcausie, was exhibited at der it desirable that means were used for the Highland and Agricultural Society's rendering the rules of measurement, as well Show at Aberdeen in October 1834. Its as of weight, more correct than they are; measurement was 9 feet 3 inches in girth, and I see no way of effecting this end and 6 feet 2 inches in length. According but in collecting data, by instituting to Rentou's tables, the farmer once of experiments in different parts of the coun Dykegatehead, in Berwickshire, the weight try, to measure and ascertain the live was 126 st. 9 lb.; to Strachan's 124 st. weight of every animalbefore it is slaugh

2 16.; to Ainslie's 122 st.; and to Stewart's tered, be it ox, sheep , or pig,large or small, 117 st. The actual weight of beefyielded for a given period, and to weigh its fore by the ox was 136 st. 10 lb., on being and hind quarters, after it is slaughtered. slaughtered by Deacon Sparks of Aber deen , being 10 st. 1 lb. more than the

3638. The cart-steelyard or weigh

heaviest, and 19 st. 10 lb. more than the lightest weight indicated by the tables. Such deficiencies of weight, at 78. the stone, incur a loss to the feeder of from £3, 10s. 6d. to £6, 18s. upon a single ox ! 3636. The rule for live-weight is also

bridge.-- As I have mentioned the weigh ing of cattle alive, for the ascertaining of their value as a marketable commodity, and as many occasions occur in farnis for weighing heavy weights, it is proper to give a description of such a steelyard as will be useful on a farm .

The cart

liable to error when applied to oxen of steelyard is a machine in which a com extraordinary weight. Thus the late Lord bination of levers are employed to effect, Kintore's black ox, 7 years off, exhibited on the aboveoccasionat Aberdeen,weighed, alive, 28 cwt., or 224 stones. By the rule of multiplying the live-weight by the deci-

in a commodious way, the weighing of bodies of considerable weight, and which would require the common Roman steel yard of most inconvenient dimensions, or mal •605, the dead weight should bave à balance equally cumbrous, besides the been 135 st. 7 lb.; but when the ox was

inconvenience of a great mass of move

slaughtered by Mr Rodger, Crown Street, able weight. The combination consists of

Aberdeen, it weighed 173 st. 4 lb., or 37 two double-fulcrum levers of the second st. 11 lb. more than the rule indicated, order, combined with a single lever of the which, at 7s. the stone, made it worth

first order.

The relation of the arms of

more by £ 13, 4s. 6d.! On the other hand, the first are 34 to 1 , and of the second 8 a small spayed heifer, belonging to Mr to 1 , making the nltimate ratio 28 to 1 ;

Boswell Irvine, weighed 88 st. live-weight, so that every cwt. placed upon the plat which should have yielded, by the rule, 53 form of the machine is balanced by 4 lb. on st. 3 lb., but it only weighed 49 stones.

The rule in (3624) is equally in error when applied to these cases.

the scale -board attached to the second lever,

3639. In describing the construction of

this compound steelyard, we bave in fig.

3637. Such discrepancies certainly ren- 301 , the ground plan : the bed -framea aa a, Fig. 301. d

ala k

m

9

P

al

a

b

Scale in foet.

PLAN OF THE CART- STEELYARD.

VOL . II .

K

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

146

which is 6 feet in length by 4 feet in surfaceof its foundation course laid level, breadth, is surrounded by a stand -up under the surface of the ground, sufficient

flange. This frame is laid in a pit formed to bear the sole-frame, and upon which it of masonry x x, figs. 302 and 303, adapted requires to be solidly bedded.

Four

to the size of the frame, and having the blocks V' b', fig. 302, are faced on their Fig. 302.

n

d

TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE CART - STEEL YARD.

top -surface with a cradle of steel, forming the two arms of the standard h. From the dead fulcra of the levers. The two the centre g to i, and from g to l is 8 to 1 ;

first levers b c d, b c d, fig. 301 , seen in the extremity i to k being for the purpose profile at bc d,bcd, fig 303, are so forined of adjusting the equilibrium of the machine. in the horizontal direction as to bring Upon the two centres i, fig. 301 , links are their points of bearing at b, c, and d to appended, which, in their lower bend,

the requisite position ; and in the vertical receive the centres d d of the two first direction, to bring the centres b c d into levers, and the extremity l is formed into one plane. When the levers are duly placed, their ends d pass each other, being thus suited to the centres of the second lever. The second lever k l, figs 301 and 303, has its main centres g supported upon

the fork, upon the centres of which,P p, the scale-board m is suspended. In the chamber a' a', the second lever vibrates. The platform , which is left out in fig 301 , but is seen in profile in figs. 302 and 303,

Fig. 303. lon n n

V

v

m

al

a '

LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE CART- STEELYARD.

is a frame with raised ledges, to guide the cart-wheels when being placed upon the Four pendant pillars n, fig. 302, attached to the platform ,bear equally on the centres c of the first levers. If the equilibrium of the levers is not perfect,

but this being extremely small, the want of lateral motion does not affect the accu racy of the indications. In those ma chines having slight lateral motion, the principle of the levers is the same as here described, the chief difference being

it is to be adjusted by adding to or taking that the platform is suspended upon links, from the back end of the second lever. to accommodate which the pillars n n are Studs projecting inward, coming under the lengthened downwards, and hooked under platform at the wheel-tracks, serve to bear the first levers, so as rest upon the links not only the weight of the platform when suspended from them. unloaded, but to receive the shocks of the

load when coming upon it, thereby saving much of the tear and wear of the centres.

3641. The most perfect form of such steelyard I have seen was that exhibited by Mr Craig, Liverpool, and manufactured

3640. In this form of weighing-machine, by Redpath, Brown, and Co. Edinburgh,

it will be observed that the platform can at the general show of the Highland and have no lateral motion , which would be a Agricultural Society of Edinburgh, in

defect if it had a great range vertically ; August 1848. This machine is adapted to

DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE .

147

theweighing of cattle,as well as everyother the byre, he soon calmed down and be live or dead stock , whether of large or

came exhausted. On being let out for the

small bulk and weight. It is constructed first time, cattle should be put a while into onthe principle of combined levers, is provided with a platform , the size of which is proportioned to the intended purposes, the platform being suspended on , or appended

a large court, or in a road well fenced with

to, the levers. It is thus of the same

lighten the weight of their carcass, they

enclosures, and guarded by men . Two or three times of such exercise will make them quiet ; and in the mean time, to

principle in construction as the steelyard should have hay for the largest proportion I have described ; but its bearings are so

of their food. All these precautions are

arranged as to weigh any object accurately, absolutely requisite for cattle which have no matter on what part of the platform it been fed' bonnd for months to the stake, may be placed. In the machine exhibited,

otherwise accidents will befal them on the

and tested by weighing animals and articles, road. Even when retained at home, seri

the platform is 6 feet 34 inches, and is

ous accidents sometimes overtake cattle

provided with a movable railing or pen, let out of a byre, such as the breaking of to insure safety to live animals while be- a horn, casting of a hoof, spraining a ten ing weighed. The price is £ 22. Other don, bruising ribs, and heating the whole

steelyards range in price from £ 15 to body suddenly and violently - and every £ 25.

such ill-luck befalling an animal, affects its value in the market to a sensible

3642. Whether the fat cattle are disposed degree. of to the dealer or butcher, or are intended

3643. Having been thus prepared for self, they should undergo a preparation for the road, the drover - who may be your to be driven to market by the farmer himthe journey.

If immediately made to own shepherd, or a hired professional

travel on the road from feeding on tur- drover, on the supposition that you are nips, when the bowels are full of undi- to take your cattle to the market - takes them along the road very slowly for

gested vegetable matter, a scouring ensues

which soon renders them unfit to pursue the first two days, not exceeding 7 or their journey ; and the complaint is the more likely to be brought on from the great propensity which cattle evince to take violent exercise on feeling themselves

8 miles a-day. At night, in winter, they should be put into an open court, and supplied with hay and water, and a very few turnips; for if the turnips are sud

at liberty, after a long confinement in the denly withdrawn from them, their bellies house. They become light-headed in will cling, or shrink up-a state very leaving even the hammel, and remarkably much against the appearance of every so on being brought out of a byre, when animal in a market, as it may be the effect their clumsy antics would be highly amus- of disease. In summer, a grass park suits ing, were it not for the apprehension that them best to feed and rest in. After the

they will hurt themselves against every first two days, they proceed faster, say 12 object, which they seem not to see before them , their visual organs being evidently at fault at the time. I remember seeing a dodded Angus stot let out of a byre run-

or 13 miles a -day, if very fat, and 15, if moderately so. When the journey is long, and the cattle become faint in travel ling, they should get corn to support them .

ning so recklesslyabout, that at length he In frosty weather, when the roads are came at full speed with his head against hard, cattle are apt to become shoulder the wall of the steading, and was instantly shaken, which is one effect of founder; felled to the ground . Before any one, and if sleet fall during the day, and be however, could run to his assistance, he come frozen upon them at night, they will sprang to his feet and made off again be chilled so as to refuse food altogether,

at full speed, with his head high up, and and shrink rapidly in bulk. I had a lot tail on end, as if feeling proud of hav- of 12 Angus oxen so affected, on their

ing accomplished a feat which none of the road to Glasgow, when overtaken by an others dared to do. With distended nostrils unexpected storm as late in the season as and heaving flanks, he seemed painfully May , that I scarcely recognised them in excited ; but on being brought again into

the market, and their value was deterio

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

148

rated to the amount of £3 a -head. Cattle should arrive the day before in the neighbourhood of a distant market, and be supplied with good turnips and hay, or grass,

Some like to proceed on the road quietly, slowly, but surely, and to take them into the market in a placid, coolstate. Others drive them smartly along for some dis

to make them look fresh and to fill up their tance, and then rest them to cool a while, flanks again ; but if the market is only a when they will probably become chilled ,

short distance, they can travel to it from and have a staring coat when they enter the market. Whilst others like to enter the market with the cattle in an excited

early morning.

3644. In droving cattle, the drover state, imagining that they look gay ;

should have no dog, which will only annoy but distended nostrils, loose bowels ,and them . He should walk either before or reeking sides, the ordinary concomitants behind the drove, as he sees them disposed of excitement, are no recommendations

to proceed too fast, or loiter on the road ; to a purchaser. Good judges are chary and in passing carriages, the leading ox- of purchasing cattle in a heated state, as for one generally assumes a leadership they do not know how long they have

after travelling for a while together been so, and to cover the risk, will offer with a little experience, will make way a lower price for them than in a cool for the rest. In other respects, their state. Some drovers have the babit of management on the road is much the same thumping the hindmost ox, whichever it

as that ofsheep, though the rate of travel- may be, with his stick, while on the road. ling is quicker. Accommodation will be This is a reprehensible practice, as the

found at night at stated distances along flesh, where thumped, will bear a red the road .

mark after the animal has been slaugh tered, named a blood -burn . The flesh

3645. On putting oxen into a ferry so affected will not take the salt, and is boat, the shipping of the first one only is apt to putrefy. A touch upon the shank, attended with much trouble .

A man on

or any tendonous part, when correction is

each side should take hold of a horn, or of necessary, is all that is required ;but the a halter of rope, should the ox be hornless, voice, in most cases, will answer the end. and other twomen,one on each side, should

push him forward from behind with a piece

3647. A few large oxen look best to

of rope held between them for a breeching, gether in a market, on a position rather and the men should simultaneously conduct

above the eye of the spectator. When a

him along theplank into the boat. This large lot is nearly alike in size and appear arrangement of the men should be adopted ance, they look best and level, on a flat

at once, and not after it had been found im- piece of ground. Very large fat oxen possible to induce the ox to go aboard of never look better than on the same level himself, or by dint of twisting his tail, the with the spectator. To look in the best irritation occasioned by which will cause state, an ox should hold his head in a line

everysubsequent plan difficultofexecution. with his body, have lively ears, clear eye, If the boat have low gunwales, one man dewy nose, a well-licked hide, and stand should remain beside the ox until one or

firm on all his feet.

These are invariable

two more cattle follow their companion, symptoms of high health and good condi which they will most readily do. In ne- tion. Whenever you see an ox shifting glecting to guard the first ox in small ferry- his standing from one foot to another, he boats, I have seen it leap into the water, is foot-sore, and has been far driven. When

and it is then difficult to prevent the rest you observe him hanging his head, and his doing the same from the jetty.

eyes watering, he feels ill inwardly. When

his coat stares, he has been overheated 3646. Whatever time a lot of cattle may some time, and has become subsequently

take to walk to a market, they should chilled .

These latter symptoms will be

much aggravated in cattle that have been driven cattle, when slaughtered, never be- fed tied to the stake. You may at once comes firm , and the tallow has a soft, melted discover whether cattle have been fed at appearance. Much diversity exists in the stake, by observing a fretted and cal never be overdriven .

The flesh of over-

managing cattle on the road by drovers. lous mark occasioned by the rubbing of

DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE .

149

the baikie or seal, figs. 75 and 76, on the is the only criterion of value, and the re top of the neck , immediately behind the turns of the prices to the respective graziers ears; by the hoofs being overgrown at the must depend entirely on his discretion ;

points ; by marks of dung and of much the apportioning of the money taking resting, upon the outside of the hams; and place in the money taker's office." Thus

also veryfrequently by the remains of lice your good cattle may be slumped in price upon the tail-head and the top of the with the inferior ones of another person. shoulder, their scurf remaining, or the hair “ Again, we will suppose a case of con shorn bare from those parts.

signment of 100 cattle or sheep by one person : these may be sold in one lotat an

average price ; but in order to satisfy his principal, it is not unusual for the sales man to render a fictitious account, showing that the sale was effected by tens or twen ties to different persons, and at prices markets at great distances, as was wont to ties

3648. Steam conveyance by sea and land is now so common from all parts of the country, and from sea -ports, that fat cattle are not now travelled on foot to

be the case some years ago ; still it iswell varying, but making up the amount for for you to be made acquainted with the which they wereactually sold. The rea best method of driving cattle on the road, son given for this proceeding is, that the since most parts of the country at which

salesman wishes to gain a name for mak

cattle are fattened are situate at consider- ing exertion to obtain the best prices, which able distances both from railway stations might be questioned if the animals were and shipping harbours. Fat cattle must returned as sold in one lot.” * still be driven to local fairs from short dis

tances, and in those short journeys they 3651. Besides this unfair mode of sale, require to be as well guided as on long the injuries probably to be sustained by the cattle or sheep you may consign to a salesman, on their way through the streets

ones .

3649. The customs relating to the pur- to Smithfield , are at times to a serious amount. “ The loss to the grazier,” says

chase and sale of cattle in fairs, and town markets, are precisely the same as those

a writer, " is in the difference in value of

connected with the disposal of sheep, his sheep or cattle, when they arrive in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, and (3597.) when offered for sale in Smithfield after

3650. On consigning fat cattle on your own account to London, either by steamboat or railroad, it is necessary beforehand to establish a correspondence with a re-

intense suffering from hard blows, driving over the stones, from hunger, thirst, frigbt, and the compressed state in which they

are constrained to be packed ; the sheep spectable salesman. I say with a sales- and beasts the whole time, from their

man of established character, for that class raised temperature, clouding the atmos of persons having the monopoly of the sale phere of Smithfield with dense exhalations of stock at Smithfield, some of them effect from their bodies. The London butcher,

sales for their customers in a question- carrying on a respectable trade,will at all able manner. It has been alleged, for times, when he enters the market, reject example, that each salesman receives such cattle or sheep as are what is termed consignments of stock from severalgraziers, in a mess ; that is, depressed , after excita and it frequently happens that when a sale tion by being overlaid or overdriven, or is effected, say of 100 cattle or sheep, such as have been more than usually composed of perhaps 10 from one grazier, troublesome in getting into the market, 20 from another, 30 from another,and so and, consequently, will be in a more wor op ; they, of course, vary in quality and ried and exhausted condition. It is to be size; the 10 or 20 being perhaps far supe- observed , that all animals brought into rior to those with which they are sold ; Smithfield, especially on the Monday's but it often happens that one general ave- market-day, are more or less in the con rage price is fixed for the whole : thus it dition above described.”

This was the

occurs that the judgment of the salesman case when an inquiry was made into the * Inquiry into the State ofSmithfield Ca

Market in 1848, p. 6.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

150

state of the market in 1828 ; and the in- loose from their fastenings, and, in knock quiry instituted in 1847, by a committee ing against each other and the sides of the of the HouseofCommons, presents no im- vessel, become bruised to a considerable provement of the picture, as may be seen by the evidence of Mr Walter Anderson, Oakley, a grazier near Bedford, when, in answer to the question put to him , “ In

degree ; and, in some instances, have been thrown overboard to secure the safety of the vessel. If such confusion is bad'be low decks it is much worse upon deck,

what way were cattle ill treated ?” he an- where the cattle interfere with the work

swered ," Ihave witnessed in Smithfield, on ing of the ship. In the event of such a four different occasions, when I have gone risk, it is much safer to transmit them in

there to see my beasts, which were of very the trucks of a railway than in the holds good quality, they have been put into or decks of steam -vessels. ring-droves, where they bave been cram med in so thick that I have not been able

3654. The charge forconveying cattle

to see my animals for two hours; and when to London by the steamboat and railway they have been brought out, they were so increases, of course, with the distance, but disfigured with mud, and bleeding, that I less in proportion for the longer distance.

should not have known them , unless the The charges are too costly ; but, to view mark was pointed out to me." *

the matter in its proper light, the cost

should be compared with the loss of con 3652. The blows and bruises sustained dition incurred by sending fat stock on foot

by the cattle and sheep materially affect to the same distance.

Mr D. Martin of

their market value, and the state of their flesh as an article of food . “ A calculation has been made,” says another and earlier writer, “ that 512,000 serious and extensive edematous bruises are, in the course of one year, discovered on cattle after they are slaughtered. The pain these bruises must occasion to the cattle,

Wainfleet, in Leicestershire, ascertained the difference by experiment. He walked 5 sheep to London, which weighed 858 lbs. live-weight, and, on being killed there, their carcasses weighed 435 lb., and the loose fat 60 lb.; whereas 5 sheep of the same weight, killed at home, yielded 489 lb. of mutton and 741 lb. of loose fat,

and the loss to the butcher or the public,

the difference 68 } lb. in favour of those

is exclusive of those parts of the animal not travelled, at 6d. the lb., gives a which suffer most from the conduct of the sum of 34s. 3d., which would have paid

drovers, namely, the head, especially the the cost of a very long journey by the nasal organs, and concussions of the brain railway.I by blows on the horns, besides the more acute suffering from blows on the hocks.”

3655. It has long been my opinion that

The beef consumed in London, in 1836, cattle and sheep conveyed by railway ought

he states, amounted to 94 millions of stones, to pay by weight, as goods do, and not which, at 6s. a stone, gives a total value of £ 2,850,000 ; and if its deterioration is taken only at half-a-farthing per pound, the annual loss sustained by the bruises

by bulk as gauged in atruck. The pre sent plan has the effect of overcrowding fat stock in the truck, and of discouraging the sending of lean stock by rail ; for lean

of cattle alone, will amount to £ 69,270, cattle occupy more space in proportion 16s.f

This was in 1828, and from the to their value than fat, and their lower

increase in the number of cattle since that value is, besides, less able to pay thehigher period, and the consequent curtailment of fare. It would not be difficult for the space allotted to each, the loss sustained station master, or the servants at the sta by bruises was calculated, in 1848, to tion, to ascertain the live weight of stock amount to £ 100,000. by weighing one animal of every equal lot on the weighing-machine, always at the 3653. Cattle and sheep are not free from station ; and such practice, for a short serious accidents on board steam - vessels

in stormy weather.

time, would enable them to determine the

The cattle break weight by the eye.

Were farmers to

* Inquiry into the State of Smithfield Cattle Market in 1848, p. 19. + The Question of the Smithfield Market fully considered, p. 21 and 24. # The Railway Bell, for February 1847.

-

DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE .

press this change on the railway autho rities, and show, by a practical trial, the

trouble than goods to railway servants, in

In January, February, March, April May, June, July,

the putting in and the taking out of the

August,

ease with which it might be effected, it

would no doubt be adopted on the prin ciple of fair dealing Stock gives less

.

151 Oxen .

Cows.

15,589

480

15,404

570

859

15,407 15,322 16,541

601

1,122

577 491 509 495 497 421 487 544 620

1,375 2,087 3,846 4,033 3,840 2,707 2,200 1,483 1,263

6,292

25,585

17,452 16,878 17,975

September, 21,714

trucks, and they occupy no warehouse

October,

room ; and therefore, if they paid the same charge as goods, they would be more profit

November, 19,700 December, 19,855

able traffic to the company .

20,177

212,014

Calves.

770

3656. The importation of horned cattle from Ireland and Scotland into England, was prohi-

In regard to these numbers, it should be borne

bited by a la 16 Charles II . 1663 ; but the export of cattle from Ireland now forms a vast

in mind that they represent the total numbers ex hibited in each month ; but a deduction should

and beneficial branch of the Irish trade with the sister country. From the inferior port of Water-

market day, and which make their appearance

ford alone, the value of imported cattle and pro-

in another. It has been estimated that about

visions amounted , in 1841 , to nearly half a million

25,000 cattle reappear in the course of a year.

Total number of cattle,

243,891

be made for the cattle turned out unsold in one

sterling.* Now all live animals are imported from

all quarters of the globe into Britain free of duty.

3658. It is interesting to observe the propor tions in which the oxen from the different districts

3657. The numbers of cattle presented in each

of the kingdom found their way to London in the

month of 1848, for sale in Smithfield market,

different months of the year : in 1847 and : 1848

London , were as follows:

W. and Mid . Other parts of Eng

In January , February, March , April,

...

:::::::::

May,

June, July,

N , Districts.

E. Districts.

land Districts.

land with Ireland .

4,150 3,000

2,200 4,200

2,000 1,800

2,900 2,700

2,000 1,000

4,500 5,400

2,300

1,600

500

5,900

2,500 2,800

1,350 2,100

6,300

3,000

1,900

5,000 8,000

3,800 1,480

2,250 1,960 3,450

900

Scotland .

790 610 850 840

2,560 3,180

September,

3,600 5,000

2,000

2,600

October, November,

7,200

800

4,550

1,810

6,300

6,000

2,000 4,000

3,350

December,

1,500 2,500

3,900

790 960 572 910 400 290

39,650

48,300

32,830

29,270

12,752

47,870

48,700

27,800

26,150

8,725

August ,

In 1847 ,

A few deductions may be drawn from the numbers of this statement.

From the northern

and an increase of the Devons and Herefords from the western and midland districts , while

districts the chief supplies are in the beginning the supply from the eastern districts is about and end of the year, indicating there the preva the same. From Scotland, the increase in lence of arable husbandry, and fattening with 1848 is very marked , owing, no doubt, to the turnips, and little grazing. The same reinark accommodation of direct conveyances on the rail

applies to other parts of England with Ireland ; ways from Scotland to London. but, from these districts, the supply is more uniform than from the northern districts. From

the eastern districts the supply is scanty in win-

3659. The numb of oxen presented at Smith field for the last 8 years was as follows : Oxen.

ter, the fattening on turnips being evidently limited, while the grazing in summer is carried

In 1841,

194,298

1842 1843, 1844, 1845,

207,195 216,848

...

on to a large extent. The supply from the

..

western and midland districts is more regular

throughout the year than from any other dis trict, while it rather increases in winter, indi cating fattening for a short time on turnips from the grass in autumn. The grazing beasts are

...

1846,

1847, 1848,

210,723 222,822 233,402 216,280 212,014

largely supplied from the north of Scotland in 1,713,582 the early summer months. On comparing the numbers of 1848 with 1847, we find a falling Average of the 8 years, 214,197 off of the Short -horns from the northern districts, * Haydn's Dictionary of Dates -- art. Cattle.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

152

3663. Cows are chiefly imported from Holland,

3660. Mr M'Queen, in 1836, estimated the number of cattle in the United Kingdom at 500,000

and calves from Holland and Belgium , whilst the oxen mostly come from Holstein . Dutch cows are good. The Dutch and Belgians feed calves

7,000,000

well. The pastures of Holstein afford the best

2,000,000

oxen of any imported.

15,400,000, divided thus :

Bulls, young and old, Oxen, fat, to kill,

Cows,

4,000,000

growing up to fatten , used to work ,

3664. At the end of the season of fattening the cattle, it is profitable to hear the conclusions

500,000 1,400,000

to replace waste,

stock ,one -tenth , Permanent Or thus : To replace waste,

arrived at by so acute and scientific an expe rimenter and philosopher as M. Boussingault, on

15,400,000 14,000,000

the experiments made by Mr Robert Stephen

1,400,000

son, Whitelaw , East Lothian, an abstract of

15,400,000 *

In a which is given from ( 1342) to (1350.) series of experiments which he undertook ,” says M. Boussingault, “ Mr Robert Stephenson pro

posed to compare the progress of the increase in

3661. The cattle and calves imported duty free, weight of oxen upon different alimentary regi from the Continent into London Cattle.

Calves.

mens. Starting upon the principle which we have alreadyestablished thatanimals consume a quan tity of food in proportion to their weight and size,

720

110

when they are under the same conditions - he

852

103 434 466 898

had, of course, to divide his stock into several lots, each made up of animals of as nearly as possible the same weight. Oxen of two years old, brought up on the same farm , and kept in the same manner, were the subjects of experi

, in each month

of the year 1848, were as follows : In January , February ,

::::::

March , April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November ,

1,146 2,456

•

2,197 2,044

ments. I shall select one experiment, in which

2,135 1,625 803

the observations were made upon three lots of

2,401

669 492

was ascertained before and after the experiment, which was carried on for 119 days, 1. The first lot was put upon white turnips, linseed oilcake,

26,759

11,133

beans, and oats ; and, for the last 24 days, each

32,968

8,433+

beast had 20 lb. of potatoes every day in addi tion. 2. The second lot was fed like the first, with this difference, that it had no cake ; and

.

4,301 2,962 3,488

•

December,

In 1847,

1,692 1,706

1,666 2,526

six beasts each . The live weight of each lot

3662. The totalnumbers of cattle imported, that, during the last 24 days, the quantity of duty free , into the United Kingdom, in the course

potatoes allowed was but 10 lb. a-day. 3. The third lot had no other provender than turnips.

of 1847 and 1848, were as follows : Oxen and bulls, Cows, Calves,

1847.

1848.

27,831

24,591 22,510

35,480

12,406

Total of cattle imported, 75,717

3665. “ Here are the weights and nature of the provender consumed by the animals during the 119 days, with a column added, containing the equivalent in hay corresponding to each

15,642 62,7431

article consumed : --

PROVENDER .

Weight, Equivalent in hay. Ib .

White turnips, Swedes, Beans,

Oilcake , Oats ,

Potatoes , Ration expressed in hay, Hay consumed per head per day, Hay per 100 lb. of the live -weight,

Lor 3.

Lot 2 .

Lot l .

Equivalent Weight Equivalent Weight, in hay . in hay, Ib,

lb.

Ib . 184.8

1,122-0

1973-4 | 13,384 :8

1980-0

12,012-0

538.0

1559-0

173.0

279-0

lb ,

1,628.0

1,518-0

171.6

13.336-0 338.0 389-0 173.0 4790

1559-8 1768.0 279-0

151.0

239-8

Ib . 1270 1777.6

5,902-8

1904-6

49.7 4.01

34.3 3.03

160

It therefore plainly appears that the lot which

in hay assumed . lb.

385 676

315

770

4079.8

had the largest allowance of provender, the food which contained the greatest quantity of azotised

Equivalent

2.0

creased in the smallest measure, both in flesh and fat - results which might have been readily foreseen .

principles of flesh , in fact produced the largest amount of dead -weight in a given time ; and that the lot which had the shortest allowance in

3666. " It is also apparent, from the table, that, in proportion to the nutritive value of the

* MʻQueen's Statistics of the British Empire, p . 18. + Bell's Weekly Messenger, January 1849. I Parliamentary Return, 26th February 1849.

MARES FOALING . articles consumed by each lot, the increase in

153

a waxy -like matter projecting from the

carcass -weight was greatest thatbulk.Thus which re pointofthe teats. Theperiod ofgesta ceivedits allowance in the inleast reducing the different rations to a standard for

age, we find that in the first lot, which was plentifully supplied, 100 lb. of hay gained 4.2 lb. of increased weight, whilst the same allowance

tion is from 333 to 346 days. 3671. As it is impossible to predict a mare's foaling within a few hours, it is

of hay produced 6 lb. in the third lot, which

putwatch her into box by her loose-night,as in u her aevery self, andto to was fed most parsimoniously. The fact is most proper

readily explained ; over a certain limit, the more food an animal receives, the smaller is the frac

in the work -horse stable O , or in the out

tion which is assimilated and turned to use in house g, Plate II. Too many farmers the body. Breeders have consequently discovered , neglect and even contemn such precau that itis by no means generally advantageous tions, and allow their mares to foal in the to push animals beyond a certain point of fatness. The excess of weight which is obtained with the

stall in the stable, at the risk of having both them and their foals injured. The late Mr Airth, Mains of Dun, Forfarshire, told me that a mare of bis, having been

assistance of the quantities of food exaggerated as it were, no longer compensates for the additional expense incurred . This is a circumstance which and, Mr Stephenson's experiments also illus indeed,they led trate; him tothe conclusion

neglected to bewatched atnight,or even

which has just been stated .

removed from the stable, was found in the

morning lying on the floor with her womb · 3667. “ Judging by the market price of the protruded, and the foal smothered in it. several articles of provender employed by this The mare shortly after died in great agony. distinguished breeder, the first lot appears to be It is a remarkable fact, that few people the one the fattening of which turned out the least

weightof bave observed mares to foal,even though pound ;whilsteach 5d. advantageously , theprice of watching for the purpose, for somehow flesh produced herecostabout

production in the second lot did not much exceed

they contrive to foal when left by them

4d., (4fd.) ; and in the third it wasa little more, selves for even a few moments. I have 43d. endeavoured for successive years to wit 3668. “ With these observations of Mr Ste phenson, we find the following numbers to ex

ness the foaling both of blood and draught mares, and was always disappointed.

press the daily increase in weight of the cattle

3672. A mare will eat with heartiness

during the period of fattening : Average weight Hay consumed Increase per Increase head in 119 per day , of the oxen be- per day per and per fore fattening . head . days. Ib .

lb,

she suddenly lies down, foals easily, quickly, forcibly, requiring no assistance,

Ib .

49.7

247-5

34.3 16.0

231-6 112.6

2.0 1.9 0.9

starts to her feet almost immediately after parturition, takes up with, though licks but little at, ber foal, and soon begins

hend . Ib .

First lot, 1115.0 Second lot, 1016.0 Third lot, 794-0

until the pains of labour seize her, when

again to eat. 3669. “ The weight of the several animals must also be taken into account, in seeking to estimate the increase realised upon every 100 lb. of live

in 119 days gained second, third,

ON MARES FOALING.

3673. The foal is not long of gaining

its feet after a few staggeringattempts on its long spindled shanks, but some time

weight during the fattening : In the first lot, 100 lb. of live-weight, 22-2 lb. 22.8

14-2

elapses before it can steady itself,in walk ing, or to lay hold of the teat. It should be assisted in its first attempt, to get filled with milk, after which it will lie down and sleep amongst straw , now replenished

clean, until it becomes dry.

The placenta

soon drops from the mare, and should be

3670. May is the usual month in which immediately removed. The thin pellicle

draught-mares foal. They continue to which covers the foal, is, when dried, like work until the immediate symptoms of the finest gut-skin used by the gold foaling are observed . These are, great beaters ; and it forms a good protection loosening of the ligatures on each side of from the air, when applied as a plaster the rootof the tail, and the appearance of over the surface of a recent wound. * Boussingault's Rural Economy - Law's translation, p. 615-17 .

154

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

3674. The mare should bave a drink of never stand upon its feet, or suck a teat,

lukewarm water and oatmeal, and a few and it died in the course of the day after handfuls of corn , after parturition, and it was foaled, though fed on cows milk. A mare when thus deprived of her foal, drink should be given her for a day or should be occasionally milked , and kept two. For the sake of increasing her milk , on dry food for a few days, until the ten then left with the foal ; and the warm

she should be put to grass immediately dency of the milk to secrete subsides. after foaling, if not already on it ; and When a mare dies in foaling, the foal may should she foal before the grass is as far be well brought up by hand on cow's advanced as to support her well, she milk. should have boiled turnips, or carrots and corn for a mess at night, and warm bran

mashes during the day, (1444.)

3676. The mare will be ready to receive the horse in 3 or 4 weeks at farthest after

parturition. The first symptoms of heat

3675. She should remain on grass with- is frequent convulsive openingof thevulva, out working at least for a month ; by and emission of a clear Auid. When a

which time her body will have sufficiently mare is touched in this state, she immedi recovered to bear the fatigue of labour. ately presses towards the object that The work which a mare with a foal should

touches her.

do should interfere slightly with the im portant operations of the farm ; having

3677. In presenting a mare to the stal

to suckle the foal every half-yoking, she lion, caution is required to prevent her

should be employed singly, such as at sow- striking him with her heels should she re ing, and scufiling turnips and potatoes, and fuse his attentions ; and this consists simply leading grass or otherforage to the stead- in holding her by the head with a bridle ing, and worked gently. When she works, across the outside of the stable door, while

thefoal should be left by itself in the out- the stallion is kept within, and only al bouse, well-littered, until it become ac- lowed to snuff and pinch her flank . If customed to be alone, rather than in a she takes his teasing kindly, presses closer

court or hammel, out of which it may towards him , twitches the vulva,and emits, attempt to escape and injure itself, as at she is in proper season ; but if she squeal

first it almost goes distracted on being and kick and make water, whenever he separated from its mother ; and she also evinces great uneasiness for it for the first few days. Should there be two mares with foals, both should beworked together: the treatment of both being alike, little inconvenience will arise to work, from

touches her, she is in an unfit state for him : but the tickling of the horse for a time not unfrequently confirms the season

of the mare, though at first it may evince a doubtful issue.

If in season , she should

be taken to an open piece of level ground,

being taken out of yoke together to their and held by the head as long as the horse foals ; or one of them might be worked in covers her, and the time occupied by a the forenoon, and the other in the after- stallion in covering is considerable. A noon . A stout mare will be able to per- horse safe to use requires no encourage form her own share of summer work, and

ment from his leader to leap on the mare.

bring up a foal at the same time; but should she be in a weakly state, which she will be when becoming old, or is overworked, she should be put either to very gentle work, in half-yokings, or one yoking a -day, or be set idle altogether, and

Making a mare stand to the horse with a twitch on her nose is an unnecessary act of cruelty ; for, if she will not voluntarily

receivehim , she will not become impreg nated in an involuntary embrace ; but many horses need assistance, which his

be constantly with her foal. She should keeper knows how to afford. One cover not be neglected of corn , though idle at is quite sufficient at a time. grass with her foal. Seldom any illness attacks a draught-mare while bringing up 3678. In about 3 weeks it will be seen a foal, and as seldom anything is the mat- whether the mare has held to the horse ; ter with a foal. I had one work -foal, and should she again exhibit symptoms of however, which, though safely and easily season , simple and safe expedients may be

foaled, and seemed lively enongh, could used to secure her holding, such as throw

MARES FOALING .

155

ing a bucket of cold water upon her rump that could be procured, and she produced the moment the horse leaves her ; or draw- four very fine and valuable foals; but after ing blood from her neck vein while the attaining ten years of ageshe became bar

horse is in the act of covering; or, what ren, and no art that could be devised could is better than these, unless the season bring her again into foal.

ishorse going rapidly off her, retaining the all night, and offering her a fresh

3681. Now that we have considered and de

cover in the morning ; or, to adopt a dif- scribed all thephenomena attendingthe parturi

ferent plan altogether, covering herwith tion of allthe domesticatedanimals ofthefarm , a few remarks on the nature of labour, as consti

another horse, or another kind of horse-- tuting the premonitory symptomsof parturition, one or other of which expedients gene- may enable you to understand moreclearly the on which that important process de rally secures the holding, unless themare rationale pends. This is a subject with which shepherds is past bearing. I was told by a man who led stallions for many years, that the and cattlemen ought to be well acquainted ;and so ought the farmer, in order to perceive whether drawing of a long sigh, from both horse or not his servants understand their duty. and mare, immediately after an embrace, is an infallible sign ofthe mare proving in 3682. The fætus in the uterus of the female

is produced by the impregnation of an ovum by

foal.

the semen of the male. The period of gestation differs in different kinds of animals. The mare 3679. The circumstances that militate

goes 11 months with young, the cow 9 months,

against a mare's holding infoal is too high the ewe 6 months,and the sow 4 months. And and too low condition. Whenever a mare attention is required to be directed to these is seen to eject the semen as soon as the periods, which are natural,andcannot be altered suit the convenience of man, that the young may borse bas left her, she will certainly not to not be produced in the cold and unpropitious

hold .

Sometimes the fault is as much his

season of winter, but in the milder and more

of spring and early summer, as the mare's, when he is subjected to favourableasseason those seasons present an abundance much travelling ; and when he is not a inasmuch of grass, the most natural of all food for good traveller,and has undertaken more

animals.

service than he can easily overtake, he is often so much fatigued when brought to a mare, especially in the evening, as to

quired for the complete development of the

be quite unfit for effective service. When

3683. At the termination of the period re ovum, a new series of operations are entered on,

the horse is observed to be in a state of for the purpose of giving birth to the foetus which

lassitude, the best policy for the farmer is to give him and his leader a night's quarters, and to let him cover the mare in the

has been matured ; these are included under the term labour. It usually commences at the com

pletion of the determinate periodof gestation; in some instances it occurs before that time, when

morning, when he is comparatively fresh. it is called premature labour. In the comprehen sense , therefore , we would define parturi Many farmers grudge maintaining a horse sive tion to be, as observed by Dr Murphy -- theaction the inof uterusto expelits contents when the fætusis and a man all night, but much better cur that small expense than run the risk sufficientlymature to sustain respiratory life. of a mare proving barren. When a mare has been covered three separate periods 3684. There are many circumstances,depende without success, it is needless to persevere ing either upon constitutionalpeculiarities, irre with her for that year, as the foal will gular formation, or upon accident, which may

come too late next season, and a late foal damage parturition or renderit dangerous ; hence labours have been is as objectionable to bring up as a late calf.

divided and subdivided to meet those difficult conditions. Some adopt only two divisions. The first includes those

labours which proceed regularly to their termina

3680. The becoming barren is a casu alty which befals mares at very different ages. Some will continue to bear until after twenty years of age, whilst others cease at the age of ten. I had a powerful and handsome draught mare , which was put to the horse at five years old, with the view of producing a large number of valu able foals. She was put to the best horses

tion without interruption. The second embraces those who do not do so. The one is the rule,

the other the exception ; but as the exceptional

includes several varieties, this second class is division is sufficient for our purpose, under the

subdivided into corresponding heads. Denman's

several heads of natural, dificult, preternatural, compler. 3685. Denman defines labour to be natural, “if the head of the fætus is present; if the labour

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

156

be completed in 24 hours ; and if artificial assis- menced, and draws the womb gradually to the tance be not required .” Labour is called pre- pelvis. By this means also the bottom of the ternatural when some other part than the head

womb is maintained in its proper direction, and

of the fætus presents. It is called difficult labour prevented from inclining too much to either side. when it exceeds 24 hours. It is complex labour This gradual contraction is unaccompanied by when some accidental cause of danger occurs,

both classes of animals usually require artificial

pain , and therefore is not taken notice of ; but its effect in altering the size of the abdomen, and making it less prominent, has always been observed and noted as a premonitory sign of labour. The fibres of the womb also serve a use ful purpose when the dilatation of its mouth commences : the bottom of the womb thus sup ported, the fibres on the internal surface contract

assistance.

more efficiently.

which may render interference necessary .

3686. Applying these definitions to the ordinary cases of labour among the animals of the farm , I should say that natural labour is rare in short-horned cows and Leicester ewes, since Most other breeds of cattle and

It is the muscles at the bottom

sheep, not requiring assistance, may be said to of the womb which chiefly effect the dilatation of produce their young by means of natural labour.

the mouth of the womb and the expulsion of

The mare may be said to be always delivered by the fætus--the fibres of the body and of the head means of natural labour.

of the womb remaining comparatively passive ; and their united action is in the direction of the

3687. Short -horn cows and Leicester ewes are seldom overtaken with preternatural labour,

mouth of the womb ; but there is still a necessity for the means by which the result of that action

since the head of the fætus most commonly pre-

should be perfectly conveyed to it. This is accom

sents ; and so it is with the other breeds.

plished by the fluid enclosed within the am nion, which acts with a distending power upon the

3688. Short-horn cows are frequently subjected mouth of the womb, exactly equal to the com to difficult labour, since more than 24 hours bined forces of the muscles. The muscular bands elapse before they are delivered of the fætus, from the time the premonitory symptoms of parturition present themselves.

Neither Leicester ewes

nor the females of the other breeds of stock are

subject to difficult labour.

must also have the effect of expanding the mouth of the womb, by drawing it upwards. The circular fibres of the body and the head of the womb resist the effects of the bottom of the womb to distend them ; and the force of their resis tance is also communicated to the contained

3689. Every breed of stock is at times sub- fluid . This force is therefore, as it were, reflect ject to compler labour, since accidental circumstances occur every year to render interference necessary in cases of parturition.

3690. It is of importance that you should have

ed upon the mouth of the womb, so that the whole womb might be said to act as one muscle in dilating its mouth. In ordinary cases dila tation occupies a certain period of labour, ( often a very lengthened one,) and the mouth of the

awhich clearconstitute view of the whole seriesunless of phenomena pivyed womb yields very gradually to the power em parturition ; for

you per-

fectly comprehend the changes which are going forward in the woinb, and have an accurate

knowledge of the means adopted by nature to

.

3693. Here nature interposes a means by which the danger attending the action of this

accomplish her purpose , you can never under

power may be met and modified. If the womb

stand the principles of midwifery ; your practice must be empirical ; and, however indebted to

exerted its full power upon its undilated mouth, and if the unyielding head of the fætus were driven forcibly against it, the almost certain con

chance you may befor success, you will always be exposed to the risk of committing some fatal mistake. In order to study parturition sufficiently, it is necessary to divide it into certain

sequence would be, that the irritation would ex

cite increased resistance , and ultimately termi nate in inflammation of the mouth of the womb.

stages. The means by which the womb is opened Toobviatesuch an effect, nature imposes a fluid is not the same as that by which the fætus is forced through the pelvis ; and the manner in

medium between the power and the resistance. The liquor amnii, contained within the mem

which the placenta is separated and expelled is branes, occupies the cavity of the womb, and different from either ; hence labour has been divided into three stages by Denman.

3691. The first stage is dated from the opening The second stage commences when the

of the mouthof the womb to its complete dilatation .

mouth of the womb is perfectly dilated , and ter-

minates in the expulsion of the fætus. The third stage is occupied with the expulsion of the pla-

when its parietes contract upon it, the force exerted (as explained above) by this means, is accurately conveyed to the mouth of the womb. When the latter dilates in the slightest degree, the fluid insinuates itself within the smallest opening, and expands it by a direct lateral pres sure against its edges. The power of the womb is thus made to act in the most favourable man . ner for distending its mouth .

centa .

3694. The importance of the action of the 3692. For the purpose of opening the mouth of the womb to its complete dilatation, the external muscular layer of the womb slowly contracts for some time before labour has actually com-

liquor amnii depends on the well-known hydro static law, that the force conveyed by a fluid does not act in one direction only, but is distributed to every part of the surface to which the fluid

MARES FOALING .

157

is applied, and it may be observed in the charac- to overcome unusual opposition occasioned by ter of the pains during this stage of the labour. rigidity. The contraction takes place continu You will find that, however severely they may ously for a certain time; but when the period commence, they last but a short time, and the effect on the mouth of the womb is comparatively slight. If these short, though severe

pains, be contrasted with the long -continued and powerful pains which follow them , after the liquor amnii, or water, is discharged, and the mouth of the womb is dilated, the difference in the effect will be sufficiently obvious.

which is usual to effect dilatation is exceeded, or when the mouth of the womb becomes irritated,

the pains grow feeble, and thewomb often sus pends its action altogether. By this means an interval of rest is gained , when the irritation may

subside, and the patient recovers from fatigue, which otherwise might end in exhaustion. When

the action of the womb is renewed, after a sus pension of this kind, the dilatation is often

3695. In regard to the order observed by the

rapidly completed. Much confusion has arisen

womb in the contractions which take place, and

as to the duration of labour, in consequence of

which may easily be ascertained experimentally.

neglecting this fact. The commencement, how ever, is generally dated from the sanguineous discharge, which marks the first opening of the mouth of the womb ; and all suspensions after this, occasioned by whatever causes, should be

Thus : when the hand is passed into the womb

after delivery , to remove the placenta, when necessary, we find that it may remain for some time in the cavity, without exciting its contraction, but the moment the hand is being with

drawn, the bottom of the womb instantly contracts, and as the hand passes along the vagina, the contractions are continued from above downwards ; so also, in other instances, when the mouth of the womb is only irritated by the finger of the hand introduced into the

vagina, and an attempt is made to dilate it, the

regarded as irregularities in the action of the womb, and not as indicative of the commence ment of the continuous labour, which may be of very short duration previous to parturition .

3699. “ It affords,” concludes Dr Murphy, " an additional illustration of the principle which nature seems to observe in the dilatation of the

mouth of the womb-to do nothing by riolence. You have thus a very favourable illustration of In all ordinary cases the liquor amnii, the water, the reflex nervous function. Hence, we infer moderates the action of the womb ; but if there

bottom of the womb contracts, not the mouth.

that the order of interior contractionsis from the

farther end of the womb downwards, and that the action commences there .

3696. The dilatable condition of the mouth

be an unusual resistance offered to it, and the waters are discharged, the increased action does

not continue : it is suspended, and again renewed ; 80 that the object is obviously to accomplish by time what nature avoids effecting by force.”

may be ascertained , if the fingers be passed within the mouth of the womb and separated.

3700. From experiments made by M. Boussin

The edges yield readily to a moderate pressure; gault, it appears that mares weighing from 960 there is a very slight increase of temperature; and there is no tenderness or pain produced when

from 110 lb. to 113 lb., about a ninth part of

the mouth of the womb is touched .

lb. to 1100 lb. produce foals weighing at birth

their own weight.

3697. But care should be taken that rigidity be not induced by too much meddling, making too

three months, increases from 112 lb. the mean,

frequent examinations, and attempting to dilate

in the various ratios of 172 lb. to 241 lb., that

3701. The growth of foals while sucking for

themouth of the womb artificially. Some shep- is, from 1:9 lb. a-day to 2:7 lb. a-day, the mean herds are too fond of showing their skill by too

being 2.2 lb. a-day.

frequent displays of examination into the state of the mouth of the womb. The danger is that the mouth of the womb becomes inflamed and

3702. Foals increase less after being weaned than on milk. The increase on milk of 2.2 lb.

rigid, and the os tincæ grows hot and tender, a-day is decreased to l•l lb. a-day, exactly one is swollen, and also becomes rigid. Rigidity of half. the mouth of the womb may be natural, as in the case of the first pregnancy of the gimmer and the quey, which, however, gives way in repeated

parturitions in future years. But sometimes the

3703. The increase of a foal to the end of the

first year is 1.3 lb. a-day, the increase to the end of the third year is something under ' i lb.

structure of the mouth of the womb is tough, a -day. After three years complete, the period which only gives way reluctantly; and it may at which the horse has very nearly attained his even be cartilaginous, theedge perfectly unyield growth and development, any increase becomes ing from thickened contraction ; and even when

thin the resistance may be the same, and is to the touch like a hole made in parchment. Such cases requires great attention and constant watching on the part of the attendants, 3698. The womb acts differently when it has

less and less perceptible . These conclusions in regard to the growth of the young horse differ very little from those in connexion with cattle.

3704. It appears that a young horse increases 12 per cent in live-weight on the weight of the food he eats. +

* Murphy On Natural and Dificult Parturition , p. 42-59 . + Boussingault's Rural Economy - Law's translation, p. 629.

158

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

grass for a fortnight or so, till the rested new grass has grown again ; and in such a 3705. When treating of the lambing of case they should receive poppy -cake, which

ON THE PASTURING OF SHEEP IN SUMMER.

ewes, we left them with their lambs on

assists ewes in secreting milk.

new grass, to bring a flush of milk on

them . ( 2555.) Since then they have con-

3709. The pastures ought not to be

tinued to receive the best grass on the allowed to be overrun with weeds. There farm the weather allowed , until now, are some weeds which sheep will not allow

the beginning of the summer quarter, in to grow up, being fond of them as food . May, according to our division of the These are the parsley, Apium graveolens; agricultural year. The ewes and lambs the rag-weed, Senecio Jacobæa--- and so continue together after the ewes have been fond are sheep of this plant, that, wherever

washed andshorn of their wool, until the it is seen in pastures, it may be concluded weaning of the lambs at the end of June, that no sheep have grazed there while the or beginning of July, according as the plants were young—the plantain or rib lambs become strong, and the ewes lean worts, Plantago, and several others. Every from being sucked ; but early weaned plant, not a pasture plant, should be cut lambs are found to stand the winter best.

down as wees, such as all the thistles and

docks, Carduus and Rumex , which are

3706. Ewes have more milk for their lambs on sown pastures of rye- grass and clover than on old pasture, which is at least a fortnight later in springing than

most unsightly weeds in sheep. pasture. The perennial species of the docks are easily increased by seeds, as well as divi sions of the roots, and the annual ones

the sown grasses .

very easily by the seed, of which the

This is a serious

objection against old grass for ewes at so plants produce a large number.

The

early a period of the year as the middle of annoyance attending the maturation of the March ; and as ewes ought to be well kept thistle tribe, and of all other seeds simi for at least a month before they lamb, it larly constructed, as the ray -weed, dande is essential to their thriving, as well as lion, chickweed, is themaking other fields that of the lambs, that they be kept not

foul with weeds as well as those in which

only as well but better after they have they immediately grow, by the transpor lambed. tation of their seeds by the wind.

3707. Nothing is done with the lambs 3710. No implement is better suited for after their castration, ( 2571 ,) until they cutting weeds in pasture than the common are weaned from their mother. hand-boe, fig. 266. In weeding pastures, two field -workers should be allotted to

3708. The new grass , to be pastured by every ridge, and when they have gone ewes and lambs, should be selected with from one end of the ridge to the other,

judgment. That intended for hay should they take a new ridge every time they first be stocked, since new grass, moder- arrive at the headridge. ately eaten down in spring, stools out, and affords a thicker cutting for hay than if it 3711. Should the wether- hoggs be re had not been so pastured. For the same

tained on the farm until they are shorn

reason, the new grass intended to be cut of the fleece, they should be put on the

for horses' forage should also be earlier best pasture to uphold the condition they pastured than that to be pastured all the haveacquired on the turnips, and to main season .

This arrangement gives both the tainthe strength ofthe staple of the wool forage and hay grass time to attain their until the fleece is taken off.

growth when they are wanted, and it also gives the pasture time to gain as much strength as to support the ewes and lambs

3712. Should dinmonts have been fed on the turnips, and it is desired to shear

well during the season of pasturage. None the wool before disposing of them, they

of the new grass, however, should be eaten should be treated in the same manner as too bare ; and ratherthan commit so great the wether-hoggs. a mistake, even in a late season , the ewes

should graze lightly on the best of the older

3713. For the sake of the wool, the

PASTURING SHEEP .

159

ere-hoggs should have good pasture until

3717. Lambs are subject to serious, and they are shorn of the fleece ; and after that even fatal, injury on farms situate on the

they may be put on rough or inferior pas- rocky cliffs of the ocean, from the attacks ture, as it is not desirable to make them of the Raven, Corous corax. This for too fat before being put to the tup in midable bird approaches lambswhen asleep, autumn .

and left alone by their dams, grazing at a distance, and pecks a hole in the abdomen ,

3714: Tups should also have good pasture until they are shorn of the fleece ; and after that they should have ordinary pagture, either by themselves or with the cows, but apart from the ewes and lambs

and draws out the entrails. Should the lambs be awake on its approach, it picks out their eyes. Even hoggs, when fallen

and gimmers.

on their back, have been known to

have had their eyes picked, and their entrails pulled out. The raven frequently builds its nest on cliffs overbanging the

3715. A general remark as regards the sea, and , when feeding its brood, becomes

pasturing ofsheep is, that, as sheep crop very bold, and will seize many animals grass closer and more constantly than which it will not meddle with at other

cattle, they are not so profitable to graze, times. Many a hare falls a victim to it. since they do not permit the grass to grow There is no way of destroying this bird but by shooting after long watchings, or by setting baited steel-traps neartheir 3716. Leicester hoggs, before being haunts. clipped, are so loaded with wool, that, when annoyed by the ked, they often roll upon 3718. The Carrion - crow , Corvus corone, their backs with the feet in the air, and, will perch itself on the rump of a sheep when this happens in the hollow of a fur- infested with maggots, and in devouring row , they cannot get up again. They are them will pick the flesh off the sheep to so full and freely .

then said to lie awkward or awald . Should the bone. I have saved many a young

they lie for some time with their head leveret from being destroyed by the car down the bill, with the stomach full of rion -crow .

food, they may soon die of apoplexy. It is 3719. Carse farms afford no pasturage : the disgraceful to a shepherd to allow even one grass, sown only for one year, is best suited sheep to die on lying awkward. He can for thebeing soiling of stock, and the making of hay. not prevent them falling awkward, but as

long as rough sheep are grazing,he should

3720. Nor is it profitable to pasture the grass

visit them frequently. Sheep are not easily discovered lying awkward in a fur-

in the neighbourhood of towns, in which a steady demand exists for grass to be cut for forage from cowfeeders, carters, and cabmen .

row, and therefore, when the field is ex-

amined, the ridges should be crossed, and the furrows viewed in length. An accus

3721. Dairy farms depend much on the rich

age of their pastures. The greater tomed eye, however, can detectthe hind- ness varietyandofplantsa pasture possesses thebetteris

hoofs elevated in the air, small as they it for the purposes of the dairy, and the greatest

are, at a considerable distance. Many number ofplants on the samespace of ground is

dogs are quick in observing sheep in this foundon dry, deepyielding hazelloam , which constitutes dairy produce of the state, and some I have seen run and take

the best soil for finest description . It, and is probably to the deep dry,great also to the variety of thegrasses

hold of the wool near the ground, and pull the sheep so far over onits sideas to enable sandyloams,so often met with in the haughs it to regain its feet. Sheep lain awkward along the banks of the rivers in the glens of the

for a short time will run away on getting Highlands of Scotland, that is to beascribed the up, but having lain a good while, voided superior richness ofthe butter made in those loca lities. The haughs are very limited in extent,

much dung, and thumped the ground with and are therefore capable of supporting but a the head and rump in struggling to get up, small number of even the small cows of the become fatigued, and on regaining their Highland breed,which may account for the scanty

feet, appearstupified,and walkaway as if supply of that kind of butter inthemarkets.

light-headed. Shepherds cannot be too 3722. As to pastoral farms, there are various active on visiting the sheep in the pastures circumstances whichregulate the pasturage of at this season .

them . Some pasturage is suited to the breeding,

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

160

whilst others are adapted to the bringing up of then adopt a general system of pasturing hill. sheep. On what is called bare or hard land, ewes flocks in accordance with sound principles . are preferred, and, to preserve room for them, their lambs are sold off every year. Some retain a few ewe-lambs to maintain the character of the

ewe stock, whilst others purchase great ewesthat is, ewes in lamb-in lieu of the draft ewes they sell. Hard land bears scanty pasture , which, although sufficient and wholesome for

3726. The brats or jackets should be removed from the sheep at the end of April, or beginning of May, according to the state of the weather,

( 1038.) Experience every year corroborates the use expressed of the brat in ( 1040) not only in

maintaining the condition of the sheep by its warm

breeding ewes, is unfit to support young sheep in covering, but also in protecting the wool from being washed by the weather, and in retaining condition, or to rear them to a proper size . the yolk, which is so essential to its preservation. 3723. Soft land is best suited to lambs. The wether-lambs purchased are reared until they to farmers who raise turnips to feed the sheep

3727. Sheep on hill-pasture delight in summer to spread themselves over, and goto the highest point of their range. Ewes are restricted in

they do not breed themselves, or to English

their range by the lambs, which, when young,

graziers , who fatten them upon grass. The ewelambs also purchased are reared until they are tupped, and then sold as great ewes to breeders, who purchase them to the extentof the old ewes they draft in autumn. Ewe-lambs are also purchased to convert into ewes, and after taking a few crops of lambs from them, are sold while yet

rather lie down and sleep after being satisfied with milk. Hoggs keep much together, and do not wander far from their morning lair, where ever that may have been. Wethers go to the height of their pasturage at an early period of

become wethers, when they are sold in autumn

show little inclination to wander, and would

the day, and remain till dusk.

Thus, when sheep

land will also put old sheep into good condition,

ofdifferent ages are brought up together, how use fully they distribute themselves over their entire

but it is unsuited to ewes, because they become

pasture ; and where only one class of sheep are

too high conditioned for a permanent stock, and

reared, they extend their range as their age in

are besides liable to be seized with the rot, on such pasture , in wet seasons.

creases, or food becomes scarce .

young to be fed off on turnips in winter.

Soft

3724. It is dangerous to change the ewe stock on some lands, because new ewes become diseased on new ground ; and the fear of disease is so strongly felt that many proprietors will not allow the breeding ewes to be changed upon them, the incoming tenant being bound to take

the standing breeding stock at a valuation. 3725. These various modes of regulating the pasturing of hill-sheep have probably originated from local circumstances, which cannot now perhaps be traced ; but the rot has made such fearful havoc upon hill-sheep, and especially upon ewes, that every means have been devised to

3728. On contiguous estates, where no march wall defines the common boundary, the flock of one property may occasionally trespass on the

pasture of another. Should this happen in the early part of the day, the shepherds should not dog off the strange sheep, as that will make

them restless for days, but to wait till nightfall, and then point them gently over the march to their own ground, where they will take to their own lair. Sheep usually select a spot for rest ing at night, and it will mostly be the safest one for them , especially if they are aged sheep, and well acquainted with the ground. In fine weather they should not be disturbed in select

avert its occurrence, and a store -master is justi-

ing their lairs; but in case of threatening storm , they should be directed to the sheltered side of

fied in trying them all to prevent so great a

the pasture, or even to the stells. With inclosed

calamity. Other circumstances may have had the effect of introducing practices which other. wise appear questionable. For example,-Land may support ewes in keeping condition, which could not fatten wethers; and land may support lambs well, though not wethers. Young sheep may pine on land that supports wethers, because its elevation and steepness may fatigue them to travel over it, and its herbage may be too hard

fields, sheepcannot go wrong in summer in select ing their lairs for the night.

for them .

Circumstances such as these affect

the practice of different grazings, as well as the dread of the rot.

If this view be correct, more

general draining on hill-farms would render both pastures and practice uniform in similar locali-

ties. At all events, draining would give farmers liberty to follow their own plans, whereas, at present, they are under the control, not only of the seasons, but of the state of the soil . Let wet pasturage be dried , and rot will be subdued , whilst the mind, emancipated from dread, would

3729. The uppermost parts of our mountain pastures, as well as many portions of lower elevation, consist of a soil very different in its nature from what is found in the valleys. This

is peat-earth - not the soft peat of bogs, but the hard peat-earth which covers the mountains.

The natural produce of this peat-earth is heath, consisting usually of 3 kinds,the Calluna vulgaris, common ling, the Erica tetralix, cross-leaved heath , and the Erica cenerea , fine-leaved heath. Peat-earth is only found in the colder portions of the temperate zone, and it was no doubt formed from the partial decomposition of several crypto

gamic plants. Professor Jameson of Edinburgh was the first to propound the theory of the for

mation of peat-earth .* The pasturage on peat earth would be greatly improved by draining.

* Jameson's Mineralogy of the Scottish Isles, vol. ii. p. 120-57.

PASTURING SHEEP.

161

3730. It has long been observed that the ap- bolted to it. A field -gate may be mounted in plication of lime on peat-earth produces abundance this fashion, but it is better to have a frame made of white clover, Trifolium repens. The seeds for the purpose, to be ready to be wattled with must have lain in the soil in a dormant state, fresh tough brancheswhen required ,for old brittle and their existence in elevated situations would ones will not do. The bush harrow is worked by imply that the pastures of our hills had been at a horse attached by a swing -tree to the shackled, one time better than they now are . Probably the by the driver walking behind the harrow with woods which, it is known, once covered the double reins in his hand ; and on the branches greater part of our mountains, had sheltered the rubbing against the powdered limestone, lime, or valleys near them as much as to allow the growth compost, or wbatever may be the composition of of the clover ; and their subsequent destruction the top -dressing, it is harrowed into the pasturage, may have exposed the ground to the cold, to the some to the very roots of the plants. destruction of the pasture, and to the formation of peat -earth.

3733. Limestone, sand, or gravel, occurs in Ireland in abundance.

3731. The top -dressing of mountain pasture

“ They are, indeed , ex

tensively diffused over the surface of that island , "

with success

observes Professor Johnston , "as we might ex

wherever it has been done. Pounded limestone

pect in a country abounding so much in rocks of mountain limestone. In the neighbourhood of peat-bogs, these sands and gravels are a real

with lime has been attended

would answer the purpose as well as slaked or

quick lime, and it would be more enduring in

its action. Mills for pounding it were erected blessing. They are a ready , most useful, and about the beginning of the century on the estate largely employed means of improvement, pro of Struan, in Rannoch , Perthshire. After being ducing upon arable land the ordinary effects of pounded, the limestone was carried bya run of liming, and when spread upon boggy soils, water to 3 different ponds, one above the other.

enabling it, without other assistance, to grow

The upper pond contained the grossest particles, sweet herbage, and to afford a nourishing pasture . and the lowest the finest partof thelimestone, The proportion of carbonate of lime which these which there resembled clay or marl from its sands and gravels contain , varies from 26 to 40 smoothness. On being put on the land at Struan, its effects were visible and much approved of. " There is no use of putting the pounded lime-

per cent.” +

3734. The top -dressing, whether of pounded stone in water, and it should be applied in the limestone, ordinary lime , limestone sand and state of powder upon the gorface, and harrowed gravel, or compost, is best spread from the carts with the frying- pan shovel, fig. 233, the raised into the grass or pasture with a bush -harrow . back of which preserves the hand from being in 3732. A bush -harrow is easily constructed. It jured by whatever material is contained within consists of a frame of wood having two longitu- the shovel. dinal side- bars, a a, fig. 304, two cross -bars ,and 3735. The green pasture obtained by top Fig. 304. dressing mountain pasture, would maintain an increase of mountain stock beyond calculation. As the pasturage in the green grounds are reserved d

as hospitals for complaining sheep, for which the best food should be provided, it creates a want

of sufficient extent of grass ground for young sheep, and prevents them getting full turnips in winter, in case they should fall off in summer on

the scanty grass ; and it is better for the health of sheep to be kept lean, than to be reduced to leanness from higher condition, when means are

not in the powerof the store -farmer to maintain his flock in the high condition he would desire. .

THE BUSH-HARROW.

a third of a rounded form , b, which are all three mortised into the side bars by their ends, the

whole forming a frame 7 feet in length and 3 feet in breadth . Stems of thorn , or branches of trees c , seven or eight feet long, are wattled through the three cross-bars so as to cause the twigs c, to

3736. As heath constitutes a principal food of the mountain sheep, muir-burning improves the heath for food . Store -farmers have long been in

the habit of burning the heath on their farms every year, with the view of allowing it to grow again , that its young shoots may support the sheep in those parts of the grazings where is little or no grass. The injudicious manner in which the burning was long conducted , and the

rest hard upon the ground. A shackle, d , is late period of the season at which it wasdone, de fastened to the front- bar. The front-bar being thinner than the side-bars a, is strengthened by

stroyed not only the heath plant itself by the roots, but also the eggs of the grouse. Such de

a spar under the wattles, to secure them , and is struction of the game determined the owners of

* Robertson's Agricultural Report for Perthshire, p. 62and 309. + Johnston On the Use of Lime in Agriculture, p. 24.. VOL . II .

L

162

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

grazings to prohibit muir-burning altogether, and the consequences were that the heath grew so

wholly been burnt by the evening , let it be watched all night, and whenever the fire reaches

tall, that its top was beyond the reach of the its prescribed limit, let it be put out by going to young grouse from the ground, and the oldplants put out so few shoots as to afford insufficient

windward and beating the flames, and pushing a board nailed across the end of a long and lim

support both for sheep and grouse.

ber pole against the burning plants. Where the

Burning

causes an abundant growth of young shoots ; it fire has not reached the bounds of the portion , is, therefore, the interest of both landlord and tenant that the heath should be so burned as to

produce the greatest growth of young shoots. The question of burningbeing thus established on principle, the difficulty at first was to discover a mode which would produce the best results, but

let the flame burn until it reaches the limit. There is none more easy plan than this, and if followed on every heath farm every year, there would every year be grown a certain quantity of young heath in an excellent state, to support both sheep and grouse in the best conditionthe

at length a good plan was discovered, and it is plant is capable of sustaining them.* this : -- Let that part of a hill-farm which bears heath be divided into 8 equal parts, if the whole farm forms one hirsel; and if it contains more

hirsels, let each hirsel be divided into 8 equal parts, and in 8 parts, because beyond that number of years the heath plant grows so rigid as not to

Before

beginning the burning, it should be considered from what direction the wind prevails, and the burning conducted against the wind. When the wind is from the E. or W., the burning should be begun on the side of the lot, but when from the N. or S., it should be begun at the end.

afford many new shoots, and it has then reached

one foot in height, tall enough for grouse. The first portion of all the hirsels is burned in the same year, and the second portion in the second year, and so one portion every year, until the eight years have gone round. Every year the plants which were first burned will be putting

muirburn, or setting fire to any heath or muir in Scotland, from the 11th April to 1st November, will be fined 40s. for the first offence, £5 for the second, and £ 10 for every other, or suffer impri sonment for six weeks for the first, 2 months for

forth fewer shoots as the expiry of the eight years

the second , and 3 months for every subsequent

3740. Law ofMuirburn.-- " Persons making

approaches ; by which time the first portion is

offence, (13th Geo. III., 54 , 4.) The tenant or burned again, as the commencement of a new possessor of theground will be deemed guilty of series of years. the offence, unless he prove that the fire was communicated from other grounds, or raised by 3737. In winter the snow covers the youngest some one not belonging to his family, ( ib. 5.) shoots and protects them under it, while the older Proprietors of high or wet muir may burn the plants being above the snow, both grouse and heather thereon, between the 11th and 25th

sheep feed upon them ; and in spring, on the

April, or, ifthe ground be let, he maygive per

melting of the snow , the young shoots, tender mission to do so in writing, (ib. 6.) Which per and nourishing, are ready for use. It is remark- mission , however, must be recorded in the sheriff's able that the young plants of heath bear the frost books, ( ib. 7. ) Prosecutions for the above offence better than the old , as was witnessed in the severe prescribe in 6 months, ( ib. 14 .)+ frost of 1837, which is a natural indication that 3741. Weeds. - The first writer of practice on the heath plant has only a period of utility. the “ Weeds of Agriculture," was Mr Benjamin

3738. The usual mode of burning is to setfire Holdich, who classified weeds into 5 very natu to the heath on the windy side, when the blaze soon towers to a great height, and is seen at a

ral divisions, in as far as the experience of a far mer would suggest, viz. :-) . Weeds which infest

great distance, and the plants crackle amidst the samples of corn,such as the corn-cockle, Agros scorching heat ; but the heat which produces the temma githago. 2. Fallow weeds, such as couch crackling destroys the plants by the roots, and the grass, Triticum repens. 3. Weeds which are flame, fanned by the gale,runs along the ground, catching every bush of heath that presents itselfthe

principally objectionable as they encumber the soil ; or whose roots are annual, and whose seeds

most readily, until a much largerspace of ground pass the corn -sieve, such as the charlock, Sinapis is set on fire than is desired, and the conflagra-

arvensis. 4. Weeds which never rise into the

tion becomes so extensive that the shepherd and

crop , nor come into the sickle, such as spurry ,

all his family cannot extinguish it. They don't Spergula ardensis. 5. Weeds of pastures, such mind it, and retire, and the flame goes wherever the wind lists, till it has no more heath to consume, or until the wind lulls, or the rain falls.

as yellow goat's-beard, Trogapogon pratensis. I Other authors divide weeds into fibrous and fusi

form rooted, annual and perennial; but it is of little moment to the farmer whether the weed

3739. The properway is to begin the fire along that annoys at the present moment has a fibrous the entire lee -side of the portion , when the flame

will not mount high, but, as it were, eat its way among the heath against the wind, and if any part escapes the fire, it is easy to take a burning brand and set it on fire. Let the burning be

or long root, or is an annual, biennial, or peren nial, as ordinary ploughing will eradicate almost every weed that infests cultivated fields. These

are botanical distinctions, which may be studied

as such, but give little insight into the weeds watched all day, and if the portion has not which infest a particular soil or crop. * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv . p. 640-8. + The Farmer's Lawyer, pp. 193-4.

# Holdich's Weeds of Agriculture. Edited by G. Sinclair, 1825 .

163

PASTURING SHEEP .

3742. It may be well to give a detailed account is distended, they appear only as opaque spots of the weeds which infest pastures. The bien- upon it ; but a lens of no great power will give nial spear plume-thistle, Cnicus lanceolatus, is a distinct view of their heads, or rather necks, prevalent, and not unfrequently the welted thistle, with the tentacula or barbs projecting from the Carduus acanthoides, both in dry ground. In apparent opening or mouth which forms the ex marshy pastures, the marsh plume-thistle, Cnicus tremity of them . These hydatids vary in size palustris, is the most prevalent plant of the kind. from that of a pigeon's to a hen's egg. The wall The ragwort, yellow weed, or weebo, Senecio of the cyst appears to be composed of 2 or 3 lay

Jacobæa, is often seen inpastures, in deep dryers, thecentre one of which seems topossess a The tribe of docks is also numerous : the

loam.

muscular character. On examining them with

broad -leaved Rumex obtusifolius, and acetosella, lenses of a high magnifying power , their coats sheep sorrel, are found on dry pastures, and the resemble paper made upona wire frame, their common sorrel, R. acetosa , and sharp dock, R. muscular films so plainly and regularly interlace The complaint may be cured,

acutus, in moist and damp pastures. In moist

each other.”+

pastures in low situations, the soft rush , Juncus

though it is seldom attempted, the sturdied hogg

effusus, and common rush, J. conglomeratus, are most frequent. The rush is prospectively removed by drainage, and immediately with the

being killed whenever it is seen to be affected. I was once tempted to try the experiment of a cure on a very fine Leicester gimmer, which was

scythe. The great white ox-eye, or nowt-gowan, evidently with twin lambs, and would lamb in Chrysanthemum leucanthemum , and the common the course of a fortnight. The creature became daisy, Bellis perennis, disfigure the pastures on low grounds, while the yellow nowt-gowan,

so bewildered under the disease, that she was

obliged to be brought into the lambing paddock,

Chrysanthemnm segetum , acts the same part in

and fed by hand on cabbages and kail. On ex

upland pastures, and all indicate soil in a The common bracken, or fern , Pteris aquilina, prevails in upland pastures, where the soil is deep and dry. When growing together so thickly as to injure the grass,

amining the head , I found a soft spot near the site of where a horn would be. I cut an in

state of poverty .

cision into the skull round the margin of the soft

spot, leaving only a small attachment to act as a hinge to the piece cut out, and on raising it, I

it should be removed as a weed, which may be distinctly saw the hydatid, which I extracted done with the scythe, or by irrigation with When so thin as to permit grass to

entirely with a small cobbler's awl, the only in strument the shepherd or I had that would

grow under it, it is an advantage as a shelter to

answer the purpose. Shutting the lid, covering

water .

sheep, and as protection to grass from frost, it with a plaster of tar on a piece of linen, and thereby cherishing it early in spring. Circum- putting a cap on the head, the gimmer was stances alone should guide you in the destruc- allowed to remain in the paddock and fed, and in tion of the bracken in upland pastures.* What the course of a few days I had the satisfaction of

constitutes the windlestraw of rich pasture seeing her perfectly recover, and in due time is the dried stem of the crested dogs’ - tail, Cynosurus cristatus, one of its most valuable

bring forth twin lambs, which she brought up well, and continued to breed for several years after. The success attending this experiment, was probably owing to the proximity of the hyd 3743. The Sturdy. - Sheep are subject to be atid to the skull, which it had softened, by ab affected with certain complaints on pasture, one sorbing a portion of its substance ; but when of which is the sturdy or turnsick, which produces hydatids exist deeply in the brain , it is question so much light-headedness as to cause its victims able that a cure can be effected . The Ettrick to turn round and seem stupified. When affected Shepherd recommends the insertion of a wire by it, the sheep separates from the flock , wanders through the nose and brain into the hydatid, by into a corner of the field, feels aversion to put which it would be destroyed, and the wire may its head down to the ground, but keeps its head be resorted to before any softening appears, and,

pasture grasses.

high and a little to one side. It seldom eats, and thus loses condition, and at length, becoming emaciated, falls into a ditch or burn , and is killed

or dies, if neglected. Hoggs are most affected by this disease, which seldom attacks large numbers, one or two now and then. What in-

from the situation of the hydatid, there may be no softness of the skull at all ; and he says that

“ several years passed before he failed in this operation in any one instance ." I But it is evident that no hydatid can be touched by

the wire, but such as may happen to be situate duces the growth of the hydatid, I do not know , in the direct line of its passage; and if a wire for the complaint may be observed when hoggs thus used will always destroy the hydatid, it use little exertion in walking to obtain their food follows that the hydatid must always occupy on turnip-land, and also when they wander over a particular part of the brain. A trocar and

a large range of pasture. Accurate dissection of canula, like fig. 104, but smaller, are now used the head has proved that the disease is caused by a living animal in the brain, the Many -headed

for tapping the hydatid. The sturdy is not an infectious disease, and I agree with Mr

hydatid, Hydatis polycephalus cerebrali. “ In-

Parkinson, that it is not hereditary, for although

stead of a single head, there are a great number I have seen several sturdied hoggs, I never spread over the surface of the parasite, and open- could trace any connexion of the disease with ing into the same general cavity. When the sac their parents. $

* Journal of Agriculture for October 1843, p. 143 . # Hogg's Shepherd's Guide, p. 50.

+ Youаtt On Sheep, p. 379. § Parkinson On Live Stock, vol. i. p. 412.

164

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

3744. Blinding.— This affection is sometimes The danger is greatest when the papalæ are of a produced in the eyesof sheep by the wind blow- dark purple hue, or, running intoeach other, be ing into them thepollen of the grasses. The eyes pollen -dust, and become almost clogged up with such a degree of inflammation is sometimes set

come confluent.

up as to cause the effusion of pus from them .

and contagious, so much so, that it might be pos

3747. “ The disease is decidedly both infectious

In many cases the eyelids becomegluedtogether sible to inoculate 1000 sheep from one havingthe with the pus. No serious injuryis produced by disease well developed. It is not till the vesicles this accidental annoyance, though it is disagreeable to the sheep for the time it lasts. Wiping

form that the disease becomes contagious, but it is probably infectious previous to this. It is

the eyes with a wet sponge affords great relief, uncertain when infection actually begins, but which should be cheerfully bestowed by the

we are disposed to consider that there is danger

shepherd once a -day. The annoyance can only as soon as any eruption takes place on the body, last till the largest portion of the pollen isblown off at the termination of the period of the flower-

though unquestionably the danger is greatly in creased afterwards.”

ing of the plants, and it may not be of annual occurrence, as there may be no wind, but rain , during their efflorescence.

we decidedly object to the plan of inoculation

3748. As regards the cure of this disease, simply as a means of prevention, whilst a flock

3745. Sheep -pox . - A troublesome and fatal is free from the disease, as by this means we disease amongst sheep has been brought into this propagate an infectious disorder, though in a country since the importation of live stock was mild form . The plan we

permitted from the Continent . It is named the advise,after some experience and considerable small-pox, because in its particulars it is very similar to that of the human subject. The disease has existed in Europe for many years, and in

reflection, is, as soon as the disease appears in a flock, to practise separation and examination as rigidly as possible, but, at the same time, to ino

France and Germany its ravages have been very culate one or two sheep. Then, if we find that great. Since its introduction into this country, its mortality in some flocks has been to the ex-

the disease extends in spite of our daily exami

tent of 90 per cent, and in numerous other cases

cases favourable lymph for the inoculation of the remainder. If some 12 to 20 cases of small- pox have really occurred , then , without any further delay, we advise inoculation to be practised on the remainder of the flock ; for it should be borne

50 per cent. The first outbreak here was traced to two small cargoes of merino sheep, one from Hamburg, and the other from Tormingen in Denmark . These sheep were sold at Smithfield,

nations, we shall have from these inoculated

in various lots, to farmers in different parts of thé in mind that the earlier cases are generally mild, country, and it was thus that the disease was introduced amongst our flocks.

and the disease increases enormously in virulence and fatality as it extends. The advantages in favour of this plan appear to be these : we may

3746. “ There is a singular uniformity in the select the most favourable weather for the ope period that elapses between exposure to contagion and the appearance of the eruptions, whether

ration , and in the course of six weeks are free from further anxiety about the matter ; the ut

the animal gets it by inoculation or by simple

most care can be taken of the flock during the

exposure to diseased animals. This period is about ten days. On examination at this time, the papalar stage commences — that is, little swellings resembling flea -bites are found all over the body, but mostly on the parts free from wool. These papalæ are preceded one or two days by red spots on the site of the papalæ . In the course of six days, vesicles or bladders form on the papalæ,

period, and the greatest vigilance exercised to prevent the spread of the disease to other flocks --- a care and vigilance which it may be difficult to adopt throughso long a period as the system of

and contain a fluid at first clear, and afterwards

continual turning might demand. Besides which,

it should be remembered that there are at least three ewes probably to one wether sheep, and

these ewes being of course kept for breeding, it

becoming more opaque. The chief point of dif-

is of the utmost importance to select the earliest and most favourable time for receiving the dis

ference in these vesicles, between the human subject and the sheep, is — in man the vesicles are

ease, and not to run the risk of their getting the disease naturally just previous to lambing. It is

rounded , while in the sheep, we find them flat, quite a mistake to suppose that the risk of and much larger in proportion; and it is rarely the case in sheep that pustular secretion takes place, which is so common in man as to constitute

a distinct stage of the disease. In about six days

spreading the infection is increased by inocula tion — in fact it is lessened, for the disease be comes milder, having a mortality ranging from 2 to 10 per cent. It is also circumscribed, and ne

more, commences the stage of desiccation, that cessarily entails the utmost vigilance, and pre is, a scab forms, and the ulcers gradually heal by the end of a month . These are the stages of a

vents the sale of sheep from the flock for a given period of twenty-one days.”*

case that ends in recovery ; but when death takes place, it is either in the first or third stage. In the former, all the external symptoms are suppressed , and the animal soon dies, whilst in the third stage the animal perishes from exhaustion.

3749. The only means of avoiding being con tinually annoyed with this disease, and of pre venting its circulation, is the prevention of the importation of diseased sheep from abroad, and

* Gardeners' Chronicle for April 14, 1849.

PASTURING SHEEP .

165

the prohibition of the sale of infected animals in 5 lines in length . It is supposed to deposit its thecountry, as well as those actually labouring eggs on the margin ofthe nostrils, andwhenever under the disease. The former means might be it does so , the sheep lies down upon dusty bare used in our insular position by strict surveillance, spots, holding its head close to the ground, or, but the latter could scarcely be made available when a number are attacked at the same time, without inquisitorial inspection of the flocks in they form a dense phalanx, with their noses the possession of both breeders and dealers. pushed towards each other. The warmth and humidityof the nostrils very soon bring the eggs to

3750. Two acts connected with this subject maturity, and the larvæ find no difficulty in gain were passed by parliament, which received the ing their way into the frontal maxillary , and royal assent on the 4th of September 1848, and

other sinuses and cavities of the face. There

are to continue in force only for two years,

they adhere by means of 2 hooks, the secretions of the cavities constituting their Fig. 307 .

from 1st September 1848 to 1st September 1850. One act prohibits the importation of sheep, cattle,

alty is £20 for every offence of exposing such

stock for sale, knowing them to be diseased , and a penalty of £5 for each offence in obstructing

food.

ground, in which they undergo their future transformation . The

larva, fig. 307, is flat on the under side, and convex above, of a delicate white colour, without spines of any kind, save the ter minal hooks already mentioned.

SHEEP BOT LARVA

A series of black transverse spots

persons in the execution of this latter act.*

3751. Scalded heads. — Sheep are much infested in summer with flies. As a protection to the head against them, the simple cap, or hood , fig. 305, is effectual. It may be made of stout linen ,

In time they wriggle

down the nose and fall on the

cute

horses, & c., affected by the disease; the other imposes certain specified penalties on those who should expose for sale any stock suspected to be infected with any contagious disease. The pen

are visible on the under side, ESTRUS OVIŞ. covered with rough points.

3753. Keds. The ked or keb, the sheep spider

fly, Melophagus voinus, is an insect so well Fig. 305. Fig. 308.

known in its nature

and habits, that a

particular

descrip

tion here seems un necessary. It is mag nified at a, fig. 308, the line b showing its b natural size. It pe netrates the skin and buries the anterior part of its body in the flesh or fat of the sheep, where it con a tinues to subsist and SHEEP KED — MELOPHAGUS enlargen. Its tough OVINUS.

THE HEAD-CAP, OR HOOD, FITTED ON THE SHEEP.

skin renders it diffi

cult to be killed by pressure ; and when its body is bisected by the shears, the buried part instant ly emerges and runs about quickly in a manner almost incredible, but nevertheless it soon dies.

Anotherremarkable circumstance attending the and fastened with 4 tapes tied crosswise under the

chin, or of leather, and buckled at the same place. Leicester tups should not be without these caps

tribe of keds or ticks which belong to the familyof Hippoboscidæ , and are included among the dip terous or 2 -winged insects, thoughtheyare wing

in summer, especially when grazing near woods; lessis,that the youngisretained in the body of and as tups are occasionallyfond of boxing each the mother until it becomes apupa, there being other, any skin that may thereby be abraded on the head will receive immediate and effectual protection, from the air Fig. 306.

and flies, by the cap.

no other instance amongst other 2 -winged flies of the period of gestation extending beyond the state of larva. This peculiarity has caused the Hippoboscidæ to be termed nymphiparous or pupiparous insects.

3752. Bots. — Sheep are troubled with bots

as well as cattle . The

3754. Blou -flies . - Much more dangerous tor mentors of sheep are blow -flies. When sheep

Ay is called Estrus are struck by the fly,the symptoms of disease can ovis, the sheep bot-fly, not be easily misunderstood . They almost con fig. 306. It is a smallSHEEP BOT- FLY ESTRUS OVIS .

stantly hang down their heads, sometimes turn .

er species than the ing them on one side as if listening ; shake the cattle-bot, being about tail with a quick jerking motion ; run rapidly * Journal of Agriculture for March 1849, p. 670.

166

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

from one place to another, and, in doing so, at off the flies. Mr George Mather, shepherd, New times stop suddenly and stamp with the fore-feet. Scone, recommends a wash containing arsenic, The flies deposit their eggs on any bare skin they can find, and, failing that, on the wool on the rump, below the tail, and about the groins.

which I have no doubt would prove effectual ; but I have a great aversion to using arsenic in

any shape on a farm , and cannot recommend it

If the larvæ are left undisturbed, when in large numbers, in two days they will destroy the sheep, having in that short time eaten the flesh into the

to be used in this case I .

very bones, and sometimes exposing the entrails! Warm moist weather, in fieldsenclosed by woods,

flies is the checkered blow -fly, Sarcophaga car naria . It is somewhat larger and more elon

and in the bottom of dells, are the circumstances

gated in shape than the common blue -bottle fly ;

and places most favourable to their attacks. The

general colour changeable gray ; thorax with

3755. The most dangerous, perhaps,of all the

smell arising from excrementitious discharges, black longitudinal lines ; abdomen covered with the glutinous matter left after milking ewes,and long wool, are all attractive objects to blow -flies. A shepherd ought to be able to detect sheep

black quadrate spots, which give it a tesselated appearance; body pretty thickly beset with strong hairs. It produces its young alide; hence the

that have been struck by the fly the moment he

appearance, so often considered unaccountable , of

enters the field. Dogs have been known to point

maggots in a short time after the sheep have been

them, as truly stated by Mr Price.

examined .

dog," he says, “ when properly trained , the mo-

“ The larva, when full grown,” says Mr Duncan , " is scarcely half an inch in length ,

ment he enters a field inwhich are any sheep

as at a," fig .309 ; the head b is small and mem

* A looker's

struck by the fly , instantly singles out the dis eased animals, and runs up to them , as much as to say they ought to be caught.” * Dogs require little training to do this, partly because the symptoms which struck sheep exhibit are une quivocal, but more probably from the peculiar smell which maggots doubtless emit ; or the sheep themselvesmay emit apeculiar odour after being struck . The Ettrick Shepherd is of opinion (and it is a probable one) that flies give a pre ference to one sheep over another, probably on account of the selected sheep being either actually subjected to diarrhea, or emitting such a peculiar flavour along with its perspiration, as to be at tractive to flies, and which may be indicative of a predisposition to disease . + It is culpable in a shepherd to allow any sheep to be dangerously injured by the fly. He cannot prevent their attack , but he should be able to detect it before

h

Fig. 309.

9

h

b

d MAGGOT OF THE CHECKERED BLOW - FLY - SARCO PHAGA CARNARIA ,

it proves serious in its consequences. The sheep branous, having two fleshy prominences above, should be carefully observed, one by one when the flies are active, and being gathered in a convenient part of the field , the suspected ones should be caught with the crook, fig. 224, and examined, and every maggot removed by the

with a small nipple-shaped knob c c, so that they bear a perfect resemblance to small mammæ. Beneath these mammiferous protuberances are

two strong black movable hooks d placed by the side of each other ; e e is the first segment of the

hand. As maggots are not killed by being body, and f one of the anterior stigmata . The thrown on the ground, they should be collected in principal use of these hooks isto tear off and some vessel, and destroyed either by being separate the fibres of the flesh on which the crushed by some hard substance, or by having boiling water poured upon them. I have seen a shepherd fill his hat with maggots, in the course

creature feeds. The last segment of the body g is, as it were, cut across. Two large air-vessels

may be seen running along each side of the body,

of an hour's search amongst a small flock of terminating at both endsin breathing -holes, hh Leicester hoggs.

Should the maggots have broken into the skin , rubbing the part with a

strong solutionof corrosive sublimate, or a strong decoction of tobacco - liquor and spirit of tar, will check a farther attack on that part ; and should the part affected be larger than is seen between the sheds of the fleece, the wool should be removed with the shears, and the corrosive subli-

and i i.

3756. The description of the maggot of this fly will serve for that of the other flies about to be mentioned.-- Musca Cæsar is readily known

by its brilliant green hue, which has a silvery play of colour when seen in certain lights . Musca domitoria, common blue bottle- fly or blow .

mate applied upon, and around,and rubbed into, fly. This fly is well known in our houses, and may easily be identified by its buzzing noise dicate a dryness of the skin, in consequence of when on the wing. “ This is the species," ob

the wound. Should the wound, on healing, inthe application of the corrosive sublimate, an ointment of tar and lard will soften it, and keep " Price On Sheep, p. 472, note.

serves Mr Duncan , " of which Linnæus affirmed

that 3 individuals could devour the carcass of a + Hogg's Shepherd's Guide, p. 106.

I Prize Essays of theHighland and Agricultural Society, vol. x. p. 221.

PASTURING SHEEP.

167

horse as soon as a lion. There is no doubt that

attack of sheep by dogs there are comparatively

we must impute toit a large share of the injury

few deaths to the number injured, and,were time afforded, most of the bitten sheep would most probably recover ; but the usual custom , in the

our flocks sustain from this tribe of insects."

Anthomyia lardaria is rather more than half the size of the blue-bottle fly, and of a bluish-black colour ; thorax with longitudinal lines, and abdomen slightly tesselated . It is very common

excitement which such an occurrence creates, is

to kill the sheep with the view of preventing the total loss of the mutton by the sheep dying-and

in low sheltered woods, and is doubtless often

were they to die in the blood , the mutton would

associated with the other in preying on living

be rendered unfit for use. There were once 9 of my Leicester ewes worried by a dog, from 3

subjects.

It is said that the green - fly first at-

tacks the sheep, and is succeeded bythe more greedy blue-bottle fly, which, having made a suitable place, is, in its turn, succeeded by the checkered blow - fly.

of which the blood was drawn on the spot, and the shepherd would have bled other two had I al

lowed him. From the recovery of these bad cases by the means used , I was persuaded that the 3 which were killed would have recovered

3757. Sheep worried by dogs. - Sheep on pas-

had they been permitted to live. There is no

ture are sometimes worried by dogs, and the destruction happens most frequently early in a

doubt, however, that sheep which have been run and worried ever so little are a long time, if ever,

of recovering their customary composure; and on while engaged in it ; their only object seeming other people's sheep should be severely fined summer morning. Experienced dogs go singly to do the mischief, and take care not to bark

this account alone, the owner of a dog that runs

to obtain a feed of mutton. Dogs most addicted to the vice of worrying sheep are mastiffs, bulldogs, bull-dog terriers, and lurchers bred from a

injured.

colley, and they are most prone to it when they escape from the chain , which detains them as

3758. Besides the sheep, the pasture on which they feed is infested and injured with a host of

over and above the value of the sheep actually

watch -dogs. An old colley addicted to this vice insects. The grubofthe meadow crane-fly ,Tipula practisesit with consummate art, and obtains mutton with the least trouble to himself, and

commits the least extent of mischief. Pointers when hunting, and especially self-hunting, are

oleracea, fig.223,destroys the roots of grass aswell as of oats, (2504. ) The year 1762 was called the wormy year, consequence of the depredations occasioned by this grub in Selkirkshire.

It

very apt to chase sheep when running from them . again appeared in 1802, 1812, 1824, and 1826, The part of the sheep commonly seized by the dog is the throat, which he tears open, and eats the flesh to the neck - bone ; and were he to content himself with this morsel, or to satisfy his

and in Peeblesshire in 1830.+ 3759. The ear -beaked weevil, Otiorhyncus sul catus, about 5 lines in length, of a brownish black

appetite, the loss would not exceed the value of colour, and incapable of flight, in consequence one sheep ; but the propensity to destroy seems of the junction of the wing -cases, produces a only bounded by the number of the flock ; he worries some to death and bites a great many

larva nearly half an inch longofa whitish colour, thick and fleshy, and thinly beset with long

more. The destruction is probablyaggravated bristles, which is for themostpart subterranean, and lives indiscriminately on the roots of all gra mineous plants.

by the conduct of the sheep themselves, which run away in a body from the dog ; and in fear of losing the rest whilst running down one, he leaves the wounded one on the ground and pursues the others, seizing the nearest him, one by the back, another by the throat, and a third by the haunch, until a great number are lamed by bites. It is

3760. The common kinds of ants, Formica fusca and rufa , sometimes almost usurp the en tire dry pasture ; and it is difficult to extirpate them. Perhaps as effectual a mode of doing so

rare that a dog feeds upon more than one sheep, as he is probably scared by some circumstance,

common spade, fig. 237, out of the top of each

of any is to notch a piece with two cuts of the

before hehas time to break into another. When mound, in the beginning of winter, and expose its a lamb is run after, it is so easily overtaken that

the dog tears its neck open at once and satisfies himself upon it. I am not aware that a dog which worries sheep can be deterred from the practice by any means - certainly an old dog cannot - and the only fate that should befall so har dened an offender is the rope or the gun . But a

contents to the weather.

3761. The caterpillars of several butterflies

also destroy pastureplants. The meadow brown

butterfly, Hipparchia janira, whose wings ex pand nearly 2 inches, produces a light-green caterpillar, with a white line along each side,

young dog, especially a pointer, may be deterred; which prefers for its food the smooth -stalked and the most effectual way, I believe, of doing it, is to couple him for a few days to the carcass he has worried, and cause him to drag it about with him ; or, in a hill country, to couple him to a black -faced ram for some days, with a sufficient length of chain to allow the ram to turn about and butt him severely with its horns. In every

meadow - grass, Poa pratensis, one of the most nutritious grasses for cattle ; and the caterpillar of the large heath butterfly, Hipparchia tithonus, considerably less than the preceding, is of a green colour, with a reddish line on each side, and a brown head, and feeds on the annual meadow grass , Poa annua, which forms the chief cover

* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ix. p. 58, 63. + New Statistical Account of Scotland - Selkirkshire- Yarrow , p. 41 .

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

168

ing of our meadows and pasture- lands. The feeding on the grass, as many insects do, butby caterpillar of the antler-moth, Chareas graminis, throwingupmounds of earth upon it when digging is brown or blackish, with light-yellowish stripes their galleries under ground in pursuit of their along the back and sides , and attains about one

inch in length . It lives under ground, and feeds

favourite food, the earth -worm , and many of the larvæ of insects. They are thus useful and in

on the roots of grass — and the injury it does to jurious at the same time - useful in devouring pasture-land in hills is sometimes very great , the larvæ ofinsects onthe surface of the ground but it avoids low -lying damp meadows. The

at night, and which fall or go into their galleries

effects of its ravages are very similar to those in the day - and injurious in destroying the produced by the burning of heath .

earth -worm , which is useful to the soil while alive, by keeping it open to the air and moisture , 3762. But the greatest devastation of this and when dead by manuring it with its body; kind is committed by the larvæ of the common and also injurious in covering the surface of the cock -chafer, Melolontha vulgaris, an insect but grasswith earth - for, as to the value of the top

little known in Scotland, though sometimes it dressing which the grass receives in this way, occurs in countless myriads in England and Ireland. There this beetle “ wheels its droning flight ” in the summer twilight. Fig . 310 represents a female a , about an inch in length, oblong and convex, the head reddish in front,

it is received at the expense of the finer and richer part of the mould immediately under the grass plants, which, by its removal, are thus de prived of nourishment at the roots, where it is of most use to them. We have only to look at

the hinder part pitchy black. As soon as fecun- the scorched appearance of the ground in dry dated , the female makes holes in the ground weather along the lines of the galleries, and find ourselves sinking nearly ankle-deep in the ground Fig. 310. undermined bymoles, to be convinced that no

top - dressing will ever compensate for the injury done to the pastures of low farms. " course A

of thirty years' observation ,” says the Ettrick Shepherd ,“ over an extensive district of the

south of Scotland, and hard -earned experience, have convinced me, long ago, of the pernicious effects of destroying the moles on sheep pasture. The most unnatural of all persecu

tions that ever was raised in a country is that against the mole, that innocent and blessed little

pioneer who enriches our pastures annually with the first top- dressing, dug with great pains and labour from the fattest ofthe soil beneath . The

advantages of this top-dressing are so apparent, and so manifest to the eyes of every unprejudiced person , that it is really amazing how our coun trymen should have persisted, now nearly half a century, in the most manly and valiant endeavours to exterminate the moles from the face of the

earth . If a 100 men and horses were employed C

COCK - CHAFERS - MELOLONTHA VULGARIS .

on a common sized -pasture farmsay from 1500

about half a foot beneaththe surface,and lays &

to 2000 acres — in raising and driving manure for ita sotopeffectually -dressing,so of that could not neatlyfarm do soequally,as , or, they

cluster of white eggs b, tinged with dirty yellow

the natural number ofmoles on that farm would

at the bottom of each hole ,andshe lays a great

do ofthemselves. That pastureland isbenefited

many in ofa all. dingy-white The larvæ oryellowish c, which proceed from them ,are colour,and

byatop-dressing,no man,I think ,willattempt soft and inactive. They are14 inch inlength, to deny. Thatthemoles giveitthat top-dress and furnishedwith a pair of powerfulmandibles. ing, asfewwilldeny.”+ No onedeniesthe The perfect insect is short-lived, but the larvæ survive for 3 years, passing into a state of per

benefit of top -dressing to pasture grass ; still , if

vity in spring. So completely do they sever the pasture from the soilthat the turf may be rolled up in large sheets. Another chafer, named Amphimalla solstitialis, produces a grub

farmer no trouble, and incur no cost.

its benefit is to be derived at the expense of the

itself, many wouldbecause question the prudence of fect repose in winter, andrecovering theiracti- soil permitting it,merely give the it would

3764. Moles are caught in traps expressly

very similarin its habits to the one described, made to fit into their galleries, and personsmake though smaller and more restricted in is distri-

a profession of entrapping them in the summer

bution . *

season, who are called mole - catchers.

Mole

catching is generally taken for the season by

3763. Moles, Talpa Europea, often disfigure such persons,and the price on an extensivelow . the face of the richest parts of pastures, not by

land farm is 5s. the 100 acres. No endeavours

•

Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ix. p. 565-572.

+ Ibid . 640-41 .

PASTURING CATTLE .

169

should be made to extirpate the mole,but only should have the best pasture, the object of to keep their numbersdown to a moderate extent. keeping them beingto breed calves, and

A few mole- hills here and there do little harm , afford plentyof milk to bring them up. but acres of good soil converted into a burrow ,

as a preserve, for the pleasure of moles,is too The more milk they yield, therefore, the muchof a good thing.

better will the calves prove, and the more profitable will they themselves prove after the calves are weaned. Cows in summer

ON THE PASTURING OF CATTLE IN SUMMER.

are treated in an opposite manner by dif

ferent people, one taking them into the byre atnight, and even at all times milk

3765. The cattle of all ages, as accom- ingthem there, and another allowing them modated in the steading in winter, (1082)

to lie out all night, and milking them in

to ( 1085,) remain there as we left them the field. Whichever mode is adopted, it ( 1219,) until the grass is ready to re- should be kept in mind that cows are pecu

ceive them, which, in ordinary seasons, liarly susceptible of sudden changes of is at the end of May or beginning of temperature, especially from

June ; but, in late seasons, when the tur- andfrom drought to rain; so that, when cold nips are expended before the grass is or rain, or both, come together, which is sufficiently long to afford them a bite, the common circumstance, they should be cattle are put to grass before it is brought into the byre. For some time ready for them. In case ofsuch an unto- after theyare first put out to grass, they

ward event happening, it is the duty of the should be housed in the byre at night, when farmer to provide against it, by purchas- they are milked there, and again in the

ing extraneous food for his cattle, such as oil-cake; or giving them beans or oats; or disposing ofthe fattening cattle in time to leave a sufficient quantity of turnips for

morning before they are let go into the field ; and when they are milked three times a- day, they should be milked in the field at mid -day. In dairy districts cows are

the young cattle and cows until the grass milked twice a -day ,morning and even

is ready to receive them . In the state of ing, and in breeding districts thrice a -day, confinement in the steading, cattle thrive morning, noon, andnight. After the nights better on a variety than on the same food ; become warm , I have found it conducive and yet when on grass they require no to health, and it is both a rational and a

variety of food, and thrive the better the longer they live upon it, unless that a change of pasture is desirable when it becomes bare. Grass is thus evidently the natural food of the ox, and his anatomi-

natural custom, to let them lie in the field all night, and to milk them there also at

stated hours - three times every day, the shepherd or cattle-man bringing them to the most convenient spot of the field to be

cal structure is peculiarly adapted for that milked . The lying out always in the field sort of food. Whatever kind of food be no doubt imposes more labouron the dairy

receives in winter partakes of an artificial maid and her assistants, in carrying the character; and being only a succedaneum milk to the calves, and to the dairy after for grass when it cannot be obtained, the the calves have been weaned ; but I am artificial food should be made as palatable persuaded it is an excellent system for the

to him as circumstances will allow , whether by variety or superior quality. This consideration shows the propriety of M. Boussingault adopting grass, or rather hay - grass deprived of its water, as the

health of the cows. The cows rise from their lair at daybreak, and feed while the dew is still on the grass, and by the time of milking arrives, say6 o'clock, they bave partially filled themselves with food, and

standard for comparing the nutritive pro- stand contented, chewing the cud, while perties of the different sorts of food given the milking proceeds. They then satiate to stock on the farm .

themselves, and by 9 o'clock lie down in a

shady part of the field, and chew their cud 3766. The fat cattle having been dis- until milking time arrives at noon, when

posed of, ( 3609,) the pasture should be they are againbrought to the same spot judiciously distributed amongst the re- and milked. Feeding again, when the maining stock of cows, year-olds, and heat of the afternoon arrives, they stand in

calves ; and first as to the cows. They the coolest partof the field, whisking away

170

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

the flies with their tail and ears. The When cows occupy the byre every night, evening milking takes place about 7 , after litter should be provided for them ; and

which they feed industriously, and take up should the straw be all expended, a num their lair about sunset, and chew their cud, and in the morning they rise and feed before being milked. Apprehension exists that cowsinjure themselves by eating grass

ber of light materials will answer the pur pose, such as coarse grass cut from plan tations and bogs, ferns, sawdust. The cows of a breeding stock will be mostly

wet withdew ; but it is a fact, which is served by the bull before they go out to not so well known as itshouldbe, that be- grass, though a few of the later ones will dewed grass before sunrise, and grass after yet have to be served. It is the duty of it is dried by the sun, are alike uninjurious the cattleman to attend to these, andsee

to cows; and it is only when the dew is in them properly served ( 2233) by the bull, the act of being evaporated, immediately as also those the season of which may after sunrise, that grass proves injurious to return . them. Cows which lieout all night eat

the grass while it is yet wet with dew ; whereas those kept in the byre, on being let out after being milked, are let out just at the time the dew is being evaporated by the sun, and when the grass is in the coldest state. It is thus consonant with the fact, that the cows kept in the byre at night are alone affected with the grass when it is wet with dew ; and, being

3767. Young cattle are not put on new grass, but on the one or two year old grass ; and although all ages of stock are fondest of new grass, all the stock of a farm cannot have it ; and the older pastures are quite good for all grazing purposes, and will generally stand the eating, during the summer, better under all circumstances of weather. The pasture of the young

hungry, they eat the cold damp grass with cattle should be changed as well as that of avidity and much relish, while cows which lie out all night are not affected by the wet grass . Circumstances, however, should rule the custom oflying out or housing at night. In a cold upland district, or in exposed situations, devoid of shelterin the

cows, whenever it happens to be eaten rather bare: not quite bare, for no stock onght to be allowed to remain as long in the same field as to allow the grass to become bare by too much and too close eating.

fields, so susceptible creatures as milk -cows should not lie out at night; and as but 3768. On this account, moderately sized very few nights are really warm in such fields, of 20 to 25 acres, answer best for situations, it is safer to put them into the grazing stock, as one can be rested for a

byre, and ventilate it well in the warm fortnight or three weeks until the grass nights that may occur. In favourable grow again in it, whilst the others are be situations, one circumstance is worthy of ing pastured. In this manner of treating attention in determining the practice of pasture, the stock obtain a tasting of new

lying out and housing, that the housing fresh-grown grass at intervals during the causesthe troubleofproviding supper for the season, which has the wholesome effect of cows; and this provision not only implies an alterative upon their system . the cutting of the forage, whatever it is, but also preparation of the plant in the

3769. Young cattle require little tend

field . Excepting a change of pasture - and ing whileon grass ; nevertheless, it is the the change should always befor a better duty of the shepherd, as he goes his daily one - the treatment of the cows is the same rounds to the sheep , to ascertain every throughout the summer, and even to the day that the young beasts are in good

cool evenings at the end of autumn. As health, and have plenty of food, plenty the milk falls off, the noon milking is drop- of water, and are in security within the

ped ; and, when the evenings become cool, fences. the cows are brought into the byre at night, milked there evening and morning, and

3770. Cattle, which do not crop the

graze during the day. When this takes grass close to the ground, graze well with place, supper must be provided for them in horses or sheep, both which crop thegrass the byre after the evening milking is over, close. The lips of the ox are stiff, and

and theyshouldalsobe littered forthe night. cannot lay hold of the grass while they cut

PASTURING CATTLE .

171

it with the teeth, like the sheep and horse ; tage of this plan is, that the stock at peri but their tongue is very prehensile, and odic times during the grazing season enjoy with it they embrace every mouthful of new - grown grass ; and another, that no

grass, and, drawing it towards the mouth, growth of the grass is so long pastured as retain hold of it until the incisors of the to cloy the appetite of the animals, or be under jaw sever it from the ground with come foul by being constantly trodden

a jerk of the head upwards, and the tongue upon. That this is a rational and natural then sweeps it into the mouth. The grass mode of pasturing grass-land is evinced by at this time receives very little mastication, stock delighting to consume new -grown and is swallowed and deposited in the grass; and every animalloathes grasswhich

paunch; when this is full, the ox eats no has been long trampled and dunged upon , more for a time, and prefers to lie down in and the breath passed over it times out of a shady place, and chew the contents of number.

the paunch in the pellets forced up into the month, ( 1652.)

3773. Another principle that affects the method of treating pasture land, is the

3771. Calves are put on grass at the same time as the other cattle, whether weaned or not. By that time the oldest ones will be ready for weaning ; but although ready, the herd of calves should be kept together at first, in a small paddock of grass near the steading, where the

difference in the effect of cropping the grass which the differentanimals employ ; cattle cropping high, and sheep nibbling low, while horsesbite both high and low . This is a wise distinction between the two classes of our ruminants, the sheep being suited to theshort pasturage ofmountainous

younger ones are served with milk, and regions ; their mobile lips enabling them to the older with grass, and both are at hand hold it firm , while it is severed from the to be put into the shedded court at night, ground with the incisors of the lower jaw ,

until the weather becomes warm enough with a twitch of the head to one side, not

to permit them to lie out all night. withstanding the want of teeth in the up Calves are very susceptible of cold, especially as long as they are on milk, and receive more injury from exposure to it than most breeders seem to be aware

per one ; whereas theox is better suited to the plains and valleys, where grass grows long, and may be cropped by the scythe-like operation of its tongue and

of. Much rather keep them in their court teeth.

The practical conclusion to be

at night one night longer than necessary, drawn from these different modes of crop after the warm evenings have arrived,

ping grass by the domesticated animals is,

than cause them to lie out one night too that the horse or sheep should follow the soon in the cold .

ox in grazing, or accompany him, but not precede him . When they follow , the 3772. Grass-land requires peculiar ma- pasture will be eaten barer by the horse

nagement to render it the most available

or sheep than the ox left it ; and, when

as pasture in every variety of season . The in company, it will be eaten barer by circumstances which most injure grass are the horse or sheep where the ox has overstocking and continual stocking. The eaten before, or it may first be topped by most effectual method of avoiding over-

the horse before the ox bas touched it.

stocking is to have no more stock upon the Whether the horse or sheep should follow farm than its grass will in summer main- or accompany the ox, the latter is the pre tain in good condition ; and to avoid con- ferable arrangement, because they have tinual stocking, the stock should not be then the choiceof the long grass, as well allowed to remain too long in the same as the short. The same reason that should

field . The safest principle to treat each graze the horse and sheep, in reference grazing field, is to stock it at once, so as it to the ox, should cause the horse to be shall be eaten bare enough in a shorttime, separated from the sheep, particularly in say in a month, and then to leave it un- the latter part of the pasture season, as

stocked altogether - hained, as it is technically termed for perhaps a fortnight, in order to allow the grass sufficient time to afford a good bite for cattle. One advan-

both biting close make the grass too bare for either . Horses, too, and work -horses in particular, have a greater dislike to sheep than to cattle.

172

PRACTICE SUMMER .

3774. Aninconvenience at times attends scarcity of water, and the little left be

the grazing of all kinds of stock on a farm comes almost stagnant. The objections to of mixed husbandry - that, as in everysum- such a mode of supplying so necessary and mer the same number of stock exists, there may not be the same quantity of grass to support them ; as the same number of acres,secured by a regular rotation ofcrops,

wholesome a beverage toanimals as water, are obvious, and a thorough amendment of the present system is requisite on almost every farm . A rivuletruns through some

may produce different quantities ofgrass part of most farms, andtanks of wood or in different seasons — one year affording a of stone are provided in fields, in con

scanty, another a superabundant supply: nexion with an adjoining spring, or with The number of stock should correspond a pump -well, where no rivulet runs ; but A with the produce of an average year.

bad year may much stint the condition, while a good one may grow more than the same stock can consume. The stinted condition cannot be amended by the sale of any of the stock , as it is impolitic to

no means are used to provide a reservoir of water on streams which are apt to become

dry in most summers, and in such cases

cattle are worse off than with pump-wells —though toooften the water is forgotten to be pumped out of them every day, and

disturb the equilibrium of the ages and at best theycannotprovide all the requisites kinds of the stock existing on the farm ; and a general sale of stock, under the circumstances assumed, would lower their value ; and if the stock suffer hunger, as it

of a good watering -pool. For in hotdays a walk into a clean pool is wholesome to cattle, and in very dry weather a stand at a time amongst water is an excellent pre

did in the severe drought of the summer ventive of that troublesome complaint, the

of 1826, no alternative exists but to make foot-sore. The external application of up the deficiency by hay, even thoughit water in this manner allays inflammation, should be purchased for the occasion . On and prevents irritation, and permits the the other hand, superabundance of pasture does no harm ; for, independent of its maintaining the entire stock in high condition, the rough aftermath will be of great service to the ewes in winter. On farms the stock of which are purchased every year, the number may be regulated by the

animals to take their food in peace in a scorching drought. The water out of a tank of a pump-well is never relished by cattle, and in cold and rainy weather it is rarelyvisited by them; and inhot weather it is viewed with indifference, because it is evidently inadequate to supply all their crop of the grass ; but even in that case wants for water; and tanks are invari the season may turn out worse than ex- ably placed toohigh for sheep. A water pected. Seeing that no one can foretelling-pool should be roomy and securely

the future state of the grass, the prudent fenced, as cattle are apt to push one an plan is, in every case, to keep the number other about while in it, and several go of stock under the mark which the farm together to drink or stand in the water; and it is the same practice with young can support. colts.

It should be of considerable length

3775. An essential requisite in all pas- and narrow , to give access to it for a number ture-fields is an abundant supply ofwater of the cattle at the same time ; and its side for the cattle to drink.

Both cattle and

next the field should be made hard with

horses driuk largely, and sheep, grazing broken stones like road metal, the bottom

early on the dewy grass, do not require so of the pool gravelled to keep the water much water to keep them in a healthy condition ; still, when no dew falls, and drought continues, they drink a little water. The proper construction of a watering -pool is sadly misunderstood in this country. The entrance to it generally is a puddle of poached mud at least balf a foot in depth, to avoid standing in which the animals go into the water, and render

clean and sweet, while the water should always flow gently through it. 3776. Where water is so scarce, that no

rivulet runs through the fields, and no water can be obtained by the sinking of wells, the only expedient is to bring water to the pasture fields from a distance in barrels mounted on wheels, such as the

it muddy before they drink. Not unfre- liquid -manure barrel in fig. 194. Such a quentlythe pool becomes nearly dry from barrel may be filled at a pump, or more

PASTURING CATTLE .

173

likely at a rivulet at some distance ;in for straw in summer, as the rough grass which latter case it has to be filled with from an adjoining wood, or a ditch, will such a scoop as is represented in fig. 311 , supply litter; and the dung, at all events, of the dimensions, and used in the manner described in (2075.)

should be shovelled up and removed before

Fig. 311 .

animals. I should like to see every farm systematically furnished with such sbeds, to the extent at least of one shed every

it accumulates to the discomfort of the

two adjoining fields. THE SCOOP FOR FILLING THE WATER - BARREL .

3778. Young cattle are not grazed on carse farms, nor on farms in the neighbourhood of towns. On the former no land is appropriated to grazing,

the grass is kept for only one year, and it is 3777. The want of sheds in pasture- as chiefly used forforage and hay; and on the fields is also a sad reflection on the sagacity latter it is more profitable to sell the grass for

In summer, where a forage, and make hay. The grazing on these farms is confined to thefarm milk - cows and work tree spreads its branches over the grass horses. in a lawn, how gratefully cattle resort to the shade, where they know that the stir 3779. On dairy farms the pasture for cows is

of our farmers.

ring breeze will cool their hides, and afford preferred on old lea abounding in natural

them a refuge from the attacks of flies. In grasses,whichafford finer flavoured butter and cold weather, cattle crowd to the wooded richer cheese than young grass. On such farms cows are kept for the express purpose ofstock, yielding corner of a field, and will do soina rainy dairyproduce,formingtheprincipal and

day even in summer. Such indications by receiving the largest share of attention. They animals teach us how they ought to be

are brought into the byre at night,milked there

treated . I am no advocate for hedgerow morningand evening ,and generally onlytwice

trees, although they shouldcasta grateful to givehis cows at all timesas much food as they shade into a pasture -field , since they prove

can consume; and with this view, besides the fine

injurious to the crops and fences near them ; pasture during the day, they have clover-grass and still less do I admire an umbrageous or tares in the evening for supper. plane in the middle of a field devoted to a 3780. The most profitable and also convenient course of cropping ; but similar effects may plan for dairymen in towns is to keeptheircows There are be obtained by other means. constantly in the byre in summer, and to feed few farms one or two sides of the fields of which are not sbeltered from some

them on forage, and purchase such litter as can be found cheapest at the season.

In pursuance

of thissystem ,the irrigated meadows in the quarter by a few trees ; but, indepen- neighbourhood of Edinburgh are taken by the and their pro dently ofthis, a shed,erected at asuitable dairymenbyauction every year,

part in the line of the fence, would not duce cut and carted dailyfrom April to Novem . only afford a shade in the hottest day in ber. The number of cuttings may be 4 or 5 in summer, but shelter in arainy day, or in a that period . The usual rentisfrom £16 to £ 20 cold night in autumn. Such an erection

the acre; and in the excessively dry year of 1826,

plentiful on an estate ,and they should be

were burnt up, that the rent was £40 the acre.

such was the demand for the grass which grew would cost little where stone and wood are well, while the forage plantsof thearable fields

placed to answer the field on either side of But such is the conviction of the healthy nature pasturage for milk cows, that many dairy the fence when it is in grass. But no of men in towns take

pasture at high rents the matter what it costs, when the health neighbourhood, and allow the cows to liein out

and comfort of stock are concerned . Its

all night, and incur the trouble and expense

cost would be repaid by the state of the

of sending people to milk them twice and thrice

stock in the first year of its erection, and a -day. it would stand, with slight repairs,for a long 3781. On pastoralfarms devoted exclusively to lease. Let it be roomy, and its structure the rearing of cattle, the calves are allowed to go

light, and itmay be roofed at a moderate with their dams, from whom theydraw as much cost with zinc, or composition, or tiles, milk as they can get, and support themselves when manufactured in the neighbourhood. besides on grass. The calves thrive well in this way, and attain to a large size ; and could the It may be troublesome to carry straw for farm maintain them in the same condition until litter from the steading to a shed situate 3 years old, they would become very fine beasts. at a distance ; but there is little occasion But, unfortunately, they fall off in condition

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

174

whenever they are weaned in autumn, and it is difficult to bring them up to the same condition

and constitution. The hams should not be too full of flesh, lyary, (3622,) which in a young

This circumstance raises a doubt in

animal indicates that the carcass will soon set from growing. A deep body,and short carcass

in winter.

my mind whether it would not be better to wean the calves at 4 months old, and let them depend entirely on the grass in the best season of the pas-

ture, and no difficulty would then be felt of maintaining, in the ensuing winter, the growing and healthy condition thus attained . Such a plan would no doubt incur the trouble of milking the cows, as it would be improper to let them run dry in the height of the grass season ; which, besides incurring the loss of milk, would be impolitic to pursue, as it would put the cows in so

between the shoulder-blade and the hook - bones across the ribs, indicate a disposition to fatten at a small size . Flat ribs and a high back - bone

indicate difficulty of fattening; and though the bone of the legs may be large enough, it is coarse and round , instead of flat and fine; and the sinews seem indistinctly marked and heavy,

instead of small and clean. On selecting a lot of young cattle, they should all nearly be of the same size and appearance ; and they will then be

higha condition before winter, as would be diffi- what is termed ledel, presenting an even surface cult to be maintained until next calving. Cows over their backs when standing together, or with calves at their foot will wander long dis- walking in a drove the sharp horns and ears of tances from home if their range of pasture is the horned cattle, and the crowns of the heads large, and they evince great art in concealing and ears of the polled ones, rising above the level themselves and their calves.

of the backs. This levelness is a very enticing property in every lot of cattle . It is a lesson to

3782. The young stock on pastoral farms graze on the lower and more sheltered portions of the grazing, till the weather becomes less stormy and cold inthe upper parts, when they stretch their walks upwards by degrees untilthe highestpoints are at length attained. This procedure cannot

the seller in preparing cattle for the market,to assort them in lots of equal levelness, and the larger the level lot is, the more is the purchaser persuaded that pains have been taken in their breeding. When a number of cattle of the same breed have to be compared ,the properties which

be strictly adhered to where no fences mark the boundaries of the farm ; but in the higher eleva

distinguish the particular breed must form the

tions the state of vegetation naturally deters them

from proceeding higher up until the grass grows.

standard of comparison, and what those standards are you shall know when we come to treat of the properties of the different breeds.

It would be better were fences laid off to divide

the pasture into portions, which should be occu3784. As to the state of cattle most profitable pied during the season at properintervals of time ; for the farmer to purchase, I believe that 2 -year and it hasoften occurred to me, that this object old queys have been found the most kindly would be best attained were fences to be run in feeders in every breed. They are subject to horizontal parallels along the face of a height, or periodic disturbance when in season in summer, round an entire hill, than up and down the slope and to avoid these the operation of spaying of the ground. As it is, pastoral farmers seem (2287,) was recommended, and was at one time contented with a ring fence round their farms. extensively practised; and as long as the heifers

It is the duty of the herds to ascertain the state generally possessed few properties for becoming of the cattle every day.

Young cattle for graz-

good cows, the practice was unobjectionable. Now, however, that every farmer possesses a large proportion of his heifers well formed, spay. ing has fallen into desuetude, and it is found more profitable to dispose of them as breeding stock than to fatten them , and the heifer market is not now so well supplied as it used to be. Good 2-year-old queys, from upland pastoral farms, can seldom be obtained without being in calf, the bulls having the range of the pastures. Of the different breeds, perhaps, more heifers

ing should have all the symptoms of health , a

may be obtained of short-horns for feeding, than

3783. Young cattle are purchased for farms in the arable districts of the country, on which none are bred, immediately before the grass is ready to receive them ; and not unfrequently this class of farmers hire grass-parks for the season and stock them with young cattle on speculation. Such cattle are obtained at public markets, or from breeders who do not keep their stock beyond two years.

clear eye, dewy nose, and glossy long hair, of any other; and the reason is, that this breed is although they may be in low condition . Such a now so generally improved, every animal pos condition may be a greater loss to the breeder sessing good properties, that all cannot be trans who has half starved them , than to the purchaser ferred to the cow stock ,and are therefore brought who may have good pasture to give them on sound to the market for other purposes, if desired by feeding land . To attain full size they should purchasers. I have known, even lately, handsome

have astrong bone, and their appearance might profits returned from those heifers, when nosuch profit could be obtained from steers of any kind. large in proportion to the quantity of flesh , and Still , as every farmer cannot be supplied with implies a quick growing condition. To be a heifers, oxen must be purchased in lieu ; and the good thriver and attain condition, the hair should age at which these should be purchased depends be termed raw -boned ;—that is, the skeleton seems

feel mossy, and the touch of the skin mellow.

upon the nature of the soil . Some soils bear

The skin should not be too thin, nor feel hard

pasture which will fatten oxen of large size,

and tight, and it should be covered with abund-

and on these steers of 3 - years will return most

ance of hair. A thick tail with plenty of hair on it and at the point, indicates strength of back

profit ; on weaker soils, it would be folly to at tempt to feed cattle to heavy weights; and for

PASTURING CATTLE .

175

lightsoils, young beastsshould alwaysbe chosen. necessarilyproducea larger quantity of forage of the black breeds, the hornless Angus and

Galloways, the West Highlanders and Aberdeen-

than land laid out in any other way. It is true that the forage thus obtained will not, like the

shires, or a cross of all these with short-horn cerealgrasses, answer immediately for the sup Those who possess pasture that will feed a heavy ox have the advantage, as they canpurchase small stock as well

bulls, are kindly feeders.

as large; but those who have only weak land must

purchase small, and, for most profit, young stock, and let the heavier and aged alone to others.

port of man; but itnevertheless concurs power fully in thisby producing milk, and butter, and cheese, and inbreeding and fattening cattle. Let there be added to all these advantages of what may be called a permanent vegetation, that the cost of keeping it in order is infinitely less, and that there is no risk to be run from failures of

3785. The following observations of M. Bous-

crops, and the vast advantages of meadow or

singault, on pasturage in general, and on the effects produced by pasture grass on the size

pasture land will meet us with all their force."

and condition of cattle in several countries on the Continent, are interesting. “ In those coun-

3787. These preliminary observations of M. Boussingault suggest a few remarks on the pro priety of having some meadow land, as he and

tries,” he observes, “ the nature of whose climate is favourable to pasturage, the rearing of cattle

presents immense advantages, but the animals can only be fattened in those that are the most

the farmers in England name what in Scotland is called permanent pasture, on every arable

farm ; and were those observations absolutely

fertile. The meadow that suffices for the growth applicable to all situations, they would go far to and keep of a bullock , will not always bring the animal into condition for the butcher. Those

sanction the practice which prevails in England, of having a large proportion of the country in

countries where the climate is moist, and long droughts rarely felt — where neither the summer heats nor winter colds are excessive-the conditions in fact, which are met with in the beautiful pasture lands of England in especial, are those that prove most favourable to the rearing and feeding of cattle. The pasture lands of Normandy and Brittany in France, of Switzerland, Holland, several of the provinces watered by the Rhine, &c., are also remarkable for their luxuriant herbage. In such situations, and with such advantages, the grand object of the farmer

suitable which grows coarse rank herbage, equally unfit for good pasture and hay, and which is more occupied with rushes than any other sort of plants. Whatever use such soils may be after being drained, and worked, and made to grow fine plants, they are in their

is the production and fattening of cattle.

present state unfit to be meadow land.

3786. “ Wherever it has been possible to lay

meadow ,whether the soil be really fitted to grow permanent pasture.

However well suited the

climate of England may be for the growth of meadow grass, there is no question that much of the land of England is kept in meadow which is unsuited for it ; for that soil is certainly not

3788. The practice of Scotland encourages the

down extensive and productive meadows, it is opposite extreme of having no meadow at all,on now beginning to be clearly understood that the

land which the plough can make arable, and the

introduction of even the best system of rotation

practice may have taken the strong root it has as a consequence ofthe general poverty of the soil,

were to make a false application of agricultural

science. In my opinion, there is no system of which imposes the conviction that no naturally rotation, however well conceived and carried ont, which will stand comparison, in point of productiveness, with a natural meadow ,favourably situated and properly attended to. The reason of this is obvious, and follows from the very

poor soil capable of growing good permanent pasture. Permanent grass of some kind is no doubt grown on many places in Scotland, but un less such pasture is capable of being converted into hay or pasture, as the farmer pleases, it is

principles which we have laid down in treating

not entitled to the character of a permanent pas

of rotations. The whole object in the best sys-

ture that will fatten stock .

tem of husbandry, is to make the earthproduce the largest possibility of organic matter in a 3789. It was once a great desire of the Ber. given time. But in such a system we are limited wickshire, as it still is of the Northumberland by the climate, inasmuch as we are obliged so farmer, to have at least one field on the farm of to arrange matters that our crops shall always good permanent pasture, and the best land was attain to complete maturity ; the consequence of which is, that with all our pains the soil remains

chosen to be converted to such a purpose. Expe

the winter, even, does not interrupt it com-

a great weight. But after it was found to be more

rience had proved that large oxen would not unproductive during a certain number of weeks feed ripe but on old grass, and the farmer who and months towards the end of autumn, in the desired to feed oxen of extraordinary weight early spring, and through the whole of winter. could not accomplish his end unless he had pas But upon meadow lands vegetation is incessant ; ture in summer for his beasts that would feed to

pletely; it still revives and makes progress in profitable to feed cattle fat at as early an age as the bright days; and in springit proceeds when practicable, and which can be easily accomplished the mean temperature is but a few degrees above the freezing point of water, and never ceases until it is checked again by the severer cold of

of oil-cake and linseed meal, the old permanent

winter. It is therefore easy to obtain convic-

fattening of heavy oxen was concerned; and

tion that a given surface of meadow land must

the consequence was, that much of it was plough

on turnips and sown grasses, with the assistance pasture was no longer required, in as far as the

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

176

ed up and thrown into the ordinary rotation

required to fatten an ox ofmedium size. On those

of the farm . Still old grass has one 'use which of the third quality, a surface of 3720 square yards, (about three roods,) is deemed necessary the extension of new has not yet provided— in to fatten a small ox . it formed the rankest and thickest pasture autumn, long after that from the sown grasses had ceased to grow and become bare . This inconvenience attending the sown grasses, has partly been met by pasturing them after the grain crop

has been removed in autumn, and partly by the extension and early production of the turnip. An old lea is an excellent winter walk for ewes

in lamb, and a few turnips strewed upon it are

kept clean in the worst weather.

3794. “ M. Dubois calculates the quantity of grass fodder consumed by an ox during the eight

months when he is fattening, as equivalent to 6600 lb. of dry hay, (equal to 300 stones, of 22 lb. to the stone ;) this is at least the quantity that the extent of meadow required to fatten one ox would produce. The average ration of green forage each day is, therefore, equivalent to about 27 lb. of hay, a quantity which appears small,

3790. In relating the mode of pasturage fol- and which would be so in effect, were not the lowed in some of the countries of Europe, M. oxen kept so long in the meadows. M. Dubois, Boussingault goes on to say, that “ on the banks indeed, observes, that in the stall, with a ration

of the Rhine, in Holland, in the neighbourhood composed of from 11 lb. to 13 lb. of linseed oil of Arnheim , the meadows are depastured during one year, and cut, and their produce made into hay the following year, and so on alternately. The cattle are fed in the house with the hay during the winter. They are driven out into the pasture in May. In the Low Countries, it has

cake, and 26 lb. of hay, an ox will become suf ficiently fat for the butcher in 70 days, and will acquire nearly the same weight that he would have gained in the course of seven or eight months in the meadows. There is nothing sur prising in this fact, inasmuch as the ration men

been found that tofatten a large ox, a surface of tionedby M. Dubois, in our mode of viewing it, meadow land, of about 9960 square yards, (more than two acres,) upon which it will pasture during five or six months, was necessary. In the

is equivalent in nutritive value to at least 81 lb. weight of hay ; the quantity of oil-cake alone is enough to supply a good pound weight of fat

bottoms of greatest fertilitynear Dusseldorf, it a -day. has been calculated that to keep a cow, an ex tent of surface equal to about 1800 square yards

3791. “ In countries which possess rich pasture lands, oxen are put to fatten immediately upon the richest of them . In the valley of the Auge, in Normandy, these meadows are designated as

3795. “ In Old Friesland, where the pastures are excellent, results are obtained which may be compared with those of the meadows in the val. ley of the Auge; an ox of from 770 lb. to 990 -lb. weight, (about 70 stone,) will be pushed to a weight of from 1100 lb. to 1650 lb., (about 118 stone,) on a surface of meadow land between

herbages. A meadow of this kind requires a rich

3000 and 3600 square yards (nearly 3 roods) in

damp soil, capable of retaining moisture. It is, therefore, to a considerable extent dependent

extent.

upon its subsoil.

3796. “ In the meadows of the Auge, the fat tening goes on even during the winter; the oxen

( 1ļ rood ) was necessary.

It the district mentioned, the

soil of the pastures consists of a thick layer of vegetable mould , resting upon clay ; it is, therefore, very rare that this meadow land feels the effect of drought; it is, indeed, only in the early spring that the pasture upon such land sometimes fails, in which case the stock must of course be

are received into the pastures between the 15th of

September and the 15th of November, and the animals pass the winter in the open field ; but they receive from 12 lb. to 26 lb. of hay a-day until the month of April , when the grass has al

assisted with hay, the quantity being gradually ready grown sufficiently to suffice for their keep. diminished as the advances. season

These oxen are generally fat and ready for the market in July." *

3792. “ M. Dubois finds that a lean ox, weigh ing 473 lb., after fattening in the valley of the

3797. I am not aware of any experiments hav

Auge, will weigh 763 lb., so that he will have

ing been purposely undertaken , in this country,

gained 290 lb., ( or 1 lb. 3 oz. a-day, in eight to ascertain the increase of flesh by oxen during months, or 1 lb. 6 oz. a -day in seven months.) the grazing season. Fattening cattle are not The degree of fatness attained in this district is kept above five months on grass, from the end of prodigious. M. Dubois mentions oxen which May to the end of October, or 153 days. Sir weighed when fat 1760 lb., upwards of 125 stones ; and he speaks of one which attained the

John Sinclair mentions that Galloway cattle, when kept in winter so as to maintain the con

enormou s weight of 2750 lb., upwards of 196 dition they had acquired on the pasture of the stones . previous summer, put on all their increased weight on the grass alone, and this increase

3793. " It is calculated that, in the meadows of varies with the age of the cattle : those from 3 greatest fertility, a surface of 2760 square yards, ( more than half an acre ,) are required to fatten a large ox. On meadows of medium fertility, a

surface of 4680 square yards (nearly an acre ) are

to 3} years old , increase 11 stones ; and those from 4 to 4 years old, increase 13 stones. He adds, “ Almost all these several additions are gained, according to the Galloway report, during

k

Boussingault’s Rural Economy- Law's translation ,p. 619-21 .

PASTURING CATTLE.

177

the six months of the grass season ." I take the The pock makes its appearance both on the udder grass season at five months ; and at the above increased weights, the younger ox gained just

and the teats of the cow ; and as milking must be performed frequently by all the teats, the

1 lb. a -day, and the older one 1 lb. 3 oz. a -day operation is very painful to the cow, and she on pasture, which agrees pretty near with the results stated by M. Dubois, as having been

becomes troublesome to milk . The pustules are soon rubbed off by the operation, and their sites

obtained in the pastures of the valley of the become skinless sores. Nothing but the utmost Auge (3792.* )

gentleness will prevent the cow becoming dis tracted under the torture. After having run its

3798. Cattle are subject to very few diseases course , the disease declines, the sores become less while upon grass in summer.

Sometimes they the weather

receive a chill in a sudden change

acute, and heal up by degrees. The disease for tunately is not of frequent occurrence ; I have

to wet and cold ; but were sheds provided in only seen it once in the course of a fifteen years' every field, probably no chills would be felt, as cattle never suffer from cold when they have shelter at will. The immediate effects of such

experience, and it affected all the cows I had at the time-9 in number.

I found an efficacious

ointment in affording relief to the cows when

a chill is a staring coat and hide-bound skin , afflicted with the cow -pox, sore teats, or chapped which may be removed by a cordial drink, com- teats. It consists of fresh butter melted and posed of one quart of gruel and one bottle of burnt in a frying-pan,and mixed with half its ale in a lukewarm state, in which has been dis-

quantity of tar. While hot it is poured into a

solved some treacle, and spiced with 1 oz . of gallipot, and applied cold to the affected parts.

ginger and 1 oz. of caraway seeds ground fine. The tar has the effect of keeping off the fies, while the burnt butter never becomes dry. The (1481 ) and the animal kept in a shed for a night ointment is washed off with warm water, and the

The drink is administered with the drinking-horn

or two. The ultimate danger from such a chill udder and teats dried with a soft linen cloth, be is inflammation of the lungs, which in most cases fore milking commences ; they are again bathed is a fatal disease.

with warm water after milking, again dried with

3799. The teats and udder of cows are at times subject to certain complaints in summer ; and these are chapped teats, sore teats, warty teats, and

the soft linen cloth, and the ointment again ap plied.

Cow -pox. Chapped teats consist of cracks across

3803. Warbles. - Cattle are not unfrequently troubled, towards the latter end of the feeding

the teats, which, when drawn downwards, the

season , with what are named warbles or wommals,

cracks are forcibly opened, and inflict pain on the that is, small swelled protuberances along the animal, which then becomes troublesome to milk. chine, caused by thelarvæ of the Estrusbovis, The easiest mode of milking them while under this complaint, is that described by nievling in

the cattle-bot. Fig. 312, a, gives a representation Fig. 312.

(2258, while stripping aggravates the complaint (2257.) I do not know the certain cause of this complaint, but suppose it to arise from leaving the teats in a wet state after milking ; and per haps cows lying upon wet ground may have the same effect.

3800. Sore teats are, when blotches of skin come off the teats, and their fleshy substance be comes sore by exposure to the air. This com plaint may arise from the milker who strips seiz

ing a particular part of the teat too hard, where an inflammation being set up, terminates in a

sloughing of the skin, and consequent exposure of the fleshy substance to the air. C

3801. Warty teats, I conceive, may originate in the skin of the teats being ruffled by too much force in stripping, or by too long a nail upon the thumb ; and the warts produced in consequence

THE CATTLE- BOT AND LARVA -

ESTRUS BOVIS .

of the fly which originates these larvæ . It is the female, which has the abdomen attenuated

may be exuberances of the skin in covering the injured parts. I am not sure thatthese conjectures , for they are nothing more, will explain the causes of these complaints ; but I believe when care is used not to abrade the skin or pinch the substance of the teats, but to keep them clean and dry, none of them ever occur.

behind, and terminating in a black -coloured style, composed of cylinders which slide into each other like the tubes of a telescope, as seen at b, but greatly magnified. It is not well ascer tained whether the fly merely lays her eggs on the hair or skin , and the larva, when disclosed , is left to force its own way beneath it, or a per. foration is made by the fly and the egg deposited 3802. As to the cow - pox , it is a constitutional with it. That the latter is the case seems most disease, and cannot be either induced or retarded . probable, as the ovipositor b seems constructed * Sinclair's General Report of Scotland , vol. iii. p. 90. VOL . II .

M

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

178

for the express purpose. Cattle feel great pain,

greyish -brown colour, the segments fringed on

and become almost furious, when attacked by

the posterior margins with grey hairs. The anal

this fly. The larvæ c are of an oblong shape;

segment is small, and armedwith 6 sharp scaly

the body divided into 11 segments by transverse

points o, which seem to enable the pupa to push

bands, which again are crossed at the sides by its head above the surface of the skin . " longitudinal lines; and on each side of all the segments there is a distinct spiracle or breathinghole. The young larva is found to occupy a

diseases have more or less frequently ravaged

small cyst or cell within the substance of the

the cattle of many countries from the earliest

3805. Pleuro-pneumonia . - Epidemic zootic

skin , which gradually enlarges with its growth ; period of history. During the past century, they while the pus, which is abundantly secreted by have made havoc in several of the countries of the irritation, serves for its subsistence. “ The Europe, especially in the pastoral plains of the

tumour is never entirely closed around it,” says

Ukraine; and of late years - only since the per

Mr Duncan, “ there being always a small aper- mission to import live stock , they have crossed ture on the upper side. On attaining its full the ocean that begirts our island, and have growth , the larva makes its exit by the aperture visited our establishments of stock with fearful just mentioned, and the wound speedily closes up severity. None of the epidemics have been so and is healed ; but the hide never recovers its direful in their effects as what was formerly de original strength, as afterwards appears when it nominated epidemic catarrh, then murrain , and comes under the operations of the tanner . It is now pleuro -pneumonia. From the earliest ac remarked by Reaumur as a singular circumstance, counts of this disease, we find the predisposing that the larva commonly issues from the tumour, cause attributed to marshy and woody districts, to assume the pupa state , at a very early hour or where perfect under-draining did not exist, in the morning, and thereby avoids many of the combined with exposure to sudden changes of dangers to which it would be otherwise exposed. the atmosphere, and a half-starved method of Thewarbles are so conspicuous on cattle , that if feeding . The influence of these predisposing searched for scarcely any could be overlooked; causes is now acknowledged by agriculturists and they may be killed with the utmost ease by and veterinarians ; but, however ill-ventilated

simple pressure of the fingerand thumb, or by byres, want of drainage, dirt, and nastiness of pouring some corrosive liquid into the aperture of the tumour. They are seldom so numerous

but that a short time would suffice to inspect a a whole herd, and if this were done simultaneously at different places, an entire district might in a

shorttime be nearly or altogether freed from this " * pest."

every description , may aggravate the force of the disease when it exists, these cannot be said to be the predisposing causes, since they all ex. isted in their full strength, and in the same places, before the disease was so well known.

Where are ill- ventilated byres to befound in the Ukraine, the cradle of the disease ? The truth is, the complaint is found in this country in the best

3804. A very tormenting insect to cattle on managed and best constructed dairy-houses of the Highland moors, though it is scarce in the

the country, as well as in the worst ; and since

lowlands of Scotland, and far from being rare in

this is the case, we must look to more general

England, is the cattle cleg, Tabanus bovinus. It influences than those to be found in locally is about one inch in length , being the most bulky ill -constructed houses, for the origin of the of our native Diptera . When the proboscis is disease ; especially as exposure to cold , with fixed in the skin , and employed in pumping the bad food, and little of it, are in themselves blood, the insect can in general be easily got at, quite sufficient to originate an affection of and killed with a stroke of the hand. The in- the lungs, which pleuro -pneumonia is, and strument by which the skin is pierced, and the nothing more ; and which can be cured as cer

blood extracted, is of curious and complicated structure. The larva a,fig.313, is long and cylinFig. 313.

ECHOU

tainly as anything can be so, provided its ap proach is detected, and remedial measures applied in proper time.

3806. The functional vessels of the lungs, as remarked by Dr James Mercer, are three in num

ber : the air vessels — the pulmonic vascular sub stance, the parenchyma — andthe investing serous membrane, the pleura. subject to inflammation.

All these vessels are

3807. The inflammation of the mucous lining of the bronchial tubes and air cells, is called bron chitis ; that of the pulmonic vascular substance , or the parenchyma of the lung, is called pneumo drical, narrowing at the head into an elonga- nia ; and that of the investing serous membrane ted cone . The body is divided into 12 rings, the of the lung is called pleurisy, or inflammation of anal one being very minute, and resembling a the chest. Pleuro-pneumonia, is, therefore, in spiracle; colour dirty white, the head brown and flammation of the vascular substance and of shining. The pupa b, is nearly cylindrical, of a the investing serous membrane of the lung, com 青 * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. x . p. 544. LARVA AND PUPA OF THE CATTLE CLEG - TABANUS BOVINUS.

+ Šfagazine of Zoology and Botany, vol. i. p. 359.

-

PASTURING CATTLE .

179

bined - acombination attended with great danger mediable debility would rapidly follow . Pro to, and even rapid destruction of life.

miscuous bleeding must be avoided ; for, without

careful analysis of the symptoms, bleeding will 3808. The symptoms of these three species of hasten the fatal debility of the system . After

inflammation are shortly the following :-of the bleeding give a purge of l lb. of Epsom salts bronchitis, breathing quick and free; cough at first short and soft, then loud, harsh, rough, and prolonged ; pulse, frequent, but full and soft . of pneumonia, breathing weaker, slower, stifled ; cough, short and stifled ; pulse, small, weak, and oppressed. Of pleurisy , breathing short, and only partial; cough, short and catching; pulse, rapid , hard, and wiry. As long as the symptoms indicate only bronchitis, a cure may be easily effected ; but if neglected, and allowed to run into pneumonia , danger becomes imminent,

and rapidly passes into pleurisy, when death ensues .

1 drachm of tartar emetic, and 2 or 3 drachms of

ginger, mixed in water; and the dose should be repeated every five or six hours, until purgation has been produced. When this has been accom plished, let an anodyne diaphoretic mixture be given regularly, at stated intervals of four or five hours, consisting of half an ounce of laudanum, 2 drachms of tartar emetic, and 2 pints of water,

and thereby keep up the diaphoretic or sweating effect. The animal should be carefully removed

from its companions, into a clean , comfortable loose -box, or outhouse, free from sudden changes of the atmosphere. Cover the body with a warm

3809. In every sort of inflammation of the

woollen rug to prevent the too rapid evaporation of the sweat, which would chill the animal.

lungs, there are three stages - congestion, red hepatisation, and gray or white hepatisation. In congestion are found engorgement and pure inflammation. In red hepatisation is no circulation of air, no crepitation. In gray hepatisation,

should be left beside it, and a little of any slightly stimulating food that may be at hand. Should symptoms of debility remain, tonics

Warm bran mashes, and tepid meal and water

are required , beginning with camomile tea, and

lymph is effused throughout the substance of the giving stronger ones as the strength increases, lungs, which are marked with black patches, caused by the colouring matter of the blood being imprisoned in the vessels. In this last case, re

as the infusions of gentian, columba, cascarella , &c. *

covery is hopeless.

3814. “ The grand principles which ought to regulate our treatment of pleuro-pneumonia, and

3810. Casesof pleuro-pneumonia,whichassume which ,whenproperly pursued, will guide us to the distinct forms either of pneumonia, pleurisy,

the best and most scientific mode of combating

or bronchitis, will generallyterminate favourably, the disease,maybe thus setforth in a few words," while those characterised by prostration of observes Mr Finlay Dun, veterinary surgeon. 6

strength and typhoid fever, will be much more difficult of treatment, and often terminate fatally. Where animals are exposed to E. winds and drizzling rains, the symptoms seem to approach nearer to those characterising pure pneumonia ; while, on the other hand, dry, cold weather, and sharp, severe winds, cause the symptoms of pleurisy to become more apparent.

Pursue warily the antiphlogistic course ; sub due the inflammation, and reduce the fever, with the least possible expenditure of the strength of the patient; resort to venesection only when the symptoms indicate a state of active inflamma tion ; avoid pushing too far the exhibition of sedatives, contra-stimulants, or any depleting

3811. Young animals seem less predisposed to pleuro -pueumonia than such as are nearer maturity ; and fat cattle are attacked less fre-

measures whatsoever ; rely mostly on the use of tonics, and subsequently of stimulants ; sepa rate the animal from his fellows - place him, if possible, in a loose box, and keep him cool, clean, and comfortable ; keep the bowels in good condi

quently than those in a backward condition.

tion with treacle given at intervals ; check the

milk-cows are the most slightest appearance of diarrhoea by giving flour But of all sorts of stock . liable to this disease

3812. Much difference of opinion exists con-

cerning the propriety of using the flesh or milk of animals affected with pleuro -pueumonia . In the first stages of the disease, before the inflam-

gruel,and, if necessary, astringents. Where the animal is reduced, and manifests much weakness, blisters, rowels,and setons are to be condemned, as producing irritation and increasing the hectic fever. In short, let the treatment of the disease

be guided by a mature consideration of the symp

matory fever has run its course, both the flesh

toms ; and, while attending to the more impor

and milk may safely be used, but not so when the fever has assumed a typhoid form .

tant remedial measures, do not neglect what is

3813. Whenever the disease appears. characterised by the earliest symptoms, decided treat-

aptly called by Dr Armstrong ' the small ar tillery of physic ;' endeavour , by the combina tion and co -operation of various means, to arrive at the main point—the grand object of your

ment must be had recourse to . Bleed at once,

treatment , the eradication of disease and the

and carry it to such an extent as to make a de- restoration of health .” + cided impression on the circulation . If this is effected, and the symptoms become moderated, 3815. In summer, “ inflammation of the larynx the bleeding must not again be repeated, as irre- frequently takes place in cattle, the disease, at * Journal of Agriculture for March 1848, p. 313-16.

+ Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, for July 1849, p. 64.

--

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

180

the same time, spreading from the delicate lining more complete command than anything membrane to the nearest parts. In this way else over the inost ungovernable bull. In lymph is effused, and the play of the parts im case a bull becomes irritative and trouble peded. Sometimes the smaller cartilages them selves are altered, being thickened and con some as he advances in years, which is

torted, and small tumoursare apttobe produced, often the case, the ring furnishes the means both within thetube and without it. The of curbing him at once, when it would marked symptoms are local pain, difficulty in otherwise be impossible to get a hold of breathing and swallowing, and general fever : the treatmentrequired is venesection, and the his nose. It also affords an easy means of other parts of the antiphlogistic regimen .

suspending a light chain from it to the ground, upon which the fore - feet of the

3816. “ Tumours occurring in this locality in bull are apt to tramp, whenever he at cattle constitute clyers, which though it may notthefordisease a timecalled interfere with fat:, tempts to run forward, and by thus sud tening, yet speedily injures health .” *

denly jerking his nose, be checks himself

in an instant. A young bull may follow ON THE TREATMENT OF BULLS IN SUMMER.

a person in sport, and then run at him in earnest. I was once encountered by a 2

3817. Bull-calves, we have said, ( 2290 ) should be early calved, have good milk every day, for at least four months, to strengthen their bone,and until the grass is quite able to support them , and to maintain the fine condition they have acquired on the milk. If the mothers of the bull- calves did

year -old in the midst of a pasture field. Feeling it vain to reach a fence before he could run at me, I determined on standing still to face him, armed with a couple of large stones. When he came within five yards of me, scraping the ground with his fore -feet, with his bead close to the ground, and bellowing with apparent

not afford sufficient milk for them, it was anger, I struck him a blow with a stone

the practice of that very eminent breeder, on the forehead, between the horns, on the late Mr Robertson of Ladykirk, in which he started up, became silent, shook

Berwickshire, to have cows in milk to his head, turned,and ran away in a trot. Not content with defeating him in this manner, he was taken to the steading, and

supply the deficiency.

3818. When a number of bull-calves a new rope fastened to the ring. I led are brought up together, they should be him to the highroad, and punished him so

grazed bythemselves on the best grass the by checking him by the nose, that he never farm affords,or they may go with the cows, again attempted to meddle with any one. or with the ox -calves while the quey- To keep him in constant check, a chain calves go with the cows. Anyhow they was suspended from the ring, with its end should not be allowed to accompany the trailing on the ground. quey-calves. I knew an instance of a 3820. Fig. 314 represents a bull's ring. quey calf being stinted at as early an age as to bear a calf at 15 months old ; and I It consists of two semicircles constituting knew another quey - calf, one of my own, a circle or ring, Fig. 314. that was so injured by a young bull-calf, joined together at one end a , that she was thereafter rendered incapable with a rivet of impregnation, although her season re passed through curred periodically. To avoid such casu theends lapping alties, it is well to keep young animals of different sexes, capable of breeding, apart.

over each other,

A single bull-calf may go with the cows or with the young oxen .

b

after each end is reduced to

half the thick 3819. Year - old bulls should be furnished

THEBULL'S RING IN AState ness of the ring,

with a ring in their nose. This instru-

TO BE INSERTED IN HIS NOSE . and acting as a

ment is useful not only in leading them, hinge ; and the other two ends b also lap, but of keeping their temper in subjection. and are fastened together with two coun I have no doubt that such a ring affords a tersunk screws. The ring is opened, as * Dick's Manual of Veterinary Science, p. 76.

SUMMER TREATMENT OF BULLS.

181

shown in the figure, before it is passed takes the bull by the nose with his left through the hole in the bull's nose. hand, and feelinginwardly with his fingers, past the soft part of the nostrils, until he

3821. Fig. 315 shows the ring screwed reaches the cartilage or septum of the nuse, together as it hangs he distends the orifice of the nostrils, so Fig. 315. in the bull's nose ; that the hot iron may pierce clear through the joint a closed , the septum withont touching the skin of and the lapped ends the nostrils or his own fingers, taking care 6 also closed with to pass the iron in a direction exactly par the two countersunk allel to the front of the nose, otherwise the

0

screws, all Aush with hole will be pierced obliquely . Immedi the surface of the ately after the tapering rod has been ring. The ring is passed as far as to make the hole suffici

THE BULL'S RING AS FASTENED IN HIS NOSE.

formed of quarter- ently large for the ring, and the wound inch rod -iron , and its seared enough, the operator then takes the

diameter over all is The surface should be very smoothly filed, and it cannot be too highly polished with sand paper. It costs 28. 2 inches.

3822. The ring is put into the young bull's nose in thismanner :- Itis the smith who puts the ring into the bull's nose. Let him be provided with an iron rod about a foot long tapering to the point, and rather thicker than the rod of the ring. Let a

fire be near to heat the point of this rod. The smith should also be provided with a small screw - driver. Let a long stout cart-

ring opened, still holding by the bull's nose with his left band, passes one end of it gently through the hole, and, on bring ing the two ends together, lets go the nose with the left band, and taking hold of

the ring with the same, still to command the buli, puts one screw in after another, and secures each firmly with the screw driver. He then turns the ring round in the hole, to feel that it moves easily, and to see that it hangs evenly, after all which the bull is released. The ring should ap pear inthe nose as represented in the por trait of the Short-horn bull, Plate XI.

rope be provided with a noose bitchedupon The ring should not be used until the the middle, just large enough to take in wound of the nose is completely healed ;

the bull's neck like a collar. Put the bull though it isnothing uncommon to see the into any outhouse that has a window suf- ringing of a bull delayed, untilthe time ar ficiently low to allow his head to reach rives that he must be led by it for some par through it, though it is safer for his knees ticular purpose, such as the exhibition for a to press his counter against a stout bar of premium at a show, when, in the attempt

wood. Slip the top of the loop of the to accustom him to be led about by the rope over his headdown to the counter, ring immediately after the operation, every

bring his breast against the window or part of the nose being still tender and

bar,pass the rope from the lowest part sensitive, the poor animal is tormented. of his neck along the ribs on each side So alarmed do some bulls become by this

round his buttocks, like a breeching, and operation, that they hang back from the bring an end through the window or over the bar on each side of the bull, where let a stout man hold on at each end of the rope, and prevent the bull retreating backwards from the window or bar. A man stands on each side of the bull's buttock , to prevent him shifting to one

side or the other. A man also stands on each side of thebull's head, holding on by the horn, or by the ear if he is hornless, with

rein - rope in the ring with such force as to tear the ring through the nose ; but this is an abuse of the use of the rope, which should be slackened, and the animal relieved from pain, as often and until he learns to yield to the slightest motion of the rope. On first trying to lead a bull by the ring, the drover, who should always be the cattleman thathascharge of bim, in whom the bull will place more con

one hand, and keeping out the nose by fidence than in any other person , should supporting the jawswith the other. The not endeavour to pull the animal along operator having theiron rod given him by after himself, but allow him to walk on

an assistant, heated in the fire just red while he remains at his side, or goes be enough to see the point in daylight, he bind him, with the rope in bis band.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

182

While so following , to relieve the animal animal attempts to move away. The rein as much as practicable of the weight of the rope is fastened to the ringedend e. Tho rope upon the nose, the drover should cost of such a holder is 4s . throw the middle of the rope over the bull's back , and retain a hold of its end. Should the bull offer to step backwards, a slight tap on the shank with a stick will prevent him ; and should be at

tempt to run forward, a mere check by

3824. The leading -rein is best fastened to a ring or holder by Fig. 317. means of a spring-hook swivel, such as fig. 317. The movable part a is

jointed at d , and kept in its place by the spring

the rope will cause him to slacken his pace. On no account should the drover attempt to struggle with the bull on the first occa

behind it. When the hook is desired to be at

sion ; on the contrary, he should soothe and pacify him, and endeavourto inspire him

tached to the ring, the

with confidence in himself and the rope,

thumb presses on a ,which

and to show him that he will receive no

yields, and allows the ring

hurt if he will butwalk quietly along. A bull soon learns what is intended for him

to be taken in the circular void of the hook . The

when he is properly dealt with ; but, if tor mented merely that the drovermay show his power over him , it may be a long

rein rope b is spliced on · the end of the ring of the

time, if ever, before he will learn to

hook . This ring, turning upon the swivel c, pre

behave quietly when led.

vents the rope twisting. With such a book a lead

ing rope can be attached

3823. A useful instrument for leading

a bull by occasionally, when he has not

and released from the

been ringed, or for leading a cow to the

bull's ring in much less

bull at some distance , or for taking away

time and with more ease

any single beast, and retaining a power over it, is what is named the bullock holder . It consists of iron in two parts jointed, fig. 316, where a is the joint

than any sort of tying.

Fig. 316.

3825. A bull is never in a better position for

which permits the two

serving cows than when

parts to open as far

grazing with them in the SWIVELLED SPRING-field, (2233.) I believe HOOK. it to be a fact, that a bull

as to allow the two small balls at 6 to em

brace the nostrils and which is constantly amongst cows in a take a gentle hold of field never teases or abuses them , likeone the septum by means

taken to them for the occasion out of his

of thepinching screw own house . But a bull can only be left in C. This form of bullock-holder allows the

the field when he is intended to serve all the cows. It may be necessary, however,

course adopted for the improvement points b to be screwed in the to every degree of of stock, that different bulls shall serve tightness until they particular cows, in which case no single bull meet ; and in my opi can have access to them all, and cannot

nion, is so far objecTHE BULLOCK - HOLDER. tionable, as the screwing may be carried, bya rash hand, to hurt the animal severely when the instrument

be grazed in thesame field. When therefore a bullgoes amongst cows he is usually quite safe to approach, and is quiet within the fence; but one is always troublesome by

is moved in the least degree to either himself in a paddock or field, or even

side. Another form I have used, and ap- amongst oxen, and such is his desire to be prove of, which never allows the two knobs with the cows, that few fences are able to 6 to be screwed closer than just to embrace

retain him .

He is constantly restless,

the septum of the nose, from which the often bellows, especially where he can snuff holder swings at ease, whilst it holds the the cows at a distance. In such circum nose with sufficient firmness whenever the

stances he should either be confined to his

SUMMER TREATMENT OF BULLS.

183

hammel or byre, and supported on cut should never be allowed to herd together, forage of some kind, or allowed to be with as they will inevitably fight; and a serious

the cows he is to serve in a separate field bull-fight is a terrific sight, seldom ter minating before the infliction of severe

from the rest.

injuries on both combatants. 3826. When confined , bulls, like watch dogs always kept on the chain, dis-

3829. Bulls can serve a large number of like the approach of any one but their cows in a season , amounting to 60; but

keeper; and even a keeper has been known where a bull is confined to the service of to fall a victim to his resentment of cows on the owner's farm , he will be re

others. Some bulls become so prone to mischief, when constantly confined, that they will attempt to run at every person, when brought out of the house to serve a cow — the presence, or smell of the cow in heat apparently having so maddening an effect upon them as to render them reck-

less. Air and daylight together seem to have an intoxicating effectupon them. I have observedthat Alderney bulls are par-

stricted to a much smaller number, as few farmers of the mixed husbandryhave above 20 breeding cows, with a few heifers, though most permit the service of a certain number of cows of the neighbourhood. 3830. When bulls gain premiums at agricultural shows, a common condition imposed upon them is, to serve a certain number of cows in a prescribed district.

ticularly reckless in such circumstances. The number of the cows is generally re Besides the rope or chain in the ring, a stricted to 60, and the fee for service is

safe precaution for the keeper, in such a case, is to have a stout stick about 6 feet long, with a swivelled spring - book, like fig. 317,on its end to fasten into the ring, which gives him a better command over the ring than the rope merely ; and it also enables him to keepthe bull off to a certain distance, and to prevent his making a rush without giving warning of his intention by pushing the stick. A mode recommended of taming a savage bull when at liberty,

fixed at from 10s. 6d. to a guinea each, besides a small gratuity to the keeper of the bull. The bull is kept at a convenient station, and not travelled, the cows being brought to him. 3831. On carse farms it is not necessary to

keep bulls ;the number of cows being kept for the

purpose of merely giving milk tothefarmer's houseand the servants, itismore convenient to purchase cows giving milk than to keep them,

and put them to the bull.

consists of the action of an apparatus,

attached to the point of one of the horns, 3832. On farms in the neighbourhood of towns, by means of a short chain, that when the have cows to supply new milk to customers in

which pulls the ring so tight in the nose the dairy husbandry is so far practised as tó

bull sets his head to use hishorns, its town; and thepractice istomilk the cowsaslong as they give milk profitably, and feed them , and

action immediately causes him desist from purchaseothers new calvedor about to calve, it.*

rather than to put them to the bull. Bulls are unnecessary in such a case .

3827. Bulls often display a natural

3833. On farms distant from towns practising fondness for calves. A calf ofmine, afflict other than the mixed husbandry few cows may

ed with scouring, lay for the most part of be kept,and these more for thepurpose of supply the day in the cow pasture from weakness.

ing milk than for breeding ; nevertheless they are

Whenever the proper medicine for its not sold every year,calves being taken from them state was brought into the field, the bull and fed as veal, forwhich purpose the cows are came and watched the proceeding with kept in calf, and bulls are required. interest, and on the calf being left, went to

3834. On pastoral farms bulls arealways kept

it as if to examine whether or not it had to serve the breeding cows, and their numberis sustained injury, and then went his way. in proportion tothe extentof the breeding stock. He was often seen licking the calf with his The cowsbringing uptheir calves at their feet, bulls accompany them in the pasture, and tongue, and persuading it to rise to its feet. the attend them as they require their services. So promiscuous is the intercourse of the bulls with 3828. Bulls that have served cows the females in the herds of upland pastures, that

* Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. iv. p. 559.

184

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

many of the queysare in calf as well as thecows ; tity reserved for the use of thehouse will milk by the time the cows go to grass, pastoral husbandry , that no lotofuplandqueys the

and so much uncertainty attendsthis portionof allow . The eldest calves are off the sweet can be purchased at the fairs in autumn with assurance that they are not in calf. The assur

and receive skimmed -milk with lythax

ancemay be given, because the owner does not ( 2278) amongst it, and cut swedes and know to the contrary, and the risk is run bythe hay, until the grass be ready. The most purchasers, very few of whom escape disappoint- convenient grass-field at first for calves is a ment. contiguous paddock, from which they 3835. On pastoral farms in which sheep alone should be brought into the court for a few

are bred, bullsare useful to keep the cows in nights, and receive turnips and hay until calfthat are required tosupplymilk to the the grass has safely passed through them, people onthe farm ; and such farmsaretoo far and the weather prove sufficiently mild the farmers to purchase cows in milk, just and and dryfor them to lie out all night on the always as they are wanted. grass. The youngest calves now leave their cribs R , and pass a few days in the 3836. Dairy farms, whether large or small, court k Plate II., until accustomed to the

removed from towns to make it convenient for

requirebulls,which are generally fully employed airand sun — the latter readily blistering

in summer at home.

their ears — before they are put into the

3837. Among the instances of extraordinary paddock during the day, where they then trials, those in which bulls were placed at the receive their diets of milk, and are brought bar, convicted and sentenced, are not the least into the court at night until the tempe a man, curious : -" In 1314, a bull having bebrought , waskilled

by tossinghim with his horns

rature permit them to lie out all night

fore the judges in the province of Valois, and

on the grass. In weaning the youngest

indicted asa criminal, and,after several witnesses calves, the milk should be gradually had given evidence, it was condemned to be taken from them, without giving any hanged . This sentence was confirmed by an other food but grass, until they entirely order of the parliament, and carried into effect.

pig,which depend upon it.

And we are told that an unfortunate pig, which

chanced to kill a child in Burgundy , was in like

3839. The older calves may be 4 months samepunishment." * I have heard of a shepherd's old before they areesweaned ; butasrthe season

manner solemnly tried in court , and suffered the

dog having been condemned in Scotland along ofgrass approach , the younge ones may withhis master ,for assisting himin avery artful be weaned atanearlier age, being seldom manner to steal sheep on many occasions . ON THE WEANING OF CALVES .

indulged with milk for more than 13 weeks. But it should never be forgotten, that the first month's good milk to a calf is of much greater importance to its future

3838. We left the calves in the court k growth and health, than at any period be Plate II., receiving the treatment most yond the 13 weeks, supported on a stinted proper for them, until the period should allowance of inferior milk, and the reason

arrive for weaning them from milk and for the generous treatment is given below , other food, and causing them to maintain wherethe functions of the calf's stomach themselves upon grass, (2288) and ( 2289. ) is explained. That period having arrived, we must now proceed to the consideration of the best 3840. There are parts of Ireland where mode of weaning them . It should not calves are brought up on butter-milk and

exceed, in the latest case, one month after gruel, after the first 8 days they have re the cows have been on grass — that is, by ceived sweet milk, and it is alleged that

the end of June ; for a calf later weaned they thrive well on that beverage. This than that period, has been too late brought is possible, but they will thrive much better into the world to be worth belonging to on sweet- milk .

the standing stock of a farm . As cows increase in milk after the grass has safely 3841. By the time all this has bappen passed through them, the latest calvesed, say by the middle of July, the pasture should have as large an allowance of new in the paddock will bave becometoo bare, milk, three times a day, as the small quan- and the whole lot of calves should then be * Forsyth's Hortensius, p. 267.

WEANING OF CALVES.

185

taken to good pasture, where they will canal so slowly as to allow it gradually to pass the three firststomachs through a compara havea fullbite;and nothing can be more by narrow channel into the fourth stomach, injurious to their future welfare than to tively which is the only one, as it were, necessary to allow them to fall away in condition im- perform the digestion required at this early age. mediately after weaning, which they will if, however, as is sometimes customary, a large assuredly and rapidly do, if not put on the quantity of milkis poured into the calf imme the best grass ; and from a loss of condition

diately afterbirth,or if atonce allowed todrink

from the pail, which it very readily learns thus occasioned, it will be very difficult freely to do, then it will swallow as much in two to recover them during the whole season . minutes as would probably require 15 minutes The best pasture for them is where the to take in by the act of sucking. The consequence white clover most abounds.

3842. Calves may be grazed amongst

is, that the narrow æsophagal passage , leading through the three first stomachs, does not admit the milk as fast as it is swallowed, and that fluid

is, from timeto time, transmitted into the small

cows, or young cattle. In their herding, rumen ,which continues to descend according to those which have been brought up and the amount collected . The rumen, however, it is in so young an animal, is not fitted for very weaned together, will be the chiefest com seen active functions, and the milk retained there, be

panions for the greater part of the season .

ing exposed to the warmth and motion of the

organ , undergoes certain chemical changes, which 3843. Calves which have been brought up at

formation of its coagulable principle the pail, and in the earliest period oftheir exis- end into inthethecheesy masses before noticed . These tence, are subject to a complaint called gasteritis, collectionsact as irritants to the parts containing or inflammation of the stomach. Its symptoms them ; inflammation is the result, and the exten

are the distension of the paunch, the inner mucous lining of which is inflamed, and it mostly contains

sion of this, with its consequences, causes death.”

a quantity of dirty, yellow, offensive fluid, and

3845. The obvious remedy is prevention. Give frequently whitishmatteroften larger than a person's fist, theyoungcalfmilk ,notless than composed of the coagulated ingredients of the thrice a -day, and in small quantities at a time,

milk, the density of which is nearly equal to that of cheese. None of the cheesy matter is found perhaps an imperial pint. Let it take time to

in the intestines, and but rarely in any ofthe drink it,andas the quantityshould be small,it stomachs except the first orpaunch. Loathing should be the richer,that is the pure milk . As of the food ensues, and at last totalsuspension thestomach increases in size the quantityof food should be increased ; and in time other kinds of of the appetite. The animal prefers to stand, and food should be added to the necessarily limited when it lies down, it is on its right side, the left quantity of milk the calf gets to drink as it eructa and teeth of the being swelled . Grating tions ensue. The stools are mostly thin, of a attains size and age.* whey-like appearance , and small in quantity. The animal shows uneasiness by looking round 3846. Calves, after being weaned, are subject, to the left side, and kicks at the belly with the towards the end of summer, to a disease com hind legs. A stupor at last comes on the animal monly called the joint-fellon , which, when oxen standing with its head in a corner , or pushing take it upon the loins, is named the chine-fellon. It is nothing else than acute rheumatism, ending with it against the wall . 3844. The remedial measures will be best un-

in a resolution to low fever; and so severe is it at times upon calves, that they cannot bear to be

derstood after hearing the rationale of the dis-

moved when lying stretched out all their length

ease as explained by Mr Barlow , veterinary sur-

upon the ground . Were sheds erected in the

geon in the Veterinary College of Edinburgh.“ In the adult ruminant," he observes, “ the to prepare the coarser particles of vegetable food

fields for cattle to retire into, whenever a dash of rain comes in the evening of a cold day, even in summer, this disease would perhaps never occur. Its treatment is removal to the courts and sheds

for the action of the fourth or true digestive

of the steading amongst straw, bleeding, mode

first three stomachs are of great size, and serve

stomach. The young calf, however, is not physi- rate purging, with fomentation, and embrocations cally fitted for living on solid food ; but, like the of liquid blister, forcibly and long rubbed in , on

youngof other mammalia ,is naturally nourished the swelled joints. by milk , a fluid which needs not the action of the 3847. Another effect of the same febrile affec first three stomachs to render it fit for digestion and absorption . In the calf, at the birth , conse- tion in calves in autumn is the quarter ill or evil. quently, and for some time afterwards, these “ Its characteristic symptoms are general dis three first or preparatory stomachs are infinitely turbance of the circulation , and feeble, rapid smaller in proportion to the fourth, than they pulse, weakness, prostration of strength ; deter are in more advanced life, being, in fact, as yet mination of blood to particular, but in different but rudimentary organs. The calf is also natu- instances and epidemics, very different, parts ; rally adapted for taking in its foodly sucking, a producing pain, and manifesting a tendency to process by which the milk enters the alimentary inflammation, but of a degenerate kind, so that

* North British Agriculturist for 2d July 1849.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

186

the very texture of the tissue becomes disor- lost a calf from this disease. The quantity given ganised. The progress of the disease is often rapid ,and the result very fatal. In some cases the lungs or heart are attacked , in others the

depends on the wetness or dryness of the season, and the strength of the calves. The drier the

season, and the stronger the calves, the quantity

liver, bowels, or even some external part of the is the greater. From 1 lb. to2 lb. a-day to each body . ” Its immediate cause is plethora, or ful- calf, as it increases in size, will suffice . ness of blood in the system , which shows its effects in this manner: — “ When the supply of food is greater than the exigencies of the system ON THE PASTURING OF FARM- HORSES require," as Professor Dick observes, “ an ani mal usually becomes fat, but still may be toler SUMMER.

IN

ably healthy. When, however, a sudden change is made from poor to rich feeding, not fatness but

formed than the system can easilydispose of, and it becomes oppressed. The effect is often witnessed in cattle and sheep,which, after indulging fora time in luxuriant pasture, take what is

3849. From the time of the sowing of the oat seed until the completion ofthe turnip seed, the horses may be said to have enjoyed no rest ; and , in the long hours of labour in a period ofnot less than

called a shot of blood . All at once they become very ill ; some part of the body swells, becomes

14 or 15 weeks, the best food that can be

plethora may be the consequence ; more blood is

puffy, as if containing air, and in two or three devised to support them in strength and hours theanimal is dead,from the quarter-evil condition will not have prevented them

already described . Upon dissection , a large falling off in condition . The time, how quantity of black and decomposed blood is found in the cellular membrane, which during life was distended ."** This disease is of frequent occur .

ever, has now arrived when compara tive leisure awaits them for a while - to

rence on farms where fine stockare bred, and enjoy for several weeks to come the food most congenial to their taste -- the palatable green food and the much-loved pasture.

from the above description of its nature, there is no wonder that the best calves first fall victims to it. As its name implies, the disease attacks

the hind -quarter, and its effects are as sudden as described .

Since its cause is known, calves

3850. The usual treatment of farm

should not be put at once on strong rank foggage horses in summer is to make them lie out or aftermath - which is the renewed growth of in the pasture -field all night, and give

grass after it hadbeen cut forhay or forage- them cut grass between the yokings in same reason, should they,when in low condition, the stable. Forage is then supplied them,

from a comparatively bare pasture; nor, for the

be put on rank foggage; the transition, both as

because the time is too short to fill them

regards the pasture and the state of the calves, selves with grass on pasture ; but where should be gradual. the first yoking is over by 9 or 10 o'clock 3848. As a preventive, some farmers introduce in the forenoon, as on the Borders, the a seton into the dewlap of all their calves before horses are put on pasture until the after putting them on foggage in autumn. The use of noon yoking at 1 o'clock ; which plan the seton is to produce counter-irritation . The

saves the trouble of cutting and reserving passed under a portion of the skin by a seton grass for them. The grass thus allotted to needle ; the ends may be tied together, and the the horses is cut by the ploughmen, who cord may be moved every other day from side to each take the duty for a week by turns,

seton consists of a piece

tape or soft cord

side,being previously lubricatedwith oilofturpen- and he quits the field-labour in time to cut tineorblister-plaster, and in this way the amount the requisite quantity and cart it to the of irritation may be regulated. As to the cure, I stable ; and the man who works the mare believe every one is unavailing after the disease has been observed to exist ; but as a remedial

measure applied by anticipation, large blood

that has a foal is a very proper one to do this work. It is no part of his duty to

letting with purging of repeated doses will reduce supply the horses' racks in the stable with the plethoric tendency of the animal system , grass, except those of his own. The load

Perhapsa cribful ofhay,withsomesalt,placed of grass is usually emptied on the ground in a foggage field, would not be a bad alterative for calves to resort to at times, in order to modify

near the stable door, which is a dirty and

the effects of the succulenceof the rank after. slovenly practice. No doubt, it is better math. But the best pretentive is the administra- for the grass to keep it fresh in the open tion of oilcake. Mr John Wilson, Edington air than to put it into a house ; but it might

Mains, Berwickshire, gives hiscalves oilcake be emptied into a crib in a convenient towards the middle and latter end of the grazing season ,

and before they are puton aftermath, and shady place near the stable, or, what is

since he has followed this practice he has never

best of all, allowed to remain in the cart

* Dick's Manual of Veterinary Science, p. 11 and 88 .

PASTURING FARM -HORSES.

187

that brought it, out of which the men can bave grass in summer, as the best course as easily take it as from any other place of physic he can bave ; but it is much or receptacle. more convenient to give him cut grass in a court or hammel than to send him to

3851. The stable is the usual place pasture, in which he will be with con where horses receive their forage; but a siderable difficulty caught when wanted better place, in every respect, for room , when in company with young horses ; air, and freedom , is the hammels M, and if he is with the work -horses, be Plate II., and Plate I., which are now un- will feel lonely when they leave him dur occupied and cleared out of the manure , ing the day, and will hang about the gate

each hammel accommodating a pair of of the field in their absence. horses. Forage may here not only be given 3856. It is surprising with what con to horses between the yokings,but at night, if desired ; and little straw is requiredfor stancy a work -horse will eat at pasture.

litter, as the part only under the roof is His stomach being very small in propor occupied as thenight apartment, although tion to the bulk of his body, the food re more litter will be required in the hammels quires to be well masticated before it is

when the horses are fed on cut grass than swallowed ; and as long as that process is proceeded with while the grass is cropped, no large quantity can pass into the sto 3852. From 3 to 3} months, from the mach at a time. The horse, like all ber

in the stable, when on corn and hay.

beginning of June to the middle of October, bivorous animals, grazes with a progressive at night on pasture. Work -horses suffer fore he crops it. His mobile lips seize is as longtime as farm - horses should lie out motion onwards, and smells the grass be

much from chilly nights, and the cold then lays the foundation of diseases, such as rheumatism , costiveness, stiffness of the limbs. The aftermath may be good pasture after the middle of October for the interval

and gather the stem and leaves of the grass, which the incisors in both jaws bite through with the assistance of a lateral twitch of the head. When the grass is rank he crops the upper part of it first, and

of work at noon, and the second cutting when short, bites very close to the ground. of clover will last long enough for suppers until it is time to betake to the stable 3857. Horses should not graze amongst altogether. sheep, as both bite close to the ground ;

but horses, particularly work ones, often 3853. Young horses are put to pas- injure the sheep that come in their way,

ture during the day as soon as they can either by a sly kick, or by seizing the wool obtain a bite, and should be brought, at with their teeth. night, into their hammels until the grass has passed completely through them; after 3858. During the hard work of the seed-time, horses are, in some seasons more than in which they should lie out all night in a farm others - the wet and warm seasons--subject to field which offers them the protection of a have galled shoulders and backs, which, when shed . The work -horses don't care for a not attended to, are apt to produce trouble shed on pasture, being too much occupied somesores. The skin not only becomes abraded with eating all night to mind it. But in by the collar and saddle, but the flesh irritated up, an the irritation is keptdifficult andinflamed; and iftakes rainy weather they should be kept in the ichorous place, which is discharge hammel, on cut grass, rather than be ex heal without making the horse rest from work. posed to the rain in the field all the night, When a saddle gall is observed, the harness should be looked to, and the pressing points as also on a rainy Sunday. which have caused the sore should be relieved. 3854. A good watering -pool is essential A lotion should then be used to anoint the bruised parts every night, after they have been to every pasture -field occupied by horses washed with warm soap and water, and dried

lotion is made in this clothhot. The with a :softTake of every age, which are as fond as cattle manner lime shells of the bulk of 2

are to stand in the water in the midst of a

and pour upon them 2 quarts of cold pool, to avoid the torment of flies, though quarts, water ; and after they have intimately com

they drink from a trough quite willingly. 3855. The farmer's saddle -horse should

bined, pour off the liquid into a dish. Add to the liquid 5 wine-glassfuls of linseed oil, and 2 ounces of sugar of lead, dissolved in a little water.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

188

Stir them together, and then bottle and cork up the lotion for use.

After the bruises have been

colour clear yellowish -brown: thorax inclining to grey ; abdomen rust-brown with a tinge of yel

washed in the evenings, anoint them with this low; wings whitish ; and legs yellowish. The liquid with a feather until the wounds heal.

antennæ are inserted in the cavity of the face .

The eyes are equally distant in both sexes ;

3859. Work -horses, when on grass,are subject mouth either entirely wanting, or consisting to few distempers, the principal beingannoyance from a host of insects ; and amongst these the common Horse-fly or Cleg, and the Bot- fly, are

merely of an indistinct line oropening.

This

insect takes no nourishment of any kind ; in fact,

the alimentary canal has no opening at its an terior extremity. It flies in company, producing derived from the Danish klaeg. Hæmatopota plu a humming sound. “ The female having selected vialis, represented in fig . 318, is so well known, the horse to which her treasure is to be intrust that a particular de- ed,” says Mr Duncan, “ she continues to hover Fig. 318. scription of it seems about for a short time till the egg be propelled

the most troublesome.

The cleg or gleg, a term

unnecessary. It may through the oviduct, and placed in the pincers at

besaid generallyof the extremity ofthe anal tube. Thus prepared,she the tribeof Tabani- makes a suddendescent upon the horse -- her body dæ, of which this is carried nearly in a perpendicular direction, and one, that they ap-

pear in June, and come into full force They in autumn. THE CLEG OR GLEGHÆMA TOPOTA PLUVIALIS .

the ovipositor curved forwards -- and deposits the egg upon a hair, to which it instantly adheres by means of a glutinous matter secreted along with

are more plentiful in

it. This process,which is performed with such expedition that the fly can scarcely be said to

the southernthan in

alight on the horse, is repeated at intervals till

the northern parts of thewhole of the mature eggs are discharged .” . the country. They These eggs,which are very numerous, 400 or 500 delight in warm and sultry weather; are most being sometimes placed on a singlé horse, are active on the wing during the day, and therefore somewhat pouch -shaped, and chagreened with most troublesome to horses and cattle when they transverse and longitudinal striæ ,as seen at b.

stand most in need of repose. Theyareparticu- Underthe guidance of an instinctwhich cannot larly excited and eager for blood when the atmo- be sufficiently admired, the fly almost invariably

sphere is in a warm and humid state, such asit attaches her eggs to some partof the fore-quar usually is after a thunder shower ; and it is this cir-

ter of the horse, the inside of the knee and the

cumstance which has obtained thespecific nameof shoulder being the spots most commonly selected, pluvialis for the cleg. A remarkable fact in reference to this species is, that the males are

so as to be within the reach of his mouth ; for he is himself to be made the unconscious instrument

seldom seen, their numbers seeming to be remark- of conveying them into his stomach, wherealone

be brought to maturity,the tempera they can horse's ably few in proportionto those of the other sex; ture stomach being high

and they appear to subsist entirely on the juices

of a

as

as 102

of flowers, and, in conformity to their innoxious

Fahrenheit.

habits, the organs of the mouth are much less

the mouth, the eggs are not necessarily lost, for

developed than in the female.

horses are in the habit of licking each other, and a horse free from bots may thus receive them

3860. Another pest to the horse is the Great Spotted Horse-bot, Gasterophilus Equi, seen at

from another.

Even when beyond the reach of

“ When the eggs are mature, "

continues Mr Duncan, “ it would seem that the

their appearance very soonafter larvæaremake a, fig. 319. It is about7 linesinlength; general they touched by the tongue, the warmth and Fig. 319.

themoisture both contributing to their immediate development. Indeed, if thelarvæ were not dis closedbefore reaching thestomach, orvery shortly after, the eggs would very soon pass into the alimentary canal. The larvæ fix themselves by hooks to the inner tissue of the stomach, where

they remain in security , uninjured by the power ful action of the gastric juice, and enjoying the

warmth of a tropical climate. " A small group of these larvæ adhering to the coat of the stomach are represented at c. Their colour is pale reddish yellow . Their only food seems to be the huinour secreted by the internal membrane ofthe stomach , or it may be the chyme, the latter undergoing a

farther elaboration to adapt it to their system . Bots take up their quarters in the stomach in the

end of summer or autumn, and pass the whole winter and spring months there, without under going any change, save gradually enlarging and

advancing to maturity. When that is complete, b THE HORSE - BOT -- GASTEROPHILUS EQUI,

they cease to retain their hold, pass into the in

testinalcanal, and are ejected by the anus.

On

PASTURING FARM -HORSES.

189

account of the many ordeals which this insect has

land, is not so great a pest there as to horses on

to pass in its transformation , perhaps not l in 100

the Continent.

of the eggs ever arrive at the perfect state of fly. 3861. The Red -tailed Horse -bot, Gasterophilus

3864. Another fly, the Stemoxys calcitrans, is in sizeand markingsnot unlike the common house

hæmorrhoidalis, though only half the size of the Ay, Musca domestica. This insect attacks various preceding, is nevertheless a greater torment to

animals, as well as man himself, and becomes

the horse. The female parent fly deposits her

very troublesome in certain localities. It attacks

eggs on the lips of the horse; and this operation

the legs, and its punctures are attended with

isattended with so much pain, that no sooner great pain, especially in damp moist weather.f does it make him aware of the presence of the 3865. Another annoyance to horses is the fly, than he tosses his head and gallops off to a different part of the field ; or, if he has the oppor- forest- fly, Hippobosca equina, fig. 321 ; its an tennæ consist of a single tunity, betakes himself to the water, where his Fig. 321 . articulation , tubercular tormentor generally leaves him, having a peculiar Indeed all the tribe of

with 3 setæ at the extre

gad - flies have ; and, to avoid them , it is not un common to see numbers of cattle lying on the sea

mity. “ This insect,” says Mr Duncan, “ is generally

dislike to that element.

shore until the approach of the tide alone compels

distributed throughout, but

them to retire . When this fly succeeds in fixing

it is scarce in all the nor

an egg, the horse rubs his mouth against the

thern quarters, and does not seem to become abun THE HORSE FOREST- dant till we reach the

ground or upon his fore-legs in great agitation , frequently striking out with his fore-foot, which occasionally comes in contact with the jaw, and serves but to increase his irritation . The larvæ

are taken into the stomach, and fix themselves there, exactly in the same manner as the greater bot. When they reach the intestines they remain a long time, casting anchor again in the rectum, where they cause great uneasiness to the

FLY- HIPPOBOSCA

wooded districts of the cen

EQUINA .

tral counties of England . It flies with facility, but seldom appears on the wing except during brightsunshine. June, July, and August are the months it is in force. Its attacks are principally confined to horses. It

occasions no other harm than an extreme degree of irritation , and if the flies are numerous, the rendering his movements awkward. These bots animal is apt to become unmanageable. It in should occasionally be looked for in horses that sinuates itself by a sideling crab-like motion be have been out at grass the preceding year, at the neath the hair,and anchors itself to the skin by extremity of the anus. The only speedy remedy means of its large sharply - toothed claws. It for getting quit of them is in back -raking by also runs about among the roots of the hairs with horse, causing him to kick frequently, and even

great ease, creating an insufferable titillation,

the anus.

which is still more increased by the frequent in 3862. The more rare species are the Gastero- sertion of its proboscis into the pores of the skin. philus nasalis, salutiferus, and Clarkii. Mr The places to which it prefers attaching itself

Bracey Clark was of opinion that the presence of are the under side of the belly, beneath the tail, bots in no way injured the horse, but on the contrary, by stimulating the stomach, they tend to prevent cholic, gripes, and other indigestions

and on the under side of the jaws. The insect is so flat, tough , and unyielding, that it is by no

which affect the head of the horse and produce staggers. “ The appearance of exanthemous

ever, tenacious of life. It is said that horses

means easy to kill it by pressure, and it is,more long accustomed to its attacks,become,in some

eruptions on the skin ,” he says, “ and the forma- measure, indifferent to them ; those which have tion of local abscesses, from the same cause of never experienced this plague, which is enough partial irritation , often relieve a general disorder to render some animals almost frantic, may be of the system . The mucous membranes of the saved from it, according to M. Köllar, by the

skin possess this power,when irritated, in the following application : Take of mineral earth 8 most eminent degree, and to these the larvæ of oz., and of lard 1 lb., and make them into a salve.

the Æstri are applied. Irritating the membranes Fig. 320.

Some of this salve is to be rubbed on here and

there upon the hair, and worked in with a wisp

of the stomach in other animals would excite nausea and

of straw .

vomiting ; but the horse, not

washed off with warm water, in which brown

possessing this power , his sto-

soap has been dissolved. Care must be taken that the horse does not catch cold.. This insect and its allies are neither oviparous nor viviparous.

mach is peculiarly fitted for the stimulus of such animals." *

After 24 hours the salve is to be

The egg , when fecundated, descends from the 3863. An annoying insect of ovarium into a kind of matrix, consisting of a less importance, is the Chrysops large musculo -membranous bag, expressly de A HORSE - FLY- cæcutiens, fig. 320, whichis of signed for its reception, and analogous to the CHRYSOPS CÆCU- a bright colour, and though fre- uterus of mammiferous animals. The egg is here TIENS . quent in some parts of Eng. hatched ; and the larva passes its life and is con

* Clark's Essay on Bots, p. 40. + Quarterly Journal of Agrioulture,vol. x. p. 529-46. # Kollar's Treatise on Insects injurious to Gardeners, Foresters, and Farmers , Misses J. and M. Loudon's translation .

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

190

verted into a pupa in the same receptacle. When profitable and less wasteful mode of using the pupa iscompletely formed, it isthen extruded it than pasturing. Although the objec from the bodyof the mother in theformof a soft, tions contain much truth, they are thus white , oviform body. It soon changes its colour

to brown,thentoblack; and at the sametimethe expressed too generally to be true in all

skin becomes hard and strong,so much so as almost

cases. It is evidently impracticable to use

to resist the edgeof a knife. Out ofthis body mountain grass by soiling. Much cattle the insect makes its exit by a kind of lid . " and sheep must, therefore, be allowed

3866. Anthomyia meteorica is often trouble

to pasture ; and a great part of the summer

some to horses, by collecting in clouds round their headsin warm weather, andflitting about with a kind of jerking flight, and occasionally alighting on the lips and nostrils of the animal,

would elapse before the old grass of the low country would be fit for the operation of the scythe. What would become of the stock in the mean time ?

to his no small annoyance .*

3867. It is amusing to hear the cool manner 3870. The other grasses are the culti in which M. Boussingault speaks of permitting vated kinds, such as clover and ryegrass, the public sale of horse - flesh. " The flesh of and those on irrigated meadows. It is quite

thehorse,” hesays,“ is not generally used, or at possible to cut grass from water meadows are countries in which itisexposed for saleand by the time the Swedish turnips are cou commonly eaten. At Paris, indeed ,in times of sumed by the beginning of June, but scarcity, horse -flesh has been consumed in quantity. During the Revolution, a knacker ex

water meadows cannot be formed every where. The cultivated grasses are not

posed publicly for sale, in the Place de Grève, joints from the horses which he had killed, and the sale continued for three years without any

fit to cut by that time except, perhaps, in the neighbourhood of large towns, and a ill effect. In 1811 , a scarcity obliged the Pa- second cutting from themis not to be de risians to haverecourse tothesame kindof food; pended upon every season. What, again,

and is said, indeed, that the traffic in horse - flesh as an article of human sustenance is still con tinued to a very considerable extent in the French metropolis. At the present moment, a distin-

is to become of the stock in the mean time ?

3871. Other plants than clover and rye grass would requre to be cultivated to Duchatelet,has even proposed to legalise the sale support the stock until that period. Lu of horse - flesh as food forman . " + cerne and Italian ryegrass might be cul 3868. Nearer home a writer asserts, “ It is tivated for the purpose, but lucerne cannot generally supposed that when horses die, or are be generally cultivated in Scotland ; and guished writer on medical police, M. Pavent

killed, the carcasses are converted into food for before Italian ryegrass could be cultivated animals cats, or fortowild dogs, such is not thatmenageries, to statein the have grieve but we

everywhere, a different system of bus always the case; some portion of this food finds bandry would have to be adopted — the its way into the shops and is consumed ,when disguised, as sausages, the horse-flesh tending to give the peculiar redness observable in the Adjoining to the largest licensed sausages.

fourcourse shift - a system which could not be everywhere practised without the sup port of much more manure than most farms command. Plants that will produce both

horse -slaughter-house inthe city,is the principal late and early forage, in a late climate, sausage manufac tory in London, in Sharp's Alley, Smithfield . At the same spot where your olfactory nerves are disgusted with the stench of the knacker's yard, you may distinctly hear the noise of the sausage-machine, performing its work of amalgamation and deception.” #

are not easily found . 3872. In regard to the comparative

extent of ground required for soiling and pasturage, ithas been alleged to be 3 to 1 in

favour of soiling. For example, 33 head ON THE SOILING OF STOCK ON FORAGE

of cattle were soiled from 20th May to

the 1st of October 1815, on 17+ English acres, which would have required 50 acres 3869. Objections have been urged to pasture them . I would say, that any PLANTS.

against pasturing grass by any species 33 head of cattle that could be maintained of stock, inasmuch as soiling is a more on 173 acres of cutting grass, would as 身*

Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xi. p. 51-57 . # Inquiry intothe present state of Smithfield Cattle Market, p. 10. + Boussingault's Rural Economy - Law's translation, p. 629.

$ Sinclair's Code of Agriculture, p. 424, and Note, 354, p. 73.

SOILING STOCK ON FORAGE PLANTS .

191

easily be maintained on the same sort of at one time for want of cutting grass, the land on 33 acres of pasture — 1 acre of second cutting having entirely failed that

pasture being quite sufficient to maintain year, and the other forwant of straw for an ordinary -sized ox from May to October. litter. The straw would have been more So the proportion is reduced to 2 to 1 , economised in the stable than in the ham which I believe is near the truth.

3873. To cut grass, however, for all the cattle on a large farm , to lead it tothe steading, and to supply them with sufficient litter in summer, I consider an imprac-

mels ; but the stable at night, in summer,

even with open windows, ventilators, and no hay-loft, is insufferable ; and I am sure that my stables were more comfortably constructed for summer and winter use, than most in the country. The horses re

ticable thing, were it for nd other rea- quired much more straw to keep them dry son than that the crop of grain on most in the hammel, on cut grass ,than on straw farms cannot afford sufficient straw to and corn in the stable in winter.

litter stock the whole year ; and if the

sheep are included in the soiling system , adequate accommodation could not be provided them. The only way to treat them would be to soil them upon the bare land within burdles, as is common in many parts of England ; but such a practice would not suit the variable and wet part of

3875. Taking every untoward circum stance into consideration, they lead to the conviction that soiling on grass, on a large scale, is impracticable ; and until early growth, as well as a late after math and plenty of straw , are assured to the farmer every year, general soiling

the climate of Scotland. The objection to cannot be established, even on a moderate grazing, in that the manure of the animals is entirely lost, is not a valid one, because land constantly grazed will support stock for an indefinite length of time; and it

scale. On a small scale soiling might be practised with advantage, and it behoves every small farmer to make his grass go as far as possible.

would not do that, if the ground did not actually receive nourishment in lieu of the

3876. Where winter tares, crimson

grass taken from it. Dissipation of the dung dropped on pasture cannot be great, since no fermentation is ever observed in it. In dry weather the water is soon evaporated outof it, and in rainy weather the water dissolves it among the roots of the

clover, lucerne, or sainfoin, and at least two cuttings of red clover, can be cer tainly secured,as in the south of England they may be, in most seasons, soiling of cattle and horses may be conducted ,not without trouble, for the cutting of green

grass, converting itinto a state of good forageand carrying it to the steading is at liquid manure . The greatest waste of tended with muchlabour, but with advan dung is from the consumption of it by in- tage to the manure heap, as well to fatten sects, and yet these leave their bodies in ing cattle as work -horses; but the system

the ground in return when they die. The cannot be systematically carried on in objection is thus purely theoretical. Cut Scotland, for want of a regular supply of grass and carry it off every year, and see green forage. Winter taresrarely survive how long time will elapse ere it can no the winter with a sufficiency of plants to

longer be cutuntilmanure be again applied make a crop. Lucerne is too delicate, and of itself show that the dung dropped on been proposed, and it withstands the to the ground. Does not this circumstance so is the crimson clover. Winter rye has

pasture is not entirely lost; and that the winter very well, and would perhaps be

land derives an advantage from pastur- fit to cut in May ; but stock are not fond age that it can receive in no other way, of the herbage of the cereal plants. The such as the fresh state of the urine dis-

Italian ryegrass makes an earlier start, in

charged upon and absorbed by it.

spring, than any forage plant we have;

3874. I have often thought that the work - horses might be supported in the steading, night and day, upon cut grass. I have tried the experimentmyself twice, in the hammels, and failed in both cases ;

and, insome situations, it may be cut by the end of May, and the first cutting would continue until the red clover was ready in June. In the former part of the year it might supply green forage, and also later, with due attention for its pro

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

192

duction. In Scotland, the difficulty of b, is made either curved , to suit the sweep soiling commences in August, when the second cutting of red clover fails ; and, even when it does not entirely fail, the crop is too light to give an adequate cutting for a length of time. The Italian ryegrass should, therefore, come in also at that season, in case of the failure of the red clover ; but it cannot last during the autumn when the cold nights commence in

of the instrument by the arms round the body, as in the figure, or straight - and the suitableness of both for work you shall learn when we come to consider harvest work. The curved sned is usually made of willow, which, being so shaped in hot water, retains its shape on becoming cold. Another form of sned is that of the cradle, which consists of two pieces of wood, one

September, and certainly cannot be de- inserted into the other. Bent sneds cost pended on until the turnips are ready. from 1s. 3d . to Is. 6d. each, straight ones Tares might come in at this season, but 1s. each . The straight are made of any they grow so fast then that portions sown sort of wood ; I have seen good ones of at successive periods run their courses larch. to seed faster than they can be con sumed ; and towards the latter end of the 3878. Scythes are of various kinds :

autumn they are unfitted as a forage plant. Perhaps the maize, or Indian corn, as it is more commonly called, might be sown at such a season , according to its early or late nature, as to afford a good cutting of herbage late in autumn, until the turnips are ready for use. Although the maize

the common kind keeps its edge but a short time, and in the long run is, I believe, more expensive than the patent kind, which consists of a steel plate with two flat rods of iron, riveted on one of its edges, and which plate will continue to cut keenly until it iswom to the back. The

may be regarded asa cereal plant, its berb- length of the blade of scythes varies from age is more palatable to stock than that 28 inches to 46 inches, and the price of the of other grain plants, on account of the common kind varies between these lengths large proportion of saccharine matter it from 2s. 4d. to 3s. 3d. each,and the patent contains.

from 38. 2d. to 4s. 8d. each. There are, besides these, other kinds termed crown ,

.3877. Grass is cut with the common labelled, and extra -warranted scythes. scythe, Fig. 322. which

18

3879. The blade of a scythe is mounted

well in this manner : - the sned is furnished known an with an iron ring at the end a, fig. 322, to

SO

imple- which the blade is attached ; the projecting ment, that

stud at the but- end of the blade is embed

a particu- ded Alush into the sned, by taking away a lar

de- portion of the wood ; and the ring is then

scription slipped over it, and held tight in its posi of it seems tion by an iron wedge, driven between the

unneces- ring and the sned . The peculiar position sary. The which the blade bears to the sned is de

choice of termined by setting off the length of the scythes, blade a c, along the sned from a to d , and the which is the place for the handle of the manner of right band, and the same length from d

mounting to c fixes the point of the scythe, so that a dc formsan equilateral triangle ; the blade subjects standing at an angle of 60° with the sned . them, are

c worth at- Theory would advise the placing of the tending planeof the blade parallel with the ground, f

to .

The when the scythe is held for cutting ; but

handle, or practice requires the cutting edge to be a sned THE PATENT SCYTHE WITH BENT SNED,

or

little elevated from the ground, and above

sneath, the back of the blade which sweeps along fig. 322, a the surface of the ground ; and the reason

-

SOILING STOCK ON FORAGE PLANTS

for keeping the edge elevated is, that it is

193

apt to run into the ground when swung parallel with it, and the scythe is worked with greater labour, as the stems of the plants are cut by the blade at right angles against them ; whereas, on the edge being

3882. On using the scythe to cut a forage crop with the greatest ease to the workman, a narrow swathe should be taken at each stroke of the scythe, as also a short sweep. To meet both these condi tions, the blade of the scythe should be

set upwards, it cuts the stems easily in an

short.

oblique direction. The blade is still fur ther secured in its position by the grass3883. Green forage should always, if nail f, which is hooked by one end into a possible, be cut in a dry state, and should holein the blade, and nailed through an not be loug cut before being used , nor lie

eye by the other end to the sned ; the great long in thefield before it iscarried home. use of this nail being to prevent the cut When obliged to be cut in a damp state , it plants becoming entangled between the may lie a while in the gwathe to let the Fig. 323.

bladeand the sned. The left- water evaporate, which itwill do in warm hand handle e is placed to suit weather even in a damp day. the convenience of the work man , the usual distance from

3884. Green forage is given to cattle

the right hand one being the and horses in the natural state, or mixed

length of his arm from the with straw or hay . When in a very damp

elbow to the points of the state , a mixture ofeither will tend to pre fingers.

vent fermentation in the green food . When hay and forage are mixed together in equal

3880. Scythes are sharped with strickles and stones. The strickles, fig .323,are made of fine sand embedded in an ad-

parts, the mixture makes an excellent fodder for fattening cattle. Such a mix ture is much used in Holland for horses, whether employed in the field or on the

hesive medium , spread on the road . surface of a piece of square or flat wood, 15 inches long, hav3885. The clover crop growing closely

ing a bandle, and cost 6d. together prevents the growth of weeds They are used to amongst it, an occasional field thistle only,

each .

smoothen the edge after the or broad - leaved dock, maintaining its ex

stone, and serve of them- istence. But one of that class of parasiti A SCYTHE STRICKLE .

selves, for a time, to keep the cal pests, the dodders, sometimes annoys edge keen ; and are always the crop to a considerable extent.

The

carried at the upper end of the sned atb, species which annoys the clover has been fig. 322, by a T -headed nail a, and spike named the Cuscuta Trifolii, the clover dodder ; and its nature and habits are

b, fig. 323.

precisely the same as that which attacks 3881. Scythe-stones, fig. 324, are 14 or the flax plant, as already described in

15 inches long, tapering in shape , and of sufficient thickness to fill the grasp of the hand. They are either of a round form , a , or

(3117.) Professor Henslow well describes the clover dodder 'as resembling fine closely -tangled wet catgut.” Of the ef fects of the Orobanche major and minor, the greater and less broom -rape ,another parasitical pest to the clover in Flanders, square, b, and are Dr Radcliffe says, “ The moment it estab

Fig. 324.

66

composed of the same lishes itself at the root, the stem and leaf sort of sandstone as of the clover, deprived of their circulating grindstones are, and juices, fade intoa sickly hue, which the cost 4d. each . They farmer recognises, and,with true Flemish

are only occasionally industry, roots up, and destroys the latent b SCYTHE STONES , VOL. II .

used at the landings, enemy. If this be done in time, and with to set a new edge on great care, the crop is saved ; if not, the the blade.

infected soil refuses to yield clover again N

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

194

for many years." * And such weeding our common culture ,we shall fail — it is to be requires very great care; for, if a part of a accounted for in the fine preparation, and extra Flemishhusbandry.

stein or one seed is left in the ground, the ordinarycleanlinessofthe The ground is repeatedly ploughed , pest will rise again, and renew its de- manured ; no weed structive attack .

and well

suffered to exist, and the

clover plant can tiller uninterruptedly , and pos sess itself of the entire surface.” I

3886. The crop of clover varies much, 3889. It is a well -ascertained fact in hus according to the nature of the season. In bandry, thatcultivatedon when the thesameground, clover plant has itbeen not a wet warm one it is very bulky; in a frequently

dry one much lighter, but more nutritious. only fails toproduce as heavy a crop as it did A crop of clover is a great oneif it yield before,but it ceases to appear. Whenafailure 300 stones of bay, of 22 lb. each, equal to

takes place,theland issaid to be clover-sick ,

2 tons 18 cwt. 104 lb. the acre ; and as and explanations on scientific principles have

Dr R. D. Thomson states, that 100 ofhay

been evidently given of the ;8 butthethekind failure connexion with has no phenomenon or

is equivalent to 387} of grass,+ it follows quantityofmanure employed, since it most sen thatsuch a crop of clover should weigh 8 sibly occursin the neighbourhood oflarge towns, tons, 16 cwt. 88 lb. the acre . The second

where the four-course rotation is followed, where

manured with extraneous land is addition matters farmyard dung, and cutting is seldom as heavy as the first, the in heavily tothe

though in some seasons it is, and even where bone-dust is but scantily applied as a heavier; but if we assume the two cuttings manure. The crop has been recovered in some

as in the neighbourhood of Dundee, localities, to yield 16 tons, the quantity will not be by extending the members ofthe rotation of some seasons a third cutting is obtained; cropping, and making the repetition of the clover under the mark in most seasons. But in

frequent along with thesame kind and quan and when that is realised , it is very nutri- less tity of manures as were formerly employed . tions, though not so bulky as either of its

predecessors. It is rare that three abun-

3890. Mr Keene, in his pamphlet on the Forty

dant crops of clover are obtained, and still Days’Maize, has this observation onthe failure of the crimson clover in England : - " The reason , ”

more rare that they all fail.

he says, “ for its succeeding so rarelyin Eng land is, that the cleansed seed only is soun ;

3887. Clover will thrive in every kind whereas I sow it with the rough pellicle as of soil, and hence the general usefulness of gathered. This pellicle seems to act as a protec tion to the young plant till it gets strength . The

theplant; but its favourite soil is a deep clean seed sometimesrises as wellas the rough, well-limed clay loam .

but it invariably drops off in strength , and very often the whole disappears as completely as

3888. “ In the management of the clover crop,” though none had been put into the ground; says Dr Radcliffe, “ the Flemings are most suc- whereas the same seed , not cleansed, sown along cessful, especially in the division from Waereghem to Courtrai; indeed, upon the cultivation of this plant hinges apparently the whole of the farmers' prosperity ; it is here and everywhere, except where vetches are sown , the summer support of all his stock . Here are very few pastures.

side, has resisted the cold temperature of the soil , and turned out vigorous plants." || The rea sons assigned by the writer may not account for the failure, but the fact that rough seeds never failed to grow is valuable, and may lead to the adoption of the practice of sowing the red

The clover, cut and carried to well-littered stalls, becomes an abundant source of manure of twó descriptions, and thus the cattle are made profitably subservient to the production of their own

clover in its rough capsule, and of thereby sav ing the troublesome process of depriving it of its husk. The hint is worthy of a trial by all cultivators, but especially by those who raise

nourishment. The luxuriance of the clover is

clover seed .

surprising, but doubly so when you inquire the crop, we cannot be secure of a good one from

3891. In regard to the value of green food to stock , Boussingault observes, that “ breeders

less than 17} lb. to the statute acre; but in Flanders, the usual quantity is 61 lb. to the acre. Can it proceed from the reduced quantity of seed? Whence, then,the superiority of the crop? No — for if even by the reduced quantity upon

have long suspected that green fodder is more nutritious than dry ; that grass, clover, & c., lose nutritious matter by beingmadeinto hay. That the thing is so in fact appears to have been de monstrated by a skilful agriculturist, M. Perrault

In Ireland, for a soiling

quantity of seed sown.

# Radcliffe's Agriculture of Flanders, p. 61 .

+ Thomson'sResearches in the Food of Animals, p. 71. Radcliffe's Agriculture of Flanders, p. 59. $ Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition , p. 85-8. il Facts for Farmers, p. 9.

--

-

-

1

SOILING STOCK ON FORAGE PLANTS.

de Jotemps, who found that 9 lb. of green

195

the same extent of ground will yield 600 lb., if

lucerne were quite equal in foddering sheep to the crop be mown only once during the six weeks : 3.3 lb. of the same forage made into hay; whilst he at the same time ascertained that 9 lb. of green lucerne would not, on an average, yield more than 2.02 lb. of hay. In allowing each sheep 3.3 lb. of lucerne hay as its ration , consequently, it was as if the animal had had 14.34, or more than 14 } lb. of the green vegetable for its

this has been positively demonstrated by a com parative experiment expressly directed to this subject. This is one of the main causes which render the produce of a given extent of surface so much greater when the crop is mown than when fed off, the plants not being allowed in the latter case to attain their full development. The

allowance. These practical factsare obviously of great importance: they prove beyond the shadow of doubt that the belief of agriculturists in general, as to the immense advantages of con-

question as towhether a cow yields a greater quantityofmilk when pastured or stall-fed ,leaving out of consideration the greater or less extent of ground employed in feeding her, can never be decided general

suming clover and lucerne as green meat, is well

in a

manner. The same cow

founded. Nor is this all; it is not merely the which a pasturage of goodquality, but not extra absolutely greater feeding value of the crop ordinaryrichness, will yield 10 quarts of milk a . green , than of the crop dried and made into hay. There is further, the saving of expense in making

day, may, when stall-fed, yield no more than 6 quarts, or as much as 14 quarts, according as her

the hay ; and still further, the escape of all risk

feed is scanty, or substantial and abundant. If,

from loss through bad weather during the process, by which that which was valuable fodder but a few days before, may become fit only for the

however, the pasturage be of the richest and most abundantdescription, so that the cattle are

dunghill.” * 3892. “ A comparative experiment, made at

not able to consume the whole of it, I believe that a cow will produce more milk upon it than upon the most abundant supply of green food that can be given to her in the stall. Trustworthy

Thorserg,on the relative advantagesof grazing persons assure us, that certain cows fed upon the with thetether, and stall-feeding , gives,” says

best and most milk -producing pastures of the low

Von Thäer, the following results :-Fourcows, countries, havegiven from 90 lb. to 100 lb. of stall fed, during twelve days, gave 1110 lb. of milk a -day, at the time of their greatest abund milk ; extent of land required,4344 square yards; quantity consumed, 6144 lb. of clover ; which

ance ; and I am not acquainted with any positive instance of stall -fed cows giving more than

gives for one cow a -day, 23} lb. of milk ; 451 60 lb. in the same time.” + These observations square fathoms; 904 square yards; 128 lb. of M. Boussingault and Von Thäer are valuable, clover. Four cows, pastured by the tether, for inasmuch as no definite data exist on kindred twelve days, gave 9503 lb. of milk ; extent of subjects in the experience of our farmers. land grazed, 3684 square yards ; which gives for one cow a -day, 1944 lb. milk ; 77 } square yards. 3894. A weevil named Apion facipes, about Therefore the stall-feeding consumed the produce

14 inch in length , with a black shiningbody, at

of 660 square yards more than the pasturage by tacks the Dutch orwhite clover plant ,Trifolium tether, and, on the otherhand, the quantity of repens ; and asthis insect is very common, the milk was greater by 1593 lb. by the stall-feed . ing. On estimating the milk that would have been yielded by the same extent of land pastured

cultivators of white clover would require to be on their guard against it.I

as stall- fed , the result would be that no particu-

3895. Slugs - Limax cinereus— devour the

lar advantage is gained by either side. The dung broad leaves of red clover, Trifolium pratense, was more economised by the stall-feeding, but the mowing and carrying of the clover were saved by the pasturage.

particularly in damp weather. 3896. The composition of the green stems of red and white clover, is as follows:

3893. “ I have never known cattle to be in Red clover .

jured by young clover mown before flowering, when it was given to them in moderation," con

tinues Von Thäer. “ But if it be given to them in very large quantities at a time, when they are very eager for green meat, or if they are allowed access to the place in which it is kept, it may undoubtedly produce indigestion, and its conse-

quence , the horen or blown ( 1381.) Besides, it

Water, Starch ,

Woody fibre, Sugar, Albumen , Extractive matter and gum Fatty matter,

76.0 14 13.9 2.1 2.0 , 3.5 0.1

White clover. 80-0 1.0 11.5

1.5 1.5 3.4

1.0

0-2 0-8

100.0

99.9

Phosphate of lime,

is most economical to mow the clover which has

put forth its flowers, because in the week during which the flowers come out, the plant increases in volume more than it has done for the five weeks

preceding . If a field of clover be mown once a fortnight during six weeks, and each crop yields 30 lb. of fodder, making 90 lb. in the whole,

3897. The composition of the ash of red and white clover, rye-grass, and Italian rye -grass seeds is as follows, and ought to have been given after ( 2684.) :

* Boussingault's Rural Economy - Law's translation, p .526 . + Thäer's Principles of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 710 and 720 — Shaw and Johnson's translation. I Quarterly Journal of Agriculture,vol. ix. p. 18.

PRACTICE

196

Clover.

SUMMER .

Red clover.

BOUSSINGAULT .

Potash ,

35.47

Soda,

0.67 32.80

Lime,

Magnesia ,

White clover.

26-70 7:07 37.09

34.00

8-03

6.34

4:45

3:34

2.17 6.50 4:01

8.40 0-40 8.40 3:33

25-72

Italian rye grass .

Rye grass. THOMSON .

SPRENGEL

WAY AND OGSTON .

12:45 3.98 9.95

2.23

0-20

2.77

0.36

5.53 3.86 2.31

12:51

0-78 6.34 2.82

3:47 7.06

8.80 5.98 4.86 4.85

16.13

64.57

59.18

100.00

100.00

100.00

98-05

100-00

Percentage of ash in the dry state, 7.70

7.48

Oxide of iron, alumina, &c., Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid, Chlorine, Silica,

3898. The clover, or trefoil, is cultivated in

9.13 *

2-27

5.89 +

6.97 €

efforton the one side, and on their walking

China. “ After the last crop of rice hasbeen out of it by themselves on the other. Should gathered in,” says Mr Fortune, “ the groundis the side from which they are putintothe immediately ploughed up and prepared to receive certain hardy green crops, such asclover, the oil water be a little steep, it is less objection

plant, and other varieties of the cabbage tribe able than having a steep slope for their The trefoil , or clover, is sown in ridges to keep exit from the water on the other side ; for it above the level of the water, which often covers

in the sheep struggling to get upon the

the valleys during the winter months. When I went to Chusan , and saw this plantculti- bank, even with assistance , when their first

vated so extensively in the fields,I was at a loss wool is loaded with water and a certain

to know the use to which it was applied,for the degree of terror affects them , their wool

are will become inevitably soiled ,and discom and those to feed, Chinesesupplied have few cattle unculti the road easily vate in posed against the earthy bank. When a the hills. inquiand On-sides, d parts of from ry,Iwas formed that the crop was cultivated almost ex

naturalrivulet is awanting, a pool should

clusively for manure. The large fresh leaves of be constructed in a large ditch, and in the trefoil are also picked , and used as a vegetable by the natives ." S

either case the banks should be covered with clean sward.

3899. The method of a part of the manufacture of scythes, is so curious that I cannot forbear

3901. The next step is to form a dam

mentioning it. “ In the manufacture of scythes, ming across the rivulet or ditch, if it have

length of the blade renders itnecessarythat not naturally a sufficient depth of water the the workman should move readily, so as to to conduct the operation of washing. It bring everyparton the anvilin quick succession is better, however, to make a pool thanto This is effected byplacing him in a seatsuspend ed by ropes from the ceiling, so that he is en-

use a naturaliy deep pool, as the water

abled, with little bodily exercise, by pressing his will flow from it quicker than the natural feet against the block which supports the anvil, current of a deep pool will. The bottom to vary his distance to any required extent." I

ON THE WASHING OF SHEEP .

of the river or ditch should be hard and

gravelly, and the water pure, or it will not answer the purpose, as a soft and muddy bottom , and dirty water, will soil instead of cleanse the wool.

A dam

3900. On the weather becoming mild, ming may consist either entirely of a turf and on the likelihood of its continuing so, wall built across the stream , though that a pool should be made in which to wash imposes considerable labour and waste of

the sheep, preparatory to their fleeces grass, or what is better, with an old door being shorn . The pool should be made in a convenient place in a natural rivulet; and the convenience consists in the banks of the rivulet shelving, so as to admit the

or two or other boarding, supported by

stobs driven into the bottom of the rivu let, to bear the boarding against the weight of water, and the chinks at the bottom

sheep being put into the water with little and sides of which are stopped with turf in * Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 390. + Thomson's Researches in the Food of Animals, p. 80.

# Journal of the Agricultural Society of England , vol. ix . p. 144. § Fortune's Wanderings in China, p. 65.

9 Babbage On the Economy ofMachinery and Manufactures, p. 27.

WASHING SHEEP.

the inside. When the water accumulates, it falls over the boarding; and in constructing the dam, the overflowing should be as great as to cause such a current in the pool as to carry away all impurities, such as earthy matter, greasy matter, small

197

sheep. They are confined in their respec tive places by hurdles, fig. 40, or pets, fig. 44. To prevent the sheep taking the water of themselves, which they are apt to do when they see others in before them, the fence should be returned along the

locks of wool, and scum, quickly. One sides of the pool as far as the men who side of the pool is occupied by the un- wash the sheep take up their stations. washed, and the opposite by the washed Fig. 325 brings out all the particulars, Fig. 325 .

8

nn

Longi

SHEEP WASHING .

where thedamming a a, by means of doorsing incessantly ; but, notwithstanding the and stobs, is seen to retain the water annoyance, they should not be dogged, but until it overflows. The net on each side rather get plenty of time upon the route, of the pool is returned far enough down which should be chosen free of dust or both sides.

The water is seen to take the

mud.

men to the proper depth of the haunches. 3903. The men who are to wash pre

3902. Everything being thus ready at pare themselves by casting their coats, the pool, the sheep are prepared forthe rolling the sleeves of their shirts up to the washing. The tups are washed first, either shoulders, and putting on old trousers the dayor the week preceding the rest of and shoes to stand in the water. Themen the flock, and the shepherd himself per- should not be barefooted, as they will not

forms the operation with an assistant,to be able to withstand the struggling of the hand each sheep to him in the water. The sheep with steadiness and firmness. The

lambs not being washed, they are tempor-

shepherd and other two ploughmen are

arily separated from their mothers, and quite sufficient to wash a largenumber of left in a court of the steading until the sheep thoroughly ; but if the stream be washing is finished, to save trouble with broad, another may be required to save them at the pool. When the flock is not very large, and the work can be done in

time in handiug the sheep from man to man . The three men are represented in

the course of three or four hours, the ewes, fig. 325, e being the shepherd, and the

boggs, and dinmonts, when these latter last man to handle the sheep, and d and c are retained on the farm , are all taken are his assistants. At least two other men to the pool in a lot. They should be are required to catch the sheep for the driven to it gently, not to create a heat on them when about to be put into the water.

washers, of whom one is seen at b. On this occasion the men receive bread and

The ewes are troublesome to drive, being cheese and ale, and also a dram ofspirits in constant search of their lambs and bleat- as a safeguard against being chilled on

198

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

standing in the water. The materials are the hand. Being satisfied that the sheep seen at h,where the dog keeps watch ; he is clean , he dips it over the head while has no occasion to work, but should be turning it to its natural position, when it present in case of an outbreak occurring. swimsashore, and gains the bank at g .

Some stimulant, as good spirits, is requisite for men who stand for hours with the lower half of their body chilled in the water, and the upper half heated by the work . If they had on long fishermen's boots they would less require the fillip.

On coming out of the water it walks feebly, its legs staggering under the weight of the dripping fleece; in a little, it frees itself from the water by making the fleece twirl like a mop. In the echelon form , in which the men stand in the water, the sheep bave the opportunity, when in its dirtiest state

3904. The washing is performed in this in the hands of the first man c , to get quit way :-While the three washers are taking of its impurities farthest down the stream , up their positions in the water,the two where they flow away at once, and do not catchers are capturing a sheep. The catching is fatiguingwork,and ,to make it easier, the fold shonld bemade as small as to contain the sheep easily. A sheep is caught,

come near the stations of the other men . The sheep being in a comparatively clean state when it reaches the second man d, the water in which it is further washed ,

and is presented as atb to the first washer c, who takes it into the water, and, allowing the wool to become saturated with it, turns the sheep over on its back, keeping

cannot much affect that which runs past the first man c ; and still less will the water in which the sheep are last washed by the shepherd e, affect that near either

up the bead, by taking a hold ofthe wool of the other two men. of the near cheek with his left hand, and the arm of the off fore-leg with the right. 3905. In this way sheep are washed in

With this hold he dips the sheep up and the Lowlands; and from two to three scores down, from and to him , rolling it over may be washed in an hour, according to from one side to the other slowly, and the size of the sheep, the activity of the causing the wool to wave backwards and washers, and the supply of water. After washing, sheep should be driven along a clean route, and be put into a clean grass

forwards, as if rubbing it against the water. These motions are easily effected, the sheep feeling light in the water. In this operation the water becomes very turbid

field having no bare earthy banks, against which they might rub themselves. They

about the sheep, and he continues it till the water clears itself, when he hands the sheep to the next washer d, who stands in the middle and higher up the stream . Whenever c gets quit of one sheep, another

should be kept perfectly clean until their fleeces are taken off. How long the fleece remains on after the washing, depends on the state of the weather, as the wool must not only be thoroughly dry, but the yolk ,

should be ready by the catchers for him which the natural oil of thewool is called, to receive into the water. The second

must return into it again ; and further, the

washer d holds and manages each sheep new wool should be risen from the skin

he receives from the first washer in the same manner, and then hands it to the shepherd e , who stands towards the margin and still a little higher up the stream ,

before the old is attempted to be taken off. Disregard to this particular will make good clipping difficult to be accomplished , and it will certainly deteriorate the ap

and is immediately ready to take another pearance of the fleece. Perhaps 8 or 10 sheep from the first man. It is the duty days may suffice to produce these effects. of the shepherd to ascertain if the skin of You need be under no apprehension of the the sheep is cleansed, and every impurity fleece falling off when the new growth removed from the wool. The position of commences, for wool will remain for years the sheep on its back is favourable for the upon the sheep's back if not clipped off, rapid descent of earthy matter from the and the sheep be free of all manner of longer part of the wool. Wherever he disease. How many years the fleece might feels a roughness upon the skin, he washes continue to grow I do not know , but I

it off with his hand, and clots upon the have seen a fleece upon the sheep'sback The belly , groins, three years old. Lord Western exhibited

wool he rubs out.

breast, and round the head, he scrubs with Anglo -merinos, at the show of the English

WASHING SHEEP .

199

Agricultural Society at Oxford in 1839, leaping from that height, the sheep go over the

andon swimming across the poolreach head, the fleeces ofwhichwereof that age, and, the dry land at the opposite side, where another when clipped, weighed I believe 20 lb.

each .

The lambs are restored to the ewes

immediately after the washing. 3906. The afternoon is generally chosen

enclosure of hurdles is ready to receive them. They are thus treated several times till they are clean. Where the edge of a lake is employed for washing sheep, stakes are driven in the water

and rails nailed to them, to form a space of water jumping

in which the sheep are swum , after by shepherds as the period of the day for fromthe jetty, andland uponthesameshore. washing sheep, but I conceive that the Thereare store-masters who prefer hand-wash

morning is a better time, inasmuch as the ingto leaping and swimming them across the fleece will bave become much drier during pool. Merely with hand -washing, and without

their backs,I cannot see how sheep inverting the day than inthe night when the sheep can be thoroughly washed , especially those which are washed in the evening, and they must

have been smeared .

feel uncomfortable in the night with a wet fleece. 3909. I have seen it somewhere stated, that

the more greasy the water becomes, in which

3907. Sheep are differently affected in sheep are washed ,the cleaner will the sheep be, the time of washing. Some disregard the and, therefore, it shouldnot be changed. I sup

plunges, and seem to enjoy them , giving toral districts, as Ihave seen nomeansused themselves up entirely to the will of the there tolet the water flow off, except where the washers; whilst others are in a state of side of a lake forms the washing pool. Theore great terror, struggling against every new tically, the opinion may be correct, as M. Ras

motion, and groaningin anticipation of pail observes, that “ when the wool iswashed, this soap, (the yolk) is dissolved, and takes thé

greater danger. Some are very expert in salts along with it. Hence it follows, that the turning their backs upwards, should the water that has been used in this process becomes, washer be off his guard and dip them

at each repetition, better adapted for the pur

too perpendicularly down, and when they pose.” Practically, however, the notion of and dirtied water washing wool better thus turn themselves quickly, they are greasy than clean will gain no converts from those who

apt to strike and scratch the barearms of have used cleanwater; besides,everyfleece has,

the washer with the hoofs of the fore- feet.

or ought to have, as much natural soap in it as

I was once amused by seeing a new hand, will wash it clean in clean water. No doubt though a stout fellow , thrown on his back soft water will wash wool better than hard ,but the airan forinordi some exposed water, when river it tocontain becomes soft, unless time, and soused under water by an old supple all

ewe turning quickly, and pushing herself nate proportion of lime or tannin ; but let the against his breast. He held on by her at state of the water be what it may in particular

is no doubtthat wool, like every first, but, on finding be could not regain bis localities,there thing else, is best washed in clean water. A feet on account of her impetuosity, he was

probability attaches to what M. Raspail atlength obliged to let go his hold. To greater states,that" it has been calculated that the grease

make the matter worse to him , he lost both obtained from the washing of wool in France his shoes in the struggle. might be sufficient to manure about 370,000 acres of ground."* In small lots of sheep, I

3908. Neither carse, dairy, nor farms in the neighbourhood of towns, support sheep, and there .

have seen thewool clipped before it was washed. The clippingon a dirty skin makes rough work,

forehave nothing to do with washing them . The but independently of this, wool washed off the washing of sheep on pastoral farms is conducted

sheep's back is deprived of its yolk, and, when

on a somewhat different manner from what has been described . A natural deep pool in a river is

dry, feels harsh, and is in an unfit state for cer tain processes of manufacture.

selected for the purpose, or, failing this, a dam ming is made in the gully of a rivulet, or a pool is

3910. A curious mode of washing sheep is

dug in the plain ground near a supply of water. practised in Würtemberg. Advantage is taken Where no river exists the edge of a lake is

to make a fall of water at a sluice in a river, by

selected . A small space is enclosed with hurdles, means of a number of spouts to convey the fig. 40, near the edge of the pool ; a narrow pas- water in small broad rills, and let them fall from sage fit to contain at most 2 sheep and 2 men in a height of 5 or 6 feet into the shallow water in breadth, is made from the hurdles to a jetty, the bed of the river. Or a pool is dug out of the which projects into the pool, and is 5 or 6 feet plain ground, and water is brought into it from above the water — and from this the sheep are a river or canal, by means of achannel which made to leap into the water one by one. On supplies the number of spouts required for use

* Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 457.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

200

in the washing of the sheep. Men hold the upon the wool, ” observes Mr Luccock , “is not sheep in different postures, in theshallow water, under the spouts, from which the water falls upon different parts of their body. The water

accurately known. Some have considered it as the superabundance of that substance which forms the filament, and which by some unknown

first falls upon the head and shoulders, thesheep process, while thepile is growing, is consolidated being held up upon its rump; it then falls upon into a transparent mass ; whileothers conclude, the belly, the sheep being placed on its back ; it perhaps more reasonably,that it is a peculiar falls upon one side and then upon the other, the

secretion, which exudes through the skin, and

sheep being placed upon either side; and lastly, by intermingling with the pile, renders it it falls upon the back , the sheep standing in the water. The washers all the time shed the wool

soft, pliable, and healthy ; affecting it much in the same way as oil does a thong of leather, when

this way and that with the bare arm , to let the

kept immersed in it and perfectly saturated. A

water reach every part of the body, and not with

very curious and interesting question has been asked respecting the mode in which the wool imbib -s the yolk , whether by means of the root alone, or also by the pores, which it is supposed may be scattered through the whole length of

the hand, in case its manipulation should break the wool . The sheep are first rubbed with soap in a trough in which they are made to stand and the cost of the entire process is about 1d.

a -head. * I would apprehend that the constant beating inflicted by the fall of the water is any .

the hairI .

thing but serviceable to the sheep.

3914. The medium quantity of yolk in a Hereford, Shropshire, or Sussex sheep,” says Mr

3911. An interesting topic of investigation is

Youatt, “ is about half the fleece ; and this is

the ascertaining the quality of that substance which is most commonly found intimately mingled with the pile of our fleeces, which, on account of

the customary allowance to the wool-buyer, if the fleece has been sold without washing. More yolk is found on the breast and neck of a sheep

its yellowness and consistency, its egg-like ap- than on any other part of the body, and it is pearance, is aptly denominated yolk. The investigation of its properties, and of the good effects which it produces upon the fleece while growing, is more properly the business of the

there that the finest and softest wool is found . Softness of the pile is, therefore, evidently connected with the presence and quantity of yolk . There is no doubt that this substance

grazier than of the wool-stapler, and he has the is designed, not only to nourish the hair, but to most abundant means of acquiring information. give it richness and pliability. It what way is Hitherto it must be acknowledged that they the growth ofthe yolk promoted ? By paying more have been too much neglected; yet the few facts attention than our agriculturists are accustomed with which we are furnished indicate that, with . out the assistance of yolk, " or the application of some other substance which shall act as a substitute for it , wool possessing the best qualities cannot be produced. The celebrated breeds of

to give to the quantity and quality of this sub stance possessed by the animals which they select for the purpose of breeding, the quantity and quality of the yolk, on which many farmers now scarcely bestow a thought, and the nature of

Berry, of Castile, and of Persia, we are informed, which they neither understand nor care about, furnish the most copious supply of yolk, and at will, at some future time, be regarded as the the same time yield those valuable fleeces which very essential and cardinal points of the are eagerly sought after by the manufacturers

sheep." S

of the countries where they are shorn, in order that they may be able to supply even distant

markets with the most valuable commodities.” ON THE SHEARING OF SHEEP .

3912. The composition of the yolk has not been particularly analysed, but Vauquelin examined the matter, and found it to consist of a

3915. After the wool is dry, the yolk re turned into it, and the fleece bas indicated a

soap of potash, carbonate of potash, a little ace tate of potash, lime,a very little of muriate of freshgrowthnext the skin, thesheepshould potash, and an animal matter, which imparts to be shorn of their fleeces; and they are wool its peculiar odour.t “ The yolk being a

shorn in regular order, the tups being first

true soap, soluble in water, it is easy to account

shorn, to give the longer timefor the wool

for the comparative case with which the sheep to grow ere the time arrives for selling in a running stream. There is, however, a small them, or letting them on hire in autumn; quantity of fatty matter in the fleece, which is

then the hoggs and dinmonts, if there be

not in combination with the alkali, and which, any of the latter, and, lastly, the ewes. remaining attached to the wool, keeps it a little glutinous notwithstanding the most careful wash ing.”

3916. A place under cover should be selected for clipping the fleeces.

The

3913. “ The manner in which the yolk acts straw -barn, L, Plate II., of the steading, is * Zeller's Landwirthschaftlichen Maschinen, Apparate, und Geräthe, zweite lieferung, p. 15-21 . + Thomson's Animal Chemistry, p. 305. # Luccock On Wool, p. 80 and 84. § Youаtt On the Sheep, p. 61 and 75.

L.

SHEARING SHEEP.

201

a suitable place for the purpose. The end shears have additional springs between the next the chaff-house r , between the two bandles b to separate the blades more for doors, is a good site for the clipping floor, Fig. 326 .

and the rest of the barn contains the sheep cool under cover. The clipping floor is prepared in this way ;—Let clean wheat b

straw be strewed equally over the floor two or three inches thick, and then spread

thelarge canvass barn -sheet over it, ( 1740) the edges of which should be nailed down

THE WOOL - SHEARS .

tight to the floor. The straw makes a soft cibly, but are not so agreeable to the hand cushion for the knees of the clippers, as as the simple round spring a. The spring well as for the sheep. A broom is required a issometimes made too strong, and tires to sweep the barn -sheet clean, ( 1794.) the hand, torelieve which a piece of cord Any other equally convenient place will is wound loosely round the handles. answer the purpose of clipping sheep as Strong -springed shears are most easily well as the straw - barn . The barn - floor and

worked if held near the blades ; but the

walls, as high as the sheep can reach, should sharp backs of these soon hurt the hand. be swept of dust, and some straw strewn When not in use, and when carried , the upon the floor for them to lie clean upon. blades are held together at their points by a ring of leather. A ragstone is used to

3917. In case of dew or rain in the sharpen wool-shears. The cost of shears morning, it is customary to bring into the is from 28. 6d. to 3s. 6d. each, and of barn as many dry sheep on the previous ragstones 4d. per lb. A shepherd re

evening as the numberof clippers to be quires two or three pairs of small shears employed will shear on the ensuing day. for jobs, and he only uses the large shears It is acustom for neighbouring shepherds for shearing. to assist each other ; and though the plan cannot expedite the entire sheep -shearing

3919. The object of washing the sheep

of the country, yet the emulation amongst perfectly clean, is apparent at shearing; for a number of men clipping together, expe- if not clean, the shears grate upon the dirt dites the shearing of the individual flock. and make bad work ; and for this the

Other hands besides shepherds are pressed shepherd alone is to blame who had the into theservice at this time. A steward sheep last through hands in the water, seldom clips sheep, but the art is mostly and the charge of them afterwards on the possessed by the hedger, and if the cattle- pasture . man had been a herd, he lends a band. 3920. The shears are used in a particu Clipping being dirty and heating work,

the coat isstripped, the hat and vest thrown

lar manner, to be safe aliketo the fleece

aside, and the oldest clothes worn . Garters, and the skin of the animal. The essential

or tight knee-breeches, are irksome pieces of dress in clipping. It is rare to see knee breeches now -a -days, the long trousers having superseded their use entirely, even with elderly men.

particular ever to be attended to in clip ping, is to keep the points always clear of the skin ; for ifthey rest upon it, they will inevitably either run into it, or make a large gash in it before the clipper is aware of the mischief he is doing. This

3918. The instrument by which the is an error commonly committed by new

wool is clipped off sheep, is made of steel, clippers, by bolding the band too high above and is named wool-shears, which have the the wool,and is a great offence in any expe form as seen in fig. 326. They require no rienced clipper. The sure way of avoid

particular description farther than to ex- ing this serious injury to sheep, is to rest plain that the bend or bowl, a, which con- only the broad part of the blades of the nects the two blades, acts as a spring to shears upon the skin ; in which position, keep the blades separate, and it is the with the skin drawn a little, nottoo tight, pressure of the band on each side of the by the left hand, the shears slide upon it handle b, which overcomes the spring and with a hold of the wool with their points,

brings the blades c together. Some wool- which are never brought nearer than an

202

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

inchapart, while the clips are made short and frequent. The form of the sheep's body being round, the shears should not make so long a clip as to bring the pointsof theblades

Experience will teach you how to make longer clips effective, when you know how to manage the shears dexterously, but at all times short clips are the safest mode of

together at every stroke, for if they do, they using the shears. will cut the wool with their points at a con 3921. Clipping is done in this way : siderable elevation above the skin ,ata point

in advance of the place where the broad part is cutting close to the skin ; the wool, in fact, wouldbe cut in two places at once. Veryshort clips, nodoubt, make slow work,

Whenever a sheep is caught in the barn, the straw or bits of plants on the wool, or dirt on the hoofs, should be picked off be fore it is taken to the barn -sheet. Clipping

but rather have slow work safely done, consists of three stages, the first of which

than hasty slashing with injury to the wool. is represented in fig. 327. After setting Fig. 327 .

THE FIRST STAGE OF CLIPPING A SHEEP.

the sheep on its rump, and on the supposi- bared, then the inside of the thighs 9 g, tion that the clipper is a right-handed and, lastly, the sides of the tail k . These man, he rests on his right knee, and leans are all the parts that are reached in this

the back of thesheep against his left leg position. For the clipping of these parts a, bent. Taking the shearsin his right hand, small shears suffice ; and as the wool there and holding up the sheep's mouth with his is short, and of a detached character, it is left, he first clips the short wool on the best clipped by the points of the shears, front of the neck, and then passes down as carefully held close like d . the throat and breast betweenthe fore -legs to the belly. Then placing the fore- legs 6

3922. Fig. 328 represents the second under his left arm c, he shears the belly stage of clipping. Its position for the across from side to sidedown to the groins. sheep is gained by first relieving its fore

In passing down the belly and groin ,where legs 6 from their position in fig. 327, and, the skin is naturally loose, while the shears gently turning the sheep upon its far side, d are at work, the palm of the left hand e while he himself, resting on both knees, pulls the skin tight. The scrotum f is then supports its far shoulder upon his lap.

SHEARING SHEEP.

203

You may always rely upon this fact- clipper first removes the wool from behind the more a sheep feels at ease, the more the head, then around the entire back of readily it will lie quiet to be clipped. Sup- the neck to the shoulder-top. He then porting its head with his left hand, the slips its head and neck a under bis left Fig. 328.

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d

THE SECOND STAGE OF CLIPPING A SHEEP .

arm , g , and thus having the left hand at knees; and he then rests his right knee, fig.

liberty, he keeps the skin tight with it, 329, over its neck on the ground, and his while he clips the wool with the right, right foot b on its toes, the ankle keep

from where the clipping inthe first posi- ing the sheep's head down to the ground. tion, fig . 327, was left off to the back This is the third position in clipping. The

bone, all the way down the near side. wool having beenbared to the shoulder in In the figure, the fleece appears to be the secondposition, the clipper has now removed about half-way down the car- nothing to do but to commence where it cass ; the left hand b lying flat, keeping was then left off, and to clear the fleece

the skin tight; while the right hande holds from the far side from the back-bone,where the shears at the right part, and in the pro- it was left off in fig. 328, in the second per position. The clipper thus proceeds position, towa