The Book of the Farm [2, 1 ed.]

Table of contents :
Front Cover
BOOK OF THE FARM: ...
BOOK OF THE FARM. ...
Fig. 300. ...
小4-30 ...
} ...
SPRING ...
R ...
7 ...
...
tamil ...
B ...
SOIL WITH AIR AND WITHOUT WATER. ...
LLY ...
BOOK OF THE FARM. ...
CO ...
1 ...
SUMMER. ...
para la ...
7 ...
سلسبيل ...
THE ELEMENTS OF THE BRACING OF A WIRE FIELD-...
و - ...
THE FIRST STAGE OF CLIPPING A SHEE ...
MiOA ...
yun ...
IVO ...
2 8 ...
o od ...
m ...
d ...
of ...
ガンダム ...
意,这 ...
Atte ...
h ...
THE OPENING IN DYKES FOR SHEEP. ...
D ...
1 I ...
ho ...
LEICESTER EWE AND LAMBS. ...
Fig. 451. ...
Fig. 410. ...
...
THE NUTRITION OF PLANTS. ...
PREFACE. ...
MANURES, ...
NUTRITION OF PLANTS. ...
THE ACTION OF SALT ON VEGETATION; ...

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THE

BOOK OF THE FARM : DETAILING THE LABORS OF THE

FARMER, STEWARD, PLOWMAN , HEDGER , CATTLE-MAN , SHEPHERD , FIELD -WORKER, AND DAIRYMAID .

.BY BY HENRY STEPHENS.

WITH FOUR HUNDRED AND FIFTY ILLUSTRATIONS.

man TO WHICH ARE ADDED

EXPLANATORY NOTES, REMARKS, ETC. BY JOHN S. SKINNER, EDITOR OF THE FARMERS' LIBRARY .

VOLUME II.

NEW

YORK :

C. M. SAXTON, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER . No.

152

FULTON STREET . 1854 .

5511 .S83 v.2

CHICAGO SITY OF E UNIVER TO IES

LIBRAR

CHICAGO, ILL .

E

sconi

1331239

THE

BOOK OF THE FARM .

1. FATTENING, DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SWINE.* " Where oft the swine, from ambush warm and dry ,

Bolt out, and scamper headlong to their sty." BLOOMFIELD .

( 1432.) That the youngest pigs may receive better treatment, the court and shed at b, fig. 3,Plate III., the same as in the plan at b, in fig. 4, Plate IV., and described in (68), are made purposely for them . These

pigs consist, probably, of the last litters of the season of as many brood sows as are kept. Here they should be provided daily with turnips as their staple food, of the sort given for the time to the cattle, and sliced as

small as for sheep ; and they should, besides, have a portion of the warm [* There are few subjects in regard to which we are in less need of being enlightened by the experience of other countries than in the breeding and management of swine. If, as assuredly it must be admitted, we are, over a large portion of the country, neglectful both as to improve ment of the breed and treatment of them in all stages of their growth and existence, it is not that

there is any great difficalty in understanding both the one and the other ; but mismanagement in this, as in too many other cases, results from sheer listlessness and want of thought. The hog may quickly be brought to the shape that we desire, and which best adapts him to the food at command and the uses designed by the farmer ; and common sense tells every one that as the

sole purpose of rearing him is for meat, he should be kept always in thriving condition by atten . tion to the necessary warmth and sufficiency of food, so that he may be kept always growing apace, until finally to be fattened. The region of which Indian corn is the staple, and where there is most of it, is the natural habitat of the hog in our country ; nor could he be reared in the East. ern States with that economy which our countrymen there know so well how to practice, were it not for the essential object which they keep constantly in view , and to which the hog is there

made largely subservient, to -wit : the manufacture of manure . Bat conversant as we are with swine husbandry, there may yet be found in this chapter some

interesting remarks on the preparation and value of different kinds of food — a subject of import ance to every agriculturist who desires, as all should desire, to economize labor and materials in the process of fattening. Useful, too, should be the lesson it teaches, to keep for fattening hogs a constant supply of pure clean water, and to study cleanliness throughout, as far as practicable, in a department where the general impression and practice agree that dirt without stint is tolera.

ble, if, indeed, it be not medicinal and useful ! The manner of fattening hogs, where Indian

corn is used for the purpose , as in the South and West, is to " put them up ” in large open pens on the ground, without litter and without shelter. Here they are left to burrow and sleep in mnd and mire, exposed to all weathers, consuming, probably, before they get “ripe fat,” one-third if not one-half more than would be necessary were they sheltered in a warm pen, with clean litter

and with clean water and rich food in abundance at pleasure, free alike from exposure and ex. citement. Experiment has abundantly proved the truth of Johnson's declaration , that " the 4

greater the difference between the temperature of the body and that ofthe atmosphere in which • they live, the more food they require to feed the lamp of life." " All this, however, is philo. sophically and plainly described in our Monthly Journal of Agriculture. Ed. Farm . Lib.' ( 5)

6

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

WINTER .

mash made for the horses, with such other pickings from the farm -house which the kitchen affords. They should also be provided with a trough of clean water and plenty of litter under the shed every day. The court yard should be cleaned out every day. Pigs are accused of dirty habits, but the fact is otherwise , and the accusation applies more truly to their

owners who keep them dirty, than to the natural habits of the animals themselves. When constrained to lie among dirt and eat food fit only for

the dunghill, and even that dealt out with a grudging hand, how canthey exhibit other than dirty propensities ? But let them have room, choice of clean litter and plenty of food, and it will soon be observed that they keep their litter clean, place their droppings in one corner of the court and preserve their bodies free from dirt. ( 1433.) The sties c, figs. 3 and 4, Plates III. and IV., are intended for sows about to litter. Whenever the period of their confinement ap

proaches each sow should be put into one of these and supplied with food ; but the treatment of sows will better fall to be described in spring. The form of door best suited for securing pigs in their sties may be seen in fig. 23.

( 1434.) By direct experiment, which will be found related below , it has

been ascertained thatpigs fatten much better on cooked than on raw food. This being the case it is only waste of time and materials, and also loss of flesh, to attempt to fatten pigs on raw food of whatever kind ; for al though some sorts of food fatten better than others in the same state, yet the same soit when cooked fattens much faster and better than in a raw state . The question, however, simply is, what is the best sort of food to cook for the purpose of fattening pigs ? Roots and grains of all kinds, when cooked, will fatten pigs. Potatoes, turnips, carrots, parsnips, as roots ; and barley, oats, peas, beans,rice, Indian corn, as grain, will all

fatten them when prepared. Which, then, of all these ingredients should be selected as themost nourishing and, at the same time, most econom ical ? Carrots and parsnips, among roots, are not easily attainable in this country, and therefore cannot be considered as economical food ; and as to the other two sorts of roots, when cooked, potatoes doubtless con tain much more nourishment than turnips, even in proportion to their

price, for it is as easy to obtain 10s. for a ton of Swedish turnips as 8s. for a boll of 40 stones of potatoes ; and yet potatoes contain 4 times the nu tritive matter of Swedes, and 6 times of common turnips.*

Steamed

po

tatoes, then, may form the staple ingredient of pig -feeding. As to grains, I have never heard of wheat or wheat-flour being given to pigs; it would certainly not be economical; barley or oat-meal being usually employed. Peas and beans, whether raw or cooked , are proverbially excellent food for pigs. And as to rice and Indian corn , they will both fatten well, if cooked. Amid all these ingredients for choice , regarding the question of economy alone , it may be assumed that entire feeding on grain, of what ever kind, would be too expensive, so that, as steamed potatoes are of

themselves rourishing food , a proportion , with any of the grains, should form a moderately-priced food which will insure fatness. It has beer ascertained in England that upon 2 pecks of steamed potatoes mixed with 9 lbs. of barley-meal and a little salt, given every day to a pig weighing from 24 to 28 stones, will make it ripe fat in 9 weeks. Taking this pro

portion of food to weight of flesh as a basis of calculation, and assuming that 2 months will fatten a pig sufficiently well, provided it has all along received its food regularly and amply, I have no doubt that feeding with * The Farmers' Almanac and Calendar for 1842.

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FATTENING, DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SWINE .

7

steamed potatoes and barley -meal, for the first month , and , in the second ,

with steamed potatoes and peas-meal (both seasoned with a little salt), and lukewarm water, with a little oat-meal stirred in it, given by itself twice a

day as a drink, will make any pig, from 15 to 30 stones, ripe fatfor hams, The food should be given at stated hours, 3 times a day, namely : in the morning, at noon and at nightfall. One boiling of potatoes in the day, at any of the feeding-hours that is found most convenient, will suffice ; and at the other hours the boiled potatoes should be heated with a gruel made of barley or peas-meal and boiling water ; the mess being allowed to stand awhile to incorporate and cool to blood-heat. It should not be

made so thin as to spill over the feeding -trough, orso thick as tochoke the animals ; but of that consistence which a little time will soon let the

feeder know the pigs relish best. Washing fattening pigs with warm water and soap rapidly promotes their fattening ; and, after the first trial, they delight in the scrubbing. A convenient form of trough for fattening pigs is described below in fig. 297. The swing -door, on being fastened on the side nearest the pigs, serve the purpose of warding them off until

the trough is cleaned out or replenished with food. The trough should be thoroughly cleaned every day, and being subdivided into three parts, more than one pig may be fattened in the same sty. But when only one occupies a sty — which is the least troublesome arrangement — one division

may be filled with one of the meals daily, thus giving a clean trough every meal; and all the divisions should be cleaned in the morning before sup plying the first meal. After every meal is supplied the swing-door is fastened nearest the outside, thus giving the pigs access to their food, as well as preventing them being disturbed at their meals. The quantity of food given at any time should be apportioned to the appetite of the ani mals fed, which should be ascertained by the person who feeds them ; and it will be found that less food , in proportion to the weight of the animal,

will be required as it becomes fatter. When pigs are fattening they lie and rest and sleep a great deal, no other creature showing “ love of ease” so strongly in all their motions; and, in truth, it is this indolence which is

the best sign of their thriving condition. The opposite effects of activity and indolence on the condition of animals is thus contrasted by Liebig : " Excess of carbon,” says he, “ in the form of fat, is never seen in the Bedouin or in the Arab of the Desert, who exhibits with pride, to the

traveler, his lean, muscular, sinewy limbs, altogether free from fat. But in prisons and jails it appears as a puffiness in the inmates, fed as they are on a poor and scanty diet; it appears in the sedentary females of Oriental countries ; and,finally, it is produced under the well known conditions of

the fattening of domestic animals ;" * and among these last the pig may be instanced as the most remarkable.

(1435.) The denominations received by pigs are the following : When new -born, they are called sucking pigs, or simply pigs ; and the male is called boar pig, the female sow pig. A castrated male, after it is weaned, is named a [barrow ] shot or hog. Hog is the name mostly used by natural

ists, and very frequently by writers onAgriculture ; but as it sounds so like the namegiven to young sheep, I shall always use the term pig andswine, for the sake of distinction. A spayed female is a cut sow pig. As long as both sorts of cut pigs are small and young, they get the name of porkers or

porklings. A female that has not been cut, and before it bears young, gets the name of an open sow ; and an entire male receives, and retains

ever after, the name of boar or brawn. A cut boar is a brawner [barrow), * Liebig's Animal Chemistry.

(7)

8

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-WINTER.

and the flesh of both boar and brawner is brawn.

A female that has

taken the boar is said to be lined ; when bearing young she is called a

brood sow ; and when she hasbrought forth pigs, she issaid to have lit tered or farrowed , and her family of pigs at one birth are called a litter or farrow of pigs.

( 1436.) Of judging of a fat pig, the back should be nearly straight; and though arched a little from head to tail, it is no fault. The back should be uniformly broad and rounded across along the whole body. The touch

all alongthe backshould be firm but springy, the thinnestskin springing most.

The shoulder, side, and hams should be deep up and down, and in The closing behind should be filled up ; the legs short, and bone small ; the neck short, and thick, and deep ;

a straight line from shoulder to ham.*

the cheeksrounded and well filled out; the face straight, nose fine, eyes

bright, ears pricked, and the head small in proportion to the body. A curled tail is a favorite, because indicative of a strong back (and healthy, thriving condition ). All these characters may be observed in the figure of the brood -sow in one of the Plates ; though, of course, the sow is not in the fattened state. A black colored pig is always black of skin, and a white one white, and which latter color gives to the pig a cleaner appearance than the black. A fat pig ought never to be driven, but carried in a cart when desired to be transported from one place to another. ( 1437.) As to the breed which shows the greatest disposition to fatten, together with a due proportion of lean, I never saw one to equal that which was originated by Lord Western , in Essex. I received a present of a young boar and sow of that breed from Lord Panmure, and had the

breed for 10 years ; and such was the high condition constantly maintained by the pigs on what they could pick up at the steading, besides the feed of turnips supplied them daily, that one could be killed at any time for the table as a porkling. They were exceedingly gentle, indisposed to tra vel far, not very prolific, however, but could attain , if kept on, to a great weight ; and so compact in form , and small of bone and offal, that they in

variably yielded a greater weight of pork than was judged of before being slaughtered. Though the less valuable offal was small, the proportion of loose seam was always great,and more delicious ham was never cured in Westphalia than they afforded.t [*In the United States, where so large a proportion of the hogs slaughtered is made and cured for bacon, and where the ham is much the most valuable part - length from the tail to the hips, or

as they are called in cattle the pins, so as to throw their points well forward toward the shoulder is a matter of importance in the formation of the hog ; as it insures a greater proportionate weight

in that part of the animal. The best bacon in the world, some would except the Westphalia, is to be found in our Middle States, where corn is one of our chief staples, and where the hog is left 10 run at large, and scuffle for his living, from the time he is weaned until put up finally to be

fattened on cor , which is too generally thrown in upon the ground and on the cob. True, where ihere is a “ gang " of turkeys, they are usually fattened on the wasting and leaving of the hog, as the hog is the scavenger to clean up and fatten on the leavings of bullocks fed with corn , on the cob, in open field .

However careless in other things, the salting and smoking of their pork generally commande the close attention of the husbandman, and not unfrequently of the good housewife. The standard for the best hams, in the region to which we have referred, is where the whole hog weighs from 130 to 160 or 175 at most. Without subjecting them to the best of all tests, no one who never

compared them , can realize the difference between a Maryland ham of about twelve pounds, properly smoked with hickory wood, and such as one sometimes meets with elsewhere, half smok ed and from a great fat beast of300 pounds weight. [t We should prefer the Mackey breed—if to be had under the sanction of Col. Jaques of Charles

wwn, Mass . - as to its genuineness. Mr. Webster took great pains to procure , and had at Marsh (8

FATTENING , DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SWINE .

9

( 1438.) [ Pigs'- Troughs.-- A very convenient trough for a piggery has been long manufactured by the Shots Iron Company, of which fig. 297 is a view in perspective from the interior of the

court. It is nearly all made of cast-iron, and possesses the great convenience of allowing the troughs to be filled with food from the outside of the building, the feeder being at the same time free from any annoyance from the inmates. Troughs of this kind are placed in proper sized open ings in the external wall of the piggery court, in the manner shown in the figure, where a marks the wall onone side of the opening ,that on the hither side being left outof the figure, in order tə exhibit the form of the trough. The trough, part of which is seen at b, is 4 feet in length , 16 in ches wide at top, and 8 inches at bottom , and is 9 inches deep. The two ends c and d rise in a triangular form to the hight of 3 feet, and are connected at the top by the stretcher bolt e. The

lower part of each end extends inward to fg, making a breadth of 3 feet 4 inches when complete, but this part of the end g in the figure is broken off, to show part of the trough b. Two interme diate divisions h h divide the trough into three compartments; these divisions extend to the same length as the ends f g , and are all 21 inches in hight. By means of these divisions, each animal, when there are more than one together, has its own stall, and can take its food undisturbed by its neighbors. A swing-door ¿ is jointed on the pivots k k, to complete the form by filling up the opening of the wall. In the figure this door is thrown to the full extent outward, where it always Fig. 297.

k

THE PIGS’- TROUGH, WITH SUBDIVISIONS , TO STAND IN AN OPENING OF THE OUTER WALI. OF THE STY .

stands during the time the animals are feeding. and is tixed there by a slide-bolt on the outside. When food is to be introduced the bolt is withdrawn, and the door moved from that position tol, and there bolted until the compartments of the trough are cleaned and tilled, when the door is again swung back to its original position, and the food is placed before the animals . The door has slits formed in it corresponding to the divisions h h, to allow of its swinging freely, and yet have depth sufficient to close the entire opening down to the outward edge of the trough. A dowel or stod m is let into the wall at each end, to secure the upper part of the trough. On a late visit to the Duke of Buccleuch's home-farm at Dalkeith Park, which is conducted by Mr. Black , I was much interested with the piggery , where the stock is of the finest quality, and, field , some time since, the real Simon Pure of that race . But the best breed of hogs that we

have ever seen, according to our judgment, were sent into Maryland from England, in 1823, by Mr. Wright, a brother- in - law of the late Mr. Champion, as a present to the then Editor of the American Farmer. They were black hogs, of which an account may be seen , with a portrait of the sow , in the old American Farmer, vol. 6. They got the name of “Skinner's breed ," and some

traces of them may yet be found in Virginia. If they could be bred back to the form and quali ties of the original stock, they would deserve to be very highly prized. Any farmer, however, of common sagacity and attention, may soon modify and shape a breed to suit his own locality and views. From those who have not the spirit and true love of business to do even that, you willbe sure to hear the common remark, "say what you will about breeds, but give me the corn

house breed.” Men without energy or proper ambition are rarely without me such casy resort, in the way of self-excuse .) 19)

10

THE BOOK OF THE FARM - WINTER .

among other things of interest, saw wbat is very probably the original of the trough here de. The troughs in this piggery are composed of wood, but precisely on the same principle, as here figured and described, and their introduction there dates as far back as the time of the late Duke Henry of Buccleuch, whose invention they are supposed to be, and which must be at least

scribed .

of forty or more years' standing. ( 1439.) The Ring Pigs'- Trough . - I have seen in England a very handsome pigs’-trongh

adapted for standing in the middle of a court. It is formed also of cast-iron, but in one entire piece, and is here represented in fig. 298. Its external appearance when viewed as it stands on the ground, approaches to that of a hollow hemisphere; but

Fig. 298 .

interiorly the bottom parts rise up in the center, forming a cen r, thus converting the tral pilla hemisphere into an annular trough, whose transverse sec tion is a semicircle , and the en tire section of the two troughs

forms two semicircles conjoin . The diameter

ed.

C

b of this

trough is 30 inches, the edge is finished with a round baton ,

serving both for strength and for comfort to the animals which eat

out of it ; the depth is about 9 in ches, and it is divided into

eight conspartments by the di visions c, which are formed with a convexity on the upper THE RING PIGS ’-TROUGH, TO STAND IN A COURT. edge to prevent the food being thrown from the one compartment into another .- J. S.)

(1440.) In regard to the slaughtering ofpigs, they should be made to fast for nearly a day, to clear their bowels ofas much food as possible. The season best adapted for the purpose is inthe cool ble to be fly -blown before it should be cured . For using fresh pork, the season of course does not

months ofthe year ; the flesh in ihe warm months not becoming sufficiently firm , and is then lia

signify.. When you wish to make hams for your own use, Christmas is a good time for slaugh tering pigs, and, in doing it, great care should be taken that the animals receive no injury by bruises before being killed , as the flesh, where bruised , will become blood -burned, and will not take with the salt. When the time for slaughtering arrives, the animals should be taken out of

their sties gently one by one as slaughtered, and placed on their back on a considerable quantity of straw, and held in that position by assistants, while a long knife is introduced with a firm hand through the counter near the bottom of the neck, through the opening between the ribs at the

sternum intothe heart, care being takenthat the point ofthe knife does not miss the opening,and go between the sloulder blade and the ribs. This error is fiequently committed in slaughtering pigs ; it is called shouldering, and has the effect of collecting a mass of blood under the shoulder. blade, where it coagulates, and prevents the whole shoulder from being cured. Before the slaugh .

tering commences, a large quantity of boiling water should be provided , with which to scald off the bair. This is effected either by putting ihe carcass into a large tub of water, or , should there not be a tub of sufficient size , the hot water can be poured on the carcass on the straw , and

scraped clean of the hair from every part of the body. The hoofs are taken off at this time. The flourishes,and with only a single stretcher to keep apart the flaps of the belly.

net fat and entrails are separated, and the carcass is dressed in the most simple manner, without ( 1141. ) The carcass hangs in the slaughter-house until next day, when it is sawn up the back

bone into two sides. If it is intended for pickled pork , the sides are cut up in Scotland in the same way as the Scotch mode of cutting up mutton ( fig. 255), namely, a, fig. 299, is the leg, and 6 the loin , in the hind quarter; c the ribs, and d the breast, in the fore -quarter. The leg a makes an excellent leg ofpickled pork, served with pea-pudding; and the loin b ajuicy fresh roast. The back-ribs of c are a fine roasting piece, and also for pork -chops, one of the most delicate

dishes ofthe hasty modesof dressing meat. The fore-end of c, and the whole of the breast d ,are fit for pickling. The head, split in two, is also pickled, and considered a delicacy, as thefatupon the cheeks isgristly. (1442.) The English mode of cutting up pork is different from what has just been described,

and, upon the whole, perhaps better adapted for family use. Fig. 300 gives arepresentation of it, where, in the fore-quarter, a is the spare -rib, so called because the flesh and fat are taken off the ribs for salting; and the ribs are then roasted, and make a savory dish ; ! is the hand or shoulder, fit for pickling ; c the belly or spring, also fit for pickling,or for rolling up,when well seasoned and stuffed, for brawn, and eaten as a relish . in the bind - quarter are d the fore and e

the hind loin, both best when roasted, the fore one d also making excellent chops ; andf the leg, which is cut short for pickling. The neck is called a crop of pork , and, when divided into its ver at the jaw into an upper part called the face or cheek, and the lower part named the chap. Some

tebræ , are cut for chops, and called griskins. The head , when divided in two, is again divided times the two chaps are not divided.

(1443.) According to Mr.Donovan, a hand of salt pork, weighing 4 lbs.5 oz., lost in boiling 1.1 The bone weighed 9 oz. ; the meat was 3 lbs. i oz. If the first cost of the pork was 7 } d.

oz .

per lb., the meatalone, when duly boiled, cost 104d., and with the bone nearly 9d. per Ib. The loss in boiling salt pork is consequently 15$ per cent. * * Donovan's Domestic Economy, vol. ii.

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11

FATTENING, PRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SWINE.

(1444.) Of the time required for digesting pork dressed in various ways, pigs' feet soused and boiled take 1 hour; sucking-pig roasted, 2 hours; pork recently salted, raw or stewed, 3 hours ; pork -steak, and recently salted pork, broiled, 34 hours ; pork recently salted, fried, 41 hours ; pork recently salted, boiled, 41 hours ; and pork , fat Fig. 299.

Fig. 300. PORK CARCASS A UP CUTTING MODE SCOTCH THE .OF

(1445. ) Pickled pork derives its name from the mode in which pork is cured in a ætrong brine or pickle of salt and water. The flesh is first rubbed with salt, then subjected to pressure, then rabbed again , and packed in barrels, and strong brine poured over it. Immense quantities of pork are pickled , for homeand foreign consump tion, by the pieces being simply placed in brine, but is, of course , inferior to what is cured as above described . The largest establishment for the

ARCASS .UP PORK OF C A CUTTING MODE ENGLISH THE

and lean , roasted , 54 hours. *

curing of pork I ever saw was in Belfast. A carcass is cut up in a few seconds in this manner :

One man stands at the end of a large backing block of wood, provided with a long-faced hatchet, and two others stand on each side of the block .

A carcass, of whatever size, is placed on the block , on its back , with its head toward the hatchet ; a man then seizes each of the limbs , and keeps the carcass open . With three or four strokes of the hatchet , the carcass is divided into

two from snout to tail. One chop cuts off each of the half heads, and one each of the legs. The heads are thrown into one heap, and the legs into another. The two men at the hind-quarter then take their knives and cut off the hams, which are put by themselves, and taken away and rubbed with salt, and placed in rows on the ground, with the fleshy side uppermost, covered with dry salt. The remainder of the carcass gets two or three chops across the ribs, according to itssize, and the piecesare thrown into a large tub of brine. The whole thing is done in far less time than I have taken to describe it.

e

d d

с

For family

use , no pickle should be used in curing pork, as it extracts the natural juices of the meat; the

pieces, cut of a convenient size, should be rubbed with good dry, Liverpool salt, both on the skinny and fleshy parts, and packed in a jar covered with a lid or cloth : and from eight days to a fortnight, according to the size or thickness of the pieces, the pork will be ready for use. The navy tierce of pork consists each of 80 pieces of 4 lbs. ( 1446.).When the carcasses are meant for ham for family use, they are treated in this manner : After being sawn asunder,the sides should be carefully handled, that the back -bone be not broken, and placed on a table, when all the loose seam or tallow is taken out, and the kidneys extracted out of it. The muscle lying along the back-bone under the loin is taken out, and, when used fresh , makes an excellent collop for sausages; and the diaphragm or skirt is also cut off. The tongue is cut out, the brains scooped out, the ears extracted by their sockets, the tail cut away, and the four feet disjointed at the knees. Every loose and useless shred of fat, sinew , nerve, flesh , and skin , should be carefully removed . (1447.) The next process is the salting. Let the sides be placed with the skin side uppermost. and all where there is skin let it be rubbed hard with the palm of the hands, by two persons, for

fully half an hour, in a warm place, with good dry salt, taken in indefinite quantity. Thin -skinned uniformly fat pork will feel warm under the rubbing, and the skin become somewhat loose and

sweaty, which are the best signs that the flesh is taking in the salt. A hard -skinned side will not exhibit these symptoms, nevertheless it will take in the salt too, though not so kindly. The ends of the shanks should be well rubbed with salt. After this rubbing, the sideis turnedover, and 4

oz. of saltpetre, finely pounded, are strewed over the inside, and especially over all the fleshy parts that have been cut with the knife , such as along the line of the back-bone, and the inside of ihe hain . The use of the saltpetre is to give a uniformity to, and highten the color of, the flesh, which, in pork, becomes red on being converted into ham . Á layer of salt of about į of an inch thick is then laidon the side over the saltpetre. In this state the side is carried carefully, and laid upon a board or wooden floor. Other sides are treated exactly in the same manner, one af ter the other, and laid upon one another, with the skinny sides downmost; but perhaps 4 sides

are enough to form one heap, laid alternately, head and tail, to lie compactly: A board is then laid above them , supportinga number of weights ; the whole being covered witha woolen cloth , to keep out the frost, should it arrive. In the course of a day or two, brine will run from the heaps, which should be wiped up from the floor. In a fortnight the sides should again be laid on the table, and the brine that may have collected on the ribs poured out, the loose wet salt re moved, and the skinny side again rubbed with dry salt for about a quarter of an hour. The loose

salt should then be all brushed off by the hand, and the skin wiped dry. To prevent flies blow ing the end of the shanks at the joints, a brown-paper bag makesa close enongh covering for them ; and a wooden skewer being thrust through both shank and bag, and both tied firmly to the leg with twine, the remainder of the twine is formed into a stoat loop by which the side is * Combe on Digestion and Dietetics.

(11)

12

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

WINTER .

suspended from hooks. The inside is then covered with a uniform coating of barley or peas-meal, pushing it well into every crevice with the finger. The dampness of the flesh will make the meal stick on, but there is none put on the skinny side. The side is then hung up from the roof of a warm , dry room, the kitchen being the most appropriate place; and the kitchen roof thus gar nished conveys an idea of plenty and good cheer. I sent this recipe, through a friend, to a lady whom I understood was at the time engaged on a work on the culinary art, and it may be found substantially in the above shape in her valuable pages. (1448.) From experiment, was ascertained by Mr. Donovan that if the first cost of ham be 10d. per lb., the meat. duly boiled, skinned and browned, will cost 18. 13d. per lb.; the loss there

by being consequently 33per cent. ( 1449.) Hog's lard is rendered in exactly the same manner as mutton suet (1513) ; but as lard is liable to become rancid , yellow -colored. and acquire a strong smell when exposed to the air, it is usually tied up in bladders. For this purpose it is allowed to cool a while, after it is melted, and the bladder (a pig's or calf's) being made ready by being thoroughly cleaned and turned out side in, is filled with the lard by a funnel, and tied up. Lard “ melts completely at 990 Fahr.,

and then has the appearance of a transparent and nearly colorless fixed oil.

A thermometer

placed in it sinks gradually to 80° . The lard then begins to eongeal, and the thermometer re mains at 80° all the time of congealing , which occupies several minutes. It is clear from this that 80° is the melting point of hog's lard. Its specific gravity at 102° is 0.9028 ; at 60° , it is When 0.9302.. It consists of elain62 parts and of stearine38 parts out of the 100 parts. .

subjected to pressure between folds of blotting-paper, the elain is absorbed , while the stearine re mains ." *

For domestic purposes, hog's lard is better than even butter for frying fish ; but is quite unfit for pastry, though much used in that way on the score of economy. ( 1450.) Hog's skin is usually thick, and, when tanned , its great toughness renders it valuable

for the seats ofriding-saddles. Hog's bristles are formed into brushes for painters and artists, and for numerous domestic usés. Some of the offals of the pig make excellent domestic dishes, such

as blood, mealy and sweet puddings; and pork sausages, made of the tender muscle under the lumbar vertebræ, are sweeter, higher flavored, and more delicious than those of beef. If it were not for taking up too much room. I could give excellent recipes for making these puddings and

sausages ; because I donot think such matter foreign to the pages of a work which professes to make you acquainted with what can be made available on a farm . (1451.) An experiment on the comparative advantages of feeding pigs on raw and boiled food was made in 1833 by Mr. John ' Dudgeon, Spylaw, Roxburghshire. He put up 6 he pigs in one lot, and 5 she ones in another, and they were all carefully cut, and 9 weeks old. The he pigs were put on boiled food, namely: potatoes and hashed beans; the she ones on raw of the sanie sort. The 6 he pigs increased in live-weight, from 2d July to 12th October, 38 stones 6 lbs. 4 OZ., or 6 stones 5 lbs. 11 oz . each ; whereas the 5 she ones only increased, in the same time , 17 stones

11 lbs. 8 oz., or 3 stones 7 lbs. 14 oz. each. Other 3 pigs were fed at the same time on boiled and

raw food indiscriminately, as it happened to be left over after serving the other two lots.

The

facts brought out in this experiment are , that the pigs " fed exclusively upon boiled meat did thrive in a superiormanner to the others,and even to those which had an occasional mixture of raw and boiled meat ; thus showing that boiled meat is at all times more nutritive than raw . ” The 1

pigs were repeatedly washed with soap and water, which refreshed them greatly, and caused

them to relish their food.” Those “ which got a mixture of food both prepared and raw . ap proached nearer to those which were fed on boiled to their feeding properties; but they appeared

occasionally shy at havingtheir meat so mixed . It is therefore better, in general, to continuefor some time only one description of food ; as, whatever the animals become accustomed to, they begin to relish , and thrive upon it accordingly.” + (1452.) Mr. Robert Walker, Ferrygate, East-Lothian, also made an experiment on the same subject in the same year. He put 5 pigs on steamed potatoes and prepared broken barley, and other 5 on raw potatoes and raw broken barley. The pigs were 24 months old. On the 4th March, 1833, the live weight of the 5 pigs fed on raw food was 7 sts. 70 lbs.; on the 1st June fol.

lowing, it was 16 sts. 13 lbs., showing an increase of 8 sts. 3 lbs. , or an increase in each pig of 1 st . 9 lb.

On the 4th of March, the live weight of those fed on steamed food was 7 sts. 8 lbs., and on the 1st June it was 19 sts. 13 lbs., showing an increase over the whole of 12 sts. 5 lbs., or an in crease on each pig of 2 sts. 61 lbs. The increase in the time was 67 lbs. more than double the ori ginal live weight of the pigs fed on steamed food ; whereas, in those fed on raw , the increase was only 7 lbs. more than the double ; " so that there can be very little doubt," as Mr. Walker concludes, “ that steamed food is more profitable for feeding pigs than raw food. In fact, I do not

think it possible to make pigs fat on raw potatoes, without other food, when confined to them alone.” (1453.) Dairy farms are wellsuited for rearing pigs on the dairy refuse in summer, but in win. ter the most that can be done is to keep the brood -sows in pig in fair condition for littering in spring. On carse and pastoral farms, no more pigs can conveniently be reared than to serve the farmer's family. On mixed farms, pigs constitute a portion of the regular stock.

(1454. ) With regard to the diseases of swine, they are fortunately not numerous, as it is no easy matter to administer medicine tothem. The safest plan, in most cases, I believe, isto slaughter them whenever any symptoms of internal disease show themselves. Swine are infested with a

louse !Hæmatopinussuis), like all domesticated animals. It is represented in fig. 301. Head and thorax of a dull, rusty color, the former pear-shaped and narrow , with an angular blackline at the apex , and one on each side before the eyes ; abdomen large, flat, and oval, of a bluish or yellowish ashgray color, most of the segmentswith a black horny prominenceat each side, sur. rounding a white breathing hole ; lege pale ochre-yellow , the thigh marked with dusky bands , * Thomson's Animal Chemistry. † Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. X. (12)

| Ibid ., vol. x .

13

TREATMENT OF FOWLS .

length 11to 14 lines. This species is generally very plentiful on swine, more particularly on those fresh imported from Ireland. It appears to abonnd most on lean animals. “In walking ," says Mr. Denny, " it uses the claw and tibial tooth with great facility (which act as a finger and

thumb), in taking holdof a singlehair; the male is much smaller, sub -orbicular, and the segments lobate ." The egg or nit is

of a line in length of a cream color, and ele

gantly shagreened, oblong, and slightly acuminated, surrounded by a lid

Fig 301

which, when the young insectis ready to emerge, splits circularly - or, as a botanist would say , has a circumcisile dehiscence." * Oil in the first stage, and mercurial ointment in after stages, will destroy this insect.

I

(1455.) Consumption is a disease which affects pigs. " It is brought on by “ neglect and exposure to cold and damp. The animal becomes thin,

the coat staring, theskin appearing as if glued to the ribs; obstinate cough supervenes ; discharge is frequent from the nose, and glandular swellings appear about the neck. On dissection, the lungs are studded

with tubercles.” “ It is in the early stage alone of the complaint,” says Professor Dick, " that anything can be done, and the prospect of cure is but faint.f In alluding to the lungs. I may mention a remarkable in . stance of their state I once observed in asow of my own. She had borne several litters, and became asthmatic, which increasing so as to appear

distressing to the animal, she was killed ; and one lobe ofthe lungs was shell nearly as bard as the crust of a crab, and it was filled with a thick yellow fluid . Having understood afterward that this was a remarkable THE SOW-LOUSE ( HÆ found to be so completely ossified that its surface was converted into case, I regret that the lobe was not examined by a veterinarian.

II take

CD

MATOPINUS SUIS ).

this opportunity of suggesting to every farmer, who may happen to meet with any instance of structural disorganization in any part of any animal he owns, to have it examined by a competent veterinarian.

(1456.) Pigsare subject to a cutaneous disease called measles, which is supposed to render the flesh unwholesome. “ The measles," says a writer, “ are very prevalent, though seldom fatal; and if not checked, affect the grain of the meat, which may be commonly seen in the shops of a faded color, and the flesh punctured, as it were, with small holes, or distensions of the fibre. The com.

mencementof the disease appears in languor and decline of appetite, followed by small pustules in the throat, together with red and purple eruptions, more distinct after death than during the life of the animal ; but may, it is said , be removed in this stage by giving small quantities of levi.

gated crude antimony in the food. Generallyspeaking, even if the animals be inhealth, asmall quantity of nitreand sulphur, occasionally mixed up with their food, besides stimulating their appetite, will frequently prevent disease;neither can wetoo much insist on cleanliness, nor upon the punctual regularity of feeding at stated times."||. The injunction contained in the last words, if followed, will do more for the preservation of health in pigs, than the administration of any specificafter disease has once shown itself. I can safely say that, with the simple means here en joined, I never had a pig that was in the least affected in the skin by either disease or vermin .

2. TREATMENT OF FOWLS . “ Thither the household feathery tribe crowd, The crested cock , with all his female train ,

Pensive and dripping ; THOMSON .

(1457.) Of all the animals reared on a farm , there are none so much neglected by the farmer,both in regard to the selection of their kind, and their qualifications to fatten, as allthe sorts of domesticated fowls found

in the farm -yard. Indeed, the very supposition that he would devote any of his time to the consideration of poultry, is regardedas a positive affront on his manhood. Women, in his estimation, may be fit enough for such a

charge,and doubtless theywould do it well, provided they were not be grudged every particle offood bestowed upon those useful creatures. The consequence is what might be expected in the circumstances, that go de to most farmsteadsand the surprise will be to meet a single fowl of any scription in good condition, that is to say, in such condition that it may be * Denny's Monographia Anoplarorum Britanniæ .

il find that the ox-louse (Hæmatopinus eurysternus ), fig. 268, has been erroneously printed on page 151.

Dick's Manual of Veterinary Science. (13;

|| British Husbandry, vol. t .

14

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

WINTER .

killed at the instant in a fit state for the table, which it might be if it had been treated as a fattening animal from its birth. The usual objection urged against feeding fowls is that it does not pay, and no doubt the usual price received for lean, stringy-fleshed, sinewy-legged fowls is far from remune rative ; but whose fault is it but the rearer of them , that fowls are sent to

market in such a state, and why should purchasers give a high price for any animal, be it fowlor beast, that is in under condition ?

There would

be some excuse for the existence of lean fowls at a farmstead were there

any difficulty of fattening poultry of every kind at no great expense ; but the idea of expense is a perfect bugbear ; and this is one, like all others that seize us through our fears, would vanish were a plan adopted for rearing fowls more consonant to common sense than the one usually pur sued. To judge from common practice, the prevalent sentiment seems to be, that fowls cannot be ill off when they get leave to shift for themselves. Such a principle is a grievous error in therearing of any kind of live stock. Better a man keep no stock at all than allow such a sentiment to influence his conduct to them. Fowls may be considered worthless stock, and so they

generally are, but are you sure that it is not your mode of managing them that renders them so ? But apart from every consideration of profit to be derived from sales in market-towns, there is the superior one of the farmer

having it at all times in his power to eat a well-fed fowlat his own table ; and there is no good reason why he should not be able to enjoy such a luxury at any time he choses. There would be economy in it too, in the long run, inasmuch as good poultry, at command, will keep him out of the butcher market, into.which he cannot go without cash in hand, and cash

he cannot command except by realizing the money value of some com modity or other from the farm . Few farmers kill their own mutton, that

is to say, keep fine fat sheep for their own use ; lamb, they may kill in the season ; but as to beef, it must be purchased ; so that, situate as the farmer usually is, the produce of the poultry -yard and pig -sty constitute the prin

cipal items of his board. And why should he not have these in the high est perfection ?

(1458.) Winter is a season in which no fowls are brought forth in Great Britain.

The climate is too severe for them ; the cold would either kill

chickens outright or prevent their growth so as to render it unprofit able to bestow the great attention which their rearing would require. None of the fowls usually lay eggs in winter. But notwithstanding this

natural barrier to the propagation of fowlsin winter, both chickens and eggs may, by good management, be obtained in that season. (1459.) The ordinary fowls on a farm are the cock ( Phasianus gallus ),

the turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), the goose ( Anas anser), the duck ( Anas domestica ), and the pigeon ( Columba livia ), the white-backed or rock dove, which was long ago confounded with the blue-backed dove i *Columba enas ). In regard to all these I shall first state the condition in which they are found on a farm in winter, and then describe the mode

in which food should be daily supplied them ; and as they may all be fed with nearly the same ingredients, the mode of feeding to be described will apply to all.

(1460.) And first, in regard to the condition of the hen . As hatchings of chickens are brought out from April to September, there will be broods of chickens of different ages in winter ; some as old as to be capable of laying their first eggs, and others only mere chickens. The portion of thosebreeds whichshould be taken for domestic use are the Young cocks

and the older hens, there being a feeling of reluctance to kill young hens,

which(14)will supply eggs largely in the following season . At all events,

15

TREATMENT OF FOWL

should any hen-chickens be used for the table, the most likely to become good layers next season should be preserved. The marks of a chicken likely to become a good hen are a small head, bright eyes, tapering neck, full breast, straight back, plump ovoidal-shaped body, and moderate

lengthed gray-colored legs. All the yellow -legged chickens should be used, whether male or female, as their flesh never has so fine an appear ance as the others.

As to the color of the feathers, that is not a matter

of much importance, some preferring to have themuseful all white, othersthan all

black ; but I believe there is none better for

every

purpose

the mottled gray. Young fowls may either be roasted orboiled, the male

making thebest roast and the female the neatest boil. The older birds may be boiled by themselves and eaten with bacon, or assist in making broth, or that once favorite winter -soup in Scotland - cockieleekie. A chicken never eats more tenderly than when killed a short time before

it should hang in the larder for being dressed ; but if not so soon used, will becom the more tender on be

3 or 4 days in winter.

An old fowl

e

ing kept for a week before being used. The criterion of a fat hen is a plump breast, and the rump feeling thick, fat, firm , on being handled laterally between the finger and thumb.

A corroborative criterion is

thickness and fatness of the skin of the abdomen , and the existence of

fat under the wings. White flesh is always preferable, though poulterers insist that a yellow -skinned chicken makes the most delicate roast.

(1461.) Turkeys being hatched in May, will be full grown in stature by winter, and, if they have been well fed in the interval, will be ready for use. Indeed, the Christmas season never fails to create a large demand for turkeys, and it must be owned there are few more delicate and beauti

ful dishes presented at table , or a more acceptable present given to a friend, than a fine turkey. Young cocks are selected for roasting, and young hens for boiling, and both are most relished with a slice of ham or

of pickled ox-tongue. The varieties in common use are white, black and mottled gray ; and of these the white yields the fairest and most tender flesh. The criterion of a good turkey is fullness of the muscles covering

the breast-bone, thickness of the rump and existence of fat under the wings ; but the turkey does not yield much fat, its greatest property being plenty of white flesh. Young turkeys attain to great weights. I have had yearly young cocks weighing, at Christmas, 18 lbs. each in their

feathers. Norfolk has long been noted for its turkeys, where they are fed on buckwheat, and large droves are annually sent to the London market. A turkey is deprived of life by cutting its throat, when it becomes com

pletely bled. The barbarous practice of cutting out their tongues and hanging them up by the feet to bleed slowly to death, for the alleged purpose of securing whiteness of flesh , ought to be severely reprobated.

(1462.) Geese, having been hatched in the early part of summer, will also be full grown and fit for use in winter. I believe there is very little difference in flavor or appearance, as a dish, between the young male and some difference of size. The young female goose, though there may be

criterion of a fat goose is plumpness of muscle over the breast, and thick. ness of

rump when alive; and, when dead and plucked, the additional one of a uniform covering of white fat over the whole breast. It is a very

good young goose that weighs in its feathers 12 lbs. at Christmas. The

goose is as favorite a dish at Christmas as the turkey, but people tire of it sooner, and in consequence it is not so frequently served at table. A green goose at Michaelmas is, however, considered a greater delicacy in England than a turkey -poult. Geese are always roasted ; and their flesh

is much hightened in flavor by a seasoning of onions as a stuffing, and (15)

16

THE BOOK OF THE FARM

WINTER .

by being served up with apple -sauce. A goose should be kept a few days before being used. It is bled to death by an incision across the back of

the head, which completely bleeds it. Large flocks of geese are reared in Lincolnshire, and thence driven to the London market. It is rare to

see a gray gander, and as rare to meeta white goose. I remember seeing large flocks of geese on the islands in the Elbe near Hamburg, which were reared chiefly for their quills, their carcasses being salted and sent

to Holland. The invention of the steel-pen, however, has much injured the quill-dressing trade, and, in consequence, good quills are now not easily obtained ; and their deterioration still farther encourages the use of the

steel-pen. Geese have long been proverbially good watchers. I have seen agander announce the approach of beggars toward the kitchen -door as lustily as any watch -dog . ( 1463.) Ducks, being also early hatched, are in fine condition in winter

if they have been properly fed . Ducklings soon became fit for use, and are much relished with green peas in summer. I believe there is no dif ference in flavor and delicacy between a young male and young female duck . They are most frequently roasted and stuffed with sage and onions ; though often stewed, and if smothered among onions, when stewed , there

are few more savory dishes that can be presented at a farmer's table. A duck never eats better than when killed immediately before being dressed. It is deprived of life by chopping off the head with a cleaver, which com pletely bleeds it.

(1464.) Hens and turkeys are most easily caught on their roosts at

nightbe with a light which seemsattoanystupefy them are ; andiven geese and ducks may caught in ,any outhouse time they into it. (1465.) As young pigeons alone are made use of, and as the pigeon does not hatch in winter, they require no other notice at present than what re gards their feeding ; and to give you an idea of their gastronomic pow ers, of three rock -doves which were sent to Professor MacGillivray, " The number of oat-seeds in the crop of the second amounted to 1,000 and odds, and the barley -seeds in that of another were 510. Now , sup posing," says he, “ there may be 5,000 wild pigeons in Shetland, or in Fetlar, which fed on grain 6 months every year, and fill their crops once a day, half of them with barley and balf with oats, the number of seeds picked up by them would be 229,500,000 grains of barley, and 450,000,000

grains of oats -- a quantity which would gladden many poor families in a season of scarcity . I am unable,” he adds, “ to estimate the number of bushels, and must leave the task to the curious."" **

And the task I have

undertaken, and find the result to be 422 bushels of barley and 786 of oats.t

(1466.) The prices of poultry in towns are pretty high. In Edinburgh, for instance, in winter, a couple of chickens are 28. 6d. ; hens from 1s. to 18. 9d. each ; ducks 38. per couple; turkeys 3s. 6d. to 8s. apiece ; geese

3s. 68. to 58. each ; and eggs are from 1s. 2d. to 1s. 8d. per dozen. In the country townsthe prices are fullyone -third below these ; but the highest prices in London are not more. In Russia fat turkeys are ls. 10d., geese Zs., and fowls and ducks 1s. 3d. per couple ! In Ireland poultry of all kinds are cheap ; but not so much so as in Russia.

(1467.) Farmers usually sell poultry alive, excepting in some parts of * MacGillivray's History of British Birds,vol. i. † I ascertained theresult by weight; and as the facts may be worth recording, I may mention that in an average of 3 drachms, there were 75 grains of chevalier barley in each drachm of a sample weighing 564 lbs. per bushel ; and 97 grains of Siberian early oat in 1 drachm of a sample weighing 46 lbs. per bushel. of Chidham white wheat, weighing 65 lbs. per bushel, there were 86 grains in the drachm . | Venables' Tour in Russia, Appendix . 16)

TREATMENT OF FOWLS.

17

the country, such as the Borders, where geese are killed and plucked for the sake of their feathers before being sent to market. Poulterers in towns, on the other hand, kill and pluek every sort of fowl for sale, so

that the purchaser has it in his power to judge of the carcass; and if he buys an inferior article at a high price it must be his own fault. It is easy to judge of a plucked fowl, whether old or young, by the state of

the legs. If a hen'sspur is hard, and the seales on thelegs rough, she is old, whether you see her head or no ; but the head will corroborate your observation, if the under -bill is so stiff that you cannot bend it down, and

the comb thick and rough. A young hen hasonly the rudiments of spurs, the scales on the legs smooth , glossy and fresh colored, whatever the color may be, the claws tender and short, the under- bill soft, and the comb thin

and smooth. An old hen -turkey has rough scales on the legs,callosities on the soles of the feet, and long, strong claws ; a young one the reverse of

all these marks. When the feathers are on, an old turkey-cock has a long

beard, a young one but a sprouting one ; and when they are off the smooth scales on the legs decide the point, beside difference of size in the wattles of the neck, and in the elastic snot upon the nose. An old goose, when alive, is known by the roughness of the legs, the strength of the

wings, particularly at the pinions, the thickness and strength of the bill, and the firmness and thickness of the feathers; and when plucked, by the legs, pinions and bill, and the coarseness of the skin. Ducks are distin guished by the same means, but there is this difference, that a duckling's bill is much longer in proportion to the breadth of its head than that of an old duck.

A young pigeon is easily discovered by its pale - colored,

smooth-scaled, tender, collapsed feet, and the yellow, long down inter spersed among the feathers. A pigeon that can fly has always red -colored legs and no down, and is then too oldfor use. ( 1468.) The hen -houses are placed at d on the plan and view, figs. 3 and 4, Plates III. and IV . They are divided into 3 apartments, each hav ing a giblet-check door to open outward, and all included within a court

yard provided with an outer door and lock. The use of 3 apartments is to devote one of them to the hens and turkeys, which roost high ; another to the geese and ducks, which rest on the floor ; and thethirdto a hatching house to accommodate both . When geese are obliged to rest below hens

they are made uncomfortable and dirty by the droppings of those which roost above them . The innermost apartment, being the largest,should be

occupied by the most numerous body of fowls, namely : the hens and tur keys; the right-hand one by the geese and ducks; and the left -hand one in hatching, to which access is given by a trap -ladder and opening through the wall at the road, to admit the laying hens. There should be an open

ing with a sliding-shut in the outer door, as well as one in the doors of the geese-house and hatching -house, to give admittance to the birds when dis posed to go to rest in the afternoon ; and these shuts should be fastened

every night. In the accommodation thus appropriated to every class of fowls, each apartment will be taken up by its own class. The usual prac tice is to put all kinds of fowls into the same apartment; and the small space occupied by even this single room seems to be grudged, as if any sort of accommodation, however hampered or incommodious, were good enough for poultry. How breeders and feeders of stock can reconcile

their minds to such indifference toward any class of their live-stock, while possessing the desire of having a good fowl at their table, is more than I

can imagine, unless they believe that quite opposite modes of treatment will produce similar results ! In very cold weather the inner apartment, occupied by the hens and turkeys, could be kept sufficiently warm by (17)

18

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

WINTER .

neaping the horse -dung from the work -stable under and upon the feeding trough in the court K, immediatelybehind the back wall of the hen -house,

as high up against it as is thoughtdesirable ; and a quantity of straw could be put on the slated roofs of all the apartments during a continued storm. Suow forms a warm covering on a roof, but the heat from fowls roosting under soon melts it ; so that it is better to remove the snow and put on straw, and allow the snow to fall upon the straw. Fowls thrive best

where there is a mild temperature, but not a great heat ; and such expe dients will supply them with a sufficiency of heat during the severity of a winter storm .

( 1469.) The pigeon-house is placed in the gable of the boiling-house U ,

fig. 8, Plate III., toreceive warmth in winter from the fire usually kept in that apartment. When pigeons are thus artificially supplied with heat, they not only continue to hatch longer in autumn, but will recommence in spring sooner than they would otherwise do. Indeed , by a little manage ment in this way, and taking care to keep the house always pretty full of

pigeons to retain heat among themselves, they might be encouraged to hatch all the year , with the exception , perhaps, of two months in the depth of winter, in December and January. Pigeons, like other birds, are most prolific when not too old ; and as old cocks are exceedingly tyran nical to the young ones, they should be destroyed as well as the oldest hens. It is no easy matter to get hold of flying pigeons to kill them, as they are always on the alert and make their escape; but there are various ways of destroying them, and a favorite one is shooting, but it is not the

best in this case , as young ones may be wounded while aiming at the old er birds. The safest plan is to mark the birds you wish to destroy daily for some time, in order to recognize them readily, and the old cocks are

easily discernible by their forward manner, and the interruption they give at the pigeon -holes to the entrance of others. These remarks apply spe cially to the recognition of old cocks, but are inapplicable to old hens, as they never conduct themselves so.

Other means must, therefore, be taken

to recognize them, and the same may be applied to the cocks ; and these

are those given above for the detection of dead old and young pigeons. The marks are rough, scaly legs, callous soles of the feet, high red color of the scales, strong bill, strong wings, thick covering of feathers, and

brightness of the play of colors upon the neck. All these marks are most conspicuous in winter, the very season when the process of cocking a

pigeon -house, as it is termed, should be performed, as then there are no young to be unknowingly deprived of their parents. The safest way of doing itis to enter the pigeon -house gently, late of a dark night, with a

light. On entering with the light, and shutting the door, it will bewilder the pigeons, and the first movements should be to stop up the holes to pre vent them escaping, which the old cocks will be the first to attempt ; and should the holes be beyond the reach of the floor, a ladder should be

taken in to assist in effecting the purpose. Two persons are required to capture the pigeons, as they will endeavor to elude every attempt ; and one to take special charge of the light, which, if taken out of the lantern

and it shouldbe so if the lantern is not of glass — to afford plenty of light, is apt to be blown out by the wind occasioned by the pigeons flying about. Should this be the case, a lucifer match should be in readiness to rekindle

it. A light landing net used hy anglers is a convenient instrument for en trapping a pigeon, whether sitting or flying. Every bird that is caught

should be examined and recognized ,and every one exhibiting signs of old age should be destroyed, by pushing the point of the thumb with force into the back of the head, and severing the cervical vertebræ , or applying (18)

TREATMENT OF FOWLS .

19

the teeth for that purpose ; but should these modes be disliked or imprac ticable, rather than torture the poor devoted animals by abortive attempts, let their heads be cut off at once by a sharp table-knife. When this pro cess of weeding is performing, it should be done effectually at once, and not repeated in the same season, as a nocturnal visitation such as this can not fail to intimidate the whole flock.

Nor should it be done in the sea.

son of hatching, though done without fail every year, and the consequence will be that your pigeon -house will be stored with prolific birds, and re

ceive noannoyance frombirds which have become barren. Perhaps a dozen of birds, male and female, so destroyed, may suffice at a time. On removing the stopping from the holes, and the slain birds, and closing the door, the creatures will be left in quietness.

( 1470.) The daily treatment of fowls may be conducted in this manner : Some person should have special charge of them , and the dairy -maid is perhaps the best qualified for it. As fowls are very early risers, she to the hen -house in the morning , on her way to the byre, and let out all the fowls, giving the hens and turkeys a feed of light corn and cold

sliould go

boiled potatoes, strewed along at some convenient and established place out of the way of the general passage of horses and carts ; such as be tween the hammels N, and the byre -court 1, fig. 3, Plate III. The ducks the same should get

food either near the horse -pond, or where there is a

pond or trough of water, as they cannot swallow dry food without the as

sistance of water. Geesethrive well upon sliced turnips, a little of which, sliced small, should be left by the cattle -man for the dairy -maid at any of

the stores, andgiven at a place apart from the hens. When stated places are thus established for feeding fowls at fixed hours,they will resort to them at those hours ; at least the well-known call will bring the hour to

their recollection, and collect them together on the spotin a few seconds, and the regular administration of food being as essential for their welfare as that of other stock. Ducks pick up a good deal of what falls about the stable, and near the corn -barn door , as well as in the straw -barn ; and geese will help themselves to the turnips that may chance to fall from the troughs of the cattle ; and they are also fond of raw potatoes. After her own dinner, say 1 o'clock P. M., the dairy -maid takes a part of the pota toes that have been boiled at that time, and while a little warm , gives them crumbled down , from their skins, with some light corn , to the tur

keys and hens. At this time of the day, the spaces below the stathels of the stacks in the stack -yard form excellent dry sheltered places for laying down food, and the stack -yardis a very probable place for their resort af ter their morning meal, especially when it rains or snows. In laying down food for the fowls, the pigeons should be remembered, as they will feed with the hens, and on the same sort of food. Before sunset the fowls are all

collected together by a call,and put into the house, and which they will readily enter ; and many will have taken up their abode in it already, The ducks are the

especially the turkeys, which go very soon to roost. latest idlers. The floors of the different apartments should be littered with a little fresh straw every day, sufficient to cover the dung, and the whole cleaned out every week. Sawdust or sand, where they are ea sily obtained , form an excellent covering for the floor of hen-houses. Troughs of water should be placed in the court-yard, and supplied fresh and clean every day. (1471.) This mode of daily treatment will maintain fowls in a condition

for using at any time, and it cannot be said to involve much expense, for

the riddlings of potatoes boiled and light corn may be considered as the offal of the farm : but the truth is, food administered to these creatures at ( 19)

20

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

WINTER .

irregular intervals, though it be of the finest quality, will be comparatively thrown away, when

compared to the good effects of food of even inferior

This plan contrasts favorably with that which gives them large quantities of food at long intervals, and in an unpleasant state ; and also with that which permits fowls to shift for their meat at the farmstead. Either of these ways will never fatten fowls ; for food given in overabundance at one time and restricted at another , can nutriment given them at stated hours.

never fatten any animal ; nor will they obtain sufficient food at all times

when made to shift for themselves, because fowls are like all other an

imals, some can forage about most perseveringly, while others are indo lent, and some careless of food when it is not placed before them. A regular plan is recommended, which is, always supply them with a certain quantity of food, ascertained by experience, and dependent on the nature

of the flock ; when this is repeated daily at stated times, their condition must increase, because it cannot decrease, the minimum quantity of food

being always sufficient to appease hunger ; and this want they can never feel keenly when supplied with food at appointed times. Thus, in the

long run, more nutriment will be derived from inferior food regularly ad ministered, than from richer given irregularly. Should it be desired , how ever, to be particularly indulgent to fowls intended for immediate use, the

following materials will render the respective sorts of fowls perfectly ripe in a short time. Boiled potatoes, warm, and light wheat, for hens ; boiled potatoes, warm , and firm oatmeal porridge, warm , for turkeys; boiled po

tatoes, warm, and oats, for geese ; and boiled potatoes, warm , and boiled barley, warm, for ducks. The potatoes and porridge should be crumbled down in small pieces. But immediate effects, even from superior food, can only be expected on fowls that have been regularly fed as recom

mended above, up to the time the superior food is indulged in. Let starved fowls receive the same ingredients, and a long time will elapse ere they exhibit symptoms of improved condition, besides the risk they run , in the mean time, of receiving injury from surfeit and indigestion. No

doubt, superior feeding would incur cost, if persevered in throughout the season ; but I am not disposed to deny that, were proper breeds of fowls

only cultivated, and the shortness of time taken into consideration in which a pure breed will ripen upon it, that profit would be derived from its use. The experiment has never been satisfactorily attempted by the

farmer, and all the accounts we know of superior feeding, apart from ex periments by men of science, are only derived from the establishments of noblemen, whose object is not to obtain profit, but the possession of a su periorly fed animal. ( 1472.) Other ingredients may be and are used for the feeding of fowls,

among which may be mentioned brank or buckwheat, rice, and Indian Buckwheat is successfully grown in England ; not so in Scotland.

corn .

It is said to fatten poultry well, though not so well as grain . Rice may be given either raw or boiled ; in the former state fowls will pick it as

readily asgrain after feeding on boiled potatoes, and, when boiled, it will fatten without the aid of potatoes, but, of course, it is more expensive, as even good damaged rice can seldom be obtained under 16s. or 18s. per

cwt., which is nearly 2d. per lb. , without the expense of cooking. Fine barley, weighing 56 lbs. per bushel, selling, as it is at present, at 3s . 6d. per bushel, is only 2 of à penny per lb. Indian corn is employed in

America, in the southern parts ofGermany, and in Lombardy, for feeding poultry, and they become very fat upon it. It is too large to be swallowed raw, like the horse-bean of this country, but when steeped in water, or

boiled, it is easily eaten. If sold at even 8s. per bushel, its cost would be $20.)

TREATMENT OF FOWLS . under 2d . per lb.

21

“ From a desire to save expense,” says Boswell, “the

bran of wheat, and sometimes pollard, or middlings, are given to fowls ; but these bruised skins, where little if any of the farina of wheat remains,

appear to contain a very small portion of nourishment in proportion to the cost price. M. Reamur found by experiment that it is little or no saving tosubstitute bran for good grain in feeding poultry. Bran is not given dry,but mixed with water to the consistence of paste.

Some peo

ple boil this ; but it does not increase the bulk, except in a very trifling degree , and is, therefore, of small advantage. He found that 2 measures of dry bran , mixed with water , were consumed by fowls in the same time

that they would have eaten a single measure of boiled barley, equivalent to ofa measure of barley ."* Bran of itself, therefore, it appears, is of no use to fowls as food ; bu', it may be made the means of conveying nourishing food to them , in the shape of fat, broth, and other rich liquids from the kitchen , which they could not otherwise avail themselves of but through such an absorbent. Fowls are very fond of bread , and even of butcher-meat, cooked or raw ; and they will pick a rough bone very neatly.

They sometimes also display carnivorous propensities . Many a time have I observed them watching for a mouse at the casting down of a stack in the stack -yard ; and the moment one was seen to escape, away they would run, cocks and hens together, in full chase after it ; and on mobbing it, peck it not only to death, but to pieces , and then swallow it. ( 1473.) I have said that eggs, and chickens too, may be obtained in win ter by good management . The young hens of the first broods in April

will be old enough to lay eggs in winter. A few of these should be select ed for the purpose ; and when the period of laying approaches — which may be ascertained by their chaunting a song and an increased redness of the comb-- they should be encouraged by better feeding and warmer

housing at night. The feeding consists of warm potato and firm oatmeal porridge twice a day — at morning when they are let out, and in the after noon at 1 o'clock. To give them peace in feeding upon their more tempt

ing fare, they may be fed by themselves in the court-yard of the hen houses, and the door shut upon them after the rest of the fowls have left their night's quarters. And their more comfortable housing consists in directing theminto the hatching-house betimes every afternoon, and there in making for them a number of comfortable nests of clean oat-straw , to choose among ; and when they have taken to the one each selects for her own, leaving an old egg in it for a nest-egg. These three or four young hens will lay as many eggs every day ; and though they are not so large

as those of more matured fowls,beingonly pullets' eggs, still they will be fresh ; and it is no smallluxury to enjoy a new -laid egg at breakfast every winter morning - a luxury which I enjoyed for as many years as I lived in the country :

(1474.) With regard to young broods in winter, I believe few people will impose upon themselves the trouble of setting hens on eggs so lato iu

the season for the purpose of rearing chickens in winter ; and yet it may be done without difficulty ; but sometimes the task is imposed involunta

rily upon one, inasmuch as some hens will secrete their nests in the fields, among corn , or at a hedge-root, or other safe place, and bring out strong broods of chickens on the eve of winter. In such an event, the little inno

cents, brought into a cold world, cannot be allowed to perish merely for want

of care. When such a brood makes its appearance, or is purposely brought forth , it should be kept apart from the rest of the flock, in a warm and * Boswell's Poultry Yard .

(21)

22

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

WINTER .

sheltered place; and where no better place presents itself, it may be com fortably housed in a corner of the boiling-house, (U , fig. 4, Plate IV.,)

where a hamper or basket, placed over mother and chickens,or a fence of some kind, erected across a cornernear the fire, will protect them from ex ternal danger. Thence they should be let out in the forenoon, to enjoy the air and bask in the sun, and be returned to their shelter long before sun set. In rainy weather they should be conducted to a shed ;and in hard frost they may be kept in the house altogether, as frost soon benumbs

their legs, andif they lose the power of which, they will soon droop and die. Anest of straw, elevatedsome inches above the floor, to keep them above the draft of air that sweeps along the floor, and having a broad base to afford the chickens an easy access to their nest, should be formed, for the hen to brood them on at night; and when fresh litter is given them every evening, a little of the cleanest and warmest to be found under a cow in the adjoining byre, where she has lain, will be most acceptable to the tiny limbs of the active brood. Food should be given them from

morning to evening every three hours. It may consist of warm boiled mealy potatoes crumbled down small, picks of oatmeal porridge, mealy boiled potatoes warm , mixed with oatmeal, and a flat dishof clean water.

With a little variety of food, daily attention, and temperate housing, they will get on well, and by spring be as plump as partridges and as valuable

as ortolans. I am surprised to observe Mr. Mowbray say that “ to attempt to rear winter chickens inthis climate, even in a carpeted room, and with à constant fire, would in all probability be found abortive. I have repeat edly made the experiment,” he adds, “ with scores, without being able to preserve an individual through the winter." * The difficulty I consider small, though the trouble may be unnecessary, but neither a carpeted room , nor a “ constant fire,” will assist much in the rearing of chickens,

the whole secret of the art consisting of suitable food, moderate degree of temperature, fresh air and constantattention.

( 1475.) Such is the way I would recommend the feeding of poultry on a farm . It is not an expensive mode in a pecuniary point of view , consist ing entirely of ordinary fare and regular attention ; and therein consists

the entire value of the plan. That the plan is valuable and worthy of imi tation has beenprovedbeyond doubt, by its supplying fowls of every kind in their respective seasons, in high condition — at any period of the season they were required — and without any previous formal preparation. Thus, a chicken, a young cock , a hen, were at command throughout the year ; a

duckling throughoutthe autumn; and a goose or a turkeyfrom Michael mas to March ; and this not for one year, or only in a favorable season , but year after year for fifteen years, as long as I had opportunity to practice it. In short, a young fat fowl and a fresh egg were never wanting, from

January to December; and there is a great deal of truth in Cobbett's remark, where he says, one thing about fowls ought always to be borne

inmind. They are never good for anything after they haveattained their full growth, unless they be capons or poullards.”+

( 1476.) In regard to the undue means used for pampering fowls to fat ness, I quite agree with Cobbett that “crammed fowls are very nasty things;" and when we reflect on the worse than imprisonment practiced for the purpose, by cooping up fowlsin the dark, and tying their feet together, the means used to obtain the end become reprehensible. Liebig explains the rationale of this latter practice. “ Experience," he says, “ teaches us that in poultry the maximum of fat is obtained by tying the feet and by a * Mowbray's Practical Treatise on Domestic Poultry. ( 22)

† Cobbett's Cottage Economy.

TREATMENT OF FOWLS.

23

medium temperature. These animals, in such circumstances, may be com pared to a plant possessing in the highestdegree the power of converting all food into parts of its own structure. The excess of the constituents of blood form flesh and other organized tissues,while that of starch, sugar, &c., is converted into fat. When animals are fed on food destitute of nitro

gen, only parts of their structure increase in size. Thus, in a goose, fat tened in the method above alluded to, the liver becomes three or four

times larger than in the same animal when well fed with free motion, while we cannot say that the organized structure of the liver is thereby increased .

The liver of a goose fed in the ordinary way is firm and elas

tic ; that of the imprisoned animal soft and spongy. The difference con sists in a greater or less expansion of its cells, which are filled with fat."*

This practice appears to me the more reprehensible, in that its principal effect is to increase the bulk of offal only. ( 1477.) Peacocks may be treated in the same manner as turkeys; and as to guinea-fowls, notwithstanding the deliciousness of their eggs,they should never be tolerated in a farm -yard, both on account of the horrid noise they make, and of thestrong propensity they always evince to annoy other fowls.

(1478.) The feathers of the various sorts of fowls used are either dis posed of or converted into domestic use. The following directions on sweetening and managing feathers are given by a notable housewife of

my acquaintance ; and as they very nearly accord with my own experi ence, I shall transcribe them in her own intelligent words.

Every one

is aware that the feathers of cocks and hens are very inferior to those of

geeseand ducks for the purpose of filling beds and pillows; and, conse quently, it is scarcely necessary to mention that the former should be kept

separate from those of the latter two fowls. As the birds are plucked, the large feathers should be selected and placed asunder. Paper-bags are the

best recipients. The pinion feathers should be stripped from thequill, and added to the other feathers; and, if great caution have not been used in plucking the birds, they should be carefully looked over, that no part of the skin has been torn and adhering to the base of the quills. The bags of feathers should be placed in the bread-oven on the day after it has

been heated , and, after some hours, removed to a dry ,airy place; and this ought to be done every week .” On this part of the subject, I may mention aless troublesome plan than the oven, wherethe adjoining apartment be hind the kitchen fire is not in constant use, which is that in such a situation

feathers may be hung up in bags against the wall behind the fire, and there they will soon win . " Notwithstanding,” continues our instructress, “every apparent caution shall have been used, the feathers are frequently found

to be tainted, either from carelessness in plucking, or by neglecting to attend to them afterward ; and no subsequent baking or picking will be found available to restore them .

In this case, the only method to render

them sweet is to boil them, which is to be effected in the following man ner : One or two large canvas or calico bags must be made, into which

the feathers from the small paper-bags must be emptied and tied up ; a washing -copper must be nearly filled with rain -water, and made to boil.

The calico bags then , one at a time, are to be dipped, and, by means of a stick, pushed about, and squeezed and kneaded for the spaceof four or five minutes, then lifted out and taken out of doors, and being tied together and the openings kept secure, that no feathers may escape, they must be hung over a lineand left to drain and dry. Several times a day the bags are to

be shaken up and turned over ; and as soon as the feathers appear to be * Liebig's Animal Chemistry.

( 23)

24

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-WINTER .

light and drying, which will not be the case for nearly a week , the bags

must be hung up during dry weather only, and taken in everynight. In about a fortnight the feathers will become perfectlysweet and ready for use ; and the water in which they were boiled will sufficiently indicate that this plan was not only necessary, but efficacious, in cleansing them from impurities which would else have rendered them useless.” As an

attestation of the practical efficacy of the plan, the lady adds, “ having tried the method ourselves, we can assure ourreaders of its eligibility.”" *

(1479.) In regard to the diseases of fowls, I can safely say that if fowls are attended to in a systematic manner, with wholesome food preparedfor them every day, and their roosting place kept clean and airy, very few diseases will affect them at any age.

(The reader will please remember that only Notes are promised to this “ Book of the Farm , " not dissertations. They are better placed in another part of this journal. On the subject of Poultry, when a country lad, not unobservant of all such things, our experi ence covered the whole ground ; and who that was thus reared does not retain in his memory ,

through life, lively associations as connected with this department of his juvenile sports and speca lations ? We have somewhere seen it said that Mr. WEBSTER's first investment was in a Dom.

inica cock, which he carried under his arm in a smart journey on foot, stopping to fight him against every cock that dared crow along the roadside ; and this, be it said en passant, is not the only point in which the “ Great Expounder " has evinced Soutbern propensities. On the sub ject of poultry management generally, our observation agrees, in the main , as to want of care and system , with what is here said .

In this case, as in many others badly conducted, common sense dictates all that is necessary to be borne in mind. In the first place, if the barn -yard, dung-hill and proper range of the poultry do not afford sufficient food to keep them in good, healthy and thriving condition, the deficiency

should be supplied with regularity ; for in this, as in all other instances, it should be a cardinal

maxim with every farmer, that whatever is worthy of being kept at all is worthy of being well kept. Be it a rule in regard to everything that engages your time and consumes your substance, that it be either cared for or killed ! Then, again, as to poultry, vermin and exposure to heat and cold are great obstacles to success in rearing them ; and of course too much attention cannot be paid to cleanliness and equable temperature. Farthermore, not one in twenty of husbandmen and housewives keep in their head, or otherwise, a register of the age of their breeding -fowls.

Having allowed them to commence breeding, they are usually left to die of age and disease , which must more or less infect the health of the whole flock . With poultry, as with sheep, to

keep them in sound condition, none should be allowed to survive a fixed age. When they have passed the period of the highest capacity as breeding -stock, they should be fatted for sale or con

sumption ; instead of which, everything is left to chance, and thus some poultry -yards that we bave seen , instead of presenting a lively, beautiful scene of varied and splendid plumage, rosy gills, sparkling eyes, and all animate with health , gallantry and courage, are more like hospitals des invalides, a drooping hen in one corner, and a sniffing cock in another. But, as we before said , this is no place for a treatise on Rearing Poultry. There is one, however, on Rearing Ducks,

published in the June, 1846, number of this journal, written by a very learned clergyman of Charleston, S. C., which every good housewife ought to have at her fingers' ends. In the matter

of different breeds of fowls, there is much room for indulging the imagination. It may be ranked among the “ fancy stocks.”

We have ourselves been fool enough to give $5 for a hen of the

Ostrich breed that would weigh 5 pounds as she sat on her roost ; but we agree in one thing with MOWBRAY, the author of a very cockney sort of a book on “ Pigs and Poultry,” that “Small-boned, well-proportioned poultry greatly excel the large -boned, long -legged kind, in color and fineness of flesh and delicacy of flavor; for it is beld good that, of all animals of the do.

mestic kind,those which have the smallest, cleanest, finest bones, arein general the best propor tioned, and are covered with the best and finest grained meat, besides being, in the opinion of

good judges, the most inclined to feed, andfattedwith the smallest proportionable quantity of food to the greatest comparative weight and size."

It is said that the Poland fowl, which is rather under size, jet black with top -knots, are the best layers ; but we should be disposed to rely on the true old “ game breed .” Mr. Colt has this top * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. x . There is a curious fact given , in Head's Home Tour, of the modes of plucking feathers off fowls of various kinds in a large poulterer's establishment in Lincoln .

(24)

WHEAT AND FLOUR .

- 25

knot breed milk -white. We have no doubt of the truth ofwhat the Author asserts, that " chick ens never eat more tenderly than when killed a short time before being dressed ; but if not so soon used, they should hang in the larder for three or four days in winter”- or in the ice- house in summer, say we.

This suggestion of cooking immediately on being killed, is probably against the general im . pression , but is nevertheless correct, as we happen to know by experience , and we are confi. dent the same may be said of butchers' meat. Cook immediately, or keep for some days. After

the animal gets dead cold, the first tendency of the fibre seems to be to get stringy and tough ; the next to relax and break up. The best fried chickens to be met with-what in the Eastern States they call, and esteem a great delicacy, “spring chickens " -- are to behad at the old -fashioned ,

ordinary -looking, but clean, well-kept turnpike-road tavern , 9 miles from Alexandria, D. C., on the road to Fairfax Court-House,kept by Mr. Gooding ; and there the process is, when the stage drives up to breakfast, the scullion counts noses, and away he runs to wring off chickens' heads

in a given proportion. They are then instantly scalded, picked and washed out clean in warm water ; then quartered and thrown into a pan of ready boiling, clean lard ; and being in a min

ate or two “ done brown,” are served up to the sharp -set passenger, hot and dry, not swimming again, as in most taverns, in dirty grease. In this way the fowl never gets cold, and is truly “as tender as a chicken .” The traveler gets his penny -worth, rabs down his abdominals, and in half

an hour goes his way, rejoicing that we live in a land of democratic liberty and abundance, sur veying as he goes one of the most glorious and the most abused and neglected régions that the sun shines upon .

Mr. Gooding, by the way, is esteemed a trump -card in his line, but in the majority of such cases we have observed that though it be the landlord who is ever foremost to receive the traveler

and run away with all the “ credit ” as well as the change, the good housewife is usually more Ed. Farm . Lib .]

than " half the battle .”

3. WHEAT AND FLOUR . * ( 1480.) Systematic writers on Agriculture, and most others, when treating of the various plants though this way of describing them seems a proper one, when different genera of plants have to be distinguished from each other ; yet when more varieties of the same species, and especially

usually cultivated on a farm , always describe their characteristicsin botanical phraseology; and

when those varieties are numerous, have to be treated of, a more natural method of des

cribing or classifying themseems desirable, so as they may easily be distinguished by other peo ple than botanists. Thus, Professor Low, when treating of wheat, enumerates 11 different subdi visionst which are cultivated , all which doubtless, possess distinct botanical characteristics ; but the distinctions betwixt these are not likely to be apprehended, far less applied, by the majority

of farmers ; and much less likely still are they to discriminate, with botanical accuracy, betwixt

the very numerous varieties that are now cultivated in differentparts of the empire. Mr. Law son has described 83 varieties of wheat f and Colonel Le Couteur mentions having in his posses sion, in 1836, no fewer than 150 varieties :// and the Museum of the Highland and Agricultural Society in Edinburgh possesses 141 varieties. exactness,would puzzle any farmer.

To distinguish between all these, with botanical

( 1481.) For this reason , it has occurred to me that some method should be established of re cognizing the different kinds of grain in use, by their external characters in the ear andin the grain. Colonel Le Couteur has given a classification of wheat involving the principle I have [* It may be of some satisfaction to the reader as he proceeds in the perasal of what is here said in reference to grains which constitute important staples of our own country, to have at hand a memorandum of the amount of each produced in the United States.

Thus, according to the Census of 1839, a very fallacious authority it is true, but the only one we have, the crop of Wheat in all the United States was 84,823,272 bushels. The largest crop in

any State was that of Ohio, being put down at 16,571,661 bushels. The second - Pennsylvania, 13,213,077, and the third on the list is that of New York, to wit : 12,286,418. By a Census of the State of New York, probably taken with more accuracy, under an Act of Assembly passed 7th May, 1845, it appears that the whole number of bushels harvested in the

State that year was 13,391,757 bushels, from 595,013 acres, or something less than 14 bushels to Ed . Farm . Lib .)

the acre .

| Low's Elements of Practical Agriculture.

# Le Couteur on Wheat. Dedication . (25)

| Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual, & Catalogue of the Museum .

26

THE BOOK OF THE FARM - WINTER .

mentioned, and he gives a similar reason for attempting it, when he says. “ No one has done so as a branch of Agriculture, in those plain terms which may be intelligible, not to the botanist or ecientific reader only, but to the great mass of farmers.” And the principal object he considers to be held in view , in attempting such a classification, is, that the nature and real qualities of each variety may be ascertained as to their properties for making bread . * (1482.) In prosecuting his ideas of a classification, Colonel Le Couteur divides all the varieties of wheat into two classes, namely, beardless and bearded . In so far he imitates the modern bota nists, who divide the cultivated varieties of wheat into the two divisions of barbatum and imberbe,

signifying the above characteristics; but, unfortunately for the stability of this division, the dis tinction is immutable, for some bearded wheats lose their beards on cultivation, and some beard less ones are apt tobecome bearded, when cultivated on poor soils and exposed situations. Some

of the other grains indicate a tendency to this sort of degeneracy, for even the potato-oat assumes & beard when sown a longtime on the same ground in a poorstate. He then subdivides beardless wheat into white, red, yellow, and liver-colored, smooth chaffed and velvet chaffed ; and the beard

ed he divides under the same colors. Some varieties of wheat are, no doubt, decidedly downy on the chaff, but others, again , are so little so that it is difficult to distinguish them from some of the roughest varieties of smooth chaffed ; and it is well known that the same wheat will be different. ly affected, in that respect, by the soil upon which it has been grown ; for a sharp soil has a ten dency to render the chaff and straw smoother and harder than a deaf soil, which has a tendency to produce soft and downy chaff and straw. This downiness, therefore, is not so fixed and im

portant a character as to be adopted to rank one great division of wheat under its denomination. The associating together the characters of wheat in grain and inthe ear, is also, in myopinion, injudicious, inasmuch asneither character separatelycan positively indicate the state ofthe other, as I shall soon show , and both are not required to indicate the flouring properties of any variety of wheat, in respect to its superiority in making bread . A baker will at once distinguish the grain which will afford the flour best suited for bread, but he could indicate nothing of its proper ties by an ear of wheat. Colonel Le Couteur puts down a liver-colored wheat, as a distinctive color, along with others. I confess I cannot distinguish this color ; for I never remember to have seen wheat of a liver -brown color. I think all the colors of wheat may be classed under two of

the primary colors, yellow and red, for even the whitest wheat has a tinge of yellow init, and the brownest wheat is deeply tinged with red ; but as white and red are the terms by which the co Fig. 302.

B

d

CLASSIFICATION OF WHEAT BY THE EAR.

EAR OF RYE .

lors ofwheat have been longest known, these should be retained . The variety of wheat which should form the standard of each color has never yet been settled ; but judging from the collection of wheat in the Highland and Agricultural Society's Museum , I should say that the Hungarian white wheat, a , fig. 358, indicates the purest white, and the blood-red wheat the purest red. * Le Couteur on Wheat.

(26)

WHEAT AND FLOUR.

27

(1483.) Were I to attempt to classify wheat by natural marks, I would make two classifica tions, one by the ear and the other by the grain, so that each could be described by its own char acteristics, and, if desirable, either could be illustrated by the characteristics of the other. In this

way confusion wouldbe avoidedbetween the characters of the ear and of the grain . The farm er who grows the wheat in the ear and sells it in the grain shouldbe acquainted with both ; but the baker, who is only acquainted with grain, knows nothing by the ear. Were he, however, to receive an ear of each variety of grain he purchased, he would be able to describe at once to

the farmerwhat particular variety afforded him the flour best suited for his purpose. (1484.) Wheat.- On examining the ears of wheat that have come under my notice, I think they thus: a is a close or compact eared wheat,which is occasioned by the spikelets being set near each other on the rachis or jointed stem , and this their position has a tendency to make the chaff short may be divided into the 3 classes as represented in fig. 302 , and which may be distinguished

and broad, andthe spikelets areso also. This figure, as well as the others, shows the ear half the

natural size. This specimen of the close-eared wheat is Hickling's Prolific. The second class of ears is seen at b, the spikelets being of medium length and breadth, and placed just so close upon the rachis as to screen it from view . The ear is not so broad, but longer than a. The chaff is of medium length and breadth . This specimen is the well known Hunter's white wheat. Thu third class is seen at с, the spikelets of which are set open , or so far asunder as to permit the rachis to be easily seen between them . The ear is about the same length as the last specimen, but is

much narrower. The chaff is long and narrow . This is a specimen of Le Couteur's Bellevue Talavera white wheat. These three classes of varieties constitute the Triticum sativum im berbe of botanists, that is, all the varieties of the beardless cultivated wheat. Formerly they were

divided by botanists into Triticum hybernum or winter wheat, and Triticum æstivum or sum mer wheat; but experience has proved that the summer wheat, so called, may be sown in win ter, and the winter wheat sown in summer, and both thrive. Paxton says that Triticum is de rived from " tritum , rubbed ; in allusion to its being originally rubbed down to make it eatable.* It is of the natural order Graminee, and of the third class Triandria, and second order Digynia, of the Linnæan system . (1485.) In d, fig . 302, is represented a bearded wheat, to show the difference of appearance

which the beard gives to the ear. The bearded wheats are generally distinguished by the long

shape ofthe chat and the open position of the spikelets, andtherefore fall under the third class. But cultivation has not only the effect of decreasing the strength of the beard, but of setting the

spikelets closer together, as in the specimen of thewhite Tuscany wheat, shownat d in the cut, which is considered the most compact eared and improved variety of bearded wheat. Bearded wheat constitutes the second division of cultivated wheat of the botanists, under the title of Tri ticum sativum barbatum . The term bearded wheat is used synonymously with spring wheat, but erroneously, as some beardless wheat is as fit for sowing in spring as bearded, and some beard. ed may be sown in winter. Figure e is a specimen of rye.

( 1486.)Inregard toclassifying wheat bythe grain , on observinga great variety of forms, I think they, as wellas the ears, may all be classed under 3 heads. Thefirst class is shown at a , fig. 303, where all the grains are short, round, and plump, with the bosom distinctly enough marked, and well filled up. In the cut, the

Fig. 303.

grain to the left is seen with the me

dian line along its bosom ; another, below it, with the round or opposite side lying undermost ; and the third and fourth show the germ and radi cal ends respectively . All fine white

& wheats belongto this class, and they are enclosed in short, round, and

generally white chaff, which, when ripe, becomeso expanded as to en danger the falling out of the grain. Very few red wheats belong to this class.

CLASSIFICATION OF WHEAT BY THE GRAIN .

In reference to the ear, this

class is found in short-chaffed and broad spikelets, which are generally compact. The specimen here is Hungarian white wheat. The second class is represented by b, where the grains are long and of medium size, that is, longer and larger than the grains of the first class. The chaff is also medium sized .In reference to the ear, it is of the medium standard, inrespect to breadth and closeness of spikelets, though medium sized grain is not confined to this sortof ear ; for it is found in the compact ear ,as in Hickling's Prolific white and red wheat, as well as in the open ear, such as the red Dantzic creeping wheat. Most of the red wheats belong to this class of grain , though

many of the white medium sized - such as Hunter's white -- also belong to it. This specimen is The figure at c, fig. 303, represents the third form of grain , which is large and long to a greater degree than the last class. Its chaff is long, and in reference to the ear, the spikelets are gener ally open , though , in the case ofthisspecimen, the Odessalong whitewheat,the ear is medium sized , though the chaff is longas well as the grain. The three sorts of wheat in the cut are all the Caucasian red wheat, whose ear is bearded, and belongs to the open -spiked class c, fig . 302,

placed in similar positions, and are ofthe natural size. (1487.) It will be seen from what has been stated, that no direct relation exists between the ear and the grain ; that the compact ear does not always produce the round grain nor the white wheat; that in the medium ear is not always found the medium -sized grain ; and that the open ear does not always produce the large, long grain . But still, there exist coincidents which

* Paxton's Botanical Dictionary, Triticum . See also Hooker's British Flora, Edition of 1831. ( 27)

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-WINTER .

28

connect the chaff and the grain. For example, the length of the choff indicates the length of the grain, upon whatever sort of ear it may be found ; and , generally, the color of the chaff deter. pact. On wishing, therefore, to determine the sort of grain which any number of ears of different

mines that of the grain. As also , theopening spikelet bears grain of coarser quality than the com kinds of wheat may contain, it is theform and color ofthe chaff that determines the point, and not whether the ear carries compact, medium , or open spikelets, or whether it be bearded or beard less, or whether it be woolly or smooth. (1488.) But a more important consideration than its classification, in regard to wheat, is the

mode of judging it, to ascertain the purposes to which it may be best employed, in the partic. ular condition in which it may be seen. These purposes are, for seed and and for the making of flour ; whether the flour is to be employed in the manufacture of bread or of confections, or in some of the arts, such as starch -making. In its best condition, all wheat, whether red or white, small or large, long or round, should appear plump within its skin, not in the least shriveled or shrunk. The skin should be fine and smooth, not in the least scaly oruneven in itssurface. The color, be what tint it may, should be bright and lively and uniform , not in the least dull,bleached, or

party-colored. The grains should all be of the same size and form , not short and long, round and long, small and large. The grains should be quite perfect; there should be no bruises, or holes,

or dried rootlets hanging from the dimpled end, or woolly appendage from the other end. If per fect in all these respects, wheat is fitted for any purpose, and may be purchased by the general merchant. For particular purposes additional properties may be regarded.

(1489.). When wheat is quite opaque, indicating not the least translucency, it is in the best state for yielding the finest flour, such four as confectioners use for pastry ; and in this state it will be

eagerly purchased by them at a large price. Wheat in this state contains the largest proportion of fecula or starch, and is therefore best suited to the starch -maker, as well as the confectioner. On

the other hand , when wheat is translucent, [partially transparent,] seemingly hard and Ainty, it is boldly with yeast into a spongy dough ; or in other words, the wheat then contains the largest

best suited to the common baker, as affording what is called strong flour ; that is, flour that rises proportion of gluten. Bakers will, therefore, give more for good wheat in this state than in the opaque; but for bread of first quality the flour should be fine as well as strong, and therefore

a mixture of the two conditions of wheat is best suited for making the best quality of bread. Bakers, when they purchase their own wheat, are in the habit ofmixing wheats that respectively possess those qualities; and millers who are in the habit of supplying bakers with flour, mix such wheats and grind them together for the special purpose . Some sorts of wheat, however carefully they may have been preserved pure, naturally possess buth these properties, and on that account are great favorites with bakers, though not so with confectioners ; and I presume, to this mixed

property is to be ascribedthe great popularity which Hunter's white wheat has so long enjoyed. We hear of “ high mixed ” Dantzic wheat,which has been so mixed for the purpose, and is in high repute among bakers. Generally speaking, the lightest -colored white wheats indicate most opacity, and of course yield the finest flour, and red wheats are most flinty, and therefore yield the strongest flour ; for a translucent red wheat will yield stronger flour than a translucent white wheat, and yet a red wheat never realizes so high a price in the market as white, because it con tains alarger proportion of refuse in grinding. ( 1490.) For seed , the dimpled end of the grain should be distinctly marked, and the site from

which the rootlets issue should be rather prominent; and the end from which the bladesprings should be covered with a slight degree ofwooliness orbairiness. The protuberances of the root lets and woolly ends should not have been rubbed off by any process, such as sheeling, as the

grain is thereby rendered unfit for seed by being deprived of its vitality. Nor should the grain have been kiln -dried, because that process may also deprive it of vitality, and its effects may partly be detected in the undue hardness of the grain. and partly also from the smoky flavor which the grain has acquired. But hardness alone is not a sufficient criterion, as some wheats become much harder in drying than others ; and in some parts of the ent, such as on the shores of the Mediterranean, some wheats are naturally so hard as to induce that in the ordinary state to be called soft. If no smokiness can be detected in the flavor, the surest test of

existing vitality, when time is allowed to apply it,is to germinate the wheat near the fire, in a glass, among as much water as will swell the grains. it

(1491.) Damaged wheat may be detected in various ways. If it has been in sea-water,although may not be enlarged by moisture, it can never lose the saline taste ; andalthough it may have

been washed in fresh water and dried in a kiln, still the washing gives it a bleached appearance, and the subsequent drying may be detected by either the smell or the taste. Wheat that has been

sheeled, to make it look roundand plump, may be detected by the appearance of the endsbeing rubbed down. Wheat that has been heatedin the stack, though not affectedin color, will taste bitter on being chewed. Wheat that has been long in the granary appears dull and dirty , though

it may have been passed through the fanners ; and although it may not have been injured, it always contracts a musty smell. Wheat is liable to the attacks of insects in the granary, which breed within its shell and eat the kernel. This mode of destruction, occasioned by the weevil,is easily detected by the grain feeling light in hand, and the holes may easily be seen from which the perfect insect has made its escape. Germinated, swollen, burst, bruised grains, as well as the admixture of other kinds ofgrain and seeds, are easily detected by the eye.

( 1492.) Difference of opinion exist in regard to the best mode of preserving wheat in granaries. The usual practice is to shovel theheap over from the bottom every few weeks, according to the dryness or dampness of the air, or heator coldness of the atmosphere. In this mode of treatment, a free ventilation of the air is requisite in the granary, and the worst state of the atmosphere for the grain is when moist and warm . Extreme heat or extreme cold are preservatives of grain . The practice of others is not to turn over their wheat at all, but to keep it in very thickmasses,reaching

from the floor to the ceiling, and quite in the dark. No doubt, if air could be excluded effectually from a granary , the grain could be preserved in it without farther trouble ; and agood plan of ex. cluding the air entirely seems to be to heap the wheat as thick together as possible. There is as (28)

29

WHEAT AND FLOUR.

little doubt,however, that wheat which has been kept long in heap without turning, retains its color in a fresher state than that which is frequently turned ; and a good plan for preserving the color seems to be to keep wheat in the dark. The ancients used to preserve grain many

years, to serve for foodwhen years of famine overtook them . When Joseph was in Egypt, wheat was preserved for seven years in the stores ; but this might not be adifficult matter in so dry a

climate as Egypt ; and in Sicily, Spain, and in the northern parts of Africa, pits were wont to be formed in the ground to preserve grain ; and the Romans were so impressed with the necessity ofpreserving grain, that they took great pains in the construction of their granaries, which are related to have keep wheat for 50 and millet for 100 years. But as to the farmer, the question how wheat is best preserved in granaries should little affecthim, as the best way of keeping his wheat is in the straw in the stack ; and when the stacks are threshed for the straw , he should dis

pose of his wheat immediately, and take the current market prices. In a series of years, during the currency of a lease, this ishis safest practice ; and besidessecuring him , in the long run, of an average price, it saveshim a great deal of trouble in looking after the grain, and agreat deal of vexation when prices fall below their expected amount. Two friends of mine, farmers, were both great losers by keeping wheat of their own growth on speculation. They each stored three

years' crop, and thoughoffered £6 a quarter for it, they kept it with the view of obtaining more, but were never offered so much again ; and after prices dropped gradually to 65s. and were not likely to rise immediately , they sold off the whole stock . Such is most likely to be the fate of most farmers who speculate in wheat, even of their own growth ; but when they venture on purchasing the wheat of others, they forego their proper profession, and become merchants,

and thence become involved in the intricacies of trade, of which they must be quite ignorant ; and probably only become sensible oftheir ignorance after feeling the effects of their temerity.

(1493.) Wheat is preparedfor the use of man by being ground into flour. The machinery used for grinding wheat, consists of a number of parts, each of which performs its separate work, and they are all strongly constructed. The first process which wheat undergoes in grinding, is inbeing put through the sheeling cylinder, which rubs off any extraneous matter belonging or adhering to the outer skin of the grain, and separates every foreign matter from the wheat. In

this process the wheat is made shorter in length, brighter in color,and freed from every impurity . Thequantity of black, suffocating dust which flies off from the cylinder in the process of sheeling, and the seeds and other substances which are separated from the grain, are collected together, surprise every one, who has never witnessed the process, how such impurities can have proceeded from an apparently clean sample. After the sheeling, the prepared wheat is put into a large hop per, whichconveys it to two millstones of French burr, to be ground . In the grinding, the wheat is converted into flour, which still contains all the ingredients of the wheat, and has acquired a high degree of temperature. In order to cool it, which should be done as quickly as possible, it is immediately carried to the well ventilated cooling-room , to be spread upon its wooden floor, and turned frequently over with a wooden shovel, should the grist have been so large as tocause it to be laid thick on the floor. After it has been thoroughly cooled, it is made to descend from the cooling -room , by a hopper, into the bolting or dressing cylinder, in which it is separated

into its respective parts by being brushed through wire-cloth of different sizes. These parts usually consist of firsts,or fine flour ; of seconds, or second flour; of thirds, or sharps ; of broad or coarsebran , and of fine bran. Sometimes the coarse bran only is taken from the flour, which is then

said to be ground overhead, and makes good coarse household bread. Sometimes the fine bran is taken out from the overhead flour, and the coarse flour makes a sweet coarse bread. On the other hand, a smaller quantity of the fine is taken out of the bulk of flour, in order to make the finest as fine as possible, and this is used for pastry and fancy bread ; and in this case, the seconds flour becomes finer, and makes the seconds loaf of superior quality . More or less of fine flour is taken out in dressing, by merely shifting a binged board under the dressing cylinder, so as to em brace a larger or smaller space of the upper or finer portion of the wire -cloth of the cylinder.

When a large proportion of the bulk ismade into first four, this flour is not fine, and the seconds flour is thereby reduced in quantity, and made coarser. The sbarps, or that portion which con sists of the heart of the grain, and which is broken and escapes from between the millstones, are used by biscuit-bakers. The first or broad bran is used for bran -mashes, and mixing with horse corn , and the fine bran is employed to feed poultry and pigs. As you have seen that the butchers

of London cut up carcasses of meat in a greater number of pieces than those ofthis country ; so the millers there dress the flourin a greater number — no less than seven distinct - sorts. These sorts are thus divided from the flour of a quarter of wheat of 8 bushels :t Fine flour...

Seconds Fine middlings .

Coaree middlings.

50 bushels 3 pecks. | Bran 2 Twenty -penny. 1

0 0

Pollard .

3 bushels ( pecks. 3 2

0

..

02

...14 bushels 24 pecks.

Total..

Bo that grinding nearly doubles the bulk of flour and bran above that of the wheat.

(1494.) Whether flour is properly ground, is judged of on being taken into the hand as it falls [1 Boussingault found as much as 38} per cent. of husk or bran on a Winter Wheat, grown in the Botanic Garden of Paris. Three lots of good English Wheat, ground at Mr. Robson's mill, in Durham . gave-per cent. respectively : Fine Flour

Borings Sharps

..74.2 9-0 5.8

75.1 8 :3 6.6

77.9 | Bran ... 6.1 | Waste 5-6

Total

7.8 3.2 100

70 3.0 100

6.9 3 :5 100

Ed. Farm . Lib .] * Dickson's Husbandry of the Ancients , vol. ii. See Ure's Dictionary of the Arts, art. Millstones, for an account of this remarkable substance .

(29)

30

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-WINTER .

from the spout leading from millstones. It is rubbed by the thumb against the side of the fore-finger, andif it feel pleasantly smooth , without being greasy or rough, itis well. When the

outer edges ofthe millstones are set too close, the flour feels greasy, because it has been toomuch bruised - or killed, as it is termed-and it does not then easily rise with yeast in the making of

bread. When the stones are set too far asunder, the grain accumulates under the eye of the mill. stone, and is there broken , which breaking prevents the skin of the grain being separated from the substance, and the consequence is, that the bran feels thick, rough, and heavy, and there is much waste of substance. Whether flour is properly dressed, is ascertained in the same way, by rub.

bing the fine flour between the thumb and fore-finger, and if it feel smooth and evennot in the „east rough or gritty, it is well. To judgestill farther whether the flour has been perfectly dressed, if, on being pressed with a polished article, such as the back of a plain gold or silver watch,or the back of a silver spoon, the smooth -pressed surface present no minute brown spots of bran to a

good sight, it is cleandressed ; and if any such cannot be detected byagood magnifying-glass, it is as perfectly dressed as practicable with the present form of the machinery . When the large bran is inspected, and it is found to be entirely skin and no white substance of the wheat adher ing to it, the grinding has been well executed ; and in this state the bran, on being thrown up. ward, will fall lightly toward the ground, being in large, thin flakes. The small bran has always a part of the substance of the wheat attached to it ; because it is chiefly derived from the groove which forms the bosom of the grain, and is only generated after the large bran has been sloughed off, and a portion of the grain itself ground down to the level of the groove. There is no means ofjudging whether any parcel of flour will make good bread, the flour of theopaque and flinty wheats being undistinguishable from one another, and it is perhaps this difficulty which induces bakers to buy wheat, and get it made in flour on their own account; otherwise the simplest plan for them would be tobuythe sort of flour they want. On account of this practice of the bakers, many of the flour millers in Scotland grind only on hire.

(1495. ) Flour is put up in what are called sacks of 280 lbs., or 20 stones (of 14 pounds) imperial. It is rendered firm in the sack by the sack being occasionally beaten against the floor by means of a fork -lever, when filling at the spout leading from the dressing machine. Of wheat weighing about 64 lbs. per bushel, 4į or 5 bushels will be required to make a sack of fine flour. Of the fine crop of 1815, I remember of the late Mr. Brown, Whitsome Hill, Berwickshire, selling to Mr. Mackay, of ClarabudMill, in the same county ,800 bolls, or 4,800 bushels of red Dantzic creeping wheat, which weighed 27 stones per boll, or 63 lbs. per bushel, and yielded 24 stones of fine flour, and only 3 stones of refuse — that is,only one-ninth of refuse of the entire weight. * I find the fine white wheat used by the bakers of Edinburgh yields 13 } stones of 14 lbs. of flour from 4 bushels,

weighing18 sts., and 2 stones of odd, seconds, parings, sharps, and waste, and 2} sts. of bran. ( 1496.) Many devices are practiced to adulterate flour. I remember a miller in Cornwall being fined in very heavy penalties for adulterating his flour with the washed felspar obtained from the disintegration of the granite of his neighborhood. Potato flour and bean four are mixed with wheat flour, and though not positively unwholesome, or perhaps unlawful, are frauds when so

used, as being articles of inferior value to the flour of wheat. There are modes, however,of detecting any kind of adulteration . “ If potato flour be added," says Dr. Ure, “ which is fre

quently done in France,since a vessel which contains 1 lb. of wheat flour will contain 1 } lbs. of potatoflour,the proportion ofthisadulterationmaybeeasily,estimated . Ifgypsumorground bones be mixed with flour, they will not only increase its density still more, but they will remain after burning away the meal." “Bean or pea flour may be detected by pouring boiling water prop upon it, which develops the peculiar smell of these two substances.” “ Nitric acid has the

erty of coloring wheat flour of a fineorange yellow ,whereas it does not affect the color of potato flour." “Pure muriatic acid colors wheat Hour of a deep violet, but dissolves potato fecula ." * “ As fecula absorbs less water than flour, this affords a ready means of detection.” " Alum may be detected in bread by treating the bread in water, and pouring a few drops of nitrate or muriate of barytes in it, when a heavy white precipitate will follow , indicating the presence of sulphuric acid.” “ Guaiacum ," says Dr. Thomson ," is rendered blue by various animal and vegetable substances. It becomes blue, according to Tadei , when rubbed in the state of powder with gluten of wheat , or with the farina which it contains .”! If a little of this gum and water be put among flour, it is a very good and easy test of its soundness when the four becomes blue. “ It has been found so difficult to detect the adulteration of flour,” remarks Mr. Babbage , “and to measure its good qualities, that, contrary to the maxim that Government can generally pur. chase any article at a cheaper rate than that at which they can manufacture it, it has been consid . ered more economical to build extensive flour-mills, and to grind their own corn, than to verify

each sack purchased, and to employ persons in continually devising methods of detecting the new modes of adulteration which might be resorted to ." || (1497.) Any one may analyze flour in this way : “ A ductile paste is to be made with 1 lb. of

flour and a sufficient quantity of water, and left at rest for an hour ; then having laid across a bowl a piece of silken sieve stuff a little below the surface of the water in the bowl,the paste is to be laid on the sieve, on a level with the water, and kneaded tenderly with the hand, so as merely to wash the starchy particles out of it. . The water must be several times renewed, until it ceases to become milky. The gluten remains on the sieve.”'S (1498.) The analysis of wheat and flour by the celebrated Vauquelin gave the following re sults. Itmay be observed, however,of the wheat and flour subjected to this analysis, that they

were of foreigngrowth , and the results cannot be adopted for practical purposes in this country, as if they had been obtained from British wheat and flour. " " In general,” says Davy, “ the * As an instance ofthe great fluctuation inthe price of wheat occasioned by a difference in seasons, I may mention that part of this fine wheat was sold in 1815 for 328. per boll of 6 bushels, or 58. 4d. per bushel ; And in August. 1816, a very wet season, part was sold for 105s.per boll, or 178. 6d . per bushel. Ure's Dictionaryof the Arts, art. Flour of Wheat. † Thomson's Organic Chemistry, Vegetables. | Babbage on the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. $ Ure's Dictionary of the Arts,art. Bread . ( 30 )

31

WHEAT AND FLOUR .

wheat of warm climates abounds more in gluten . and in insoluble parts; and it is of greater spe cific gravity, harder, and more difficult to grind.'**

COMPONENTS.

French wheat.

Odessa hard

Odessa soft

Flour of

Do. of good quality , and Ditto, in public inferior

Ditto .

Paris bakers .

72.00 7.30 5.42 3:30

72.8 10.2 4.2 2.8

71.2

wheat.

wheat.

71.49

56-5

10.96

14.55

62.00 12.00

Sugar .

4.72

8.48

[ Gom ... Bran Water .

3:32

4.90 2.30

7.56 5.80 1.20

10.00

12.00

10.00

12.00

107.49

98.73

98.56

100 : 02

establish

kind.

ments .

Starch Gluten ...

Total..

67.78

10:3

9.02

4.8 3.6

4.80

10.0

8.0

12.00

100.0

97.9

100.207

4.60 2.00

It appears that Odessa wheat contains more sugar than French wheat. The gluten mentioned

here is a mixture of gluten and albumen. The gum has a brown color, and contains azote. It is the glaten which gives to a mixture offlour and water its tenaciousness, ductility, and elasti city, and formsthe nourishing property of loaf-bread. Gluten has a great resemblance to animal tendon or membrane, containing no less than 141 per cent. of azote. When subjected to ferment ation, which is of a peculiar character, and has thereby obtained the appellation of panary fer mentation, a considerable volume of carbonic acid gas is evolved, but which is retained in the mass of the dough by the tenacity of the gluten . Thus confined during its evolution, the gas ex

pands the dough to nearly double its pristine volume, and gives it its vesicular texture ; and it is the infinite number ofthesecellules , filled with carbonicacid gas, and apparently lined with a glutinous membrane of a silky softness, that gives to the well-baked loaf that light, elastic, po rous constitution which good bread always possesses.f

(1499.) Leaven was at first used to producethe fermentation spoken of in dough . It is nothing more than a piece of dough kept in a warm place until it undergoes a process of fermentation, swelling, becoming spongy, or full of air bubbles, at length disengaging an acidulo-spiritous va por, and contracting a sour taste. A much better promoter of the panary fermentation is yeast,

whichis theviscidfroth that rises on the surface of beer in the first stage of its fermentation. (1500.) With good wheaten flour, the proportion given by the bakers to make bread is * weight 'of flour and 4 of yeast, water, and salt. The bread loses 1-7 of its weight in baking. With these proportions, a sack of flour of 280 lbs. yields 92 loaves of 4 lbs. each, {368 pounds.] (1501.) It is not unusual for farmers to bake their household bread, and it may be done in this

way : Take, say 24 lbs.of flour, whether fine or ground overhead, and put it in a hollow clay dish . Make a deep hollow in the middle of it ; and sprinkle a handfull of salt over it. Then take

| a pint of thick, sweet, fresh, well washed yeast, about 5 quarts of milk -warm water, from 650 to 70° Fahr., and a pint of bran, and stir them together in a pitcher. Toohot water will stop, and too cold will prevent fermentation . Pour the water and yeast over the flour through a sieve, and, mixing all lightly together, set the mass before thefire, covering it with a cloth . Light the oven fire, and bring itto a due heat. In about an hoar the sponge will have risen sufficiently, when it should be kneaded with considerable force for about 15 or 20 minutes. Thedough should not be worked too stiff, though it requires to be a little stiffer when the loaves are fired on their own

soles than when fired in pans. The kneaded dough is again set before the fire, and covered with a cloth as before, when a new fermentation ensues, which will have proceeded far enough when the dough increases half more in bulk, that is, in about an hour, when the dough is portionedout into the size of the loaves desired, and placed in the oven to be fired. If the oven is too hot, the dough will be incrusted on the surface too much and too soon , and if too cold, the bread will

be heavy, and not rise sufficiently in the firing. Experience must teach these particulars. This (1502.) The danger of making the bread sour is incurred between the first and second processes

quantity will make 31 lbs. of bread.

of fermentation . In the first it is the vinous fermentation, which of itself is innocent. but if in creased heat isapplied. or the sponge allowed to stand too long, it is apt to run into the acetous fermentation. This tendency is checked during the first process by kneading the dough in time. If, however, the second fermentation is allowed to continue longer than it should be, the acetous

fermentation will rapidly appear, and then the bread will inevitably be sour unless some coun teracting expedient is adopted,such as the application of an alkali, as carbonate of soda, or of an alkaline earth , as magnesia or chalk. It is certainly better to employ these neutralizing ingredi ents than to allow the batch of bread to become sour, but better still to use the means of making

the batch into sweet bread than to rectify that acidity in it which ought never to have overtaken it; and the means of avoiding acidity are, to make the sponge fresh in the morning, a short time before the bread is to be fired, and not to allow it to stand over night in the kitchen , in a low tem

perature. I speak from experience, and can safely aver that with these precautions not a sour [ Under more appropriate heads, shall we note the results of a great variety of more modern experiments and analyses, touching this important subject in every light. Professor Johnston is of opinion that the quantity of gluten contained in English Wheat has generally been stated

much too high. He concludes, on a view of all that has been said and done, that the quantity of Ed. Farm . Lib.] gluten in English flour is seldom more than ten per cent.] Davy's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, Edition of 1839. Thomson's Organic Chemistry, Vegetables. (31)

3 :2

THE BOOK OF THE FARM - WINTER .

loaf was seen in my house for many years. I do not say that a sponge left over night must be come sour, but only that it is much more apt to become so than when fresh made . When the

second fermentation is allowed to proceed too far, both the lactic and acetic acids are formed ; the former most sensibly affects the taste, and the latter the smell ; and both combine to make bread sour.

(1503.)atBrewer’s makes lightest and best yeast for family use,manner. and what" of it may not As this sub beused one timebarm may be keptthe sweet for some weeks in the following stance works out of the barrels, it should be placed in deep pans, and left to settle for a day or

two. The thin fluid should then be poured off, and the pan filled with cold fresh spring water, stirring the thick yeast well up. Every day this operation is to be repeated, and occasionally it ought to be strained through a sieve into another vessel. It will thus always be ready for use.' Experience alone can tell whether the scent or appearance of yeast procured at a brewery are those the most desirable ; but these hints may prove useful. If it be fit for the purpose, it will smell rather fragrant; if stale it will have a strong acid, and slightly putrid scent. In this state , we have known it to be recovered and rendered available, by adding a tea -spoonfull of flour, the 6.

same of sugar, a salt-spoonfull of salt, and a tea -cupfull ofwarm water, toa 1 pint of yeast, and set ting it near the fire to rise, having well stirred it. This should be done about an hour before it is intended to be mixed with the flour; for thattime is required in order to watch whether the fermen .

tative principle is strong enough to work the bread. In a quarter of an hour, the mass will have nearly reached its hight, and a fine head will have formed . This must be looked at carefully. If it continue up and appear opaque, it may be trusted ; but if it go back,' that is, sink, look hól. low and watery, and the bubbles break, it will infallibly spoil the batch ; it must be thrown away: Branought always to be used, however fresh and good the ferment may be found. Bran

contains an acid principle which tends to subdue the bitter taste of the hop, and it also possesses much fermentative matter that assists the action of the yeast.” In this way , 16 we have ourselves baked bread that was made with the barın for our own home-brewed beer for six successive weeks ; not from necessity, but in order to ascertain the extent of time to which yeast miglit be kept sweet." *

(1504,) It is assumed by some people, that a mixture of potatoes among wheaten flour ren ders bread lighter and more wholesome. That it will render bread whiter I have no doubt ; but

I have as little doubt that it will render it more insipid, and more than this, it is demonstrable that its use is less economical than wheaten flour. Thus, take a bushel of “ seconds” flour,

weighing 56 lbs. at 58. 6d. A batch of bread, to consist of 21 lbs., will absorb as much water, and require as much yeast and salt, as will yield 7 loaves, of 4 lbs. each, for 2s. 4d . per loaf.

“ If,

instead of 7 lbs. of the flour, the same weight of raw potatoes be substituted, with the hope of yielded will be but a trifle more than would have been producedfrom 14 lbs. offlour only, with out the addition of the 7 lbs. of potatoes ; for the starch of this root is the onlynutritive part, and we have proved that but 1-7 or of it is contained in every pound, the remainder being water saving by the comparatively low price of the latter article, the quantity of bread that will be

and innutritive matter. Only 20 lbs. of bread, therefore, instead of 28 lbs., will be obtained ; and this, though white, will be comparatively flavorless, and liable to become dry and sour in a

few days; whereas, without the latter addition, bread made in private families will keep well for 3 weeks, though, after a fortnight, it begins to deteriorate, especially in the autumn." The cal culation of comparative cost is thus shown : Flour, 14 lbs., say at 14d. per lb.... Potatoes, 7 lbs., say at 58. per sack. Yeast and fuel...

1s . 5 d . 0

2

0

41

28. Od .

The yield 20 lbs., or 5 loaves of 4 lbs. each, will be nearly 5d. each, which is dearer than the wheaten loaves,which were 4d. each ,and the bread besides of inferior quality. “ There are persons who assert — for we have heard them — that there is no economy in baking at home. An accurate and constant attention to the matter, with a close calculation of every week's results for several years-a calculation induced by the sheer love of investigation and experiment - enable us to as. sure our readers that a gain is invariably made of from 1 d. to 2d. on the 4d. loaf. If all be in trusted to servants , we do not pretend to deny that the waste may neutralize the profit; but, with

care and investigation, we pledge our veracity that the saving will prove to be considerable . ”+ These are the observations of a notable wife house

.

&&

( 1505.) The microscope has ascertained the structure of wheaten flour. • The largest grains of the fecula of wheat,” says Raspail, “ do not generally exceed .002 of an inch in eize. They are

spherical, and along with them we see empty and torn membranes, resulting from the bruising of the grains by the mill. They are much smaller, rounder, and better preserved, when they are extracted from the grain while it is greenish, and not ripened on the stalk .”. “ Panification, he observes, "is a process whose object is to burst all thegrains of fecula , which are in the fa. rina, associated with a very fermentable substance called gluten. The finest and best baked bread is what is made of farina abounding in an elastic gluten ; for this gluten, rising in large

blisters by the dilatation of the gases imprisoned within it, allows each feculent grain to partici pate in the communication of the heat, and to burst, as it would by boiling. Hence, after panifi cation, ifthe paste has been well kneaded, we do not find a single grain of fecula entire . The

bread will be duller and less properly baked, if it contains less of this gluten. This is the rea . son why, other circumstances beingalike, the bread of rye and barley is less nourishing than that of wheat. Wheaten bread will likewise be heavier and less perfect, according as the flour has been more or less mixed with other grain or with fecula . It has been observed,” be continues, " that the more of foreign fecula we mix with flour the less increase of weight does * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ix .

(32)

f Ibid. vol. ix .

33

WHEAT AND FLOUR.

the bread acquire. Thus, 6 lbs. of flour produce 8 lbs. of bread ; but 3 lbs. of fecula of the po

tato , with 3 lbs. of flour, produce only 6 lbs. of bread. The reason of this is the following : The grains of fecula do not imbibe the water, but only are moistened by it ; in other words, it only adheres to them. The gluten , on the other hand, imbibes it as a sponge would do, and the more it is kneaded the more it imbibes, and the wa:er thus imbibed adds to the weight of the bread. There are two reasons, then, against this sort of mixtures ; and this adulteration, though it be not a crime, is still a fraud, because the immediate result of it is to diminish at once the weight and the nutritive quality of the bread .” Thus the minutest scientific research corrobo rates factsevolved by practice.

(1506.)Wheatcontains more gluten than any ofthe other grains,and it is thissubstance which confers the relative value on wheat as an article of food. It is most developed when used “ If we prepare two masses of gluten by kneading," says Raspail, 16 we

in the form of bread.

shall not be able to make them unite by simple contact; but if we tear open the side of each, and

bring the edges together, the smallest effort will be sufficient to unite the two masses into one. The object of kneading , then, is to press the two edges of the glutinous parcels against each other. Hence the quantity of gluten will vary according to the mode of kneading employed, Thus Beccaria, who contented himself with placing the farina in a sieve, and keeping it under a stream of water, but without stirring it, obtained less gluten than Kesselmeyer, who, in the first place, made a paste of the farina, and then kneaded it continually under a stream of water, till the water ceased to pass off milky. In the former process, the weight of the water falling on the

farina brought a few parcels together, but kept asunder or disunited the greater number, which consequently passed through the sieve. In the second process, on the contrary, the hand in kneading compressed, turned in every direction, and brought together by every point of contact, the scattered parcels, and scarcely allowed the water to carry off anything but the round and simooth grains of fecula. I have ever found that, in this process, we obtain more or less gluten, according as the paste is pressed in different ways; for when it is merely compressed perpendic. ularly, we lose a good deal more of the gluten than when it is rolled upon itself with some force." (1507.) In regard to the nutritive properties of gluten, there is no doubt they are of a superior order, though not for the reason ascribed by Magendie, who concluded that gluten is nutritious because sugar, which contains no nitrogen, could not support dogs in life beyond a certain time ; while Parmentier was led to infer that gluten remains undigested . " But who does not perceive," justly asks Raspail, “ that animals till then accustomed to live on flesh, must suffer on being all at once deprived of this aliment, just as a horse would suffer from being fed on flesh instead of

hay ; for as digestion is a complex operation,why should we seek to study it by violating its ele. ments ? Sugar will not ferment by itself- why, then, expect that it should ferment without albu meu in the stomach ? . If this mode of experimenting entitle us to erase sugar, oil, and gum from the list of nutritive substances, we must also erase pure gluten and even pure albumen ;

for it an animal be fed on them alone it will die just as certainly as ifit had been fedexclusively on sugar.

This is one of these questions," he concludes, " in which both sides are wrong, and the

truth lies in blending the opposite opinions together. Neither gluten nor sugar, taken singly, is ( 1508. ) Wheat is used in starch -making. “ In starching linen,” says Raspail, “the fecula of the potato, of the horse-chestnut, &c. may be used, as well as that of wheat ; and it may be used either hot or cold, in the state of starch or of powder. The effect will be the same, provided the irons used be sufficiently heated. It is sufficient to mix the fecula with a little water, to dip the linen in it, clapping it with the hand, and to apply the hot iron while the linen is still noist. The graius of fecula will burst from the action of the heat, the membranes will dilate as they com bine with a portion of the water that is present, the soluble mass will be freely dissolved in the rest of it, and the linen will be starched and dried by one process. " . Fecula is used in making size for paper as well as glue ; and “ it is known that weavers are obliged, in order to preserve

nutritive ; but they become alimentary when united.”

the humidity of the batter used in dressing the threads, to work habitually in low, damp, and

consequently unwholesome places. Dubuc, an apothecary at Rouen, proposed to add to the rressing a deliquescent chloride, which, by attracting the moisture of the air, might prevent the drying of the batter, and thus admit of the workman carrying on his labor in drier and more

healthy places. Vergnaud recommends the use of the fecula of the horse -chestnut, which con

tains a proportion of potash sufficient to prevent the batter from drying." *

“ The wheat of the

south of Europe, in consequence of the larger quantity of gluten it contains, is peculiarly fitted an excellence.”'t The macaroni is formed into different sized tubes, by the dough being pressed

for making macaroni and other preparations ofHour, in which a glutinous quality is considered as fron a machine in broad fillets, the edges of which are brought into contact and adhere, while

the dough is yet moist. Macaroni makes the finest flavored dish with Parmesan cheese.I [* It seems proper to advise the reader here, that this chapter does not embrace, by any means all that is said by the author on the subject of Wheat. It will, hereafter, be treated under the

heads - Insects and Diseases affecting - Proper Degree of Ripeness for Cutting - Cutting and Stooking - Carrying in and Stacking – Comparative Weights of Grain, Straw , and Roots - Au tumn Sowing, Plowing land for it - various modes of doing this Importance of Thorough Drain . ing - Preparation of the Seed and Sowing - Best Varieties - Sowing by Dibbling- By Trans planting - Expenses of this, and Sowing of Seed - Description of the Process and Germination &c. All these points will be embraced in this volume, and we could wish to introduce them now , in reference to the coming season ; but there are obvious reasons why we cannot break in [Ed. Farm . Lib . upon the systematic arrangement of the author.] * Raspail's Organic Chemistry. t Davy's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, Edition of 1839 . (33) ....

34

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-WINTER.

(1509.) Barley.* — Its botanical position is the 3d class Triandria ,2d order Digynia , genus Hor. deum of the Linnæan system , and in the natural order of the Gramineæ. Professor Low divides

the cultivated barley into two distinctions,namely the 2 -rowed and the 6 -rowed, and eacb of these comprehends the ordinary, the naked,and the sprat or Fig. 304. battledore forms.t Mr. Lawson describes 20 varieties of barley ; t while the Museum of the Highland and Agricultural Society contains specimens of 30 varie.

ties.|| The natural classification of Barley by the ear

I

is obviously of three kinds, 4.rowed , 6 -rowed, and 2 -rowed. Fig. 304 represents the three forms, where a is the 4 -rowed, or bere or bigg ; c is the 6 -rowed; and b the 2 -rowed ; all of which figures represent barley in half its natural size. Of these the bere or bigg was that which was cultivated until a recent period, when the 2-rowed has almost entirely supplanted it, and is now the most commonly cultivated variety, the 6 -rowed being rather an object of curiosity than culture.

(1510.) In classifying barley by the grain, there are just two kinds, bere or bigg , and barley ; and though both awned, aresufficiently marked to constitute dis tinct varieties. In the bere, the median line of the bosom is so traced as to give the grain a twisted form, one of its sides appearing larger than the other. In the barley the line passes straight, and divides the grain

into two equal sides. They are both represented in fig . 305, where a is the bigg, with the twisted -like

grain , and lengthened point from which the awn has been broken'off ; and b is the barley, whose shortness and plumpness give it a character of superiority. Both these clusters of grain are of the natūral size. The

bigg has long been recognized in Scotland, and even a 2 -rowed variety,under the name of common or Scotch barley, has long been in cultivation ; but several of the English varieties are now naturalized, and in their new sphere show a brighter and fairer color, plumper and shorter grain, quicker in the property of malting, though less hardy and prolific, than the common bar ley. The crenulated or shriveled skin across both sides of the median line in the English barleys is a good cri.

7 a

4 -ROWED

6 -ROWED BARLEY .

BERE OR BIGG .

2 - ROWED CHEVALIER BARLEY .

terion of malting ; and as most of the barley raised in

his country is converted into beer or spirits, both of which require malt to produce them of the finest quality, it is not surprising that those varieties which yield the greatest return of malt should always realize the highest prices. Fig. 305 . ( 1511.) A good crop of barley yields a re turn of from 48 to 60 bushels the imperial acre .

Good barley weighs from 55 lbs. to 59 lbs. per bushel. A crop of 60 bushels per acre will yield of straw , in the vicinity of a town, 176 stones of

14 lbs. to the stone, or 1 1-10 ton , and the weight of the grain of that crop, at 56 lbs. per bushel, will It takes of bigg 111 grains to weigh 1 drachm ; of 6 -rowed barley, 93 , and of Cheva lier barley, 80 grains. Of the three kinds, the

be 11 tons.

‫واره وه‬ a

ENGLISH BARLEY .

SCOTCH BERE OR BIGG.

Chevalier is much the heaviest.

( 1512.) By far the largest thebarley best barley in distillation this countryinisa raw converted malt for making malt liquor proportion and spirits,ofand is alsogrown used for state. into In three years, the following quantities of malt paid duty, viz.: ENGLAND.

1834 ...... 1835 .

1836 ...

SCOTLAND .

IRELAND

TOTAL .

Bushels .

Bushels.

Bushels.

34,949,646 £ 4,449,745 36,078,855 £4,660,185

3,580,758 £ 462,514 3,604,816 £ 465,622

Bushels. 1,776,883

37,196,998

4,168,854

£4,804,612

£ 538,477

£229,514

40,307,287 £ 5,141,775

1,825,300

41,508,971

£235,767

£5,361,574

1,872,104 £241,813

43,237,956 £ 5,584,902

[* The Barley Crop of the U. States, by the last Census, was 4,161,504 bushels, much more than

half of which was grown in New - York . Maine produced 355,161 ; Ohio, 212,440 ; Pennsyl Ed. Farm . Lib.) 127,802 ; and Virginia only 87,430. vania, 209,893 ; Michigan , Tº Professor Johnston, in his Table of the nutritive matter of different kinds, from an scre of the usually cultivated crops, puts down Barley thus : Gross produce, bushels 35-pounds 1800

Husk or woody fibre, 270 — Starch, Sugar, &c., 1,080 — Gluten , &c., from 210 to 260 —- Oil or Fat 36 to 54 – Saline matter, 50. + Low's Elements of Practical Agriculture. ( 34 )

Ed. Farm . Lib .) # Lawson's Manual ..

| Catalogue of the Museum .

35

BARLEY AND MALT .

Pot and pearl barley are made from barley for culinary purposes ; and both meal and flour are manufactured from barley for the purpose of making unleavened bread, which is eaten by the laboring class in some parts of the country, and barley bannocks are esteemed a luxury by people in towns. Porridge of barley-meal, withrich milk , is accounted a pleasant and light supper, and less heating than that of oatmeal.

(1513.) The barley has received great attention from the chemist, both on account of its impor tance as a fermentable substance, and partly to discover its constituent parts. “ The following are the proportions of the constituents obtained by Einhoff from 3,840 parts of barleycorns : Volatile matter....

430 ; Meal ....

Husk ......

720

Total

2,690 3,840

From the same quantity of barley-meal he obtained Volatile matter..

360

Albamen . Saccharine matter ...

44 Husk , with some gluten and starch .... 260 200 | Starch, not quite free from gluten ... ... 2,580

Mucilage ..

176 Loss ..

Phosphate of lime, with some albumen .

Gluten ..

135

76

9

Total..

3,840

Besides these substances, Fourcroy and Vauquelin ascertained the presence of phosphates of lime and magnesia, and of silica and iron ; and I found in it phosphate of potash and nitrate of

soda. Barley -meal, on being macerated, yields an oil, which is supposed to give its peculiar flavor to spirits from raw grain. If this opinion is well founded, the oil must be dissipated or by the process ofmalting ."' * destroyed

( 1514.) The grains of the fecula of the barley are very fine, not exceeding ,.00098 of an inch in size. Barley flour only contains 3 per cent of gluten, and istherefore much less nutritive than wheaten flour. The hordein, ascribed by Proust to act so important a part in the germination of barley, is asserted by Raspail to be nothing more ,under the microscope, than bran . " That this is the case,” he says, " is proved by dissection ; for if we make a transverse slice of each of the grains of wheat and barley, we shall perceive that the pericarp of the wheat peels off entire like a circular band, while that of the barley can only be detachedin very small fragments. Now, what

takes place under the edge of the scalpel,” he alleges, “will also happen under the pressure of the millstone ; consequently the branwill be much more minutely divided in the farina of barley than in that of wheat. In bolting flour, therefore, it will remain in the sieve ; while, in the other, its almost microscopic fragments will pass through with the fecula and gluten, and will be almost inseparable, by mechanical means, from the farina.” Hence, if pearl barley “ be ground,

we obtain from it a farina as white as that of wheat, and containing only a very minute portion of hordein, equivalent to the amount of those fragments of the pericarp which had been protected by their situation in the posterior groove of the grain .” + (1515.) “ The meal so highly commended by the Greeks was prepared from barley. . . . . It was not until after the Romans had learned to cultivate wheat and to make bread, that they gave barley to the cattle . They made barley -meal into balls, which they put down the throats of their horses and asses, after the manner of fattening fowls, which was said to make them strong and

lasty. Barley continued to be the food of the poor, who were not able to procure better provi. sion; and in the Roman camp, as Vegetius has informed us, soldiers who had been guilty of any offence were fed with barley instead of bread corn ." I

( 1516. Malting. This process produces a considerable change in the constitution of the grain. The barley is steeped in cold water for at least 40 hours, according to law . Here it imbibes mois ture, increases in bulk, andemits a quantity of carbonic acid gas, not exceeding 2 per cent. The

moisture imbibed is 0.47, that is to say,every 100 lbs. of barley, when taken out of the steep, The steep -water dissolves from 1-50 to 1-100 of the husk of the barley , and hence barley be comes paler bysteeping. The steeped barley is then put on a floorin a heap 16 inches deep, to remainso for 26 hours. It is then turned with wooden shovels, and diminished in depth to a few inches by repeated turnings. In 96 hours the grain becomes 10° hotter than the air, and then sweats, when it is frequently turned, the temperature being preserved in the grain from 550 to weighs 147 lbs. The increase of bulk is 1-5, that is, 100 bushels of grain measures out 120 bushels.

620. The roots now begin to appear, the stem called acrospire springs from the same end,and ad

vances within the husk to the other end of the grain ; but the process of malting is stopped by kiln drying before the germ has made mach progress. Thekiln , at first 90°, is raised gradually to 140 °. The malt is then cleaned , and the rootlets removed, as they are considered injurious, and are called comins. Malt is from 2 to 3 per cent. greater in bulk than the barley, and it loses 1.5 or

20 per cent in weight, of which 12 per cent. is loss by drying ; so the real loss is only 8 per cent., accounted for by the steep -water carrying away 13 per cent., dissipated on the floor 3 per cent.,

roots cleaned away 3 per cent and waste per cent. The roots take away the glutinous portion of the grain , and the starch is converted into a sort of sugar. ( 1517. ) Bepr.- Beer is a beverage of great antiquity. " The earliest writer who mentions beer,"

commences Dr. Thomson in his account of the process of malting, of which the foregoing para graph is the substance, “ is Herodotus, who was born in the first year of the 74th Olympiad, or 444 years before the commencement of the Christian era.

He informs us that beer was the com

mon drink of the Egyptians, and that it was manufactured from barley,because wines did not

grow in their country. In the time of Tacitus, whose treatise on the Manners of the Germans was written about the end of the first century of the Christian era, beer was the common drink of the Germans. Pliny mentions beer as employed in Spain , under the names of cælia and ceria . + Raspail's Organic Chemistry. * Thomson's Organic Chemistry, Vegetables. Phillips's History of Cultivated Vegetables, vol.i. ( 35)

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

36

and in Gaul under the name of cervisia.

WINTER .

Almost every species of corn has been used in the

manufacture of beer. In Europe it is usually made from barley, in India from rice, in the interior

of Africa, according to Park , from the seeds of the Holcus spicatus. But whatever grain is employed, the process is nearly the same, and it is usual in the first place to convert it into malt. ' * †

(1518.) Oats. - Oats are cultivated on a large extent of ground in Scotland, and it is believed that no country produces greater crops ofthem or of finer quality. The plant belongs to the natu

ral order ofGramineæ, and itoccupies the 3d class Triandria, 2d order Digynia,genus Avena, of the Linnæan system. Its ordinary botanical name is Avena sativa, or cultivated oat. The term oat is of obscure origin. Paxton conjectures to have been derived from the Celtic etan, to eat. There are a great number of varieties of this grain cultivated in this country . Mr. Lawson de scribes 37 ; || and 54 are deposited in the Highland and Agricultural Society's Museum . The natu

ral classif

ofthis plant by the car is obvio . Onekind has its panicles spreading and equal

us ication on all sides, and tapering toward thetop of the spike in a conical form . The other has its panicles shortened, nearly of equal length, and all on the same side of the rachis. Fig. 306 represents both Fig . 306 .

u

3 THE TARTARIAN QAT.

THE POTATO OAT.

the kinds, a showing the first and b the second , where they both appear somewhat confined or squeezed toward the rachis, the object being to exhibit the grain in the straw as taken from the stack, rather than when pulled green from the field. a is the prolific potato oat, which is beardless, commonly cultivated in Scotland for the sake of its meal, and b is the white Tartarian oat, which is bearded, and extensively cultivated in England for horse -corn. The natural classi [t For a valuable Essay on the culture of Barley in the United States, from the pen of H. S. RANDALL, Esq., see THE FARMERS' LIBRARY AND MONTHLY JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE , Vol. II., page 233. It will be farther treated in this " Book of the Farm ," under the heads - Insects and Diseases incident to it - Stooking - Precautions necessary against its Heating in the Stack - Quan

tity annually. Malted in Great Britain — Its Chemical Composition, and that of Barley Meal Grinding and Malting - Comparative Weight of Grain , Straw and Roots— & c . Ed. Farm . Lib .] * Thomson's Organic Chemistry, Vegetables. li Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual.

(36)

Paxton's Botanical Dictionary, art. Avena. Catalogue of the Musuem .

37

OATS AND OATMEAL.

fication by the grain consists also of two forms; the one a round, plump grain, like a , fig . 307, and an elongated, thin grain, having a tendency to show awns, as at b ; the a kind being cultivated on the best lands in the low country, the other on poorer soils and in high districts. The first is tender, and liable to shake with the wind ; the other is hardy, and able to resist the tempest. The formeris cultivated chief

Fig. 307 ,

ly for human food, yielding meal largely, the latter being raised chiefly for the food of horses. The straw of the former kind is strong and inclined to reediness ; that of

小 4-30

the latter is fine , pliable, and makes an ex cellent dry fodder for cattle and horses, there being a good deal of saccharine mat ter in the joints; the former is considered

WHITE SIBERIAN EARLY OAT . late in coming to maturity, the latter early, and is consequently so designated, (1519.) The cropof oats varies from 40 to 75 bushels per imperial acre, according to the kind and the circumstance of soil and situation. Oats vary in weight from 36 lbs. to 48 lbs. per bushel, Whiteness, of a silvery hue, and plumpness, are the criterions of a good sample. The potato oat, 47 lbs. per bushel, gave 134 grains to 1 drachm ; the Siberian early oat, weighing 46 lbs. per bushel, gave 109 grains; and the white Tartarian oat gave 136 grains. A crop of potato oats, yielding 60 bushels to the acre, at 47 lbs. per bushel, will weigh of grain 1 ton 5 cwt. 20 lbs., and will yield of straw 1 ton 5 cwt. 16 lbs., in the neighborhood of a large town ; or, in other words, will yield 8 kemplesof 40 windlings each, and each windling 9 lbs. in weight. But I havebeen made acquaintedwith a cropofHopetown oats near Edinburgh of no more than 60 bushels to the imperial acre, yielding 2 tons 18 cwt. 16 lbs. of straw . The common oats yield more straw in pro portion to the grain than the potato variety. THE POTATO OAT.

(1520.) The portion oftheoat-crop consumed by man is manufactured into meal. It is never called flour, as the millstones are notsetso close in grinding it as when wheat is ground, nor are they usually made of the samematerial, but most frequently of sandstone. Oats, unlike wheat,

are always kiln -dried before being ground; and they undergo this process for the purpose ofal lowing the thick husk, in which the substance of the grain is enveloped, to be groundoff, which it is by the stones being set asunder ; and the husked grainis then winnowed by fanners, which blow away the husk and retain the grain, which is then called groats. The groats are ground by the stones closer set, and yield the meal. The meal is then passed through sieves to separate the remaining husk from the meal. The meal is made in two states; one fine,which is the state best adapted for making into bread, in the form called oat-cake or bannocks; and the other is coarser or rounder ground, and is in the best state for making the common food of the country people, porridge, Scoticè, parritch. A difference of practice prevails in respect to theuse of these two

different states ofoatmeal in different partsof the country, the finemeal being best liked for all purposes in the northern, and the round or coarse meal in the southern counties; but as oat-cake is chiefly eaten in the North, the meal is there made to suit the purposes of bread rather than of porridge : whereas ,in the South ,bread is made from another grain, and oatmeal is there used only in the shape of porridge. There is no doubt that the round meal makes the best porridge when properly made,that is, when boiled as long as to allow the particles to swell and burst, when the porridge becomes a pultaceous mass. So made, with rich milk or cream , there are few more wholesomemeals for any man, or upon which a harder day's work can be wrought. Chil

dren of all ranks in Scotland are brought up on this diet, verifying the poet's assertion , * The halesome parritch, chief o ' Scotia's food. ” — BURNS.

( 1521.) In regard to the yield of meal from any given quantity of oats, it is considered that when they give what is called evenmeal they yield half their weight of meal ; that is,supposing that a boll of oatsof6bushels weighs 16 stones, it should give 8 stones of meal,and, of course,8 stones of refuse; but the finer class of oats will give more meal in proportion to weight than this, more nearly 9 stones, and some even 12 stones. The market value of oats is thus estimated by the meal they are supposed to yield, and in discovering this property in the sample millers be come very expert. When oats yield less than even meal they are considered to give ill, and are disposed of for horses, or kept at home for that purpose. (1522.) The oat has not received that attention from the chemist as the barley or wheat. The principal characteristic of oatmeal is, that it contains a large proportion of starch . “ Vogel found that 100 parts of oats consisted of meal 66, and of husk 34. The dry meal yielded 2 A gray substance like albumen .. Fat yellowish -green oil .... Bitter extract and sugar... Gum .....

8.25 Starch .. Moisture and loss .

2.5

4.3 .59.0

... 23.95

100.00 " *

Total..

“ The farina ofthe oat seems,to the unassisted eye, cottony, or as it were felted ,from thepresence rable

of an innume

quantity of hairs with which the seeds are covered . The grains of the fecula They appear in general yellowish , and

have a size of about .00276 by .0018 of an inch .

strongly shaded . Some of these have the appearance, but notthe form , of the fecula of the potato .” t (1523.) “ We find no mention made of oats in Scripture,” says Phillips, “ which expressly states * Thomson's Organic Chemistry - Vegetables.

( 37)

+ Raspail's Organic Chemistry.

38

THE BOOK OF THE FARMWINTER.

that Solomon's horses and dromedaries were fed with barley :" but the use ofoats as a proven der for horses appears to have been known in Rome as early as the Chistian Era, as we find that that capricious and profligate tyrant Caligula fed Incitatus, his favorite horse, with gilt oats out of a golden cup." Oats are mixed with barley in the distillation of spirits from raw grain; and " the Muscovites make an ale or drink ofoats,which is of so hot a nature, and so strong, that it intoxicates sooner than the richest wine. " **

(1524.) Rye.- Botanically, this plant occupies the same place,both in the natural and sexual systems, as the other grainswhich have been described. It is the Secale cereale of the botanists, be gathered by the hand. A figure of the spike of rye may be seen at e, fig. 358. It is a narrow small grain , not unlike shelled oats. There is only one species of this plant, which is said to be a native ofCandia, and was known in Egypt 3.300 years ago; but there are several varieties which are raised asfood, 4 of which are describedby Mr. Lawsonf and 7 to be seen in the Museum of the Highlandand Agricultural Society ). The produce ofrye may be about 24 bushels per acre, and the weight of thegrain is stated at from 52 lbs. to 57 lbs. per bushel ; the number of grains in so called, it is said, à secando, from cutting, as opposed to leguminous plants, whose fruits used to

1 drachm weight being 165.

( 1525.)The isnotmuchcultivated inthiscountry,particularly inScotland, where onlypea patch here andrye there is to be seen . It is, however , extensively cultivated on the Continent,es cially in sandy countries, and indeed forms the principal article of foodof the laboring classes. I have beenin many parts of Germany where none butryebread could bepurchased. Rye bread is denser than wheaten bread, and darker in color, and, when baked in the sweet state, is rather agreeable to the palate; but when baked sour,in which state it is commonly used in many places, it requires custom to makeone become reconciled to its taste. Horses on the Continent get it on a journey in lieu of corn, and seem very fond of it.

(1526.) Einhoff analyzed rye-seeds and meal with great care : 3,840 parts of good rye-seeds were composed of Husk ...

930 | Pure Meal..

Moisture ..

390

. 2520

Total.....

3840

100 parts of good rye -meal contained Albumen ... Gluten, not dried .

3.27 Saccharine matter . 9.48 ..11.09

Mucilage . Starch ... Total....

3.27

Husk . Loss .

6.38 5.42

.61-09

100.00

" But the proportion of these substances must vary extremely according to the soil, the climate and the age of the rye. The glutenofrye differs in several particulars from that of wheat. It is less tenacious and more soluble. When it is allowed to ferment, Einhoff perceived a strong smell of nitric acid, which is peculiarto this species of gluten. The starch of rye bears astriking resemblance to that of wheat. Like this last, it does not form a colorless solution with boiling wa. ter, and always precipitates atlast, when the solation is left a sufficient time to rest." (1527.) The grains of the fecula of rye-meal are peculiarly shaped. “ The largest grains of this fecula." says Raspail, “ are about .002 of an inch in size ; but what distinguishes them from all the

other varieties is,that they are flattened, andwith sharp edges like disks,and for the most part, marked on one of their sides with a black cross, or three black rays united at the center of the **

grain ."

(1528.) Beans. Beans belong to a very different tribe of plants to those we have been consider ing. They belong to the natural order of Leguminose , because they bear their fruit in legames or pods; and in the Linnæan system they oceupy the class and order Diadelphia decandria L* The oat crop of the United States, as set down in the last Census, was 123,071,341 bushels. A close run between New York, 20,675,847, and Pennsylvania, 20,641,819. The next largest pro ducer was Ohio, 14,393,103, Virginia being the fourth on the list — 13,451,082 bushels. Profes. sor JOHNSTON may be here quoted, thus : SPECIAL MANURE FOR OATS . - To replace 100 pounds of the inorganic matter of the oat, accord-

ing to the mean composition of its ash , the following mixture is adapted : Bone -dust...

ulphuric acid ..

88 44

3132 lbs.

Carbonate of potash, (pearlash ).... 18

Carbonate of soda ..

10 lbs.

14 ..

Carbonate of magnesia Total

174 lbs.

Five bushels of oats contain 6 pounds of inorganic matter. A crop of 50bushels, therefore, will carry ands of the off 60 pounds,and will require 105 above mixture to replace it.

This grain will be farther discussed under the heads - Diseases to which subject - Insects attacking it—Weeds to which it is subject — How to remove them — Cutting, Stooking and Stack

ing — Average Crop yielded by it, and its Value - Its Straw - Comparative Weight of Straw , Grain and Roots- & c .

Ed. Farm . Lib .]

[** Rye crop of the United States in 1839, 18,645,567. Here Pennsylvania runs far in the lead , growing 6,613,873, wbile the next on the list, New - York, gives but 2,979,323. Strange to say , tho Phillips' History of Cultivated Vegetables. Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual. § Thomson's Organic Chemistry - Vegetables.

( 38 )

Il Catalogue of the Museum . | Raspail's Organic Chemistry.

BEANS AND

39

BEAN-MEAL .

Their generic term is Faba vulgaris ; formerly they were classed among the vetchesand called

Vicia Faba. The common bean is divided into two classes, according tothe mode of culture to which they are subjected, that is, the field orthe garden. Those cultivated in the field are called Faba vulgaris arvensis, or as Loudon calls them ,Faba valgaris equina, because they are cultiva. ted chiefly for the use of horses, and are usually termed horse-beans. The garden bean we have

nothing to do with, though some farmers attempt some of the garden varieties in field culture,but I believe without success. All beans have butterfly or papilionaceous flowers. Mr. Lawson has described 8 varieties of the field bean ; and 10 varieties are placed in the Highland and Agricul. tural Society's Museum .* The variety in common field culture is thus well described by Mr. Lawson ."Inlengththe seedis fromito of an inch, bylin breadth,generallyslightlyorrather irregularly compressed and wrinkled on the sides, and frequently a little hollowed or flattened at the end ; of a wbitish or light -brown color, occasionally interspersed withdarker blotches, par ticularly toward the extremities; color of the eye black. Straw from 3 to 5 feet in length. There is perhaps, " continues Mr. Lawson, “ no other grain over the shape and color of which the climate, soil, and culture, exert so much influence as inthe bean. Thus, in a dry, warm summer and har vest, the sample is always more plump and white in color than in a wet and cold season ; and these more so in a strong , rich soil, than in a light, and more so in a drilled crop than in one sown

broadcast." ! I omittedto mention in the proper place, under the head of our subject of barn work , that, as the bean is easily separated from its pod, the fast motion of the threshing-machine

should be put on when beans areto be threshed, and in case, evenwith the fast motion, the straw , being brittle, should be much broken, the best plan to avoidthis effect is to feed the sheaves thin sideways, instead of lengthways, into the feeding-rollers. The pods being covered with a sort of down, which becomes black on winningthe crop, the threshing throws offthis down like a thick black, impalpable dust, which enteringthe mouth and nostrils and blackening the clothes, makes

the threshing of beans a disagreeable process ; and the noise occasioned by their impinging against the iron lining of the drum -case, is almost deafening, and almost overpowering to human speech .

( 1529. )The produce of the bean crop varies from 20 to 40 bushels per imperial acre, much of the prolificacyof the crop depending on the nature of the season . The average weight may be stated at 66 lbs. per bushel. It only requires 5 beans to weigh 1 drachm . I have not cultivated the bean so much as to enable me to ascertain the weight of a good crop of straw orhaulm , in com parison with that of the grain, for it is seldom that the same season gives the largest return of both ; but I have seen it stated that " ithas been known to yield 2 tons per acre." ! A crop of 50 bushels, at 66 lbs. per bushel, gives 1 ton 3 cwt. 64 lbs. per acre.

( 1530.) Beans are administered to the horse either raw , whole, or boiled whole or bruised . They are given tocattle in the state of meal, that is, husk and grain ground overhead, and that not very finely . Beans, however, can be ground intofine flour ; and in this state are used to adul. terate the flourof wheat. Their presence is easily detected by the peculiar smell arising from the four when warm water isthrown upon it. Beans are of essential service to support horses that have fatiguing work. " If beans do not afford more nutriment," says Stewart, “ weight for weight of oats, they at least produce more lasting vigor. To use a common expression, they keep the stomach longer . The horse can travel farther; he is not so soon exhausted. .... In the coaching stables, beans are almost indispensable to horses that have to run long stages.

They afford a stronger and more permanent stimulas than oats alone, however good. Washy horses, those of slender carcass, cannot perform severe work without a liberal allowance of beans; and old horses need them more than the young. The quantity varies from 3 to 6 lbs. per day ; but in some of the coaching stables the horses get more, 1 lb. of oats being deducted for every 1 lb. of beans. Cart-borses are often fed on beans, to the exclusion of all other corn, but they are

always given with dry bran,which is necessary to keep the bowels open , and to insure mastica tion , and forold horses they should be always broken.” “ There are several varieties of the bean in use as horse -corn ; but I do not know that one is better than another.

The small, plamp bean

is preferred to the large, shriveled kind. Whichever be used, the bean should be old, sweet, and sound ; not mouldy, nor eaten by insects. New beans are indigestible and flatulent; they pro duce colic, and founder very readily. They should be at least a year old.” ll (1531.) Einhoff carefully analyzed the small field -bean. “ From 3,840 parts of the ripe beans he obtained the following substances: Volatile matter .

600 | Albumen 386 Extraction, soluble in alcohol. 610 Gummy matter

Skins ...

Starchy, fibrous matter .

37 }

.1312 Earthy phosphate .

Starch

133 )

417 | Loss ...

Vegeto -animal matter

31 136 177

Total..

3840

Vanquelin could detect no sugar in it. Heand Cornea de Serra found in the skins of the beans, tannin striking a blue with the persalts of iron, animo -vegetable matter mixed with tannin , insol.

comparatively small State of New Jersey, with her sandy soil, comes in next, before Virginia, giving 1,665,820 bushels - Virginia, 1,482,799. Kentucky next - 1,321,373. SPECIAL MANURE FOR RYE. - The following mix | Carbonate of potash ,(dry ). ture is adapted to the composition of the ash of the grain of rye : 190 95

286 lbs.

Total

32 lbs 20 22

::

Bone -dust

Sulphuric acid ..

Carbonate of soda, (dry ). Carbonate of magnesia ..

359

Ed. Farm . Lib.] * Catalogue of theMuseum . + Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual.

(39)

| British Husbandry, vol. ii.

|| Stewart's Stable Economy.

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-WINTER.

40

uble in water, but soluble in potash. The cotyledons contained a sweet-tasted substance, starch

legumen, albumen, an uncombined acid , with carbonate of potash, phosphates of lime, magnesia and iron. The germen of the bean contained white tallow , legumen, albumen, phosphate of lime and iron ." *

( 1532.) The grains of the fecula of the bean " are egg or kidney shaped, often presenting an in. terior grain, as if inclosed in the principal one. Someof them are found broken down and empty They attain the size of .002 of an inch ."

(1533.) The ancients entertained some curious notions in regard to the bean . The Egyptian

priests held it a crime to look at beans, judging the very sight unclean. But the bean was not everywhere thus contemned, for Columella notices them in his time as food for peasants, and for them only . “ And herbs they mix with beans for vulgar fare."

" The Roman husbandmen had areligious ceremony respecting beans somewhat remarkable ; When they sowed corn of any kind, they took care to bringsome beans from the field for good luck's sake, superstitiously thinking that by such means their corn would return home again to them . The Romans carried their superstition still farther, for they thought that beans, mixed

with goods offered for sale at the ports, would infallibly bring good luck to the seller.” They usedthem, however, more rationally, when beans were employed “ in gathering the votes of the people, and for electing the magistrates. A white bean signified absolution, and a black one con demnation. From this practice, we imagine, was derived the plan of black -balling obnoxious persons."! It would appear, from what Mr. Dickson states ,that thefaba of the Romans, a name,

by the way, said to be derived from Haba, a town of Etruria, where the bean was cultivated, is the same as the small bean of our fields.// (1534.) Peas.— The pea occupies a similar position in both the natural and artificial systems of botany,as the bean . The plant is cultivated bothin the field and in the garden, and inthe latter

place to great extent and variety. The natural distinction betwixt the field and garden pea is found in the flower, the field pea always having a red -colored, and the garden pea almost always a white flower ; at least the exceptions to this mark of distinction are few . The botanical name of the pea is Pisum sativum , the cultivated pea, and those varieties cultivated in the field are called in addition arvense, and those in the garden hortense. The name is said to have been given to it by the Greeks, from a town called Pisa, in Elis, in the neighborhood of which thiş

pulse was cultivated to great extent. Mr. Lawson has described 9 varieties of the field pea, and the Highland and Agricultural Society's Museum contains 14 varieties . Of these there are a late and an early varietycultivated, the late kind, called the common gray field -pea, or cold -seed, is

suited for strong landin low situations, and the early, the partridge,gray maple, or Marlborough pea, is suited for light soils and late situations, and itis superseding the old gray Hastings,orhot The gray pea is described as having “its pod semi-cylindrical, long, and well-filled, often containing from 6 to 8 peas. The ripened straw indicates 3 varieties - one spotted with a bluish -green ground, one light blue, and one bluish green without spots.” The partridge pea has its " podsbroad, and occasionally in pairs,containing from 5 to 7 peas, of a medium size, roundish , and yellowish -brown speckled, with light-colored eyes. The ripe straw is thick and soft like, leaves large and broad, and average hight 4 feet." ** (1535.) The produce ofthe pea crop is either in abundance or a complete failure. In warm

seed реа.

weather, with occasional showers, the crop may amount to 46 bushels, and in cold and wet it may

not reach 12 bushels the acre . The grain weighs 64 lbs. the bushel,andit gives 13 grains to i drachm . In threshing it, the feeding-rollersare put on the fast motion, and the sheaf is allowed to be taken in by them , while the feeder holds on by the sheaf, and pulls it thinner and thinner. Peas are as easily threshed out as beans; but the processdoes not create such an offensive dust, though the noise attending it is very great. Peas are riddled with the oat-riddle , the refuse gen. erally being small clods of earth andshriveled grains, which are left in the riddle, and given to the pigeons. (1536.) Chemists have examinedthe pea . “ From ripe peas, by macerating them in water, and employing amode of analysis similar to that used in ascertaining the constituents of barley, Ein

hoff obtained the following products ; the quantity employed was 3,840 parts : Volatile matter .

540 | Albumen

Starchy fibrous matter, with the coats of the peas Starch .

Animo-vegetable matter .

Saccharine matter .

840

Mucilage

.1265 Earthy phosphates 559 | Loss

Total.....

66 81 249 11 229

3840 "

In regard to the substance named animo-vegetable matter, “ it approaches most nearly to gluten ; [$ The reader may judge of the dependence to be placed on the Census as a presentment of our National Industry and the amount contributed to the public wealth by the cultivators of the soil, by noting the fact that no mention is made in it whatever of beans, peas, feathers, flax .

seed, corn -fodder, &c. The corn -fodder, according to the lowest estimate that can be made, way be valued at more than $50,000,000. We have no means of estimating the amount of the bean and pea crop , bat looking at the returns for the State of New York alone, taken in 1845 under the

State Law, we find the Beans put down at 162,171 bushels from 16,211 acres, being 10 bushels to the acre .

Chemistry,Vegetables. Thomson'sOrganic *1 Phillips's History of Cultivated Vegetables, vol. i. | Catalogue of the Museum .

(40)

Ed . Farm . Lib.] Raspail's Organic Chemistry. il Dickson's Husbandry of the Ancients vol. ii ** Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual.

PEAS.

41

STRAW .

' but as it differs in several particulars from gluten and from all other vegetable constituents, we must consider it as a peculiar principle .” “ When dried, it assumes a lightbrown color, and the

semi-transparency ofglue, and is easily reduced to powder. Einhoff remarks that he has seen the gluten of wheat assume this appearance. I have observed the same thing,” says Dr. Thom . son, " lwice . In both cases the wheat was very inferior in quality, and had been the growth of " ** a very rainy season .

(1537.) " The grains of the fecula of the pea are nearly of the same size as those of the bean, and of the form of those of the potato. When fresh they are as strongly shaded at the edges as those of the bulbs of the Alstræmeria pelegrina. Their surface is unequal. The largest of them is about .002 of an inch .” +

(1538.) The pea was formerly much cultivated in this country in the field, and even used as food, both in broth and in bread, peas bannocks having been a favorite food of the laboring class ; but since the extended culture of the potato its general use is greatly diminished. It is now

chiefly given to horses, but is also splitfor domestic purposes, suchas making pea-soup -- a favor. tected by its peculiarsmell, which is given out with hot water. Peas-meal in brose is adminis tered in some cases of dyspepsia. Peas-pudding is eaten as an excellent accompaniment to pick led pork. It used to be customary in the country to burn a sheaf of peas, by which the peas were roasted, and , when mixed with butter and served up while hot at supper, were eaten as a

ite dish with families in winter. Its flour is used to adulterate thatofthe wheat. but is easily de.

treat under the name of carolins. In some towns where ancient customs still linger, roasted peas are sold in winter in the hucksters' stalls. Pigeons are excessively fond of the pea, and I have heard it alleged that they can eat their own weight of them every day. “ The ancients gave peas to stallion horses, on account of a particular virtue which they were thought to possess."# ||

( 1539.) These are the constituents in 100 lbs. of the ashes of the different sorts of grain we have been treating of. Instead of giving the constituents of each separately, I have collected them to. gether, in order to show their comparative proportions : Wheat.

Barley.

Oats .

Soda

203

Lbs. 12 12

Lbs.

Potash

Lbs. 19

CONSTITUENTS .

8 8 2

Lime

Magnesia . Alumina ..

Oxide of iron

Rye. Lbs.

6 5

51

3

41

102 41 21

8 1 a trace .

Oxide of manganese 34 4

Silica

Sulphuric acid Phosphoric acid

31 154 23 43

761

11

21

3 1

Chlorine

Total ..

50

100

100

1

01 100

100

Beans.

Peas.

Lbs .

Lbs.

191 384

30

728

32

21

16 }

44 131 14 100

22 7星

11 100

On comparing the numbers in these columns we may observe how much more potash peas con tain compared to beans ; now beans contain double the quantity of soda to that ofpotash ; how there is as much magnesia as lime in the bean ; how large a quantity of the oxides of iron and manganese are found in rye compared to allthe rest of the grains; howlarge a proportion of silica the oat contains in comparison of the rest of the grains ; and how large a proportion of

phosphoric acid thebeancontains to other grains. The following statement exhibits the weight of ashes left by 100 lbs. ofthe sorts of grain spoken of above, according to the analysis ofSprengel : .1.18 lbs. per cent. of ash.

The grain of wheat leaves barley

Line

dried at 2120 oats

beans peas

.2.35 .2.52 .2.58

..2.14

-2:469

(1540.) Straw .--As the straw of the various kinds of grain which I have just treated of, pos sess different properties, and as they are best applied to different purposes, a few remarks on their peculiaritiesmay be useful.

(1541.) Wheat-straw . - Wheat-straw is generally long. I have seen it apward of 6 feet in length in the Carse ofGowrie, and it has alwaysstrength, whatever may be its length. Of the two sorts of wheat, white and red, the straw of white wheat is softer, more easily broken by the threshing -mill, and more easily decomposed in the dunghill. Red wheat-straw is tough. The straw of somesorts of wheat of both kinds possess their respective properties in a greater and less degree than others. The strengthand length of wheat-straw render it useful in thatching, wheth

er houses or stacks. It is yet much employed in England for thatching houses, and perhaps the most beautiful thatchers are to be found in the County of Devon. Since the general use of slates

in Scotland, the thatching of houses with straw has almost fallen into desuetude in that country. Ill This crop, as already stated , is not noticed in the Census. The crop in New - York in 1845 was 1,761,487 bushels, gathered from 113,020 acres, or 15 bushels to the acre. Both this and the

bean will be yet much more fully treated hereafter, in other points of view not necessary to particularize. Thomson's Organic Chemistry, Vegetables. Phillips's History of Cultivated Vegetables, vol . ii.

Ed. Farm . Lib .) + Raspail's Organic Chemistry.

Compiled from Johnston's Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, and Lectures on Ag. Chem. (41 )

42

THE BOOK OF THE FARM

- WINTER .

An existing thatch-roof may yet be repaired in preference to the adoption of a slated one, but no new roof is thatched with straw . Wheat-straw makes the best thatching for corn -stacks, its length and straightness insuring safety, neatness, and dispatch in the process, in the busy period of se. curing the fruits of the earth. It formsan admirable bottoming to the bedding in every court and

hammel of the steading . As littering-straw , wheat-straw possessessuperior qualities. It is not so suited for fodder to stock, its hardness and length being nnfavorable to mastication ; yet I have seen farm -horses very fond of it. Horses in general tre fond of a hard bite , and were wheat straw cut for them by the chaff-catter of a proper length , I have no doubt they would prefer it to every other kind of straw as fodder. The chaff of wheat does not seem to be relished by any stock ; and is therefore strewn on the dunghill, or upon the lairs of the cattle within the sheds. When it ferments, it causes a great heat, and on this account I have supposed that it would be a valuable ingredient in assisting to maintain a heat around the frames of forcing-pits. The odor arising from wheat-straw and chaff fresh threshed is glutinous.

(1542. ) Barley-straw is always soft, and has a somewhat clammy feel, and its odor, with its chaff, when new threshed, is heavy and malt- like. It is relished by no sort of stock as fodder ; on

the contrary, it is said to be deleterious to horses, on whom its use is alleged to engender grease in the heels. Barley.chaff, however, is much relished by cattle of all ages, and rough as the awns are, they never injure their mouths in mastication. Barley-straw is thus only used as litter, and in this respect it is much inferior to wheat-straw either for cleanliness, durability ,or comfort. It does not make a good thatch for stacks, being too soft and difficult to assort in lengths, apt to let through the

rain, androt. Barley -chaff soon heats in the chaff-house, and ifnot removed in the course of two or three days, dependent on the state of the air, decomposition will rapidly ensue. Barley -straw and chaff seem to contain some active principle of fermentation. (1543. ) Oat-straw . - This straw is most commonly used as fodder, being considered too valuable to be administered in litter. It makes a sweet, soft fodder, and, when new threshed, its odor is al ways refreshing. Its chaff is notmuch relished by cattle . Oat-straw is very clean, raising little or no dust, andso is its chaff; and on this account, as well as its elasticity, the latter is very com monly used in the country to make beds with tickings, for which purpose the chaff is riddled through an oat-riddle, and the larger refuse left in the riddle thrown aside. Sheep are very fond of oat-straw , and will prefer it to bad hay ; and even on the threatening of a coming storm , when on turnips, I have seen them prefer it to good bay. Of the different sorts of oat-straw , that of the common oats is preferred, being softer, sweeter, and more like bay than that of the potato -oat. When oats are cut a little green, the straw is much improved as fodder.

( 1544.) Rye-straw . — This kind of straw is small, hard, and wiry, quite unfit for fodder, and per haps would makebut uncomfortable litter in a stable, though it would, no doubt, be useful in a court forlaying a durable bottoming for the dunghill ; but itforms mostbeautiful thatch for houses, and would, of course, do for stacks, if it were not to expensive an article for the purpose. It is

much sought for by saddlers for stuffing collars of posting and coach-horses, and in default of this wheat-strawis substituted.

It is also ingreat request bybrick -makers, who, asstated by a writer,

gave as much as £5 per load for it in the neighborhood of London in the winter of 1834-5, but from what particular reason is not mentioned.* Its ordinary price is £ 2 per load. The plaiting of rye straw for hats was practiced so long ago as by even the ancient Britons, and was certainly not out of use in Shakspeare's days, whothus notices the custom of wearing this elegant head. gear on holidays: “ You sun -burned sicklemen , of August weary, Come hither from the furrow , and be merry :

Makeholy-day ; your rye -straw hats put on, And thenfresh nymphs encounter every one, In country footing." THE TEMPEST.

I have seen very useful hats and bonnets for field -work made by laborers and field -workers from the upper joint of wheat-straw . Bee-hives and ruskies — that is, baskets for supplying the sowers

with seed — are beautifully and lightly made of rye -straw ; but where that commodity is scarce, (1545.) Peas and Bean -straw, or haulm . Itis difficult in some seasons to preserve the straw of the pulse crops, but, when properly preserved, there is no kind of straw so great a favorite as fodder with every kind of stock . An ox will eat peas-straw as greedily as he will hay ; and a borse will chump bean -straw with more gusto than ill-made rye -grass hay. Young cattleare ex ceedingly fond of bean and peas chaff; and sheep enjoy peas-straw as much. These products of the pulse crops are considered much too valuable to be given as litter. Since bean -chaff is so which it usually is in Scotland, wheat-straw is substituted.

much relished by cattle, there is little doubt that bean and pea haulm , cut into chaff, would not

only be relished, but be economically administered ; and were this practice attended to in spring, the hay usually given to horses at that season might be dispensed with on farms which

grow beans andpeas. It is said thatwhen work -horses are long kept on bean -straw their wind becomes affected.

( 1546.) Of all the different sorts of straw , it appears that wheat, oats, peas, and bean -straw are used forfodder, and that barley-straw is fit only for litter ; and that where there is a sufficiency of

oat and bean-straw, wheat-straw might also be dispensed with as fodder . This being the relative positions of the different kinds of straw , their supply should be so arranged as to prevent the waste of fodder -straw in litter, and this may be easily accomplished by having oat-straw in the straw . barn with barley or wheat-straw . The procedure should be in this wise: In the early part of the winter, the grain chiefly in demand is barley. Barley-straw should therefore be supplied, stack after stack , until all the stock ,with the exception of ihe seed -corn, is disposed of. During winter,

the corn for the horses should be threshed, and laid up in granary , and, as common oats are usual. ly given to horses, the best sort of fodder could thus be supplied simultaneously with the litter * British Husbandry, vol. ii. (42)

43

STRAW.

straw of barley. After the barley is disposed of, toward spring, the demand for wheat com . mences, and then the wheat-straw shouldcome in lieu of that of the barley for litter. Farther on in spring, the bean -straw comes in lieu of oat-straw for fodder. In this way the time may pass on until grass is ready for stock. See ( 13 ).

( 1547.) The color of the fodder-straw affects the color of the dung of the various animals ; thus, peas and bean -straw and chaffmake the dung quite black, wheat- straw gives a bleached appearance to the dung of horses, and oal-straw gives it a yellow hue. (1548.) I do not know that the specific gravity of straw has ever been ascertained by experi. ment ; but I should say, judging only by surmise, that oat-straw is the lightest, and wheat-straw heaviest.

(1549. ) It may be interesting to you to give the constituents of the different sorts of straw spoken ultimately into the four elements ofoxygen, hydrogen, carbon ,and nitrogen. The inorganic consist of a considerable number, a tabular view of which is here given under each sort of straw , for the of. These consist of organic and inorganic substances. The organic substances resolve themselves

purpose of comparison. According to the analysis of Sprengel, 1000 lbs. of wheat-straw leave 35.18 lbs. of ash . 1000 lbs. of rye -straw leave...27.93 lbs. of ash . 52:42 31.21 bean barley 57.40

oat

49.71

pea

And 100 lbs. of the ash of each of these sorts of straw gave the following constituents : Straw .

3

Lime ... Mrgnesia . Alumina . Oxide of iron ..

7 1

of

24

Chlorine .. Total.

100

731 2 3

1} 100

Bean Straw .

Peas Straw .

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

Rye

lbs . 15 a trace .

1

0} 6

23 0}

80

1} 04 a trace. 100

}

1

6 2

09 100

544 64

04

0

824

44

1) 20

03

a trace .

a trace .

531

7

Sulphuric acid . Phosphoric acid .

3

0} 81 1 5 1

Silica ....

1

101 iz

Straw .

7 1

74 23 100

14 年 44

lbs .

03

Oat Straw .

04

lbs.

Potash . Soda ..

| Oxide of manganese

|

Barley

PIPA

AINE

Straw .

20 EN

Wheat

CONSTITUENTS.

100

On comparing the numbers in these columns, we cannot fail to remark how much potash there is in the straw of the bean ; how small a trace of soda there is in all the straws; how large a propor . tion of lime there is in the straw of the pea, compared to that of the bean ; how large it is com . pared to that in the grain of the pea itself; how much more silica in the straw of the pea than in that of the bean; but how much more phosphoric acid in bean -straw than in that of the pea .

(1550.) “ Theinorganic matter contained in different vegetable productionsvaries from 1 to 12' per cent of their whole weight. The following Table exhibits the weightof ash left by 100 lbs. of the dry straw of the more commonly cultivated plants, according to the analysis of Sprengel : Dry straw of wheat 3.51 Ibs. per cent. barley 5.24 oats

Dry straw of rye

5.74

beans peas

2.79 lbs. per cent . 3:12

4.97 » *

(1551.) Sach are the kinds, uses, and constitution of the straw usually found on farms; and the

proper management of them, so as to confer the greatest comfort to stock, and procure the largest amount of manure to the farm , is a matter deserving much consideration. I fear there is too much truth in the observation of Sir John Sinclair, when he says on this subject, that "the subject of

straw is of greater importance than is commonly imagined ; and the nature ofthat article, taken in the aggregate, entitles it to more attention than has hitherto been bestowed upon it. Farmers are apt to consider it as of little or no worth, because it is not usually salable, and is rarely estimated

separately from the yearly produce of the soil. But though seldom salable, except in the vicini. ty of towns, it has an intrinsic value as a fund for manure, and a means of feeding stock .”' t

( 1552. The proper management of straw which I allude to, is that the respective kinds shall always be appropriated to their best uses thatis , the straw best adapted for littershall not be administered as fodder, for if it be, the animals will thereby be rendereddiscontented ; if barley. straw , for instance, is put before cattle that have been , or should have been, accustomed to oat. straw , they will not only not eat the usual quantity of fodder, but eat that which they are obliged to eat with disrelish. On the other hand, if fodder-straw is strown abroad for litter, it is not used to the best advantage, being partly wasted. Again, if more straw is threshed at a time than can be consumed in a few daysin fodder, what of it remains to the last becomes dry and brittle, and unfit for the use of stock ; and even litter straw , if kept for a long time before it is used, becomes much lighter, and, of course, loses a portion of its value. So far, therefore, as the straw is con

cerned,it is bad practice to stack upthreshed straw for a long time, as some farmers seem fond * Compiled from Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry. (43)

+ Sinclair's Code of Agriculture.

44

THE BOOK OF THE FARM - WINTER .

of doing, for it then certainly wastes some of its properties as fodder or litter. The plan is, to thresh the straw when and as often as it is required, both for fodder and litter, and it will be always in the freshest state for use in both ways. But to follow out this plan successfully requires the previous consideration whether there is a sufficient number of stacks in the stack -yard, for the purposes of fodder and litter throughout the season, and if there is, then those should be se lected which are best suited , of the respective kinds, for those purposes, during the winter, when the utility of good straw is most appreciated. The remainder can be used for the inferior pur poses of bottoming the courts andstacks of the ensuing crop and season. Should the whole quan tity of straw , however, seem inadequate to the demands upon it, then it should be threshed only as required , and dealt out with an economical and judicious hand, so that no part of the season should be worse or better supplied than the rest. Do these considerations usually engage the attention of farmers ? I fear not,but certainly not so much as they deserve. I am aware that it may here be observed, that it is of much greater import for the interest of the farmer to study the state of the market for grain, than to losethat advantage by not threshing out the straw . This is feasible, but, at the sametime, is the farmer aware how much injury he may receive byloss of condition in stock, and deterioration in dung, by being inattentive to the state of his straw ? I suspect the subject hasreceived butlittle of his consideration . (1553.) It was at one time a prevalent notion that straw could not be converted into good ma nure, unless it were consumed by cattle and horses; and the celebrated Bakewell carried this idea to such a hight that if he hadnot stock sufficient of his ownto consume his straw , he took in those of others for the purpose. But he lived to see his error. Opinion changed to the opposite extreme, so that many farmers persuaded themselves into the belief that straw consumed by stock was wasted, and that it should only be used as litter. This latter opinion is nearer the truth

than the former, but goes beyond the truth ;for although it is quite correct to say that stock ought to depend on green crops for food to fatten them , yetit is also true that that food is much assisted

in its assimilation into the animal system by a participation of fodder. It is not merely that the stomach requires to be distended by food, but sweet,dry fodder is an agreeable change to the ox after a hearty meal of turnips. Feeding stock really consumevery little fodder; and when it is

placed before them at pleasure, they may either partake of it, or pick out a few choice straws, or

ſet it alonealtogether; thus affording creatures as much libertyof choice in their food as their confined situation will admit.

(1554.) The value of straw may be estimated from the quantity usually yielded by the acre, and the price which it usually realizes. Arthur Young estimated the straw yielded bythe different crops-- but rejecting the weaker soils-- at 1 ton 7 cwts. per English acre. Mr. Middleton esti mated the different crops in these proportions: Cwts.

Wheat straw

20

Barley Oats

25

Cwts. Lbs. 25 or 2,800 per acre . 25 2,800

Lbs.

.31 or 3,472 per acre .

Beans

Pease ..

2,440 2,800

25

Average rather more than ..

2,862 per acre. or 1 ton 5 cwts. per English acre. Mr. Brown, Markle, East-Lothian, computed the produce of

straw as follows, in stones of 22 lbs. per Scotch acre, which I have contrasted with the imperial: Lbs. Stonen. Cwts. Lbs. ... 160 or 3,520 or 31 48 per .100 2,200 19 72 ..130 2,860 25 60

Wheat-straw

Barley-straw Oat- straw .

Beans and Peas

2,860

.130

25

130 or 2,860 or 25

Average .

Scotch acre .

60

60 per acre .

or 1 ton 5 cwts. 60 lbs. per Scotch acre, or 1 ton 0 cwt. 76 lbs. per imperial acre. In the imme diate vicinity of Edinburgh, the produce, both in Scotch and imperial measures, per acre , is this : Cwts . Lbs. or 3,168 or 28 = 112 2,464 22 25 2,816 = 128 Stones.

Qrs. Lbs .

Wheat-straw ....9 kemples of 16 sts. of 22 lbs. = 144

1

Barley -straw Oat-straw .

0

.7 8

Average ...... 8

--

= 128 or 2,816 or 25

0

4 0 16

0

16

or 1 ton 5 cwts. 16lbs. per Scotch, or 1 ton 0 cwt. 13 lbs. per imperial acre. On comparing this

result — from the vicinity of a large town where a large supply of manure can always be ob. tained — with Mr. Brown's general estimate for the whole country, and finding the quantity less, we must conclude that Mr. Brown's estimate is above the mark as an average one for the coun try ; and unless the production of straw be very much greater in England than in Scotland , we

must also conclude that the estimates of both Arthur Young and Mr. Middleton are above the general average ; 1 ton the imperial acre of weight for straw is too high an average for Scotland. ( 1554.) In regard to the market value of straw, it being usually prohibited to be sold except in the vicinity of towns where manure can be received in return, it is only from the value received for it in towns that we can form an estimate of its value. In Edinburgh, the usual price for wheat-straw is 12s. per kemple of 16 stones of 22 lbs., or 9d. per stone ; and for oat-straw 10s. the

keinple, or 7d. per stone. This statement brings out and contrasts the values in Scotch and im perial measures : * Sinclair's Code of Agriculture.

(44)

45

WAGES OF FARM - SERVANTS.

Wheat-straw , 144 sts. of 22 lbs. at 9d. per st. = £5 6s. 4d. per Scotch acre of 10 bolls of 4 bushels, = 10s. 78. per boll. Oat-straw , 128 sts. of 22 lbs. at 7jd, per st. = £4 per Scotch acre of 10 bolls of 6 bus. = 88. pr boll. Equivalent to

Wheat-straw , 181 sts. of 14 lbs. at 52d. per st. = £4 6s. 9d. per imperial acre of 8 bolls of 4 bushels, = 108. 9d. per boll.

Oat-straw , 161 sts. of 14 lbs. at 41d. per st.=£3 4s. per imp. acre of 8 bolls of6 bushels . = 8s. per boll.

In those parts of the country where straw , with its corn , isallowed to be sold on foot — that is, as it grows in thefield — but prohibited from being sold by itself, the price for wheat-straw is 6s. per boll of 4 bushels, and 5s. per boll of oat-straw of 6 bushels. The quantity of straw per boll and per bushel will stand thus :

Wheat-straw , 14 sts. 8 lbs. of 22 lbs. per boll of 4 bushels = 3 sts. 11 lbs. per bushel. 12 ..17 Oat-straw , 1 Or Wheat-straw , 18 16 ... 1 Oat-straw ,

6 14

4 6

2 sts. 3 = 4 sts. = 2 sts .

7 9

( 1556.). The Romans used' straw as litter, as well as fodder, for cattle and sheep. They consid ered millet-straw as the best for cattle, then barley -straw , then wheat-straw . This arrangement

is rather against our ideas of the qualities of barley and wheat-straw ; butvery probably the hot climate ofItaly may improve the quality of the barley -straw by making it drierand more crisp, and render that of the wheat too hard and dry. The haulm of pulse was considered best for sheep. They sometimes bruised straw on stones before using it as litter, which is analogous to baving it cutwith the chaff-cutter, as has been recommended . (1557.) Where straw is scarce, they recommend the gathering of fern , leaves, &c., which is a practice that may be beneficially followed in this country, where opportunity occurs. Varro says : "It is the opinion of some that straw is called stramentum because it is strewed before the cattle ." *

4. THE WAGES OF FARM -SERVANTS. "The husbandman that laboreth must be first partaker of the fruits.”. ST. PAUL.

(1558.) Winter is the time in which wages in kind are paid to farm servants"; and the part of that season chosen for the purpose is about the

endof the year. It is requisite that harvest shall be completely over in the latest season, and every preparatory operation connected with the ac commodation of stock, either on turnips or in the steading, be gone through, before the business of threshing the crop in a regular order be commenced. In connection with threshing the crop, a plan should be adopted for supplying straw for fodder and litter, as recommended in

(1457), as well as for placing a quantity of new oats in the granary, to be drying and to be ready for use by the time the perhaps small stock of old corn shall be consumed. After all these preparatory operations inciden

tal to winter have been accomplished, and before much of the new crop has been disposed of at market, farther than to ascertain its general quality [t We need not say that in copying this chapter, we suppose that there is much, if any of it, susceptible of adaptation to our country - still, the system of farm wages is one so obviously and intimately interwoven with the agricultural economy of every country that every gentleman may be presumed to be curious to know how these systems differ in different parts of the world. The high price of wages in this country, and the scarcity of that and capital in their proportions to the price of land, not only prevent the restoration of exhausted lands in the old Atlantic States, but are fruitful sources of exhaustion and abandonment of States comparatively new - as Western New York for example.

What constitutes of itself a great advantage in favor of laboring people in the United States is, that they are almost invariably “ found, ” or boarded by their employers, and in the Free States in most cases eat at the same table , three times a day, with the farmer and his family. For a head

man on a farm , $12 may be put down as the usual wages, and for hands or “ helps ” by the Ed. Farm . Lib.]

month from $8 to $10. * Dickson's Husbandry of the Ancients, vol. ii. (45)

46

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

WINTER .

and price, the first leisure afforded by them is taken for paying the farm

servants their yearly wages of corn ; and as the quantity distributed is considerable on a large farm , and as all the servants should receive their wages at the same time, to avoid jealousy, there will be a considerable

quantity of threshed grain in the barn before the distribution takesplace. The servants receiving a variety of corn , that kind should be first distrib uted which is found most convenient for the farmer to thresh ; and each kind should be delivered, and the barn cleaned out, before another is in -terfered with .

( 1559.) I have already enumerated the different classes of laborers em ployed on a farm from (241) to (252) ; and I may here mention generally , that the wages of allmay be classed under three heads : 1st, Those con

sisting chiefly of kind, that is, of theproduce of the farm , and but a small sum in cash ; 2d, Those consisting of a largeproportion of cash and small amount of kind ; and, 3d, Those which consist entirely of cash.

The re

cipients of the first and third classes may be engaged on the same farm , and the third class may be found exclusively on a farm , but the first and second classes are never found together ; and as all three modes of paying wages coëxist in this kingdom , though in different parts of it, they afford a criterion for judging which is the best mode for all parties, for master and servant ; which the most convenient for the master, which the most conducive to the servants' comfort and moral habits. Plowmen or hinds

constituting the principal or staple class of laborers on a farm , like the battalion -men in a regiment, the terms of their wages are taken as a stand ard of comparison for those of the rest.

( 1560.) Plowmen's wages. These are paid in all the three modes enu merated above (1559), the first mode being in general adoption in the bor der counties of England and Scotland ; the second mode being practiced

in the midland and northern counties of Scotland ; and the third having long been adopted in the southern counties of England.

(1561.) Wages in kind and money differ, in their constituent items, in different counties, but only in a slight degree; the aggregate items afford ing sufficiency of food to support a plowman and his family . I shall enu

3 1 12

= 18 6

peas at 23s. 3d .

= 1200 yards potatoes at 48.. A cow's keep for the year Cottage and garden .. Carriage of coals Cash ..

Equal to 10s. 114d. per week ..

£ 6

i

In Berwickshire. at 12s. 10 d. per boll. barley, at 198.10 .

10 bolls = 60 bushels oa

సంల అయి ు

merate the particulars received by the plowmen of Berwickshire and Northumberland :

9

2 19 7}

1 3 2 8 1 10 2 0 4 0

3 0 0 0 0

0

£ 28 971

In Northumberland . 6 bolls 4 2

= 36 bushels oats, at 12s. 10 d. per boll = 24 barley, at 198. 10 d ... = 12 3 3

40

peas, at 238. 3d

£ 3 17

3

3 19 2 6

6 6

wheat, at 47s. 2d . per quarter

0 17

8}

rye, at 298. 4d ..

0 11 2 0 1 4 9 0 2 0 4 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

potatoes, at 18

24 lbs. of wool, at 1s A cow's keep for the year . Carriage of coals . Cash ........

Equal to 11s. 5d. per week ..

£ 29 15 11

To the money value of both particulars I attach no importance, farther than giving to them a tangible form ; for the prices of agricultural pro (46)

47

WAGES OF FARM - SERVANTS .

duce affect neither master nor servant in their relation to one another, the

simply being, that the master supports the servant in an adequate point manner. Any difference, therefore, shown in the weekly wages between 10s. 11 d. and 11s. 5d. as brought out in estimating the money value of the particulars does not in fact exist, because the plowmen of both coun

ties live equally well. Instead of taking an imaginary rate of prices, I have selected the aggregate average, as given in the Universal Corn Re

porter of 20th January, 1843. Besides working a pair of horses, the plow man is bound to supply a field -worker, whether a woman or a boy, usu ally theformer, whenever the farmer requires her services, and who re ceives for her work 10d. a day, and in harvest 28. 6d. a day, besides In harvest-wages there is a difference between the two counties, and it is explained in this way. In Northumberland, it will be observed that the rent of the house and garden is set down at £ 3 a year, while the

victuals.

plowman receives 2s. 6d. a day, and victuals, for the field-workerin har vest ; whereas, in Berwickshire,the plowman is bound to workthe har vest as rent for his house and garden , receiving only victuals, which I have estimated at that season at 1s. a day for 30 days, which is as long a period asharvest may be expected tolast, and which should be deducted from £3 of rent. There is also a difference in the cow's keep. In Berwick shire, the allowance is 60 stones of 22 lbs. of hay in winter in lieu of tur

nips ; but turnips are always preferred, and these are given to the amount of6 double horse -loads, 3 of white and 3 of Swedes. In Northumberland, 10 cart -loads of white turnips are given, or 5 of white and 3 of Swedes ;

or, in lieu, 1 ton of hay, or 100 stones of 22 lbs.; so that the Northumber land cow is better off by £1 in winter than the Berwickshire, and the dif

ference is certainly so far an improvement on the condition of the English The grain which the plowman can claim is next in quality to the seed - corn ; and in Ber wickshire he receives' it in advance at the end of the year, which is in the middle of the year's engagement from Whitsunday (May) to Whitsunday. hind. Both cows have as much straw as they can use.

In Northumberland, thecorn is paid in advance once a quarter. The corn is ground in any way the plowman pleases, at one of the small mills of the country, for the mere miller's multure ; so he saves the profits of the re tail dealer. If he cannot consume all his corn, the farmer willingly takes what

to spare at

he current market price.

The produce of the

cow, over and above what is required to serve the plowman and his family,

may be disposed of; and if the cow is a good one, and the season favora ble, and the wife a good dairymaid, a considerable sum may be realized from the cow during the year. Her calf, if early and gotten by a well be worth bred bull, will fetch £2, and perhaps more ; if late, it may stillenables the 20s. The refuse of the dairy, of the garden , and the house, the and use, own his for one year; every pigs two fatten to plowman

other to dispose of. The cow is the plowman's own property ; and to lose her by death is a serious afflictionupon him . I have seen men with families much injured by such a loss, and could never refrain from render ing the poor fellows some assistance.

To avert so serious a calamity to a

poor man , cow -clubs have been established, to purchase cows for the mem bers who may have the misfortune to lose them .

Farmers subscribe ac

cording to their number of plowmen, and each plowman who wishes to enjoy the benefit subscribes 1s. a quarter to the funds of the club.

(1562.) Wages, more in cash than in kind, are more extensively given in Scotland than the plan which I have just described. Those who re

ceive this species ofwages are chiefly single men, living either in the farm er's house, or in a house by themselves called a bothy. The practice of (47)

48

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-WINTER.

allowing farm -servants to take their meals in the farmer's house is falling fast into desuetude, and its abandonment is much to be regretted, for it is

a far better plan for the comfort of the men themselves than the bothy

system . But married men are also supported inthis form of wages, though their condition is not so good as that of the plowmen on the preceding plan, but it is certainly preferable to the bothysystem. (1563.) The portion of wages received in kind consists of oatmeal and

milk. The meal amounts to 2 pecks per week for each man, that is, 1 stone of 173 lbs., which makes 67bolls per annum , or 651 stones of 14 lbs.; and this at 1s. per peck gives a money value of £5 4s. a year. The milk is supplied either fresh from the cow or after the cream has been skimmed

off, according to agreement. In the former state it is given to the amount of 1 Scotch pint or 2 quarts a day ;and in the latter state, 3 quarts are given in summer, and 2 in winter. The value of the milk is usually es timated at £4 a year. In some cases a cow or cows are supplied to the men , who milk them, and are exchanged for others when they go dry ; but

supplying milk is the least troublesome plan for the master. These items of kind, with from £10 to £14a year of cash, varying with the rate of wages in the country, or according to the skill of the plowman, constitute the earnings of a plowman on this system . It is only in the amount of cash that these wages vary at any time, for what is given in kind is con sidered invariable, being no more food than a stout man can consume ; but some cannot consume it all, and save a part of the meal, which they either dispose of to the farmer or to dealers. In strict fairness, the meal should be given to the men every week, but to save trouble, it is dealt out once a month or once a fortnight. The milk, of course , is supplied every day.

( 1564.) Besides these principal ingredients, the married men get a house and garden rent free, and coals are driven free to their house . The

single men are provided with a room containing a number of beds, which are occupied each by two men ; and the bed -clothes, consisting of a chaff

tickingand bolster, blankets, sheets and coverlid ,are provided by the mas ter, and replaced clean every month. This room is called the bothy, and it usually forms both the sleeping- chamber and cooking-apartment of all

its inmates,which may amount to as many menas there are plowmen em ployed on the farm. The men are supplied with fuel all the year round, with which to cook their victuals, and which they do for themselves.

The

fuelconsists of wood, brushwood, or coal, according to the supplies of the locality ; but in winter, coal is always laid in to the extent of 1 ton each man .

Salt is also providedby the master; and he also furnishes a pot

for cooking in, a dish for holding milk, and some forms and perhaps a ta ble ; but this last article of furniture isoften dismissed from the bothy with

little ceremony, a form , or the lap, making a much more desirable dinner board. A few potatoes are generally given in winter. (1565.) The oatmeal is usually cooked in one way, as brose, as it is called, which is a different sort of pottage to porridge. A pot of water is put on the fire to boil, a task which themen take in turns ; a handfull or two of oatmeal is taken out of the small chest with which each man pro

vides himself,and put into a wooden bowl, which also is the plowman's property ; and on a hollow being made in the meal, and sprinkled with salt, the boiling water is poured over the meal, and the mixture receiving a little stirring with a horn spoon, and the allowance of milk poured over it, the brose is ready to be eaten ; and as every man makes his own brose,

and knows his own appetite, he makes just as much brose as he can con The bowl is scraped clean with the spoon, and the spoon licked (48)

sume .

49

WAGES OF FARM -SERVANTS.

clean with the tongue, and the dish is then placed in the meal-chest for a

similar purpose on the succeeding occasion. The fare is simple, and is as simply made; but it must be wholesome, and capable of supplying the loss of substance occasioned by hard labor; for I believe that no class of men

can endure more bodily fatigue, for ten hours every day, than those plow men of Scotlandwho subsist on this brose thrice a day . (1566.) The plowmen who receive cash for wages, are in the same con dition as day laborers, who receive their earnings once a week and pur chase their subsistence at retail dealers' in country towns and villages. This, I believe, is the condition ofmost ofthe plowmen in the southern coun ties of England.

There is one obvious remark, occasioned by this state

ment, which cannot fail to be considered by every farmer, which is, that

unless money wages adapt themselves to the fluctuating prices of the commodities upon which farm -servants subsist, servants so paid must suffer much privation on a rise in the price of provisions ; and on the other hand, when prices again fall, they receive higher wages than they are entitled to. They are thussubjected to vicissitudes in their condition, from which the former two classes of plowmen are exempt. ( 1567.) The wages of stewards are in all respects similar to those of the plowmen of whom they have the charge, the only difference being in the amount of cash received, which is always greater than that given to the

plowmen. Insteadof £ 4, given totheformer class of plowmen, they may receive £12 or £15, andinstead of £12 or £ 14 given in cash to thelatter difference class, they may receive from £20 to £25 ; and if there is

any

in

the size or situation of the servants' houses, the best is appropriated to them . In most cases the steward is exempt from attendance on the farm on Sundays, while in others he takes his turn along with the other men, which latter is the better plan for the master, as the stewardcan then have much better opportunity of observing whether the men fulfill their duties properly.

(1568.) The shepherd receives the same amount of kind and money as the plowman; but as he is accounted a skillful servant, and his hours of

attendance extend everyday from sunrise to sunset, hehas leave to keep a small flock of sheep of his own, which is maintained by his master,

and

the produce of which he is entitled to dispose of every year. His flock consists of breeding -ewes, which vary in number from half a score,such as of Leicester ewes in the low country, to perhaps twoscore of Black

faced ewes in the highest districts. About of the number of the ewes being disposed of every year, he isentitled to retain as many ewe -lambs of his flock as will maintain the full number of his breeding- ewes. The

shepherd's dog is his own property, often purchased at a high rate, and trained with much trouble and solicitude.

(1569.) The hedger, being considered a day laborer or spadesman, gets a smaller proportionof kind than the first class of plowmen, and more money , and generally no cow's-keep ; and where the second class of plowmen exist,no hedger is kept as a hired servant, but is viewed in the light of a day-laborer, and is paid money-wages accordingly. Being a

skillful man , the hedger never receives less than £40 a year in value, and more frequently £ 1 a week. He can sow corn, build stacks, and do any

thing that the steward can , and sometimes all that the shepherd can be sides.

(1570.) The cattle-man, being viewed as a laborer, receives some of his wages in kind and the rest in cash, and is seldom indulged with a cow . Being generally a person somewhat advanced in life, the rate of his wages, is not high - perhaps 98. a week ; and it is well when such a post as this (97) ...... 4

50

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-WINTER.

can be given on a farm to an oldand faithful plowman or shepherd, whose growing infirmities disable him from undertaking his former active duties.

(1571.) Thefield -worker is simply a day-laborer,and receives 10d. a day, without any wages in kind, from the farmer. This person is usually a

woman. The first class of plowmen are each bound to supply a field worker for the farm during the year, they receiving the wages earned by the workers in that time. They hire the women in the public markets and support them in their houses with bed and board and wages. Should the field -worker obtain constant employment on the farm , the plowman may profit by the arrangement. On large farms field -workers are almost

constantly employed. The practice had, no doubt, arisen at a time when

few women could be persuaded to work in the fields; and the circum stance of plowmen being bound by agreement to supply such laborers, these latter have long been designated by the odious name of bondagers, an epithet no doubtleft us in legacy by our feudal forefathers. The prac

tice has been found fault with, and even represented as a species of slavery, probably because of the odious designation given to the condition of the women ; but the truth is, there is no more binding or slavery about the

matter than in the case of the plowmen themselves,and even less, for they are bound by agreement to work for a year, whereas the bondager's term is only for six months. The epithet is a nick-name, and should be relin quished for the proper name of field -worker; but the practice is good, because it enables the farmer to command a certain number of hands at

all times, and also to accomplish his ends by his own resources, independ ent of extraneous aid.

It is no answer to say that women may be hired

out of villages when their services are required,becausemany large farms are situate far from any village ; and even the vicinity of a village will not secure a supply of field -workers, as I have myself experienced to my vex ation ; for whenever trade is brisk, manufacturers not only pick up all the hands they can procure, but the work which they supply being done by the piece, at which greater wages than at field -work can be earned in long

hours of labor, a temptation is presented to women laborers to desert the fields ; and to such a degree of stringency is this monopoly of labor car ried by manufacturers that they will not allow their people to go and as sist at harvest. A resource of labor like the Border system should, there fore, not be yielded by the farmer, until a better, or one as efficient, can be substituted. Its hardship , however, is not imputed to the workers them

selves but to the plowmen who must hire them ; but if there is any hard ship in it to the plowmen, they nevertheless engage in it voluntarilywith all its inconveniences, rather than abandon their profession ; though, no doubt, if a man have no family, and the work is but limited, the support

of a field -worker may press hard upon his gains, but there is this allevi ating circumstance, even in such a case, that the burden is imposed upon a man who has no family to support ; whereas, a family of daughters is a great source of income to a plowman, one doing the bondage work, others

being paid for their labor, and all contributing to thesupport of a com mon fund. The system has no bad effect on the bondagers themselves ;

for they are cheerful and happy at work, and are well clad on Sundays. Nor are they ever put to any labor beyond their strength ; for as to the alleged “ unfeminine practice of females driving dung -carts,*** the practice is not more unfeminine than helping to fill dung -carts, or turning dung hills ; but the fact is, women do not drive carts, in the usual sense of that

term ; they only walk beside the cart, in the absence of the driver at more laborious work, to and from the dunghill to the place of its destination , Report of the Cottage Improvement Society ofNorth Northumberland for 1842. (98)

WAGES OF FARM- SERVANTS.

51

merely to keep the carts clear of one another, and when so employed they

have nothing to do with the yoking or loosening of the horse, or filling or emptying ofthe cart, or turning in or out of the landings. In the north deed can be, for it would be impossible to coëxist with the bothy system, where a plowman has not a house for himself, far less for any worker ; and

ern counties of Scotland no such obligation exists on the plowmen, nor in

hence in those parts of the country field -labor, in as far as the manual

operations are concerned, is very much inferior to that executed on the Borders, because of its being performed by casual laborers instead of those who have been steadily trained up to it from early youth ; and as long as no means are used to initiate young people, especially young women, who are admitted to be more nimble in the fingers thanmen, in the several varieties of field -labor, so long will they be imperfectly exe cuted.

(1572.). Now, on taking a retrospect of the actual condition of all the laborers of the farm ,as I have endeavored to represent it, and comparing the condition of the first class of plowmen with the others, the question that naturally occurs to the mind is — Which is the best ? I have not the slightest hesitation in expressing myconviction of the superior position of the plowmen in the Borders. Let us look into one of their cottages of an evening. I grant that their cottages might be made much more comfortable and much more convenient,and much better suited to the wants

of their inhabitants, than they are; and this I shall endeavor to show in due time;but in the mean time I may say that a determination exists for improvement in this matter evinced by partiesmost able to do it, namely, the landlords, and itsgood effects will be seen in the course of a few years ; but look into one of their cottages, such asthey are, during a winter evening, and " you will prob.

ably see,” to use the words of Mr. Grey,Dilston. on this subject, in the letter and spirit of whose sentiments I cordially concur, ' assembled the familygroup round a cheerful coal-fire - which, bythe way, is an inestimable blessing to all classes, butchiefly to the poor of this country -- females knit ting or spinning—the father, perhaps, mending his shoes - an artalmost all acquire -- and one of the young ones reading for the amusement of the whole circle.” Contrast this with the condition

of those plowmen in England who receive their wages entirely in cash, and who have to go to a distance to purchase the necessaries of life. “ Contrast this,” continues Mr. Grey, “ with the condi

tion of many young men emoloyed as farm -servants in the southern counties, who being paid board -wages, club together to have their comfortless meal in a neighboring cottage, with no house to call their home, left to sleep in an outhouse or hay-loft, subject to the contamination of idle companions, with no parent's eye to watch their actions, and no parent's voice to warn them of

their errors; and say which situation is best calculated to promote domestic comfort, family affec. tion , and moral rectitude ?” Contrast this also with the bothy system , which perhaps Mr. Grey has never witnessed, or no doubt it would have met with his reprobation ; contrast this with a

system which, although it supplies the necessaries of life in a convenient enough form , presents them in uncomfortable circumstances affording no assistance to cook the food and clean out the

chamber; affording no one to admonish thoughtless young men, many of whom are in the practice of wandering at night after a long day's toil, and returning home only in the morning, to begin a day's work,with wearied limbs and depressed spirits. Inthe winter evenings, too, thebothy is a scene of lewd mirth, excited by the company of females who have come perhaps from a dis tance to visit their acquaintances, and who are treated most probably with a stolen fowl, en tertained with profane jests and songs, and afterward convoyed homeward amid darkness and wet. &

( 1573.) One very obvious benefit," observes Mr. Grey justly, in regard to married plowmen, " arising to the hind from this mode of paying in kind , besides that having a store of wholesome food always at command, which has not been taxed with the profits of intermediate agents, is the absence of all temptation which the receipt of weekly wages and the necessity of resorting to a

village or a town to buy provisions, hold out of spending some part of the money in the ale-house, which ougnt to provide for the wants of the family , and to this circumstance, and to the domestic employment which their gardens afford in their leisure hours, we are probably much indebted for the remarkable sobriety and exemplary moral conduct of the peasantry of the North .” And far

ther, "this mode of engaging and paying farm -servants is not only more condaciveto their wel fare and social comfort than the weekly payment of money-wages which go but a little way in purchasing the necessaries of a family , are injudiciously laid out, and sometimeswastefully squan dered — but it has, besides, a strong and apparent influence upon their habits and moral character ,

it possesses the advantage of giving to the peasant the use ofa garden and cow , with the certainty ofemployment; it gives him a personal interest in the produce of his master's farm , and a desire to secure it in good condition ; produces a set of local attachments,which often lead to a connec. tion between master and servant,of long continuance."

(1574.) Beneficially as this system of paying farm -servants in kind has long operated both for master and servant, it has been stigmatized by persons even in Parliament, as being only another form of the truck -system , which has been made toact so prejudicially against the interests of ope ratives in England . But what is the truck -system ? After hearing the proper answer to this ques. tion, we shall be the better able to judge whether the plowman's wages paid in kind can truly re

ceive that appellation . Of the truck -system , Mr. McCulloch says that it is “ a name given to a Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. ii. (99)

52

THE BOOK OF THE FARM - WINTER .

practice that has prevailed, particularly in the mining and manufacturing districts, of paying the The plan has been for the master to establish warehouses or shops ; and the workmen in their employment have either got their wages account. ed for to them by supplies of goods from such dépôts, without receiving any money ; or they have got the money, with a tacit orexpress understanding that they were to resort to the warehouses or

wages of workmen in goods instead of money.

shops of their masters for such articles as they werefurnished with ." * If this be anything like a correct account of the properly reprobated system, it is clear that it has no affinity to the system in

kind, in which the hinds are paid their wages, inasmuch as this has no reference to the moneyvalue of any article which the hinds receive, and therefore they always receive the same amount of kind, and of course the same rate of wages ; whereas the truck -system has undoubted reference to the money value of the articles dealt out to, or purchased by, the operatives ; and that money value is fixed by the master whose interest it is, ofcourse , to keep it at as high a rate as practicable, or else to give out articles of inferior quality at the price of those of more value ; and hence the arti

san does not always receive the same amount of goods, nor the same rate of wages.

5. CORN MARKETS. “ Thus all is here in motion, all is life ; The creaking wain brings copious stores of corn ." DYER.

(1575.) The surplus grain of the farm is disposed of to corn -merchants, millers, bakers, distillers, and brewers. These attend on the market-day in the market-town. Ifthe market-town is a seaport, most of the corn

merchants and brewers reside in it permanently , and have their granaries there . When the market-town is situate in the interior of the country, the merchants and brewers attend the market there from the nearest seaport. The purchase of grain is chiefly carried on in winter, when the farmer has

his crop to disposeof. Brewers and distillers chiefly buy barley for malt ing, millers and bakers chiefly wheat and oats, and merchants every spe cies of grain. The market for barley commences the season, wheat and

oats being then disposed of according to the demand for them ; but after March the demand for both increases, to supply the consumption until next

harvest. In a corn district, from which most of the produce is carried away to large towns or manufacturing districts, it is most convenient for the shipment of grain that corn -merchants reside in seaport towns. ( 1576.) Corn markets are of two kinds, stock or sample markets. A sam ple-market is that in which farmers bring hand samples of the grain they wish

to dispose of, exhibit them to purchasers, and deliver the stock or bulk at an appointed time.

( 1577.) A stock market is where farmers bring in the grain they have to sell in bulk upon their carts, exhibit a bagfull of it, sell the quantity brought, deliver it to the purchasers immediately after the sale is ef fected, and then receive the money for it. A merchant who sells grain

in a stock -market does so by sample, and never thinks of bringing his stock, which perhaps consists of granaries-full, to the market-place ;and there is nothing to prevent farmers also to sell their grain by sample in a stock -market.

(1578.) When sold by sample,the grain is delivered by the farmer in his own carts in the course of the few days allowedhim for the purpose, either at the granaries of the merchant, brewer, or distiller, or at the mill of the mil.

ler. Water-proof tarpaulins are required to cover the sacks in the carts when grain is delivered in a a rainy day, but it is better to defer the deliv ery until fair weather, if not otherwise inconvenient. * McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary, art. Truck -System . ( 100)

53

CORN MARKETS .

( 1579.) When sold in bulk, corn is delivered immediately after the sale at

the granaries of the merchants on the spot, or at the brewery, or distillery, or mill in the country, according to agreement.

( 1580.) The payment for grain sold by sample is only made on the market day after the delivery has been effected; but the payment of that sold in bulk is due, and is generally received, on the day it is sold, soon after its delivery at the granaries.

( 1581.) Of the two modes of selling grain, each has its advantages and disadvantages to the farmer. It is very convenient to take a quantity of grain to market, sell it, deliver it on the spot, and receive the cash for it immedidiately afterward. It enables the farmer to transact his market

business at once, and saves him the trouble of attending next market-day on purpose to receive the cash, when he may have no other occasion to be

there. It obliges, in a great degree, merchants to provide granaries for the reception of grain in the interior market-towns; as farmers may refuse to deal with a purchaser who wishes the grain deliveredat a distance from

the market-town, thefatigueto their horses being thereby probably much increased. This mode of selling grain has also the advantage of securing the farmer against bad debts, because he may deliver the grain and receive the value forit simultaneously. On the other hand, it is attended with this

great disadvantage, that in case the farmer does not sell his grain on the day he has brought it to the market -place, he is eitherobliged to take it home again, or put it into a granary until the next market-day, when, of course, granary -rent must be incurred , and the additional expensealso in curred of either hiring carts to deliver the grain nextmarket-day, from the

temporary granary tothat of his purchaser, or of sendinga cart of his own to do it ; and as he must keep the grain so accommodated in sacks, he may

be deprived of the use of his sacks at a time when he may have a large quantity of corn in his barn to measure up, and which, where lying in a loose state, may be an inconvenience. Or to avoid these manifold and ob

vious inconveniences he must take the price offered for his grain. An other disadvantage is, that his horses must stand in the market-place, ex posed for hours to cold blasts, after perhaps being heated on their way to the market-town . The exhibition of corn in bulk gives power, however,

to the purchaser to inspect the cleaning of every sack before purchasing it, and it also gives him the command of a quantity of corn immediately after its purchase.

( 1582.) The advantages of a hand sample-market to the farmer are, that he is independent of the rate of price of any market-day; for if it does not satisfy him, he can put his sample into his pocket again. His men and horses cannot lose a day's work, and are not exposed to the weather in waiting in the market-place. He need not, moreover, clean his grain be

fore selling it, and should he be induced to sell more than what is threshed, he has time to thresh more and clean the whole quantity at once, thereby making the stock of uniform quality, and cleaned agreeably to the partic

ular taste of the purchaser. The disadvantages to the farmer are inability to receive cash for the grain he sells until the next market-day after its

delivery, and the risk he thereby runs of incurring bad debts withforthe it. merchant, to whom the stock is delivered some days before he

pays

The advantage of a sample -market to the merchant is, that should the

sample please him, he can purchase as large a quantity of grain as the farmer pleases to dispose of, and thus make up a cargo of uniformquality; and the disadvantage which he experiences, which, by the way, is felt most strongly by the brewer, distiller and miller, is that he cannot obtain pos

session ofthe grain immediately after purchase. (101)

54

THE BOOK OF THE FARM - WINTER .

(1583.) Of the two species of corn -markets, I prefer selling by the sam

ple, chiefly because I dislike to see horses standingfor hours witha load in the market-place, and most probably in bad weather, fornone else can be looked for in winter. Such a stand cannot be for their advantage, and , in my estimation, the peculiar advantages of a stock -market are insufficient to counterbalance the risk thus incurred in the safety of the horses. This inconvenience is perhaps appreciated by some farmers, and a modification of the plan is followed, such as delivery in the course of a few days of a larger quantity of grain than what was actually presented in the market

place; but no modification can take place of the sale of grain by sample, in that it is simply the presentation of the hand sample in the market, the sale of the bulk therewith, and its consequent delivery at the specified

time. It would be curious to observe the particular diseases to which horses are most liable, that are made to stand in a market-place for hours together, and to ascertain if these are of the class most commonly contracted

from exposure to weather . (1584.) Were all men honest, it would be immaterial which mode were

adopted for the sale of grain, in so far as the state of the grain is con

cerned; but tothe shame of the farmer be it spoken, it sometimes happens that the stock is delivered of an inferior quality, ornot so well cleaned as the sample that was shown in the market. Some farmers acquire a char acter for this species of fraud, and so blinded do they become by their cupidity, that they cannot discover the advantage which they thereby con fer on the merchant to reduce the price of the bargain made between them.

It is curious that men cannot at once believe that ill- cleaned corn

cannot be so heavy, bulk for bulk , as well-cleaned. While such people, therefore, think they are taking advantage of the merchant by giving him light corn among the good, they are in fact cheating themselves, for no purchaser will pay the stipulated price of good corn when ill-cleaned

corn is delivered to him instead. Many farmers, I apprehend, deliver

stock inferior to sample, from no intention of committing fraud, but be cause they cannot deliver the stock so clean as the sample shown, it having

been differently treated from the stock. They are in the habit of pulling out a sample fromthe stack, rubbing out the grain from the ears, blowing N away the chaff with the mouth, and picking out the light corn.

ow no

winnowing machine can clean corn in this style. Or a sample is taken from the unwinnowed bin on the barn - floor, and treated in a similar man ner. Sample and stock can only agree exactly when both are derived from a similar state of the same parcel of grain .

( 1585.) On the other hand, Imust say, in justice to the farmer, that some corn -merchants are very fastidious on receiving stocks of grain that have

been sold them by sample. The stock is objected to at the granary, because it is inferior to the sample; and when this plea cannot besubstantiated on

comparison, the bulk is declared deficient in measure, which objection can not be rebutted without measuring over the whole quantity,and on this being done, and this objection also proving groundless, it is rejected be cause the grain is lighter than that guarantied by the farmer. But the object is to set up the grain anyhow, to give the merchant an opportunity to reduce its price. To show how such a circumstance as this can happen, I may observe that the merchant seldom witnesses the delivery of grain at

his granaries, this duty being deputed to the man who has charge of the granaries, and its delivery cannot of course be witnessed by the farmer. So if the merchant's foreman receive the clue to make objections, these

are easily made to appear effective to the farm -servants delivering the grain , who of course know nothing of the conditions of the bargain. (102)

The

CORN MARKETS.

55

corn is then set up, that is, set down in the sacks on the floor, and remains, there unemptied until an explanation takes place ; on which, if the farmer has committed an error, he suffers a considerable reduction in price, but. if he can maintain his own rectitude, the merchant concedes the point, and throws the blame on his stupid foreman, who, after all, is justified for the interruption hehad given, by the allegation that he had only done his duty to his master. I have heard of both these species of fraud being attempted to be committed, and have also heard a remark connected with one of them,

that merchants are most likely to be fastidious inregard to the quality of the grain they receive,when prices happen to fall between the period of purchase andthat of delivery. Unfortunately,no such motive can be urged to justify the farmer in his attempts to pass off inferior grain. In a stock market no such occurrence can happen. Let me say here, that my sole object in alluding to so painful a subject is to make you aware of the tricks oftrade.

(1586.) Every species of grain is directed by the Weights and Measures Act, (5th Geo . IV., c. 74 , sec. 15,) to be sold by the imperial bushel,

containing 2,218,192 cubic inches, and not 2,150.42 cubic inches, as erroneously given in that paragraph, this latter number being the con tents of the old Winchester bushel, which is now obsolete, and there is

no such recognized quantity as a quarter, boll, coom , or load. The prac tice has settled into measuring grain into half- quarter sacks of 4 bushels, which forms a convenient size of load in the barn , as well for carriage on men's backs as in carts, Plate XVIII.

(1587.) Granaries in town are frequently situate in inconvenient places for access to carts, such as narrow streets and lanes ; and some are so

inconveniently highthat four or five flights of steps haveto be surmounted ere the floor be attained which is to contain the corn ; and these stairs are

not unfrequently too narrow or too steep, or the steps so worn away in who carry loads

up them . front as to endanger the safety of the persons But the risk is fully greater to those who have to bring loads down them ,

when the contents of the granary are emptying for the loading of a ship. For the carriage of corn in sucha case, I have seen a convenient form of bag used . It consisted of a short sack, capable of holding rather more than two bushels, drawn together at the bottom, where a shortpiece of

thick pliable rope is attached, the mouth being formed like any other sack. The person who is to carry the bag, folds the mouth together when filled so asto cover the corn, and at the same timeleaves a portion of the sack

loose, by which he holds firmly with his right hand. On assistance being given him to lift the sack, when filled, he turns himself quickly round

with his back to it, and brings the part by which he holds on, over his head ; and holding on there with one or both hands, as he choosesand feels most convenient in the circumstances, literally runs with the load to the ship’s hold, where, on a man seizing the short rope at the bottom of the sack, the carrier hitches the sack off his back , and the grain is poured into the hold, while the man all the time retains hold of the short rope.

( 1588.) For long in Scotland, grain used to be sold by measure alone,

and forlong it used to be sold in Ireland by weight alone ; but both ways are liable to objection. When the measure alone is used, there is a temp tation to measure the corn before it is properly cleaned, especially if the corn is sold ; and when sold alone by weight, there is also a tempta tion to retain light corn among the good, with the view , in both cases,

of disposing of the inferior grain at as good aprice as the fine. But a check has of late years been established against both species of fraud, by a statement of the weight along with the bulk . Merchants know the weight ( 103)

56

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

WINTER .

of grain by its appearance and feel, and therefore,by tryingthe weight of a 4 -bushel sack, they can easily ascertain whetherthe grainis in as clean a statethroughout the whole bag as at its mouth. But the introduction of the

weight has given rise to a species of deceitful dealing as regards the pub lic. The purchaser offers a certain price for every somany pounds weight of grain, without direct reference to the contentsof the bushel ; and some

farmers are induced to sellon this plan, in the vain hope of being able to boast that they have sold their grain at such a price, wishing it to be be

lieved that the price applies to the true quarter, when in fact it isgiven for so many pounds weight, and to deliver the number of pounds for the specified sum the bushel is heaped. This is pitiful work . The fair and common practice is to ask such a price for the grain per quarter,stating

its weight by the bushel ; and, of course , the heavier the grain, and better the quality, the purchaser will give the higher price for it. ( 1589.) The usual denominations of corn measures, based upon the imperial bushel, the star

ard

of capacity, are these ; 4 gills 2 pints 4 quarts

= 1 pint, = 1 quart,

34f cubic inches. 69 }

= 1 gallon ,

277

contain

2 gallons = 1 peck, 4 pecks = 1 bushel,

5542 22187

8 bushels = 1 quarter,

101

5 quarers = I load,

512

feet.

(1590. ) In regard to the sale of corn , these settled points in law may prove useful for you to with the sample (Parker, 4 Barn. and Ald.,387). The delivery of the sample does not transfer the kpow . ' In sale by sample, the buyer may decline the bargain, if the bulk does not correspond

property of the bulk (Hill, Jan. 26, 1785 , M. 4200 ). The price must consist in current money, either of Great Britain or some foreign country , which has a determinate value put upon it by

the tacit consent of the State ; if in goods it will bebarter and not sale ;and if illusory , it will be donation. The price must be certain , as well as the subject sold. Itis generally fixed by the

parties themselves at striking the bargain. Where a purchaser of oats, payabl on delive , tem . porized with the seller , and delayed to take delivery for a fortnight, duringewhich perry iod the price of oats rose , it was held that he was not entitled to delivery to demand delivery (Craig, May 29, 1823 , 2 S. D. 347). . .

In sales of grain , the price is sometimes fixed by the Sheriff's fiars. In

thecase of Leslie (Jan. 27, 1714 ,M. 1419 and 1678 ), where there was an agreement to purchase gra wit a pri spe it was

held , inter alia, that fiars ' prices may be presumed the sale in hout ce cified, between landlord and tenant; and that merchants are presumed to contract according to the car. rent prices of the country where the bargain is made . As to the risk of the sale after the subject is sold , the loss is to the purchaser, as in the case of Campbell (July 15, 1748, M. 10,071),and in the case of Tarling (1827, 6 Barn . and Cres. 361) . But it was held in the case of Milne (Feb. 1 , 1809 , F. C.), that where the seller takes upon himself the delivery of goods at a certain place , it throws

the risk of the goods , while in transitu to that place, on the seller . : : . Where the seller has de layed delivering thesubject to the purchaser when bought, he is liable for the risk ; but it is not considered delay when the purchaser declines paying the price. Also, when a landed proprietor sells a certain quantity of grain of a particular crop to a merchant,without specifyin any particu . lar parcel, and the whole crop is destroyed , the loss is to the seller; but after sucgh quantity of grain is measured. or otherwise prepared for delivery , the risk will be transferred to him ; so found in the case of Hinde (6 East. 558.); Erskine, iii. 3. 7. " In regard to the landlord's hypothec over corn , restitution was given in the case of Scot (June 11, 1673, N. 6223. ), of corns bou ght from a tenant while under hypothec. Though, when bought in public market, where they have been brought in bulk , the purchaser is not liable in restitution ; if brought only in samples, the landlord is entitled to restitution . This was held in the case of Smart, Dec. 10, 1793, and Earl of Dalhousie , So that a stock -market is safer for a purchaser to buy in , and a sam . ple -market is safer for the hypothec of a landlord .

Feb. 27, 1828, 6 S. D. 626 ." *

6. FORMING OF DUNGHILLS, AND LIQUID-MANURE TANKS. “ If frost, returning. interrupt the plow ,

the time,along the hardened ridge, Thenis drive manure To

GRAHAM .

(1591.) Toward the close of winter, the dung will have accumulated so high in the large courts I and K, figs. 3 and 4, Plate III. and IV., as to be

come nearly level with the feeding -troughs z , and thereby making them * The Farmer's Lawyer.

(104)

LUNGHILLS AND LIQUID-MANURE TANKS.

57

inconveniently low for cattle ; but before this inconvenience occurs, the dung should be removed and formed into dunghills in the fields intended to be manured in the ensuing season. The court K, besides its own litter and the refuse from the corn - barn C , contains the litter of the work - horse

stable O, and thepig -sty b ; and the court I contains the litter of the ser. vants’-cow byre Y , besides its own. The dung from the cows’-court 7 should also be taken away, to save annoyance to cows heavy in calf wading in deep litter ; and that from the courts of both the hammels M and N, if not from under the sheds, should also be taken away , for the same reason as

given above in the case of the courts, that the feeding -troughs become too low , especially in the hammels M of fattening cattle. (1591.) I am thus particular in detailing the contents of each court, bo

cause, differing in their constituent parts, they should be appropriated to the raising of the crop best adapted for each sort of manure. For exam ple, the court K contains a large proportion of stable -litter, and not a little from that of the pig -sties ; so its contents are somewhat of a different na ture from those of the court I, which contains nothing but the litter of cat tle. If it is desired to raise a large extent of that crop which thrives best

with a considerable proportion of horse -dung, the contents of the court K should of course be preferred to that of the other court I ; and if any crop is best raised with cattle-dung, the contents of the court I and the cows '.

Or should the manure required consist of an average proportion for raising of general crops , then the contents of all court I should be used for it.

the courts should be mixed together. This method of appropriating the dung of a farm is not so much practiced by farmers as it deserves ; and it

is not urged by me as a mere theoretical suggestion, but as practically be ing the best mode of appropriating manure to raise each crop to the best advantage. To make my meaning more intelligible , I shall illustrate it in this way. Suppose that carrots were desired to be raised on a field of light land, then the land should be dunged in the autumn with the contents of

the court K, because it contains a large proportion of horse -litter. When potatoes are attempted to be raised on heavy soil, which is not their natu ral one, they most likely to succeed with horse -litter also. Turnips , on

the other hand, grow best with cow -dung , and therefore a mixture of the courts I and I would be best for them . Should carrots not be raised , and

the soil is naturally favorable to the potato , and therefore horse -dung will

not be specially wanted,the best way is to mix all the sorts of dung to gether, and form dunghills of average properties. ( 1592 ) There is another matter which deserves consideration before the

courts are beguntobe cleared of their contents ; whichis the position the dunghill or dunghills should occupy in the field , and this point is deter

mined partly by the form which the surface of the field presents, and partly from the line of access to the field. In considering this point, which is of more importance than it may seem to possess, it should be held as a general rule, that the dunghill should be placed where the horses will have the advantage of going down -hill with the loads from it. Wherever practica ble, this rule should never be violated ,asfacilities afforded to laborin a busy season are of the utmost importance. If a field, then, has a uniformly sloping surface, the dunghill should be placed at the upper or highest side, but then the access to the field may only be at the lowest side. And it may be im practicable to reach the upper side by any road . In such a case, the loads should be taken up a ridge of the field ; and when a field is so incon veniently placed, frosty weather should be chosen to form the dunghill in it, as the wheels and horse's feet will then have a firm bearing. But should it be found impracticable to lead dung to its upper side, by reason of the ( 105)

58

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-WINTER .

soft state of the land or steepness of the ascent, then the dunghill should be formed at the side nearest of access.

If the field has a round -backed

form , the dunghill should be placed on the top of the hight ; and in order

to supply the ridges down both slopes from it with manure, a ridge, by way of head -ridge, should be formed along the crest of the hight, at the time the stubble is plowed . In a level, or nearly a level field, it is immate rial which side the dunghill occupies .

( 1594.) The fields to which the dung should be carried, are those to be

fallowed the ensuing season ; that is, set apart for the growth of green crops, such as potatoes and turnips, and for the part which receives more

cleaning than a green crop admits of, namely, a bare fallow . The potato culture coming first in order, the land destined for that crop should have its manure carried out and formed into the first dunghill. The turnips

next come in hand ; and then the bare fallow. The dunghills intended for potatoes and turnips should of course be made respectively of such a size as to manure the extent of land to be occupied by each crop.

The

manure for bare fallow not being required till much farther on inthe sea son, may be deferred being carried out at present. The proportions and nature of the soils best suited for potato and turnip culture, will be treated when we come to speak of those crops respectively, so that any remarks on these particulars would be irrelevant here.

( 1595.) Then the precise spot which a dunghill should occupy in a field is not a matter of indifference. I have seen a dunghill placed in the center of a field which it was intended wholly to manure. From this point, it is obvious, the carts must either traverse every ridge situate between the one that is in the act of being manured and the dunghill, or go direct

to a head-ridge, and thence along it to the ridge to be manured.

This

latter alternative must be adopted if the dung is to be deposited in drills ; for if not, the drills will be much cut up by the passage of the carts across

them - a practice which should never be allowed when neat work is de sired. The dunghill should be placed on a head -ridge or a side-ridge

of the field ; and of these two positions I would prefer the side-ridge, be cause, when the head -ridge is occupied in the length of a dunghill, the ends of all the ridges abutting against its side cannot be plowed or drilled

in their entire length; and if there be more than one dunghill on the same head -ridge, a considerable number of head-ridges may thus be curtailed

of their fair proportions. The dunghill on a side-ridge affects only a part of the single ridge which it occupies. Should a field be large and require two dunghills, the one first to be used should be placed along a ridge, at a distance just beyond the space ofground the manure it contains will cover,

80 that the ridge occupied by it may be plowed to its end before it is ma nured ; and the second dunghill should be placed along the farthest off side-ridge. The ridge occupied by the farthest dunghill can be easily reached at a time when the earth is hard ; but should the weather con

tinue fresh , and the ground soft, a dunghill should be made on the side ridge nearest the gateway ; and should no frost happen, this dunghill should be made large enough to manure the whole field . A large dung hill in one place will no doubt cause more labor to manure the field at the busy season than would two dunghills at different places ; but in soft weather and soil it is better to incur the risk of future inconvenience than

allow the horses to drag only a half -load, axle-deep, along a soft head

ridge. When proper sites can be chosen for dunghills in fields, the loads, in the busy season, will not only be insured a passage down hill, but the dung be situated at the shortest distance from the place it is wanted, and the plowed and prepared land be uninjured by cart- wheels and horses' feet. (106)

DUNGHILLS AND LIQUID -MANURE TANKS .

59

(1596.) Some consideration is even required in littering the courts, and especially the large courts, I and K. No one would believe that any care is requisite in laying down straw in a court ; but those who have witnessed

the inconvenience and loss of time incurred in removing dung from courts will easily perceive that this may be the case. The courts are usually cleared during frost, when time is erroneously regarded of little value, and when, as our motto implies, the plow is rendered useless ; but notwith standing this common opinion, a loss of a small portion of time, even at

this season,may have a material effect upon some future operations. For example : the hard state of the ground may favor the carriage of manure to a distant field, to gain which , most of the time is spent upon the road. Suppose frost continued as long as to allow time to carry as much manure

as would serve the whole field,provided ordinary diligence were used, and no interruption met with in the courts. Suppose farther, on manuring the field in summer there was found to be less manure in the dunghills by a

small quantity than was wanted, and that half-a-day, or at most a whole day's driving from the steading would supply the requisite quantity, it is clear that the day's driving could have been accomplished in frost at much less trouble than at the season when the manure was wanted.

But this

sacrifice of time must be made at the instant, or the field be deprived of its just proportion of manure. This is no hypothetical case ; it has oc curred in every farmer's experience. Now, what is the primary cause of

this dilemma ? Either too much time had been spent upon the road in driving the manure, or much interruption had been experienced in the courts. To which of these two causes should the waste of iime be ascribed ?

With regard to driving, farm -horses get into so regular a pace upon the road at all times, that little loss or gain of time can be calculated on in

this particular ; and besides, when a head of carts is employed at any work, every one must maintain its position in the routine, otherwise it will either be overtaken by the one behind, or be left far behind by the one before . The probability, therefore, is that the loss of time is incurred in the courts, and for this reason. The usual mode of taking away wetted

litter from the work -horse stable is to roll it together with a graip, and then to throw it into a barrow , in which it is wheeled into the court, and

there emplied on any spot to get quit of it in the shortest time, and left in heaps to be trampled down by the cattle. Back -loads of thatchings of stacks, some of which are not very dry, are carried into these same courts, put down anywhere, and partially spread . Long straw - ropes ,which bound down the thatching of stacks, are pulled along the top of the litter. In

doing all this, and it is not all done at one time, no plan is followed with the view of facilitating the lifting of the straw afterward, but as if it was to remain there always ; but so far from this being the case, it is again lifted before it becomes short by fermentation, and there is considerable

difficulty in doing so . Long,damp straw is seized in one part by a graip, and the other parts, being coiled in the heap it was first laid down, cannot

be separated without much exertion on the part of the plowman, pulling it this way and that; and it is too soft to admit of its being cut with the

dung-knife. Another graip encounters a long straw -rope, which, after much tugging, is broken or pulled out, and thrown upon the cart with its

ends dangling over. In short, not a single graipfull is easily raised, and the business is not expedited when a heap of chaff evades the action of the graip. Add to this the few hands generally sent to assist the plowman to fill the carts, and the consequent time spent by the team inthe court, and some idea may be formed of the causes which incur much loss of time in this necessary work . It is easy to conceive that in this way as much time (107)

60

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

WINTER .

might be lost in cleaning all the courts as would give all the carts a half or whole day's driving, which was just what was required to remove the inconvenience felt when the field was manuring. The only method of

preventing the recurrence of so great delay in carrying outmanure is to put ance in the court as to detain the horses but a short time, and rather keep

down the litter so as it may be easily lifted, and to afford as much assist them moving on the road ; for though their walking was constant in a short winter day, it will not overcome them with fatigue.

( 1597.) The litter should be laid down in this manner in the large courts I and K. On fixing on the gate of the court through which the loaded carts should pass to the nearest road to the fields requiring the manure in the ensuing season, and after covering the ground of the court evenly with straw, the litter should be laid above it in small quantities at a time, begin ning at the end of the court farthest from that gate. The litter should be spread with the slope of its lower part toward the gate, and carried gradu ally forward every day until it reaches the gate ; and every kind of litter, whether from the work -horse stable, the stack -yard, or straw -barn, should be intermixed and treated in the same manner.

The straw -ropes, as I

mentioned before, should be cut into small pieces and spread about. Thus layer above layer is laid, until they form a mass of manureof suffi cient hight to be carried out and formed into dunghills in the fields. (1598.) When the time has arrived for emptying the carts, the process is

begun atthe gate through which the loaded carts are to pass, and, on lifting ground to the top of the dung -heap, not in entire layers of the whole depth of the dung -heap, but in successive small, detached layers, one above the

the litter it will come up in sloping layers, having an inclination from the

to the farther end other, and succeeding one after the other, from thebygate the other gate, and, The empty cart enters the court without turning, takes up the position of the loaded cart before it, which of the court.

has just passed through the gate appointed for it. When there is only one gate to a court, and the court notvery large, and a large lot of beasts in it,it is better for the empty cart to wait on the outside until the loaded one has gone away. When the court is large, with only one gate, the

empty cart should go in and turn round to succeed the one that is being filled . On dropping work at mid-day, it will save time at starting again after dinner, to fill the first cart returning empty from the field, that has not time to reach it again loaded and return before dinner-time, and to

allow it to stand loaded, but without horses, until the time for yoking, when the horses are put into it, and the first load thus started for the field immediately at the hour of yoking.

(1599.) On clearing a court, or any part of it, it should be cleared to the

ground ; because the manure made from a dung -heap that has been simul taneously formed, will be more uniform in its texture than that made

from a heap composed of new dry straw on the top, and old wet strawat the bottom. Besides, it is much better for the future comfort of the cattle,

that the court receive its fresh dry littering from the bottom , than if the wet bottoming were retained. ( 1600.) Sometimes cattle get injured by a cart or horse when the court is emptying, and, to avoid this risk , it is not a bad plan to confine them under the shed as long as the people are at work in the court. The mode

of confining them in the shed 'I have already alluded to in ( 18). ( 1601.) On forming a dunghill in the field , some art is requisite. One of a breadth of 15 feet, aud of four or five times that length , and of

pro

portionate hight, will contain as much manure as should be taken from one

spot in(108manuring a field quickly. Suppose that 15 feet is fixed upon for )

DUNGHILLS AND LIQUID- MANURE TANKS.

61

the width, the first carts should lay their loads down at the nearest end of the future dunghill, in a row across the whole width, and these loads

should not be spread thin. Thus load after load is laid down in succession

upon the groundmaintaining the fixed breadth, and passing over the loads previously laid down. After the bottom of the dunghillhas thus been formed of the desired breadth and length, the farther end is then made up

with layer after layer, until a gradual slope is formed from its nearest to its farthest extremity. This is done with a view to effecting two purposes, one to afford an easy slope for the loaded carts to ascend, the other to give ease of draught, for horses and carts to move along the dunghill in all parts, in order to compress it firmly. Every cart -load laid down above the bottom layer is spread around, in order to mix the different kinds of dung together, and to give a uniform texture to the manure. To effect this pur pose the better, a field -worker should be employed to spread the loads on the dunghill, as they are laid down. When the farther end has reached the hight the dunghill is thought will contain of the desired quantity of manure, that hight is brought forward toward the nearest end ; but the center of the dunghill will necessarily havethe greatest elevation, because a slope at both ends is required to allow the carts to surmount the dung.

hill and then to come off it. It is an essential point to have the whole dunghill equally compressed , with the view of making the manure of simi lar quality throughout. After the carting is over, the scattered portions of dung around the dunghill should be thrown upon the top, and the top

itself leveled along and across its surface. ( 1602.) The object aimed at by the compression of the dunghill by the loaded carts, is to prevent immediate fermentation. So long as the tem perature continues at its average degree in winter of 45°, there is little

chance of much action in theinterior of a dunghill; but toward spring when the temperature increases, it may be expected to show symptoms of

action, but even then a temperature of 650 is required to begin the second stage of fermentation. Some advocate the covering of dunghills in the field with a thick layer of earth , with the view to exclude the air and check fermentation ; but such an expedient is unnecessary in the coldest months

of winter, though it would be of service in spring to a dunghill which is not to be turned until the season is still farther advanced. Others lay up the dunghill in a loose manner at once in graipfulls from each cart-load,

giving the dung in fact a turning, and then cover it with earth, and trim round the sides with the spade. This form of dunghill looks neat, and, if the manure is to be used early, it is a good plan for obtaining it partially

fermented for an early crop, such as beans ; but for dung Fig. 308. that is to be used at an advanced period of the season, when the temperature will have gradually increased to a consid erable hight during the day, the process is too promotive of rapid fermentation . ( 1603.) The litter in the courts of the hammels, and es pecially in those of the hammels M, will be found much more compressed than that in the large courts I and K, in consequence of heavy cattle being obliged to move over it frequently within a limited space. It is sometimes so com pressed as almost to resist the entrance of the graip . To enable it to be easily lifted, it should be cut in parallel por tions with an implement called the dung-spade, fig. 308. DUNG-SPADE. This consists of a heart-shaped blade of steel thinned to a sharp edge along both sides ; and its helve with a cross-head is fastened with nails in a split socket. The hight of the spade is 3 feet, length of

(109)

62

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-WINTER.

cross-head 18 inches, length of helve 18 inches, length of blade 16 inches,

and breadth 10 inches. It is kept sharp with a scythe-stone. In using this spade, it is lifted up with both hands by the cross-head, and its point

thrust with force into the dung -heap, and it is then used like a common spade while rutting turf,with the footupon the upper part of the blade. This part, it will be observed, is rounded and not left square withears like a common spade, because when this spade is used to cut a dung-heap of greater depth than the length of its blade, the round edge is not so apt to catch the litter as square ears, on the instrument being pulled up. A man's strength is required to use this spade effectively, a woman's arms being too weak for the purpose. Another form of instrument for cutting

dung is like the common hay-knife, and is used in like same manner, and which will be figured afterward ; but it is not so efficient as this instru ment, as will be shown when we come to speak of the cutting of hay in spring

( 1604.) It is a practice of some farmers to keep the dung from the cow byres in a loose state in the court. A space in the center of a court is inclosed with a stout wall 3 or 4 feet in hight, into -which the dung is

wheeled asit comes from the byre, and the dung -heap is accumulated to the hight of the wall, or even more, by means of a plank as a roadway for The dung managed in this way never requires turning, and soon becomes in a state fit for use for potatoes or turnips. This plan saves the trouble of turning the dung, but this saving is not un attended with a disadvantage, for the dung must be led direct from the court to the field at a season when labor isprecious, and when the field to

the barrow to ascend.

be manured is far off, the extra time spent in leading out the manure to it

may more than counterbalance any saving in the cost of turning. This dung, might, it is true, always be reserved for the nearest field , but even the nearest may be at a considerable distance.

( 1605.) Of late years the method of carting out a dunghill as described in ( 1601 ) has been objected to, because it is alleged that many of the gases useful to vegetation are thereby dissipated. I do not see the strength of

this objection in the winter season, when certainly no decomposingprocess can naturally originate or proceed. The water contained in the dunghill,

it is true, may begin to evaporate at a verylow temperature, even below 500, but what harm can accrue from this ?

But as the fact is, that fer

mented dung must be prepared for some species of crops, of what avail would means to prevent fermentation be at a period not earlier than would be required to begin to ferment the manure so as it may be sufficiently so applied

when ? To obviate waste arising from fermentation, it has been theoretically suggested to make dunghills under sheds instead of in the open air : but how the mere screening afforded by a shed shouldprevent

fermentation, though it may ward off rain, and keep the straw drier, and thereby retard fermentation, I cannot imagine. If the mode is proposed solely with the view to keep the litter dry, its fermentation will no doubt be retarded, but dry litter will never make good manure, as the usual state of litter under sheds can testify, which is in a state approaching to being fire-fanged, as it is termed, that is, in a smouldering, heated state. Until a better mode of making dunghills in the fields shall prove the present one erroneous, we must continue to follow it, encouraged by the success which has hitherto attended it.

( 1606.) An ingenious suggestion has been made by Mr. Kirk, Preston Mains, East-Lothian, to check the spread of the seeds of weeds among manure.

His suggestion is founded on the general law of the growth of plants, that certainclasses of soils affect certain classes of plants. The suggestion is (110)

DUNGHILLS AND LIQUID- MANURE TANKS.

03

to put the manure of the straw obtained from one kind of soil on another

kind of soil. Thus, the straw obtained from clay soil, that is, wheat land, should be made into manure and applied to soil of light quality, that is , tur nip soil; and as, according to this law, natural plants,called by farmers weeds, which throve upon the clay soil, would not do SO upon the light, it ap pears to be within the power of the farmer to prevent, or at least to check,

the propagation of weeds. Putting this suggestion into practice would be at tended with some difficulty, for although Mr. Kirk seems to think it easy “ to which , he conceives, " might be accomplished with very little additional trouble to the farmer, where several hammels are employed in the feeding of

make all the straw grown on one kind of soil into manure by itself,” and

cattle ,"* yet in large courts it would be almost impracticable to prevent the mixture of straw of one stack off clay land with that of the succeeding one perhaps off lightland; and even in the small courts of hammels it would not be easy to devise a plan bywhich a stack of straw off clay land should be used in them , while straw from light was in use for litter in other courts ; and besides , the best fodder being obtained off light land, the cattle while

using it could not be littered with straw off clay land, without running the risk of destroying the object in view. The suggestion, however , being founded on correct theory, might be subjected to experiment, which alone can ascertain its practicability . ( 1607.) Immediately after a rainy day, when the land is in such a state of wetness as to prevent any work upon it, and the horses have nothing particular to do upon the road , two or three of the men should each take a mud -hoe or harle, such as in fig. 309, and rake the loose straws and liquid Fig. 309.

THE MUD-HOE OR HARLE .

mud on all the roadsaround the steading to the lowest side of the roads, and as much as possible out of the way of carts and people passing along ;

while the rest should take graips, fig. 257, and shovels, figs. 149 and 176, and form the raked matter into heaps, to be led away when it will bear

lifting tothe compost heap or field, as may best suit the purposeat the time. Where there is plenty of straw, as on carse -farms,some farmers put it upon

the roads around the steading, to be trampled down and be

come wetted with rain, and then lead it away to the dunghill in the field. The object aimed at in so far as wetting the straw is attained, but such a littering makes walking upon the roads very damp and plashy. The best state for roads near steadings in winter is to have their surface hard and smooth , and with such an inclination as to cause the water to run easily

away into some ditch hard by. A scraping now and then with the mud hoe will make such a road dry and comfortable.

( 1608.) I must now say a few words on tanks, liquid manure, and com post heaps. In fig. 4, Plate IV ., may be seen the liquid-manure tank k', great in length and in breadth, inside narrow , and its depth under the soles of theliquid-manure drains should not exceed 4 feet, for the reasons given below, its length being only extended to increase its capacity. The Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii. (111 )

64

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

WINTER .

drains are marked by dotted lines from the tank toward x, in all directions,

preserving them straight as practicable. Drains in straight lines, for a sluggish liquid, present fewer obstructions in their course than curved or angular ones.

The form and dimensions of these drains may be seen in

fig . 26, and (75 2d). At x, fig. 4, Plate IV., is an opening over the drains

to allow the liquid manure to descend into them , and every such opening is protected by a grating such as is figured and described in fig. 25 and

(75 1st). The liquid manure percolates through thegrating, passes along the drains, and finds its way into the tank, out of which it is pumped with

a cast-iron pump (76) into a liquid-manure cart, described below in fig . 310, in which it is carried to the field and distributed over its surface.

( 1609.) Tanks need not be built on every species of farm . On carse-farms,

where there is much straw and little green food, there can be no liquid manure ; and on pastoral-farms the stock confined in winter in the stead ing are too limited in number to afford much of that material. On dairy farms, on the other hand, where many cows are maintained and much green food consumed by them in byres, tanks might be constructed with advantage to the grass land. The practice of the farmers of Flanders might be usefully followed on such farms by havinga small tank constructed under ground in connection with every byre, and the contents of which might be enriched with additions of rape-cake and other valuable ingre

dients. The enriched contents, employed as a top -dressing on pasture and forage land, appropriated to the support of the cows, might increase their produce veryconsiderably. In collecting liquid manure onfarms of mixed husbandry , if the steading is properly furnished with conveniences and the stock well supplied with litter, I do not see much can be done. I had a tank of 12 feet in diameter and 4 feet deep, connected with well planned courts by neatly -built drains provided with good gratings ; and, at the same time, I had the courts defended from being deluged with rain water by capacious rain-water spouts, and care taken that the cattle were always provided with a sufficient quantity of litter ; having all these which every well-constructed and well-conducted steading should never want - I can say that the tank was not filled in the course of the season

above three times, aquantity not worth while providing a liquid -manure cart to take it to thefield; and even this small quantity was solely ascribableto heavy rains and melting snows, for a few days, falling directly into the courts, and causing a surplus of water which was readily conveyed into the tank by the drains. The usual supply of the liquid manure came merely in a few drops from the sole of the drain into which all the other drains immerged. The sole was only 4 feet above the bottom , and, ex

cept after rain or snow , the liquid manure never reached that hight. I conceive that a small tank might be usefully constructed by a cotter pos sessing a small piece of ground, or large garden, and a cow, provided the cow were fed within doors in all seasons with green and soft food, as an

excellent means of collecting manure that would otherwise be lost. Mr. Milburn, Thorpefield, Thirsk, mentions "an instance of a small receptacle of this kind, where the owner has but one pig ; he manages, however, by

its aid in his garden to grow astonishing crops, and his garden produce is both earlier and superior to most of his neighbors." There is no ques tion that much may be done in this way at farm -houses, hinds' houses, and villages, to collect matter, both solid and liquid, that would make valuable manure.

A necessary might easily be constructed in connection

with the liquid -manure tank at a steading to receive the supply . ( 1610.) Tanks need not be expensively constructed. Mr. Milburn gives this statement as the expense of constructing a tank dug out of the ground ( 112)

65

DUNGHILLS AND LIQUID- MANURE TANKS.

134 feet in length, 67 feet in width, and 6 feet deep, inside measure, with brick in lengthand mortar, and plastered with Roman cement : “ Length within . Width

Depth Cutting 31 cubic yardsat 3d. per yard

.13 feet 6 inches.

6 :::

=19} cabic yards. 7

9

6 8 0 16 2 15

0

£ 0

Walling, including bricks in length, and mortar around them, 31 cubic yards, at 4s . per yard

Plastering and cement. Covering and flags Total.....

£ 10

6

0 0

9"

“ A tank ,” continues Mr. Milburn , " might be made under a shed , and com :

posed of clay, and covered with slabs or boarding, or any refuse boarding. The expense

of such a receptacle would be somewhere as under, dimen

sions the same as in the preceding case, viz : 40

Cutting 31 cubic yards at 3d. per yard Clay and carting . Board and covering Total.....

7

9

0 14 0 5

0

£ 0

£1

6

0 9 21

A tank of this nature, Mr. Milburn suspects, would be subject to suffer in frosty and in very dry weather, as well as be liable to be perforated by Worms . The frost and drouth are 'serious objections to this particular con struction of tank ; but the worms might be prevented perforating the clay, were a little quicklime mixed with it ;* but the true principles on which all tanks should be constructed are stated below .

( 1611.) Winter is considered a favorable period for the application of liquid manure, both because it is then most abundant, and because the

ground is in that loose and moistened state which readily receives and al lows the liquid to incorporate with it. Any evaporation at that season is

very limited, and is solely confined to the water contained in this liquid, and does not affect its more solid parts. Liquid manure may be applied

either to grass or to bare soil, but is preferred for the former. It is dis tributed over its surface in the manner described under fig. 310, and the quantity required is from 800 to 1,200 gallons the imperial acre. Its ef fects are sensibly felt bothon old pasture ,new grass, and on meadow ; but where thequantity of the liquid is small, I would prefer applying it to the

small paddocks, which are to be found on most farms, and which are usu ally in pasture and appropriated as a hospital, breeding-ground, or a place of safety for young stock . The results of the application of liquid ma

nure are best appreciated in summer, in which season we will revert to the subject .

(1612.) The space of ground adjoining the liquid-manure tank is a good

site for the formation of composts of various kinds. Winter is not a favor able season for making composts, fermentation being then in a dormant state . I may state here, however, in general terms, thatthe carriage of mould, as the principal ingredient of a compost, is a laborious piece of work . Such a compost is best made on the spot where the soil is found ;

but when the foundation of a new building of any kind affords mould which would be removed at any rate, it should be used in compost, and the trouble of removal. Other materials than mould may, and indeed must, be carried , to form bases for composts, such as saw -dust,

will well repay

spent tanners’-bark, boggy turfing that had been cast in summer and left to dry.

These may be mixed with lime, or other fermentable substances,

or beneficially watered with liquid manure. The haulm of potatoes, couch * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. (113)...... 5

66

THE BOOK OF THE FARM - WINTER .

grass gathered from the fallow -ground in summer, dried leaves, and other vegetable refuse, form valuable and substantial ingredients for composts, and when placed beside the tank may be enriched with liquid manure. ( 1613.) On laying down haulms of potatoes or quicken for compost, it is usual to throw down the loads without the least regard to order, because the excuse is, that when the potato crop is taken up, every hand is too

busily employed to do other things ; and in summer, every hand is also put into requisition to gather weeds from fallow -ground. In as far as the potato crop is taken up and the weeds gathered in a proper manner, there can be no objection ; but these are no reasons why the refuse created by these operations should be neglected and cause future labor and expense. The usualpractice is to throw down the haulms and quickens in haste, and leave them in unequal masses to produce unequal decomposition. In stead of this, a field - laborer should be stationed at the compost-stance to throw them up with a graip into a heap of regular shape, when the mate

rials will not only occupy the least space of ground, but be in the best stateto receive any additions of liquid or solid matter, and when the most perishable portions of the materials are covered with the more durable,

they are placed in the best state to preserve their properties. The neglect I complain of, of apparently unimportant materials, arises from this cause. There is too frequently a great tendency in farmers and stewards, when conducting labor in fields, to do what they consider the least important part of the work in a hasty and unthinking manner, evidently forgetting that correction of hasty work always creates afterward more labor than the part

of the work for which it was neglected is probably worth. Many instances might be given of this sort of two-handed work, as it is termed,

that is, work whichhas to be done over again ; but I shall confine myself to the case before us .

For example, were a field-worker or two placed at the spot where the haulms of potatoes are carried to form a future com

post-heap, they could form it according to previous instructions from the cart-loads as they were thrown down ; and in this way, when the carriage of the refuse was finished, so would also be the nucleus of the future com

post-heap. But if the same materials are laid down at random in a scat tered and confused manner by plowmen anxious to get quit of their loads, considerably more labor will be required to place them in the same form of heap ; and to do it equally well, more hands and longer time will be re quired ; because the materials have not only to be separated from a con

fused and compressed state, but to be collected together from a distance into the confined space upon which the heap is desired to be formed. Thus, 1 woman, favorably placed, will throw up with a light graip as much loose material , laid down before her in a small quantity at a time, as 3 or 4 women would place the same quantity and in the same position of ma terials thrown down and scattered as I have described them .

( 1614.) Winter is the season which supplies the greatest quantity of sea

weed for manure. On farms adjoining the sea -coast, this manure is care fully collected whenever it is thrown upon the shore after a storm , or by a heavy ground -swell of the sea. Sea-weed is very succulent, and feels mu

cilaginous, and when , exposed to the summer's sun, is easily dried to } its bulk, so little solid matter is contained in it.

There are 4 species very

common on our coast, and these are the Laminaria saccharina, consisting of a single linear elliptic leaf, without any mid-rib : the Laminaria digitata, or common tangle, à cylindrical stem , sometimes as thick as a walking stick, and about 2 feet long : the Fucus vesciculosus, consisting of a double stem with the edges of the leaf entire, and in the disk of which, near the edges, are immersed a number of air-bladders — or crackers, as they are (114)

DUNGHILLS AND LIQUID - MANURE TANKS .

67

vulgarly called — about the size of a hazel-nut, and the use of which seems to be to cause the leaf to float in water : and the Halidrys siliquosa, con sisting of a waved coriaceous stalk about 4 feet long, greatly branched, dark olive when fresh, but quite black when dry ; is also furnished with air - bladders or crackers.

(1615.) The constitution of these plants is very complicated, affording no fewer that 21 ingredients. The first species, Laminaria saccharina, afforded the following substances to the analysis of Gaultier de Claubry in 1815 : A saccharine matter - manna .

Hyposulphite of soda. Carbonate of potash.

Mucilage, in considerable quantity Vegetable albumen . Green coloring matter. Oxalate of potash.

Carbonate of soda.

Hydriodate of potash . Silica. Subphosphate of lime. Subphosphate of magnesia.

Malate of potash .

Sulphate of potash . Sulphate of magnesia. Muriate of potash.

Oxide ofiron, probably united with phos phoric acid .

Muriate of soda.

Oxalate of lime.

Muriate of magnesia .

The composition of the other species, together with the Fucus serratus which is like the F. vesciculosus, but without air-bladders—and the chorda filum , or thread tangle, is very similar to the one here given.* ( 1616.) Sea -weed is applied in a fresh state to grass land that is intended to be plowed up for a crop, and it is laid on as thick as to cover the ground. Being applied in winter does not soon become dry, and the rain and

snow that may happen to fall upon it carries the saline ingredients with which it is accompanied into the ground, or among the roots ofthe grass. The large quantity of mucilage which sea -weed contains, and the numer ous salts which it affords, may be the causes of its utility as a top -dressing and as an active manure recommended .

It has been

to dry sea-weed for

the sake of being easily carried into the interior of the country ; but this trouble seems unnecessary, because winter, when it is most abundant, is an unfavorable season to dry it, and because there is no more cast ashore

than can easily be used by the farms adjoining the coast. On combustion in a certain way, sea-weed yields an impure alkaline substance called kelp, which is used as a mannre .

So long as this substance was used in the

arts, it was too expensive fora manure; but its manufacture was stopped some years ago by the introduction of foreign barilla ; and its value as a manure is not so well known as to induce theresumption of that manufac ture. Many thousands of persons were employed at one time on the shores of the main land and islands of Scotland, in the manufacture of

kelp, who are now deprived of that employment. The same substance is manufactured on the coast of Normandy, and sold by the name of varec. Sea-weed, when burned in the open air, leaves ashes, which afford most of the inorganic substances mentioned in the above analysis. (1617.) [ The Liquid -manure Cart, for the economical distribution of this valuable manure, the natural productionof the farmstead, is now taking its due place among the machinery of the farm . The water-cart has been very long in use forthe conveyance of water, when the supply of that ne cessary element for household use has been distant from the steading ; and the liquid -manure cart is its offspring, modified by certain additions to adapt it to this change of purpose. The water- cart is usually the naked bed -frame of a cart, mounted on wheels, and surmountedwith a cask of a capacity suited to the demands of the establishment.

The cask is furnished with a funnel inserted in or at

tached immediately over the bung -hole ; and it it is likewise furnished with a spigotor with a stop cock, inserted into that end of the cask which hangs over the back of the cart. When the water cart has been drawn to the fountain or the pond from which water is to be conveyed , it is filled

either by means of a common pump, raised so high as to deliver the water which it liſts into the funnel of the cask , or the water is lifted with the hand by means of a scoop, having ahelve of suf ficient length to enable the workman to reach the pond on the one hand and the funnel on the other. The scoop best adapted to this purpose is a small wooden pitcher, about 8 inches in depth * Thomson's Organic Chemistry , Vegetables.

(115)

68

THE BOOK OF THE FARM - WINTER .

and 10 inches in diameter, the helve passing through its sides in an oblique direction, and a little above its center of gravity. ( 1618.) The liquid -manure cart, as most commonly used, differs very little from the above, ex :

cept in its being provided with the distributing apparatus in place of the spigot; but in large estab. lishments the cask is superseded bya covered rectangular cistern or tank, which takes the place of a common cart-body. The watering of public streets and highways has induced the necessity of the rectangular tank for the distribution of water over the surface of roads, because of the ease with which, by this construction, a greater quantity of water can be put upon one pair of wheels. Here the quantity of water to a given surface is much greater than in the case of a liquid manure , and hence the propriety of a capacious tank for the distribution of water on streets, while

the same principle, (economy in the expense) leads to the propriety of employing a smaller and less expensive vessel for the distribution of 'liquid manure, which will not in general be super abundant. For a liquid-manure cart, a cask of 120 or 140 gallons contents will be found more economical in first cost than a rectangular tank , and as these machines can be only occasionally

in. operation , they will, if not very carefully attended to become leaky while standing unoccupied. In this respect the cask will have a manifest advantage over the tank, for the tightening of a cask

is an operation the most simple, by the act of driving up thehoops, while, in the case of the tank becoming leaky, no means of thatkind can be resorted to , and the alternative is, either soaking it in water till the wood has imbibed as much of the fluid as will expand its substance and close the leaks, or the vessel must be tightened by some more expensive process. As the more economical of

the two, therefore, in point ofexpense, I have chosen the cask -mounted cart for the illustration. Fig. 310 is a representation in perspectiveof this cart, of the simplest and most convenient construe tion. For the more easy means of filling the cask , it is suspended between the shafts of the cart,

and this position requires the bending of the axle to nearly a semicircle. The cart is a mere skeleton , consisting of the shafts a a, which for this purpose may be made of red pine, their length being about 14 feet. They are connected by a fore and hind bar, placed at such distance as will just admit the length of the cask, while the width between the shafts is suited to the diam . eter of it. The axle, as already noticed, is bent downward to nearly a simicircle , to receive the cask , and its length will of course be greater than the common cart-axle ; even the distance be. tween the caddy-bolts, in a straight line, will be usually greater, but this will depend on the Fig. 310 .

니다 THE LIQUID -MANURE CART .

diameter of the cask. A pair of common, broad cart-wheels, b b, are fitted to the axle. The cask c is suspended on two straps of hoop-iron, 2 inches broad, the ends of which are bolted to the

shafts, and the same bolts pass also through the ends of two lighter straps, which pass over , and secure the cask firmly in its place. The funnel or hopper d is usually fixed upon the top of the cask over the bung -hole, or it may be inserted therein by means of an attached pipe. The distributor e may be made of sheet.copper , of cast-iron or malleable iron, or even ofwood ; the copper will be found the most durable, and it should be at least 1-20 of an inch in thickness. The next best is the patent malleable iron tube ; cast- iron, though sometimes used, is notto be recom mended ; neither is wood desirable, from its liability to choke. The bore of the distributor should be not less than 2 inches, nor is it required to exceed 21 inches, the length from 7 to 7} feet, and

slightly bent with a uniform curvature, which last property causes it to cover a wider surface of ground than it would do if straight. But in giving the distributor its curvature, care must be takento avoid increasingthe curvature toward the ends, as is sometimes done, to the prevention ofuniform distribution of the manure . The ends of the tube must be closed with movable covers, screwed or otherwise fixed, that they may be removed at pleasure, for the purpose of sponging out the tube when it happens to get clogged up with any solid matter. A line of perforationsis made along the hinder side of the tube for the discharge of thefluid ; these should be at the distance of 1 inch apart, and their opening about } inch diameter. As the area of these discharging orifices

cannot be altered at pleasure, nor their amount of discharge altered for any given time it becomes (116)

DUNGHILLS AND LIQUID - MANURE TANKS .

69

necessary , in distributing any given quantity per acre, to regulate that quantity by increasing or diminishing the rate of traveling the cart over the ground. The distributor is attached to the cask by means of a stem f of the same materials and bore as the main tube, and it enters the end of the cask close to the lower chime. A stop-cock is frequently put upon the stem f to regulate the dis charge, and for this purpose it is very beneficial, serving in a great measure to regulate the quantity per acre, but for the entire setting off or on of the sup ply, the stem f opens into a small chamber inside

Fig. 311 . m

the cask, which chamber is closed by a flap -valve heavily loaded. This valve when closed stops the discharge, and when lifted the fluid has a free pass age to the distributor. The opening of the valve is effected by a small chain attached to the flap, rising to the top of the cask at g , where it passes over a small roller, and onward to the fore -part of the cart on the nigh side, where it hangs at hand for the carter to set off or on at pleasure . Fig. 311 is a sec

tion of partof the cask, and showing the chamber and valve ; f is again the stem of the distributor,h a stop -cock, i the chamber, and k the valve , which is the common leather flap or clack-valve well loaded with lead, c c is part of the cask, l the chain attached to the valve ,and passing over the roller m.* ( 1619.) When the liquid -manure cart is furnished

h

to

with a tank, the latter can, with equal facility, be placed low for the convenience of filling; thus the axle may be cracked, as in the Liverpool dray-cart, the tank resting on the cranked part of the axle ; or the axle may remain straight, and the tank appended below the axle. Such a tank may be conveniently built to contain a ton of the liquid, or about 220 gal.

THE APPARATUS FOR REGULATING THE

DISCHARGE OF LIQUID MANURE .

lons; and the distributing apparatus is the same as

for the cask . The pricesofthese carts varyconsiderably, partly from construction, and partly from price may be stated at£ 18, andwhenmountedwitha cask £ 15 : theseprices, of course,including wheels and axle .

locality. Mr. Crosskil, of Beverley, £25 as the price of the tank cart. In Scotland the average

(1620.) The cistern for collecting liquid manure in the farmstead, though apparentiy simple in its construction , beingmerely a covered pond or a weil, yet serious errorsarefrequently commit tęd in its formation. The first and most important consideration for the formation ofthe cistern, is the effectof hydrostatic pressure ; inattentionto this hascaused the failure ofmany such cisterns. The liquid wehave here to deal with, like all other fluids, acts on the bottom and sides of the vessel or body that contains it, with a pressure directly in proportion to the depth at which the fluid stands,without referenceto either length or breadth ; that is to say, suppose a cistern whose bottom is 12 inches square, and its depth 10 feet, filled with water, every square inch in the bot tom willsuffer a pressure equal to the hight of a column of water whose base is one inch square and 10 feet, or 120 inches, in hight. The weight of such a column will be 41 lbs. nearly, and

this wouldbeexerted on every square inch on the bottom , or the whole pressure on the bottom would be 625 lbs. the weight of 10 cubic feet of water. There is anatural law that governs the pressure of fluids, which shows us that they press equally in all directions,downward ,horizontally, and even upward, the last arising from the general statical law, that " action and reaction are equal and in opposite directions." Itfollows, from these hydrostatical laws, that the lowermost portion of each side of our supposed cistern will suffer a pressure from the water equal to that which acts upon the bottom ; bence, taking the lowermost inch in the hight of the sides of this cistern, it will be pressed with a force of 521 lbs. orthereby, or 4} lbs. on the square inch, and each of the four sides will suffer the same pressure. Suppose, now , that the cistern is elongated in one direc.

tion to any number of feet,and again filled to the depth of 10 feet, the pressure on each square foot of the bottom remains the sameas before, and so in like mannerdoes it remain the same upon the sides, for the pressure is not altered in any direction, although the proportion of the cistern has been changed. Keeping this in view, it will be seen that length and breadth produce no effect on the pressures that a fluid exerts against the vessel or body that retains it, and that in cal culating the resistance to sustain such pressures, depth is the only element requiring to be taken into account. It is also to be kept in view that pressure on the bottom or sides is directly as the depth ; thus, if our supposed cistern were reduced to5feet in depth, the pressure onthebottom

would only be one-half, or 24 lbs. on each square inch.f [* As few persons will be at the expense of a cart like this, we recommend the plan of that used at Mr. Wilkinson's Agricultural Institute in Dutchess County, which is found to “ work well.” Directionsfor making it.- Make an extra portable bottom to the common horse or ox

cart, of 11-inch plank, fastened together by battings on the under side, and groove the apper side longitudinally with { -inch grooves 1 inch deep, every inch and a half over the entire surface . On this set a hogshead on stocks, and tap the front head, and the liquid will spread over the whole grooved bottom , and by having the back end of the cart the lowest, the liquid will be equally distributed over the land. Ed. Farm . Lib.] [ t Must it not occur here to every reader that these are principles which ought to be taught at all our country schools, and with which every farmer's son should be familiar ? Suppose a dam to be made, and (117)

70

THE BOOK OF THE FARM --- WINTER.

(1621.) The conclusion to be drawn from these remarks is that a cistern in the form of a pit or wellshould be always avoided,unless it can be formed in a natural bed of impervious clay. Whensuch a substratum can be attained , a pit may be adopted, but not otherwise. If such has been found, and the pit dug out, it should be lined with brick, or with stone built in mor. tar, the bottom being first lined with the same material. When the building approaches to the surface, the wall can gradually be reduced in diameter to a small compass, leavingonly an opening of 2 to3 feet square, whichiscovered in at small expense, and the saving in this last item is the onlyapparent advantage that seems to attend the practice of pit-cisterns. Deep cisterns are liable to another inconvenience, of their becoming recipients of spring or of drainage-water; and it is sometimes more difficult to keep such water out than to keep the proper liquid in, for if springs and their origin lay at considerable hights, their hydrostatic pressure may be so great as to render the prevention of access to their products a process of greatdifficulty.

( 1622.) A cistern of moderate depth, not exceeding 4 feet below the out-fall of the drains, may beconstructed in any situation,whether in gravelorin clay, and its length can beextended soas as to afford any required capacity ; the breadth being restricted to that for which materials for covering is can bemost easily obtained,whichmay be from 3 to 4feet. Whatever be the stratum in which such a cistern is to be formed, (unless it be perfectly impervious clay ,) it should be pud dled to the thickness of at least 1 foot with the best clay that can be procured. For this purpose the earthy matters are to be dug out to a depth of 1į feet lower than the intended sole, and to a width of four feetmorethan that proposed for the cistern . Two orthree thinlayers of the pre pared clay are then to be compactly laid over the whole breadth of the excavation, and beaten firmly together at all points, making up the depth to 1 foot, and the surface of it brought to a uni form level. Upon this the side-walls are to be founded, and these may be of brick 9 inches in thickness, or of flat bedded rubble-stone 14 inches. The wall should be built in successive courses of about 1 foot in hight, the whole being bedded in mortar, and, as each course is completed, the puddle is to be carefully laid and beaten in behind, in layers of 6 inches or thereby, the first layer being properly incorporated with the foundation puddle, and each succeeding layer with the one immediately preceding it. To prevent the sidewalls from being pushed inward by the pressure ofthe puddle or of the bank , tie-walls of brick or ofstone should be formed at every 5 feet of the length of the cistern. These may be 9 inchesof brick or 14 inches of stone ; and they must have conduits formedat the level of the sole, to allow the liquid to run toward the pump. The sole

should belaid all over with brick set onedge,or withstrong pavement,the whole having a slight declivity toward one end, where a small well-hole of 9 inchesin depth is to be formed to receive the bottom of the pump. The brick, or pavement, as the case may be, is to be bedded on the puddle, and grouted flush in the joints with mortar ; and when the walls and sole are built up, they should then be pointed in every joint with Roman cement. The covering is to be effected with strong pavement, of length sufficient to rest on the side walls, laid and jointed with mortar ; or with rough found-stones, where such can be procured, and if neither can convenientlybe found, a beam of good sound Memel fir may be laid along themiddle of the cistern, resting onthe tie-walls, and with this bearer, stones of half the length will be suffcient to form a cover . A thin layer of claymay be laid over the stone covers, andupon that a coat of gravel, by which means carts may be allowed to pass over it. To prevent accident, however, it is always desirableto constructthe cistern ina situation whereit will be as little as possible exposed to the transit of carts ; and this may be always obtained at a small additional expense ofcovered drain to convey the manure from the dunghills to the cistern.

(1623.) Thepump for lifting the liquid from the cistem to the cart maybe eitherof wood or cast-iron, but the latter is preferable. A common sucking -pump of33 inches chamberis quite sufficient; the chamber should be bored out, and the pump-boxes, for durability, should be also of metal, with leathern flap -valves. The hight of the pump should be such as to deliver the liquid freely into the funnel of the barrel, or tank; but if this hight is found to raise the pump-lever above the reach of a man's hand, it is only necessary to joint a light connecting-rod to thelever,

itslower end being furnished with a cross-handle, and by thesemeans the pump-man will beable to work the pump in the same manner as the lower end of the common pit-saw . Forcing and lifting pumps have been proposed and even employed for the purpose we have here in view , though with questionable propriety ; and here it may be proper to explain, that by the term

force-pump is to be understood a pumpthat raises water to any hight above the point wherethe power is applied, by the descent of a solid piston acting in the chamber ofthe pump, sending the liquid into an ascending pipe, which springs from below the piston. The lifting-pump differs from

this in having a valved piston through which theliquid passes, as inthe sucking -pump, on the de scent of the piston ; and, on its ascent, the valve being now closed, the liquid is lifted and forced

into the ascending pipe, which, in this case, springs from above the piston, the chamber being closed at top with a water-tight stuffing -box . From this brief description the simplicity, both in construction and in management, ofthe sucking orcommon pump, as compared with the other

two, will be obvious ; the cost being also in favor of the first. - J. S.] water to be collected for a mill, or fish,or, as ought to be the case on every farm , for an ice pond ; how prevalent is the common notion that water covering a large surface would require a strong, wide dam ! yet here it is seen that if it covered fifty acres, the lateral pressure would be no greater than if it covered but fiftysuperficialyards. Whatwemean tointimate is, what is suggested by every part of this book, and by common reflection to every thinking mind - the wonder that the landed interest of the United States does not insist on the establishment of institutions by the General Government, similar to that atWest

Point - notfor the instruction of all directly, forthat would be impracticable - but for the instruction of teachers,who might bequalified to teach these plain practical principles to as many boys as the military offices can teach the Manual Exercise to the militia. The knowledge taught by the latter may be highly useful where it should alone be used to repel invasion and to suppress insurrection - whereas that taught by honorable andwell instructedcivil tutors would greatly augment the best sort ofpower thatanyna to hear the pow . tion can possess thecivilizing andblessedpowerofKnowledge. We shall wait anxiously erful voice ofGovernor WRIGHT on this subject, in his Agricultural Address at Saratoga, in September. Ed. Farm . Lib .?

(118)

71

IRRIGATION.

7. WINTER IRRIGATION. “Hence Irrigation's power at first was learnt, A custom ancient, yet but rarely used In cold and watery climes ; though even there No mode of melioration has been found

Of more effect, or with more ease obtained." GRAHAM .

(1624.) It is not my purpose here to describe the mode of making irri gated meadows; that being a summer occupation, it will be attendedto in due time. At present I shall only describe the watering of meadows in

winter. Suppose, then, that the meadows have been formed in a proper manner, and every channel cleaned with proper care, let us at once pro ceed to let on the water, and regulate its duration so as not only to pre

serve the vitality of the plants ,but to promote their vegetation at an earlier period than the natural call of the season would arouse into action. As the late Mr. George Stephens knew the irrigation of land well, I shall use his words in describing the management of water on meadows in winter. I shall only premise that there are twokinds of water-meadows, one called thebed -work, in which the groundis made to decline gently, and the water to flow in the direction of the inclination.

The other kind is called catch

work, which is only suited to ground having a considerable declivity, and

by which the water is broughtacross the face ofthe declivity. The object aimed at in both kinds is the greater production of grass. Irrigation, therefore, is one mode of manuring grass-land.

(1625.) “ The whole works," as Mr. Stephens directs, " being repaired, and there being generally water enough at this season either for the whole or for part, the sluice should be drawn, when, in the course of half an hour, the conductor and the upper part of the feeders will be nearly filled. The first operation of the irrigator is to adjust the water in the conductor; or, if the meadow is in more parts than one, the water in each conductor must

be first regulated. Then he commences anewby regulating the sto

in

the first feeder ; but should there not be sufficient water in the feeder, a

little more must be let in, by making the aperture wider or deeper, till the

water flows regularly over the sides from one end to the other. From the first he proceeds to the second feeder, and so on, until the water in all the feeders is adjusted. Let the beds of a water-meadow be ever so well

formed , yet, by someplaces sinking more than others, orby the ice raising the surface ofthe ground, althoughthe water along the banks of the feed ers has been ever so nicely adjusted, it often happens that there may be some places between the feeders and drains with too little water, when it will be advisable for the manager to make a third round, redressing ine

qualities of the surface so as to give every spot 1 inch deep of water. Every part of the works being regulated, the water should be allowed to run through the whole of October, November, December and January, from 15 to 20 days at a time without intermission . At the expiration of each of these periods, the ground should be madecompletely dry for 5 or 6 days, to give it air ; for there are few species of the grasses which form the most nutritive part of the herbage of water-meadows, that will long exist under an entire immersion of water. Moreover, if the frost should

be severe , and the water begin to freeze, the watering must be discontinued , (119)

72

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

WINTER .

otherwise the whole surface will became one sheet of ice ; and, whenever

the ice takes hold of the ground , it will undoubtedly draw it into heaps,

which is very injurious to plants.” “The object of this early watering of the meadows is to take advantage of the autumnal floods, which bring along with them a variety of putrescent matter, which is found very en riching to land. It is the chief object of the irrigator in those months to collect as much of this manure as possible, and at the same time to shelter the land from the severity of frosty nights. It is therefore requisite to use as much water as the land will carry without guttering. I believe it would be difficult to give land, with a dry subsoil and considerable descent, too much water before the weather begins to get warm.

It is necessary

in those months that the meadows be inspected at least once in 3 or 4

days, to see that the equal distribution of the water is not obstructed by the accumulation of weeds,” &c.

(1626.) Simple as these directions are, yet theactual management of the water of meadows is not unattended with difficulty , but requires the exer. cise of good judgment and great attention . “The “ The adjustment of water

flowing over the surface of land,” remarks Mr. Stephens, “ for the purpose of improving the herbage, is a very nice operation ; it requires a perfect

knowledge of levels and the vegetation of grasses, and ought never to be in trusted to an unskillful manager. When the supply of water is, in any state of the stream that supplies it, sufficient for the whole or one-half of the meadow at once, the management becomes pretty easy ; for after the

works are cleaned, and the water regulated in the autumn, the sluices should befixed at such a hight as to let in the exact quantity required, when it is allowed to run according to the state of the weather and the season of the year, for 2, 6, 10, or 15 days, without any alteration ; and it will be found ( unless the water has carried along with it weeds, sticks, or wreck of any kind)

to run during that whole period nearly as equally overthe surfaceas when But when the stream is small, and rising and falling with every showerof rain, the management becomes so much the more diffi cult that it will require every possible attention of the irrigator to watch and change the water from one part of the meadow to another, or from one bed to another, according to its abundance or deficiency. Such mead

first put on.

ows are indeed ill-managed, although half an hour's work in a day would put everything to rights. Indeed, let the formation of the meadow be ever so perfect, and the supply of water constant and uniform , yet it is necessa manager ry that the m

should survey the whole every 3 or 4 days, to remedy

any defect occasioned by the accumulation of weeds, or by a stop being washed away,

and thereby cause some places to have too much water, and others too little ; so that, in the former case, the grasses might either be killed or very much injured by the generation of scum, or , in the latter case, there would be little or no produce of grass. Small streams are cer

tainly much more at command than large ; but if the manager, as is too often the case with a young practitioner,vainly endeavor to water too much ground at a time, he may give one part too much water, and another too little ; for on the alteration of the apertures, and adjustment of the water, greatly depend not only the quality but the quantity of the crop . "

( 1627.) There are many waysof mismanaging water-meadows, such as retaining a moist subsoil, or allowing the grass to stand too long before

cutting ; but there is an error committed atthis period of the year, to which I wish to direct your attention, and which is thus characterized by Mr.

Stephens. “ Another great error generally committed is, allowing the water to run too long at a time, without properly drying the ground. I know (120) some instances where the ground is notattempted to be dried from

IRRIGATION.

73

the time the water is put on the meadows in autumn till 8 or 10 days be fore the cutting of the hay ; the consequence is that the grass is of the

coarsest quality, and the ground becomes so very boggy that the whole crop of grass

is obliged to be carried by people to some other place to be

made into hay. ...

A water-meadow,” adds Mr. Stephens, “ like a gar

den, will be good for little without due attention. All dry soils require more attention than moist ones ; for if the water in moist soils should not be 80 nicely regulated as on sandy or dry land, the crop of grass will not be so defective as on porous soils, where the management has been neglected. I

in presume that all dry land that has been converted into water-meadows, supply of

countries where the art of irrigation is not well known, and the water not abundant or regular, is liable to more injury, from imperfect treatment, than land of a moist nature, for plants must have their food at stated times as well as animals, but this cannot be the case when the water

is irregularly applied.'" * ( 1628.) The mode in which water acts in producing the effects witness

ed in water-meadows, has not yet been completely ascertained. It is not the sediment in the water that alone works the charm , for clear water pro

duces similar results ; though, no doubt, enriching ingredients carried by the water encourage the growth of plants more rapidly than clear water,

as witness the produce of foul-watermeadows in the neighborhood of Ed inburgh. Professor Low has these observations on the theory of the pro cess : “ The theory of the process of irrigation,” says the Professor, “ has not been satisfactorily explained. That the effect is not produced by the

mere supply of deficient water, appears not only from the period at which the water is admitted, and when in our climate the soil is always saturated with the fluid, but from the circumstance that the effect is not produced when the water is allowed to stagnate, and sink down in the soil, but when

it is kept in a current over it. When the water is suffered to stagnate, the soil tends to produce carices, junci, and other sub -aquatic plants ; but whenit is kept in motion ,and drained off at intervals, the finest grasses peculiar to the soil and climate are produced.

Neither does the fact of

the deposition of mud, or other fertilizing sediment, explain the phenome non ; for however such depositions may increase the effect, it is likewise found that water, without the least perceptible sediment, may be employed with success .

It has been supposed that the water acts beneficially by

maintaining the soil at a higher temperature. Water, at a temperature of 400, is of greater specific gravity than at a lower temperature ; and hence as the water tends to the freezing point, the warmer portion of it is next so shallow and constant as that which passes over thewatered meadow. 1: is probable, therefore , that the main effect is produced by a mechanical ac

the ground. Much, however, cannot be ascribed to this cause, in a current

tion of the water, acting upon and bringing nourishment to the fibrous roots

of the plants." (1629.) Although it may be very true, as Mr. Stephens observes, that " however authors may disagree on this interesting subject (the theory of

irrigation ), I believe all experimentalists acknowledge that early winter watering is necessary to produce early and abundant vegetation ; in what

way this operates is, as to practical purposes, less material ;"I yet it is al

ways satisfactory toman to be able to give a reason for what he does. To this view I shall add another theory of irrigation , that has been suggested by Professor Rennie, late of King's College, London. It is believed by * Stephens's Practical Irrigator and Drainer. t Low's Elements of Practical Agriculture, Edition of 1838. 1 Stephens's Practical Irrigator and Drainer.

(121)

74

THE BOOK OF THE FARM- WINTER.

some vegetable physiologists that plants excrete certain matter from their roots, which proves inimical to the health of other plants of the same kind. Hence it is concluded that grasses do not continue permanently in ahealthy state in the same site, because they are in time injuriously affected by their

own excretions, which, encouraging the growth of plantsofa different na ture, such as mosses, spring up and extirpate the grasses. It issupposed to be probable that every species of grass is not alike affected by its own , or

the excrementitious matter from other grasses, and therefore some species withstand the poison longerthan others. Now the water of irrigation, in its descent through the soil and subsoil, washes away or carries off in solution the injurious excrementitious matter exuded by the grasses, and thereby cleanses the soil in which theyare growing, free of it. Hence the perennial verdure of irrigated meadows.*

( 1630.) In order to arrive at a satisfactory explanation of this subject, and believing that both this theory, as well as the one given by Sir Hum

phry Davy referred to by Professor Low, contain truth, I proposed some time ago a conjunction of the two theories ; and the compound theory cer tainly explains the four great points of irrigation, namely, that it supplies moisture to the soil in dry seasons and in tropical climates; it affords pro

tection to plants against the extremes of heat and cold ; it disseminates manure in the most minute manner to plants ; and it washes away injuri ous matter from the roots of plants. The benefits derived from irrigation I therefore maintained are purely mechanical, and doubted the correctness of Sir Humphry Davy's opinion when he says that “ in the artificial wa tering of meadows the beneficial effects depend upon many different causes, some chemical, some mechanical,”+ because chemical action only com mences after the act of irrigation has ceased, as the nature of the following particulars attending irrigation will show. No doubt, the effects of the sub

stances, whatever they may be, which are deposited by the water of irri gation, may be chemical, as well as those of manure applied to grass by But the act of the waterin depositing fertilizing mate

the hand of man .

rials, can be no more chemical than that of the instruments used in spread ing dung upon the soil. The truth is, that whenever the water of irriga tion, or thesubstances contained in it, act chemicallyupon the grass or soil,

while subjected to the process, that moment irrigation proves injurious to the plants. The chemical action and the injury are both evinced by the same phenomenon, namely , the existence of white scum floating on the water. “ If the weather should be mild ,” observes Mr. Stephens, " and

you suffer the water to run over the meadow too long without intermission, awhite scum is generated, which is very destructive tothe tender grass.” I The particulars of irrigation I referred to are these : “ The operation of wa ter bringing matter into minute subdivision ; the sediment which it contains when used in irrigation being minutely distributed around the stems of

the plants ; water protectingplants in irrigation against the extremes of heat and cold, by completely covering and embracing every stem and leaf; and the supplying of moisture to thesoil and washing excrementitious mat ter out of it, are all purely mechanical operations." For, “ could the hand ofman distribute manurearound the roots and stems of grass as minutely and as incessantly as turbid water ; could it place a covering of woolen Upon each blade and around each stem of grass, as completely as water can embrace each plant andkeep it warm ; could it water the grass texture

as quietly and constantly as the slow current of irrigation ; and could it wash away hurtful matter from the soil as delicately from the fibres of the * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. v. Stephens's PracticalIrrigator and Drainer. ' 122,

| Davy's Agricultural Chemistry.

IRRIGATION.

75

roots ofgrass as irrigating water, there would beno need ofirrigation ; the husbandman could then command at will verdant pasturage for his flocks and herds, throughout the year, and in the driest season. His mechanical agency would be as effective as irrigation ; but constituted as the relative

state of things at present are between man and the action of physical laws, assist him in maintaining his live-stock by an application of her pecu liar mode of acting, under his own guidance, but in which she undoubt edly displays her superiority over him , both in perseverance and dex he employs irrigation as an instrument of his will, and induces Nature to

terity ." * * Encyclopædia Britannica, seventh edition, art. Irrrigation .

76

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

SPRING

" Fled now the sullen murmurs of the North , The splendid raiment of the SPRING peeps forth ; Her universal green , and the clear sky,

Delight still more and more the gazing eye.” BLOOMFI

ELD .

We have now deliberated upon every topic which the indoor operations of the farm , as they may be called, have suggested ; and their considera

tion, to a minute degree, has extended our lucubrations rather beyond their prescribed limits; and yet, when every subject, as it presented itself in succession, was new , and claimed attention, not only on its own account, but as possessing a controlling influence upon those which are to follow , it was requisite to examine particularly into the principles upon which they

on similar principles were based, that the consequent subjects dependent according to their nature.

may be the more easily understood, and treated I earnestly hope that this may bethe result of the deliberations which we

have had hitherto together ; and I would feel somewhat confident of that issue, if you have bestowed that attention upon the subjects treated of, which they really require.

Upon the whole, we have seen thatwinteris theseason of repose, of passive existence, of dormancy, though not of death. Spring calls forth the opposite emotions; it is the season of revivification , of passing into activeexertion, of hope, nay of confidence in what we do will succeed of hope ripening into fruition as the earnest of prospective plenty is pre

sented in the reproduction of the herds and flocks, and in the world oflife which springs into view immediately after the industrious hand has scat tered the seed upon the ground. The joy in contemplating such a pros pect to the issue of labor is indescribable. I am unequal to the task of describingit , but would not, if Icould, in case of giving you an unsuitable idea of the enjoyment. I would rather that you should go and enjoy the pleasure for yourself; because “ the chosen draught, of which every lover of Nature may drink, can be had, in its freshness and purity only at the living fountain of Nature ; and if we attempt to fetch it away in the clay

pitchers of human description, it loses all its spirit, becomes insipid , and acquires an earthy taste from the clay.”

The weather in spring, in the zone we inhabit, is exceedingly variable, alternating, at short intervals, from frost to thaw, from rain to snow , from sunshine to cloud, very different from the steady character of the arctic

spring, in which the snow melts without rain, and the meads are covered sky is very clear when the air is free of clouds. The winds are very sharp with vernal flowers ere the last traces of winter have disappeared. The

when coming from the N. or N. E. direction ; and they are frequent, blow ing strongly sometimes from an eastern and sometimes from a western di

rection. In the former they are piercing, even though not inclining to frost; in the latter they are strong, boisterous, squally , and rising at times (124)

SPRING.

77

into tremendous hurricanes, in which trees only escape being uprooted in

consequence of their leafless state ; but by which many a hapless mariner is overtaken and consigned to a watery grave, or dashed without mercy on a rocky shore. The air, when dry, evaporates moisture quickly ; and

the surface of the ground is as easily dried as wetted. Very frequently snow covers the ground for a time in spring. The severest storms and falls have occurred in February. The memorable falls of the 9th Feb ruary, 1799, and of the 7th February, 1823, are yet fresh in the recollec tion of many persons alive, when, for weeks together, the internal commu nication of the country was entirely stopped. Roads opened up in one direction were again blocked up immediately after by a drift from the op

posite direction . There is something truly awful among the hills in a storm of snow in spring. Here is a description of one, true to the life. with all its accompanying prognostics. “ One evening, after a day of un

wonted tranquillity, dense clouds appear like great snowy mountains in the western part of the horizon, while the few clouds which lie in streaks

across the setting sun, are intensely deep in their shadows, and equally bright in their lights. As the evening closes in, the clouds disappear, the stars are unusually brilliant, and there is not a breath of air stirring. The

old experienced farmer goes out to take his wonted nocturnal survey of the heavens, from which long observation on the same spot has enabled him to form a tolerably correct judgment of what will be the state of the weather in the morning. Two or three meteors - brilliant, but of short duration - shoot along a quadrant of the sky, as if they were so many

bright lights of the firmament, dropping from their orbits. He returns and directs his men to prepare for what may happen, as there will cer tainly be a change of the weather. The air is perfectly tranquil when the family retire to their early pillows, to find that repose which healthful labor sweetens and never misses Till rest delicious chase each transientpain, And new -born vigor swell in every vein .'

But just at the turn of the night the South gives way, the North triumphs, and the whirlwind, herald of victory, lays hold of the four corners ofthe house, and shakes it with the shaking of an earthquake. But the house, like its inhabitants, is made for the storm, and to stand secure and harm less ; while the wind thunders in the fields around, every gust roaring louder than another among the leafless branches of the stately trees. In a little its sound is muffled, without being lessened, and the snow is heard battering at the windows for an entrance — but battering in vain. Morn

ing dawns; but every lea and eddy is wreathed up; the snow still dark ens the air, and reeks along the curling wreaths as if each were a furnace.

Fortwo days and two nights the storm rages with unabated violence; but on the third day the wind has veered more easterly, blows rather feebly, and though the snow falls as thickly, it falls uniformly over the whole sur face. This continues for two or three days more ; and on the coming of the last of these days, the sun , which has not been visible for nearly a

week, looks out justbefore setting, as if promisinga morning visit . The night remains clear, with keen frost, and the wind steady at north , and

blowing very gently. The sun rises bright in the morning, the storm is over, and the weather remains unbroken for four or five weeks.

“ When the appointed days of the snow-storm are numbered, a disturb ance again takes place in the atmosphere, but it is of a different kind from the former. There are little sheets of lightning playing momentarily in

the lower atmosphere, and the lustre of the stars is diminished ; but still there is no cloud. The wind, however, dies away to a dead calm toward ( 125)

78

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

evening, and all is ready for the breaking storm. That operation is the first performed by the spring, and we shall borrow the words of the Brit ish Naturalist' wherein to describe it : As the spring gets the mastery, which is aided by the condensation which takes place during the night, it

rises to a wind, the sound of which cannot be mistaken . The rigidity of trees, window - frames and other wooden fabrics through which it passes is relaxed ; the withered grass and reeds, when these are exposed,moisten ; and the rattling and thumping are succeeded by murmuring harmony, in

which, compared with the other, there is a good deal of music; and as the morning advances and the animals come abroad, and man begins to be

active, the hard metallic sounds are gone, and there is asoftness about Nature. There is always a delightful transparency about the atmosphere,

because the little spiculæ of ice are gone, and the heat of the air is too much occupied in converting the snow and ice into water, for changing much of that into vapor. When the change is accompanied by rain, it is

far more pleasant at the time, and there is a danger, almost a certain one, that the spring will be treacherous; and that, in consequence of the great heat required for melting the snow, and the evaporation of the rain to gether, frosts will return long before the process of thawing , so compara tively slow, s completed. The slow melting of snow by rain, compared

by that of a warm atmosphere which is constantly shifting by the wind, can be easily understood, when it is remembered that the water which falls, even if it had the temperature of the greatest summer heat, would be cooled down to the freezing point in melting half its weight in snow. But

as the temperature can only be a little above freezing, the water will have

the temperature of 320 before it has cooled perhaps jo of its weight; and as the water is a bad conductor of heat, and great part of the action of the oblique rays of the sun reflected away from its surface, a rainy breaking

of a storm is almost sure to be followed by frost, if it do not happen when

the season is far advanced. In such a situation, and under such circum stances, the storm not unfrequently passes away in what is emphatically

termed a gentle thaw ; and when this is the case, thespring comes under the most favorable circumstances. The snow is dissolved by atmospheric influence alone, without any rain from the clouds ; although there are generally light clouds hovering about, ready to produce rain if a returning frost should render a contest of the elements necessary. Besides its rare

pleasantness, the gentle thaw is attended with several beneficial conse quences. In the first place, there is no flooding of the low grounds, and no washing of the soil from the more elevated ones; but the snow forms a trough for the discharge of the water into which it is melted, and thus the coldest of the snow -water does not reach the surface of the land. In the second place, the water produced by the melting of the snow sinks gradu ally into the earth , and the earth has been opened to receive a greater store than if it had been pelted by rain during winter. This is occasioned by the radiation of the heat from the lower strata of the earth , which is

confined by the snow and turned back again to act upon the earth. In the third place, this last circumstance produces a beginning of the spring un der the shelter of the snow, which could not have taken place with free

exposure to the atmosphere. The blade of the plantisprotected, and the roots have heat and moisture, and the air is excluded from them . They are thus placed under the most favorable circumstances, and they are

stimulated accordingly. The difference in this respect is very considera ble ; for if, owing to the action of the wind during the fall, or to any other

cause, one portion of a field has been exposed to the air while the frost continued, and another covered by the snow, it will be found that vegeta (126)

SPRING.

79

the part which the snow covered will be fresh , green and vigor ous, long before that upon the exposed part shows any decided signs of action . This, by the way, is the real cause why spring is so rapid, and

tion upon

meets with so few reverses, where the winter is firm and decided, but of

moderate length, than it does when the winter is variable. In such a place as we are alluding to, the spring wind usually freshens as the snow disap

pears ; and this latter quickens the melting of the snow , and dries the sur face of the ground. When the clods begin to dry, the lark soars aloft at

the streak of dawn, calling the plowmen to their labors. Nor are they rested during the backward to obey ; for they and their teams have been storm, and then return to their labor with fresh vigor.'*** I have been the

more induced to give this long extract, as, besides containing a true de culiar states in which the atmosphere presents itself at this season.

scription of a spring snow -storm , it indicates its prognostics, and the pe Spring is a busy season on the farm . The cattle-man, besides contin uing his attendance on the fattening cattle, has now the moredelicate task

of waiting on the cows at calving, and providing comfortable lairs for new dropped calves. The dairy-maid commences her labors, not, it is true, in the peculiar avocations of the dairy, but in rearing calves - the supply of a

future herd — which, for a time, are indulged with every drop of milk the cows can yield. The farrows of pigs now claim a share in her solicitude.

The shepherd, too, has his painful watchings, day and night, on the lamb ing ewes; and his solicitude and tenderness for the simple lambs, until

they are able to frisk and gambol upon the new grass, is a scene of pe culiar interest, and insensibly lead to higher thoughts. 6 When we see the attention of a judicious shepherd upon these occasions, we cannot refrain from thinking of the unspeakable condescension and kindness of Him who • feeds his flock like a shepherd, gathers the lambs into his arms and car ries them in his bosom, and gently leads those that are with young.' The

condition of the fields demands attention as well as the reproduction of

The day now affords as many hours for labor as are us usually bestowed at any season in the field . The plowmen, therefore, know no rest for at least twelve hours every day, from the time the harrows are yoked for the oat-seed until the potato and turnip crops are sown. The

the stock .

beans first demand the plowman's aid, and then the lea ground, turned over at intervals of fresh weather in winter, is ready, with a due degree of drouth, to receive its allowance of oat-seed. The turnip land, bared

as the turnips are consumed by sheep, is now plowed across, or ridged up at once for spring wheat, should the weather be mild and the soil dry enough, or else the ridging is delayed for the barley-seed. The fields containing the fallow land now receive a cross-furrow ,in the order of the fallow -crops, the potatoes first, then turnips, and lastly the bare fallow . Grass seeds are now sown among the young autumnal wheat, as well as among the spring wheat and thebarley. The field -workers devote their busy hours to carrying seed to the sower, turning dunghills in preparing

manure for the potato and turnip crops, and continuing the barn-work to supply litter for the stock yet confined in the steading, and toprepare the seed-corn for the fields. The hedger now resumes his work of water tabling and scouring ditches, cutting down and breasting old hedges, and taking care to release the sprouting buds of the young quicks from the face of the hedge -bank, fig . 42, which he planted at the commencement and during fresh weather in winter. The steward is now on the alert,

sees to the promotion of every operation, and intrusts the sowing of the Mudie's Spring. Since Ilast had occasion to quote Mr. Mudie's sentiments on the influence of Win . ter, death has seized the hand of him who was so capable of wielding the pen . (127 )

80

THE BOOK OF THE FARMSPRING .

crops to none but himself, except a tried hand, such as the skillful hedger. Thus every species of laborer has his work appropriatedfor him at this busy season ; and as the work of every one is individually defined, it is scarcely possible for so great a mistaketo be committed as that any piece of work should be neglected by all.

The farmer himself now feels that he must be “ up and doing ; ' his mind becomes stored with plans for future execution ; and in order to see them executed at the proper time and in the best manner, he must now forego all visits, and remain at home for the season ; or at most under take an occasional and hasty journey to the market-town to get quit of

surplus grain, should the draughts have a leisure day to deliver it. The business of the fields now requiring constant attendance , his mind as well as body becomes fatigued, and, on taking the fireside after the labors of the day are over, seeks for rest and relaxation rather than mental toil.

He should at this season pay particular attention to the state of the

weather, by observing the barometric and thermometric changes, and make it a point toobserve every external phenomenon that has a bearing upon the

changesof the atmosphere, and be guided accordingly in giving his instruc tions to his people .

During a snow -storm in spring, wild -birds, becoming almost famished , resort to the haunts of man .

The robin is a constant visitor, and helps

himself with confidence to the crumbs cast out for his use . The male par tridge calls in the evening within sight of the house in hopes of obtaining a morsel before collecting his covey together to rest for the night upon the Snow. In the severe snow -storm of 1823, several covies used to approach my own door at sunset, and oftentimes, ere putting down the sheaf of bar

ley for their nightly meal, at the root of an old beech -tree, the old cocks reminded me of my hospitality , though that was unnecessary in the cir cumstances, by their loud crisp -like call, before retiring to rest. I believe

that, had it not been for this timely supply of nourishing food, they would all have perished in the severity and length of that memorable storm . Hares

came to the very door at sunset, and in the moonlight, to receivewhat food was set down on purpose for them ; and so powerful a tamer is hunger of creatures of the most distant habits, that even the wood -pigeons, in large

flocks, used daily to frequent an orchard immediately behind the house to pick the curly greens which had grown so tall as to overtop the snow , their favorite food — the Swedish turnip - being then buried out of reach in the snow. The rooks now make desperate attacks upon stacks, and, if allow ed, soon make their way through the thatch. Always making their atſack at the top, they seem to be aware of the exact place where the corn can be most easily reached. The sparrows even burrow in the thatch, and the lively tom -tits, with a strength and perseverance, one should think, beyond their physical abilities, pull out whole straws from the sides of the stacks, to bring the heads of corn within their reach. Farther on in the season the insect world come into active life in myriads, to serve as food for the feathered tribes. Rooks, with sturdy walk and independent gait, diligently search the ground for them , in the wake of the plow, to feed their young therewith. Tom -tits clamber round every spray of trees which indicate an

opening of their floret buds. The swallows at length appear, giving anima tion to the air, and the stream of migration to the northward betokens the approach of genial weather . By the time the season is fairly confirmed, the leisure hours of the cottagers," and of plowmen, who are in fact cottagers of the best condition, are spent, in the evening, " in the pleasing labor, not unaccompanied with amusement, of trimming their little gardens, and getting in their early (128)

SPRING .

81

crops. There is no sort of village occupation which men, women, and chil

dren set about with greater gleeand animation than this ; for, independ ently of the hope of the produce, there is a pleasure to the simple and un sophisticated heart in seeing thingsgrow ,' which perhaps they who feel the most are least able to explain. Certain it is, however, that it would he highly desirable, that not only every country laborer, but every artisan in towns, where these are not so large as to prevent the possibility of it, should have a little bit of garden, and should fulfill the duty which devolved on man in a state of innocence, to keep it and to dress it. It is impos sible for any one who has not carefully attended to the subject, to be at all aware how strong the tie is which binds man even to a little spot of his na tive earth, if so be that he can consider it as his own, and that he himself, and those on whom he loves to bestow it, are to enjoy the fruit. This is the very strongest natural hold which binds a poor man to his country, and to all those institutions established for thewell-being of society. Show me the cottage, the roses and the honeysuckles on which are neatly trimmed and trained, and the garden behind is well stocked with culinaryherbs and a few choice flowers, and I will speedily find you a cottager who nevei wastes his time or his money, or debases his mind, and learns the broad road which leadeth to destruction ,' in the contamination of an ale -house. If

the garden is neat, one may rest assured that the cottage, however humble it is, is the abode of contentment and happiness ; and that however simple the fare may be, it is wealth and luxury in full store to the inmates, be cause they are satisfied with it, and grateful forthe possession of it.” * I believe that the contentment of the lot of the Scottish married plowmen, and of the attachment to the farm upon which they serve, may be traced

to the principles evolved in these remarks. No doubt, much yet remains to be done to inculcate on them and their families theadvantages of prac ticing habits of personal and domestic cleanliness. Hinds' houses, in this respect,might be much improved, and which, if they were, an air of tidi ness and comfort would attend their dwellings, which at present is gener ally wanting . A great deal depends on the example of the farmer him

self; for while he keeps his garden and shrubbery and little avenue in a slovenly manner, it is not to be expected in servants to evince a desire to excel their master. A farmer's garden gets a trimming twice or thrice a year, and in the mean season, weeds may riot in it without molestation, and

its produce may be plucked as best suits the convenience or caprice of the kitchen -maid. Doubtless, considerable crops of vegetables are raised in

these gardens, but more through strength of manure than skill of culture. It is, I am aware, inconvenientto obtain the assistance of the professional gardener in the country when his services may be most wanted; but on a farm on which a hedger is employed, he should be taught as much of gar dening as to be able tokeep the garden in decent order in the absence of

the gardener, whose principal duty should be to crop the ground. A field worker now and then would keep the weeds in subjection, and allow both

the sun and air a freer access to the growing plants. Toward the end of spring, thefarmer thinks of disposing of his fat cat tle ; but, should he notbe offered the price he considers them to be worth, he keeps them on, and even threatens to put them to grass. The dealer

and butcher affect to be shy purchasers at this season, knowing there is plenty of fat stock in the country ; but, nevertheless, are unwilling to allow à prime lot to slip through their hands, and therefore keep a sharp look -out on all the best lots for disposal. The ready means of steam conveyance to * Mudie's Spring. ( 129) ...... 6

1

82

THE BOOK OF THE FARMSPRING .

London for fat stock, gives the farmer a vantage ground in his dealings

with the butcher, which the latter now knowswell to avail himself of by closing a ready bargain on the best conditions he can make.

This is the season, too, for the letting of grass -parks. These usually be long to landed proprietors, and form a portion of their park and lawn. The ready market which these parks meet with, induces the retention of snch

ground in permanent grass, while it places their owners beyond the risk of speculation in the purchase of grazing cattle on their own account.

It

is not customary for farmers to let their grass-parks, except in the neigh borhood of large towns, where cow -feeders and butchers tempt them with high offers, which they except rather than purchase cattle whose feeding

may not be repaid. Pasture for grass is, in truth, so convenient for the stock of those classes of people, that they will almost give any rent rather than be deprived of the convenience. In regard to the effect which letting of grass-parks by tenants has on the rights ofthe landlord, I may mention that his " hypothec extends overthe crops and live stock of the tenant, in cluding horses, cows, sheep, cattle, and every description of stock raised on thefarm , but it does not extend to the cattleof others taken in to graze. On this ground, it has been held an irritancy of the lease, should the ten

ant, instead of stocking the farm , take in cattle to graze, and thereby give the landlord no security for his rent. (Mackye, December 4, 1780 , M. 6214 )" * Facility of obtaining grass-parks in the country is at times useful

to the farmer who raises grazing stock, in one of which, at least, he may give them a better bite or warmer shelter than he can perhaps offer on the division of his farm which happens to be in grass.

The landed proprietor has to seek anothermarket in spring, one for his timber, which he annually fells in thinning out his plantations . These sales afford convenient supplies to farmers who may be in want of paling for

fencing new hedges, wood for sheep -flakes or stabs, or timber for the erec tion ofshedding for animals, or for implements. They arealso serviceable

to country joiners and implement-makers, in supplying them with neces sary materials nigh at hand.

The timber is felled by the owner, and

assorted into the sizes and kinds of lots which he knows will best suit the

local demand. Prunings and smallthinnings are sold as fire-wood, and purchased by villagers who cannot afford to purchase coal, and by farmers

who have to supply fuel to bothies. After this resumé of spring -work, let us now particularly consider each operation in its proper order

8. Cows CALVING AND CALVES. “When she has calved, then set the dam aside,

And for the tender progeny provide.". DRYDEN'S VIRGIL .

(1631.) The first great event in spring, on a farm of mixed husbandry, is the calving of the cows ; not that this event should not occur till spring

though mostbreeders of farm -stock are anxious to have calves early, par ticularly bull calves, (1238,) and on that account calves are born as early as December and January — but by far the greater proportion of the stock of cows are not desired to begin to calve till February, and the season of calving continues in good time till the middle of April; after which, as ( 130 )

COWS CALVING , AND CALVES .

83

in May, the calves are accounted late, and then seldom retained as a

part of the breeding -stock ,namely, that portion which is specially set aside to propagate its kind. Reluctance to late calves arises from no objection

to their purity of breediug, for earliness or lateness of birth can have no effect in that respect ; but chiefly because an early calf possesses the ad vantage of having passed through its period of milking in time to be

supported on grass,as soon as it affordsa plentiful supply of food. From 8 to 10 weeks at this season is a period of great anxiety for the state of

the cows ; and, indeed, till her calving is safely over, the life of the most valuable cow is in jeopardy. Every solicitude, therefore, that can conduce lo her passing in safety over this critical period, ought to be cheerfully bestowed.

( 1632.) You may remember the treatment which I recommended some time agofor

cows in winter, in reference to food and exercise, in ( 1215) and ( 1218.) When the cow first shows heavy in calf,which is usually

after her sixth month, the litter in the court should not be allowed to be

come too deep, as over-exertion in walking over soft, loose litter and dung may cause such an excited action of the animals system, and most prob ably of the womb, as to make her slip calf - or to slink the calf, as it is usually termed. The litter in a court which is constantly trampled by cattle at freedom, becomes so firm as to afford a good footing ; but the case is different in a cows’-court, which is usually filled with loose

litter wheeled from the byre ; and as it is walked upon only for a short time every day by cows, which, when in calf, are not disposed to roam much about, it never becomes firm . To render the litter as firm as may be under the circumstances, the cattle-man should spread each barrowfull as he wheels it out, taking care to mix a due proportion of the straw with the dung . ( 1633.) Cows, as they calve, and after it is considered safe for them to go out in the air again, should not be allowed to go into the court at the same time with those yet to calve ; because calved cows soon come into season, as the phrase has it, that is, soon become desirous of the bull ; and

when they approach this condition there is a very prevalent desire on the

part of the other cows to ride upon them , and, what is remarkable, espe cially of those yet uncalved. Asmay be supposed, such violent exertions, made on soft litter, are likely to produce injurious results on the uncalved cows, by even causing inversion of the calf in the womb, by bringing on febrile action, or by causing the slipping of the calf. The time of the day at which cows in these different conditions should go out, may be left to

the discretion of the cattle-man, who should,however, keep this considera tion in view, that as cows, after having calved, become more tender in their habit than before, they should enjoy the best part of the day ; for instance, from 12 to 2 o'clock .

( 1634.) Cows may be ascertained to be in calf between the fifth and sixth

months of their gestation. The calf quickens at between 4 and 5 months ; and up to that period no disagreeable change has been caused in the con stitution of the cow ; but from this period she becomes subjectto several diseases. The calf may be felt, by thrusting the points of the fingers against the flank of the cow , when a hard lump will bound against the abdomen, and the feeling will be communicated to the fingers. Or when a pailfull or two of cold water is drank by the cow, the calf kicks, when a convulsive sort of motion may be observed in the flank, by looking at it from behind, and, if the open hand is then laid upon the space between the flank and udder, this motion may be most distinctly felt. But it is nou

circumstance that the calf can be felt at so early a period of its in every (131)

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

existence ; for when it is lying in a natural position in the interior of the womb it cannot be felt at all ; and when it lies near the off or right side of the cow, it is not so easily felt as on the opposite side. So that, al though the calf cannot be felt at that early stage, it is no proof that the cow is not in calf. Some cow -dealers show great acuteness in ascertain ing whether a cow is in calf. One, whom I knew , that was bred a tailor,

told me that when a resinous-looking substance could be drawn from the

teats by stripping them firmly,thecow is sure to be pregnant. After this period the flank inthe near side fills up, and the general enlargement of the under part of the abdomen affordsan unequivocal symptom of preg . nancy.

( 1635.) The womb of the cow is a bag of irregular form ,having a cham ber or division attached to each side called the horns of the womb, and so called, perhaps, because of the form they present in an unimpregnated state , of the large curved horns of a black -faced tup. The womb consists

almost entirely of muscularfibres, with a large proportion of bloodvessels, and of cellular matter, which admits of contraction and extension. Its ordi

nary size in a large cow is about 2 feet in length, but when containing full-grown fætus it is 7 feet in length. This is an extraordinary adaptation to circumstances which the womb possesses, to bear an expansion of 7

feet from about į of that length, and yet be capable of performing all its functions.

The use of the horns seems to be to form a lair for the calf,

and each is occupied by the calf according to its sex . The quey -calf occu pies the near, and the bull -calf the off-side horn. So thata quey-calf is more easily felt in the younger stage than the bull -calf; and indeed the latter is frequently uot felt at all until the seventh month , when other symptoms afford proofs of pregnancy.

( 1636.) The exact time of the cow's calving should be known to the cattle -man as well as by the farmer himself, for the time when she was

served by the bull should have been marked down. Although this last circumstance is not a certain proof that the cow is in calf, yet if she passes

the period when she should take the bull again without showing symptoms of season , it may be safely inferred that she became in calf at the last serv

ing, from which date should then be calculated the period of gestation, or of reckoning,as it is called. A cow generally goes 9 months, or 273 days, with calf, although the calving is not certain to a day. Nay, she sometimes goes as much as 3 weeks, over, her time, but far more frequently only 9

or 10 days. When a cow passes her reckoning for a number of days, she will be found most commonly to bear a bull-calf. ( 1637.) Cows are most liable to the coming down of the calf-bed , to which I formerly referred, (1300,) when near the period of calving, be

tween the eighth and ninth months, and, from whatever cause it may originate, the position of the cow in which she lies in her stall should be

attended to , by keeping her hind part as high as the fore, by raising the

litter. The immediate cause of the protrusion of a part of thewomb, is the pressure of the calf's fore-feet and head against that part of it which is opposite to the vaginal passage, and the protrusion mostly occurs when the calf is in its natural position ; so that no great danger is to be appre hended from the protrusion, although it is better to use means to prevent its recurrence, which is an unnatural occurrence, than to trust to conse quences by over -confidence.

( 1638.) Much more care should be bestowed in administering food to

cowsnear the time of their reckoning, than is generallydone; and the care should be proportioned to the state of the animal's condition. When in high condition, there is much risk of inflammatory action at the time (132)

CUWS CALVING, AND CALVES .

85

of parturition. It should, therefore be the farmer's care to check every tendency to obesity in time. This may be effected by giving fewer turnips and more fodder than the usual quantity; but some cows when in calf , and nave been long dry, will fatten on a small allowance of turnips ; and there is this disadvantage of administering food in too dry a statē, that it tends

to aggravate oneofthe tendencies of the system you are attempting to check, namely, the inflammatory. Other means must therefore be used, along with a limited allowance of food, and, in as far as medical treatment can be applied to the case, there is nothing so safe as bleeding and laxa tives. Every domestic animal like the cow," observes a very sensible

writer on this subject, “ is to be considered as by no means living in a Like man himself she partakes of civilized life, and of course is subjected to similar infirmities with the human race. The time

state of nature .

of gestation is with her a state of indisposition, and every manager of cattle should should be aware of this, and treat her with every attention and care during this time.

The actual diseases of gestation are not

indeed numerous, but they are frequently very severe, and they occa sion always a tendency to slinking, or the cow slipping her calf. As the

weight of the calf begins to increase, it will then be necessary to take some precautions, andthese precautions will consist in an attention to her diet, air and exercise. " *

( 1639.) It is the 8th and 9th months that constitute the critical period of a cow in calf. The bulk and weight of the fætus cause disagreeable sensa

tions in the cow, and frequently produce feverish symptoms, the conse quence of which is costiveness. The treatment for this is bleeding once or twice, in proportion to the strength and condition of the cow , and the administering of laxative medicine and emollient drinks, such as a dose of

1 lb.of Epsom salts with some cordial mixture of ginger and carraway and treacle, in a quart each of warm gruel and sound ale. Turnips, of course, are given, and they have a laxative tendency. Potatoes, too, are recommend. ed ; but I confess I entirely object to giving potatoes to cows at any time, be

cause of their great tendencytoproduce hoven, of which , if an attack were to overtake a cow far advancedin calf, would either kill the calf in the

womb, or cause the cow to slip it. Turnips, though perhaps not of so lax ative a nature as potatoes, are yet much safer; though it is quite true that Swedish turnips, at the season of the year when cows calve, are solid in

their texture, and have less sap in them , and are therefore more binding in their nature, but on account of these properties they are the better adapted for feeding. In cases of indigestion, consequent on inflam matory action, I have seen the substance of this turnip in the maniplies,

or third stomach, squeezed flat like the husks of apples from a cider press.

(1640.) Having suffered the loss of two or three cows by costiveness, im

mediately after calving, I was induced to try oil-cake as a laxative along with the Swedish turnip. The cake was given to the cows for 2 months,

one before and one after calving, and its valuable property of keeping the same time in high health, was truly

cows in a fine laxative state , and at

satisfactory ; and on continuing the practice every year afterward, a simi

lar mishap never overtook my cows. The quantitygiven toeach cow daily was 4 lbs., at an intermediate time between the feeds of turnips. The time

of giving it was as regularly adhered to as that of the turnips, and when the hour arrived, at 10 o'clock in the forenoon, for its distribution, every cow expressed the greatest anxiety for the treat. It was broken to them in * Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow .

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

small pieces with a hammer, which is a tedious manner of break

ing it when a number of cattle are supplied with it at a time ; but the pro cess can be easily and expeditiously performed by the use of the oil- cake

breaker, fig. 264.

(1641.) But the opposite state to obesity is also to be avoided in cows in calf, namely, that of weakness and impoverishment of condition. In such

a case, bleeding of course is improper, andthe cow should rather have good

and nourishing food ,such as mashes of boiled barley, and turnips and oil cake, not given in large quantities

at a time, but frequently and moderate ly, with a view of laying on flesh in a gradual manner, and of avoiding the fatal tendency to plethora. I believe he who gives oil-cake to his cows be

fore and after their calving, as I have recommended, need entertain no ap prehension of their safety in as far as regards their calving, in whatever condition they may happen to be, because it proves a laxative to the fat,

and a nourishing article of food tothe lean cow, and in both secures a pro per state of allthe parts connected with calving. (1642.) Slinking, or slipping calf, is both a vexatious occurrence and a

great loss to the breeder of stock. It is not only a loss of the calf itself, but the want of it makes a blank in the number of the lot to be brought

up in the season, and which must be made up by purchase. And it is a very vexatious occurrence in a cow that is desired to be kept as a brood cow , inasmuch as she never can again be depended upon to bear a living calf, the probability being that she will slip every calf afterward at one time or another of her gestation. Why this should be,has never been

satisfactorily explained, though the fact is undoubted. The only plan for the farmer to avoid a future disappointment by such an untoward event, is to draw the milk from the cow as long as she gives it, and then fatten her for the butcher. I had a very fine Short-Horn cow, bred by myself, that slipped her second calf ; and not being disposed to trust her again, fed her off, when she became extraordinary fat, and yielded verysuperior meat; and

this was the only cow I ever had which was a victim to the complaint we are speaking of. This is the same cow that I referred to before,as having yielded so great a quantity of tallow , ( 1324).

(1643.) The causes of this troublesome complaint are various, arising chiefly, however, from violent exercise, the effect of frights, bruises, and

knocks; “but,” says Skellett, “ a more common cause of slinking than any of them , and which is peculiar on the influence of this animal, is a disa greeable nauseous smell ; the cow is remarked to prepossess a very nice and delicate sense of smelling, to that degree that the slinking of one cow is apt, from this circumstance, to be communicated to a great number of the same herd ; it has been often known to spread like an infectious dis

ease , and great losses have been suffered by the cow -feeders from the If there is any truth in the last cause mentioned in producing the complaint, and which I believe to be true, as Iknow that cows are en

same ." *

dowed with a very delicate sense of smell, you will require no arguments to convince you of the necessity of keeping everything in a byre occupied by

breeding -cows in a clean and wholesome state; to have every particle of filth removed daily from the feeding -troughs beforeand theurine-gutters behind them ; and to have the byre thoroughly ventilated when the cows go out to the court. The same circumstance will show you the propriety of preventing any pig being slaughtered on the litter on which cows are accustomed to walk , and of not allowing any animal to be bled , and of

any blood to be spilled near the byre. When any of the cows require bleed * Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow . ( 134 )

COWS CALVING, AND CALVES.

87

ing, the operation should be performed in a different apartment from the byre.

( 1644.) Whenever a cow shows symptoms of slinking,which may be ob served in the byre, but not easily in the grass-field, she should be removed immediately from her companions. The first symptoms are a sudden fill

ing of the udder before the time of reckoning would warrant, a looseness and flabbiness and redness of, and a yellow glairy discharge from , the vagi

na, and a giving way of the ligaments or coupleson each side of the rump. of these symptoms are observed , the cow should be narrowly watched , and means of preventing slinking instantly adopted, one of the

When any

by a laxative dose. should be followmsedmade chief of which is blood-letting. This tive their But these means may prove ineffec

if the sympto

appear

ance suddenly, and went through their courserapidly, and the calf beslip ped after all. ( 1645.) The risk which the cow runs, after slinking, is in not getting quit of the cleaning, or afterbirth, or placenta, because in such a case it isin an

unprepared state to separate from the womb. Should it be retained, a cer tain degree of corruption is apt soon to take place in it, which will produce a very nauseous smell, that may remain for sometime, as the cleaning may only pass away by degrees by putridity. Whenever the cleaning does not come away in the course of a few hours, or at most a day, the assistance of the veterinary surgeon should be obtained. The following cordial drink

will promote the cleansing ; juniper berries 3 oz., bay berries 2 oz., nitre 1 oz., anise seed 1 oz., gentian 1 oz ., gum myrrh } oz ., asafetida į oz., well pounded together, for 1 dose, and given in 1 quart of mild ale made warm

in 1 quart of pennyroyal tea. This drink should be givenfasting, and re peated every day till the cleansing is evacuated . * (1646.) After such a mishap the cow should be kindly treated in her diet, by the administration of mashes, gruels, and cordials, and her bowels kept in an open state at the same time, until her system recover its tone.

( 1647.). As to the prevention of the recurrence of this vexatious complaint, though I believe that the best thing for the farmer is not to attempt any, but just to milk and fatten the cow , yet as a natural desire may be felt to retain a valuable and favorite cow , I shall mention some means which may be used, and which may have the effect of enabling the cow again to bear living calf; and there is certainly this inducement to try means, that after the womb has again assumed its healthfull tone, so as to retain the foetus till the proper time, there is a probability of the complaint not returning , pro vided the following means are used every season during the period of ges tation . Skellett mentions these preventive measures : When a cow has

slipped her calf, in the next gestation she should be early bled, her body should be kept open by cooling physic ; she should not be forced to take

any more exercise than what is absolutely necessary for her health, and her interfering with other cattleguarded against by keeping her very much by herself. At the same time,” he adds, " it must be observed that, though it

is necessary to preserve a free state of the bowels, a laxity of them will often produce this accident ; cows fed very much upon potatoes, and such other watery food , are very apt to slink, from their laxative effects. In the

food of the cow , at this time, a proper medium should be observed, and it should consist of a due proportion of other vegetable matter mixed with the

fodder, so as the bowels may bekept regularly open, and no more.” Our author, however, does not see that these remedial measures can be very

useful. If the cow is in high condition indeed, she should be reduced in * Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow .

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

condition ; if she is very low ,she ought to get nourishing food and strength ening medicines, and if she is much 'annoyed by nauseous smells, these should either be counteracted, or the cow withdrawn from them . To coun

teract bad smells, Skellett recommends the following mixtureto be formed, and rubbed a little every day onthe parts the cows commonly smell each other : Barbadoes tar, 3 oz., balsam of sulphur, 3 oz., rectified oil of ar ber, 1 oz., fine oil of thyme, 1 oz.; and animal oil, 1 oz. “ Of what nature that odor is,” continues Skellett , “ which gives offence, we cannot aito gether be certain ; but the author has remarked that its effects occur at one season more than at another, and particularly when the weather has been

wet, and the cows have long been kept at grass. From this fact,” he con , and con cludes, " it will appear that the smell is of a vegetabl e naturethat cows unde

rstood nected with their feeding at that time." * It is live on coarse , that and , wood in and of s that are fed in the neighborhood rank pasture in autumn, are most liable to this complaint. In Switzer

land, the complaint increases after the cows are put on rank pastures in autumn .

( 1648.) Though slinking is spoken of as aninfectious complaint, it has no property in common with any contagious disease ; but sympathetic in

fluence being a main cause of it, its result is as fatal as if direct contagion had occasioned it.

(1649.) About a fortnight before the time of reckoning, symptoms of The loose skinny place between the vagina and udder becomes florid ; the vagina becomes loose and flabby ; calving indicate themselves in the cow.

the lower part of the abdomenrather contracts ; the udder becomes larger, 'harder,more florid, hotter to the feel, and more tender-looking ; the milk. veins along thelower part of the abdomen become larger, and the coupling on each side of the rump-bonés looser ; and when the couplings feel as if

a separation had taken place of the parts there, the cow should bewatched day and night, for at any hour afterward the pains of calving may come upon her. From this period the animal becomes easily excited, and, on

that account, should not be allowed to go out, or be disturbed in the byre. In some cases, these entire preparatory symptoms succeed each other

rapidly, in others they follow slowly ; and the latter is particularly the case with heifers with the first calf. These symptoms are called springing in England, and the heifers which exhibit them are springers. ( 1650.) In different parts of the country, different practices exist in re

gard to attending on cows at calving. In the southern counties of Scot land, the shepherd conceives it to be his duty to attend on the occasion, assisted by the cattle-man, and other men if required. In the northern counties, on the contrary, the calving is left to women to manage. I think this difference in practice must have arisen from the degree of assistance required at the operation. In the southern counties, the large class of

cows almost always require assistance in parturition, the neglect of which might cause the cow to sink from exhaustion, and the calf to be strangled or drowned at its birth. Powerful assistance is sometimes required and can only be afforded by men, the physical abilityof women being unequal to the task.

Indeed , I have witnessed the assistance of 8 men , in one

way and another, given in the extraction of a calf coming even in a natural position. The calf was the first of twins, was very large, and this was the first labor of the heifer. I shall never forget the distressing cries of the poor creature when racked with pain, nor the patience and sympathy evinced by all the men who were summoned to assist.

It was an interest

ing case, conducted by an experienced shepherd, and lasted altogether * Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow.

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COWS CALVING, AND CALVES.

89

about five hours. The cow and calves were much exhausted ; but all recovered in the course of a few days. In the northern counties cows are

not only smaller, but their calves are smaller in proportion, so that must cows calve without assistance ; and, therefore, women may manage both

cow and calf without difficulty. Of the two modes of conducting this delicate and ofttimes tedious operation, I should say that it falls most le gitimately under the guidance of the shepherd, who seems to be the natural

guardian of all the young stock brought forth on a farm ; and where there is no shepherd, the cattle-man should take the charge,the farmer himself, in all cases, giving hissanction to the means about to be used, as it isbut fair that he himself should bear the heaviest portion of the responsibility connected with this dangerous procedure.

( 1651.) There are a few preparatory requisites that should be at hand when a cow is about to calve. Two or three rein-ropes are useful, to fasten to the calf if necessary — a flat, soft rope being the best form , but common rein-ropes will answer. A mat or sheeting ,to receive the calf upon in dropping from the cow, should she be inclined to stand on her feet when she calves. The cattle-man should have a calf's crib in R, fig. 3, Plate III, well littered . The shepherd should pare the nails of his hands close, in case he should have to introduce his arms into the cow to adjust

parts ; and he should supply himself with goose-grease or hog's lard to smear his hands and arms.

Goose -grease is best for making the skin

smooth, and withstanding evaporation. It may be that a few sacks may have to be put under the cow to elevate her hind -quarter, and even block and tacklemay be used tohoist her up by the hind legs, in order to adjust the calf in the womb. These last articles should be ready at hand

if wanted. A little straw should be spread on the floor of the byre, to ( 1652.) All being thus prepared, and the byre-door closed to keep all

place the new -dropped calf upon.

quiet, the cow should be attended to everymoment. The symptoms of calving are thus exactly described by Skellett, as they occur in an easy and ordinary case. “ When the operation of calving actually begins," he says , “then signs of uneasiness and pain appear ; a little elevation of the

tail is the first mark ; the animal shifts about from place to place, fre quently getting up and lying down, not knowing what to do with herself. She continues some time in this state, till the natural throes or pains come on ; and as these succeed each other in regular progress, the neck of the

womb, or os uteri, gives way to the action of its bottom and of its other parts. By this action the contents of the womb are pushed forward at every throe ; the water-bladder begins to show itself beyond the shape, and to extend itself till it becomes the size of a large bladder, containing several gallons ; it then bursts, and its contents are discharged, consisting

of the liquor amnios, in which, during gestation, the calf floats, and which now serves to lubricate the parts, and render the passage of the calf easier. After the discharge of the water, the body of the womb contracts rapidly upon the calf; in a few succeeding throes or pains, the head and feet of it, the presenting parts, are protruded externally beyond the shape. The body next descends; and in a few pains the delivery of the calf is com ' The natural and easy calving now described is usually over in 2 hours, though sometimes it is protracted 5 or 6, and even so long as 12 hours, particularly when the water has been easily evacuated, or the water

bladder has broken before being protruded beyond the shape or vagina. ( 1653.) But although the calf may present itself as here described in its natural position, withboth its fore-feet projecting, its chin lying on both * Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow

(137)

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

fore -legs, and the point of the tongue sticking out of the side of the mouth , it may not be extracted without assistance ; andas the feet of the calf are

too slippery to be retained hold of by the hands, a rein-rope is doubled, and a folding loop at the double is passed up above each fetlock joint, whence the double rope from each leg is ready to be taken hold of by the assistants. The pull should only be given at each time the cow presses to get quit of the calf, and it should be steady but firm , in a direction down from the back of the cow , and a little more than sufficiently strong to keep

good whatever advance the calf may have made. Meantime the shepherd endeavors to relax the skin of the cow around the calf's head, by manipu lation, as well as by anointing with goose-grease, his object being to pass the skin over the cantle ofthe calf, and when this is accomplished , the

whole body may be drawn gently out. In obstinate cases ofthis kind, a looped rope may be passed across the mouth of the calf round the under jaw, which will facilitate the passage of the head ; but this should not be resorted to but on necessity, the cord being apt to injure the tender mouth.

( 1654.) On the extrusion of the calf, the first symptom it shows of life is its

a few gasps which set the lungs in play, and then it opens tries to shake its head, and sneer withits nose.

eyes, and

The breathing is assisted

if the viscid fluid is removed by the hand from the mouth and nostrils ; and the thin membrane which envelops the body in the womb should now be

removed,much torn as it has been in the process of parturition. The calf up between the fore-legs, and theback downward, to its comfortably littered is then carried by two men, suspended by the legs, with the head held

crib, where we shall leave it for the present to attend still farther on its mother.

( 1655.) The presentation is sometimes made with the hind-feet foremost. At first the hind -feet are not easily distinguished from the fore , but if a hind presentation is made in the natural position of the body, that is, with

the back uppermost, the hind-feet will be in an inverted position to the fore, that is,the soles will be found uppermost instead of the hoofs. There

is no difficulty with a hind presentation, only it should be ascertained that the tail is in its natural position, and not folded up, before the legs are pulled out. The first obstructing point is the rump, and then the thickest part of the shoulder. On drawing out the head, and coming last, it should

be pulled away quickly, in case the calf should give a gasp for air at the moment of leaving the cow, when it may inhale some of the water instead

of air, and run the risk of choking. The mouth and nose should be wiped immediately ( 1656.) Some have a custom , which is particularly practiced by women ,

to rub the skin of the new -dropped calf with a wispof straw , but such a species of dressing should not be allowed, as it serves only to agglutinate the hair with the liquor amnios which is brought along with it. If left to

itself, the liquor evaporates in a short time and leaves the hair dry ;but while the evaporation is proceeding the calf trembles, no doubt from feel laid should be soft, clean, and amply sufficient to bury its body out of sight. I may mention, however, that the trembling is considered a happy symp

ing it cold, and on this account, iffor no other, the litter in which it is first tom of the strength of the calf.

( 1657.) All yet has been easily managed, when the cow lies still in her stall, with plenty of straw around and behind her hind -quarter; but some cows are of so restless a disposition that they will not lie still to calve, and whenever the pains seize them , up they start to their feet, and when they cease lie down again. Such a cow is troublesome to deal with , as it is scarcely possible, by reason of her risings up and lyings down, to ascertain ( 138)

COWS CALVING, AND CALVES .

91

the true position of the calf, especially when it does not present itself in the natural position. In such a case, it is the more necessary to extract

che calf energetically , and remove the uneasiness of the cow , for, till she gets quit of it, she will not settle in one position or another. When the calf is so near the external air as to enable the operator to get the ropes round its legs, whether fore or hind, and a gentle pulling commenced, to fix her attention to the object in view , she will press with great force, the standing position giving her additional advantage, so that the extraction

of the calf, in such a case, is generally the most expeditious. As in this the ground , and may thereby be hurt, it is necessary to be provided with position of the cow the calf will have to fall from aconsiderable hight to

a mat or chaff-sheet, which two men hold below the body of the calf, ready to receive the body upon it when it leaves the cow. I had a Short Horn cow that was very troublesome at calving, remaining but a short time up or down, and being the whole time in the greatest state of excite ment. She always stood to calve, but when the process was actually be

gun she pressed with so much vigor that she got quit of it in a fewminutes. Upon one occasion, after the water had come from her, the shepherd was preparing the ropes to be in readiness in case they should be required ; but whileemployed at them , and within a couple of yards from the cow in her stall, she gave such a powerful press as to project the calf from her, and it fell upon the floor, but luckily upon the very straw that had been laid down to receive it. This instance shows the necessity of careful

watchfulness on cows after symptoms of actual calving have begun , as in such a case as I have just narrated, entire neglect might afterward have found the calf killed or injured by the heavy fall it had received . ( 1658.) Some calves, though extracted with apparentease, appear asif

dead when laid upon the straw after birth. When such a case occurs, the hand should be placed against the side of the breast, to ascertain if the heart beats ; which, if itdoes, there is of course life, and all that is want ed is to inflate the lungs. To accomplish this, the mouth and nose should be cleaned, the mouthopened, and if there still be no breathing, some one

should blow steadily into the open mouth, a device which I have seen an swer the purpose ; as also a hearty slap of the open hand upon the but tock of the calf, which starts it, as it were, into being. Perhaps a bellows

might be usefully employed in such a case, to inflate the lungs. Should no beating of the heart be felt, and yet consciousness of life seem to be there, the calf should be carried without delay to its crib , and laid down

and covered up with the litter,leaving the mouth free to breathe, and it maysurvive ; but even after giving a few gasps, it may die. Most proba blythe cause of its death may be from injury it had received in calving, such as long detention in thevaginal passage, or an undue squeeze in pass ing through the mouth of the womb, or by some rashness of the operator. The body of the calf when thus lost should be skinned while warm ; it should be cut in pieces, and buried in compost for manure , and the skin sold .

( 1659.) The difficult cases of presentation which usually occur are with one foot and the head, and the other foot drawn back , either with the leg folded back altogether, or the knee doubled and projecting forward. In all of these states the missing leg should be brought forward . To effect this, it is necessary to put round the presented foot a cord to keep it with

in the power ofthe operator when the head is pushed back to get at the other foot, and the greased arm of the operatorintroduced,and the foot brought forward into the passage beside the other. A calf may be ex

tracted with one leg folded entirely back alongside the body, and on feeling ( 139)

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM -- SPRING .

this to be the case, it is perhaps better to extract the calf at cnce, than to delay the parturition in attempting to bring forward the leg. The pre sentation may be of the head alone without the feet, which may be knuckled forward at the knees, or folded back along both sides. In the knuckled case both legs may be brought forward by first pushing the head

back, but, incase of losing hold of the calf altogether,a loopshould be

put in thecalf's mouth. In the folded case, one leg at least, but both if possible, should be brought forward. A worse case is, when one or both legs are presented and the head folded back into the side. In this case the calf will most likely be dead.

The head should be brought forward,

and both legs, if possible. It may be beyond the strength of the opera

tor to bringforward the head ; then he should put a loop into the calf's mouth, by which his assistants will pull forward the head. Still worse cases may occur, such as a presentation of the shoulder , with the head

lying into the side ; a presentation of the buttock, with both the hind legs stretched inward. Or the calf may be on its back , and making presenta tions in all the worst features now enumerated . In whichever of these

states the calf may present itself, no extraction can safely take place until it is placed in a position by which the head and one of the legs, with the other folded entirely back, or both the hind legs, with the back turned

up

permost, are secured . In no case, however , should a fore or hind leg be left soas not only to obstruct the body in leaving the mouth of the womb, but a foot left so much at liberty as to tear the womb. The safest prac tice, therefore, is to secure both legs as well as the head. This may cause

the operator considerable trouble , but by retaining hold of what parts he can with cords, and dexterity in handling the part missing , so as to bring

it forward to the passage, while the assistants pull as he desires, his object will in most cases be attained ; but it should be borne in mind that none of all these objects can be attained but by the assistance of the cow herself;

that is to say, they should only be attempted when seconded by the throes of the animal. If this circumstance is not attended to and patiently

watched by the operator, the muscular grasp of the womb will render his arm powerless. Another facility that should be taken advantage of by

the operator is, that when the hind -quarters of the cowhave an inclination downward she has the power to press the stronger, and of course to coun teract his efforts the more easily.

What should be done, therefore, is to.

raise that quarter of the cow with bundles of straw fully higher than the fore-quarter, until he has got the calf in the position he desires, and then , by letting the cow down again, and watching her pressings and assisting her at the same time, but not otherwise, the extraction may be accom

plished in a reasonable time.

As to block and tackle, the expedient

should never be resorted to but to save the life of the cow, and as to turn

ing the calf in the womb, there is far more danger in the attempt of injur ing the womb than the value of the calf is worth . Much rather destroy it and cut it away in pieces, than run the risk of losing the cow. When the head only of the calf has found its way into the mouth of the womb, and

cannot be protruded through the vagina, by reason of the unfavorab and

obstructive position of thefore-legs ,an inspection should immediatelely be made of the position of the calf, byfirst throwing the head back with a loop in the mouth, and bringing the legs forward . When this inspection has been too long delayed , andthe head kept confined in the passage, the violent throes of the cow will certainly strangle the calf, and its head will swell to an inordinate degree. In such a case, as the swelling will pre vent the calf's head being pushed back to get at the legs, it must be taken

off, thelegs brought forward, and the body then extracted. One of the (140)

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most difficult cases is, when the fore-feet are presented naturally, and the head is thrust down upon the brisket between the legs.

The feet must

and then thehead brought up and forward, and the first be pushed back,become natural. extraction will then

( 1660.) A skillful shepherd may be able to manage all these difficult cases within a reasonable time ; but unless he is particularly dexterous at cases of parturition, it is much safer to obtain the advice of a veterinary

surgeon, even although he should not be required to put a hand to the operation himself. In the case of extracting monstrosities, his assistance is indispensable.

( 1661.) In regard to extracting twin calves, before rendering the cow any assistance, it is necessary to ascertain that the calves have made a proper presentation ; that they are free of each other ; that one member of the one is not interlaced with, or presented at the same time with, that

of the other. When they are quite separated, then each can be treated according to its own case. (1662.) Calving in a byre does not seem to produce any disagreeable sensations in theother cows, as they express no surprise or uneasiness in regard to what is going on beside them . When the cow gives vent to pain ful cries, which is rarely, the others no doubt express a sympathy ; and when the calf is carried away, they may exhibit some restlessness; but any commotion arising from these circumstances soon subsides. But if a

difficult labor is apprehended, it is better for the cows , and also for the cow herself, that she be delivered in another apartment , well littered , where the operator and his assistants can have free access to her.

(1663.) A notion exists in some parts of England, that a cow, when seized with the pains of labor, should be made to move about, and not allowed to lie still, though inclined to be quiet . “ This proceeds from an erroneous idea,” Skellett well remarks, " that she will calve much easier, and with less danger ; but so far from this being the case, the author has known a great many instances where the driving has proved the death of the animal by overheating her , and thus producing inflammation, and all its bad consequences. Every rational man will agree in opinion with the author, that the above practice is both cruel and inconsistent in the ex treme ; and this is confirmed by what he has noticed, that the animal her self, as soon as the pains of calving come on, immediately leaves the rest of the rest of the herd and retires to some corner of the field, or under a hedge, in order to prevent the other cows, or anything else, coming near, that may disturb her in bringing forward her young.'" ** In short, too much gentleness cannot be shown to cows when calving,and they cannot be too

strictly guarded against every species of disturbance. The shepherd will not allow even his dog to enter the byre when calving is going on. (1664.) The afterbirth, or placenta, does not comeaway with the calf, a

portionofitbeingsuspendedfromthecow . Itisgot by pressing, and, whenthe parturition has been natural quitofbythecow and easy, it seldom remains with her longer than from 1 to 7 hours. In bad cases of labor it may remain longer, and may only come away in pieces ; but when it re mains too long and is sound, its separation will be assisted by attaching a small weight to it, say of 2 lbs., which, with its continued force, and occa sional pressing from the cow , will cause it to drop. The usual custom is

to throw the afterbirth upon the dunghill, or it is covered up with thelitter ; but it should not be allowed to lie so accessible to every dog and pig that may choose to dig it up. Nay, pigs have been known almost to choke themselves with it . Such a custom is disgusting, and should be put an * Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow.

(141)

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

end to .

Let the substance be buried in a compost-heap, and if there is be buried in the earth than exposed none such on the farm , let it rather umbilical or navel string breaks in

to be used in that manner.

The

cord

the act of parturition .

(1665.) Should the cow seem exhausted by the protracted state of calving, she may be supported with a warm drink of gruel, containing a bottle of sound ale ; and should she be too sick or indifferent to drink it herself, it should be administered to her with the drinking-horn, (1407.) After the byre

has been cleansed ofthe impurities of calving, and a supply offresh litter intro duced, the cow, naturally feeling a strong thirst upon her from the exertion, should receive a warm drink. I don't know a better one than warm water, with a few handsfull of oatmeal stirred in it, and seasoned with a handfull

of salt, and this she will drink up greedily ; but a pailfull is enough at a after, should she express a de time, and it may be renewed in a short time be given her for two or three days after calv sire for it. TI drink sh ing,in lieu of cold water, and mashes of boiled barley andgruel should be

made for her, in lieu of cold turnips ; but the oil-cake should not be forgot ten, as it acts at this critical period as an excellent emollient. A very com mon practice is to give a cow barley in the sheaf to eat, and even raw barley, when there is no barley in the straw, and sometimes a few sheaves

are kept for the express purpose; and barley-chaff is given where people grudge to part with good barley. Though so very common, the practice is a very objectionable one, for nothingcould be proposed that would cause indigestion so readily as raw barley or barley -straw at the time of calving, when the tone of the stomach is impaired by excitement, and it may be by fever. Boiled barley, or any other mucilaginous drink, is quite safe, but a substance that can hardly fail to irritate and inflame the stom

ach is most injudiciously applied in the circumstances. In fact, nothing

should be given to a cow at this time of an astringent nature, but rather everything of a laxative quality.

( 1666.) It is desirable to milk the new -calved cow, as soon as convenient for her, as, whether the labor has been difficult or easy, the withdrawal

of milk affords relief.

It not unfrequently happens that an uneasiness is

felt in the udder before calving, and should it increase while the symptoms

of calving are long delayed, the cowmay experience considerable incon venience, especially if the flush of milk has been sudden. The causes of uneasiness are an unequal hardness in the udder and there is a heat, florid ness and tenderness all over it. Fomentation with warm water twice or

thrice a day, continued for half an hour at a time, followedby gentle rub bing with a soft hand, and anointing with goose-grease, willtend to allay irritation . In the case of heifers with the first calf, the uneasiness is some times so great during the protracted symptoms of calving, as to warrant the withdrawal of milk before calving. Should the above remedial meas ures fail to give relief, the great heat in the udder may cause direct inflam

mation , and consequent suppuration. To avert such an issue, the uneasi ness should not be eglected from the first moment it is observed, as neglect may allow the complaint to proceed so far as to injure the structure

of a portion if not the whole of the udder.

( 1667.) Milking is performed in two ways, stripping and nievling. Stripping consists of seizing the teat firmly near the root between the face of the thumb and the side of the fore- finger, the length of the teat passing

through the other fingers, and in milking the hand passes down the entire length of the teat, causing the milk to flow out of its point in a forcible stream . The action is renewed by again quickly elevating the hand to the root ofthe teat. Both hands areemployed at the operation, each having (142)

COWS CALVING, AND CALVES.

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hold of a different teat, and moved alternately. The two nearest teats are first milked and then the two farthest. Nievling, or handling, is done by

grasping the teat round at its root with the fore -finger like a hoop, assisted by the thumb, which lies horizontally over the fore-finger, the rest of the teat being also seized by the other fingers. Milk is drawn by

pressing upon the entire length of the teat in alternate jerks with the en tire palm of the hand. Both hands being thus employed, are made to press alternately, but so quickly following each other that the alternate streams of milk sound to the ear like one forcible, continued stream . This

continued stream is also produced by stripping. Stripping, then, is per

formed by pressing and passing certain fingers along the teat ; nievling by the whole hand doubled, or fist, pressing the teat steadily at one place. Hence the origin of both names.

( 1668.) Of the two modes, I prefer the nievling, because it appears to me to be the more natural method, inasmuch as it imitates the sucking of a calf

When a calf takes a teat into its mouth, it makes the tongue and

palate, by which it seizes it, play upon the teat by alternate pressures or pulsations, while retaining theteat in the same position. It is thus obvious that nievling is somewhat like sucking, whereas stripping is not at all like it. It is said that stripping is good for agitating the udder, the agi tation of which is conducive to the withdrawal of a large quantity of milk ; but there is nothing to prevent the dairy-maid agitating the udder as much as she pleases, while holding the teats in nievling. Indeed a more constant

agitation could be kept up in that way by the vibrations of the arms than by stripping. Stripping , by using an unconstrained pressure upon two sides of the teat, is much more aptto press itunequally, than by grasping the whole teat in the palm of the hand; while the friction occasioned by passing the finger and thumb firmly over the outside of the teat, is more likely to excite heat and irritation in it than a steady and full grasp of the entire hand . To show that this friction causes an unpleasant feel

ing even to the dairy -maid , she is obliged to lubricate theteat frequently such expedients . And as a farther proof that stripping is a mode of milk with milk , and to wet it at first with water; whereas nievling requires no

ing which may give pain to the cow , it cannot be employed when the teats

are chapped, or when these and the udder are affected with the cow-pox, with so much ease to the cow as nievling. This difference I saw strikingly exemplified one summer , when all my cows were affected with the cow .

pox, and when the assistant, who could only milk by stripping, was obliged to relinquish her duty till the cows were so far recovered as to be again able to endure her mode of milking . ( 1669.) Milking should be done fast, to draw away the milk as quickly

aspossible, and it should be continued as long as there is a drop ofmilk to bring away. This is an issue which the dairy -maid cannot too particularly attend to herself, or see it attended to by those who assist her. Old milk left in the receptacle of the teat soon changes into a curdy state, and the

caseous matter not being at once removed by the next milking, is apt to irritate the lining membrane of the teat during the operation ,especially when the teat is forcibly rubbed down between the finger and thumb in

stripping. The consequence of this repeated irritation is the thickening of the lining membrane, which at length becomes so hardened as to close up the small orifice at the point of the teat. The hardened membrane may easily be felt from the outside of theteat, when the teat is said to be corded .

After this the teat becomes deaf, and no more milk can afterward be drawn from the quarter of the udder to which the corded teat is attached. ( 1670.) The milking- pail is of various forms and of various materials. !143)

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM -SPRING.

The Dutch have brass ones, which are brilliantly scoured every time they Tin pitchers are used in some parts, while pails of wood in

are in use .

cooper-work are employed in other parts of the country. A pail of oak having thin staves bound together with bright iron hoops, with a handle

formed by a stave projecting upward, is convenient for milking in, and may be kept clean and sweet. One nine inches in diameter at the bottom, 11 inches at the top, and ten inches deep, with an upright handle or lug of 5 inches, has a capacious enough mouth to receive the milk as it de scends; and a sufficient hight, when standing on the edge of its bottom

on the ground, to allow the dairy -maid to grasp it firmly with her knees while sitting on a small three -legged stool. Of course the pail cannot be milked full; butit should be as large as to contain all the milk that a single cow can give at a milking ; because it is undesirable to rise from a cow before the milking is finished, or to exchange one dish for another while the milking is unfinished.

(1671.) The cow being a sensitive and capricious creature, is so easily offended that if the dairy-maid rise from her before the milk is all with

drawn, the chances are she will not again stand quietly at that milking ; or if the vessel used in milking is taken away and another substituted in its place, before the milking is finished , the probability is that she will hold her milk — that is, not allow it to flow . This is a curious property which cows possess, of holding up or keeping back their milk. How it is effected has, I believe, never been ascertained; but there is no doubt of the

fact that when a cow becomes irritated, or frightened by any cause, she can withhold her milk. · Of course, all cows are not affected in the same

degree ,butas a proof how sensitive cows generally are, I believe that very few will be milked so freely by a stranger the first time as by one to whom they have been accustomed. ( 1672.) There is one side of a cow which is usually called the milking side that is, the cow's left side - because, somehow , custom has estab

lished the practice of milking her from that side. It may have been adopted for two reasons : one, because we are accustomed to approach all the larger domesticated animals by what we call the near side — that is, the animal's left side--as being the most convenient one for ourselves; and the other reason may have been, that, as most people are right-handed, and the common use of the right hand has made it the stronger, it is most conveniently employed in milking the hinder teats of the cow, which are often most difficult to reach because of the position of the hind legs,

of the length of the hinder teats, or of the breadth of the hinder part of the udder. The near side is most commonly used in Scotland, but in many

parts of England the other side is preferred. Whichever side is selected, that should always be used, as cows are very sensitive to changes . ( 1673.) It is a rare thing to see a cow milked in Scotland by any other

person than a woman , though men are very commonly employed at it in England . For my part, I never see a man milking a cow without being

impressed with the idea that he is usurpingan office which does not befit him ; and this sense seems to be expressed in the termsusually applied to the persons connected with cows-a dairy -maid implying one who milks cows, as well as performing the other functions of the dairy — a dairy -man. meaning one who owns a dairy. (1674.) Cows are easily rendered troublesome on being milked ; and the kicks and knocks which they usually receive for their restlessness, only render them the more fretful. If they cannot be overcome by kindness, thumps will never make them better. But the fact is, restless habits are continued in them by the treatment which they receive when first taken in (144)

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97

to the byre, when, most probably, they have been dragooned into submis

sion. Their teats are tender at first ; but an unfeeling horny hand tugs at them in stripping, as if they had been accustomed to the operation for years. Can the creature beotherwise than uneasy ? and how can she es

cape the wincing but by flinging out her heels ? Then hopples are placed on the hind fetlocks,to keep her heels down. The tail must then be held

by some one while the milking is going on ; or the hair of its tuft be con verted into a double cord ,to tie the tail to the creature's leg. Add to this threats and scolds uttered by the dairy -maid, and you will get not a very exaggerated idea how a young heifer is broke into a byre. Some

the many

cows, no doubt, are very unaccommodating and provoking ; but neverthe less, nothing but a rational course of conduct toward them , administered with gentleness, will ever render them less so.

There are cows which are

troublesome to milk for a few times after calving, that become quite quiet for the remainder of the season ; others will kickpertinaciously at the first milking. In this last case, the safest plan, instead of hoppling, which only irritates, is for the dairy-maid to thrust her head against the flank of the cow, and while standing on her feet, stretch her hands forward, and get a hold of the teats the best way she can , and send the milk on the ground ; and in this position, it is out of the power of the cow to hurt her. These ebullitions of feeling at the first milking after calving, arise either from feel

ing pain in a tender state of the teat, most probably from inflammation in the lining membrane of the receptacle ; or they may arise from titillation of the skin of the udder and teat, which become the more sensible to the

affection, from a heat which is wearing off. Be the cause of irritation what it may , one thing is certain, that gentle discipline will overcome the most turbulent temper.* (1675.) Cows, independently of their power to retain their milk in the udder, afford different degrees of pleasure in milking them, even in the quietest mood. Some yield their milk with a copious flow , with the gentlest handling that can be given ; others require great exertion to draw the milk from them in streams no larger than threads. The udder of the former will be found to have a soft skin , and the teats short ; that of the latter will have

a thick skin, with long, tough teats. The one feels like velvet, the other no better than untanned leather.

( 1676.) The heifers that are to be transferred to the cow-stock should be taken from the hammels N, fig. 3, Plate III., in which they have been confined all winter, into the byre, about three weeks or a fortnight before their reckoning, at once into the stalls they are to occupy. If they had been accustomed to be tied by the neck when calves, they will not feel

much reluctance in going into a stall ; but if not, they require some coax ing to do it. When taking them to a byre, it should be remembered that afright received at this time may not be forgotten for along time to come. To avoid every chance of that, let them go in quietly of their own accord ; let them smell and look at everything they wish ; and let them become ac quainted with them before driving them on ; and having plenty of assist ants to prevent any attempt to break away, let the cattle -man, with the

shepherd, allow them to move on bit by bit, until they arrive at the stall. Here will be some difficulty ; but a little favorite food in the manger will entice them to go up, especially if the time is chosen, which it should be, [* This caution cannot be too strongly impressed on the mind, as applicable to the breaking in of domestic animals for all purposes. To conciliate and reconcile them to any operation or ser .

vice, assuredly it is more rational and efficient to have them connect with it agreeable recol. lections of kind treatment and gentle usage, than anticipations of harshness and violence. Ed. Farm . Lib.] (193)...... 7

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

when they are hungry. Another difficulty will be experienced in putting the seal, fig. 11, round the neck. It should hang, when not in use, on a

nail upon the stake ; and on quietly taking itdown, without clanking the chain, and while the creature is eating, let the cattle -man slip one hand below the neck, while the other supports the seal over it, and then bring the loose end of the seal round the neck, and hook it into whatever link he can first get.

( 1677.) The milk that first comes from the cow after calving is of a thick consistence and yellow color, and is called biestings. It has the same

coagulable properties as the yolk andwhite of an egg beat up. After three or four days the biestings is followed by the milk .

That which

comes last, the afterings orstrippings, as it is commonly called, is much the richer part of new milk, being not unlike cream. Being natural ly thick, it is the more necessary to have it drawn clean awayfrom the udder. ( 1678.) The structure of a cow s udder is remarkable. It consists of 4 glands, disconnected with each other, but all contained within one bag or

cellular membrane ; and the glands are uniform in structure. Each gland

consists of 3 parts, the glandular or secreting part, the tubular or conduct ing part, and the teat or receptacle or receiving part. The glandular forms

byfar the largest portion of the udder. It appears to the naked eye com are found to consist entirely of minute bloodvessels forming a compact

posed of a mass of yellowish grains, but under the microscope these grains Thus, then ," plexus. These vessels secrete the milk from the blood . says a writer, “ we perceivethat the milk is abstracted from the blood in the glandular part of the udder ; the tubes receive and deposit it in the

reservoir orreceptacle; and the sphincter* at the end of the teat retains it there till it is wanted for use. But we must not be understood to mean that

all the milk drawn from the udder at one milking, or meal, as it is termed,

is contained in the receptacle. The milk , as it is secreted, is conveyed to the receptacle, and when this is full,the larger tubes begin to be filled, and next the smaller ones, until the whole becomegorged. When this takes place, the secretion of the milk ceases, and absorption of the thinner or

more watery part commences. Now, as this absorption takes place more readily in the smaller or more distant tubes, we invariably find that the milk from these, which comes the last into the receptacle, is much thicker and richer than what was first drawn off. This milk has been significantly styled afterings ; and should this gorged state of the tubes be permittedto continue beyond a certain time, serious mischief will sometimes occur ; the

milk becomes too thick to flow through the tubes, and soon produces,first irritation, then inflammation, and lastly suppuration, and the function of the gland is materially impaired or altogether destroyed. Hence the great im

portance of emptying these smaller tubes regularly and thoroughly, not merely to prevent the occurrence of disease, but actually to increase the quantity of milk ; for so long as the smaller tubes are kept free, milk is con stantly forming ; but whenever, as we have already mentioned, they become gorged , the secretion of milk ceases until they are emptied. The cow her

self has no power over the sphincter at the end of the teat, so as to open it and relieved the overcharged udder; neither has she any powerof retain ing the milk collected in the reservoirs when the spasm of the sphincter is overcome.” + 1 * The teat does not terminate in a true sphincter, there being no muscle inconnection with it. A sphincter acts by the power of four muscles, which are contracted or expanded at will, and close or open the oritice around which they are placed. + Blurton's Practical Essay on Mülking.

[ Observations such as these, on the anatomy and functions of the udder, may appear superflu ods to some, but not so to him who would desire, for himself or his son, a sort of knowledge whiob (194;

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( 1679.) You thus see the necessity of drawing away the last drop of milk at everymilking, and the better milker the cow is, this is the more

necessary. You also see the impropriety of hefting or holding the milk in cows until the udder is distended much beyond its ordinary size, for the sake of showing its utmost capacity for holding milk, a device which all cow -dealers, and indeed every one who has a cow for sale in a market,

scrupulously use. It is remarkable that so hackneyed a practice should deceive any one into its being a measure of the milking power of the cow , for every farmer is surely aware, or ought to be aware, that the person who

purchases a hefted cow on account of the magnitude of its udder exhibited in the market, gains nothing by the device ; because, when the cow comes into his possession, she will never be hefted, and, of course, never show the greatest magnitude of udder, and never, of course, confer the benefit for which she was bought in preference to others with udders in a more nat ural state.

If, then, purchasers derive no benefit from hefting, because

they do not allow hefting, why do they encourage so cruel and afterward injurious practice in dealers ? Would it not be better to select cows by

udders in the state in which it is desired by purchasers they should be in their own possession ?

Were purchasers to set their face against

the barbarous practice, the dealers would soon be obliged torelinquish it. ( 1680.) Having spoken of the internal structure of the udder, its exter nal form requires attention, because it indicates different properties. Its

form should be spheroidal, large, giving an idea of capaciousness ; thebag should have a soft, fine skin, and the hind part upward toward the tail be loose and elastic. There should be fine long hairs scattered plentifully over the surface, to keep it warm . The teats should not seem to be con tracted or funnel-shaped at the onset with the bag. In the former state,

teats are very apt to become corded or spindled, as another phrase ex presses it, and in the latter too much milk will constantly be pressing on the lower tubes or receptacle. They should drop naturally from the lower parts of the bag, being neither too short, small, or dumpy, or long, flabby and thick, but perhaps about 3 inches in length, and as thick as just to fill

the hand. They should hang as if all the quarters of theudderwere equal in size, the front quarters projecting a little forward, and the hind ones a little more dependent. Each quarter should contain about equal quanti ties of milk, though I have always believed that the hind contain rather the most.*

it becomes every man to possess who has leisure to acquire it, and which every farmer should regard as being within the purview of his pursuit and position in society - just as much so as it

is befitting in a scholar to be familiar with history, or a diplomatist with living languages and the laws of nations. There is, in fact, not a word in this section , nor in the work to which it belongs, that should not be made a part of the course of instruction for all youths who are to gain their

living and maintain their standing in society by the practice of Husbandry and a knowledge of its principles. This Note would apply almost as well anywhere as here ; we only seize the oc casion to urge an impression which we believe cannot be too often suggeated or too widely acted on, as to the variety of knowledge and of studies that ought to embellish the profession of the practical agriculturist, as well as augment its profits.

Ed. Farm . Lib.]

[* As this number or volume of THE FARMERS ' LIBRARY may fall into the hands of persons who do not possess the MONTHLY JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE in which it was published, it seems proper to refer here to that extraordinary “ TREATISE ON Milch Cows," by M. GUENON. Of the validity of that work the strongest proof has been adduced, not only by the unanimous doclaration of Committees of French Societies, but in the testimony of American agriculturiste

of andispated judgment, and of the highest respectability . Of these we will take room only for the following statement at a Farmers' Club meeting in Boston : “ Mr. Denny fully accorded with Mr. Brooks in his estimate of the treatment of cattle by GUENON. He had tested its value by (195)

OU

THE BOOK OF THE FARM

-SPRING .

( 1681.) Largely developed milk-veins, as the subcutaneous veins along the under part of the abdomen are commonly called, are regarded as a source of milk. This is a popular error, for the milk-vein has no connec tion with the udder ; but “ although the subcutaneous or milk -vein has

nothing to do with the udder,” says Mr. Youatt, “ but conveys the blood from the fore part of the chest and sidesto the inguinal vein, yet a large milk -vein certainly indicates a strongly developed vascular system - one favorable to secretion generally, and to that of the milk among the rest." * (1682.) Let us now attend to the young

calf.

The navel-string should

be examined that no blood be dropping from it, and that it is not in too raw a state . Inattention to this

inspection may overlook the cause of the navel-ill, the treatment of which is given below ; and insignificant as this complaint is usually regarded, it carries off more calves than most breeders are aware of.

( 1683.) The first food which the calf receives consists of what its mother first yields after calving, namely, biestings. Being of the consistence of

egg, it seems to be an appropriate food for the fætus just ushered into the world . On giving the calf its first feed by the hand , in a crib in R, fig. 3,

Plate III., it may be found to have gained its feet, or it may be content to lie still. In whichever position it is found, let it remain so, and let the dairy-maid take a little biesting in a small dish-a handy, formed like a miniature milk-pail, and of similar materials, will be found a convenient

one- and let her put her left arm round the neck of the calf, and support its lower jaw with the palm of the hand, keeping its mouth a little elevated, and open, by introducing the thumb of the same hand into the side of its mouth. Then let her fill the hollow of her right hand withbiestings, and

pour it into the calf's mouth , introducing a finger or two into it for the calf to suck, when it will drink the liquid. Thus let her supply the calf, in handfull after handfull, as much as it is inclined to take. When it re

fuses to take more, the creature should be cleaned of the biesting that may have flown over. Sometimes, on a calf being begun to be fed, when lying, it attempts to get upon its feet, and, if able, let itdo so, and rather assist it up than prevent it. Some people are afraid to give a calf as much biest ings at first as it can take, because it is said to produce thenavel-ill. This is nonsense ; let the creature take as much as it pleases, for biestings never harmed a calf, and certainly never produced navel-ill, though it has

been accused of it ; but if the truth were investigated, the illness would be found to have proceeded from neglect of proper inspection in due time, arising from ignorance of the danger. I have minutely detailed the pri mary and simple process of feeding a new dropped calf by hand, because very absurd ways are adopted in doing it. Nothing is more common than to plunge the calf's head into a large quantity of biestings, and because theliquid bubbles around its mouth with the breath of the nose, and it will not attempt to drink it, its head is the more forcibly thrust and kept down into the tub.

How can it drink with its nose immersed among

the

fluid ? And why should a calf be expected at first to drink with its head distributing a number of copies among intelligent practical farmers, and their united report was in favor of the high value of the work . One of them went so far as to say that a farmer keeping twenty cows could well afford to give $100 for this treatise of Guénon , if it could not be obtained at a less cost." According to this treatise, the quality and quantity of milk which any cow wil give may be accurately determined by observing natural marks or external indications alone These marks have been fully illustrated by engravings designed to explain the system as already published in THE MONTHLY JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE, connected with THE FARMERS' LI. BRARY. Ed. Farm . Lib.] * Youаtt on Cattle. ( 196)

COWS CALVING, AND CALVES .

101

down , when its natural instinct should lead it to suck with its head up ? It should always be borne in mind that feeding calves by the hand is an un

natural process; nevertheless, it is a convenient, practicable and easy one, provided it is conducted in a proper manner, The creature must be taught to drink, and a good mode of teaching it I have described above. In this

way it is fed as often as the cow is milked , which is three timesa day. After the first two or three days, however, another plan should be adopted, for it should not be accustomed to suck the fingers, as then it will not drink without their assistance. The succeeding plan is to put a finger or two of the right hand into its mouth, and holding the small pail of milk with

the left underits head, bring the head gradually down into the pail, where the fingers induce it to take a few gluts of the milk ; but in doing this,

the fingers should be gently withdrawn while the head is kept down in its position with the hand, taking careto keep the nostrils above the milk. In a few days more the fingers will not be required , and in a few days more still you will see the calf drink of its own accord .

( 1684.) For the first month the calf usually has as much sweet milk warm from the cow as it can drink. It will be able to drink about 3 quarts at each meal, and in three meals a day, in the morning, noon and evening, it will consume 8 quarts. After the first month it gets its quantity of milk atonly 2 meals, morning and evening. It is supported 3 months in all on milk, during which time it should have as much sweet-milk as it can drink . Such feeding will be considered expensive, and no doubt it is, but there is no other way

of bringing up a good calf. Some people grudge sweet-milk

after a few days, and take the creamoff it, and give the skimmed to the calves. This is considered thrifty management; but its result does not

insure immediate gain, because it isnot possible to extract double advantage from a given quantity of sweet-milk . If butter is preferred to calves, or good beasts at an after period, the wish is attained, and the farmer has had

his preference; but he must know — at least ought to know — that he can notobtain butter and good beasts from the same milk. Others, more gen erous , give half sweet and half skimmed milk to their calves; while some

provide a substitute for a part of the milk, bymaking gelatineof boiled linseed or sago, and give it with no milk. When milk is actually scarce , such expedients are permissible ; but when it is plentiful, and isused for other

purposes than merely to serve the farm-

se, the adoption of ex

pedients is a practical avowal that the farmer does not wish to bring up his stock as he might do.

( 1685.) The jelly from linseed, or lythar, as it is called, is easily made byboiling good linseed in water, and while it is in a hot state to pour it in a vessel to cool, when it becomes a firm jelly, a proportionof which is taken every meal, and bruised down in a tubfull of warm milk, and dis tributed to the calves.

They are very fond of it, and in the third month

of the calf's age, when it can drink a large quantity of liquid at a time,

and during a day, it is an excellent food for them . Sago may be prepared in the same way. But a better substance for calves than either is, in my opinion, pea-meal. It should not beboiled, but made into brose, by pour ing hot water upon it, and stirring the mixture till it isfine. It becomes gelatinous on cooling; and when cold ,a portion of it is put into new warm

milk, and mixed so intimately with the hand that not a lump of the meal can be felt ; and the mixture is made of a consistence which a calf can easily drink.

( 1686.) Another mode of bringing up calves by breeders of stock is to

allow them to suck their mothers, and the plan is arranged in this way : Either a large crib is erected at a convenient part or parts of the cow's (197)

102

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

WINTER .

byre, to contain a number of calves each, in a loose state, and when the

hours arrive at which they are fed, they are let out of the cribs, whence they each proceed forthwith to the cow that supports it ; or the calves are

tied by the neck in stalls erected for the purpose against the wall of the byre, immediately behind the cows, and when the hours of the respective arrive, they are loosened from the tyings, and pass across the byre meals to the cows. Generally, in both cases, one cow suckles two calves ; and a cow that has calved early may suckle two sets, or four calves, or at least three, in the season.

(1687.) With regard to the merits of this plan, I must remark that I am averse to tying calves by the neck. It cramps their motions and deprives them of that freedom of action which is so conducive to health. By pre

venting motion they will no doubt sooner acquire condition ; but for stock calves, kept for the formation of a herd, this is of less importance than strength acquired by moderate exercise within a limited size of crib . As

to having a number of calves within the same crib,though they all have liberty of motion, they are so commixed as to have liberty to suck at one

another. The ears, navel, scrotum and teats, suffer by this dirty habit ; and there is no preventing it after it has been acquired, so long as two re main together. Upon the whole, therefore, I much prefer the separate crib to each calf,so formed of spars as to allow every calf to see its neigh bors, and so sensibly in company, as to remove the idea of loneliness. The

separation prevents the abominable habit of sucking being acquired ; and the crib is as large and no larger than to allow them to move about for exercise, without fatigue. (1688.) In regard to suckling calves, there is no question it is the best way of bringing them up, provided the calf has free access to its mother or the cow which is supporting it ; but I am doubtful of the superiority of

suckling over feeding byhand, in the case where the calf is only allowed to go to the cow at stated times. It saves the trouble of milking the cows

and giving milk to the calves ; but the saving of trouble is notso import. ant a consideration in the rearing of young stock as the promotion of their welfare. There is one objection to suckling where one cow brings up two calves — that the quantity of milk afforded to each is unknown ; and the stronger or more cunning calf may steal the larger share. True, they are both brought up; but are they brought up as well as they might be, with

the assistance of nourishing food, when the milk becomes scarcer, which it will be to each calf the older it grows. Another objection to suckling is, that a cow which suckles calves at one period of the season does not take kindly afterward to milking with the hand ; and a cow will always prefer to be sucked to being milked by the hand. Unless, therefore, cows are kept for the purpose of suckling, they become troublesome to milk after the calves are weaned.

(1689.) At a month old the male calves that are not intended to be kep: for bullsare castrated.

Though the operation is very simple and safe, yet

it should not be performed at a time when there is any affection of the navel-string, or indication of costiveness or dysentery ; these exciting causes of the system should first be removed ere another is voluntarily superadded. Supposing the calf is in good health , the castration is performed in this

manner : An assistant places the calf upon its rump on the litter, and, sit ting down himself, takes it between his outstretched limbs on the ground,

with its back against his breast. Then seizing a hind -hock of the calf in each hand, he draws a hind leg up to each side of its body, and holds both in that position as firmly as he can. The operator makes the testicles keep the scrotum smooth and stretched with his left hand, and then cuts with a 498)

COWS CALVING, AND CALVES,

103

sharp knife through all the integuments till he reaches one testicle, which he seizes, pulls out as much of the spermatic cord as he can, and there di vides it. The same operation is performed on the other testicle, and the castration is finished in a minute or two.

The calf feels stiff in the hind

quarter for a few days, and the scrotum may swell ; and if the swelling appear to become serious, fomentations of warm water should be fre

quently applied ; and should suppuration ensue, the incisions made in the scrotum should be opened to give it vent ; but the probability is that the cut will heal by the first intention, and give no farther uneasiness to the calf than a feeling of stiffness in the hind quarter for a few days. ( 1690.) When the air becomes mild, as the season advances, and when the older calves attain the age of two months, theyshould be taken out

of the cribs, and put into the court k , fig. 3, Plate III., during the day ; and after a few days' endurance to the air, should be sheltered under the

shed in the court at night, instead of being again put into the cribs. Some sweet hay should be offered them every day, as also a few sheep-slices of Swedish turnips to munch at. Such a change of food may liave some effect on the constitution of the calves, causing costiveness in some and looseness in others ; but no harm will arise from these symptoms, if reme

chalk to lick at will dial measuresare employed in time. Large lumps ofcourt should be fitted The shed of the turnips, and and hay the contain to mangers and up with small racks

be found serviceable in looseness.

chalk . Should a very wet, snowy, stormy, or cold day appear after the

have been put into the court, they should be brought back to their calves cribs till the storm pass away. (1691.) At three or four months old, according to the supply of milk

and the ready state of the grass to receive them ,the calves should be weaned in the ordinary seniority, due regard being at the same time had to their constitutional strength. If a calf has been always strong and healthy, it may be the sooner weaned from milk , if there is grass to sup port it; but should it haveailed , or be naturally puny, it should be remem bered that good, sweet milk is the best remedy that can be administered to

promote condition or recruit debility, and should be given with an unspar ing but judicious hand. Calves, onbeing weaned, should not be deprived of milk at once ; it should be lessenedin quantity daily, and given at

longer intervals by degrees, so as that they may not be sensible of their loss when it is entirely withheld . I have frequently observed that when

calves are stinted of milk preparatory to weaning, means of supplying them witha sufficient quantity of food of an enticing nature are not so well attended to as they ought. Fresh bundles of the most clovery por tions of the hay, turnips fresh sliced, pure fresh water at will, a little pounded oil-cake, if presented at times when they used to get their milk, will induce them to eat those substitutes with contentment; whereas, when

these are entirely neglected, or the trouble grudged in supplying them , and the creatures left to pick up what they can find for themselves in a court or bare lea, they cannot but suffer from hunger, and vociferate for the loss

of what they had enjoyed till then. Thus treated, they evidently fall off in condition; andwhich if they do at the critical period of weaning, the greater portion of the ensuing summer will elapse ere they regain their

former condition, strength, and sleekness of coat. A small paddock near the steading is an excellent place for weaning calves, beforeturning them out to a pasture field ; but then it should afford a full bite of grass to sup port them as the milk is taken from them , otherwise they will be more injured than benefited in it. (1692.) When bull calves are brought up, they should be early calved, (199)

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

SPRING .

and receive as much new milk as they can consume ; and they should not

be weaned till the grass is fully readyto support them . The object of this high keeping is not to fatten them , but to give strength to their bones and vigor to their constitution, these being much strengthened by the quality and quantity of food given to calves at the earliest period of their exist ence. The valuable impulse thus given in calfhood to these very essential

properties in bulls, is evinced in the vigor of succeeding life, and it is sure to lay a foundation upon which a durable superstructure may be raised, and, what is more, no durable structure can be raised on any other. Even in ordinary cases push acalf forward in the firstmonth of its existence, and the probability will be that it will evade every disease incident to its age. ( 1693.) The following Table, containing the dates at which cows should calve from those at which they are bulled ,will be found useful to you for reference. It is unnecessary to fill up the Table wită marking down every day of the year, as within the short period between each fort night you can easily calculate the particular reckoning of each cow. The period of gestation is taken at 273 days, or 9 calendar months, which is the minimum time, and from which the symp

toms of calving should be narrowly watched till the event of calving actually takes place. A RECKONING - TABLE FOR THE CALVING OF COWS . When Bulled .

When Bulled .

Will Calve .

January .... 1 October ..15 .... 29

1 |May . 15

.29June..

February... 12 November .12 26

.... 26 || July . March .. ..12 December .10 .... 26

April.

9 January ..23

.241

Will Calve.

.... 21

4 March .18

2 April... ... 16 30

7 || August ....13May. .21

When Bulled.

Will Calve.

7 February .. 4 September. 10 June ...... 10

27

24

.18

4 |October .18

24

8July

7

221

21

1 November ., 5 August .... 4 .15

...19

.... 18

....29 December.. 3 September. 1 .. 13 27

.17

.... 31

..

15

.... 29

(1694.) The usual modes of determining whether the cow is in calf are deceptive : she may not hold when bulled ; she may take the bull again in a few days; and she may not show evident symptoms of calving,but for a few days only before she actually calves. The most certain sign of pregnancy is the enlargement of the abdomen and filling of the flanks in the third or fourth month . A more philosophical method of determining whether a cow is in calf at all, has been discovered by medical men by the application of the ear to the flank of the cow, suggested by the curious and valuable discoveries brought to light by the stethescope. “ That greatest of improve

ments in veterinary practice.” observes Mr. Youatt,"the application of the ear to the chest and belly of various animals, (in order to detect by the different sounds — which, after a short time, will

be easily recognized — the state of the circulation through most of the internal organs, and conse quently the precise seat and degree of inflammation and danger,) has now enabledthe breeder

to ascertain theexistence of pregnancy at as early a stage of it as six or eight weeks. The beating of the heart ofthe calf will be distinctly heard, twice ormore than twice as frequent as that of the mother; and each pulsation will betray the singular double-beating of the fetal heart. This will also be accompanied by the audible rushing of the blood through the vessels of the placenta. The ear should be applied to the right flank, beginning on the superior part of it, and gradually shifted downward and backward. These sounds will soon be heard,and cannot be mistaken."* (1695.) Strathaven in Scotland has long been famed for rearing good veal for the Glasgow and

Edinburgh markets . There the dairy farmers retain their quey.calves for maintaining the number and vigor of their cow stock, while they feed the male calves for veal. Their planis simple and efficacious, and therefore may be followed anywhere. They give the calves milk

only, and seldom any admixtare, and they do not allow them to suck their dams. Some give milk but sparingly at first, to whet their appetite, and all take care not to produce surfeit by giving too much at a time. The young calves get the first drawn milk, or fore-broads, as it is termed, and the older, less of the fore-broads and moreof the afterings, and frequently that of two orthree cows, as being the richest portion of the milk. After they are three or four weeks old they get abundance of milk , butonly twice a day. They get plenty of dry litter, fresh air, moderatewarmth, and are kept nearly in the dark to check sportiveness. They are not bled during the time they are fed, and a lamp of chalk is placed within their reach . They are fed from 4 to 6 weeks, when they fetch from £3 to £4 apiece; and it is found more profitable to fatten a number of calves for that time,to succeed each other, than to force them beyond the state of marketable veal, of from 25 lbs. to 30 lbs. per quarter.t

( 1696.) Diseases of Young Calves. - While speaking of the calf, I may here notice the diseases to which it is subject at this period of its existence, and in this season of the year. The young

calf should get quit of the black and glutinous fæces that had been accumulating in its intestines during the latter period of its fætal existence; and there is no aperient better suited for the pur posethan biestings. The farmer, therefore, who throws it away, does not know the jeopardy in

which he placesthe lives of this branch of his young stock. Should there notbe enough of biest jngs to remove the fæces, 2 or 3 oz. of castor-oil, beat up with ayolkof an egg, or in thick gruel, * Youаtt on Cattle.

( 200 )

+ Quarterly Journal ox Agriculture, vol. V.

COWS CALVING, AND CALVES.

105

should be adraízistered , and a scruple of powdered ginger, to act as a carminative. In cases of costiveness, which young calves are very liable to contract, and inattention to which, at first, is

the cause of the loss ofmany of the best young stock, arising partly from repletion of milk attimes they eat too much hay at one time after when calves are permitted to suck their dams, or when the milk lias been too suddenly removed from them at weaning, active measures should be adopt ensue will inevitably hopeless, as fevercontaining the case becomes ed to prevent its confirmation , for then maniplies. a solution of Doses of warm water,

and the food harden into a mass in the 2 or 3 oz . ofEpsom salts, should be frequently administered , both to dissolve the matter in the stomach, move the bowels, and wash out the stomach . Calves are liable to a disease of an opposite

nature from this,namely, looseness, scouring or diarrhea. They are most subject toit when put to grass, though still on milk , at too early an age. I should say that if so treated before attaining 2 inonths, they are certain of being affected with it. One means of prevention is, to retain the calves in the house or shed till they are at least 2 months old , and if a little older so much the better. Of course, it is only the latest calves that are likely to be thus treated ,the earlier having attained ma ture age for weaning before the grass is ready. In the house, scouring may be brought on by starvation and excess, and on grass by a sudden change of food. So long as the calf is lively and takes its milk , there need be no apprehension from a thin discharge of fæces; but dullness and

loathing of food , accompanied by discharge, should create alarm. The first application of a remedy should be a mild purgative, to remove, if possible, the irritation of the bowels, and then should fol. low anodynes, astringents, and alkalies, with carminatives, the withdrawal of every sort of green food, and the administration of flour or pea-mealgruel. The following mixture the farmer is call. ed to " rely on , and it is recommended that he should have it always by him, as it will do for all suckling animals, namely, 4 oz. of prepared chalk, 1 oz. of Winters' bark, powdered, 1 oz. of laudanum , and 1 pint ofwater. Give 2 or 3 table -spoonsfull, according to the size of the animal, 2 or 3 times a day." * Another recipe is : " Take from } oz. to 4 oz. of tincture of rhubarb, with an equal quantity of water, according to the age and strength of the caif. To be given every al

ternate day in case one dose is not sufficient. I have used the remedy for several years," says a

Ingethorpe, Grantham ,recommendsthis : writer, “ and havenot lost a calf.” + Mr.E.E.Dawson, in half a pint of ale ; add a teaspoonfull of “ For young calves boil } oz. of ground black pepper ginger; mix together; to be given lukewarm every morning until the calf recovers of its weak. ness; to have its milk as usual. Older calves will require more for a complete cure. Great

care should be used in makinguse of theabove recipe,that theanimaldoes not receive the mix ture too fast; for want of attention mischief may be done." ! I have given all these remedies for the scour in calves, for it would appear that it may be removed by various means, and one may be more efficacious in one locality than in any other. I never experienced among my calvesbutone instance of serious scouring. It was a Short- Horn quey.calf, and the recipe which effected a cure, after trying many, was very like the first, though I now forget the exact ingredients, with the ex. was substituted. flour-grael , fora which the pint of water ception ( 1697.) ofCalf-louse. It is not little singular , in a physiological point of view, that there should

bea peculiarpedicular parasite appropriated to the calf, yetsuch appears to bethe case, although the creature is by no means common. It is very like the ox -louse. Hæmatopinus eurysternus, fig. 268,butcomparatively narrower, and having two rows ofdusky spots on the abdomen. Itis termed Hæmatopinusvituli, or louse of the calf. (; ( 1698.) . Although parturition is a natural process ," as well observed by Mr. Youatt, “ it is ac companied by a great deal of febrile excitement. The sudden transferring of powerful and accu mulated action from one organ to another — from the womb to the udder - must cause a great deal

of constitutional disturbance, as well as liability to local inflammation ." Ø One consequence of this constitutional disturbance of the system is milk-fever. “ The cause of this disease," says Skellett, “ is whatever obstructs perspiration, and accumulates the blood internally ; hence it may be pru duced by the application of cold air, by lying on the cold ground, or by giving cold water after calv. ing ; and these causes will naturally produce this effect from the open state of the pores at this time, and from the external parts being so wide and relaxed after the operation . Cows in high condition are more subject than others to this complaint, and especially if they have been kept

up for some weeks before calving."| The complaint may seize the cow only a few bours after calving, or it may be days. Its firstattackis probably notobserved by those who have the charge of the cows, or even by the farmer himself, who is rather chary in looking after the conditionof

his cows, in case of offending his female friends, to whose special care that portion of his stock is consigned . The symptoms are first known by the cow shifting about in the stall, or from place to placeit loose, lifting one leg and then another, being easilystartled, and looking wildly to open and issue clear water, she staggersin her walk, and at length loses the use of her limbs about her as if she had lost her calf,and blaring for it . Then the flanks begin to heave, the mouth

andlays her head upon ber side. The body then swells, the extremities feel cold and clammy. Shivering and cold sweats follow , the pulse becomes irregular and death ensues. The promptest remedy to be used, after the first symptom has been observed, is to bleed to the extent of 3 or 4

quarts ;and the nextis to open the bowels, which will be foundto have a tendency to constipa From 1 lb. to 1 lbs. of Epsom salts, according to the strength of the cow , with a little gin. ger and carraway, should be given as a purge ; and if the dose does not operate in due time, lb. of Epsom salts should be given every 6 hours until the bowels are opened. This result will be much expedited by a clyster of warm thin gruel and soap or oil. After the opening medicine has tion .

operated, a cordial drink will be necessary, by whichtime the cow may show symptoms of recover

ing in expressing an inclination to eat, withwhich she should be gratified. but with precaution .** Johnson's Farmer's Encyclopædia, art. Diarrhea . # Bell's Weekly Messenger for March , 1842. Mark -Lane Express for November, 1842. || Denny's Monographia Anoplurorum Britanniæ . | Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow. Youаtt on Cattle.

[** The more artificial treatment of cattle in England probably produces diseases and casualties to which they are far less subject in our country, where they are left in a more natural and unre (201)

106

THE BOOK OF THE FARM---SPRING .

(1699.) Red -water.-- The ninth day after a cow has calved, an uterine discharge should take

place and continue for a day or two,after which the cow will exhibit all the symptoms of good health . I have observed that when this discharge does not take place the cow will soon af ter show symptoms of red -water. She will evacuate urine with difficulty, which will come away in small streams, and be highly tinged with blood, and at length appear like dark grounds of coffee . • The nature and cause of the disease are here evident enough," as Mr. Youatt well ob.

serves. “ During the period of pregnancy there had been considerable determination of blood to the womb.

A degree of susceptibility,a tendency to inflammatory action, had been set up,

and this had been increased as the period of parturition approached, and was aggravated by the state and general fullness of blood to which she had incautiously been raised. The neighboring organs necessarily participated in this, and the kidneys, to which so much blood is sent for the proper discharge of their function, either quickly shared in the inflammation of the womb, or first took an intlammation, and suffered most by means of it. " * The prevention of this disease is recommended in purgative medicine after calving ; but as such an administration, in the cir cumstance, never fails to affect the quantity of milkgiven by the cow for some time after, a bet ter plan is to administer food which will operate as a laxative at the same time, for some time before as well as after calving, and the substance which possesses these two properties is oil-cake. I have proved this from experience. I lost two cows in Forfarsbire by red -water, one a Short Horn and the other an Angus, and one of the hinds lost one also — all in different but successive years. By examination of the stomachand bowels after death, I became satisfied that the deter mination of the blood to the womb during pregnancy had caused a tendency to inflammation in

the bowels and stomach, and thatindigestion and constipation were the consequences, and these were aggravated by the state of the food, which consisted entirely of Swedish turnips, which, at

that season, in April, are fibrous and sweet, by the juice becoming concentrated in the bulb, and which the more readily induce cattle to eat them . The remedy was an obvious one : give laxa.

tive diet, and as that cannot readily be effected by turnips, particularly in cows which do not re. ceive so many as they can eat, nor by raw potatoes which incur the risk of hoven ( 1294) , and to the giving of potatoes to cows I have always had an utter aversion-call it prejudice, if you will ; and as potatoes boiled have no laxative effects, the only alternative was oil-cake, and, for tunately, from the period I employed it medicinally to the cows, for a month before and a month

after calving, to the extent only of 4 lbs. a day to each cow, and which quantity was also given to the hind's cows about the time of their calving, the complaint was never more seen or dreaded. ( 1700. ) I may here mention an unaccountable fatality which overtook a Short-Horn cow of mine, in Forfarshire, immediately after calving. She was an extraordinary milker, giving not less than 30 quarts a day in summer on grass ; but what was more extraordinary, for two calvings the milk never dried up, but continued to flow to the very day of calving, and after that event re

turned in a flush . In the third year she went naturally dry for about a month previous to the day of reckoning ; every precaution ,however ,was taken thatthe milk should dry up without giving her any uneasiness. She calved in high health , the milk returned as usual in a great Hush after calving , but it proved an impossibility to draw it from the udder ; not a teat would pass the milk , all the four being entirely corded. Quills were introduced intothem at first, and then tubes of larger size were pushed up to the root of each teat. A little milk ran out of one of them hope revived ; but it stopped running, and all the art that could be devised by a skillful shepherd proved of no avail to draw milk from the udder ; rubbing and softening the udder with goose grease, making it warmer with warm water - all to no purpose. To render the case more dis

tressing, there was not a veterinary surgeon in the district. At length, the udder inflamed, mor tified, and the cow died in the most excruciating agony onthe third day, from being in the high est state of health , though not in high condition ; for her milking propensityusually kept her lean, but still she was always spirited. No loss of the kind ever affected my mind so much - to think that nothing could be done to relieve the distress of a creature that could not help itself. I was told afterward by a shepherd to whom I related the case , that I should have cut off all the teats

by the roots ; which horrid operation would , of course, have destroyed her for a milch cow, but, he conceived, would have saved her for feeding. He had never seen that operation performed on a cow ; but it suggested itselfto him in consequence of having been obliged at times to cut off

a ewe's teat or teats to save her life. The suggestion I think good; and I mention it that it may occur to you in similar circumstances. I purchased this cow when a quey in calf, along with another, from Mr. Currie, then in Brandon, Northumberland .

(1701.) Cows differ very much in the time they continue to give milk, some not continuing to yield it more than 9 months, while others afford it for years. The usual time for cows that bear

calves to give milk is 10 months. The cow that died in consequence of the corded teats men tioned above, (1700 ,) gave milk for 3 years, and bore a calf every year. A cow of mine that

slipped her calf, and was not again served by the bull, gave milk for 19 months. But many re strained condition . Hence with us the parturition of cows is very rarely attended with any diffi culty or danger - so rarely as scarcely to make it an object of attention or solicitude; thus all the precautions, descriptions of symptoms and remedies, &c. laid down here, may seem to be almost unnecessary . It is with domestic animals as with the human family — too much care and manage. ment seem to beget difficulties. The fine lady is watched with intense solicitude ; the family physician is on the qui vive for weeks before the event ; and she sometimes falls a victim to the contagious sympathy and apprehensions of her friends, and to that delicacy of frame and constitu

tion which is the fruit of too much refinement in her rearing and physical education. The poor

laboring man's wife has no such fear, and no such difficulties. The misfortune in his case is that whildren come too easy and too fast. * Youаtt on Cattle .

( 202)

Ed. Farm . Lib .]

107

COWS CALVING , AND CALVES.

The immerse length of time for which some cows will continue to give milk ,” says a veterinary writer, . if favorably

markable instances of cows giving milk for a long time are on record .

66

treated, is truly astonishing; so much so as to appear absolutely incredible. My own observa tion on this subject extends to four most remarkable cases: 1. A cow purchased by a Mr. Ball, who resided nearHampstead, that continued to give milk for 7 years, subsequently to having her first and only calf. ?. A large dan Suffolk cow , shown to me as a curiosity by a Yorkshire farm . er. This animal, when

saw her, had been giving milk for the preceding 5 years, during

which period she had not any calf. The five -years' milking was the result of her second calving. During that period, attempts had been made to breed from her, but ineffectually. 3. A small aged cow , belonging to a farmier near Paris,that gave milk for 3 years subsequent to her last calf. 4. A cow in the possession of Mr.Nichols, Postmaster, Lower Merion -street, Dublin. This animal was in Mr. Nichols's possession for 4 years, during the entire ofwhich time she continued

to give an uninterrupted supply of milk, which did not diminish in quantity more than 3 pints per diem , and that only in the winter months. . : : . He disposed of her for butchers' meat, she usual quantity of milk.” * ( 1702.) The samewriter enters fully into a subject with which I was not previouslyacquainted, namely , the possibility of securing permanency of milk in the cow. This is effected, it seems, by

being in excellent condition . The morning of the day on which she was killed, she gave her ,

simply spaying the cow at a proper time after calving. The operation consists in cutting into the flank of the cow, and in destroying the ovaries of the womb by the introduction of the hand.

The cow must have acquired her full stature, so that it may be performed at any age after 4 years.t She should be at the flush of her milk, as the future quantity yielded depends on that which is af forded by her at the time of the operation . The operation may be performed in ten days after calving, but the most proper time appears to be 3 or 4 weeks after. The cow should be in high

health , otherwise the operation may kill her or dry up the milk. The only preparation required for the safety ofthe operation is, that the cow should fast 12 or 14 hours,and the milk taken away immediately before the operation. The wound heals in a fortnight or three weeks. For two or three days after the operation, the milk may diminish in quantity ; but it regains its measure in about a week, and continues at that mark for the remainder of the animal's life, or as long as the age of the animal permits the secretion of the fluid ; unless, from some accidental circumstance such as the attack of a severe disease it is stopped ; but even then the animal may be easily fat tened .

( 1703.) The advantages of spaying milch-cows are thus summed up : “ 1. Rendering permanent. the secretion of milk,and having a much greater quantity within the given time of every year 2. The quality of the milk being improved. 3. The uncertainty of andthe dangers incidental to breeding being to a great ex nt avoided . 4. The increased disposition to fatten, even when giv ing milk, or when, from excess of age, or from accidental circumstances, the secretion of milk is checked ; also, the very short time required for the attainment of marketable condition. 5. The

meat of spayed cattle being of a quality superior to that of ordinary cattle." † With these advan tages, of course, breeders of stock can have nothing to do ; but since the operation is said to be quitesafe in its results, it may be presentedto the notice of cow -feeders in towns.

( 1704.) A cow willdesire the ball in4 or 5weeks aftercalving. The symptoms of acow being in season are thus well described by Skellett : “ She will suddenly abate of her milk, and be very restless ; when in the field with other cows she will be frequently riding on them , and if ' in the cow -bouse ,she will be constantly shifting about the stall; her tailwill be in constant mo.

tion ; she will be frequently dunging, stalling and blaring; will lose her appetite ; her external parts will appear red and inflamed , and a transparent liquor will be discharged from the vagina. În old cows these symptoms are continued 4 or 5 days, but in general not more than 24 hours, and at other times not more than 5 or 6 hours. Therefore, if a cow is intended for procreation, theearliest opportunity should be taken to let her have the bull ; for if it beneglected then, it will often be two or three weeks before the above symptoms will return. These instructions,"

adds Skellett, " are necessary to be given only to the proprietor of a small number of cows, where a bull is not always kept with them . . . . . If a cow, after calving, shows symptoms of season sooner than 4 or 5 weeks, which is sometimes the case , sheshould not be permitted to havethe bull

sooner than 4 or 5 weeks from that period, for the womb, before that time, is generally in so re laxed a state as not to be capable of retaining the seed ; consequently she seldom proveswith calf, if she is suffered to take him sooner." || This last remark I consider of great value, for I am per suadedthat most cases of cows not holding in calf the first serving after calving,arises fromthe want of consideration on the part of breeders, whether the cow is in that recovered state from the effects of calving as to afford a reasonable hope that she will conceive ; and this is a point more to

be considered than the mere lapse of time after calving, for a cowafter a severe labor, may be in a much worse state for conception, even at double that length of time, than another which has [t It is not, of course, meant to say that cattle may not be spayed earlier. On the contrary , it is quite common , especially in our western country, to spay heifers, and where the operator has some experience there is little danger. Should the system of M. GUENON, by which it may at a very early age be pronounced whether a calf will make a good or a very indifferent milker, be

fully established, it will undoubtedly become expedient for farmers to sell to the batcher for veal, or to have spayed all that are found to be devoid of the marks or escutcheons. Being spayed, they have a greater tendency to fat, and cases might happen we should think, where the farmer

has few cattle that it might be economical to bring such condemned and spayed heifers under the yoke.

Ed. Farm . Lib .]

*

Ferguson on Distemper among Cattle. | Ferguson çn Distemper among Cattle. ( 203)

U Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow

108

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -- SPRING .

passed the calving with ease, though the former may come as regularly into season as the latter The state of the body, therefore, as well as the length of time, should be taken into consideration in determining this point.

( 1705.) There are still other considerations connected with the serving of cows which deserve your attention. The usual practice, in places where there is no bull, is totake the cow to the bull at a convenient time for the cattle-man to go with her; and should she have passed the bloom of the season before her arrival at the bull the issue is of course doubtful. The cow may have trav eled a long distance and become weary, and yet no rest is allowed her, and she must undergo the still farther fatigue of being served. Some people cannot be satisfied with the service which their cows receive, until both cow and bull are wearied out. Others will force either the cow or ball, or both together, against their inclination, she being held by the nose, and he goaded on with

threats and thumps. In all such cases the chances are much against conception. There is, to be sure, the difficulty of not having the bull onthe spot, but, when he is reached, he mayhave been worn out for the day by previous service. No such difficulty is felt when there is a bull at home ;

but even then, when the cow has to be taken to him out of the byre, for example, some judgment is requisite of the proper time at which she should be taken out ; and this can only be ascertained by studying the idiosyncracy of every cow, and remembering each case . It appears to me to be as essential amatterto keep a record of the characteristics of each cow , in regard to ber state of season, as of her reckoning to calve ; and this remark is strengthened by the great differences, in this respect, evinced by different cows under the same treatment. For example, one arrives soon at mature season after the symptoms are exhibited ; another requires a few hours to arrive at the

same point, and the season continues for sometime longer in a languid state . A third runs through the course of season in a few hours, while a fourth is only prepared to receive thebull at the last part of her season . A fifth may exhibit great fire in her desire, which induces her keeper to have

her served at once, when too soon ; while another shows comparative indifference, and in waiting for an exhibition of increased desire on her part, the season isallowed to pass off; and when this is the case, some cattle -men ,conscious of neglect,and afraid of detection, will persist in the ball serv .

ing her, though she may be very much disinclined for the embrace, and does everything in her power to avoid it. There is no way so natural for a bull serving a cow , as when both are in the field together, and understand one another. The most proper time is wisely chosen by both, and failure of conception will be rare in the circumstance. But it is possible that the bull may be unable to obtain possession of the cow in the field, by reason of disparity in hight and of corporeal conforma tion ; in which case he will require to be taken to a part of the ground which will favor his par. pose. Two or three thorough skips are quite sufficient for the purposes of conception. The cow should be put into and kept quiet in the byre, after being served until the desire leave her, and

she shouldget no food or water for some hours after, as any encouragement of discharges from the body atthis time, by food anddrink, is inimical to the retention of the semen. (1706.) “When nature is satisfied,” says Mr. Skellett, who is a great authority in the vaccine

department of veterinary practice ,or the symptoms of season disappear in the animal, concep tion has taken place . The neckof the womb becomes then completely closed by a glutinous sub stance which Nature has provided for that purpose , being perfectly transparent, and with diffi culty separated from the parts. This matter is for the purpose of exclading all external air from the mouth of the womb during gestation, which, if admitted to the fætus, would corrupt the membranes and the pellucid liquor in which the fætus floats, and would undoubtedly cause the cow to slink. This glutinous substance also prevents the lips of the mouth of the womb from

growing together; and when the cow comes into season it becomes fluid — in the act of copulation serving to lubricate the parts and prevent inflammation ." *

9. THE ADVANTAGES OF HAVING FIELD-WORK ALWAYS IN A FORWARD STATE. $ " Who breakesh timely his fallow or ley, Sets forward his husbandrie many a waye.

This, timely well ended, doth forwardly bring Not only thy tillage, but all other thing." TUSSER

(1707.) The season - early spring — having arrived when the laboring

and sowing land for the various crops cultivated on a farm of mixed hus bandry are aboutto occupy all hands for several months to come, the injunction of old Tusser to undertake them in time that each may be fin ished in its proper season, should be regarded as a sound advice; for whenever your field labor is advanced everso little at every opportunity of * Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow . (204 )

THE ADVANTAGES OF FORWARDING FIELD -WORK.

109

weather and leisure, no premature approach of the ensuing season can come upon you unawares ; and should the season, on the other hand, be

delayed beyond its usual period by natural causes, you will be ready to

proceed with your work whenever the weather

proves favorable.

When

work advances little by little, there is time to do it effectually ; or, if it be not then executed in an effectual manner, you have yourself to blame for not looking after it. When I say, however, that work may be advanced little by little, I do not mean that it should be done in a slow , careless

manner, as if the work -people were unimpressed with the importance of what they were doing. The advantage of doing even a little is that what ever is done is not to do afterward ; and that a little may be done as well,

and in as short a time, as if it had been done as a part of a great opera

tion. In this way, even if only one man is kept constantly at the plow , he would turn over, in the course of a time considered short when looked

back upon, an extent of ground almost incredible. He will turn over an imperial acre a day, that is, 6 acres a week, 24 acres in a month, and 72 acres in the course of the dark and short days of the winter quarter. All

this he will accomplish on the supposition that he has beenenabled to go at his plow every working day ; but as that cannot probably happen in the winter quarter, suppose he turns over 50 acres instead of 72, these will

still comprehend the plowing of the whole extent ofground allotted to be worked every year by each pair of"horses when the farm was taken. In fact, here is a large proportionof a whole year's plowing done in a single, and in the shortest quarter of the year, ( 1708.) Now , a week or two may quickly pass in winter in doing things of little moment, and which, in fact, amount to time being thrown away ;

such as sending away a rake of all the draughts to a stock corn -market,on a daywhen thereis little prospect of disposing of the grain, and when they would have been better employed at home at the plow ; or driving some ma

terial on the farm which would better and easier be done when the plows are laid idle at any rate by frost; or in setting men to the corn -barn to thresh or clean corn , and laying the horses idle for the time; or in contriving

some unimportant work to fill up the time for half a day, until the frost thaws a little on the lea, because it would give too much trouble to take the plows fromthe lea to the stubble field, if there be any such at the time. Sharpening and setting irons differently may form a reasonable excuse for shifting the plows from a stubble to a lea field, but no such excuse is avail able in neglecting to make the opposite transference. Such omissions and instances of misdirected labor are too much regarded as trifles in win ter ; but is undeniable that they occupy as much time as more important work ; and in a season , too, when every operation of the field is prepara tory to one at a more busy season. Occasionally the state of the work will force the consideration on the farmer, that it is not so far advanced as

it should be, or even as he could wish; still, instead of pursuing a different course from that which has given rise to the reflection occasioned hy the delay, his unsatisfied mind consoles itself with the assurance that when the season for active work actually arrives, the people will beableto make up for the lost time.

This is, however, mere delusion ; for if work can be

made up, so can time, the two being inseparable ; and yet how can lost time be made up, when every moment ofthe year has its work to per form , and when that period, long as it is, is usually found too shortin which to do everything as it ought to be done ? “There's the rub.” For time eludes pursuit, and brooks no interruption ; but neglected work, though 'attempted to be overtaken -- and it may be overtaken before its issue_still the race will never terminate in a satisfactory manner. (205)

The

110

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

neglected work may, no doubt, be done in a short time — in an unprece dentedly short time ; but in that case, it is the time in which the work is done that is boasted of, not the work itself — the measure, and not the thing

measured, which is held up to view ; and yet, time beingthe standard by which all well-executed labor is meas easured, it cannot be deprived of that

property, whatever devices may be used to make it go beyond its steady pace. You should remember that its pace is the same in winter as in sum

mer, and the extent of labor, measured by the length of its tread, ought to be as great in winter as in summer, otherwise an irreclaimable error is assuredly committed inthat season. (1709.). Convinced that field-labor should be perseveringly advanced in winter, whenever practicable, I am of opinion that plan is good which ap

points plowmen to different departments of labor; some to work con stantly on the farm , others occasionally togo from home ; some to be con stantly, or nearly so, at the plow, others frequently at the cart. Thus the benefits of the subdivision of labor may be extended to the farm . When a certain proportionof the draughts are thus set aside for plowing, that

most important of alloperations will not only be welldone by those whose special duty it is to do it, but perseveringly and judiciously done. This proportion is only legitimately employed at any other workwhen there is no plowing for them to execute. Plowing being a steady occupation, not subject tothe irregular action of the cart, can be performed by the older men and horses, who cannot so well bear the shocks of carting as younger men and horses .

( 1710.) It may be proper to give some familiar examples of what I mean when I say thatfield -labor should be advanced at every opportunity.

The order of work in spring is well understood ; it should therefore be the study of the farmer to conduct the operations of winter so as to suit those of spring in their natural order. If the weather seems tempting to sow spring wheat, then a portion of the land cleared of turnips by the sheep, best suited to that species of crop, should be so plowed as to an swer wheat instead of barley. If beans are desiderated as a crop, and there is land suitable for their culture, then , in autumn or in early winter,

the stubble land, in its particular state should be so plowed as to suit their

growth ; and in whatever mode beans are to be afterward cultivated, care should be taken to have the land particularly dry, by letting off water in winter by additional gaw -cuts, where necessary , or by deepening those already existing, where they seem to require that amendment. Beans being an early crop, such precautions to render land dry on the surface

are requisite . If common oats are to be sown in spring, they being sown earlier than other sorts, the lea intended for them should be plowed first, and means taken to keep it dry in winter, so that the most unpropitious weather in spring may not find the land in an unprepared state. What land is intended for potatoes, what for turnips, or tares, or bare fallow , should be prepared in their respective order ; and when every one of all these objects have been promoted, and there is found little or nothing to do till the burst of spring -work comes, both horses and men may enjoy a day's rest now and then , without incurring the risk of throwing work

back ; but before such recreations are indulged in, it should be ascertained that all the implements, great and small, have been repaired for work the plow-irons all new laid — the harrow - tines new laid and sharpened, and

fastened firmly into the bulls of the harrows- the harness all tight and strong — the sacks new patched and mended, that no seed -corn be spilled upon the road — the seed -corn threshed, measured up, and sacked, and what is last wanted put into the granary — the horses new shod, that no (206)

CROSS-PLOWING, DRILLING , AND RIBBING LAND.

111

casting or breaking of a single shoe may throw a pair of horses out of work for even one single hour — in short, to have everything prepared to start for work when the first notice of spring shall be heralded in the sky. ( 1711.) But suppose the contrary of all this to happen ; suppose that

the plow-irons and harrow -tines have to be laid and sharpened, when per haps to -morrow they may be wanted in the field - a stack to be threshed

for seed-corn or for horses’-corn in the midst of a sowing of a field - sup pose, too, that only a week's work has been lost, in winter, of a single pair of horses, and the consequence is that 6 acres of land have to be

plowed when they should be sown, that is, a loss of a whole day of 6 pair of horses, or of 2 days of 3 pair - suppose all these inconveniences to hap pen in the busy season and the provoking reflection occurs that the loss

incurred now was occasioned by trifling offputs in winter. Compare the value of these trifles with the risk of finding you unprepared for sowing beans or spring wheat. Suppose, once more, that instead of having tur nips in store for the cattle, when the oat-seed is begun in the fields, and that, instead of being able to prosecute that indispensable piece of work

without interruption , you are obliged to send away a portion of the draughts to bring in turnips, which must be brought in, and brought in, too, from hand to mouth, it being impossible, in the circumstances, to

store them . In short, suppose that the season of incessant labor arrives and finds you unprepared to go along with it—and what are the conse quences ? Every creature about you , man, woman, and beast, is then toiled beyond endurance every day, not to keep up work, which is a light some task, but to make up work, which is a toilsome task ,but which you

said you could easily do, when you were idling your time in a season you consider of little value ; and, after all, this toil is bestowed in vain to ob .

tain the end you wish, namely; to prepare your crop in due season .

You

who are inexperienced in the evils of procrastination may fancy this to be an overdrawn picture - even an impossible case ; but unfortunately for that supposition, it is drawn from the life. I have seen every incident oc cur which I have mentioned, both as to work being in a forward and in a backward state, not, it is true, in any one year ; but some instances in one, and some in another year, but what may occur in different years may all occur in one, and such a result may easily be realized by indulgence in increased negligence.

10. CROSS-PLOWING, DRILLING, AND RIBBING LAND. The new -gained field laid down in seemly drills." GRAHAM .

( 1712.) I have already described the various modes of plowing land at the commencement and during winter. It remains for me to describe other modes of plowing, which were deferred from that time until the sea son in which they are usually begun to be executed, namely, spring. These modes are cross-plowing, drilling, and ribbing. (1713. ) And, first, as to cross-plowing. I have alluded to this mode of plowing, not so much to describe it minutely, as to deprecate its practice Its object is to cut across the existing furrow -slices before winter. 66

into small pieces, that the land may be the more easily pulverized and prepared for the future crop.” Fig. 312 represents a field to be cross (207)

112

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

plowed, and it is purposely formed of an irregular shape, as mostfields are, to show the side from which the cross-furrows should be feered, and

the mode of plowing the last, or irregular feering, according to the circum stances of the case.

(1714.) The first thing to be done in preparing any field for cross-plow ing is to render its surface as free of large clods as possible ; and this is

effectedby harrowing, an operation which is executed by an implement that will be particularly described when it comes to be spoken of in seed time.

The winter's frost may have softened the clods of the most ob

durate clay -soil, and the mould-board of the plow may be able to pulver ize them fine enough, and the lighter soils may have no clods on them at all; from all which circumstances it may be regarded as a loss of time to harrow the ground before cross-plowing it in spring; and, for these rea sons, I believe, some farmers do not practice harrowing ; but it appears

to me to be always the surest plan of pulverizing the soil to harrow it be fore cross-plowing the winter furrow ; because you cannot be sure that, in the strongest land, all the clods have been softened to the heart by frost ;

and should they happen still to be hard there, and become buried by the cross-furrow , they will not be so easily pulverized as when lying exposed upon the surface of the ground to the action of the harrow ; and even in the lightest soils, the harrows not only make a smoother surface, but assist in intermixing the dry frost-pulverized soil of the surface with the moister and firmer soil below , at least as far as the tines of the harrows reach .

(1715.) There is not much time lost in harrowing before cross-plowing ; for although the harrowing should be given a double-tine, that is, backward and forward upon the same ground, to pulverize the clods, or equalize the texture of the ground ; and although it should be given across instead of along the ridges, that the

open

furrows may be filled

up with soil as much

as possible, whether the land had been plowed with gore-furrows, fig. 136, or not — that which has been cloven down with gore-furrows, fig. 141, or twice gathered up, fig. 139, being the most difficult to cross -harrow , not

only on account of the numerous open furrows ofthe former method, and the inequality of the ground, occasioned by the latter, but becauseboth these methods are adopted for winter furrows on strong land, which is the most difficult to be labored even in the most favorable forms— yet the worst form of plowed land can be harrowed in a short time.

( 1716.) Two pairs of harrowsshould be set to cross-harrow together, as being the best mode of accomplishing effective harrowing in all cases, as will be shown afterward ; and that number of harrows, when unconfined

by ridges, will cover at least 16 feet in breadth, and proceeding at the rate of 2 miles per hour for 9 working hours, will give19 acres of ground a double tine, on the supposition therehave been no interruptions; but as time must be lost in turnings, as you have already seen in plowing (930 ), anda breathing occasionally given to the horses, that quantity of land can

not be harrowed a double tine at that rate of traveling, in the ordinary mode of conducting labor ; but say that 16 acres are thus cross-harrowed in the course of a day, a half day's harrowing will make room for a num ber of plows.

(1717.) If time presses, the feeringsfor cross-plowing can becommenced almost immediately after the harrows have started ; and if these cannot get way before the plow, it can either take a bout or two in each feering, till

the harrows have passed the space for the next feering, or the harrowscan pass along the lines of eachfeering beforethe plow ,and return and finish the barrowing of the ground between the feerings. Thus in fig. 312, after he line of feering e f has been harrowed, the plow can either take a bout (208)

113

CROSS-PLOWING, DRILLING, AND RIBBING LAND.

or two around it, till the harrows have passed the next line offeering gh ; or the harrows can go along each line of feering, first e f, then g h , then i k, and so along l m and no, in succession, to prepare the ground for feer ing, and then return and harrow out the ground between e and g, g and i, i and I, and 1 and n. In this way the harrowing, and feering, and the

plowing of the different feerings can be proceeded with at the same time. But if time is not urgent, the systematic mode is to harrow the field Fig. 312.

ZAVISNOSTI

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P

5

:

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ko

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СC A FIELD FEERED FOR BEING CROSS -PLOWED

in a continuous manner,beginning along the fence a b from the gate at b

and proceeding by breadths of the harrows across the field till the other side of it, c d , is reached ; or another equally effective mode is to step off feerings from a b, in breadths of 30 yards in succession, along the field, in the manner I am about to describe, for cross-plowing ; and this mode has the advantage of giving an easier turning to the horses at the landings. ( 1718.) Suppose, then , that all or as much of the field to be cross-plowed has been harrowed as will give scope to a single plow to make the feer

ings without interruption. In choosing the side of thefield at which the feerings should commence, it is a convenient rule to begin at the side farthest from the gate, and approach gradually toward it, and its conve nience consists in not having to passthe finished feerings, and so to avoid the risk of trampling on the plowed to get at the unplowed land. The convenience of this rule is felt not only in cross-plowing, but inprosecu

ting every species of field -work ; and besides avoiding the risk of damage to finished work, it is gratifying to the minds of laborers to think that, as their work proceeds, they approach the nearer home ; while it conveys to others the idea of a well-laid plan, to witness the operations of a field which have commenced at its farthest end, and are finished at the gate, where all the implements employedmeet, ready to be conveyed to another field.

The gate in this instance is like home, and in most instances it is

placed on that side or corner of the field nearestthe steading. In the par ticular case of the field representedby fig. 312, these conveniences are not all available, owing to its form , which is a very common one ; and peculiari ties of forminvolve considerations in regardto conducting field operations of more importance than mere convenience, and one of these is the most (209 ) ...... 8

114

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

important one of loss of time.

It is always desirable to commence a

feering at a straight side of a field, whence there is little risk of error in

ing off the feerings to include parallel spaces of ground ; and wher estrik this particular is not attended to, much time is needlessly spent in plowing a number of irregular pieces of ground. It is better to leave any irregu larities in plowing to the last ; and, as an irregularity must occur, at all events, along the side of a crooked fence, it is saving of time to throw any irregular plowing to that side. In fig. 314 it so happens that the straight est side of thefield is nearest the gate at b, and the crooked fence, c to d ,

farthest from it. In pursuance of the rule just announced, the feering should begin along the side of the straight fence a b, and terminate in an irregular feering, along the crooked fence c d. A straight feering could,

no doubt, be made at first along c d, leaving any irregularity betweenit and the fence ; but the setting off of that feering parallel with the straight fence a b, in order to avoid making an irregularity there also, would im pose considerable labor, and take up more time than the advantage would compensate of avoiding the inconvenience of having to pass plowed ground.

( 1719.) Let the first feering, then , be made about 7 or 8 yards from the fence a b, or from the ditch -lip of that fence, if there be a ditch there .

Some farmers neglect the head -ridge in the cross-plowing, and measure the feering from the open furrow between it and the ends of the ridges.

I maintain that the head-ridges should be plowed at this time, as well as the rest of the field, for if they are neglected now , the busy seasons of spring and of early summer will prevent attention being paid to them till, what with the trampling of horses in working the land for green crop, and the probable drouthof the weather in those seasons, will render them so very hard that it will be found impracticable to plow them , and they will thus be deprived of the ameliorating effects of the sun and air during the pest part of the year. Let them , therefore, be included in the cross-plow ing, although they cannot be cross-plowed themselves. But if it is desired to plow them with the side-ridges, which form the head -ridges to the cross -plowing, and which side-ridges must be plowed before the crop, what

ever it may be, can be sown upon them , then the head-ridges may be left out of the feering, and the first feering be struck at 7 or 8 yardsfrom the head-ridge open furrow . Suppose that this line of feering is e f; and as it is executed in the same way as that already described in feering ridges in (646), I refer you to that paragraph, as well as to fig. 132, where the furrow -slices m n are shown to be thrown out right and left from the line of feering kl. The next line of feering is g h, at 30 yards' distance from ef, and so there is a feering at every 30 yards' distance, to the last feer ing, no.

( 1720.) After as many feerings are struck as there are plows to be em ployed in cross-plowing, each plow enters a feering, and first lays the furrow -slices of the feering together, to form the crown of the future

cross-plowed break of land. The horses are hupped around each feer ing, ef, g h, &c., till about

of each break of land is plowed, that is, 1

from e toward g, and 1 from g toward e, thus plowing 1 the break be tween e and g by hupping the horses. The remaining of the break, be tween e and g, is then plowed by hieing the horses (901) from e to g , and from h to f, till themiddle, between e and g, is gained by anopen furrow . No open furrows, however, are left in cross-plowing, these being plowed together again by 2 or 3 bouts, lessening the size of each furrow in every bout, till the last one is closed up by the mould -board of the plow, which is laid over on its side, and dragged forward while the plowman holds (210 )

CROSS-PLOWING , DRILLING, AND RIBBING LAND.

115

only by the large stilt. The obliteration of the open -furrow is necessary hollow that would be left there across the ridges, when they

to avoid any

are again plowed into form . I have alluded to this subject before in (667.)

( 1721.) The plowing of the complete feerings is all plain work, and, in

deed, the only difficulty encountered in cross-plowing is when the last or irregular feering, such as n o, is reached. This feering is begun to be

plowed like any of the rest, till the nearestpoint to the open furrow of the head-ridge is attained, and if the head -ridges have been included in the feerings,then the plowing proceeds till the ditch-lip or hedge-root stops the plow ; but if left to be plowed with the side-ridges, a small feering should be made at the lowest points of the ridges at the head -ridge furrow , and the break included between these points and the feering should be plowed out by hieing the horses with a long furrow on the one side and a short one on the other, till themiddle is gained, where the open furrow is closed up like the others .

This feering will take longer time to plow

than any of the rest, in proportion to the quantity of the ground turned over in it, on account of the plow having to go empty from the bend of the fence to thepoints on both sides. (1722.) Had the field been a true rectangle, like the space included within the dotted lines anbt, the feering might have been struck from either fence, and there would have been no loss of time in plowing alter nate long and short furrows. Scarcely a more striking comparison can be made of the lossof time in plowing land of the same extent than be tween a field of regular and irregular form at a busy season . The letters P and r indicate single and double ridges.

( 1723.) The furrow given at cross-plowing is always a deep one, deeper than the one given at the commencement of winter; and this is easily ac

complished, as the land, not having had time to consolidate, nor any labor executed upon it to consolidate it, the plow passes easily under the old furrow , and not only turns it over again, but raises a portion of the land below it. Indeed, it is requisite to make the plow take hold of this firm substratum in order to keep it steady, otherwise the formerly turned -over furrows, which are still cloddy, or the unrotted stubble which has been buried by the plow, may form obstacles under and on both sides of the plow, soas to throw it out of operation altogether, or at least so affect its

motion as to prevent its maintaining an equal depth of furrow . Perhaps may be considered a good average depth in cross -plowing with a pair of horses. ( 1724.) But means are frequently used at this season to cross-plow with

a deeper furrow than can be reached by a plow drawn by a pairof horses, 3 or 4 horses being employed for the purpose. The third horse is very commonly yoked in front of the furrow -horse of the plow, and harnessed in cart-traces, as represented in the trace -horse of the cart in Plate XVIII., the hooks of the trace-chain being passed into a link of the plow -chains, behind the haims, of the rear horse. A simpler plan still isadopted by only using the plow -harness, and lengthening the plow -chains by short ends, that is, short pieces of chain, which are hooked in a similar manner

to that just described. Neither of these methods, however, will bear a comparison, in point of draught, with the yoking of 3 horses, as repre sented in fig. 201, and described in (909). I have an objection, however,

to this mode of yoking, which is founded, not on its principles, whichare faultless, but on account of an inconvenience to one of the horses. When

BOyoked , the three horses work nearly abreast, the middle onebeing only a little in advance of those on either side ; and the objection is, that the ( 211)

116

THE BOOK OF THE FARMSPRING .

middle horse will become more heated in the work , in that position, than either of the other two.

This inconvenience may not be much felt in

early spring -work, but at the time when the largest proportion of cross plowing is usually executed, or in summer, the middle horse must suffer

considerably more than the others, and this result I have frequently wit nessed in places where three horses are still yoked abreast to the harrows.

There arevarious modifications of yoking three horses practiced in differ ent parts of the country, to which reference has already been made in

(910), (911) and (912), and where will also be found methods of com pensating the labor of any individual horse by an alteration of the swing tree, when unequally yoked, which one of the horses is, when three are made to work together, as they are usually yoked in tandem fashion .

Three horses will take a depth offurrow of 11 or 12 inches, according to ( 1725.) A still greater depth may be attained, and is frequently desirable

the texture anddepth of the soil.

in cross-plowing, and there is no other sort of plowing which affords such

facilitiesfor obtaining a deep furrow . This greater depth is attained by yoking four horses to a plow, 2 leading and 2 following, the 2 off ones walking in the furrow , and the 2 near ones on the firm land. Two very convenient and efficient modes of yoking 4 horses may be seen in figs. 202 and 203, and a description of them is given in (913) and (914). Yoked

as in fig. 202 , the leading horses are best harnessed, as inthe traces of the cart, Plate XVIII ; but, as in fig. 203, they may be in their usual plow

harness, with the exception of the chains, which are made for this particu lar mode ofyoking. The depth reached by a 4 -horse plow is, on an aver age of soils, 14 inches. I have used the 4-horse plow much, and withstout, well-matched horses have never reached less than 14 inches in obdurate

subsoils ; while in freer soil and substratum, not properly a subsoil, but ra ther an undisturbed soil, the plow went to 16 inches of perpendicular depth, and the work was most satisfactory, (1726.) An ordinary stout plowwill answer for 3 horses, and so it may for 4, where there are no bowlder-stones in the land ; but where a consid

erable quantity of 4 -horse plowing is desired to be executed, it is better to have a plow made for the purpose a little stronger than the ordinary 2 horse plow .

( 1727.) In a 3-horse yoke, one man may drive all the horses by means of reins or by the voice, though a boy to assist at the turnings will save as

much time in that matter as will compensate for his wages. Where 3 horses are yoked abreast, one man may as easily manage them as 2 horses. In the case of 4 horses, however, there should be a manto drive the horses,

and this is usually done with the whip instead of reins, though the near leader should have a rein.

The second man , in this case, is no loss, as the

4 horses just constitute 2 pairs of the ordinary draughts. Even if the sec ond man

were taken away from his horses — which should never be the

case ~ and set to other work, he would be of little service, as his mind his horses are would be constantly occupied with the desire to know how fact is , that no getting on under the guidance of another man . But the man can manage 4 horses at the plow with advantage to the work. Fig. 206 shows how a 4 -horse plow may be yoked and driven. ( 1728.) This deep cross-plowing with a 3 or 4 -horse plow should not be confounded with trench -plowing, which is best and usually performed as represented in fig. 206. Trench -plowing only deserves the name when a common plow

goes

before and turns over a furrow -slice, and in the bottom

of which the 4 -horse plow follows and goes as deep as it can. In deep plowing , the 4 -horse plow goes as deep as it can of itself, and it is rare that (212)

.

CROSS-PLOWING, DRILLING, AND RIBBING LAND.

117

it meddles with the subsoil, which it is the special object of ţrench -plowing

todisturb. Deep-plowingwill be very well executed by one common plow following another in the same furrow ; and when the substratum is free,

this is a very good way of stirring up the soil to the moderate depth of 10 or even 12 inches.

(1729.) The 3 and 4 -horse plows should not be inconsiderately employ ed in cross-plowing in spring, because , eithermode of plowing occupying a considerably longer time with the same number of draughts, and employ ing more horses than ordinary plowing, it cannot be prudently employed on land that is immediately to be occupied by an early spring crop, such as beans, though the time in which potatoes, turnips, and fallow are re spectively finished, will afford plenty of leisure to have the land appropria ted to them deeply cross-plowed in the best manner. (1730.) Next as to drilling. This is a form of plowing very different from the ordinary, but it is not unlike that mode of plowing stubble in some 2

Fig. 313. 5

THE MODE OF PLOWING SINGLE DRILLS .

parts of the country which is represented by fig. 142, and which I alluded

to only to condemn. The principal reason for my condemnation of it was that, while it professed to turn up the soil tothe action of the atmosphere, it buriedmore than half of it untouched by the plow , thus in a greatmeas

ure running counter to its own avowed object. On comparing fig. 313, with fig. 142, theform of the two modes of plowing are somewhat similar, but their structure, that is, the state of the soil within and without, they are very different. In fig . 142,the ground b is quite solid and unmoved from the state in which it had borne crops, and the moved parts a are full of stubble and weeds. The linesof the drills c are quite irregular, having no reference to the quarters of the compass, the direction of the ridges, or in parallelism with themselves. The regular drill, on the other hand, is formed of deep loosened soil, plowed and harrowed on purpose, and made as clear ofweeds as the timeallotted to prepare the soil will allow . Drilling is a finished piece of work, the other only confessedly a

preparatory one. Drilling is essential to the proper cleaning of theland at a future period of the season, the other a very questionable mode of attain ing any good object. (1731.) I have said that before land is drilled it should be well pulver ized, well cleaned, at least as well as the time when it should be drill

ed will allow ; and the ground should be in a soft state by labor when drilling is to be executed , otherwise the drills will not have their proper form and structure . Drills should not be formed on hard land, nor ought they to be attemptedto be formed on hard land, as the object of making at all is, in the first place, to afford a sufficient quantity of loose soil to them (213)

118

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

cover the manure deposited in them ; in the next place, to afford the roots of plants sufficient freedom to roam in search of food; and, in the last place, to afford opportunity, notwithstanding the presence of a crop, to free the land of weeds, by stirring it occasionally with proper implements.

There is no way of effecting all these objects so effectually as by drilling. Accordingly,all crops intended to meliorate and clean the ground are cul tivated in drills, andthese are what are called green crops, namely, pota toes, turnips, mangel-wurzel, beans, &c.

(1732.) After land has been much plowed and harrowed, and even rolled to render it friable, it is usually in a flat state, whatever may have been

the form in which it had been before plowed ; and when flat, it is in the best state for being plowed into drills. Yet strong land that is constantly retained in ridges of a rounded form , that is, twice gathered up, fig. 139 and (656), will exhibit the form of ridges, even after ithasbeen well pul verized by plowings, harrowings, and rollings ; it will still appear as if gathered up from the flat, fig. 133, and it had been harrowed and rolled fine on the surface . Lighter soil with the same work will appear quite

flat,that is, of a uniformsurface throughout, not as if it were level. This distinction in the appearance of the ground of being ridged or not ridged, should be kept in view , as it will in greatmeasure determine the width of space that should be left between the drills : and it is entirely occasion ed by the difference of the form in which the different sorts of soils had

been previously plowed. Strong soil is always kept round by repeated 135 and 136; whereas the lighter soils are usually only once gathered up, fig. 133, cast together without gore-furrows, fig. 135, or plowed two-out gatherings up, or gatherings-up based on casting with gore-furrows, figs.

and -two-in, fig. 138.

(1733.) In whichever of these states theland maybe, whether complete ly flat or exhibiting a slight indication of rounded ridges, the drills are

made of the same form ; and they are formed in the following various ways. They are made by one landing of the plow, when they are said to be single, or they are made with a boutof theplow when they are called

double ; and both single and double drills are made either toward or from thefeering. The ultimate forms of the two different modes are apparently the same, butthat which makes them from the feering is nevertheless the best, as I shall show in the sequel.

(1734.) In beginning to make drills, let us take one of the simplest cases that present themselves, namely, a field havinga straight side at its farthest end, and having the forms of ridges still visible ; and as it is requi

site in strong land to preserve a form that will keep itas dry as possible, the drills should be so formed upon the ridges as to be accommodated be tween their open furrows.

If the ridges are 15 feet in width, 6 drills of

30 inches apart will fill up that space between the open furrows ; and if 18 feet wide, 8 drills of 27 inches will answer the same end. When the

ground is flat, any width of drills previously determined on may be executed. have seen it stated in cases of drilling land for turnips in England, that only 18 inches was a good distance to be preserved between drills; but

what object is gained by adopting a distance which is too narrow for the free operation of the implements required to keep the ground clean, I can not imagine.

(1735.) Suppose, then, that the ridges present a form of 15 feet in width on strong land, they should be made 30 inches wide, and they are made in this way: Begin at the end of the field farthest from the gate, and where the fence runs in a straight line ; and set up 3 feering -poles (446 )

in a straight line upon the nearest furrow -brow of the third ridge from the (214 )

CROSS- PLOWING, DRILLING , AND RIBBING LAND.

119

fence, and 15 inches from the middle of its open furrow . Split out the

feering along theline of thepoles, turning over the furrow -slices firstto one side and then to the other, like the furrow -slices m and n, along the feering The reason that the first feering is made on the furrow -brow

k l, fig. 132.

is, that when the drills are split to cover the dung, or whatever else is put in them , the place which the hollow now occupies will then be filled up by the drill, and the open furrow will then be the hollow between the drills

upon the furrow -brow of bothridges. In fig. 313, suppose a b to be the feering in the furrow -brow of the ridge. On passing up from a to b, the plow laysover the furrow -slice cd, and the soil having been pulverized , it crumbles down in a continuous heap upon the firmer land under it. On

gaining the head -ridge at the other end of the feering, the horses are hied, and the plow comes down from b to a, laying over a similar furrow nó upon the firm land. A similar feering is made in the furrow -brow of the 6th ridge from the last, and so on upon every 6th ridge across the field; but erethe field is all feered for drilling, some of the drills are formed be tween the feerings, that the land may be proceeded with for the purpose

it has been drilled , while thefeering and the drilling of the remainderare

proceeded with. To proceed, then , with the drilling at the first feering, at a distance of 30 inches, this previously determined width of the drills is

measured offfrom a to e, and this the plowman does with his plow -staff, or shaft of his plow -spade,as that implementiscall in some parts ofthe coun try, upon which the various breadths of drills executed on the farm are notched off. The plow then proceeds from e tof, preserving a parallelism with the feered furrow a b, laying over the furrow -slice 8 h upon the firm ground, upon which it crumbles down in a continuous heap. On hieing the horses at the other end of the drills , a similar distance of 30 inches is

marked off from b to i, the plow passes down from i to t, laying over the furrow -slice l m upon the firm ground. Hieing the horses again, the plow passes on to p, and goes by P , forming another drill like the others. The

plowman does not measure off the width of every drill he makes in this manner, his eye being able to keep him right for a number of drills,

across which he then lays his plow -staff, to ascertain how he has been pro ceeding, whether the drills he has made be too narrow , or too wide, or

quite the proper breadth, and then again proceeds with his work. It will be observed, from the description of this process, that one drill has been formed every time the plow has gone up in the direction of e f, and an other every time in coming downin the direction of it, with theexception at striking the feering, when the plow both went up and came down a b.

In this way the horses are made to hie round a b, and the plow to make 2 drills every bout till 2 ridges on each side of the feering a b are drilled up, and the last drill will be made close behind the fence.

When this

takes place, the plowman goes to the next feering, when two furrows were

split out as at a b, and forms drills around it in the same manner till 2 ridges also oneach side are drilled . Two ridges having thus been drilled to the right of the first feering and two to the left of the second, and six ridges intervening between the feerings, two ridges of the six have yet to

be drilled, upon which the drills areformed by hupping the horses from the one set of drills to the other ; but in doing this, caution is requisite to

make all the drills of the exact width of 30 inches, and particularly the last two formed at the junction of the two feerings. The caution is exercised by the plowman applying his plow -staff frequently to ascertain the breadth of the ground to be drilled, and the width of the drills themselves ; and

should he find that he has more or less ground than he should have for the number of drills he has yet to make, he must modify the width of each ( 215)

120

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

drill, so as the whole number may be very near the width, and not reserve

any surplus or deficient ground to be added to, or substracted from , the last drill alone. Another caution of not less importance is to ascertain if the ground to be last drilled is of the same breadth at both ends at the head-ridges, for if thispoint is not attended to, the last drill may run out to

a point at one end, and be too broad at the other. In closing every feering, therefore, the greatest caution is required to preserve the breadth of the drills.

(1736.) This is one way of forming single drills, and the following is an other. Instead of splitting out the feering a b, fig. 313, as just described, the plow laystwo furrows together, and forms a finished drill with an ele

vated ridge, in the place of the hollow furrow a b ; and this isdone by hupping the horses instead of hieing them , as in the other case. Still hup ping thehorses and measuring off the width of the drills as formerly, the next drill is made in the direction of f e, laying the furrow -slice upon the firm ground, toward the open track of the plow left in making the previous drill in the same direction . The next drill is made in the direction of t i,

again laying the furrow -slice toward the plow -track left open in form ing the previous drill. The drills are thus formed around the first feering

over the 2 ridges on each side, then over the 2 ridges on each side of the second feering, and the drills are closed up between them , with the pre cautions noticed above (1735 ), by hieing the horses. (1737.) The essential difference betwixt these two methods is this. In

the first, the furrow -slices are all laid over from the feerings toward the unplowed land, and the horses are first hied and then hupped in finish ing the feerings. In the second method, the furrow -slices are all laid over toward the feerings and the plowed land, and the horses are first hupped and then hied . As to the treatment of the horses, there is no difference in

regard to them , being hupped and hied in both cases, but there is a consid erable difference in regard to the treatment of the land . In the second method, the furrow -slice being laid over toward the open track which the plow has made in making the previous drill, should the land be at all cloddy, and it is impossible to reduce every clod on strong land at all times, clods or stonesmay roll down the crumbling furrow -slice, acquiring an impetus by the action of the ear of the mould -board, into the hollows

between thedrills ; and this is no imaginary inconvenience, for clods and stones actually roll down into the said hollows, when they happen to be numerous, or when the soil is so firm as to acquire a considerable force of the plow to elevate it into drills, and when it is apt to rise in large masses

before crumbling down in its fall from themould -board. When the width of the drills is as much as 30 inches, thisinconvenience is less likely to happen, but when the more usual width of 27 inches is adopted, I have

seen it occur to a considerable degree. The immediate inconvenience oc casioned by these clods is, that they interrupt the progress of the bean barrow when the land is drilled up in this way for the bean -crop ; and

when the land is dunged, they occupy the best part of the drill, and being there covered up with the dung, they remain among it, and form obstructions to those roots of plants that may be pushing through the manure in search of farther sustenance.

At all events, they can do no

good.

(1738.) In the first method, on the other hand, this inconvenience is en

tirely avoided, and no other is substituted in its stead ; for should clods and stones roll away from the furrow -slice when the drill is making, and

which they will inevitably do when present,upon

the

open and firm land,

there only to the next passage of the plow , which sweepsthem they remain (216)

CROSS -PLOWING, DRILLING , AND RIBBING LAND.

121

away, and at the same time leaves a small space of ground between the former furrow - slice and its track , as from t to o, &c., and which track is

clear and open, ready for the bean -barrow , or the dung that may be de

posited in it. The advantage possessed bythe first over the second method of drilling in these respects is so obvious,that any argument in support of

it appears unnecessary, and being so obvious, you should not fail to adopt thismethod as your invariable practice.

(1739.) When the ground is flat, that is, when the ridges are not remark ably prominent, the drills are made the common width of 27 inches, some

make them 28 inches, and the feering is conducted in the sameway ; but in setting off any feering from the last one, when there is no such guide as the breadth of ridges to measure the proper distances, care should be taken to set off such distances as will contain a determinate number of drills

of the fixed width , otherwise an error will inevitably occur at the closings of the feerings. Thus, if the drills are 27 inches in width, in a feering of 30 yards broad, 6 ridges of 15 feet, each making a very convenient breadth of feering, the number of drills will be exactly 40. ( 1740.) So much for single drilling ; now for double. For this mode the

feering is made in a different manner from that for the single mode of drill ing. Supposing, again, that the ridges are visibly marked in the ground, the feering is taken from the furrow -brow of the ridge nearest the fence,

at 15 inches from its extreme outer edge, and there setting up a straight line of poles, split out the feering as before by the plowing passing up and down in the same furrow. Suppose this furrow to be represented by the line in e f in fig. 132, then setup a square table at d, and mark off there from a line withpoles at right angles in the directionof the arrow through s to t. Removing the square table to g, set off a similar and a parallel line in the direction of the other arrow through u to v. Split out both these lines with the plow as straight as the plowman can , and the bottomof the furrow in them will form a guide to set off the requisite widths of drills at

right angles to the feering, at least they will serve to check the plowman Plowmen expert at drilling are apt to contemn such guides in forming doubledrills , because they conceive they

inhis making the drills correct.

can preserve the widths sufficiently well by the eye, and no doubt plow men are to be found who drill with precision, and I have met with such,

though very few in number, but the generality of them cannot be intrusted in this delicate task without a guide of some sort, and there is none more

simple and more effective than the one I have described and recommend ed. " And where single drilling is to be executed on land on which no ves tige of a ridge is seen, it is quite impossible for the most expert driller to

set off the feerings with sufficient accuracy. Plowmen, I know, try to do it, and I have seen good ones nearly succeed in it, but never witnessed

one who was not obliged to modify the widths of the drills at the closings. Strict accuracy in regard to drills is not required in some crops, such as in the bean and potato ; but with regard to the turnip, which is sown with a machine set to a given width,unless the drills arevery nearly alike in breadth

at both ends, the sowing will be very imperfectly performed. The means, too, of attaining accuracy are so simple --merely drawing two or three fur rows across the field — that it is culpable to neglect it. There will be, I am certain, more time spent by the plowman in measuring the widths of drills with his plow -staff at every closing, than he would spend in drawing a few cross-furrows at first ; and after all his adjustments," his mind is not satisfied that he has done the work in the most accurate manner .

It is

true that with all the assistance cross- furrows can afford him, he will still

have to measure the widths of drills with his plow -staff at every closing, (217)

132

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -SPRING.

but he is much less likely to err in his measurements while having the

cross-furrows to guide him at right angles to the direction of the drills, than in measuring at random ina supposed right direction . This is so self-evident that your mind must assent to the facilites afforded by cross furrows.

( 1741.) The double drills are formed in this way ,on the supposition that ridges are visible at 15 feet asunder; and this method is analogous to the first method of feering single drills. After the furrow -slice c d , fig. 313, is

laid over at the feering of a b along the furrow -brow of the ridge nearest the fence, the horses are hupped, and the plow ismade to come down at

the prescribed width of the drills, namely, 30 inches, along the line fe

and toput a furrow -slice against the other furrow -slice cd,which had just been turned over upon the firm ground, and in doing this the drill receives a somewhat sharp -pointed crest. At 30 inches this crest is never very

sharp, but at 27 inches it may be made as sharp as you please, by making the plow go a little deeper. Then hieing the horses, the plow again goes along ef, but in the opposite direction, and lays over the furrow -slice 8 h on the open ground. Hupping again, the horses come down p, and form the other side of the drill h g ; and so on, one drill after another. No breaks of feerings are required in this mode of drilling, as every drill is

finished as it is formed, and the precautions required are, that the proper widths of the drills are preserved throughout their lengths, in which they may be easily checked by the assistance of the cross -furrows.

(1742.) The other mode of double drilling is analogous to the second mode of single drilling. After the feering-poles are set up, as in the former case, the plowing is commenced from the other headThe -ridge, and the horses are first furrow -slice n o is laid over while coming down b a.

then hied, and the plow is passed up the same furrow in the opposite di rection a b, and having little earth to lay over, but a small furrow -slice is

laid toward c d . Hupping the horses, the plow is then brought down fe, which being a fresh furrow , the furrow -slice d c is large, and completes the drill d c. Hieing the horses, the plow again passes along the last fur row in the opposite direction ef, and having little earth to take lays over

the small furrow -slice g h ; and then hupping again, a large furrow -slice is laid over from

9

and completes the drill h g, and so on, one drill after

another, at the requisite width .

( 1743.) The same difference exists in the two modes of making these double drills, or in making the single. Thus, in the first method the large furrow -slice is laid over upon the open and firm ground, and the drill is finished by the second and smaller furrow -slice; whereas in the second method the larger furrow -slice is laid toward the already drilled land, and upon the smaller furrow -slice which was first turned over.

(1744.) On considering carefully both modes of drilling, it will be ob served that the two sides of a double drill are not equal, that side which receives the furrow -slice raised from the firm land receives a larger quan tity of earth than the side which receives the small furrow -slice derived from the same track out of which the former large slice had been taken.

The immediate consequence of this inequality of earth upon the two sides of a drill is to give it the form of an unequal triangle, and its effect on the growth of any seed deposited within the drill, is to cause the germ of the

plant to grow out of the side at the upper part instead of the top of the drill. This effect is particularly shown by the sloping direction which a strong growing stem of beans or potatoes takes, and to obviate which the tops of the drills are always, in practice, harrowed down as much as to allow the stems to grow upright. (218)

CROSS-PLOWING, DRILLING, AND RIBBING LAND.

123

(1745.) This inconvenience of the unequal form of the double drill at

tends both modes of making them ; but, of the twomodes,that which lays the large furrow -slice upon the open side of the firm land possesses two advantages over the other ; the first of which is that no clods, large or small, can roll from the top of the drill into the hollow ; and the other ad

vantage is still greater, that of the finished drills beingcirc less trampled by the horses in making the succeeding ones. This last

umstance may

be explained by referring to fig. 313. When the plow, for instance, goes up e f to commence a new drill, it cuts the firm ground along that line, laying the furrow - slice g h upon the open unoccupied groundtothe right, and leaving on the left a small space of firm ground ce and d f, between

the line ofthe plow f e and the crumblings of the previous large furrow or unfinished drill c d. In doing this, the furrow -horse walks up the hol low of the former mnade drill a to guide him in the exact line he should

go, and the other goes on the firm ground by the side of e f. On return . while the plow is making up the small side of the drill d c ; but in doing ing, the furrow -horse comes down f e, while the other comes down p,

this the footsteps of the horse that went up the finished drill a b are left untouched . This may be considered a matter of little importance, and

from the generalityof the practice, one would be led to conclude itof lit tle importance ; and in case of some horses which walk neatly and nar rowly in a drill, the impressions of their footsteps may be almost unob served in its bottom ; but in the case of a horse which walks wide behind,

and in that of all weak horses which stagger under their draught, both sides of the drills are frequently much trampled ; and in the case ofdrill

ing strong land, footprints injure the soil by holding water. These may beobliterated in this way : instead of perfecting the drills one by one in succession , let an intermediate drill remain unfinished between one that is

finishing and another that is forming. For example : instead of finishing the second sideof the drill h g by returning down the hollow b a, let the drill remain unfinished until the new drill p is formed so far as to lay over its furrow -slice on the firm ground . Then let the plow come down b a ,

having the furrow -horse before it, and it will obliterate its footmarks, and let the other horse come down the intermediate open furrow fe, because in going up and down, it is necessary in drilling that one of the horses

shall go in a hollow of a drill formerlymade to guide it in the proper line. Withregard to the mode which lays the large furrow -slicetoward the drilled land, it seems impossible but to leave the finished drills trampled. For example : on finishing the drill h g, on the plow coming down b a, the furrow -horse walks down the finished drill i t, and the other walks on

the firm ground down dc; and the same ground is gone over by the horses on the plow laying over the small furrow toward c d on passing up the hollow a b. When the plow comes down fe to lay over the large fur

row toward and to finish the drill d c, the furrow -horse comes down b a, and the other upon the firm land alongside f e; and thus the finished hol low a b is twice trampled, first in guiding the furrow -horse while the plow is forming the drill d c when coming down f e, and again on the plow

passing up ef to lay the small furrow towardh g for the next drill, which is completed in its turn when the plow comes down p, and the furrow - horse tramples the finished hollow fe.

( 1746.) When the ground is quite flat, double drills may be made 27 inches wide, and the same width may be adopted when ridges of 18 feet are visible, for 8 drills of 27 inches just cover an 18-feet ridge. A feering of 6 ridges of 18 feet just includes 64 drills of 27 inches, so that where drills are desired of 27 inches in width, and no more, the land should be ( 219)

124

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

in 18 -feet ridges, if ridged , or it should be flat - otherwise some of the 27-inch drills on 15-feet ridges will be left in the open furrow , a position which in strong land cannot fail to prove injurious to that part ofthe tur nip crop in winter. When the soil is thorough -drained, it is of no im portance where the drills are situated ; but till that operation is performed , it is necessary to attend to the safety of the crop in the most unfavorable circumstanceof soil by judicious management.

(1747.) It may have occurred to you to inquire that, if a perfect drill is formed by a bout of the common plow , why it is that perfect drills are not formed by one landing with a double mould -board plow ? The inquiry is a natural one, and it can receive a satisfactory answer. Were a drill per fectly formed, a vertical section would give a triangle whose hight is equal

to half the length of thebase. The hight towhich acommon plow can elevate the crest of a drill is that of the ear of its mould -board, which, in

the common (Small's) plow, Plate X., is 12 inches ; and this hight is con formable to a drill of only 24 inches in width. Such a plow, therefore, to make a drill of the usual width of 27 inches, will either leave a flat space

on its tops of 3 inches in breadth , or it will leave a sharp crested ridglet of 3 inches in breadth at the bottom of the hollow of the drill.

A com

mon plow varies in width from the ear of the mould-board to the land -side

from 18 inches (Wilkie's) to 20 inches (Smalls). A bout of Wilkie's plow could thus make a drill 36 inches, and that of Small's 40 inches in width in a bout, were it plowed to the full breadth either was capable of; but as drills are only made 27 inches in width , the second furrow is taken by the plow going nearer the side of a drill than in the middle of the hol

low between two drills, and it is this expedient which

to drills one

sloping and another more perpendicular side. A double mould -board plow , constructed of similar dimensions of an ordinary one, would make drills much wider than are required ; but even if its mould -boards were set as narrow as to make a 27-inch drill, it is found that on account of the width of double mould- board plows below, they cannot go so deep as to

give drills their proper elevation of 134 inches, required to bury the re quisite quantity of manure deposited in them. (1748.) There is a species of drilling executed by the small plow, fig. 314, which has received the appellation of ribbing. In executing this mode Fig. 314.

THE SMALL, OR RIBBING OR PARING PLOW .

of plowing, it exactly follows the mode of making single drills ; and of the two modes of making these, it is necessarily restricted to that which lays the furrow -slices toward the unplowed ground, because the ribs being necessarily narrow , were clods and stones to fall into the hollows, which

the other method would infallibly cause, the purposes of the ribs forming a kindly seed -bed would in a great measure be frustrated. The ribs, with (220)

SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS -SEEDS .

125

great pains, can be formed as narrow as 9 inches, and by careless plowmen they are made as wide as 14 inches, so that 12 inchesmay be considered a good medium width . They are always formed on ridges, never on a flat, and only used in seed -furrowing.

The best width of feering for making

them is2 ridges, beginning on the furrow -brow of the ridges, and laying the furrow -slices into the middle of the open furrows between the two

ridges ; by hupping the horses the seed is kept out of the open furrow, and retained upon the best land of the ridges. Ribs are formed in the length ofthe ridges. Supposing them to be 12 inches asunder, there will just be 30 ribs in every feering of 2 ridges of 15 feet each. Another im plement which makes a number of ribs at once is described below.

11. SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS-SEEDS. * When winter frosts constrain the field with cold , The fainty root can take no steady hold ." DRYDEN'S VIRGIL .

(1749.) Wheat cannotbe sown in spring in every sort of weather, and upon every variety of soil. Unless soil possess a certain degree of firm ness,that is, contains some clay, it is not considered adapted for the growth of wheat, at least it is more profitable to sow barley upon it ; and unless the weather is as dry as to allow strong soil to be plowed in the proper

season, it is also more profitable to defer the wheat,and sow barley in due season. The general climate of a place affects the question of sowing wheat there in spring, and it is a curious problem in climate why wheat sown in autumn should thrive at a place where spring wheat will not. Ele vation of position, even in a favorable latitude, produces the same effects. Experience in these well-known circumstances renders the farmers of Scot

land chary of sowing wheat in spring, unless the soil is in excellent con dition, and the weather very favorable for the purpose.

( 1750.) When wheat is sown in spring, it is usually after turnips,

whether these have been entirely stripped from the land, or partly con sumed on the ground by sheep. In whichever of these states ofthe turnip

crop may be chosen tobe followed by wheat, it is not sufficient merely to raise a crop of turnips by dint of a plentifulsupply of manure at one time upon an otherwise exhausted soil that will insure a good crop of spring: wheat; the land itself should be and have been for some time in good

heart, otherwise the attempt will inevitably end in disappointment. ( 1751.) On a farm possessing the advantages of favorable soil and cli mate, and on which it is the custom to sow spring wheat every year, the turnip -land is plowed with that view up to a certain period of the season, not later than the beginning of March ; and even on a farm on which

spring wheat can only be sown occasionally, when a favorable field comes be so plowed as that the advantage may be taken to sow wheat. Should in the course of rotation, or the weather proves tempting, the land should

circumstances warrant the attempt, or matters take an unfavorable turn for the purpose, there will be no harm , as the soil can afterward be worked for barley. ( 1752.) Land should only receive one furrow , the seed -furrow , for spring

wheat, for if it is plowed oftener after a manured green crop, and in spring, (221)

126

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

when it has become tender by the winter frost, it would want that firmness which is essential for the growth ofwheat. The nature of this seed-fur

row depends upon circumstances. If the land presents a visible form of ridge, and if it soon becomes wet, the best way to plow it is to gather it up, and then it will have the appearance of being twice gathered up, as in fig. 139. If it is flat, and the subsoil somewhat moist, gathering upfrom the flat will answer best, as in fig . 133. If the soil has a dry subsoil, though of a pretty strong clay itself, it may be cast with gore-furrows, (663). And should it be fine loam resting on an open bottom , the ridges

may be cast together without gore-furrows, as in fig. 135. It is probable that a whole field may not be obtained at once to plow up in either of

these ways, and indeed such an event rarely happens in regard to prepar ing land forspring wheat ; but when it is determined to sow it, a few ridges should be plowed up as convenience offers, and then a number of acres sown at one time. In this way a whole field may be sown by de grees, whereas to wait until the sowing of the whole field at once can be

obtained, may prevent the sowing of any part of it in proper season. Nay, bad weather may set in and prevent the sowing after the land has been plowed ; still a favorable week may occur, and at the worst, at the lattei end of the season the land may be ribbed with the small plow, inthe manner I have described in ( 1758) , and which will move as much of the tender

part of the soil on the surface as sufficiently to bury the seed, and the greater part of the former furrow will still remain ina firm state to sup port the wheat plant.

( 1753.) The land being plowed, it should be sown as quickly as possible; for which purpose the seed -wheat should be measured up inthe sacks, or

ready to be measured up in the corn -barn or granary, and the means of pickling it also ready when wanted. Wheat should be sown thick in spring, because there is no time for the plant to stool or tiller, that is, to throw out young shoots from the roots, as in the case of autumnal-sown

wheat. About 3 bushels per imperial acre will suffice for seed. (1754.) Seed -wheat should be pickled ,that is, subjected to a preparation in a certain kind of liquor, before it is sown, in order to insure it against the attack of a certain disease in the ensuing summer called smut, which renders the crop comparatively worthless. Somefarmers affect to laugh at this precaution, as originating in a nonsensical faith in an imaginary specific : but the existence of smut and its banefuleffects upon the wheat

crop are no imaginary inventions, and when experience has proved, in numberless instances, that the application of a steep has the effect of ward ing off the evils of smut, the little trouble which pickling imposes may surely be undertaken , rather than the whole crop be put in jeopardy. Why

pickling now should have the effect of preventing the smut at a future pe riod is a different question ; and it is perhaps because this question hasnot hitherto been satisfactorily answered , that pickling is thought lightly of by some farmers, rather than becauseany valid objection can be urged against its practice. Indeed there cannot, for the palpable fact stands obvious to

conviction, that one field sown with pickled wheat, and managed in the usual way, will escape the smut, while an adjoining one, managed in ex actly a similar manner, but sown with plain wheat, will be almostdestroyed with the disease. I have seen this identical case tried by two neighboring farmers, the Messrs. Fenton, late tenants of Nevay and Eassie, in Forfar shire. It is true that, on somefarms, wheat sown in a plain state escapes the disease, as I have heard Mr. Oliver, Lochend , near Edinburgh, state is the case with his farm ; and it is also true that pickling does not entirely pre vent the recurrence of the disease on other farms; but such cases areex (222)

SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS - SEEDS .

127

ceptions to the rule, which is, if wheat is not pickled it may be smutted ; at least no one can aver beforehand that it shall not be so ; and while un

certainty exists in the recurrence of a serious disease, the safer practice is to bestow the trouble of pickling, the expense being very trifling, rather than incur the risk of disease. It is now a well - ascertained fact that inocu

lation will not insure immunity from small-pox, yet it will certainly modify the attack when it occurs, and so it is with the case of pickling wheat; and as long as means are used to ward off small-pox, so long also, from

analogy,ought wheat to be pickled. (1755.) Wheat is pickled in this way. For some days, say 2 or 3 weeks, let one of the tubs referred to in (1229 ) be placed to receive a quantity of chamber lye, and whenever ammonia is felt to be disengaging itself freely from the lye, it is ready for use. It is better that the effluvium be so strong

as to smart the eyes, and water added to dilute the liquor, than that the

lye be used fresh. This tub should be removed to the straw -barn, as also the wheat to be pickled, and part of the floor swept clean, to be readyfor thereception of the wheat. Let 2 baskets be provided, capable of holding easily about a bushel of wheat each, having handles raised upright on their rims. Pour the wheat into the baskets from the sacks, and dip each basketfull of wheat into the tub of lye as far down as completely to cover the wheat, the upright handles of the baskets preventing the hands of the

operator being immersed in the lye. After remaining inthe liquor for two or three seconds, lift the basket up to drip the surplus lye again into the tub,and then place it upon two sticks over an empty tub, to drip still more till another basketfull is ready to be dripped. Then empty the

dripped basket of its wheat on the floor, and as every basketfull is emp tied , let a person spread by riddling through a barn wheat-riddle, a lit tle slaked caustic lime upon the wheat. Thus basketfull after basket full of the wheat is pickled till it is all emptied on the floor, when the pickled and limed heap isturned over and over again till the whole mass

appears uniform . The mixing by turning is most surely managed in this Let two men be each provided with a barn shovel, and let one stand on each side of the heap, one with his shovel in the right and

way.

the other with his in the left hand ; let both make their shovels meet in

their edges upon the floor, under one end of the heap of wheat, and each,

onlifting his shovelfull, turn it over behind him, and thus proceed, shovel full after shovelfull, to the other end of the heap. Let them return in a

similar manner in the opposite direction, and aye till the heap of wheat is completely mixed with the lime andin lye. pickled wheat is then sacked up and carried to the field carts.The Other substances beside chamber Iye are used for pickling wheat, such as brine of salt, sufficiently

strong to float an egg ; solution of blue vitriol - all good enough, I dare say, but when so simple and efficient and easily -obtained an article as

lye can be had, it appears to me unnecessary to employ anything else. It is a powerful ingredient, destroying vegetable life in the course of a few hours, and it is perhaps to this propertythat is to be ascribed its efficacy as a protection against the attack of that vegetableenemy of the wheat-crop -the smut. The wheat pickled with it should therefore be used immedi

ately after the process ; and as danger may be apprehended to pickled wheat being kept over night, the quantity pickled should be sown at once, and no more should be pickled at one time than can immediately be sown.

The use of the quicklime seems to be to dry the lye quickly, so that the grains may be easily separated from one another in the act of sowing ; but there may some chemical change arise between them in the circum stances, which may ( 223)

be serviceable to the purpose for which both are em

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

128

ployed. Can it be that the lime fixes the ammonia of the lye, and serves itforuse until wanted by the plantor seed ?

pre

( 1756.) There is some art in setting down sacks of seed -corn on the field. It should be ascertained how many ridges of the field to be sown

are contained in an acre, so that the sacks may be set down at so many ridges as each sack contains seed to sow the ground, allowing the specified quantity of seed to the acre. This instruction should be given to the plow

man before he proceeds to the field with the sacks, otherwise he may set them down either too close or too wide.

When one row of sacks is suffi

cient, and the ridges just long enough for the sower to carry as much seed

as will bring him back againto the sack , the sacks shouldbe set down in the middle ; when the ridges are short they may be set down on the head ridge, and when of such a length as to require two rows of sacks, each

row should be set on the same ridges, and the distance between them made to suit the circumstances of the case.

The setting down of the sacks

should be begun from the sideat which the sowing commences, and this again depends on the nature of the surface of the field . If the surface is level, it matters not which side is selected for commencing operations ; but if it has an inclination, then that side which lies to the left while looking

down, or to the right on looking up the inclination , should be begun to be Sown . The reason for this preference is that breaking in the surface with the harrows — that is,the first stroke of them over the ground, along the ridge - is most difficult for the horse to draw ; and to ease their draught the breaking should be executed down hill. The sacks are always placed

on the furrow -brow of a ridge, that the hollowness of the open furrow beside it may give advantage to the person who carries the seed to take it out more quickly and easily when it sinks near to the bottom of the sack . (1757.) The carrier of the seed is a field - worker, and the instant the first sack of seed is set down, she proceeds to untie and fold back its mouth, and fill the rusky, fig. 315, with seed, and carries the first quantity to the sower, who should be ready sheeted awaiting her arrival on the head -ridge at the side of the field. Her endeavor should be to supply him with such quantities of seed as will bring him in a line with the sack when he wants more ; and as the sacks are placed abouthalf-way down the ridges when

only one row is wanted , this may easily be arranged; or should there be tworows, she must go from row to row on the same ridge, and endeavor to form the same arrangement. This regular plan will give her the least trouble, and supply the sower always with the requisitequantities of seed ; and it should be borne in mind that nothing can be more annoying to a sower than to have his sheet brimfull at one time and at another stint

ed ; and it is also very annoying to him to be obliged to wait the arrival of the seed -carrier, whereas she should rather wait on him.

Fig. 315.

If the sacks of seed are conve

niently placed, one active seed -carrier will serve two sowers, at e, fig. 322 ; but where the sacks are set down in more than one row, and there are more than one sower, there should be a car rier at each row .

( 1758.) The rusky, fig. 315, or seed -basket, is usually made of twisted straw laid in rows above each other, and fastened together by means of withes of willow. It is provided witha couple of

THE SEED-CORN RUSKY.

handles of the same material, sufficient to admit

the points of the fingers, and also a rim around the bottom , upon which it stands. In the Border counties it is carried on the head or the seed - carrier (724)

SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS - SEEDS .

when full, in other parts it is carried in the arms with the bottom rim

129 supº

ported by the haunch. It should be filled each time with just the quantity of seed, and no more, which the sower requires at one time. The mouth of

the sack should be rolled round upon itself, that the seed may be easily and

quickly taken out, for there is usually no time to lose when seed is sowing. As one sack becomes empty it should be taken by the carrier to the nearest sack, and as they accumulate they should be put into one, and thus taken forward out of the way of the harrows. It isnot unusual to see the sacks

lying upon the ground where they are emptied, and only removed when

the harrows come upon them, and not unfrequently tear them , and they are then cast away to be in the road again when the field is harrowed in another direction . The carrier should be careful not to spill the seed upon the ground on taking it out of the sack. (1759.) The sower is habited in a peculiar manner ; he puts on a sow ing-sheet. The most convenient form of sowing -sheet is that of a semi

spheroid, having an opening at one side of its mouth large enough to allow the head and right arm to pass through, and by which itis suspended over the left shoulder. On distending its mouth with both hands, and on re ceiving the seed into it, the superfluous portion of the sheet is wound over

the left arm and gathered into the left hand, by which it is held tightly, while the load of corn is securely supported by that part of it which passes over the left shoulder, across the back and under the right arm . The right arm , which throws the seed, finds easy access to the corn from the compar

atively loose side of the mouth of the sheet, between the left hand and the body of the sower. A square sheet, knotted together in three of its cor

ners, and put on in a similar manner, is sometimes used as a sowing sheet ; but one formed and sewed of the proper shape, and kept for the purpose, is a much better article. Linen sheeting makes an excellent ma terial for a sowing-sheet,and whenwashed at the end of the sowing season will last many years. The difficult point is to make the sowing-sheet fit the sower on the top of the left shoulder, where the greater part of the weight of corn is felt ; and, in attempting this, the principal thing to be considered is to make the plain part which goes over the shoulder broad

enough, and to slope with the shape of the shoulder. The gatherings of the cloth on each side of the shoulder-top should be neatly executed, and a

couple oftapes drawn tight in a slot-hem in front ofthe sheet across the breast. ( 1760.) A basket of wicker work, such as in fig . 321, is very commonly used in Eng land for sowing seed. It is sus pended by girthing, fastened to

Fig. 321.

the two loops shown on the rim

of the basket, and passed either over the left shoulder and under

the right arm, or round the back of the neck ; and the left hand

holds it steady by the head of the wooden stave shown on the other side of the basket.* No doubt such an instrument an

swers the purpose of the sower,

THE ENGLISH SOWING BASKET .

or it would not have been so

long in use ; but, for my part, I much prefer the comfortable feel of the linen sheet to the hard rubbing of the willow basket. (* Wilkinson says thehandle ought to be at the bottom instead of top, projecting forward. Ed . Farm . Lib .]

(225) .

9

130

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

(1761.) Both these forms of utensils for sowing seed are intended for the use of one hand only ; but some sowers throw the seed with both hands, and then the instrument must be made to suit the practice. In this case a linen sheet will not answer ; a basket or box, made of thin

deal, having a curved form to suit the front of the body, should be used

It is fastened round the body by a strap and buckle, and is suspended be sides by girthing fastened to loops on the side next the sower, and passed round the back of his neck ; and the further side is suspended by a strap passing upward toward the chin of the sower, where it divides into two, and passes over both shoulders, and is made fast to the strap buckled round the body. A more simple form of sowing -sheet for both hands, is a

linen bag attached to a hoop of wood or iron -rod , made to suit the form of the body, buckled round it, and suspended in front in the manner just described. Both hands are thus at liberty to cast the seed. (1762.) In sowing with one hand, the sower walks on the third and fourth furrow -slices from the open -furrow , which he keeps on his right hand.

Taking alwaysas much seed as he can grasp in his right hand, he stretches his arm out and back, with the clenched fingers looking forward , while the left foot is making an advance of a moderate step, as represented by a, fig. 322. When the arm has attained this position, the seed is begun to Fig . 322.

THE SOWING OF CORN BY HAND

be cast, which is done with a quick and forcible thrust of the hand for

ward . At the first instant of the forward motion, the fore- finger and thumb are a little relaxed, by which some of the seed drops upon the furrow

brow and in the open furrow , and while relaxing the fingers gradually, the back of the hand is turning upward till the arm is stretched forward, when the fingers are all thrown open, with the back of the hand upper most. The forward motion of the hand is accompanied by a correspond

ing forward advance of the right foot, * which is planted on the ground the moment thehand has cast forwardthe most of the seed . This posi tion is attempted to be represented by the figure at b. The figure which the seed describes on the ground, in being thus cast forward, issomething like the area of a section of the extremeend of the larger axis of a very eccentric ellipse, having one corner of the section at the open furrow , and [* Mr. Wilkinson, of Dutchess County, says this is unnatural; that it should be the left foot in concert with the right hand.

(226)

Ed. Farm . Lib .)

SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS - SEEDS .

131

the other stretching 2 or 3 feet beyond the crown of the ridge, and its broadest part spread over that side of the ridge on which the sower walks ;

this figure isattempted to be shown by b cd. The moment the seed is got quit of, the hand is brought back to the sowing -sheet and, thence re plenished, is stretched back for a fresh cast, while the left foot is made to

advance simultaneously. Thus the right hand and right foot play into each other with a regular simultaneous motion, while the same hand and the left foot play with an alternate motion.

(1763.) Many points require consideration to enable the sower to cast the seed equally over the ground . If the hand and feet do not correspond in their motions, the ground will not be equally covered, but a strip be tween the casts left almost bare. When the braird comes up, the omis

sion shows itself like the steps ofa ladder, and hence it is named, in some parts of the country, laddering, in others, happergain', as if the seed had

been cast in hopping. This error is most apt to be committed by a sower with a stiff elb The arm should always be thrown well back and com pletely stretched out, though in continuing this action it will become pain ful in the inner fold of the elbow -joint. If the hand is opened too soon, a

larger portion of the seed than necessary will fall uponthe furrow -brow, and the crown will receive less than its proportion. This fault young sowers are very apt to commit, from the apprehension that they will retain the seed too long in the hand. If the hand is brought too high in front, the seed will be apt to be acted on by the wind, andtossed to a different direction to that intended by the hand. High casting is a very common

error with sowers, and is an unsafe practice in windy weather. In strong wind the sower is sometimes obliged to walk on the adjoining ridge to the

windward, to sow the one he wishes ; and a sower who casts high will never make good work in such a case. In casting high, the hand is sure to be elevated above the level of the elbow, whereas it should always be below it. The hand should be kept low, the arm stretched out, and the seed made to fly in a curve in front, by a sharp turn of the hand, and a free

opening of the fingers near the end of the action, the nearest edge of the cast falling within two paces of the sower.

Seed when so cast will be

little affected by even a strong wind. Some sowers take long steps , and fill their hand with the seed as if in a shovel, and of course make long

casts, reaching across the ridge from open furrow to open furrow. Such a so

wer will spill the seed behind the hand, and make bad work in wind.

The step should be short, the casts frequent, and the seed heldfirmly in

the hand, when a complete command of the whole work will be ob tained .

(1764.) A sower with both hands must make high casts, otherwise the seed will not reach the furrows as he walks along the crown of the ridge, which he must do. I can see no advantage attending this mode of sow

ing over the other, but, on the contrary, a considerable risk of scattering the seed unequally, for however dexterous an ambidexter sower may be come, his left arm will not make so perfect a cast as his right, if he is a right-handed person . In calm weather he mayget on tolerably well , as also with the wind direct in his face or in his back ; but a side -wind would

puzzle him, for while adjusting himself to it for one of the hands, the

other is immediately placed in a disadvantageous position . In short , he should not sow with both hands in wind . An Irish sower usually makes

a step , stands still, and scatters one handfull of seed with two short and one long cast of the arm .

This is slow work .

( 1765.) A single-handed sower makes a bout to sow a ridge. When

the ridge is single, fig. 133, he always keeps the open furrow on his right (227)

1

132

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

hand ; when it is double, that is, cast together, fig. 135, he must go a bout round the crown, as well as by the open furrows; and where the land is plowed two-out-and -two-in, fig. 138, a mark of some sort will be required to keep him in the proper place between the crown and open furrows. ( 1766.) It is obvious that in sowing with the hand the corn is scattered

promiscuously, and, in whatever arrangement it may come up, depends on the form of the ground, whether it had been plowed in common fur rows or in ribs ; for, in the latter case, the corn comes up in rows or drills, the corn having fallen into the hollows of the ribs when sown ; and in the former, broadcast, that is, equally over the surface of the ground.

(1767.) The harrows follow the sowers, each sower keeping 2 pair of harrows employed when the land receives a double tine, that is, backward and forward on the same ground, which a breaking in of the seed should always be. To draw harrows as they should be drawn is not so light a work for horses as in appearance it is ; and, indeed , when the tines are new sharp

ened and long, and take a deep hold on the ground, the labor is consid erable. To harrow the ground well, that is, to stir the soil over the seed , and bring to the surface and pulverize all the larger clods, requires the

horses to go at a smart pace ; and, indeed, harrows should always be em ployed with a quick motion. If the men owe the steward a grudge for his sharp discipline, spring -wheat sowing is a favorable time to take advantage of him, when theland is naturallyfriable and easily pulverized, and the horses are quite fresh , and when, on the other hand, the lime of the pickle

annoys the sower's face, and the land is rather soft for quick walking. If they keep the harrows hard at his heels, for very shame he must sow hard

to keep out before them ; and if he is a slow sower, he must get a good heating. I never see a man sowing with his coat on below the sowing

sheet, than a wish arises to see the harrows close at his heels to punish ( 1768.) After the appointed piece of ground, whether a whole field or

him for the lazy -looking trick.

part of one, has been sown and broken in, the land is cross-harrowed

a double tine, but as, in this, the ground is not confined within the breadths of ridges, the harrows cover as much of the ground as they can, and get over it in less time than in breaking in ; and, besides, the second

harrowingbeing easier for the horses, they can walk faster. (1769.) In regard to harrowing ribbed land, a double tine of breaking in is all that it receives to place it in the same position as the common mode of seed -furrowing is placed after the cross-harrowing - ribbed land

never being cross-harrowed, as that would derange the drilled-like state of the seed , and bring a large proportion of it again to the surface. (1770.) To judge of the harrowing of land, the sense of feeling is re

quired as well as that of sight. When well done, the friable portion of the soil seems uniformly smooth, and any clods that are seen should lie

free upon the surface. The ground, too, should feel uniformly soft under foot. When the land is not enough harrowed, the surface appears rough ,

and the clods are still half immersed in the soil, and the ground feels une qually soft under foot, in some parts resisting pressure , in others giving way too easily . (1771.) The well harrowing of land is a point of more importance than seems generally to be imagined. Its object is not merely to cover the seed, but to pulverize the ground, and render it of a uniform texture , Uniformity of texture keeps the soil in a more equal state of temperature ,

not absorbing rain so fast, nor admitting drouth so easily, as when the soil is rough and the clods keeping it open. Whenever the texture is made

uniform , the harrowing shouldcease, for it is a fact, especially in light, (228)

SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS - SEEDS .

133

soft soils, that more harrowing than necessary brings part of the seed up again to the surface.

(1772.) Spring wheat following a green crop is always sown down with grass-seeds, and the land is in a fit state to receive them when it is in the

above condition of its harrowing ; but as grass-seeds are also sown at this time among

the wheat that was sown in autumn, it is requisite to consider,

in the first place, the state of that crop before proceeding to sow them among the spring wheat, especially when both kinds of crop are in the

samefield. The state of the winter wheat depends entirely on the sort of weather it had to encounter in winter and earlyspring. If the winter has been open and mild, the autumn wheat plant willhave grown luxuriantly, indeed so much so that it may have become proud, that is, in a precocious state of forwardness for the season. When it is in this state in spring, which is rarely the case in Scotland, though not unfrequent in England,

a heavy fall of snow in spring, that happens to lie for some weeks, will rot a great many of the plants ; and, instead of the rest retaining their green color under the snow , they will become blanched at the roots, pressed flat to the ground, and will probably never rise again. Blanks willin conse

quence be formed where this catastrophe has happened ; but unless these be of large extent, or the season be far advanced before the wheat has

been liberated from its snowy covering, the plants will tiller out with new runners from the roots of the surviving old plants, and occupy the blank spaces. When snow falls upon wheat in the early part of winter, and covers it for a considerable time, it protects the crop from injury from the atmosphere, and prevents the earth from cooling below 400 Fahr. In

this position the young plant retains its healthy green color, though it it does not grow much ; and whenever it is relieved from the snow,

grows

rapidly, unless it happen to encounter black frost, which changes its greenness into a brown, and may kill some of the plants ; but should there be no black frost, there is no state of the young wheat plant in spring in which it tillers so closely, and afterward grows so equally, as after emerging in favorable circumstances from snow. The most trying time, however, for winter wheat is in March , when sharp frosts frequently occur at night, and bright sunshine in the day. The frost draws the moisture of the

ground to the surface,and there freezes it; when the sun shines upon the ice it melts, and most frequently very rapidly, and the consequent evapora

tion produces such an intense degree of cold as even to kill the plants sud denly; and if they escape destruction in this way, the damp ground that had been raised up by means of the expanded condition of the ice sud denly contracts by its melting, leaving the plants with their roots half drawn out of the earth, in which state many perish. It mustbe owned,

however, that this particular effect is most commonly produced on loamy soils which rest on impervious clay subsoil and not on a dry subsoil, so

may be reasonably expected to prevent this injury. Con that draining rains

tinued

upon winter

wheat make it change its color to a bluish hue,

and if the air is temperate the plant becomes tender, and at length sets up

with red -pointed leaves, as if it would grow no more.

Continued drouth

in spring, on the other hand, makes winter wheat of a vivid green , espe

cially in fresh weather ; but should it becold and inclined to frost, the points of the leaves become brown, which latter effect is invariably in duced by the cold east winds so prevalent in spring in this country. Drouth and heat combined always promote the vigor of the wheat plant.

(1773.) Although I have said that double harrowing across prepares the land on which spring wheat has been sown for grass-seeds, it should not be imagined these are sown whenever wheat-seed is sown, because the lat (229)

134

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

ter may be sown at any time during winter or early spring that the state of the weather and soil will allow ; but when spring wheat is sown at the

latest period of the season, then grass-seeds may not only be sown among this, būt among all the spring wheat that had been previously sown : and at the same time among the winter wheat,if the land that has stood all

winter is dry enough to bear harrowing at the time. Frost injures clover seeds, and will even kill them when exposed to it, so that they cannot safely be sown very early in the season; but there is not much risk of

frost being so powerful in March as to injure seed that is harrowed in. Many farmers used to sow grass-seeds without harrowing, trusting to so small seeds finding their way into the soil among the clods, and of being covered by their mouldering, and this practice is, I believe, not yet relin

quished ; but the safer and more correct practice is to cover every kind of seed when it is sown by harrowing. It may happen that in the same field

in which the latest spring wheat has been sown, may be found some that had been sown at a former period, and even winter wheat may occupy another part of it. When this is the case, and especially if thelast sown completes the cropping of the field, then the grass-seeds should be sown over the whole field at one time, beginning with that part which has just been sown, continuing it over that which was the next last, and finishing upon the

winter wheat ; because it is desirable first to finish the land that

has been most recently worked, in case theweather should change, and prevent the finishing of the whole field. Should barley, however, have still to be sown on that field, it will be better to defer the sowing of the

grass -seeds upon the wheat until the whole field is sown at one time ; and in this case the new -sown spring wheat can be water-furrowed and put past danger for the time. If thewinter wheat in the same field is, on the other hand, far advanced, and the weather still favorable to its growth, the grass-seeds should be sown among it, for, if delayed too long among strong plants, part of the seed may not find its way to the soil, and the subse

quent harrowing may injure the progress of the already forward plant. In such a case the spring wheat should be sown with the grass-seeds at the same time, and the barley -land can be sown by itself, when the barley seed is finishing .

( 1774.) The grass-sowing machine is a most perfect instrument for the sowing of grass-seeds, distributing the seeds withthe utmost precision, and to any amount, and scattering them so near theground as to render their sowing a matter independent of windy weather. This machine will be found

in Plate XXVI., fig . 316 ,and a detailed description of it by Mr. Slight will be found below . Its management is easy, when the ground is plowed in individual ridges ; the horse which draws it walking in the open furrow , as in a, fig. 133, and the machine reachingin length to the crown of the

ridge on each side, to b and b, sows the width of a ridge at once, the length of the machine being made to suit the breadth of the ridges adopted on the farm . The gearing is put out of action till the horse enters the open fur row from the head-ridge, when it is put on and it is again taken off when the machine reaches the opposite head -ridge. Theseed is supplied at one of the head -ridges, and the head -ridges are sown by themselves. When ridges are coupled together, the horse walks down in the middle between

the crown and the open furrow , taking the furrow -brow as a guide for the

line he shouldkeep . Where ridges are plowed in breaks, as two-out-and two-in , fig. 138, it is necessary to use some marks on the spaces of the ridges between the crown and open furrows, to guide the line of the ma chine. The driver ought to be provided with double -reins. Were this machine to proceed onward, sowing without interruption for 10 hours at ( 230)

BOOK OF THE FARM .

HORSE WHEEL .

PLATE XXIII.

Fig. 331

052 021

Fig. 333 1280 1 2

6

6

7 8 9 go

Fig. 335b . C

Fiy 333

Dovos

Soveedo z

2

o c

a m

m

U

BROADCAST SOWING MACHINE .

BOOK OF THE FARM .

Fiy 374

Fig 373

h

in

Fig 375

UC

3

6'

20

t

so

os

SO

os

dat

S

il

Fig 376 74

Fig 372

saviy 10

Pews

k 7

Bons c

7

3 in

P

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Page

Le

I

PLATE XXVI .

SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND

GRASS - SEEDS .

135

the rate of 21 miles per hour, it would sow 54 acres of ground ; but, of

course, the turnings of the landings, and the time spentin filling the ma chine occasionally with seed, cause a considerable deduction from that quantity. The machine is also used to sow corn in broadcast, and it an swers the purpose very well, but not perhaps in so superior a manner to the hand as it does the grass -seeds, nor is it so generally employed to sow corn as grass -seeds, but for what reason I cannot say .

There was a reason

for this before the introduction of the third or front wheel, the weight of

the box when full of corn being too heavy for the horse's back, especially I cannot refrain from pointing out the superior con struction of this machine, as represented in Plate XXVI., in putting it in in going down hill.

the power of the person

who drives it to contract its length , so as to admit

the machine easily into a field -gate, and thereby to dispense with removing it, at any time, from its carriage.

(1775.) After the grass-seeds are sown , the ground is harrowed to cover them in ; and for this purpose lighter harrows are used than those for or dinary harrowing ; and being light, are not unfrequently provided with wings, to cover a whole ridge at a time, so that in following the sowing

machine , the process connected with the grass-seed sowing may be finish ed at once .

There is some dexterity required in driving winged grass

seed harrows.

It is not convenient to move them from one ridge to an

other immediately adjoining, as a part of the implement will have to turn almost upon a pivot; in doing which, unless conducted with great care injury is apt to be done to it. And, besides, it is a particularly awkward movement to hup the horses with these harrows. The plan to avoid the inconvenience alludedto, is to hie the horses at the end of all the landings,

and leave an intermediate unharrowed ridge at every turning, which will he greatly facilitated if the plowman lifts up the near wing from the ground with a hookedstick when the turning is to commence, and lets it drop down again when it is finished.

( 1776.) The land may be rolled or not, according to circumstances, be fore the grass-seeds are sown . If it is dry, even strong land would be the better, at this season, to be rolled, to reduce the clods before they become very hard, and to form a kindlier bed for the small seeds. Should it, how

ever, be in a waxy state, between the wet and the dry, the rolling had better be deferred until afterward . When it is in a proper state for rolling at the time of sowing the grass-seeds, it should be rolled before the sowing, and, of course, before the harrowing of the grass -seeds ; because, were the land left with the smooth rolled surface, and rain come after, and this succeed

ed by drouth , which is not an unfrequent state of the weather at this sea son, the smooth ground would become so battered and hardened as to curb

the wheat braid considerably ; whereas, were it rolled before it was sown, and then harrowed, the harrowing would again raise a small, round clod, which wouldprevent the battering by rain, and consequent incrustation of

the land, while the smooth ground would offer a fine surface for the small grass-seeds to spread themselves upon. On lighter soils, such as hazel loams and turnip soils, it is better not to roll until the land has been sown and harrowed, because the smooth rolled surface assists in repelling the drouth for a considerable time, and rain cannot injure such a soil in any way .

(1777.) The roller is represented below, where it is particularly described by Mr. Slight in its principles and action. It is most conveniently formed of cast-iron, and in two pieces, and mounted with shafts and framing. The cast-iron gives weight, which a roller should always have, and being in two pieces, gives a facility to turn on little space. In driving it, the plowman (231)

136

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

may sit on the front of the framing, if he wishes, and urge the horses with whip and reins. The framing sometimes supports a box, into which stones are placed to render the roller heavier, and this device may be necessary when reducing hard clods ofclay, in summer. Whether used for this pur

pose ornot, the box is usefulin carrying any stones that may be found on the land to either side of the field .

It has often seemed to me ridiculous

to see a small stone-roller, or one lightly constructed of wood, used to crush

clods on new plowed heavy land. Instead of breaking them , a light roller only presses them into the softer soil upon which they are lying. The roll er isfound to do its work in the best manner when drawn across the

ridges, at right angles to the open furrows, which are thus easilypassed over. ( 1778.) The finishing process consists of water-furrowing, that is, making a plow -furrow in the open furrows, for the purpose of affording facilities to rain -water to flow off the surface of the land.

It is executed with a

common plow and one horse, or with a small double mould-board plow and one horse ; and in the execution, the plow obliterates the horse's foot marks. When the land is harrowed after the rolling, as in the case of heavy

land, the water-furrowing is done after the harrowing, and finishes the work of the field ; but when rolling is the finishing operation, as in the case of light soils, the water-furrowing is executed immediately after the

harrowing and beforethe rolling; Water-furrowing after rolling gives a very harsh - looking finish to a field .

(1779.) The presser-roller, used to give consistency to light soils, is seen below , where Mr. Slight's description of it will be found. Like the best of

our agricultural implements, itis of English origin, where it has long been employed to compress light soils. It is used in this manner in compressing the soil. Driven by one horse, it follows the last of 2 plows, after they have laid over their furrow -slices; and on passing along these furrow -slices, not only compresses theminto less bulk , butleaves a groove on each of them to receive the seed when the land is sown. With 1 presser, 2 acres of ground

can only thus be compressed in the course of a day ; and, where a consid erable extent of spring wheat may be sown , this rate of sowing would be too slow . Either the number of pressers should be increased, or a consider able extent of land be pressed before it is sown; for it would be tiresome work to sow only 2 acres a day of a large field, which might require a fort

night of2 plowsto plow . Perhaps the most convenient plan formost farm ers would be to have 2 pressers in operation,and sow the ground compressed

every two days, that is, 8 acres, which would be a large enough sowing of spring-wheat in one day upon a farm that worked 4 pair of horses ; and

this plan may be followed, with perfect safety to the wheat crop, for a double tine along of the harrows is quite sufficient to cover pressed spring

wheat; and, indeed, it should receive no more, unless perhaps a single tine along, in case the surface is considered not sufficiently fine, for cross harrowing would discompose the seed that had fallen in rows into the grooves made by the pressers. Another plan is to plow and press the lea.

early in winter,allowit to consolidate still more, and then sow an entire field with wheat in spring, if the weather be favorable, and if not, itwill be ready for oats. This, I conceive, would be an excellent plan to follow

on light soils,that are in a rich enough state for spring wheat. (1780.) This same instrument may be beneficially employed in com

pressing light turnip-land as it is plowed into ridges, and rendering it more fit for spring wheat; and in effecting this purpose it is employed in the same manner as on lea.

(1781.) But the presser may be employed on even strong lea, and the crop ofwheat consequent thereon increased to a sensible degree, as the (232)

137

SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS -SEEDS .

following case will testify : “ A very striking instance of the utility of this machine," says Mr. Hugh Watson, a gentleman whose name is well known in this country as an eminent farmer, “ was exhibited on a field belonging to my friend Captain Barclay Allardyce of Ury, who last season (1832 ) broke up a piece of grass land near his mansion -house, supposed to have lain out about one hundred years. It was a strong soil , and required 4 horses to

work the plow, and it was followed by the presser, leaving the work in such a finished state that, although Captain Barclay's intention was to sow the field with oats after the preparation of a winter's exposure, he was induced to try a crop of wheat,and succeeded beyond his expectation, hav

ingreaped 50 bushels per imperial acre, while the probability is that if the “ I have used the presser, ” continues Mr.Watson, " for two seasons, and can

field had been sown in spring with oats they would all have rotted.”

with " confidence recommend it on all light soils with every sort of corn *

It would thus appear that the use of the presser is almost of gen eral application, and that the ground may be plowed a considerable time

crop .'

before it is sown, which renders it of use even on a winter furrow . Sev eral farmers in Forfar and Fife shires, I am aware, have used this instru ment for several years, but I have not learned with what success. (1782.) With regard to the varieties of wheat which you should sow in spring in preference to others, is a subject in which I feel I cannot advise with confidence.

The erroneous classification of wheat by botanists, in as

far as it affects Agriculture, into beardless or winter and bearded or spring wheat, is apt to mislead the farmer; and were he so far to rely on the opinions of botanists as to try these two distinctions of wheat in the season

said to be suitable to each , he would certainly be disappointed, for the results would probably be the very opposite anticipated. For this reason I quite agree with Mr. Lawson inwhat he has said on the subject. · Bot 66

anists,” he states,“ generally divide the common beardless and bearded wheats into two distinct species, terming the former Triticum hybernum , or winter wheat, and the latter Triticum æstivum, or summer wheat. But

the propriety of the distinction may well be questioned, more particularly as the chiefdistinguishing character between them consists in the varieties of the former being beardless, or nearly so, while the awns of the latter

are generally 2, 3 or more inches in length ; and it being an established fact that the awns or beards in grasses form by no means a permanent specific distinction, and that in many cases they do not even constitute a variety, so much does their presence or absence depend upon the effects of climate, culture, soil, &c. ... But the principal objection to the names .

commonly used is that they make no proper distinction between the two great classes - winter and spring wheats ; for instance, under Triticum hy bernum are included several of the earlier, and, without doubt, the best

sorts of spring wheat ; and under Triticum æstivum are included sev eral bearded wheats, equally hardy, and requiring as long time to arrive at maturity as our common winter sorts .” +

Colonel Le Couteur falls

into the same error when treating of the classification of wheat, by divi ding all wheats into the two distinctions of “beardless or winter wheats," and " bearded, or spring wheats.” ( 1783.) Although the subject is thus rendered by botanists and writers

on the cultivated varieties of wheat sufficiently puzzling to the farmer, yet there are a few considerations which may direct you in the choice of your spring wheat. I may premise that you cannot make a mistake in regard to a winter wheat; for however early may be the habit of the variety * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iv. Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual. 1:33;

# Le Couteur on Wheat.

138

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -- SPRING .

sown, the very circumstance of having sown it in autumn, when there is not sufficient time to mature the plant before winter will convert it

for a time into a winter variety.

The wheat plant is a true annual, but

when sown late, and the progress of its growth retarded by depression of temperature, it is converted for a time into a biennial. It is therefore

1

highly probable that as the nature of all wheats is to bring their seed to maturity in the course of one season, that any variety sown in spring would mature its seed in the course of the ensuing summer and autumn. I suppose there is no doubt of this being a fact ; nevertheless, circum stances concur to render the fact of doubtful application in this climate. A variety of wheat, for instance, that has long been cultivated in winter in the same latitude, on being sown in spring will not mature its seed that season in the same latitude, should the temperature fall below its usual average, or should it be cultivated on very inferior soil to what it has

been accustomed ; so that in practice it is not safe, in a precarious climate, to sow every variety of wheat in spring. One criterion, however, may safely

be applied to any variety of wheat in order to ascertain its character, pro vided its history is known, which is, thata wheat brought from a warmer to a colder climate will prove earlier in the latter locality than the native

varieties, and, in so far, is better suited for sowing in spring in that latitude than the native varieties, and if you can ascertain, besides, that the same variety is an early one in the warmer latitude - bringing its seed to matu rity in a short period, perhaps not exceeding 4 months — then you may safely sow it as a spring wheat, whether it be a red.or white colored variety.

( 1784.) In my own experience of spring wheat the old Lammas red, and another old variety which I have not heard of for many years, the Cobham

red,were at one time considered excellent varieties of spring wheat. Of the Lammas red, I have seen a field of 35 imperial acres sown on the 8th March, and cut down, an excellent crop, on 26th August. This was, how ever, in the memorable year for all kinds of good crops, 1815. The variety,

I believe, exists to the presentday, and is still a favorite with may

farm

ers, and in my opinion deservedly so. (1785. ) [ The harrow, considering the operation it has to perform , in covering the seeds that have been cast upon the surface of the soil, is an implement of no small importance ; and yet its

effects are apparently rude and uncertain, while its construction is of the simplest order. So sim . ple, indeed, is this construction, that at a very remote period it appears to have taken that form which, in so far as the simple principles of the action are concerned, is almost incapable of farther improvement. Variations in size, in weight, in materials, and slight changes of form , have from time to time been proposed and effected; but yet no important change has been madein the ac.

tion of the implemeni, though among thesechanges a more uniform distribution of its effects over the surface of the soil has been attained. The only important improvement on the harrow of which we have any historical data, was achieved about fifty years ago by, I believe, the late Mr. Low , Ger

donbank, Berwickshire, father of Professor Low.of the University of Edinburgh; andthis improve ment lay chiefly in the form , but which also afforded a more uniform distribution of effect. Pre vious to the period just alluded to , the seed harrow was always constructed in the form of a rec tangular frame ofwood, consisting, as it still does,of four longitudinal bars, known, in the language of the agricultural mechanic, by the term bulls, which are framed together by mortising, with four lighter transverse bars, or slots. The dimensions of the rectangular harrows are, on an average, 3 feet 9 inches in breadth, measuring over the bulls, and 3 feet 10 inches in length over the slots.

The bulls are generally about 4 feet 6 inches of extreme length , 3 inches in breadth, and 3 to 3}

inches in depth; the slots are 3 inches in breadth , and f to 1 inch in depth . Each bull is armed with 5 tines or teeth of malleable iron, about 10 inches in length. They are fixed in the bull by being driven into an auger-hole bored through it, and project downward from 6 to 7 inches.

( 1786.) The improved form given to the harrow , as above alluded to changes the rectangle into a rhomboid, and this,when duly proportioned, gives to the implementas has been supposed,as high adegree of perfection, in pointofform , as it appears capable of attaining. Fig. 323 represents apair of the rhomboidal harrows in the working position. The frame of these harrows consists of the same number of parts asthe common sortalready alluded to. Four bullsa a a a , and four slots b bb b, the breadth of the frame over the bulls, at right angles to them , is 3 feet 6 inches ; and in the same manner, over the slots the length is the same, but the bulls extend at each end 4 inches be yond the slots, making their entire length, including the obliquity, about 4 feet 6 inches. The

dimensions of the parts vary a little, according to the quality of the materialemployed, from 24 to

3 inchesinbreadth by 3 to 34 inches in depth ,for the bull.' The slots are from 2 to 3 inches in (234)

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SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS - SEEDS .

breadth , and from to 1 inch in depth, the bulls being mortise ), and, when the slots have been inserted, are fixed with wooden pegs driven throughthe bulls. In each harrow an iron bar c c , having a number of boles punched in it, is likewise fixed into mortises in the two outer bulls on the left side, for the attachment ofthe yoke. Each bull is divided into four equal parts,

9 0

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,WREES HARROWS RHOMBOIDAL WOODEN ITH .THE -T SWING OF YOKE THEIR

the extreme division being about 1 inch clear of the mortise of the slot, and at each division the

7 6

323 .Fig

9

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0

4 o

R

bulls are bored with an auger for thereception ofthe tines, and in thus boring, a slight inclination forward below is given to the tines, though this, it must be admitted, is not of verygreat import ance. The length of the tine is about 10 inches, of which 6 or 7 inches project below the bulls ; and it has been recommended that the front row should be 7 inches, the succeeding rows dimin.

ishing graduallyto 6 inches, tocompensate for the effect of draughtof the horses tending to ele. vate the fore-parts of the harrows. This tendency to rise in front is not so great as has been sup. posed, for the weight of the swing-trees and whole yoke will nearly compensate for the effect of the angle of draught. In all cases of this kind, the yoke, consisting of chains, hooks and swing : trees, of which the latter, in the harrows-yoke , forms a portion of considerable weight, the system resolves itself into a catenarian curve , more or less perfect, of which the point c, where the yoke isattached to the harrow , will approximate to the apex of the curve, and consequently to a hori. zontal line,thereby neutralizing the tendency to rise in the front of the harrows. ( 1787.) There is one point in the improvement of this harrow thatappears to me of even more importance than the rhomboidal shape; it is the joints or hingesd d. Inthe one harrow , fig. 323, the

tail of the double joints of the hinge is prolonged into a bolt d e, de, passing through all the bulls, and secured with screw -nuts at ee. The single joints are in like manner prolonged into the bolts fg,g f , thus serving to add greatly to the strength as well as to the efficiency of the harrows. The loose joints d f, d f have been found to answer their purposes much better than the well-fitted

joints originally giventothem , by their allowingof a great freedom of action,andthe double joints with a small eye at each end to fit thejoint-bolt. The eye ofthesingle jointf is about 1} or 2 in. à d are therefore now usually made asin the figure, the span of the bow d beingabout 6 inches, ches diameter, having thus great freedom to play upon the joint-bolt.

(1788.) Fromthe figure of the rhomboidal harrow , when duly constructed, it can only perform itsmaximum of effectwhen drawn forward with its slots at right angles to the direction of its mo (235)

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

tion, and this is effected by the master swing -tree h. This tree, for harrows of the dimensions here described , requires to be 4 feet 8 inches in length between the points of attachment, and it is con nected to the harrows by means of the S hooks and shackles at c c.

The balance of draught of

the harrows is adjusted by shifting the shackles into the different holes of the bars c c, until the harrows are found to lie at right angles to the draught when in motion ; and this, be it observed, is not attained by having an equal number of tines or each side of the centerof the swing -tree h, for there is found to be agreater resistance to the forward motion of the implement on the left than there is upon the right side,arising, it is supposed, from the tines presenting a broader surface to resistance on that side than on the other. The other parts of the yoke i, k, l, are the common plow swing -trees. (1789.) The objects to be attained on the construction of the rhomboidal harrow are chieflyuni formity and equal distribution of effect from the tines, andtocover the greatest breadth of surface, with such effects. In these respects, it has been supposed that the rhomboidal affords advantages over the rectangular form , but such advantages seem to fall only within certain limits ; for the rec tangular harrow , if due attention is paid to its construction andposition of yoking, and ifmounted with the hinge-joints, will perform all the functions ascribed to the rhomboidal harrow with equal effect . Though the rectangular form presents no advantage in point of expense , there would be this advantage in construction, that, by keeping simply to one dimension of breadth, no mistake could occur with the maker to mar the attainment of the objects in view ; whereas we find rhom boidal harrows made at all angles of obliquity, though the length and breadth may be the same in all ; and such being the case, many of them must be defective in some, if not in all the points sought for. Toexhibit this more clearly, and to render the basis of construction of thissimple im plement practically intelligible, let us suppose that a pair of harrows carrying forty tines are to be so constructed as to cover 9 feet in breadth, we shall have 39 spaces between the extreme tines, which are to form equal intervals. Draw a base -line a ' W, fig . 323 , and having set from a scale, or at full size, a distance a' b equal to 9 feet ; divide this into 39 equal parts and, from the points of division draw the dotted lines at right angles to a ' b ', the distance between the divisions

will be 2.76 inches, or say24 inches, which represents the distance at which the tines will pass through the ground. Having determined , also, the distancebetween the tines as they stand in the bulls to be 91 inches : set off, on the first dotted line 1, any distance a ' m , which last point m will be the place of the first tine. With a length of 38 inches , or 4 tine spaces as before fixed, set off from the point m a distance m n, cutting the fifth dotted line in n, which last point will be the

place of the 5th tine, or the foremost in the first bull. If a line is then drawn through the points m n, it will cut the divisions 2, 3, 4, in the points o ap, indicating the three intermediate tines of the first bull, and the line m n is the true positionof the central line of the bull, forming an angle of 73° nearly with the base-line. A line drawn through m to q, and parallel to a ' b', will deter mine the position of the first tine on each succeeding bull, where the line intersects the 6th , 11th,

16th, 21st, & c., of the dotted lines of division, and lines drawn through those last points of inter section parallel to the first line m n, will determine the central line ofall the bulls in the pair of for the slot, with a sufficientextent beyond to prevent the bursting of the wood ; this, as already sta ted, may be about 4inches, or the bulls will be about 41 feet in length . (1790.) Were it desired to have the tines so placed as to follow in the ground at equal dis

harrows. It is then only necessary to extend the length of the bull requisite to contain the mortise

tances of 24 inches instead of 24 inches, in this case the distance between the extreme tines would be 39 times 21 inches, or 8 feet 1} inches. The line a' b' , fig. 323, would now be made 8

feet 14 inches, and being divided into 39 equal parts, and the lines of division drawn as before, a repetition of the process described in (1789 ) will give the true form of the rbomb for this partico lar breadth, and so of any others ; and it should be particularly observed that in any case where the rhomb has been correctly laid down, the harrows should progress with the front row of tines at right angles to the line of direction in which they are drawn forward. Attention to this will insure the best possible effects from the harrow , and at the same time cover the greatest breadth of surface that it is capable of harrowing, to the best advantage.

(1791.) I have said that the common rectangular harrow iscapable of producing equal effects with those of the rhomboidal; and though this cannot be said of all common harrows, the con struction of such as will do this is not more difficult, while it is, perhaps, a little less expensive. The chief difference lies in the mode of applying this harrow , for, when duly constructed, it is

only necessary , in order to produce equal intervals of the tines, to yoke the harrows in such posi rhomboidal shape occupy when they are drawn in the position due to the angle of their respective

tion as will make the bulls lie upon the ridge with the same degree of obliquity that those of the rhomb. It is necessary , however, in order to secure the due performance of the rectangular har.

row , to pay attention to its construction as regards the distanee between the bulls, and the rule is simply this: Whatever breadth the pair of harrows are intended to cover, divide the whole breadth into a number of divisions, one less than the whole number of tines in the pair, and the distance from center tocenterof thebulls must be made equal to as many of these divisions as there aretines in each bull. Thus, taking the first case of the rhomboidal harrow (1789) we have 5 times 24 inches nearly, or 132 inches for the distance between the centers of the bulls, or 3 feet8 in

ches in breadth overall. To complete the arrangement, the harrowsmust be jointed as in the rhom . boidal form , and mounted with iron draught-bars, as at c. c, fig, 323, so that the point of draught can be adjusted to bring the harrows to their proper position ; and here it may be remarked that they should never be drawn by the extreme angle ; but if not hinge -jointed , the angle with the second bull, and the fore -slot, will be tolerably near to thetrue point of draught. A common and a very useful practice has long existed, of coupling two harrows together by a barof wood or iron ,called a rider. This bar falls loosely at each end upon a studprojecting apward from the second bull of each harrow , and the bar being adjusted to that length which keeps the two har. rows at their proper distance, serves to prevent them from riding over one another, and to make them cover their full extent of surface. The introduction of the rider was an evident approach to the more perfect modern improvement of the hinge-joints. (236)

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SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS - SEEDS .

141

(1792.) The extensive application of iron has of late years brought the use of that material to the formation of the harrow as well as of the plow, and iron harrows are now coming very generally into use, both in the rectangular and the rhomboidal form . Fig. 324 represents the malleable-iron rhomboidal harrow, as commonly constructed, and its dimensions are the same as already given for those of wood. The arrangement of the parts are somewhat different, and, from the nature of

the materials, the dimensions of the parts differ also more materially. Thus, the bulls

aaa are

$ inch in breadth and 1 inch in depth, swelled out where the mortises for the slots are formed, and also for the tines, their ends projecting only 2 inches beyond the slot. The slots b b b are 2 inches Fig. 324.

с

0.000

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0

1

2

THE IRON RHOMBOIDAL HARROWS, WITH THEIR YOKE OF SWING - TREES .

in breadth. inch in depth, and there being only three of them , themiddle one is so placed as to be free of the middle row of tines ; while the end slots are elongated toward the meeting sides of the pair, andare there formed into the hinge-joints d d, as formerly described for the wooden har rows. The draught-bars cc are inserted in the projecting ends of the first and second bulls, and retained in round pivot-holes ; the swing-trees h i k l are the same as described for the wooden harrows. The construction ofthe ironharrow is so similar tothe others that it is unnecessary to

enter into farther details regarding it ; but it may be remarked that, from the almost imperishable nature of the materials, as compared with wood, there seems every reason to expect the iron im.

plementwill entirely supersede the wooden ; and though the price of the iron harrows is consid erablyabovethat ofwood, the additional first cost is more than repaid by the greater durability of the iron. There is good reason also to believe that by a construction more adapted than the present to the nature of the material, the price may yet be considerably reduced. (1793.) The form ofthe tines of the harrow , as regards their effects in stirring the soil and cov. ering the seed, isdeserving of inquiry. In the wooden implement, we are, from the nature of the

material, confined to one form of tine; that which hasfor its horizontal section an oblong square; the tines in these cases being inch broad by inch thick, must, for the safety of the wood, have the greatest dimension lying in the direction of the fibres of the wood. Another and a better form , for the purpose of stirring the soil, is that which has its cross-section forming an exact square of inch on each side, and inserted in the bull with its diagonal pointing in the direction of the progressive motion . This form and position of the tine, however well adapted to the soil, cannot, with propriety or safety to the implement, be used in the wooden barrow , from the powerful ten . dency it has to split the wood. In the iron implement this difficulty does not exist ; and as this form of tine is in every respect best adapted to the intended purpose, it should never be omitted in the iron harrow . Whatever be the cross-section of the tine, in that part which passes through the ball, the projecting part is tapered toward the point, not uniformly, but a little barreled, and terminates inan obtuse point. In all wooden harrows the tines are simply driven firmly into the (237)

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

wood after it has been bored. In most iron harrows they are fixed in the same manner ; but as the tines are sometimes liable to become loose , when simply inserted and driven down by the hammer, they are , when a more perfect construction is followed, fixed by being driven from be. low, and secured by a screw -nut above.

(1794.) Grass-seed Harrows, or those that are employed for giving a light coveringto grass seeds when sown, differ from the common harrow in no respect except in dimensionsand weight. They have generally the same number of tines, bulls and slots. The breadth over all is about 3 feet, or from thatdown to 33 inches, and the distance between the tines about 7 inches, giving a length of bull 31 feet, and the tines vary from 5 to 6 inches in length . Harrows of this descrip

tion are frequently used by English farmers to give the last turn of harrowing in grain, and a fine Grass- seed harrows are made of iron as well as of wood, but withal it is not held as an essential implement, the common harrows being more frequently used for the purpose to which the grass -seed harrowis more especially and almost exclusively adapted. (1795.) Various other forms of harrows are adapted for special purposes, such as the bush-har. row, which is a frame of wood interwoven with the smaller branches or croppings oftrees, and finish to the surface .

in this manner employed instead of the grass-seed harrow described above, and it isalso employed for harrowing in top -dressing upon grass .

(1796.) The Iron -web Harrow is a late invention by the ingenious and indefatigable Mr. Smith, late of Deanston, for the same purpose. It is formed of an assemblage of annular disks of cast. iron, of the size and shape of the common playing -quoit ; and these are interwoven with iron wire of about 4 inch diameter, in a certain regular form ,until the whole formsa flexible web, in

which the disks have liberty to play and roll about within small limits. The web may be a yards in length by 1 in breadth, and is simply dragged over the ground, when it is said to give the sur face a finish superior to anything hitherto proposed or introduced. ( 1797.) The Brake-harrow isonly an enlargementof the common implement, wherein every part is increasedin size and weightfor the purpose of breaking down and pulverizing rough and stubborn land. Brakes are made of various forms, such as rectangular, rhomboidal, and triangu lar ; and every form has its advocates, the preference being given frequently to that which acci dent had thrown in the way of the experimenter; and without taking measures to compare its effects with those of other forms, the implement is marked as the most perfect of its kind. There appears no good reason for concluding that any one of the above forms is better than another, provided proper weight is put in the implement,and the tines of proper length and number, and disposed in a manner that, with a duly applied draught, will make an equal distribution of its pul. verizing effects over the surface which it covers. The extended application of draining, and the increasing employment ofthegrubber, which I shall shortly have to notice, appear in some meas ure to be superseding the brake-harrow .

(1798.) The Broadcast. Sowing -machine has now come into pretty general use, especially in nearly superseding the process of hand -sowing. It not only sows all the white grains, wheat,

those districts where the arable system is under the best management, and on large farms is

barley, oats, when sown broadcast, in a very uniform manner, and with any desired allowance per acre ; but it serves in a superior nanner for grass-seeds, inpoint of distribution, and, in the case of windy weather, is greatly superior to hand-sowing . This last advantage ariseschiefly from the low position of thedischarging orifices, as compared with the hight of thehand in sow

ing ; but partly also from the more direct discharge of the seed fromthe machine ; its velocity of discharge, likewise, and the distance it has to fall, being always uniform . The nice gradation of the discharge is one of its chief qualifications, for it may be adjusted to sow any required quan tity per acre,between the lowest and the highest, that may be judged expedient, and in all cases, from the uniformity of the distribution, a considerable saving in seed may be effected .

( 1799.) I have on previous occasions had to notice the rather curious facts of the introduction of certain practices from England into the Scottish system of farming. Such practices have remained either stationary in the former country, or have been but partially extended, whereas the practices thus borrowed by the latter have been improved on and widely extended. The machine now under consideration is another example of this ; for though it appears to have been originally brought into Scotland from Yorkshire, I believe it is even now but sparingly used in

England, while here it is in extensive use in the best arable districts, and still rapidly extending: In the course of someinquiries as to the period when thismachine was first adopted in Scotland, have been enabled, through the kindness of Mr. Scouler, Haddington, to fix the time of its introduc tion to the year 1817, andthefirst machine somade appears to have been by Mr. Robert Lowrie, Edington, who makes the following statement: “ The first broadcast sowing-machine that came into this county (Berwickshire) was ordered by myself from England from Mr. Short of Chiver. ton by Hackhill; it was a smart thing, wheeled by a man , and was about 8 feet long ; it is stillin the possession of Mr. Wilson of Edington Mains . I got that machine in 1816 , and in the follow . ing year I made one from it for Mr. Wright, late tenant in Prenderguest, which was 15 feet long, and was drawn by one horse . So faras I know, this was the first sowing-machine made in Scot land ; and after ithad sown Mr. Wright's crop of that season, I exhibited the machine at the Ag. ricultural Showsof Coldstream and Kelso, and received premiums for it at both places ; this was in 1817 ; and in the following year I made one of the same dimensions for Mr. Wilson's father, the late Mr. Abraham Wilson .” From Berwickshire the machine made its way immediately into East-Lothian , where the manufacture of it was taken up by the late Mr.Adam Scouler after the machines of Mr. Lowrie above referred to , and has been successfully carried on by his suc

cessors, Messrs. Scouler and Company of Haddington . The machine here referred to as having been brought from Chiverton, is the same as are yet to be found in the northern and eastern coun

ties, and used chiefly for sowing grass-seeds ; its application to the sowing ofgrain having made little progress, or it may rather be consideredas having been supersededby the drill system of sowing, so much practiced in these counties of England. (1800.) In the early application of the broadcast machine, it was mounted on two wheels : but a

few years' experience pointed out the advantages of a third wheel, which was applied to it by (238)

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SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS-SEEDS.

143

Messrs. Scouler about the year 1830, the third wheel being applied as a swivel or fore -carriage. The carriage is still subject to considerable variety of construction, but these varieties are not of a nature to alter its general character. A carriage of a nearly triangular form is very generally adopted, the apex being in front over the swivel-bar. A rectangular carriage is also very much employed, and this is the most workmanlike construction, though perhaps not the cheapest, but

it iswithal the most convenient and useful form . As regards the general construction, an import ant improvement has been introduced within the last six years , this is the cutting of the seed. chest into sections. The chest is usually made 18 feet long, which being far beyond the width of

any field -gate, produced a necessity for changing the position of the chest when passing through a gateway. Itwas therefore the practice to lift the chest from its working position parallel to the axle of the machine,and deposit it parallel to the borse-shafts until it had passed through the gate. This was clearly both imperfect and inconvenient, and these defects gave rise to the cutting into sections, the middle part being 9 feet, and the extremes each 41 feet, so that when the latter are folded up, the extreme length of chest is 9 feet.

(1801. The illustrations of this machine which I have here given in Plate XXVI. are taken from those manufactured by James Slight and Co., Edinburgh, and they exhibit the machine in its most complete state, embracing the chest in sections, with the mode of supporting the same; this last improvement having, it is believed , been first introduced by the above-named house. In

Plate XXVI., fig. 316, is a view in perspective of the entire machine, as it appears when in work, and fig. 317 a section, on a scale of } inch to a foot, taking the chest transversely through its center, the carriage being cat in the same line, or parallel to the horse-shafts. In these two figures the same letters mark corresponding parts. The carriage is marked a b a, fig. 316, and is a frame of hard wood. the bars ofwhich are from4 to 5 inches in depth, and 21 inches in thickness; the dimensions of the frame being 7 feet in breadth over all, and 4 feet in length over the rails, of which there are three , as seen at b b. The hind wheels c c are 34 inches in hight, generally

formed with cast-iron naves, wooden spokes and felloes ; or, as in the figure, the felloes are super seded by a simple hoop of malleable iron 24inches by jinch, which, for light carriages of this description that never travel on hard roads, is found sufficiently serviceable. The axle of these wheels is 14 inches diameter, seen at d, in fig. 317, and is in two lengths supported in pillow

blocks bolted to the lower edge of the bars a a a of the frame, and meeting in the middle bearing. The nigh -side wheel is fixed dead upon the axle, carrying the axle round with it to give motion to the pitch -chain d e of fig . 317, and which is seen also at a, in fig. 316, where it is seen as en tering the chest. The off-side wheel may in this case be also fixed dead upon the other half of the

axle, or it may run loose. But the axle may also be made in one piece, the off-side wheel being left loose, which is necessary for the convenience of turning round, this wheelbeing disengaged from turning with the other. The front wheel f, fig. 317, and seen also partially infig. 316, is 24 inches diameter, usually of cast- iron, and is supported on the cast-iron sheers which are 4 inches wide between the arms, and terminates upward in the lower half of the swivel-plate h, and this,

again, is furnished with a strong pivot, passing upward through the head i of the cast-iron fore beam i k . The head of the fore-beam is formed into a swivel-plate corresponding to that of the sheers g. and is bolted to the two foremost bars b b of the carriage. Two small pillars l arecast upon projectingears of the swivel-plate of the sheers g, and bolts passing through these pillars and the splinter -bar m, bind these parts firmly together, producing an effective swivel-carriage.

The horse-shafts n n, broken off in fig. 317, are attached to the splinter-bar m by means of a long draft-bolt passing through the ends of the shafts, and through eyes fixedin the splinter-bar.

( 1802.) The seed -chest o o is 18 ieet in length, formed of z -inch deal. The breadth of the bottom board is 64 inches, projecting on one side 24 inches,forming an apron, on which the seed fallsfrom the orifices. The sides of the chest are 104 inches in depth , and the cover 14 inches in breadth , 9

inches of which form a hinged flap, as seen in the figure. The chest is bound together upon ends and partitions of hard -wood 14 inches thick ; when in sections as here described, each section has

two such ends, and the middle section has :wo partitions in the middle, set at 2} inches apart. When the chest is in one length, two ends and the two middle partitions only are required. The joints or hinges of the sections are formed of the iron straps P p, two of which are securely riveted

on each side of the chest, having eyes formed at the apex 99, and through these eyes a small boll, q, passes from side to side ,which completes the hinge ; and by withdrawing the bolt the parts of the chest are at once disengaged. For the better connection of the segments, however, when the machine is in action, the contiguous ends are held in contact by a bolt and nut, as seen at d' in fig. 318, which, together with fig. 319, are on a scale of 1 inch to a foot. The two extreme

segments, also ,are supported by the light tension chain i' 1' 2' 3", which passes over the two upright iron stanchions, k k the tops of which, i'i ' form the suspending fulcra for the chain, while its extremities are secured at the points i 'ill with adjusting nuts.

(1803. ) The sowing -geer of the machine consists of the following parts: The main axle of the carriage is mounted with a pitch chain -wheel 4 inches diameter, placed upon the axle close to the

middle bar a of fig: 316, and seen in full at d e , fig. 317 ; a corresponding wheel r is placed upon a short axle within the seed -chest, and between the two middle partitions of the chest. In this way motion is communicated from the carriage-wheels c, and their axle, to the axle of the small wheel r , fig. 317 .

A light shaft, 1 inch square,is coupled to the ends ofthe axle of the wheel r, extend

ing to each end of the chest ; when the chest is entire, each of these shafts is also entire ; but in the present case each shaft is in two pieces, coupled at the junction of the segments of the

cliest by means of small clutchcouplings attached to the ends of the shaft, and these engage or dis engage of themselves when the segments of the chest are let down or folded up. These last

mentionedshafts are supported in bearings of hard-wood laid in the bottom of the chest, at dis. tances of from 2 to 24 feet, and the journals, which are 14 inches long, covered with straps of stont hoop-iron. The shafts are armed with the seed-wheels of the form as shown at r in fig. 318,

which are placed upon it at distances of 64 inches, 32 wheels being required for an 18-feet chest. The seed -wheels have suffered a variety of changes : originally circular brushes were employed ,

then came wooden naves, of about 3 inches in length and 24 inches in diameter; and into these ( 239)

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING,

144

were inserted leaves or teeth of hoop -iron, about 1 inch broad and 1 inch long, and this form of wheel is still much employed. In the progressive stages of the machine it was furnished with one set of these small shafts, carrying brushes, and another set carrying wheels, as above de scribed ; the former being then thought necessary for sowing grass-seeds, and the latter were em.

ployed for grains : observation shortly pointed out that the toothed wheels were equally well wheels represented by r, fig. 318, are of cast-iron, of very light fabric ; they are ten -toothed, and

adapted for either grass-seeds or grain , and the brushes have consequently been laid aside . The are 41 inches in diameter, measuring to the extreme points in the cross-section ; the points of the teeth are slightly rounded, to adapt themto the concave groove or cup that is formed in the back of the chest around each discharging orifice ; the wheels are cast with asquare eye, and fixed upon the shaft by barbing the angles of the shaft round the eyeof the wheel.

(1804.) Corresponding to each seed -wheel, a discharging orifice s is formed in the back of the inch diameter, and their center is 1 } inches above the apron-board f w. On the inside of the back -board oval excavations are made in the wood around the orifices, leaving the bottom of the cups or edges of the orifice not exceeding 1-16 inch thick ; and in this oval cup chest; these are

the seed -wheel sinks until the points of the teeth are only 5 inch clear of the bottom of the cup or the edges of the orifice as seen at s. The position of the seed-wheels in relation to the bot.

tom f u of the chest is such as to make the teeth turn at about 4 inch clear of the bottom . The seed orifices aredefended by the iron plates d ', fig. 319, of a triangular form , the apices d ' are driven into the apron, which secures that point of the plates, and the othertwo points are fixed by

nailing. The fixing of the plates requires some attention, in order that the orifices may exactly coincide with those ofthe slide t t ; without perfect coincidence in these two parts the sowing will be unequal.

( 1805.) The slide is a bar of hoop-iron 2 inches in breadth , and abont 1-12 inch in thickness ; it is perforated at the regular distance by means of a punching instrument, and gauged to determine the precise intervals. In the entire chest the slide is in two lengths, but in that now described

each half is again cut in two at the junction of the sections, and connected by a slip binge-joint. The slide is held in its place by the small clasps e e', and a clamp,f is riveted upon it at any con venient point ; the short arm of the lever wenters an opening in this clamp, while its fulcrum lies in the plate b, which carries a perforated stud, and is fixed on the back of the chest as in fig. 318, forming the fulcrum ofthe lever, by muans of which the slide is moved over the seed orifices. To effect the precise adjustment of the orifices, the slide is made in two halves, and at each end of the chest an adjusting-screw v acts in a nut attached to the end of the chest, the point of each screw being brought to bear against the end of the slide, which is here thickened to meet the point of the screw . The adjustment will be understood by reference to fig. 319, which repre sents a portion of the slide of the left-hand half of the chest. The slide is here supposed to have been pushed toward the right hand by means of the adjusting-screw v, fig. 316, till the orifices have been reduced to the desired size, as here shown in fig. 319 about half shut ; in this state the

machine is supposed to befit for sowing,andthat it has reached the endof the field, when itbe. comes necessary to shut while turning ; the shutting is effected by moving the slide still farther, to the right hand, by means of the lever, until the orifices are entirely closed. Both ends of the chest having undergone this operation, which is done in an instant, but in reverse directions, the machine may go to any distance without discharging a grain ; but whenever it has been turned into the next ridge. the levers w are thrown in the opposite direction, moving the slide toward the adjusting-screw v, and this being done at both ends, the orifices will have attained precisely the same area as before, and thus the shutting and opening again to the same area : and of course the

same discharge is effected for any number of turns without the smallest variation, so long as the screw v remains unaltered .

(1806.) For the purpose of equalizing the distribạtion of the seed over the surface of the ground after it has left the dischargingorifice, the bottom -board f w of the seed -chest is made to project beyond the back of the chest about 24 inches, as at w , fig .318, forming an apron on which the seed is first received from the orifice, and being thus checked in its descent, is thereby more uniformly scattered over the surface. Another precaution is taken , the better to secure a uniform discharge in the case of sowing on ground that has a high inclination. In sowing up -hill , in such situations the weight of the basket is thrown more upon that side of the chest from which it is

discharged, tending thereby to increase the discharge. On sowing down-bill, on the other hand, Messrs. Scouler, among their other improvements in this machine, introduced a tilting motionto

the effect of pressure is reversed , and the discharge will be less. To avoid these inconveniences, the seed chest in the following manner: on the two outward bearers a a of the carriage-bolsters y y, having a semi-circular seat of about 8 inches diameter,and corresponding to these, on the bot. tom of the chest, are formed two circular bearing or journals y y e on the bottom of the chest and concentric with the shaft of the seed -wheels r , figs. 317 and 318. Upon these journals the chest can be tilted to a certain extent backward or forward, and this is effected by the lever z, which

may be variously attached to the chest. In the present case it is a fork thrust into two apertures in the chest, forming a lever, whose arm is retained in the sheers of the quadrant a ', and by raising or depressing the lever z the chest is tilted backward or forward as the sower sees it necessary ; the lever being retained in the required position by a bolt passed through the lever and the then corresponding hole in the quadrant. (1807.) As the seed -chest is 18 feet in length, and it may sometimes be desirable to reduce its

breadth of sowing to 16 or to 15 feet, suiting ridges of these breadths, the reduction is effected by stopping two, three, or more of the seed-orifices at each end. For this purpose the orifices intended to be stopped are provided with a flat swing-clasp, turning upon a pin to which it is riy . eted , and having a flat tail whichis brought over the orifice that is to be stopped. Two of these clasps are seen at each end of fig. 316, under x, where they are in the position that leaves the orifice open .

( 1808.) The sowing-geer of this machine has undergone a variety of changes. In the example before us, the pitch -chain is employed to communicate motion from the firstmover- the carriage (240 )

SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS-SEEDS .

145 .

axle-to the seed -wheels. It has the property of great simplicity, but has been objected to on the

score of its keeping the seed -wheels constantly in motion, whether sowing or not, which has been supposed to have a tendency to injure the grain which lies in contact with the wheels. Perhaps there may be grounds for this supposition ; but if it do exist, the deterioration must be very trilling. Be these surmises what they may, they have given rise to the means of prevention ,by employing a gear ing that disengages the seed-wheels from the first mover when the machine is being moved and no discharge of seed required. Fig. 320 represents a very perfect and convenient arrangement of this kind, and which has been very successfully employed, but is a little more expensivethan the chain -gearing. a is the seed -chest, b b a part of the carriage, and o o the middle and back transversebars of the same ( corresponding to b'b, fig .316.) The bar f e is one side of a light cast

iron sheers,which is bolted to the bars 0 0 (standing in the place of the middle longitudinal bar a of fig. 316 ;) and the three equal wheels c cc are set in the sheers — the first of the three being

upon the carriage-axle, which is in halves as before, and the meeting -ends supported on the sheers c. The last of the three wheelstakes into the wheel h,mounted on thecentral portion of the geed-wheel shaft, as before described in (1805) ; and d is a fourth wheel, of equal size with c c. mounted on the lever g ; which is forked to receive the wheel d, and to embrace the sheers f e at e , upon which last point the lever turns as afulcrum . . It will be evident that by lifting the lever

s , and throwing it forward upon the seed-chest, the wheel d will be ungeared from the first wbeel c ; and though it remains in contact with the middle wheel c, no motion will be communi cated to the seed -wheels until the lever is returned to its original position. ( 1809.) In using the broadcast machine, it is frequently drawn by one horse ; but it forms a

rather heavy draught, and is, therefore, more frequently theworkof two horses. The chest is filled from end toend with the seed-corn , and, the horses walking in the furrow , the machine sows the

half ridge on either side. When the chest has been filled, and the machine brought to that posi tion which places the horses in the furrow — the sower having previously determined the degree of opening in the orifices that will deliver thedesired quantity per acre ,he throws each slide out ward against its graduating screw , which will produce the proper opening, (1807) ; and this done, the horses are driven forward. On arriving at the farther end of the ridge, and before entering upon the head -ridge, the slides are withdrawn toward the center , closing up the vents ; the ma. chine is then turned round on the head -ridge, and takes up a position on the next furrow , when the process is repeated, and so on till the field is sown all over, the head ridges being the last por. tionof the work, and here the blinding of the extreme orifices come frequently into play, if the head -ridges are of less breadth than those of the field .

(1810.) It has often been suggested that a register screw or index would be a useful appendage to the machine, by which the sower could at once fix upon the extent of opening in the seed

vents. This addition, however well it may appear in theory, appears, in the practical application of the machine, to be of little value ; for the eye of an experienced sower will, on passing over a few yardswith the machine, by simple ocular inspection, be able to judge of the quantity of seed he is bestowing upon the soil. İf experimental accuracy is required , the sower may then put intothe chest as much grain as will just cover the seed -wheels, and then measure in one or two bushels, and proceed to sow this until as much remains as will just cover the wheels again, so that the measured quantity is found to have been discharged . By now measuring the number of yards in length thathave been sown with two bushels, he will ascertain by calculation the pro portional quantity required for an acre. Thus, let the intended quantity to be sown upon an acre be 5 bushels, and that one bushel has been sown in the experiment which has covered 140 yards of the 18 -feet ridge, or two half-ridges equal to 18 feet, or 6 yards. The imperial acre con

tains 4,840 square yards, and this divided by 6,the yards in the breadth of the ridge, we have 8063 as the number of lineal yards in length of an 18 -feet ridge to make up an acre ; and 1-5 of this, or 161.2 linealyards, is the extent that should have been covered by i bushel of seed -corn . The

machine having, as supposed, covered only 140 yards, it follows that the sowing is about š part of the bushel too thick ; the graduating screws, therefore, must be turned forward about half a turn,

and the experiment repeated ifthoughtnecessary. It is seldom , however, that such experiments will be required in the hands of a practical sower. ( 1811.) In reference to the inconvenience attending the great length of the seed-chest as taken

notice of at ( 1800) when it is in one length, there remains to be observed that the method by which it is shifted is this : in its working state the chest is kept in its bolsters by means of two quadrantsattached to the lower part of thechest, one being on each side of the carriage ; these are formed concentric with the curvature of the bolster y y, fig . 317, and a bolt, over which the quadrant slides, is screwed into the side of the carriage, and this retains the chest in its place.

When it is found necessary to move the chest, the two bolts are unscrewed, which sets the chest at liberty ; it is then lifted from its bolsters and laid longitudinally on the carriage. In this opera . tion, however, the pitch -chain , when that medium of power is employed, has to be disengaged by withdrawing a coupling-link from the chain ; but when the medium , fig. 320, is employed, there is nothing required but theunscrewing of the quadrant-bolts to set the chest at liberty. It is then

lifted and laid longitudinally on the carriage as before. The price of these machines ranges from £ 10 to £ 12.

( 1812.) The Presser- Roller is an implement of very recent introduction to the operations of the

farm , and, like many others of the useful class of agricultural machines, its origin is to be traced to England. Although the presserdoes not take its place inthe first rank, yet it possesses quali ties whose effects on the soil give it a position by no means low in the scale of usefulness. The chief object of its application is to produce consolidation in the soil over a narrow space, in which space theseeds ofplants are to have root; hence its effects are applicable only to the drill sys tem of culture, and that only under particular circumstances, namely , consolidating soils whose texture is too loose and friable for the continued support of wheat plants, and to produce close contact in the furrow -slices of lea when plowed for a seed- furrow .

(1813.) The Presser-Roller is represented in its most common form by fig. 325, which is a view of (289 )...... 10

chè machine in perspective, and is of extremely simple construction . The carriage consists of a

146

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

rectangular frame a a ; its length over the front and back bars is 3 feet 8 inches, and its breadth over the sides 4 feet 8 inches; a third longitudinal bar is introducedbetween those ofthe back and front solely to increase the rigidity of the carriage-frame. A pair of horse-shafts b, are bolted Fig. 325 .

f

d

THE PRESSER - ROLLER .

upon the frame, the nigh -side shaft being laid upon the side-rail, and the other at the usual dis tance, to afford space for a horse to travel. A cast -iron bracket is appended by bolting to each side-rail; one of these is seen at c ; its eye or center descends to a distance of 8 inches below the bottom of the rail ; an axle of 2 inches square extends between , and is supported in the eye of the

bracket in which it turns upon its journals ; this axle carries the two pressing.wheels dd, which are fitted to turn with the axle, but are movable in the transverse direction, and provided with the means of being fixed at any desired distance apart, though 9 to 10 inches is the usual space. The axle carries also the light carriage-wheel e, of 2 feet 10 inches diameter, which may be placed either outside or inside of the carriage-frame, and is usually made of cast more requisite The thisbeing for the turningturning upon the axle, of iron, convenient the machine. round off- side shaft 6 having butan imperfect connection to the carriage

Fig. 326 .

is supported by the iron stay-rod f ; and two iron scrapers . are attached to the hind bar for the purpose of throwing off any soil that may adhere to the wheels. Fig. 326 is an edge view of the two pressing.wheels detached from the carriage, in which a a is the axlebroken off, b b are the two pressing wheels as they appear edgeways; they are 2 feet 10 inches of extreme diameter, and their breadth 52 inches, their weight being about 2 cwts. each ; the rim or periphery of the wheel is sloped off on both sides to an angle of about

70 °, forming two opposite conical frusta, but a cylindrical band is left in the middle of about 11 inches in breadth . The pressing -wheels are held at the required distance by the square collars ccc fitting round the axle and sliding upon it to the proposed distance apart, where they are fixed by the

pinching -screws ccc. ad represents a transverse section

f

f

EDGE VIEW OF THE PRESSING WHEELS

of ground undergoing thepressing process; the shaded part of the section exhibits the state of a soft, loose soil, when presse d by the roller, and the dotted lines ef, ef, that of newly plowed lea undergoing the operation of consolidatio . n

( 1814.) As explained in the text above, and with reference again to fig. 325, the pressing. wheels are to be understood as running always upon the last turned up furrows but one ; while the carriage -wheel runs always upon the solid land, where the horse also walks, the shafts being placed at that side. But the presser is now being more advantageously used as to time, in the consolidation of soft soils, by being constructed with four, six , or more pressing-wheels ;and in this form the carriage-wheel is not required. In usingthe presser of this construction, the field

must be plowed for the seed-furrow all over,either entirely or in part,beforethe pressing is be gun ; and the field is regularly gone over by the presser, which, from its now increased weight, will require two horses. In this form , with six pressing-wheels, and with two horses, the ma .

chine will press-roll from eight to nine acres in a day. There remains to be observed, in regard to the last form of the machine, that, in order to secure facility of turning about, the wheels must either be all set upon a round axle, or they must be set upon an axle in two lengths, if it is con. tinued of a square form ;and there is consequently required a middle bearing for the meeting ends of the axle . For this purpose, a third bracket is appended to the middle rail of the frame,

fig. 325. I have found both ofthese modes of construction perfectly suitablein practice ; and the entire weight of the six -wheel rollers amounts to about 12 or 13 cwts. The price of the two.

wheeled presser is £6 108., and for each additional wheel, with its mounting. £ 1 128. ( 1815.) The common Land -Roller is an implement of great simplicity of construction, ihe act. ing part of it being a cylinder of wood, of stone or of metal, and in many cases its only append . age is a rectangular frame of wood, consisting of two strong end -bars, selected for having a

curvatureto keep clear of the ground. In these the gadgeons of the roller are borne, and which (290)

SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS SEEDS .

147

are connected by two transverse rails, to one of which the horses are yoked. Simple as this im. plement appears, there is hardly an article in the establishment in which the farmer ismore liable to fall into error in his selection .

From the nature of its action, and its intended effects on the

soil, there are two elements that should be particularly kept in view - weight and diameter of the cylinder. By the former alone can the desired effects be produced in the highest degree, but thesewill be always modified by the diameter. Thus, a cylinder of any given weight willpro duce a greater pulverizing effect if its diameter is one foot, than the same weight would produce if the diameter were two feet; but then the one of lesser diameter will be much worse to draw ; hence it becomes necessary to choose a mean of these opposing principles. In doing this, the material of the cylinder comes to be considered. In the first place, wood, which is frequently

employed for the formation of land-rollers,may be considered as least adapted of all materials for the purpose ; its deficiency of weight and liability to decay render it the most objectionable of all others. Second, stone, though not deficient in weight,possesses one marked "disadvantage , liability to fracture ; this of itself is sufficient 10 placestone rollers in a doubtful position as to

fitness. This brings us to cast-iron, which is undoubtedly the most appropriate of all materials for this purpose . It is unnecessary here to enter into the inquiry as to the most advantageous diameter for a land-roller ; the subject has already been elaborately discussed ; * let it suffice to say that experience has proved that a diameter of 2 feet is, under any circumstances, the one that will produce the best effects with a minimum of labor from the animals of draught ; the

weight being of course proportioned to the force usually applied, which isin general two horses. The weightofroller, including frame corresponding to this, is from 12 to 15cwts. ; but it is bet. ter that the roller itself be rather under theweight, and that the carriage be fitted up with a box ,

in which a loading of stones can be stowed , to bring the machine up to any desired weight. In a large and heavy roller, in one entire cylinder, the inconvenience of turning at the headlands is very considerable, and has given rise to the improvement of having the cylinder in two lengths; this, with a properly constructed carriage, produces the land-roller in its most perfect form . (1816.) Fig. 327 is a perspective ofthe land-roller constructed on the foregoing principles. a a is the carriage-frame, consisting of two semi-circular ends of cast -iron , connected by two trans Fig. 327.

THE LAND ROLLER .

verse bars of hard wood, and these last are crossed by the horse -shafts b. The cylinder c is in two lengths of 3 feet to 3 feet 3 inches each, and 2 feet in diameter ; the thickness of the metal is from 4 of an inch to 1 inch , according to the weight required ; andeach half length of the cylin der has a cross fitted into each end, through the centers of which the axle passes. The axle, in

consequence of the cylinder being in two lengths, requires to be ofconsiderable strength, usually 24 inches diameter, and of malleable iron ; upon this the two sections of the cylinder revolve freely , and the extremities of the axle are supported in bushes formed in the lower part of the semi-circular end - frames. Two iron stay-rods pass from the end frames to the shafts as an addi. tional support to the latter. The price of the land-roller, fitted up as here represented and described, is, according to weight, from £10 to £14.1

[t We cannot forbear recommending here the use of a machine invented by, we think , a Mr. Gray, of Lower Virginia . It was brought to our notice by one of those too rare men among farm ersone who thinks - Hon. W. Carmichael, of Queen Anne's County, Maryland. The simple name of this implement indicates the simplicity of its construction, being called the drag -log. It is made of a log of wood say 5 feet long, more or less, and 12 or 14 inches square, with the tongne of a common ox -cart pinned down in the middle on the top of it, instead of a pair of shafts, as in the land -roller here represented . To this tongue is to be hitched a span of oxen and the log thus dragged over the surface of cloddy plowed land. It will be found to pulverize the land more at one operation than rolling at two. Instead of burying the clods it mashes and grinds them to powder as it proceeds. * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. i. (291)

Ed. Farm . Lib.1

148

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

SPRING .

12. SOWING OAT-SEED. • Though ley land you break up when Christmas is gone, For sowing of barley or oats thereupon, Yet haste not to fallow till March be begun, Lest afterward wishing it had been undone." TUSSER

(1817.) After what has been said of plowing lea ground (919), and of the mode of sowing seed upon the land by hand, fig. 322, and of the prop erties of different kinds of oats cultivated in this country ( 1519), little re quires to be added here on the sowing of oats, except the manner in which that operation is finished . (1818.) Beans and spring wheat are not sown upon every species of farm , the former being most profitable in deep, strong soils, and the latter is only to be commended after turnips, on land in good heart, situate in a

favorable locality for climate, and the crop eaten off by sheep ; but oats are sown on all sorts of farms, from the strongest clay to the lightest sand,

andfrom the highest point to which arable culture has reached on moor land soil, to the bottom of the lowest valley on the richest deposit. The extensive breadth of its culture does not, however, imply that the oat is

naturally suited to all soils and situations, for its fibrous and spreading roots indicate a predilection for friable soils ; but its general use as food among the agricultural population has caused its universal culture in Scotland, while its ability to support the strength of horses has induced its

culture to be extended throughout the kingdom ; and it is certainly a re markable fact with what admirable effect this plant has adapted itself to the various circumstances in which it is cultivated, and this result is, most

probably, owing to the same food, namely, the decomposed grasses with

which this plant is uniformly supplied . (1819. ) All the varieties of oats cultivated may be practically classed under three heads, the common , the improved, and the Tartarian.

The

common varieties include all those having a pyramidal spike, soft straw,

long grains possessing a tendency to become awny, and which are late in reaching maturity. Among the named varieties are the following in com

mon use : early and late Angus, Kildrummie, Blainslie, white Siberian, fig. 307, Cumberland, sandy, and Dyock, which last two are recent varie ties, and others. It is unnecessary to point out the superior character istics of each variety, for in the respective districts inwhich they are sown, each is considered best suited to the locality in which it is cultivated — an

opinion which may safely be disputed. The four last named are in high repute at present, owing to their recent introduction ; and it is probable that any recent variety will answer best for a shorter or longer period. All common oats are sown on the inferior soils, and in the most elevated

fields offarms, and the season for sowing them is the beginning of March. Of the improved varieties are the potato oat, which has longbeen culti vated as the only variety ; but of late years the Hopetoun oat has been

added to the short list. Before itthe Georgian was introduced, but did not succeed. Both the potato and Hopetoun oats have long , strong straw , large spikes, come early to maturity, and are chiefly cultivated on the best and lowest lying ground. The grains are very similar,the Hopetoun

being(292) distinguishedby a tinge of red on the bosom, fig. 306. These oats

BOOK OF THE FARM .

PLATE XXVII . DRILL NOWING MACHINE . The new Lever Drill Sowing Machine. The Common Drill Sowing Machint,

SA

LL

AN

323 Fix

326 Fig

MINE

BOOK OF THE FARM .

PLATE XXXI.

HAY TEDDING MACHINE .

368 Fig

432 Fig

TURNIP AND BONE DUST DRILL .

SOWING OAT- SEED.

149

are sown a fortnight after the common. The cultivation of the Tartarian

varieties, both black and white, is chiefly confined to England,for the use of horses, and are there called feed oats. I am surprised that this oat should be cultivated at this timeof day, both on account of its coarseness,

as well as the disagreeable work which it occasions in the barn by its long hygrometric awns. (1820.) The plowed lea-ground should be dry on the surface before it is

sown, as otherwise it will not harrow kindly; but the properdryness is to be distinguished from that arising fromdry, hard frost . It will not be pro per towait until every spot of the field is dry alike, as even thorough-drain ing will not insure that ; though spottiness shown in spring is a good crite Hon whether land has been enough drained, or whereit most requires it. Should the lea have been plowed some time before, and from young grass, the furrow -slices will be found to lie close together at seed-time ; but should

it have been recently plowedor from old lea, or on stiff ground in a rather wet state, the furrow -slices will not lie close together, but be as far asunder

as to allow a good deal of the seed to drop down between them , and where this happens the seed will be lost, as oats will not vegetate from a depth of 6 or 7 inches.

In all cases of lea where the furrow -slices are not close, in

order to save a part of the seed, andavoid a thin crop, the ground should be harrowed a single tine before being sown. The tines of harrows

should be particularly sharp when used for covering in seed upon lea. When oatsare sown by hand upon dry lea -ground, the grains rebound from it and dance about before depositing themselves in the hollows between the crests of the furrow -slices, and thus accommodating themselves to the form of theground, are not so liable to be happerga'eà in sowing as other grains. Were the ground only harrowed in along the ridges, so as not to disturb the seed along the furrow.slices,the germs of the crop would come up in as regular rows as if sown by drill ; but as the land receives cross harrowing as well as along , the braird comes up broadcast , notwithstand

ing the position the seed assumes when it settles on the ground . The quantity of common oats sown is usually 6 bushels to the imperial acre ;

and in deep friable land in good heart, 5 bushels of potato oats suffice. A man does a good day's work if he sows broadcast 16 imperial acres of ground in 10 hours, that is, scatters 80 bushels of potato oats and 96 bushels of common oats in that time .

Some men can sow 120 bushels of

common and 100 of potato in that time , that is, 20 acres ; and double -hand

ed sowers can sow more than this latter quantity. Two sowers keep one seed -carrier fully employed , and indeed if the sacks are not conveniently placed (1756 ), one will not be able to supply them both , but 2 seed -carriers will easily supply 3 sowers ; and every sower employs 2 pairs of harrows breaking in after him, with a double tine. So that the number of sowers is regulated by the number of pairs of harrows that a farm can furnish . The arrangement of the labor for sowing an oat-field may be seen in fig. 322, where 2 sowers and 1 seed -carrier are represented, but the harrows of 1 sower only are shown in view. See from (1762) to ( 1766) inclusive. After the land is broken in with a double tine, it is harrowed across with a

double tine, which cut across the furrow -crests, and then along another

double tine, and this quantity generally suffices. At the last harrowingthe tines should be kept clean, and no stones should be allowed to be trailed

along bythe tines, to the manifest ribbing of the surface . On old lea, or on hard land, another single turn across or angle -ways may be requird to

render the land fine enough ; and, on the other hand,on a free soil a single ing should be continued as long and no longer than the ground feels uni

tine along after the double one cross may suffice. In short, the harrow (293)

150

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

formly smooth and firm under the foot, having no hard places, or others sinking into hollows by the pressure of the foot (1770). The head -ridges are harrowed round by themselves at last. See ( 1771). The land, after

the oat-seed is sown, is always water -furrowed in every open furrow ( 1778) ; and it should also be rolled ( 1777), according to circumstances; that is,the young braird on strong land being retarded in its growth, when the earth is incrusted by rain after rolling, it is safe to leave the rolling of such land until the end of spring, when the crop has made a little progress,

and when the weather is usually dry. Light friable land should be rolled immediately after the seed is sown and harrowed, if there is time to do it ; but the rolling of one field should cause no delay to the sowing of others in dry weather. There will beplenty of timeto roll the ground after theoat seed and other urgent operations at this season are finished ,and especially as rolling may be speedily performed. The cutting of gaws should never be

neglected in finishing off an oat-field, to carry off water along hollows or in the open furrow beside the lowest hedge-ridge, as particularly described

in (918). Oats are sown broadcast by machinery as well as by hand. The machine is the same as is used for sowing grass-seeds ,and figured at fig. 316, Plate XXVI., and already described by Mr. Slight in ( 1798) to

( 1811). As constructed at first upon two wheels,this machine, when load ed with a full complement of oat-seed, was too heavy for a horse's back ,

especially on going down hill ; but the addition of thethird wheel disposes of that objection, and I believe it is now pretty extensively employed in sowing corn.

(1821.) But oats are also sown in rows by such drill-machines as are

represented in figs. 325 and 326, Plate XXVII., and described below by Mr. Slight. In using drill-machines, the land should first be harrowed a

double tine along, and then a double tine across the ridges, and again a single tine along. The drill then sows the oats across the ridges, and the

land is finishedby harrowing a single tine also across the ridges. The water-furrowing and rolling should be executed in the manner described (1820) for broadcast sowing. The drill seems to me not well adapted for

sowing corn on lea ground . It cannot pass through it, even after it has been well cut with the harrows, with the facility it does through ground in a soft state ; and on hard ground and upon old lea it is questionable

whether the coulters can penetrate so far asto deposit the seed at a depth to be out of reach of birds and drouth ; and every stone in such ground being rather firmly imbedded, will be apt to cause the drill to go out ofits proper course , while at the same time the risk at least of partially dis

placing the old, uncorrupted turf will be imminent. In these latter cases I would recommend the broadcast machine or the hand in preference to the drill; and I would confine the drill in sowing oats to tender land as in the neighborhood of towns, where it is made tender by the application of large quantities ofstreet-manure, and where drilling is advisable as afford

ing a facility for cleaning the land of surface-weeds, a multitude of which, and especially wild mustard, Sinapisarvensis, are apt to spring up from the use of street-manure.

In England, however, where the drilling of grain is

followed out, it must be owned that their plowing with the wheel-plow and sowing with the drill-machine are so perfect in their operation that the seed is laid in the furrows with certainty, and without at all disturbing the furrow -slice. ( 1822.) At a time when a less rational system of husbandry was pursued than now happily pre vaile that is, when land was allowed to be overrun with surface-water; when lea was plowed , out of choice, in a wet state, because the laborof doing it was easier for half-starved, jaded horses ; when land was harrowed with small, light, loose harrowe, furnished with short, blunt tines ; when

the lea-turf consisted chiefly, of the tough roots of perennial weeds in these circumstances les (294)

151

SOWING OAT - SEED .

ground required a great deal of harrowing to bring it to a tolerable degree of tilth, eight or nine double tines being considered no more than necessary. The great length of time required to do this, obliged the oat-seed to be begun early, so early indeed as Tusser recommends it to be begun in January :

" In January , husband that poucheth the groats, Will break up his ley, or be sowing.of oats ; "

if the husbandman desires to pocket the gain of a good crop ; and by the time thecrop, was finished, every creature, man and beast, were almost worn out with fatigue. The land being now made tender and fertile by draining, cleaning and manuring, oats have time to come toma.

turity when sown long after January, and its harrowing is now finished in one- third of the time, and with one -fourth the labor it was then .

+

INSECT LARGE THE PRODUCES WHICH QAT IN GRUB .-F IELDS

( 1823.) The oat crop, when very young - that is, when the plant has not pushed its leaves more than 2 inches above the ground - issubject to a very serious disease called the grub, aname de rived from the grub or larva ofa particular insect, the Tipula oleracea, Meadow -crane fly, attack ing its roots, and causing the plant to decay, and even to die whenseriously injured by this insect. The perfect female insect is represented of the natural size at a , fig. 328, andwhichwill at once

tamil

28 3.Fig

PUGLIO

Ox be recognized as that well known by the familiar names of Long-legs, Tailors, Jenny-the-spinner. Its body is near 1 inch long, of a brownish -graycolor, and its wings pale-brown. In the female the is thickest nearatthe from whichwhich it tapers to apoint at thehinderextremity; that abdomen of the male is thicket themiddle, hinder extremity, forms akind of club. “ This insect,"

says Mr. Duncan, “ is very plentiful during the summer months in all parts of the country. Its long legsare of great advantage to it in places it frequents, as they enable it to skip over the grass as if on stilts ; and it still farther facilitates its motions while so doing, by keeping the wings expanded, to render it buoyant. The female lays a great number of eggs, which are very small in

proportion to the size of the insect, and of a black color. These she places at some depth in the earth, which she pierces for the purpose with her ovipositor. The insects may easily be seen performing this operation, and it will at once be known that they are so employed by the singu lar position they assume. The body is placed in a perpendicular direction, supported on the hinder feet and extremity of the abdomen. while the wings are expanded, and the anterior legs (295)

152

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

reston the surrounding plants. When a sufficient number of eggs have been laid in one spot, the insect moves on to another,without changing the vertical posture of her body, merely drag.

ging herself forward by her fore -legs, aidingher movements with her wings.” It is in the larva state that these insects injure crops, meadow-grass not being their only food ; they attack dif ferent kinds of corn , especially oats, the effectsof grubbing in which are well known to every farmer. When full grown, the larvæ are in the shape of an elongated cylinder, somewhat sud.

denly attenuated at both extremities, and are of a dull grayislı color, and without feet. The head is furnished with two hooks, one on each side. The pupa is not unlike the chrysalis of some kinds of moth ; and it is nearly ofthe same color as thelarvæ, the edges of the segments being furnished

with pretty strong hairs. The larvæ reside generally about 1 or2 inches beneath the surface, mining

their way among the roots of the herbage, and causing it to witherfor want of nourishment. They prefer a soil which has been long undisturbed by the plow ; and if it contains some portion of peat earth, it seems thereby better adapted to their tastes. “ In the rich district of Sank Island,

in Holderness, in the spring of 1813,” say Messrs. Kirby and Spence , “ hundreds of acres of pas tores have been entirely destroyed by them , being rendered as completely brown, as if they had suffered a three months' drouth, and destitute of all vegetation, except a few thistles. A square

foot of the dead turf being dug up , 210 grubs were counted in it; and what furnishes a striking proof of the prolific powers of these insects, last year it was difficultto find a single one. " * “ At ter mentioning their extensive devastations, it may occasion surprise,” as Mr. Duncan well re marks, “to betold that many eminent observers are of opinion, that these maggots eat nothing but the fine mould they find at the roots of plants, and that the injury caused to the latter arises

solely from their disturbingthe soil, and preventing the rootlets fixing themselves. Such wasthe opinion ofReaumur : and the generalityofsubsequent writers on thesubject have yieldedto his authority. . . Mr. Stickney, who has published Observations on the Grub ' made some ex periments for the express purpose of determining this point, and they convinced him that the larvæ devour the roots of grasses. Indeed, unless this were the case , it would be impossible to account for the herbage withering to such an extent in places where the maggots prevail ; for this could never arise from such small creatures, even though very numerous, burrowing in and loosening the soil. When earth -worms are plentiful, they must produce a considerable disturb ance in the soil by their winding galleries ; but these so far from retarding, have always been

regarded as promoting the growth of plants. The grub of this tipula,' says Mr. Stickney, as quoted by Mr. Duncan, .commits its ravages chiefly in the first crop , after the breaking up ofthe grass-land, also after clover and beans ; the fly from which the insect is produced having deposited its eggs in the soil among the grass, clover, or beans. . . On investigating the habits of this insect, I found that it took the fly -state about the beginning of the month of August; I therefore

concluded, aswe got our clover-hay from the land a little after mid -summer. that, if we plowed the clover stubble any time after that, and before the month of August ,it would be nearly free from the grub, as instinct has directed the fly not to leave its eggs upon the naked soil where no

vegetable is growing: I knew of no application to the land,' adds Mr. Stickney, that will in any way destroy the grab : bat we are much indebted tothe rook, and a variety of otherbirds,for keeping its depredations within limited grounds.'t The saturation of the soil,” concludes Mr. Duncan, “ with some caustic fluid, seems the only way by which this maggot can be destroyed.

The perfect insects are easily caught; butthey are so generally distributed,andusuallysoplenti. fal,that theirdestruction in this way would be a hopeless task.” The rook ( Corvusfrugilegus) may be seen busily engaged in turning over every loose turf clod on a grubbed field of oats, af: ter the young crop has evidently assumed an unhealthy hue. This hueshould not be mistaken for the yellowish tint exhibited by the plant when the support derived from the seed is exhaust. ed, and before the rootlets have obtained sufficient scope in the ground to maintain the plant. The grub taint is of a bluish and reddish tint, andmany of the plants evidently appear to be dy.

ing, and the consequence is,thatlarge spaces are left without a plant. The usual expedient em ployed by the farmer is rolling the ground, especially in the night; but this is a useless remedy. Holes have been recommended to be made a few inches asunder with the dibble, into which the grubs, it is said will fall and perish ; but why they should thus die when they can penetrate the ground, is what I cannot conceive. The ravages are generally committed in dry weather with an easterly wind,and when rain falls they cease. It is surprising how a field will recover from the effects of grubbing . One season a field of mine, of finedeep hazel loam , after two years grass, was dreadfully grubbed, and after trying the usual remedies to get quit of the insects without ef fect, a rainy night silenced them . Most of the field appeared bare after having exhibited a beau. tiful braird, buton the plants requiring renewed growth , they tillered out with great force, and

covered the ground almost as thickly as desirable. At harvest the crop was a very strong one. the straw being difficult for women to cut with a common sickle ; the spikes were very large and full ; the stooks, when set without hood -sheaves, stood about 6 feet in hight, and the yield was not less than 60 bushels to the imperial acre . On good soil I would have no fear of potato oats tillering out after being severely grubbed, sufficiently to afford a good crop ; but such a result should not be expected of common oatsupon inferior soil.

(1824.) (Grain Drilling Machines. The introduction of the drill-system intothe agricultural practice of any country, will always form an era in the annals of its Agriculture : but it is often a difficult matter to define the precise time of its introduction, more especially when we find that,

by tracing backward into the history of man in his social capacities, the practice of drilling grain extends.backward to the most remote antiquity. A curiousand interesting example of this,in an antiquarian point ofview , is to be seen in the seriesof Hindoo models of agricultural implements in the Museum of the Highland and Agricultural Society in Edinburgh. Among them is to be seen a correct model ofa rudely constructed drill-machine possessing all the essential points of the more elaborate modern implement; and among a people so little liable to change, there * Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Entomology, vol. i. * British Farmer's Magazine, vol. vi. ( 296 ;

Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xl.

SOWING OAT -SEED .

153

can be no doubt that the machine is of very remote origin , compared with which, the earliest of our modern drills are but things of the moment: and all of them , of whatever degree of merit, are but improvements on the Hindoo original. Among the early notices of the introduction of the

system in England, we find Amos* recommending it as early as 1783 as the result of numerous comparative experiments ; and the figures which he gives of the drill sowing-machine, which

he recommends not as an original invention, but an amplification of that given by Duhamel, is al most identical in every essential point with the most approved drill sowing-machine used in the

present day in England. and which may be held as the most perfect machine of its kind ; but from the excessive elaboration employed in its construction, its high price lays an interdict upon its introduction into theeconomical practice of Scotch farming, the price being at least six times that of the common drill used in Scotland.

(1825.) The mode of distributing the seed adopted in the broadcast sowing -machine, from the simplicity of the principle, opened aready means of acquiring a drill sowing-machine at a mode

rale price ; it accordingly quickly followed the introduction of the broadcast-machine, and until very lately no change of importance has been made upon the common Scotch drill. Slightmodi fications, however, had been effected occasionally, such as varying the distance between the rows,

the machine always covering the same breadth, but varying in the number of coalters. Thus, a machine to cover 71 feet in breadth, could change the number of its coulters from 11 to 10, 9 or 8,

the spaces between the rows being respectively 8, 9, 10, and 11 inches, or thereby.

( 1826.).The Common or East Lothian Drill Sowing-Machine, has beenhere taken to illustrate the principles of the machine. Though it may be deficientin somepoints as compared with those of Berwickshire and Roxburgshire, yet its extreme simplicity and cheapness has brought it into Fig. 329.

f m

TO

*

p 12

6

1 0

2

3

Feet. SECTION OF THE COMMON DRILL SUWING -MACHINE .

very extensive adoption, not only in East Lothian, but in other districts where the drill-system is followed. Fig. 325, Plate XXVII, is a view in perspective of this machine, and for the better

elucidation of its construction, the annexed cut, fig. 329, shows the arrangement of the parts in longitudinal section, and for convenience of reference the letters mark corresponding parts in both figures. The figures represent a machine of six rows, which is the size most generally used,

chiefly because it can be drawn by one horse; but also in the event of its being employed along swelling ridges, its covering but a small breadth secures a nearly equal depth for the deposition of the seed, which cannot be easily done under the same circumstances if the machine is mounted with a greater number of coulters. But it follows from the peculiarity of structure, the coulters

being permanently fixed in position for the depth to which they penetrate the soil, that thema chine is best adapted for sowing across the ridges, and hence it is almost invariably worked in that direction, though when worked in the direction of the ridge the breadth covered by the ma chine is equal to one- fourth of an 18 -feet ridge.

(1827. ) In the construction, a is a bed-plank 5 feet 1 inch in length, 14 inches in breadth, and 24 inches in thickness. Across the ends of this are bolted the two side-bars b b . cach 33 inches in length, 24 inches in depth, and 24 inches in breadth. These last are crossed by the bar m m , bolted to the side-bars, serving a special purpose, to be afterward noticed ; and these four parts form the simple frame-work of the machine. The seed -chest c is 4 feet 8 inches in length, placed between the side -bars b, and attached to these and the bed-plank. The chest may be about 10 inches in depth, 24 inches wide at bottom , and 15 inches at top , with a hinged cover. The chest, so mounted with the seed -wheels and axle g, fig . 329, and with side-plate, lever, and adjusting screw in all respects similar to the broadcast-machine (1801 ), except that,in place of the apron on

which the seed falls in the broadcast, the orifices deliver the seed directly into a small hopper shaped aperture formed in the bed-plank, immediately under the orifice i, fig. 329. The carriage wheels d d are 3 feet 1 inch in diameter; the axle of one of them is seated in a strong bush or plummer -block, and coupled to the small shaft of the seed -wheels, thereby giving them the re

quisitemotion ,their revolution coinciding with that ofthe wheels, and the opposite wheeld turns * Theory and Practice of Drill-Husbandry. By William Amos, 1802. (297 )

154

THE BOOK OF THE FARM - SPRING.

upon an axle fixed permanently upon the bed -frame. The horse- shafts e are jointed to the bed

plank at h, and appear broken off at e, fig. 329, by strap -and hook hinges, and the handles f f are bolted to the lower side of the bed -plank. The coulters k k consist of an iron shank & inchsquare, furnished at the lower end with a pointed sheath of sheet-iron about 1-10 inch thick ; the sides of this sheath, being about 3 inches broad, and 5 inches or more in hight riveted upon the bottom of the shank, which at this place is forged into a wedge shape, to receive the sheath. The coulters are fixed at top in mortises cat in the bed -plank, and fenced with plates of iron above and below , where they are secured by means of wedges; and they are farther supported by the coulter-bar 0, seen in section in fig. 329. This bar is bolted under the heel ofthe handles, and to it the coul. ters are attached by eye-bolts. The seed on leaving the orifices , falls into the funnel -shaped recep

tacle iintheupper sideofthe bed -plank, from which it passesdown the tube i i into thesheathof the coulter, by which it is deposited into the rat formed by the sheath. (1828.) From the construction and action of this machine, and the resistance of the soil tɔ the

passage of the coulters through it, there is a constant tendency, produced by the traction ofthe horse when the machine is in action, to elevate the extremity of the handles ; and by thus swing ing upon the axle of the wheels the coulters are withdrawn from their action on the soil, and from forming the rut for the reception of the seed. The tendency thus produced being greater than a man is capable of continuing to contend with, is counteracted by the application of the balance -chain 1 l,as shown in fig.329, producing a change of direction in the line of draught, and of the point of attachment of the draught. In this machine the true point of attachment is in the hinge h, fig. 329 ; and the tendency of the draught, when applied simply to this

point, is to cause the point h to approach an imaginary straight line lying between the horse's shoulder and the point of resistance at lower k in the figure, and the effect of this is to bring h forward and downward. or to throw lower k backward till it loose hold of the

soil, thereby destroying the intended effect of the coulter. The counteraction of this is effected by the position of the balance chain, and its attachments to the machine. The first part of it is a simple rod, fixed to the shafts at l, and to the extremity of a pendant attached to the hind bar of the shafts at h ; the chain then passes under the coulter-bar o, and on to the cross -bar of the han .

dles, as seen in fig. 325, Plate XXVII., where it terminates in a handle furnished with a spring. catch. by which itcan be hooked under tension, to the cross-bar of the handles, or by disengaging the catch, the chain hangs loose . When the chain is brought under tension, and the shafts borne up by the horse, the resistance to the coulters is transferred to the back of the horse, through the medium ofthe chain acting on the shaft at the point I, and on the pendant h, the point ofwhich being below the plane of the shaft, changes the direction of the tractive force from e h to emiddle l, and leaves the handles in a nearly quiescent state. The marker m n is another appendageto the machine, which , although not so necessary as the balance-chain, is generally applied to this drill-machine, especially when sowing across the ridges. It consists of the bar m m. and the marking -rod m n . The latter is swing-jointed on a stud fixed in the ends of the marker-bar m m , and having a stop on the joint, by which either of the markers can be retained in the position of that on the farther side of fig. 325, or let down, as in that of the nigh side. The use of the marker is to trace a line on the surface of the ground parallel to the direction in which the machine tray

els, and at a distance from the middlepoint of the surface covered by themachine, equal to the entire breadth , so covered ; hence, on returning to sow the next breadth, the horse should walk

exactly upon the line drawn by the marker. In sowing with the machine here described, the distance from line to line will be 4 feet 6 inches; the distance between the rows being 9 inches. The wheels are usually set 54 inches apart, measuring at the point where they rest on the ground ; or their distance in any machine may be found by multiplying the number of coulters by the number of inches given to the interval between the rows or coulters ; thus six coulters of 9 inches interval, give 6 X 9 = 54 inches. From the construction of the machine it is found, that when the balance-chain is under tension , the coulters are drawn to the ground, and the handles also drawn downward ; but on releasing the chain, which is done at the land -ends and turnings, the conductor must support the handles to keep the coulter from the ground , and in this state, if the handlesare let go when the machine is standing, the coulter will pass forward and the han . dles will fall to theground. To prevent this last inconvenience, a crutch is usuallyappended to the marker-bar, which, on stopping, is allowed to dropto a perpendicular position, resting on the ground, and thus keeps the machine upon a level. This appendage not being of much im portance, is left out of the figure. (1829.)This sowing machine has been long and successfully manufactured by Scouler and Com Leith Walk , Edinburgh ; James Slightand Company, Edinburgh, &c. The price varies accord

pany of Haddington ;and with slight variations by variousother implementmakers, as Morton , ing to the number of coulters, from £6 to £10.

( 1830.) To render the expensive English drill-machines (which we have omitted, and which cost in England from $50 to $ 90, ] more generally useful, it is not an uncommon practice in Eng. land for the owner of one to travel the country with it at seed -time, and undertake to sow the fields of any farm , where the farmer may choose to employ him . The charge is usually 28. 6d. per imperial acre, the farmersupplying the requisite number of horses to work thedrill, and under taking to deliver it at the farm on which it isto be next employed.

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155

THE LAMBING OF EWES .

13. THE LAMBING OF EWES . " Ah gentle shepherd, thine the lot to tend, Of all that feel distress the most assailed ,

Feeble, defenceless ; lenient be thy care ; But spread around thy tend'rest diligence

In flow'ry spring-time, when the new droptlamb, Tottring with weakness by his mother's side, Feels the fresh world about him ; and each thorn , Hillock, or furrow , trips his feeble feet : O guard his meeksweet innocence from all Th ' num'rous ills that rush around his life . " DYER.

(1831.) The lambing season of Leicester and other heavy breeds of sheep, reared in the arable part of the country, commences about the 11th of March, and continues for about the space of 3 weeks. There is no

labor connected with the duties of the shepherd which puts his attention and skill to so severe a test as the lambing season ; and a shepherd whose unwearied attention and consummate skill become conspicuous at that critical period of his flock's existence, is an invaluable servant to a stock farmer - his services, in fact, are worth far more than the amount of wages

he receives; for such a man will save the value of his wages every year, in comparison with an unskillful shepherd, and especially in a precarious season, by so treating both the ewe and lamb, during the time, and for some time after the lambing season, that the lives of many are preserved that would otherwise have been lost.

To make my meaning more plain,

suppose a shepherd that has attentively observed the tupping, and marked the reckoning of every ewe, and who has put the ewes in proper time in

a suitable place to lamb in — that renders them requisite assistance, and no more, at the proper instant of lambing, and treats them afterward ac cordingto thecircumstances of the weather — that sees the lamb supplied with milk by day and night, when its mother happens to be unkind to it, or feeds it with milk obtained elsewhere, when the ewe has too scanty a

supply to support it — that knows how to afford relief to the ewein case of sickness and inflammation after lambing, and who castrates the lamb at the proper period of its strength, and in the proper state of the weather that knowsthe manner how, and the time when , to put an additional lamb to a ewe that has abundance of milk, and to take it from another which has

too little for a pair - suppose that by doing all this in a skillful manner, night and day, until the lambing is not only entirely completed, but the lambs reared beyond danger, he saves the lives of 10 ewes worth 40s. each, and of 20 lambs, that will come to be worth 20s. each, and this is no extravagant supposition in a large standing flock of fifteen scores of ewes, it is clear that, in so doing, he will save his wages of £40. Few shepherds are so successful, although I have known two instances of such success ; and no better proof need be adduced of the fewness of skillful shepherds, than the losswhich every breeder of sheep sustains every year,

especially in bad weather. I knew a shepherd who possessed unwearied attention, but was deficient in skill, and being over -anxious, always assisted the ewes in lambing before the proper time; and as he kept the ewes in too high condition, the consequence was, that every year he lost a number of both ewes and lambs, and in one season of bad weather the loss amount.

ed to the large number of 26 ewes, and I forget of how many lambs, in a (299)

156

THE BOOK OF THE FARM “SPRING.

Aock of only 10 scores of ewes. I knew another shepherd who was far from being solicitous about his charge, though certainlynot careless of it,

yet his skill was so undoubted that he chiefly depended upon it, and his success was so eminent that the loss of a ewe or a lamb under his charge was matter of surprise. Of these two sorts of shepherds — the attentive and the skillful - it would appear that the skillful is the safer, and of

course the morevaluable, though it must be owned that it is better to pre vent evils by skillful attention, than to cure them by attentive skill ; yet it is only by the union of both these qualities that a perfect shepherd can be formed. In contradistinction to a skillful shepherd, whose qualifications have been just noticed, let me advert to a few particulars mentioned by

Mr. Price as occurring, apparently as a matter of course, at the lambing season. Hesays that in preparing ewes for lambing, “ the ewes are driven into a pound, and the looker takes them singly, throws them down, and removes with the shears the wool on their tail, udders, and inside of their

thighs.” If this is a common practice, think of its barbarity, of throwing down a ewe on the ground big with lamb, nay, on the eve of lambing, in order to remove a trifling impediment to the lamb's sucking, which can be removed at any time after lambing. But there is a reason , it seems, for this treatment, called clatting, and it is this : “ The removal of the wool renders the part much neater,” - neatness of appearance being preferred at this particular time to the comfort and ease of the animal " and enables the lamber to see when the ewe has lambed, from a stain which generally appears on the back part of her udder. Were not this appearance to take

place, the lamber would sometimes be at a loss, as the young ewes frequently desert their young, and endeavor to escape along with the other ewes

grazing with as much unconcern as if nothing had happened.” Observe here the great skill and attention of a shepherd who is at a loss to know whether a ewe has lambed or not ; and who, it seems, does not even know

whether a ewe is in lamb or not, until he has thrown her down to remove

the wool ; for “ the barren ewe, or those which are not pregnant, are dis tinguished at the time ofclatting by not having anyswelling in their udder or belly, and by their skipping about nimbly.” Think also of what sort of care is bestowed on a newly lambed flock in a lowcountry, when such losses as these are incurred : “ I have known thousands of lambs lost from

night; I once beheld 30 or more lying being drowned in a wet stormy The ewes and lambs seek the corners of pasture -fields during the continuance of severe weather, and when the lambs get under these high shores and fall in, it is utterlyimpossible for together drowned in a ditch .

them to extricate themselves ; besides, as there are many huddled together,

they often push one another in.” That lambing paddock must be strangely managed which presents such a scene as this : “ Lambing presents a scene of confusion, disorder and trouble, which it is the lamber's business to rec tify, and for whichhe ought always to be prepared : some of the ewes perhaps leave their lambs, or the lambs get intermixed, and the ewes which have lost their lambs run about bleating, while others want assist ance.” It seems a shepherd cannot recognize the lambs of ewes, and so they must be marked. “ The twins are marked with a mixture of tar and lampblack, by means of small figures fixed in an iron handle about 8 inches long ;" "and the twin lambs areeasily separated, for the ewe very frequently

walks away with one lamb, leaving the other in the field, to the confusion be marked as early as possible to pre of the lamber ; therefore they should lamber must take the lamb to its mother, vent this confusion."

“ The

which he will find out by its number ;" and yet the number, it seems, will not always enable the lamb to find out the mother ; for “ if the lamber ( 300)

THE LAMBING OF EWES .

157

finds a young lamb, and is not certain which may be its mother, a circum stance which sometimes occurs when ewe's drop twins, and leave one of them, he may readily discover her by taking away the lamb she is foster ing, and putting the doubtful one on in its stead , when she will display evident tokens whether it belongs to her.” This method of trial and error the shepherd may have, of course, to put to every ewe before he dis covers the true mother ; for as he knows neither the mother nor the

lamb, the lamb may chance to belong to a ewe which has a single lamb as well as to one which has twins, unless the single lambs are left unmarked ; or, at any rate, he may present the marked and known -to -be -a -twin lamb lu a ewe that has a single one, as readily as to one that has twins. It will

excite no surprise tolearn that with shepherds so wretchedly qualified for their profession as the above particulars show, in “ most years not more lambs than one to each ewe” were obtained ; and that out of 800 ewes

of a certain flock only 100 pairs were saved, though it is stated by Mr. Price that with more skill afterward the number of pairs increased to

200. Here, then, is an instance where the improved skill of one man saved the lives of 200 lambs, which would come to be worth £200, equal ing the wages of at least 4 good shepherds.* I would not have noticed these egregious blunders, said by Mr. Price to be committed by shepherds

in a low country like Romney Marsh, in Kent, so prominently, had not Mr, Youatt adopted the sentiments of Mr. Price in the very particulars quoted above, in his excellent treatise on the history and diseases of sheep . Were a shepherd of a Leicester flock in Scotland made aware that he was sus pected of such ignorance of the nature of sheep he would be quite ashamed , and so would shepherds even of the hill country, who cannot have so inti mate a knowledge of every individual of their flock, usually occuying a wide range of mountain land, as their brethren of the profession tending flocks within much more limited bounds.

(1832.) Before the season of lambing arrives, the shepherd should have a small field of 1 or 2 acres or a sheltered corner of a grass-field of liko

size, conveniently situated as near the steading as possible, fenced round with nets, and fitted up

with sheds made of hurdles set up in the most sheltered part, against a wall or hedge, and lined in the inside and comfortably roofed with straw. Such straw -sheds form most comfortable places of refuge for ewes that may lamb in the night, or that have lambed in the

day,and require protection from frost, snow, rain, or cold in the night, until the ewes are perfectly recovered from lambing,and the lambs sufficiently strong to bear the weather in the open field. The small hand turnip -slicer, fig. 245, will be found on such occasions a very convenient instrument, for

cutting turnips in such turnip -troughs as fig.225, for the ewes in the pad dock, or in small boxes for them in the shed . Common kale or curly -greens is excellent food for ewes that have lambed, the nutritive matter of which, being mucilaginous, is wholly soluble in water, and beneficial in encourag ing the necessary discharges of the ewe at the time of lambing. According to the late Geo.Sinclair, 1 lb., or 7,000 grains of green curled kale, ( Brassi ca oleracea viridis,) yields 5,680 grainsof water, 880 grains of wood fibre, and 440 grains of nutritive matter, which last is all soluble in water. In

these respects kale is better food for ewes after lambing than Swedish tur spring for the se nips, which become rather too fibrous and astringent in cretion of milk . A large lantern which sheds plenty of light is an essen tial article of furniture at night to a shepherd . As foxes are apt to snatch away young lambs at night even close to the lambing -houses, I have found * Price on Sheep . † Youаtt on Sheep Sinclair's Hortus Gramineus Woburnensis, edition of 1824 .

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158

THE BOOK OF THE FARM- -SPRING .

an effectual preventive to their depredations in setting a shep-net, as in fig. 217, in front of the lambing-houses, leaving a sufficient space for a few ewes with their lambs taking up their lair within the net.

When thus

guarded, the foxes are afraid to enter the net, being apprehensive that it is set as a trap to ensnare them . Such an expedient is even more neces

sary in the corner of the field chosen for the lambing -ground. A large lantern fixed on a stake within the lambing -ground , and so placed as to throw light upon the whole ground, will be found a useful assistance

to the shepherd in showing him the ewes that evince symptoms of lambing. A net and lantern are also good safeguards against foxes at night in the grass-field wherethe recovered ewes with their lambs should be gathered for the night. This expedient of net and lantern I was in duced to try after losing, for a year or two, several lambs by the fox ; and such was its efficacy in deterring that nightly prowler from visiting the lair of ewes and lambs, that not a lamb was lost ever after.

A fox will not

meddle with a lamb above a month old.

( 1833.) Being thus amply provided with the means of accommodation, the shepherd, whenever he observes the predisposing symptoms of lambing in as many ewes as he knows will lamb first and these symptoms are, en largement and reddening of the parts under the tail, and drooping of the flanks - he places them of an afternoon, within the enclosed lambing

ground in the paddock or field, as described above, and provides them with cut turnips. The more immediate symtoms of lambing are when the ewestretches herself frequently ; separating herself from her companions ; exhibiting restlessness by notremaining inone place for any lengthof time ; lying down and rising up again, as if dissatisfied with the place ; pawing the ground with a fore -foot"; bleating as if in quest of a lamb ; and appearing fond of the lambs of other ewes .In a very few hours, or even shorter time,

after the exhibition of these symptoms, the immediate symptom of lamb ing isthe expulsion of the bag of water fromthe vagina, which , when ob served, the ewe should be narrowly watched, for the pains of labor may be expected to come on immediately. When these are felt by her, the

ewepresses or forces with earnestness, changing one placeor position for another, as if desirous of relief. Up to this time, not a hand should be put

upon her, nor until the hoofs of the fore-feet of the lamb, and its mouth lying upon them , are distinctly seen to present themselves in the passage. ( 1834.) The natural presentation of the lamb is the same as that of the calf, described in ( 1653). When time has been given to observe that the ewe is not able to expel the lamb by her own exertions, it is the duty of the shepherd to render her assistance, before her strength fails by unavail

ing pressing. The exact moment for rendering assistance can only be known by experience ; but it is necessary for a shepherd to know it, as

there isno doubt that hasty parturition often superinduces inflammation, if not of the womb itself, at least of all the external parts. When assist ance should be rendered, the ewe is laid gently over upon the ground on her near or left side, and her head a little up the hill ; and to prevent her being dragged on the ground when the lamb is being extracted, the shep herd places the heel of his left foot against the belly of the ewe, and kneels on his right knee on the ground across the body of the ewe, which lies be tween his heel and knee,with his knee pressing against her rump. Hav ing both his hands free, and his face toward the tail of the ewe, he first proceeds to push out from him ,with both hands, one leg of the lamb and

then the other, as far as they will go ; then seizing both legs firmly, above the fetlock joints, between the fingers of his left hand, he pushes them from him downward from the ewe's back, with considerable force, while by ( 302)

THE LAMBING OF EWES .

159

pushing in the space between the tail of the ewe and the head of the

Iamb toward him , with the side of his right hand, heendeavors to slip the the vulva of the ewe over the cantle of the lamb. These pushes are only

given simultaneously with the pressing of the ewe, merely to assist her, and keep good what is obtained at each pressing, and not, as it were, to tear the lamb from her per force. Whenever the head is cleared, the shepherd seizes the neck of the lamb behind the head with the right hand, and pulls

out the body. The lamb is then placed at the ewe'shead, for her to lick and recognize, which she will instantly do, if her labor has not been se vere ; but if it has she will likely become sick, and be careless of the lamb as long as the sickness continues, which is evinced by quick breathing. If the pains have been very sharp, and thisher first lamb, and she is not over come by sickness, she may start to her feet, and run away from the lamb.

The attempt should, of course, be prevented, and the tail of the lamb put While

into her mouth to make her notice it.

still lying on her side, her

abdomen should be felt, to ascertain if there is another lamb to come ; and

if there is, the pains accompanying its passage may have been the cause of her carelessness for the first lamb ; and if the second one is in natural

position, it will most probably by this time be showing itself in the passage, and if this be the case, the best plan is to take it away in the same man ner as the first, and the ewe feeling the attempt, will at once assist on her

part by pressing. The existence of a second lamb is worth attending to on another account, inasmuch as some ewes become so engrossed with the

first lamb, that the pains attending the second are neglected by them , and they will indicate no signs of it for a time. When a second is found in her she must be watched, that whenever it comes into the passage, it may be

taken away ; butunlesss it actually makes its appearance there, it should not be attempted to be taken away. Should it not make its appearance in a reasonable time, it may be suspected that the lambis either dead,or not in a natural position, and examination should be made by the fingers into the state of the case. A dead lamb is easily known by the feel, and should be extracted immediately , as it can afford no assistance of itself ; but should the lamb be alive , it may be necessary to introduce the hand to ascertain

its position. Before the hand is introduced, it should be smeared over

with goose grease . Ifthehead is bent back, it must be placed straight, or if one leg or both be folded back, they must be brought forward, one by

one, intothe proper position. In short, all the presentations offered by a lamb require the same means to be used to place them in a proper posi tion, as in the case of a calf; but with a Leicester ewe there is the addi tional difficulty of two, and even more, lambs at a birth, and mistaking a leg of one lamb for that of another.

The method of extracting a lamb as

described above, is adopted by a shepherd who has no assistants ; but when he has assistance, he adopts another and more easy plan for himself. The assistant holds the ewe in any way the most easy for her and himself, so

as to prevent the body being dragged along the ground while the shepherd is extracting the lamb, which he does by placing himself behind the ewe, and performs the extraction by pulling the legs toward him, while the as sistant endeavors to make the vaginal skin pass over the lamb's head, which, when accomplished, the shepherd seizes the neck by his left hand,

and holds the legs still in his right, takes away the lamb as quickly as he can, and places it before the ewe. There is a great difference in the dis position of ewes to assist in lambing. Some, when they find they are as sisted, give themselves little trouble ; while others press with vigor from first to last ; and others only press at long intervals. A ewe that presses strongly and continuously, will become sooner exhausted than one that (303)

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

takes more leisure, and in the former case there is more danger in neglect ing to make examination of the presentation in time, that is, before the ewe has become exhausted. I remember of seeing a lamb’s head without any of the legs protruded by the ewe, and, being allowed to remain in that state too long, the lamb was found, strangled to death by the force of pressing. This was a case of neglect, as the head should not have been allowed to come out without oneaccompanying leg at least. I remember of another case in which there was no appearance of a lamb, though the ewe had pressed for a considerable time. On examination it was found that the mouth of the womb was closed up. Inflammation had no doubt

at one time existed, and a discharge of lymph had caused adhesion . The shepherd, nothing daunted, very ingeniously introduced, in his smeared hand, a pen -knife, between the middle and fore -finger, and cut an incisior

across the pursed mouth of the womb, and thereby liberated two lambs and the ewe was not at all the worse for the operation. (1835.) When lambing has taken place in the day, the ewe with her lambs are best at liberty within the inclosed area of the lambing ground but in rain or snow, sheshould be taken under shelter to lamb, and kep

there for some time until the weather prove better, or she be completely recovered from the effects of parturition. Should she lamb at night, it should be under cover, whatever may be the state of the weather. In the

day, it matters not for lambs how cold the air is, provided it is dry. The cleaning or placenta generally drops from the ewe in the course of a very short time, in many cases within a few minutes, after lambing. It should

be carried away, and not allowed to lie upon the lambing ground. The

lamb is fondly licked by the ewe at first, and during this process maker many fruitless attempts to gain its feet, but it is surprising how very soon after an easy birth it can stand ; and the moment it does so , its first

effort is to find out theteat, expressing its desire forit, by imitating the act of sucking with its lips and tongue, uttering a plaintive cry, andwag ging its long tail. It is considered a good sign of health when a lamb trembles after birth. There are various obstacles to its finding the teat at

first; the long wool on the ewe's flank hides it, the wool on the udder in terferes with it, and what is still more tantalizing to the anxious toper, the intense fondness of its own mother urges her to turn herself to fondle it with her mouth-uttering affectionate regards — but the motion has the ef

fect of removing the teat,the very object of its solicitude. When atlength a hold of what it wants is attained , it does not easily let it go until satis

fied with a good drink. When a fond ewe has twin lambs,oneThis can easily obtain the teat, while she is taken up in caressing the other.

is the

usual conduct of strong lambs ; and on once being filled with warm milk,

progress rapidly to increasing strength, and are soon able to bear very rough weather. But lambs after a protracted labor, or the first lamb of young ewes, are so weakly at first as to be unable to reach the teat by their own strength, when they must be assisted, and the assistance is given in this way. Turn

ing the ewe over upon her rump, the shepherd reclines her back against his left leg, which is bent, while he supports himself kneeling on theright one. Removing any wool from the udder by the hand, and which is all

that is necessary, without clatting or doddering,as it is called in Scotland, he first presses the wax out of the teats, and then takes a lamb in each

hand, by the neck , and opens the mouth with a finger, and applies the

mouth to a teat, when the sucking proceeds with vigor. A young ewe or gimmer is apt to be shy to her firstlamb ; but after she has been suckled, either in this or in the natural way, she will never forsake her offspring. Indeed, it is a good plan for a shepherd to give every lamb its first suck 1304)

THE LAMBING OF EWES .

161

in this way, as it not only saves it much trouble, andputs it in the way

of

gaining strength rapidly,but affordshimself a favorable opportunity of ex amining the state of theudder, whether it is in a proper state for yielding milk, or feels hard ,or is inflamed. The propertreatment of the udder when in an inflamed state will be found below . Gimmers have so scanty

a supply of milk that it is expedient for the shepherd to support their

lambs partially on cow's milk, until they can afford the requisite supply, which will be induced partly by suckling, and partly from new grass. When the shepherd has lambs to support for a short time, he should supply them with milk at regular times, such as in the morning and evening, and see that the lambs are suckled by their mothers during the

day, and thus endeavor to bring on a sufficiency of milk. The dairy maid should put the cow's milkfor the shepherd in bottles, at the hours when the cows are milked, in the morning and evening, and he adminis ters it to young lambs while warm from the cow, and it is done in this

way : Sitting down, let him take a mouthfull of milk from a bottle, and

holding up the open mouth of the lamb, he pours the warm milk into it in a small stream from his mouth ; and thus mouthfull after mouthfull until

the lamb is filled. This auxiliary supply of milk should be withheld the moment the ewe can support her lambs herself, for cow's milk is not so congenial to a lamb's constitution as that of its own mother.

The ewes

are kept on the lambing ground till they have completely recovered from the effects of lambing and the lambs have become strong, and the ewes and lambs have become well acquainted with each other. The time re quired to accomplish this depends on the nature of the lambing, and the state of the weather.

The ewes, with their lambs, are then put into a field

of new grass, where the milk will flush upon the ewes, much to the advan tage of the lambs. It is generally a troublesome matter to drive ewes with young lambs to any distance to a field, because of the ewes always turning round and bewildering the lambs. A dog more frequently irri

tates the ewes than assists the shepherd in this task . I believe the best plan is to lead the flock instead of driving it, by carrying a single lamb, belonging to an old ewe, by the fore legs, which is the safest mode of carrying a lamb, and walking slowly with it before the ewe, while she will follow bleating close at the shepherd's heels, and the rest of the ewes will follow her of course. If the distance to the field isconsiderable, the de coy lamb should be set down to suck and rest.

With plenty of food, and

a safeguard of net and lantern at their lair at night, to keep off the foxes,

the flock will not fail to thrive apace. In case this safeguardis not adopt ed, and which I believe is rare, it

may be proper to tell you the distinctive

marks of the attacks of a dog from that of foxes on a lamb flock. The fox always attacks a lamb on the neck behind the head, and, if scared from his purpose, distinct holes made by the teeth will be found on each side of the neck, whereas a dog seizes any part ofthe body, and worries by the under part of the neck. Some ewes will fight off either dog or fox , and

be able to protect a single lamb ; while others become so frightened at once from an attack, that they do not know whither to flee for refuge. After such an attack, the bleatings of the ewes and lambs in search of each other, which is an unusual occurrence at night, will soon acquaint

the shepherd that some disaster has happened to his flock. The fox, if not immediately disturbed , carries off his prey, while the dog worries and leaves behind him what he does not eat.

(1836.) All the preceding cases of lambing are easy to the shepherd, but others usually occur which put his skill to the test. Malformations of the body of the lamb create difficult parturition , and endanger the life of (305)...... 11

162

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

the ewe. It is almost impossible to bring thehead of a wry -necked lamb into the passage of the womb , but it must be done before the entire body can be extracted, and if not, the head of the lamb should be taken off

rather than the ewe should lose her life .

Sometimes twin lambs die in

the womb several days before the period of lambing, and as they cannot

present themselves to the birth, they must be extracted by force , or even cut away in pieces, or they may be pulled away in pieces. In such a case

the placenta will be corrupted, and it may be a considerable time before it is entirely got rid of by the ewe by pressing. I have seen it so corrupt

ed thatit came away indischarges fromthe ewe as black and as viscid as tar. When twins are about to be lambed, the only care required is to

ascertain that each is presented separately. A breech presentation is a

difficult one, and the extraction is impracticable until the hind-legs are first brought out ; and in extracting by the breech, the operation should

be done quickly at the last to prevent the lamb drowning in the liquor amnii. In all cases of extraction, it should be made a point to have the back of the lamb next to the back of the ewe.

( 1837.) Much trouble is experienced by shepherds when ewes will not take their own lambs.

A ewe that beats off her own single lamb and en

deavors to purloinone from another ewe, should be immediately put into the shed and confined to a spot by a short string tied above the fetlock

joint of one of her fore-legs to a stub driven into the ground. When she endeavors to leave her lamb, the string pulls her foot off the ground, and while her attention is taken up with the string, the lamb seizes the teat and sucks in the mean time. The stratagem often repeated takes the courage from her, and makes her take with the lamb. · In every case of a ewe refusing to let her lamb suck, the shepherd should particularly exam ine the udder, and see there is no inflammation or uneasiness in it; and if there is, he should endeavor to remove it before putting the ewe under discipline. It is surprising how soon a lamb learns to steal a suck from a ewe ; if it cannot approach by the flank, it will seize the teat from behind between the hind legs. When a ewe will allow but one of her twins to suck her, she should be held till both suck her, and in a little time she will

take with both. It is not surprising that one ewe should refuse to take the lamb of another ; and yet it is nece cessary when a lamb is left an orphan ,

or is a supernumerary, to mother it, as it is termed, upon another ewe. For example, when a gimmer that has little milk has twins at time when another ewe that has plenty of milk produces a single lamb, it is for the benefit of both ewe and lamb that the ewe which has plenty of milk should bring up two lambs ; and the transference is easily enough accom plished while all the lambs are still wet, and two of them are placed be fore the ewe at once ; but when a ewe does not die till two or three days after she has lambed, it will be difficult to make another ewe that lambs a

single lamb, as the other ewe dies, take the older lamb along with her own . The usual plan in such a case is to rub the body of the older lamb with the new dropped one, before the new lambed ewe has had an op portunity of recognizing her own lamb, and to place both before her at the

same time ; and she may take both without scruple ;but the probability is that she will reject the older one, when she should be put into a dark corner of the shed and confined in it by a board placed across the corner , only giving her room to rise up and lie down, and to eat, but not to turn

quickly round upon the stranger lamb, which, rubbing against her wool, and sucking heragainst her inclination, will soon acquire the odor of her own lamb, and ingratiate itself in her favor . Another case of difficulty is

when ( 306) a twin lamb dies at birth from a ewe that has plenty of milk, while

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THE LAMBING OF EWES.

another ewe has had twins and is unable to support them ; and the

expe

dient is to strip the skin immediately off the new -born dead lamb and sew it on the body of one of the lambs belonging to the other ewe,

and pro

sent both the foster - lamb and her own at the same time to the ewe that

has plenty of milk. It is probable that the dark corner will require to be used before a cordial reception is given to the foster-lamb. Should all the above expedients fail to mother the lambs upon the ewes — and they may

fail, though under the guidance of a skillful shepherd they seldom do the lambs should be taken away and brought up as pets on cow'smilk. ( 1838.) The lamb of a fat ewe is always small when lambed, and is

plump and lively, but the ewein that state runs a great risk in lambing of inflammation in the passage of the womb. A lean ewe bears a lamb large in the extremities, and thin and weak in the body. A very old ewe's lamb is both small andweak. The lamb of a gimmer is small, and she not hav ing sufficient milk to rear it, continues small; and the lamb of a hogg is

still worse off. The best plan of managing ewes for rearing good lambs, is to keep them always in fair condition in winter, and until they have lambed, after which event they should have the best grass the farm can

afford. New grass always produces abundance of milk, and it springs earlier than old. In case of snow covering the ground in spring , when

the ewes are heavy in lamb, they should get a few turnips and plenty of hay, and clover-hay if possible, until the ground is again clear ; but in open weather in winter,there is nothing better for them than grass which had been kept rough for the purpose in autumn.

While confined on the

lambing -ground, ewes should have turnips and hay to support them ; and after lambing there is nothing better for them than cabbage or kale, in de fault of which a little oil-cake will encourage, at that time, the necessary discharges and purify the body. New grass also operates medicinally on the system .

(1839.) It is necessary to say a few words on the rearing of pet lambs. Wherever these are there must be orphans or supernumeraries in the flock, and, in either case, the deserted creatures would die were they not reared

by hand. As a remarkable instance of lambs being obliged to be made pets from supernumerary births, I remember one season, in a small flock of Leicester ewes, 50 in all, 48 having twins, and two trines. The two lambs which constituted the trines were properly taken away to relieve the ewes, and brought up by hand as pets. When ewes die it is scarcely possible avoiding having pets, on account of the improbability of ewes lambing single lambs just in time to receive those that have become or

phans. Pet lambs are supported on cow's milk, which they receive warm from the cows each time they are milked, and as much as they can drink. In the intervals of meals, in bad weather, they are kept under cover, but

in good weather they are put into a grass paddock during the day, and under shelter at night until the nights become warm. They are fed by hand out of a small vessel,which should contain as much milk as is known

each can drink. They are first taught to drink out of the vessel with the fingers like a calf ( 1683), and as soon as they can hold a finger steady in

the mouth, a small tin tube, about 3 inches in length , and of the thickness of a goose quill, should be covered with several folds of linen, sewed tightly on, touse as a substitute for a teat, and by which they will drink their allowance of milk with great ease and celerity, A goose quillwould answer the same purpose, were it not that it is easily squeezed together by the mouth. When the same person feeds the lambs -- and this should be the dairy -maid — the lambs soon become attached to her, and would fol low her everywhere; but to prevent their bleating, and to make them 1

(307)

THE BOOK OF THE FARMSPRING .

164

contented, an apron or a piece of cloth, hung on a stake or bush in the paddock, will keep them together.

( 1840.) A very common method practiced by shepherds of Leicester sheep, when they wish to catch aewe to give a weakly twin lamb a suck, or to examine the state of her udder, is to stoop down and run from behind and seize her by a hind leg. This is a safe

but when it fails, that is, when the captor cannot keep himself out of view until he seizes the ewe , she will start and run off, and alarm the other ewes beside her, and ev

ery alarm to a ewe , whether lambed or about to lamb, is

injurious, and at any rate cannot do any good. In these

Fig. 325 .

B

enough mode of catching a sheep when dexterously done ;

in upon her

circumstances, a crook does the same thing more quietly and as securely . It consists of a round rod of iron , bent

in the form shown in fig. 325 , furnished at the point with a knob, that the animal may not be injured by a sharp point , and at the other end with a socket, which receives a long shaft of wood , 5 or 9 feet long, according to fancy. The hind -leg is hooked in at a , from behind the sheep, and it

fills up the narrower part beyond a, while passing along it until it reaches the loop , when the animal is caught by the

hock, and when secured its foot easily slips through the loop . Some caution is required in using the crook , for should the sheep give a sudden start forward to get away , the moment it feels the crook, the leg will be drawn forci bly through the narrow part, and strike the bone with

THE SHEPHERD'S CROOK .

such violence against the bend of the loop as to cause the animal consid erable pain , and even occasion lameness for some days. On first em bracing the leg, the crook should be drawn quickly toward you, so as to bring the bend of the loop against the leg as high up as thehock, before

the sheep has time even to break off, and being secure, its struggles will ( 1841.) When those male lambs which are not to be kept as tups attain

cease the momentyour hand seizes the leg.

of from 10 days to a month , they are castrated. Some breeders advocate castration in a day or two after birth, while others will not allow

the age

the operation to be performed until the lamb is one month old. My opin ion is, that both these periods are extremes. A lamb of a day old cannot

beconfirmed in all the functions of its body, and indeed in many instances I question whether the testicles can then be found. At a month old, on the other hand, the lamb may be so fat and the weather warm , that cut

ting may be attended with febrile action. I prefer the operation being performed at from 10 to 15 days, when the creature has attained some strength, and yet its parts have not yet become rigid. Castration is per formed in this way. Let the assistant hold the body and both legs, one in each hand, as represented in fig. 326. The shepherd then causes the testicles to press the scrotum a smooth ; and making an incision through the integuments of the scrotum to the testicles, he pushes out one testicle farther than the other, seizes it with his teeth and draws out the spermatic cord until it breaks, and does the same with the other testicle, when the

operation is finished. Advantage is taken of the opportunity to dock the tail, which is left at c as long as to reach to the meeting of the hams. In

performing docking, the division should be made in a joint, otherwise the portion of the vertebra which has been cut through will have to be sloughed off before the wound can heal. Ewe lambs are also docked at

this time, but they are not held up for the operation, being merely caught (308)

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THE LAMBING OF EWES .

and held until it is done. In England, docking is performed at the third joint, which leaves a mere stump of a tail. The male lamb, after being docked, is let down to the ground by the tail, which has the effect, it is said , of righting theparts about the scrotum

after castration. The same opportunity is

Fig. 326 .

taken to mark the ears of lambs, and in the case of stock in hill farms, where it is not

easy to gather flocks frequently , the opera

tion is now easily performed ; but as Leices ter lambs are not marked in the ear at this

time , I shall defer describing that operation until its proper season in summer. The scrotum does not bleed in castration, but the tail sometimes bleeds for a long time in two

minute and forcible streams, though usually the bleeding soon stems. Should it continue so long as to sicken the lamb, a small cord

should be tied firmly round the end of the tail, but this must not be allowed to remain

on above 24 hours, as the point of the tail would slough off. The object of docking is THE CASTRATION OF LAMBS . to keep the sheep behind clean from filth and vermin; but as the tail is a protection against cold in winter, it should not be docked too short, as is the case in England. Tup -lambs are al lowed to retain their full tails until a year old , in order to strengthen the

back. Great caution is required in castrating lambs ; it should not be done in rainy weather, nor in very cold weather, nor in frost ; nor should the lambs be heated before the operation. It is best performed early in the morning, in fresh weather, with a westerly breeze. The ewes and lambs should be driven gently to a corner of the field , but not by the dog, whose duty is only to prevent a ewe breaking away. One assistant should catch the lambs,and another hold them while the shepherd operates. It is not

easy to catch alamb with a sheep's crook, their small, active limbs easily escaping from the loop, but it may be effectually used in hooking the neck, when the captor runs in upon the lamb and secures it. Where there is a bught or open shed in a d , the lambs and ewes may be driven loosely

in,and the lambs captured there. The old-fashioned mode of castrating lambs is to cut off the point of the scrotum and extract both testicles by the large incision ; but the extensive wound thus made takes a considera ble time to heal, whereas the simple incision now made heals almost al ways by the first intention. In some cases, however, inflammation ensues, and the scrotum swells, and even suppurates, when the wound should be

carefully examined, the matter discharged, and the wound soon heals up. The operation should always be done in the morning, that the several

cases may be observed during the day ; and should the weather have changed for the worse toward the afternoon, the ewes, with the lambs that have just been cut, should be brought into shelter all night. Besides the

the state of the weather, one cause of inflammation is the scratching ofgrass, wound of the scrotum by the points of the stubbie among the new and this irritation is most likely to be induced when the castration has

been performed by cutting off thepoint of the scrotum .

To avoid this

source of irritation, the new cut lambs should be put into a field of new grass where the stubble is short, or into afield of old grass for a few days. Hill lambs should be driven the night before being castrated into a bught or inclosure where they will be ready and cool for the operation in the ( 309)

166

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

morning. The practice of applying turpentine to the incision on the scro tum gives unnecessary pain and serves no good purpose. Sometimes one of the testicles does not descend into the scrotum , in which case the lamb becomes what is called a chaser, that is, one who constantly chases the fe males of the flock , when near him, from morbid desire.

( 1842.) These are the various risks which ewes and lambs are subject

to, until they may be said to be beyond danger; and when they have passed through these several trials in safety, the shepherd may calculate on the result of his success — he may then endeavor to ascertain whether

he has increased the breeding part of his flock in the proportion it should have increased . He should not be satisfied with his exertions, unless he

has preserved one-half the number of ewes with twin -lambs, nor should he congratulate himself, if he has lost a single ewe in lambing. I am aware these results cannot always be commanded, but I believe an atten tive and skillful shepherd will not be satisfied for all his toil, night and

day, for three weeks, if he has not attained these results. The ewes may have lambed twins to greater numberthan the half, and yet many pairs may have been broken to supply the deficiencies occasioned by the deaths of single lambs. The death of single lambs is a vexatious matter to a shepherd, as it not only breaks his pairs, but imposes very considerable trouble on him in mothering the severed twins upon other ewes ; and yet the trouble must be undertaken to retain the ewes that have lost their

lambs in milk, and so maintain them in proper condition for future years. In fine, steady weather, the shepherd proceeds with his labor in compara tive ease ; but when stormy or wet weather prevails , or comes at unex pected intervals, the number of lambings are not only accelerated, but everyewe most probably creates some trouble even in the day time. True, daylight has many eyes,” and permits him to observe many casualties in time toremedy their effects ; but at night, in bad weather, with glimmer ing light, difficulties increase tenfold , and so sensibly have I witnessed these difficulties myself, I am convinced every farmer of a large flock would find it repay it at the end of the lambing season, in the increased number of preserved lambs and ewes, to afford the shepherd assistance at

night in the most busy period of the lambing season, according to the cir cumstance of the case .

In regard to Cheviots, it is considered a favorable

result to rear a lamb for each ewe ; and with Black - faced ewes, 18 lambs

out of the score of ewes is perhaps one as favorable. Cheviots yield a few pairs, Black -faced very few . The former sometimes require assist ance in lambing, the latter seldom.

( 1843.) The state of the new grass-fields occupied by ewes and lambs requires consideration. Ewes bite very close to the ground, and eat con

stantly as long as the lambs are with them ; and as they are put on the new grass in the latter part of March, before vegetation is usually much advanced, they soon render the pasturebare when overstocked, and the

weather is unfavorable to vegetation. In cold weather in spring, bitten grass soon becomes brown. Whenever the pasture is seen to fail, the ewes should be removed to another field, for if the plants are allowed to be bitten into theheart in the early part of the year, the greater portion of summer will elapse ere they will recover from the treatment. Insteady

growing weather there need be little apprehension of failure in the pas The sown pastures consisting chiefly of red clover and rye -grass, the clover is always acceptable to sheep ; and in the early part of the sea son young shoots of rye-grass are much relished by ewes. On removing ture .

the stock from the first to the second field, it is better to eat the first down

as lowas it safely can be for the plants, in order to hain it, that is, to leave (310)

THE LAMBING OF EWES.

167

it for at least a fortnight, to allow the young plants to spring again with vigor, and which theywill do with a much closer bottom than if the field had been pastured for a longer time with fewer stock. Such a field eaten down to the end of May orbeginning of June, and allowed to spring af

terward in fine growing weather, will yield amuch heavier crop of hay than if it had not been depastured in spring at all. Although the whole breadth of young grass on a farm pasturedlightly with ewes and lambs in the spring were togrow , as the season advances more rapidlythan the ewes could keep it down, it will never produce the fine, sweet, fresh pas ture which field after field will yield that has been eaten down in succes sion, and then entirely hained for a time. But in removing ewes and lambs from a short to a full bite of grass, considerable caution is requisite in choosing the proper time for the removal. It should be accomplished in dry weather, and in the afternoon ; because, continued damp or rainy, or cold wet weather, renders new grass so succulent and fermentable as

almost certain to produce the green skit in lambs that are put upon it, al though the damp weather should increase the ewes' milk. (1844.) Carse farms have neither a standing nor a flying stock of ewes, and consequently, have no lambing season ; neither have farms in the neighborhood of large towns, nor dairy farms, nor pastoral ones for the breeding of cattle; so that ewes and lambs are only found on pastoral farms

that are devoted to the breeding of sheep, or on farms of mixed husbandry. But pastoral farms rear breeds of sheep very different in their nature from the breed, the management of which, I

dave described . On our hills, the Cheviot and Black -faced, or Heath sheep ,were long the only inhabitants, but now the valuable Southdowns are added to the list. The Cheviot and Southdown

range along semi-upland green mountainpastures, such as the Downs and the green hills of Che. stretches across the south ofScotland ; while the Black -faced roam on the highest mountains, not only asfar as a plant of heath can grow , but even beyond it, in the regions of the cryptogamiæ . (1845.) In as far as the assistance of the shepherd is required to begiven to ewes in the act of

viot, in England, and the green hills of Ochils, Sidlaws and the Lammermuir group, which

lambing, the observations I have made in reference to thelambing of Leicester ewes will apply to those of the Cheviot, Southdown and Black -faced breeds; but the ewes of these breeds do not

require assistance nearly to the same extent as Leicester ewes, the lambs of the latter being gen . erally largerin proportion to theewes, and they are more square-built in form . Single lambs of the other breeds are generally brought forth without any assistance, and twin -lambs are so few that the ewes bearing them may be singled out for remarkable attention. A Cheviot single lamb soon gets on foot after being lambed, and its acute instinct as soon directs it to the teat. The Black -faced lamb is fully more active after being dropped, gaining its feet in a few minutes,and itsrough coat of wool serves to protect it at once from the weather. Placed in shelter derived from one of the many naturalinequalities of the ground common in a pastoral country, both these breeds may easily be tendedin the lambing during the day ; but theconstant attention required of the shepherd limits his ability to superintend, at this particular period, a lambing flock beyond a certain number ; 400 ewes are as many as one shepherd can superinted in the course of the day, to render them the assistance they may stand in need of; to see that the new lambed ewes and lambs are placed in shelter until they have both perfectly recovered , and are able to take to the pasture ; and, in case of bad weather,to see that the ewes are supplied with someturnips and hay, to enable them to support their lambs until the weather becomes favorable. If one shep berd fulfills these duties in the day, he does quite enough, so that it will be necessary to have an assistant for him in the night, to see that the ewes are gathered into the shelter at nightfall, and to take a weakly lamb, or all the lambs that have dropped during the night. into sheds erected on purpose as a protection against bad weather. To ascertain the state of his flock, he should go ihrough them with a lantern, at least every two hourş, and oftener if necessary. Lord Napier

recommends the construction of a " lambing park,” for the use of ewes,and gives the cost of making one to comprehend 25 acres of ground ,which shall accommodate 200 ewes, with 2 stello and 2 stell-houses, and hay -racks, at£90, which, at7 per cent interest, with repairs of racks, & c .,

will incur an annual cost of £7 58. 8d. for sheep.* Such a place of shelter and of inclosure would, no doubt, be useful to a certain extent, but only to a limited extent : for such a park can only be in one part of the grazings, where at times it will no doubt be exposed to the weather, and as 25 acres would only contain 1-5 of the flock at a time, in stormy weather the rest of the flock, whether already lambed or yet to lamb, require shelter as well as ewes expected to lamb ; and the dividing of the flock every day to get the 200 ewes with their lambs out, and other 200 driven in , would

make a serious commotion among them at a very critical period ofthe ewes. I cannot help thinking thata chosen spot selected to afford shelter, according to the circumstances of the weather, to ali the ewes yet to lamb within a given time, and where they could be partly supported on artificial food, while those which havelambed could occupy at night a sheltered part of the best portion of the pastures, would disturb lambing ewes far less than a lambing park which wasnot constantly occupied by all the ewes. It should be remembered that hill sheep cannot be so easily shifted from one place to another as Leicester sheep, and especially in a grazing wbich has few or no inclo . * Napier on Practical Store Farming. (311)

168

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

sures. Small pieces of English blanketing,to be kept dry when notin use,to wrap round and keep warm a weakly lamb in the shed, until it has recoveredby the effect of its mother's milk, or

by warm cow's milk administered by the shepherd, will be found a useful article by every shep herd, and may be the means of preserving the life of many a lamb . Many a lamb I have seen recruitedby this means, when it would have otherwise perished of inanition. The period of lambing, in hillsheep, is longer than that of Leicester, because the gimmers are not tupped in the autumn until fortnight after the ewes, and, of course, do not begin to lamb in the spring until a fortnight later. The ewes beginto lamb about the 20thApril, andthe gimmers a fortnight after. To strengthen the gimmers, and to bring a flush of milk upon them , they are separated from the ewes about a month before their lambing time, and are supplied with turnips to the

amount of a double horse- load, say 15 cwts., to every 100 or 120 gimmers. About a fortnight be. fore the ewes lamb, they get the same quantity of turnips for every 160 ewes. In mountain farms, where there are no turnips, hay should be supplied in the same manner to gimmers and ewes. A quantity of hay, expended at this time, willbe more than repaid in the safety of lambs and vigor of ewes, especially in unfavorable weather.

(1846.) These few observations of Mr. Little on the qualifications of a hill shepherd, are worth your attention ,as containing much good practical sense and truth. “ Much ," he truly says, “ of the success in sheep -farming depends on the skill and application of shepherds, as well as on the judgment of farmers.

As the situation of a shepherd is one of considerable trust, he ought to be

honest, active, useful, and of a calm temper ; for if at any time a shepherd gets into a passion with his sheep, it is attended with great disadvantage in herding, or in working among them . I have known a hasty, passionate man, with a rash dog, give himself double the trouble in managing a hirsel of sheep, besides abusing the sheep, that a calm , good -tempered man , with a sagacious,

close-mouthed dog, would have had in the same circumstances. The qualification required in taking care of a hirsel of sheep, is not in running, hounding and training dogs, nor in performing

a day's work of any other kind; butto direct them according to the soil, climate, and situation of the farm , in such a manner as to obtain the greatest quantity of food at all seasons of the year . Their health and comfort should be carefully loooked after by the shepherd ; and if his exertions are made with judgment, they are of very great consequence to the farmer. It is not by walking

much, and doing a greatdeal, that a shepherd is a good one ;‫ ܪ‬but it is knowing where to walk , so as to disturb the sheep the least, and by doing at the time whatever is necessary to be done. There is not an experienced shepherd who has been any length of time on one farm , who does not, as soon as he rises in the morning, andobserving the state of the weather, know almost to a certainty where to find every sheep on the hill, and will accordingly take his course to the places he knows his presence is most wanted. The object in looking over a hill every evening and morning is to ascertain if there be no trespassers nor seases among the sheep which require looking after. If any of your own or neighbor's sheep have tresspassed, it is very foolish to dog

or abuse them, for the more gently you can turn them back the better. If the boundary should be on the top of a hight, to which sheep are apt to draw at night, it is better to turn your own a little closer to the boundary in the afternoon, than to turn back your neighbor's; and it will answer

thesame purpose ; and ifthe two flocks are gently divided in the morning without dogs, they will become so well acquainted with their own side that at the very sight of the shepherd they will take to it without farther trouble. Those shepherds who dog, force and shed much about a march, I consider them as bad herds for theirmasters as for the neighboring farmer . If the

boundary bea brook or low ground, where the sheep graze in the middle of the day, and if tres passers are likely to be considerable, the same plan of turning the sheepshould betaken as on the hight, except that they are to be turned down in the morning, and set out in the afternoon. When a sheep dies on the hill, or any disease appears among them , the dead or diseased sheep

should be removed immediately. but particularly so if the disease appears of an infectious nature. Looking regularly over a bill is of great consequence, also, in case of any sheep falling into a ditch, or lamb losing its mother, or when they are annoyed by flies or maggots, or by foxes or

dogs worrying them , or when they fall on their backs and cannot get up again. All these inci. dents an active shepherd with a good eye will soon discover, howevermuch a flock may be scat tered over a farm . . . . In good weather the shepherd may possibly do all that can be done among the ewes in the lambing season ; but in bad weather it is the farmer's interest to afford every necessary assistance, for the want of which serious losses have often been incurred. .. Knowing sheep by head -mark often saves a shepherd much trouble , particularly in the lambing season , and at all sortings of the sheep ;'yet there are many good shepherds who do not know sheep by head -mark, and there are some very ordinary ones who have a talent in that way.

Every individual may be known by the stockmark. To possess the knack of counting sheep readily is of no small service to the shepherd, for he ought always to be able to count his flock when he makes his rounds on the hills. There are few shepherds who accustom themselves to count sheep, who cannot, wherever they meet with them on a hill, count 100 going at large, or

even 200,and it seldom happens that a greater number than 200 will be found together in an open hirsel. To know the number in the different lots is of great use in case a hasty blast, asyou can in that event know, almost to a certainty, whether or not any sheep are wanting, and from what part of the farm . A shepherd ought likewise to be able to do any kind of work about a sheep farm , such as cutting lambs, smearing, slaughtering, dressing for the market, repairing

stone-dykes, cleaning, out drains, mowing grass, making hay, casting and winning peat-turf for fuel, &c. ; but he ought at no time to neglect the sheep for such work. Shepherds are generally accounted lazy, but those who really care for their sheep will not be so. Much walking unfits a

man for hard labor, as much as hard labor unfits a man for much walking; but laborers will gen erally be found more lazy in a hill, or among sheep, than shepherds will be found at field work .”" * (1847.). Ewes in lambsare liable to abortion, or slipping of the lamb, as it is usually termed, as well as the cow, but not so much so, nor is the complaint considered epidemical in the sheep. Little's Practical Observations on Mountain Sheep. (312)

169

THE LAMBING OF EWES .

Various causes produce it, such as severe weather in winter, having to endure much fatigue in

snow , leaping ditches, being frightened by dogs, over-driving. It is stated by Mr. Youatt, that too liberal use of salt will produce abortion. The wool is apt to come off in spring after abortion. It is scarcely possible to predicate abortion in sheep on account of their woolly covering ; but its immediate effects of dullness in the ewe, and of a redness under the tail, will be symptomsnoticed by anobservant shepherd. “ The treatment after abortion ," observes Mr. Youatt, “ will depend entirely on the circumstance ofthe case. If the fætus had been long dead, proved by the fetid smell of it, and the vaginal discharge, the parts should be washed with a weak solution in water

(1 to 16) of the chloride of lime, some of which may also be injected into the uterus. If fever should supervene, a dose of Epsom salts, timeously administered, will remove the symptoms. If debility and want of appetite should remain , a little gentian and ginger, with small doses of Ep

som salts will speedily restore the animal. Care should be taken that the food shall not be too nutritive or too greatin quantity.” In protracted labor when the ewe is becoming weak, she will be much relieved by receiving a table-spoonfull of brandy and sweet spirit of nitre in equal parts, with a drinking-horn. To produce pains in a ewe when she becomes apathetic in lambing, 2 table-spoonsfull of a strong infusion of the ergot of rye, repeated in a second dose in a quarter of an hour,will produce pains and ease the labor. In caseswhere it is impossible to extract the lamb, and the life of bothlamb and ewe are in danger, the Cæsarian operation, that is, extracting the lamb from the womb by an incision made in the side and the womb of the ewe, has been per formed with success .

" In some lambs that are born apparently dead, the vital principle is not ex

tinct, but it would soon be so if the little animal were suffered to remain on the cold damp grass. Every lamb that is found in this situation should be carefully examined, and if there is the slight est degree of warmth remaining about it, the shepherd should blow into its mouth in order to in flate the lungs : many a little one has thus been saved. The shepherd need trouble himself very little about the expulsion of the placenta or cleansing, although a day or two may pass before it is detached. A couple of ounces of Epsom salts, with a little ginger, may be given if there should be a longer delay, or if symptoms of fever should be exhibited : but the farmer would do well to avoid the rough barley or the misletoe, or infact any stimulant, for there is at this time sufficient disposition to fever, without its being artificially set up." The inflammation ofthe womb, after ‫ܙܙ‬

60

parturition, usually comes on between thefirst and the fourth day, and especially when any vio lence has been used in extracting the lamb. It is a most fatal disease, and speedily runs its course .

The treatment should be bleedings and purgatives of Epsom salts. Connected with this

disease are after-pains or heaving, to which ewes are subject, and which are frequently severe and destructive. They are apparently the same pains, but considerably stronger, which Nature uses to expel the lamb. It is evidently produced by the ewes being too well kept during their pregnancy, It cannot be too often repeated, that it is a fatal error to overfeed the ewes at this period with a view of giving them strength to support their approaching labor. It is an unscien tific and injurious practice, and severely does the farmer sufferfor it. But there is some epidemic

influence at work ,orthe constitution of the sheep is at that time irritable almost beyondbelief." Young lambs, as longas they are dependent on their mother for food, are subject to a fewdis A change to new luxuriant grass in damp weather may bring on the skit or diarrhea, and

eases .

exposure to cold may produce the same effect. As long as it feeds and plays there is little dan ger ; but should it appear dull , its eyeswatery and heavy, and its joints somewhat stiff, remedial means should immediately be used . “ A gentle aperient is first indicated in order to carry off any

offensive matterthat may have accumulated in and disturbed the bowels : half an ounce of Epsom salts, with half a drachm of ginger, will constitute the best aperient that can be administered. To that must be added a table spoonfull of sheep's cordial, consisting of equal parts of brandy and

sweetspirit of nitre,housingand nursing.”“ InBut there isa speciesofapparent purging, which is the natural and healthy state of the milk and the

à more dangerous disease than the skit.

stomach, curd produced by the gastric juice gradually dissolves and is converted into chyme; but when the one takes on a morbid hardness, and the other may have lost a portionof its energy, the

stomachisliterally filled with card, and all its functions suspended. The animal labors under seeming purging, from the quantity ofwhey discharged, but the actual disease is constipation. It is apt to occur about the time when the lamb begins to graze, and when the function of the

stomach is naturally somewhat deranged. Chemistry teaches us, that while a free acid produces coagulation of the milk, an alkali will dissolve that coagulum . Magnesia, therefore, should be ad . ministered, suspended in thin gruel, or ammonia largely diluted with water, and with them should be combined Epsom salts to hurry the dissolved mass along, and ginger to excite the stomach

to more powerful contraction. Read's stomach-pump will be found a most valuable auxiliary here. A perseverance in the use of these means will sometimes be attended with success, and the better pasture.” Besides looseness, lambs are at times subject to costiveness in the bowels. In the firstfew ofitsexistence fæces they viscid up consistence, whichOn , when itfalls on thedays tail,has the effect ofthe gluingit to thevoid venthas anda very of stopping that passage. the

little “ patient being somewhat relieved, the lamb and the mother should be moved to somewhat

removal of the obstruction by scraping with a knife, the symptom will also be removed.

A worse

occasionally to the ground accom species of costiveness is,when a few drops of liquid fæces fållthat may be dange . Half-ounce

panied by straining, as it is generally accompanied with fever

rous

doses of É psom salts should be administered every six hours until the bowels are evacuated , after which both ewe and lamb should be turned into more succulent pasture , as the cause of the com plaint is to be found in bare pasture and dry weather . In cases of fever, which may be observed

from the dullness of the lamb and its quick breathing, the administration of tolerable doses of Ep. ng, somsalts willgenerally avertthe malady . at its commencement. After recovery fromorlambi garget, the only complaint the eweis subject to is inflammation in the udder, or udder-clap, Of this complaint Mr. Youatt gives a good idea of its origin and of its treatment in these words : “ The shepherd, and especially in the early period of suckling, should observe whether any of the ewes are restless and exhibit symptoms of pain when the lambs are sucking , or will not permit them to suck at all. The ewe, like the cow, or oftener than that animal, is subject to in (313)

170

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

flammation of the udder during the time of suckling, caused either by the hardness or dryness of the soil on which she lies ; on the other hand, by its too great moisture and filth, or by some ten

dency to general inflammation, and determined to the udder by the bumps and bruises, sometimes not a little severe, from the head of the lamb. If there is any refusal on the part of the ewe, or even disinclination, to permit the young one to suck, she must be caught and examined. There will generally be found redness and enlargement and tenderness of one or both of the teats, or some cimes the whole of the udder, and several small distinct kernels or tumors on different parts of the

bag. The udder should be cleared of the wool which surrounds it, and should be well fomented with warm water, a dose of Epsom salts administered, and then , if there are no large distinct knots or kernels, she should be returned to her lamb, whose sucking and knocking about of the udder will contribute more than by any other means, to the dispersion of the tumor and the regu . larflow of milk. It may occasionallybe necessary to confine her in a pen with her little one, in order that he may have a fair chanceto suck. A day, however, having passed, and she not per mitting it to suck, the lamb must be taken away, the fomentation renewed, and an ointment com posed i drachm of camphor rubbed down withafew drops of spirit of wine, 1 drachm ofmercu rial ointment, and 1 oz. of elder ointment, well incorporated together, must be rubbed into the

affected part, or the whole of the udder, two or three times a day. She must also be bled, and the physic repeated. If the udder should continue to enlarge, and the heat and tenderness should increase, and the knots and kernels become more numerous and of greater size, and some of them should begin to soften or evidently to contain a fluid , no time must be lost, for this disease is

abundantly more rapid in its progress in the sheep thanin the cow.

A deep incision must be

made intothat part of the udder here the swellings are ripest, the pus or other matter squeezed out,and the parts well fomented again. To this should succeed a weak solution of the chloride of lime with which

the

ulcer should be well bath ed two or three times in

a day. smell

When all fetid ceases

and

Fig. 332. a

the

wound looks healthy, the friar's balsam may be sub tituted for the chloride of

lime. The progress of dis organization and the pro cess of healing are almost incredibly rapid in these cases, and the lamb may sometimes be returned to

the course of a few days. There are particular sea sons, especially damp and warm ones, when there is a superfluity of grass, in which gargetis peculiarly frequent and fatal. With out warning, the adder

sweils universally with hardened teats, which sometimes brings on great

inflammation, and if it has not stopped in the course THE EWE-HOUSE . of 24 hours, part, if not the whole, of the udder morti fies, and the mortification rapidly spreads, and the sheep dies. " *

( 1848.) Incase of an individual ewe, of a large flock of a pastoral farm ,strayingaconsiderable distance from the shed erected to afford shelter to ewes, or has suffered in hard labor, or has a weakly lamb, or has twins which are apt to stray from her or she from them , or has been over taken by a rude blast immediately after lambing, a contrivance to afford such ewes temporary 1

shelter, especially under night, having been used by Mr. Nicholas Burnett, Blaik Hedley, near Gates-head, with success, seems to deserve attention. It consists of an inclosure of boards, or a box, as seen in fig . 332,whereof a is the front, which removes by hooks at the sides to admit thé ewe and her lamb within , and where she is provided with a manger b to contain

sliced turnip or oil-cake, and a rack c for hay, to fill both of which access is obtained by the lid à ,movable on its hinges. I have been assured by Mr. Burnett, that in using this contrivance, which, being a light implement, can be easily carried to any spot, he has had the satisfaction of using it as a means of saving the lives both of ewes and lambs which would have otherwise perished from exposure. The size of the ewe-house, as it is called, may be made to suit that of the sheep bred on the farm and as it is not costly, any number can be made to be used at a time. The fork e leaning against the side of the ewe house may be used to grasp a ewe's neck, while

lying on the ground, and tofasten it down, while the shepherd is lambing her without other as sistance ; but the method of holding a ewe between the heel and the knee, which I have before described, renders such an instrument of little use .

(1849.) One of the greatest sources of loss among lambs on hill farms is a fall of snow at the

lambing season or a continuance of snow to thatperiod. Ground rendered wet by the melting of new -fallen snow , is in a worse state for lambs than when made wet by rain, as in the latter case

the temperature of the air is higher, though, of course , wet ground of any kind is inimical to the * Youаtt on Sheep . (314 )

171

THE LAMBING OF EWES .

safety of new -dropped lambs. In such a case, the driest part of the farm combined with shelter should be chosen for the lambing ground, though it may be inconvenient in some other respects but should the best lambing ground be covered with old snow, especially in sheltered spots, and the temperature of the air be generally above the freezing point, could the snow be stirred by any means, it would melt much faster than it Fig. 333. would of itself.

A

snow -harrow or snow plou will be found a

useful implement for the purpose , and those recommended

by Mr. Hepburn of Culquhalzie seem to possess every requi site.

The snow -har

row is represented by fig. 333 . It con sists of a single bull

a b, 44 inches square, and 6 feet long ; and in

the

middle

of

which, on the under side, a piece of 14 inch plank c d, 3 feet long, is sunk flush transversely, for the attachment of

THE MOUNTAIN SNOW - HARROW .

the

draught-hook c, and

the stilt eto steady the motion ofthe implement. In the bull are fixed by screw -nuts at intervals of 10 inches,7 cutters f f, & c., 9 inches long and 14 inches broad , sabre-shaped, with their points Between these cutters are fixed 6 shorter ones g g , & c., 3 inches long, having their points turned forward. This implement, dragged by one horse ridden by a boy, and the stiltheld by a man , turned backward, so as to be lessliable to be arrested by obstacles on the surface of the ground.

cuts the frozen snowinto strips of 5 or 6 inches broad , which are easily pulverized by the feet of

the sheep, or divided by the snow -plow . The severe snow -storm of 1823 lay on the hills from February to May ; and the protracted snow -storms of 1837-8, with repeated fålls and alternations of frost and thaw , caused the death of many a sheep before and at the lambing season . The snow

became so compacted in the latter year, that the common snow -plow was unable to penetrate the snow , and the common harrow to break its glazed surface. With the view of obviating both these inconveniences, Mr. Hepburn contrived the snow -harrow described above, and also the snow . plow , ofwhich the following is a description in Mr. Hepburn's own words: " The severity ofthe winter of 1837-8 in mountain sheep pasture, led me to attempt the snow -plow , with or without the aid of the snow -harrow , for being applied in such situations. To enable the plow to clear tracks

for the sheep along the hill-sides, it is necessary it should bemade to throw the snow wholly to the lower side. To effect this I caused to be fitted to the plow a a, fig.334, the body of which forms an isoceles triangle whose sides are 74 feet, and its base 6 feet in length, the depth of the sides being 15 inches, a shifting head b c d, with unequal sides, one b c, being 18 inches, the other b d , 30 inches long, fixed by iron pins passing through to pairs of eyes as seen at c, attached to the head and to the sides of the plow respectively, so as to bring the point of the attached head of the plow nearly into the line of its upper side, or next the hill. The stilte at the same time was made

movable by a hinge-joint at its anterior extremity, fixed to the bottom of the head from the post f, so as to be capable of being fixed to the cross-bar or stretcher g a, either in a line bisecting the angle, as at h,which is the position for level ground, or in the line alternately, of either of thesides b aor b g , when to be Fig. 334.

used on a declivity. The draught- chain is

d

fixed, not to the shift

ing head, but to the

f, uprig nose , of the theht frame-post in

of

3

d

plow, which rises 10 or 12 inches above the mould-boards. When a plow so constructed

is to be worked along a declivity, with the left hand toward the hill, the shorter limb

of the shifting head is fixed on the left side

of the plow, near the point, and the longer

THE MOUNTAIN TURN -WRIST SNOW-PLOW .

limb on the right side,toward the middle ; and the stilt being fixed in the left extremity of the cross-bar, nearly in a line with a temporarypoint, the plow is necessarily drawn in thedirection of its left side, so as to throw the snow wholly to the rightdown the hill. When the plow is to return across the declivity, with its right side to the hill, the movable head is detached by drawing (315)

172

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

out the linch-pins, is turned up side down, and fixed in the reverse position ; the shorter limb be

ing attached to theright side. and the longer to the left side of the plow, while thestilt isbrought to the right extremity a of the cross-bar. The plow is then drawn into the direction of the right side, and the snow is thrown wholly to the left, near the lower side. Should the lower side of the plow show a tendency to rise, it may either be held down by a second movable stilt, fixed to the middle b of the cross-bar, or a block ofwood, or other ballast weight may be placed on that

side of the plow. The plow will be found to remove considerably more than its own depth of When a plow of 1 foot high passes through snow 18 inches or 2 feet deep, very little of snow falls back into the track, and what does so fall is easily cleared outby the plow in return.

SNOW.

ing." * In lowland farms the snow remains around the fences long after the middle of the fields are clear.

A speedy means of getting rid of the snow is to plow it withthe common plow repeat

edly. Had I not adopted this expedient in the spring of 1823, the oat-seed would not have been begun for a fortnight later than it really did .

( 1850.) In regard to the treatment of sheep on turnips in spring, they are managed in the same way as in winter, until removed to grass, which they are , whenever the turnips fail, and are kept on for a short time, until the weather becomes mild enough to have them shorn of their wool.

and then they are sold to the butcher ; but other farmers preferselling them fat, in a rough state off the turnips- that is, before the wool is clipped off them . The circumstances which regulate these different cases will be explained in a shorttime.

14. TRAINING AND WORKING THE SHEPHERD's Dog. “He was a gash an ' faithful tyke, As ever lap a sheugh or dyke, His honest, sonsie, baws'nt face, Aye gat him freends in ilka place. His breast was white, his touzie back Weel clad wi' coat o' glossy black :

His gawcie tail, wi'upward curl, Hung o'er his hurdies wi' a swirl. " BURNS.

(1851.) The natural temper of the shepherd may be learned from the

way in which he works his dogamong sheep. Whenyou observe an aged dog making a great noise, bustling about inan impatient manner , running fiercely at asheep and turninghim quickly, biting at his ears and legs, you may conclude, without hesitation, that the shepherd who owns him is a

man of hasty temper. Most young dogs exhibit these characteristics nat urally , and they generally overdo their work ; and if you observe a shep herd allowing a young dog to take his own way, you may conclude that he also is a man who loses his temper with his flock . If you observe another shepherd allowing his dog, whether old or young, to take a range along the fencesof a field , driving thesheep within hissight as if to gather

them , you may be sure he is a lazy fellow, more ready to make his dog bring the sheep to him, than he to walk his rounds among them . Great harm may accrue to sheep by working dogs in these ways. Whenever sheep hear a dog bark that is accustomed to hound them every day, they will instantly start from their grazing, gather together, and run to the far thest fence, and a good whilewillelapse ere they will settle again. And even whensheep are gathered, a dogof high travel, and that is allowed to run out, will drive them hither and thither, without an apparent object. This is a trick practiced by lazy herds every morning when they first see their flock, and every evening before these take up their lair for the night, in order to count them more easily. When a dog is allowed to run far out, he gets beyond the control of the shepherd ; and such a style of working among wether sheep, puts them past their feeding for a time ; with ewes it is very apt to cause abortion ; and with lambs after they are * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiii. (316)

TRAINING AND WORKING THE SHEPHERDS DOG.

173

weaned, it is very apt to overheat them , and a considerable time will elapse before they recover their breath. Whenever a sorting takes place among the sheep with such a dog they will be moved about far more than is necessary ; and intimidated sheep, when worn into a corner, are far more liable to break off than those treated in a gentle manner. A temperate

herd works his dog in quite a different manner. He never disturbs his sheep when he takes his rounds among them at morning, noonand night,

his dog following at his feet as if he had nothing to do, but ready to fulfill his duty, should any untoward circumstance require his services, such as breaking out of one field into another. When he gathers sheep for any purposeof sorting, or of catching particular ones, the gathering is made at

a corner, and to gain which he will give sheep the least trouble, making the dog run out to the right and left, to cause the sheep to march quietly towardthe spot, and after they are gathered, he makes the dog to under stand that it is his chief duty to be on the alert , and with an occasional

bark prevent any of the sheep breaking away. When a sheep does break away and must be turned, he does not allow the dog to bite it, but only to

bark and give a bound at its head, and thus turn it. In attempting to turn a Black -faced wether in this way, the dog runs a risk of receiving an injury from its horns, and to avoid this I have seen him seize the coarse wool of

of the buttock, and hang by it like a drag, until the sheep was turned round in the opposite direction, when he lets it go. In short, a temperate herd only lets his dog work when his services are actually required, he fulfilling his own duties faithfully, and only receiving assistance from his dog when the matter cannot be so well done by himself, and at no time will he allow his dog to go beyond the reach of his immediate control. Dogs, when thus gently and cautiously trained, become very sagacious, and will visit every part of a field where sheep are most apt to stray, and

wheredanger is most to be apprehended to befall them, such as a weak part of a fence, deep ditches or deep furrows into which sheep may pos sibly fall, and lie awalt or awkward -- that is, lie on the broad of their back

andunable to get up, and they will assist to raise them up by seizing the wool on one side and pulling the sheep over upon its feet. Experienced dogs will not meddle with ewes having lambs at foot, nor with tups, being quite aware of their disposition to offer resistance . They also know full well when foxes are on the move, and give evident symptoms of uneasi

ness on their approach to the lambing ground. They also hear footsteps of strange persons and animals at a considerable distance at night, and an nounce their approach by unequivocal signs of displeasure, short of grum bling and barking, as if aware that those noisy signs would betray their own presence .

A shepherd's dog is so incorruptible that he cannot be

a known friend to touch him when intrusted bribed, andwill not permit even far as my observation extends, I think there

any piece of duty. So are two varieties of the shepherd's dog - one smooth , short-haired , gener

with

ally black -colored on the back, white on the belly, breast, feet and tip of the tail, with tan - colored spots on the face and legs; the other is a larger and longer-bodied animal, having long hair of different colors, and long,

flowing tail. In their respectivecharacters I conceive them to be very like the pointer and the setter. The small, smooth kind , like the pointer, is

very sagacious, slow , easily broke and trained, and admirably suited to work in an inclosed and low country ; the other, like the setter, is more

swift, bold, ill to break, and requiring coercion, and fitter for work on the The former answersthe habits of Leicester sheep, the latter those of the Cheviot and Black -faced. The latter requiring a great range to work in , on account of the nature of the sheep and of the ground which

hills.

(317)

174

THE BOOK OF THE FARMSPRING .

they frequent, are bold and rough in action ; still they should be trained to work with judgment and caution, and not with recklessness and fury. Most shepherds profess to be able to train young shepherds' dogs, and therein many display much ignorance of the nature of the animal, and of the aptitude of the particular animalfor the peculiar work, and the conse quence is, many dogs are rendered unfit for their work . Every shepherd's

pup has a natural instinct for working among sheep , nevertheless they should always be trained with an old dog. Their ardent temperament requires subduing, and there is no more effectual means of doing so than

keeping it in company with, and making it imitate the actions of,an expe rienced, sober dog. A long string attached to the pup's neck, in the hands of the shepherd, will be found necessary to make it acquainted with the language employed to direct the various evolutions of the experienced dog while at work. With this contrivance it may be taught to "hold away out by , ” to come in,” to come in behind,” to “ lie down," to be quiet, 66

66

to “ bark,” to “ get over the dike or fence,” to “ wear, " that is, to intercept, to “ heel, ” that is, to drive on, to “ kep ,” that is, to prevent getting away ; it

will learn all these evolutions and many others in a short time, in imitation of its older companion and guide. It is supposed that the bitch is more acute than the dog, though the dog will bearthe greater fatigue. Of the

two, I believe that the quietly disposed shepherd prefers a bitch, and is may mention

careful in working her as little as he can when in pup. I that the shepherd's dog claims exemption from taxation ; and I believe that a well-trained one costs at least £3 .

15. SOWING BARLEY- SEED. “ Such land as ye break up , for barley to sow , Two earths at the least, ere you sow it bestow , If land be thereafter set oating apart, And follow this lesson to comfort thine heart.' TUSSER .

(1852.) It may be laid down as an axiom, that land which has borne turnips which have been eaten off by sheep should receive two plowings of some sort before it is sown with barley. I have seen the experiment

tried of sowing barley on a single furrow on land ranging from clay to gravelly, and the invariable result was a manifest deficiencyof crop com pared to what had received two furrows; and this result is not surprising,

when it is considered that barley requires a deep, well-pulverized soil to its perfect development, and that it is impossible to render any land so

with a single furrow, that has been trampled firm by sheep, after carrying a heavy crop of turnips. Strong land yields, with a singlefurrow , a tough, waxy clod, very inimical to the growth of barley ; and light turnip- soil, when ridged up with a single furrow , exhibits the growth of barley in drills corresponding exactly with the drills which had been manured for turnips. The least difference of crop with one and two furrows is ob served on fine hazel loam , still the superiority is to be found with the two furrows. Lay it, therefore, down as a rule, that barley land shall receive two furrows; and the only question is in what form these should be given,

bearing in mind, at the same time, that the land must be deep and well pulverized, and to settle what that form should be shall be our present endeavor. (318)

SOWING BARLEY-SEED .

175

( 1853.) On clay loam in good heart it is possible that some of the tur nip land that had been ridged up for spring wheat had been, from some cause, prevented from being sown with that grain, and, of course, it must

be sown with barley. Theland had likely been gathered up from the flat, as in fig. 133, or it may have been cast, as in fig. 135 ; in either case the barley land willbe desired to be seed -furrowed in the same manner, that the ridging of the whole field may be uniform . Since the furrow for the spring wheat was the seed -furrow , and its ridges had been formed with a view to make the surface of the field uniform from side to side, it will be

impossible to re -plow those ridges with one furrow of the common plow,

without disturbing their form . Such ridges must either be plowed twice with the common plow ,to bring them back to their present form , for which repetition of work there may not be sufficient leisure, or they may be stirred with the grubber, a class of instruments with the importance of which you will be made acquainted below by Mr. Slight, or ribbed with

the small plow , fig. 314, without affecting their form . The choice of these various modes ofstirring the ground may be taken according to circum stances. If the ridgeshave become much consolidated in consequence of being plowed a considerable time, or of much rain having fallen, and if the soil itself be naturally firm , two furrows with the common plow will

best put the land into a state for receiving barley ; but should they be in a somewhat soft state, with perhaps rather too muchmoisture below, though with a kindly state of the surface, capable of affording a fine tid

withthe harrows, then the grubber is the most proper implement for mak ing a deep bed for the barley-seed, while it at the same time retains the dry surface uppermost ; and should the soil be naturally free while it is desired to retain the upper stratum of soil still uppermost, it may be ribbed with the small plow . Putting these ridges thus into the best state for the barley -seed, there will be no difficulty with the remainder of the land. The first furrow given to barley land, which is at the same time in the best direction, is the cross-furrow , as in fig. 312, because being plowed

in an opposite direction to the seed -furrow to be afterward given, the best means are taken to pulverize it. I need not here repeat what has already been said so fully on cross-plowing in (1718) to (1723) inclusive. Although the land may not be all so cleared of turnips as to allow the cross -plowing to extend from one side of the field to the other, it should be divided into

two portions, one of which should be plowed and sown while the other is clearing, and which may Aft perhaps be cleared by the time the sowing of the er a of the harrows a double tine over

first part is completed.

passage

the cross-plowed land, the ridges should be feered and plowed up for the seed -furrow , and the usual form of seed -furrow is either gathering from the flat, as shown in fig. 133, or yoking two ridge-breadths together, as in fig. 135. Every plow should be employed in ridging up the seed-furrow for the barley -seed, for it is essentialto the success of that crop that the seed be sown on the soil fresh turned-up, or on a hot-furrow , as it is termed.

Both thecross-plowing andseed -furrow should be deep. The former may be turned up with a broad, stout furrow -slice, but the latter should be plowed with a deep, narrow furrow -slice, in rrder to pulverize the soil as much as possible, and to make the crests of the furrow -slices numerous and narrow , so as to disseminate the seed more equally when sown by

hand ; for the sowing of seed on a fine pulverized surface requires assist ance of this sort to cause it to be equally disseminated, inasmuch as on whatever spot every seed falls, thera it lies, the soft earth having no elas ticity like the firm furrow -slice of lea, and hence, of all the sorts of grain ,

barley is the most likely to be happerga'ed in the sowing, and on that ac. (319)

176

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

count every handfullrequires to be cast with greater force than other sorts of grain. The walking on soft ground in sowing barley is attended with considerable fatigue, and as short steps are most suited for walking on soft

ground, so small handsfull are best for grasping plump, slippery barley. Barley may be sown any time that is proper for spring wheat, and it may be sown as late as the end of May ; but the earlier it can be sown, the

better will the crop be in quality and uniformity, though the straw will be less. The average quantity of seed sown broadcast is 3 bushels to the im perial acre ; when sown early less will suffice, and when late, more ; be cause the later it is sown there is less time for so quick a growing grain

as barley to tiller and cover the ground . Mr. Brown has some judicious remarks on this subject : “Among the farmers,” he says, “ it seems a dis puted point whether the practice of giving so small a quantity of seed ( 3

bushels per acre) to the best lands, is advantageous. That there is a saving of grain there can be no doubt; and that the bulk may be as great as if more seed had been sown, there can be as little question. Little ar gument, however, is necessary to prove that thin sowing of barley must be attended with considerable disadvantage ; for, if the early part of the

season be dry,the plants will notonly be stinted in their growth, but will not send out offsets; and if rain afterward falls- an occurrence that must take place sometime during the summer, often at a late period of it - the plants then begin to stool, and send out a number of young shoots. These young shoots, unless under very favorable circumstances, cannot be ex.

pected to arrive at maturity ; or if their ripening is waited for, there will be great risk of losing the early part of the crop - a circumstance that fre quently happens.

In almost every instance an unequal sample is pro

duced , and the grain is for the most part of inferior quality. By good judges it is thought preferable to sow a quantity of seed sufficient to in sure a full crop, withoutdepending on its sending out offsets. Indeed, when that is done, few offsets are produced, the crop grows and ripens equally, and the grain is uniformly good."* There is no grain so easily affected by weather at seed-time as barley; a dash of rain on strong land will

cause the crop to be thin, many of the seeds not seemingly germinating at all , while others burst and cannot germinate ; and in moist, warm weather

the germination is certain and very rapid. Indeed, it has been observed

that unless barley germinate quickly, the crop will always be thin. I have seen the germ of barley penetrate the ground only 36 hours after I had sown it myself, and when it took place, the ground was smoking by the

evaporation of moisture, caused by a hot sun in a calm atmosphere. I have also traced the germ of barley to the depth of 9 inches below the

surface. The harrowing which barley-land receives after being sown is double tine across immediately after. Then the grass-seeds are sown with the grass-seed sowing-machine, formerly described in ( 1774) ; the

less than oat-land, a double tine being given in breaking in the seed, and a

land is harrowed a single tine with the light grass-seed harrows ( 1775) ; water-furrowed ( 1778) ; and finished by immediate rolling. On strong soil, apt to incrust on the surface with drouth, after rain the rolling pre cedes the sowing of the grass-seeds, and the process is finished with thelight

grass-seed harrows; but on all kindly soils the other plan is best for keep ing out drouth, and giving a smoother surface for harvest-work . The head -ridges are plowed and sown by themselves. Barley may be sown with the broadcast machine as well as oats, and it is admirably suited for sowing with the drill sowing-machine, which deposits the seed at a uniform depth and breadth between the rows, with about two bushels of seed to * Brown on Rural Affairs, vol. ii. (320)

177

SOWING BARLEY - SEED .

the acre ; and such an arrangement affords opportunity for the exercise of the draw -hoe, to remove the wild mustard , which is apt to spring up among the spring crops in the vicinity of large towns, where street-manure is used to a large extent.

( 1854.) Barley is sown after potatoes and beans, but never when the weather will permit the sowing of wheat. When intended for barley, the

land is gathered up for thewinter, water-furrowed and gaw-cut,to pre vent water standing upon it ; and in spring it is cross-plowed and ridged up with the seed -furrow. Barley is sown also at times after wheat or oats, and the sample in such a case is always fine colored , but the practice is

bad farming , and should never be pursued. It is never sown in Scotland after lea, but might be after the land had received a partial fallowing in spring. When sown in autumn, it does not stand the winter well in Scot land, though it does in England. Winter barley is always early ripe, but

is seldom a prolific crop, and when it tillers late in spring to cover in the ground, the produce is apt to contain a large proportion of light grain.

As an instance of late sowing of barley, I may relate what has fallen un der my own observation . The late Mr. Guthrie, of Craigie, near Dundee,

had early plowed the greater part ofa field of strong soil afterturnips, and much rain had afterward consolidated. Being desirous of giving the land

another furrowbefore sowing it with barley, he found the plow bring up large waxy clods, unfit to forma seed-bed for barley. He consulted me, and I advised him to rib the land with a small plow, fig. 314, instead of plowing it. His men never having seen land so ribbed, I showed them the way, and saw the ground sown and harrowed with one double tine along. The sowing took place on 26th May, 1819, and the ribbed land

produced 12 bushels the Scotch acre more than that which was plowed with the common plow, because all the tender part of the land had been kept uppermost. (1855.)Now that you have seen the termination of the sowing season of the varioussorts of grain usually cultivatedon a farm , itmay proveuseful to you to give you an idea of the principles of the germination of seeds, and which youwill find given here in the words of Dr.Madden. [ The process of germination consists chiefly of variouschemical changes in the composition ofthe seed, by which

its substance is rendered soluble, and in this state furnishes nourishmentfor the young plant. This change is effected by means of a highly azotized principle present in all seeds, and which, under the joint influence of air,moisture and a certain temperature, undergoes various chemical changes, during the occurrence of which it is capable of exciting similar changes in other substances with

which it may be in contact. Seeds are for the most part composed of starch , gum , sugar, albumen, and various saline matters ; of these the starch is in general the most abundant, and the most im

portant change produced during germination is the conversion of this starch into sugar. I have stated that the necessary conditions for effecting this change are, independently of the vitality of the seed itself, air, moisture and a certain temperature; these three points are sufficient to regu

lateall the practical details of the sowing of seed,both as regards the weather and the condition of the soil in respect of water and tillage.* If the season, for example, be not far enough ad .

vanced, then germination is either retarded by the lowness ofthe temperature, or the vitality of the Fig. 336 .

Fig. 335.

OS

23

SOIL WITH WATER AND WITHOUT AIR.

CLODDY AND STONY SOIL .

seed is altogether destroyed by the continuance of hard frost. If, again, the soil be too wet, the

seed does not obtain a sufficient supply of air, owing to the interstitial canals already mentioned * Seeapaper by me on this subject in the Prize Essays of the Highland Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. (321) ...... 12

178

THE BOOK OF THE FARMSPRING .

(884) to (886 )—being filled with water. To give you a better idea of this condition , you will per. ceive, infig. 335, that the seed a is not supplied with any air beyond what reaches it in the state of solution inwater. Again, if the soil be not properly pulverized, it is very possible that the seed

may be badly situated forthe purposes of germination, owing to the obliteration of the interstitial canals by pressure, as is shown in fig. 336 , where b represents a clod of earth, and c a stone, be tween which the seed a is placed. I need scarcely mention the remaining cause of imperfect germination, viz., the absence of moisture, as represented in fig. 337, where a is the seed, as

this is far too rare an occurrence, under ordinary circumstances, to require notice. Lastly, the proper condition of soil for germination is, as before noticed, (885,) where the pores of each particle are filled with water, while the interstitial canals are filled with air. This condition is shown in fig. 338, and it will at once be observed that while the seed a obtains moisture by Fig. 337.

Fig . 338 .

SOIL WITH WATER AND AIR .

SOIL WITH AIR AND WITHOUT WATER.

contact with the dark saturated particles of soil, it receives a continuous supply of fresh air from that circulating constantly through the interstitial canals. “ Lest any one should suppose that the contents of these interstitial canals are so minute that tbeir whole amount can be of little conse .

quence, we may here notice the fact that in moderately well pulverized soil they amount to no less than of the whole bulk of the soil itself. For example, 100 cubic inches of moist soil — that is, of soil in which the pores are filled with water, while the canals are filled with air, as fig . 337 - con

tain no less than 25 cubic inches of air. According to this calculation, in a field pulverized to the depth of 8 inches, a depth perfectly attainable on mostsoils by careful tillage, everyimperial acre will retain beneath its surface no less than 12,545,280 cubic inches ofair. Taking intothe calculation

the weight of soil, weshall find that every additional inch you reduce to powder by plowing , you call into activity 235} tons of soil, and render it capable of retaining beneath its surface 1,568,160 additional cubic inches of air.-H. R. M.]

( 1856.) The subject of the condition in which seed is usually found deposited in the ground may be pursued a little farther, from the paper alluded to by Dr. Madden, and the first conditions that strike one are bad plowing and bad sowing. In fig. 339, the furrow -slices under a, b and c are all ill plowed, as you may easily perceive ; and the soil being so arranged. of course the seed will be irregularly deposited, as seen at a, b and c, in fig. 340, where some are too deep, as under b, to Fig 339.

Fig. 340 . a

6 e

B

Fig 341

THE EFFECTS OF BAD PLOWING ON SEED .

THE EFFECTS OF BAD SOWING ON SEED.

germinate quickly,if atall,and others much nearer thesurface,asat c. In these various positions in which the seed is placed, it is obvious that the plants springing from them will appear and grow as irregularly, as seen in fig. 341 , where the plants at 6 are much farther advanced than those at a. In regard to bad sowing, although the furrow -slices are regular and well plowea in the righ :-nand side of fig. 339, from c to d, yet the seed having been irregularly deposited on the ( 322)

179

SOWING BARLEY - SEED .

surface, they have arranged themselves in one place too thick, as at e e e,fig. 340, and too thin at f; and the consequences are visible in the position of theplants in fig. 341, where they are too îbick at & gg, and too thin at h h. Where such irregularities exist — and every farmer is liable to their consequences by the carelessness of their work -people, it is clear that the crop cannot be

uniform ; and it is a fact which cannot be disputed however it may be explained , that the more uniform a crop is,it is the greater, and affords better grain. If, on the other hand, you observe fig. 342, you will perceive that the seed has been deposited at uniform depths and intervals from a Fig. 342

C

THE GOOD EFFECTS OF THE EQUAL DE POSITION OF SEED .

to a, and the consequence is that the plants grow at uniform hights and strength, as from c to a Although the favorable result is obtained by drill-machines depositing every seed at a regular depth . wbich isnot the case of broadcast by band, yet there are objections against sowing corn in rows, which all drill-machines do ; but could they be made to deposlt seed at a uniform depth , and at the same time disperse it broadcast, the objection would be disposed of. The objection to all crops placed in rows is that the air, having freeaccess along the rows, while it encourages the growth of the cultivated, so also it does of wild plants, and to destroy the latter, certain imple. ments are used to stir the ground, while the former are, of course, allowed to grow ; but as in

their progressive growth the plants throw out innumerable root- fibres in every direction in search of food, the fibres which occupy the open space between te rows are destroyed in common with the weeds ; and though no estimate can be formed of the amount of injury which plants sustain in the destruction of their root-fibres, yet it is consonant to reason that these fibresmust be essen . tial to the welfare of the plant, otherwise they would not be sent forth. It would therefore be

worth while to ascertain, by experiment, the comparative results derived from depositing seed broadcastat a uniform depth with ordinary broadcast, and with rows.

(1857.) I have amused myself at times in calculating the quantity of seeds of different grains sown in an acre, and on comparingthe amount of crop actually received, with what ought to have been their produce, and the deficiency which the results bear out appears incredible. Thus,

Hunter's wheat gives 84 grains to 1 drachm weight; and taking it at 65 lbs.per bushel, the num . ber of grains in a bushel is 698,870, and giving three bushels per acre for seed, there will be sown on an imperial acre, 2,095,510 grains,or 48 grains in the square foot. Now , I have counted ears of wheat to contain as high as 61 , and as low as 24 grains each, the average thus being 44 grains ; and allowing no more than one ear of produce from each grain sown, and allowing nothing for

the tillering of the crop , the preduce ought to be 44 fold ; but the largest produce ofwheat in the Carse of Gowrie is 52 bushels per imperial acre, or only 17 fold for the seed sown : what then becomes of the other 27 fold ? Again , 80 grains of Chevalier barley, at 69 lbs. per bushel, weighs 1 drachm , or affords 604,160 grains to the bushel, and at 3 bushels to the acre, 1,812,480 grains per

acre, or 41 grains to the square foot. Now barley yields from 32 to 21 grains in the ear, the aver age being 28, and allowing 1 ear from each grain sown, the produce should be 28 fold ; but 60 bushels per acre is the best crop, or 20 fold of the seed: what then becomes of the 8 fold which is wanting ? Once more : Potato oats give 134 grains to 1 drachm , at 47 lbs. per bushel, or 806,144

grains to the bushel, and at 6 bushels an acre for seed, 4,836,864 grains per acre, or 111 grains per square foot. Now , potatooats differ in the yield of grains in the ear from 182 to 20, the average being 64, or 64 fold,allowing 1 ear from each grain sown without tillering. Now 72 bushels isa good crop per acre, or 12 fold of the seed : what then becomes of the 52 fold wanting ? These are incredible discrepancies, and how can they be accounted for ? Can the attacks of insects and vermin , or the effects of soil and weather, account for the loss ? The subject is worth investiga tion, and were the result of investigation the discovery of themeans to protect the seed while it

is inthe ground, the produce would either be greatly increased, or the quantity of seed to be sown would require to be much lessened . *

* See some speculations of mine on this subject in vol. iv. of Quarterly Journal of Agriculture.

(323)

THE BOOK OF THE FARMSPRING .

180

16. TURNING DUNGHILLS AND COMPOSTS. * The compost pile examine now and turn , And if ' tis notcompletely decomposed Into one mass of vegetable mould ,

With an unsparing hand throw in more lime. When unremitting cold retards the stage Of fermentation, heat, then , genial heat, Must be applied. GRAHAM .

( 1858.) The ordinary mode of treating dunghills of farm -yard manure is very simple — the principle upon which it is founded is quite consonant to reason

and the results of the application of the manure so treated is also

satisfactory.

The treatment is, to spread every kind of straw used in lit kind of dung derived from the various sorts of animals domi ciled in the steading uniformly in layers, as it is supplied , over the area of the respective courts; to take this compound of straw and dung out of the courts at a proper period, and form it into a heap in the fieldwhere the

ter, and every

manure derived from it shall be needed, with as much care as to mix the

different ingredients of the heap together as they were in the courts, and to prevent the fermentation of the whole until the manure is used ; and to turn this heap over in such a way, and at such a time, as the manure it

contains shall be readyto be applied to thesoil when wanted. The prin ciple of this treatment is the simple one of commixing the various ingre dients of straw and dung so intimately together, first in the courts, then in the dung -heap, when led out, and lastly in the same dung-heap when turn . ed over to be duly fermented, as that the fermented manure shall be as

uniform a compound as the nature of the materials of which it is composed will admit. And the result is, when the manure so treated is applied to the soil, it is found to be the most valuable of any known manure for every of the farm . You have already been told how the courts should purpose

be littered, and been shown the advantages of attending to this simple yet

important part of rural management in (1596 ) and ( 1597). You have also seen how those courts are emptied of their contents , and the proper time when they should be so emptied, in (1598) and ( 1599). And you have witnessed how their contents are disposed of in heaps in the fields in which they shall be required, (1601), and the reasons why they are formed in the manner recommended, ( 1602). My present purpose is to inform you how

these heaps should be turned in order to bring them into the degree of fer mentation best suited for making them into good manure ; and the mode of actually applying that manure will be shown to you when we come to

consider the culture of the potato and turnip crops. (1859.) Potatoes are the first crop which require a large quantity of farm

dung. It isthe practice of some farmers to drive thedung for potatoes direct out of the court, in its compressed state,

and before it has been fer

On strong soils, naturally unsuited to the growth of this plant, by reason of their heavy and tenacious character, long dung may be mented at all .

successfully used, because it assists to relieve the pressure of the soil upon

the young plant. Indeed, on such soil, I have seen a drill of potatoes ma nured with dry twisted straw -ropes obtained from the coverings of the stacks in the stack -yard, and which was so manured for the purpose of as

certaining the difference, if any, betwixt it and the best made dung, pro (324)

TURNING DUNGHILLS AND COMPOSTS .

181

duce as good potatoes as the dung. In like manner, potatoes may be raised well on soils of that character with horse-dung which has reached that state of worthlessness called fire-fanged. In all other sorts of soils the use of long -dung incurs imminent risk of a deficiency of crop, and there

fore dung should generally be fermented for potatoes. Dung, when laid up in an uncompressed state in the court, as noticed in ( 1604 ), becomes sufficiently fermented for potatoes, and may be driven out at once without farther preparation. There is one objection to the use of unfermented

dung for potatoes, which seems to me insuperable, and it is, that where grains of every kind find their way among the litter of courts, and it is im

possible to have the straw threshed by the mill absolutely clean, or the seeds of weeds that may have been sifted out of the corn when cleaned, thrown uponthe litter in

the courts, though they ought to have been thrown

away elsewhere; so long as these grainsand seeds possess all their vitali ty, and that will escape destruction in unfermented dung, they will spring

upamong the potatoes,not in the intervals between the drills, where they might be removed by the horse -hoes in the process of cleaning the land,

but actually among the potato -plants, having vegetated and grown along with them, and deriving as much nourishment from the dung as the pota toes themselves. I have frequently seen such an intermixture with potato

plants at various places, and a very dirty and slovenly farming it makes. Having a piece of ground trenched from an old plantation, and being com paratively pretty clean, I was desirous of trying potatoes upon it for the first crop , and having no dung ready preparedfor this extra space of ground, what was required was taken out of the court in which the corn barn was situated, and the result was as I have just described. No doubt,

the weeds thussprung up among the potatoes can beremoved by the field workers with the draw -hoe, when they are cleaning the crop, but the labor of removing large plants from that position, and especially when forced

in growth by powerful manure , is considerable, and the weeding cannot be accomplished but by removing a considerable portion of the useful soil around the young potatoplant. It is clear that it is much better farm ing to have no plants in this position to take away, than to have to re move them.

(1860.) On commencing the turning of a dunghill, it should be consider ed from which end it will be most convenient to take the dung and lay it on the land. On the supposition that the dunghill occupies the position ex plained in ( 1595), the end from which the dung will be carted away will

be the head -ridge. After determining this point, the next subject for con sideration is, whether the dunghill will be once or twice turned before it

is applied, and this point is determined by the crop for which the dunghill

is preparing - if for potatoes, only one turning is requisite, and two for tur nips. As the first dunghill is intended for potatoes, it receives one turning, and it should be begun to be turned atthe end farthest from the head ridge. The unturned dung -heap slopes at both ends, as observed in (1601),

but the turned dunghill should be made of the same hight throughout. To attain this end, the space occupied by the workers at the commencement, between the turned dung and the dung-heap, should be wider than at the

middle of the heap, and the dung should bethrown to a greater hight than the side from which it is taken .

The usual width marked off on the dung

heap is 3 feet, which affords sufficient room for people to work in ; but the

firstfew spaces upon which the first divisions of the heap are laid, should be held narrower than 3 feet, until the desired hight of the turned dung hill is attained at the end. The effect of this arrangement is, as the turn ing approaches the middle of the dung-heap, where it is of the greatest ( 325)

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hight, the space upon which the dung is turned upon will be more than 3 feet in width, and the additional width will be required near and at the middle, that the extra hight of the dung-heap there may be reduced to the level of the end. After the middle has been passed, the spaces turned upon

should be gradually lessened in width toward the end at which the turning

is finished, where, as at the commencement, the turned dung will have to be thrown to a greater hight than the dung-heap, to attain the medium

hight of the finished dunghiil. There is much more of nice management infollowing these particulars of turning a dunghill than at first sight may appear necessary, because the turned dunghill will not ferment equally

throughout ifit is ofdifferent hights. The greatest heat will be at the deepest part, where the dung will become comparatively short and com pact, while at the shallowest parts it will continue crude and unprepared ; and these different states of manure have very different effects on the soil.

In ordinary practice, miscalculations are always made as to the uniform hight of dunghills,for they are lower at the ends than at the middle ; and if an endeavor is afterward made to equalize the hight, it is done by throw ing high dung of the middle toward the ends, and the effect of this expe dient is that no union takes place between the dung which was turned over in the regular way with what isafterward thrown upon it ; they ever after remain in different states, and rise differently to the graip when removed into thecart ; and the middle part, besides, becomes trampled down and harder than the ends.

( 1861.) Laying these down as the rules by which dunghills should be turned , the mechanical part of the operation is done in the following man ner : The people required to do this work are a man and a few field workers, according to the size of the dunghills; and of this latter class, women are by far the best hands at turning a dunghill, because, each taking a smaller quantity of dung at a time upon a smaller graip than fig.

257, the dung is much more intimately mixed together than when men åre occupied at this work, for they take large graipsfull,and merely lift

them from oneside of thetrench they are working into the other, without shaking each graipfull loose, or scattering it to pieces. Turning dung is not a cleanly work for women, their petticoats being apt to be soiled in the trench by the dung on both sides ; but there is a plan which Berwickshire

women adopt of keeping the bottom oftheir dress clean,which is to tie the bottom ofthe petticoat with the garters just below the knee, as long as they are at work. The man's duty is to cut the dung-heap into divisions of 3 feet wide across its breadth with the dung -spade, fig. 308, in the manner described in ( 1603). When the edge of the dung-spade becomes dull, it is sharpened with the scythe-stone. The drier portions of the dung are put into the interior of the dunghill, and when different sorts of dung are met with they are intermingled in small graipsfull as intimately as possible . Each division of the dunghill is cut down and turned over to the ground before another is entered on, and when the ground is reached, the scattered

straws, and earth that has been damped by any exudation from the dung

heap, are shoveled up either with the broad-mouthed shovel, fig. 149, or ropes are met with, they should be cut into small pieces and scattered the frying -pan shovel, fig . 176, and thrown into the interior. When straw among

the dampest portions of the dung. Though the dung -heap is cut

into parallel trenches, the dung from the topof one trench is not thrown into the bottom of the former, but rather thrown upon the breast of the turned dung, so as the turned dung may slope away from the work -people. The utility of this form is, that when thedung is carting awayit rises

with the graip. When a dung -heap is thus turned over, and its form freely(326)

TURNING DUNGHILLS AND COMPOSTS .

183

preserved as it should be, it constitutes a parallelopipedon, and is a well finished piece of work.

(1862.) Unless much rain has fallen from the time the dung was led out of the court until the heap is turned, the dung will not be very moist, and not at all wet, but in a free workable state, with a slight degree of heat in

it, and evaporation would be observable from it, were the air cold when it was turning. Very little moisture will be observed as having come from the heap. After this turning over, shaking up and mixing together, which should be finished in the same heap as quickly as possible, that the whole

mass may have the same time to ferment, the operation being performed about a fortnight before the time of planting potatoes, in the latter end of April and beginning of May, the ordinary temperature of the atmosphereis then such as aconsiderable degree of heat may beexpected to show itself in

the dung in the course of a fewdays. There is no danger ofthis first fermen tation proceeding to a great degree of heat, as the air is still cool at nights and the largest proportion of the heap consists of the dung of cattle, which is slow of fermentation at all times, and particularly in theearly part of the

season. The first external symptom that fermentation isproceeding in the heap is subsidence of its bulk, which in the course of a fortnight may con tract one foot of hight. A perceptible smell will then arise from the dung, accompanied with a flickering of the air over it, which is occasionedby the escape of vapor and someof the gases, but chiefly ,I apprehend, aque ous vapor. By inserting a walking-stick into the heap here and there, a heat considerably more than thatofthe handwill be felt,and by pushing this

stick into different parts of the dunghill, the relative heat of those parts will be ascertained , and the greatest heat may be expected to be felt at

the side opposite whence the wind blows, if there be wind, or even a breeze. The substance of the dunghill becomes more consolidated in

consequence of the fermentation, and also more uniform ; and a black colored liquid will be found in some degree to ooze from its sides. If the

soil upon which the dunghill stands wassoft when the dunghill was formed , the oozing will then be absorbed by it, and exhibit no wetness of surface ; but if the soil be firm , then the moisture will remain on the surface, and form

small pools in the ruts of the cart-wheels or open furrows. All the leakage, even if collected in one pool, would afford but a trifling quantity; indeed much moisture cannot exude from a dung-heap derived from courts in

whichthe cattle are duly supplied with abundance of litter to keep them both dry and warm . So much for the potato -dunghill. (1863.) As to the turnip -dunghill, it receives a somewhatdifferent treat

ment, but still conformable to the purpose for which it is destined. It is turned twice, and on this account it is begun to be turned at the opposite end from that for potatoes ; but the samerules are followed in doing it as just described for the potato-dunghill, and it also is allowed to ferment for about a fortnight. At the second turning, which is given about a fortnight or ten days before the dung is used, the operation is commenced at the end at which the former turning terminated , and it is much more easily

performed than the first, inasmuch as the substance is easier cut with the dung-spade, more free to separate and shake with the graip, and less care required to retain the rectangular figure formerly given to the dunghill. The weather at the second turning will be warm, and the fermentation, of

course, rapid, so that apprehension may be excited that it will proceed to an injurious extent for the materials composing the dunghill. For raising turnips, however, there is little dread of the fermentation proceeding too far, as it is matter of experience that the more effete the dung is, the more valuable it is for the nourishment of the turnip plant, as is well known to (327)

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

every turnip farmer. When in this valuable state heat has almost entirely left it, it has become like soft soap, andrises in lumps with the graip , and would almost cut into pieces with the shovel. It is,moreover, sappy, co hesive, greasy, and of a dark -brownish black color. The larger themassin which the dung in this state is found, the more valuable it is for turnips. To check rapid fermentation, a spitfull of earth around the dunghill thrown

upon its top, will have that effect to a certain degree. It is supposed by many farmers who grow Swedish turnips to a large extent, that dungof the same year cannot be transformed into this state in time for Swedish

turnips, which ought to be sown before the middle of May ; and in the temperature of ordinary seasons in Scotland at that time, the observation, I dare say, is correct. To obviate the want of so valuable an ingredient as old muck, it is the practice of some farmers to keep dungon purpose over the year.

This would no doubt be a difficult matter on farms which

depend entirely on their own produce for the manure applied on then ; but let the sacrifice be made for one year either to collect farm -yard dung from external sources, and form it into a dunghill for the succeeding year, or

purchase other manureto a large extent for one year, to raise a crop of turnips, and reserve the farm -yard dung for the Swedish turnips of the next year, and the object is gained. I have known many farmers attain this object to a partial extent, but no one whom I have observed practice it to so great an extent as Mr. Smith, when he was at Grindon in North

Durham , where he possessed the fine stock of Short-Horns that was ad mired by all who saw them. The dung of the year was made fit for white turnips, which were not sown for a month or so after the Swedes, and when both heat and time combine to bring it to a proper state for use.

(1864.) The subject of composts, when followed outin all its bearings, is an extensive one - for there is not a single article of refuse on a farm

but what may form an ingredient of a compost, and be converted into a manure fit for one or more of the cultivated crops. At the same time there is great labor attending the formation of composts of every kind, as the ma terials cannot be collected together without horse-labor ; and in summer, when those materials are most abundant, the labors of the field are most

important, and to devote then the time required tocollect them, would be to sacrifice part of the time that should be occupied in indispensable field labor. I believe the most economical mode of forming composts is to col lect materials at times when leisure offers for the purpose; and when they

have accumulated in sufficient quantity in the space allotted for their use, they can be put together by the field -workers when not necessarily en gaged in the field. This advice will not suit the temper of those who, wishing to obtain their object at once, would make the forming of com

posts, or any other thing they have in hand at the time, the principal busi ness of the farm ; but you should be very cautious in determining to exe cute any piece of work that diverts horse-labor from its legitimate pursuits.

I speak on this subject in this manner from direct experience, for I was once strongly impressed with the benefits to be derived from using com

posts ; and having plenty of materials at my command for making what I conceived should be good manure for the land, I persuaded myself that manure to any extent might be made on the farm . Having access to an unlimited quantity of rough bog -turf and peat, large quantities ofdry leaves in autumn, black mould to some extent, and those usual refuse products of the farm - quicken and potato-baulms, with plenty of shell-marl and a stratum of fine clay associated with it, and, of course, lime-shells from the

market-town at all times, I was in these circumstances perhaps fully more

favorably situated for making composts than most farmers. But little did (328 )

TURNING DUNGHILLS AND COMPOSTS.

185

I anticipate the labor I undertook. Twoyears convinced me that it was

no child's play to collect together bog-turf, marl, lime, dry leaves and rub des bish into one focus,and cart them all out again tothe field or fields ma tined to receive the benefits of their composition. I put together the terials in the best manner I could devise or hear of, turned them at proper

times with the greatest care, and certainly enjoyed the satisfaction of ma king a great deal of stuff apparently welladapted for the purpose intend ed ; and in regard to its quality, I invariably found that the oldest made compost looked richest, most uniform in its texture, and most active in its effects, like old rotten muck ; but notwithstanding these favorable appear ances, unless very large quantities were applied, little benefit was derived from them ; and even from 40 to 50 cart-loads to the imperial acre did not produce the good effects of 12 cart-loads of good muck. I could have managed the manual part of the work to any extent, for hired laborers could have been found to do it by piece -work, and the bog -turf was ob tained on that condition ; but the horse-labor was overpowering, for every acre thus required a cartage of 80 to 100 loads to provide no more than sufficient manure for it. An extra pair of horses could not have over taken the additional labor thus imposed on the horses, and to incur that expense continually for the problematical good to be derived from

the largest source of materials I possessed, namely, grassy -bog-turf, and peat-turf, was more than the most sanguine farmer is warranted in risking.

(1865.) It may, perhaps, prove interesting to relate a few of the com . posts

I made with those materials.

1. The first was a compound of peat

turf and lime-shells. The turf was wheeled to the margin of the bog on

hard land, and allowed to lie some weeks, to drip the water out of it, and to makeit lighter for cartage. The lime was mixed in the proportion of 1 cart of lime to 27 of turf. After the compound was twice turned, themass became a fine greasy pulp in the course of a fewweeks in spring and the

early part of summer - so greasy that no one could walk on it without slip ping. It was applied to good turnip land, to raise turnips, and the rule

adopted to determine the quantity requisite for an acre was, in the first place, to fill the drills with it, and the quantity required to do this was from 30 to 40 double cart-loads per acre.

The crop

of white turnips was only

tolerable , and certainly not nearly equal to what was raised in the same field with 12 loads of farm -yard dung, while the field became troublesomely covered with the bog -thistle, as also the common field -thistle, and a few of the bur-thistle, the lime not havingbeen in sufficient quantity to destroy the

vitality of the thistle-seed contained in the turf, though the degree of heat created in the mass to reduce it to a pulp was considerable. 2. Another

compost was made of peat-turf andfarm -yard dung, with a sprinkling of lime, as directed by the late Lord Meadowbank in his celebrated treatise on that subject, and which you may consult.* The effect produced from this was better than the former compost, but still not equal to the usual quantity of dung. 3. A mixture of lime and black mould, on some head ridges that had too much earth accumulated upon them , was only applied before the land was drilled up and dunged for turnips, to thicken the soil ; and labor such as this is not thrown away. 4. I tried a compost of rape-cake and earth, the compound was not proportioned, but enough of the cake

was sprinkled on while the earth was turning over, to bring a very brisk After the heat had nearly subsided, it was ap plied for turnips, and with much success. I may mention that no account

fermentation to the mass.

* Meadowbank's Direction for Preparing Manure from Peat, edition of1842. (329)

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was taken of the exact number of cart-loads per acre of this or any other

of the composts that were applied, such particulars being seldom noted by farmers, who are chiefly guided by judgment in the quantity of manure which any crop should receive. 5. Shell-marl and bog-turf, when mixed,

produced no heat, and of course were never reduced into a uniform mass, for without the agency of heat it is impossible to make any compost homo

geneous. 6. The bog-turf burnt in the form of kilns, produced ashes which varied much in their specific gravities ; those of a white color being

light and ineffective asa manure, while the red color were heavy, earthy in appearance, and well

suited to raise turnips ; but I was unable to dis tinguish beforehand which turf yielded the white and which the red ashes.

The trouble attending the casting oftheturf in the bog, wheeling it to the side, exposing it to the air to dry, and afterward either burning it to ashes, or carting it away for compost, was much greater than the quantity of ashes obiained, or the quality of compost formed would remunerate. Two years' labor with this concoction of materials were sufficient to give me a

distaste for the business, and at length I dropped it, and preferred going into the neighboring towns to purchase street and stableand cow -house manure, and bone-dust. These never disappointed me, and the eating off of theturnips which they raised every year with sheep, soon put the soil in a fertile state. Notwithstanding this resolution,I made a point every year of making up a large compost-heap of the quicken gathered from the fallow

land, as it was preparing for the turnips — of the potato-haulmsas they were harrowed together -- and of the dried leaves in autumn, which would otherwise have blown about the lawn and shrubberies and of any other refuse that could be collected together on the farm . These with the as sistance of a little fresh horse-dung, and such water as the liquid-manure

tank, which was situate in the compost court, afforded, a compost was

formed every year, which assisted in extending the boundaries of the turnip crop ; and if that portion of the crop was not always heavy , the greater or

less proportion of the turnips eaten off by sheep enabled it to produce its share of the succeeding corn crops and grass, while, at the same time, the soil was thickened by the mould reduced from the compost. 7. Any of the animals that fall by disease, when their carcasses are subdivided, and

mixed in a large quantity of earth powdered with a little quicklime, will make a compost far superior to any of the preceding vegetable materials,

for raising turnips, especially Swedes. 8. The produce of privies, and pigeons' dung, as well as the dung of fowls from the hen - houses, form ex cellent ingredients for putting into the tank of liquid manure to melt, and

afterward to distribute it over a compost. 9. Of late years saw -dust, which was long considered a useless article, and which may be obtained in quan tity on some farms where saw -mills are at work, is now rendered useful in

compost by being mixed with farm -yard dung,fermented to a considerable degree of heat, and then subdued with water ;* and it may also be mixed

with b of its proportion of lime and road scrapings, and turned and kept in compostfor 3 years. Sucha compost has raisedcrops of turnips,as evi denced by Mr. William Sim, Drummond, Inverness -shire, and Mr. H. H. Drummond of Blair-Drummond, Perthshire.

10. Spent tanner's -bark ,

when laid down for a time on the road around the steading and trampled under foot and bruised by cart-wheels, and thenformed into a compost with either dung or lime, and allowed to stand for a considerable time,

might be rendered into good manure for turnips. Saw -dust and tanner's bark, or refuse of the bark of fir -trees, will not bear the expense of a long * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiii.

(330)

Ibid., vol. xvi.

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carriage; but where a supply of them is near at hand, their decomposition, though occupying a longtime to effect, is worth the trouble. 11. In the vi cinity of villageswhere fish are cured and smoked for market, refuse of fish heads and guts, or liver and oil refuse, make an excellent compost with earth. Near Eyemouth and Burnmouth, on the Berwickshire coast, 30 barrels of fish refuse, with as much earth from the head -ridges as will

completely cover the refuse, is suffcient dunging for an imperial acre. The barrel contains 30 gallons, and 4 barrels make a cart-load, which sell for 1s. 6d. per barrel. From 400 to 600 barrels may be obtained for each

farm in theneighborhood in the course of the season.

12. Whale -blubber

when mixed with earth forms a good .compost for turnips. As this is a

most caustic substance in a fresh state, it should be compounded with a large proportion of earth, and turned over and kept forat least 3 years until the compost becomes inert. I have seen a blubber compost, 2 years old , applied as top -dressing on grass,burn up every plant by the roots, but after it becomes apparently effete it raises excellent turnips. 13. I have heard of a compost being made of whin and broom cuttings and earth , 3 loads of earth to one of the cuttings being mixed together and watered for 2 or 3 days, and to remain untouched for 8 or 10 days more, when it is

turned and again allowed to rest for 10 days, when it is fit to be applied as manure .

The cost of making this compost was estimated at 28.per cart

load, and it is said to have raised wheat and oats well. But the fish refuse

which I noticed before is to be obtained at some places at 2s. a load, and

there can be no comparison in the relative value of it and the cuttings. You thus see how endless is the subject of composts for manure ; and it is obvious, from what has been said , that the kind of compost which you

may make depends entirely on the nature of the materials which can be supplied in your immediate neighborhood .

( 1866.) So numerous are the articles which are now presented to the notice of the farmer in the name ofmanures,that but to notice each shortly would occupy many pages ; nor is it incumbent on me to describe them at present, as the greatest number have yet to establish a character for themselves by repeated experiments in successive years. This will, no

doubt, put some of them to too severe a trial ; but it will be necessary, inasmuch as they may not be able in the second year to confirm the

pre

tensions they assumed in the first. I remember ofa compound which be camecelebrated some years ago, after one year's trial, for the turnips raised with it were really good,and could have stood a comparison with those grown by the best muck of the farm ; but, alas, in the second year, even, the substance was almost a complete failure -- not that the original

composition would have failed in the second any more than it did in the first year, but the demand for it in the second year had probably increased so much in consequence of the success attending its use in the first, that the manufacturer, to supply the market with the desired quantity, had taken the liberty to injure its quality ; and the consequence to him was exactly what he himself might have anticipated : the farmer lost faith in

the manure and distrusted the manufacturer. I was induced by a flaming advertisement which appeared constantly in the papers at the time, to try a compound manure ; but in this substance I was only once deceived once andfor aye,” for in truth it had no better effect in raising turnips,

for which it was specially recommended, than black mould which was tried alongside of it. Such results as these should induce caution in the

use of compound manures, the composition of which is unknown to you ; still it is right to try them, as some one may turn out to be a really valua ble substance ; but the trials should be made at first on a small scale, if (331)

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you are among the first to try it ; but if you hear of others having suc ceeded, then, of course, your confidence may be yielded to it with the greater safety.

To make known whether any new substance has succeed

ed or not, I think it is incumbent on every farmer to do so for the sake of

his brother farmers, and there are now many publications which devote themselves to the promulgation of rural practice. But I have been of opinion for many years that no farmer should purchase any compounded substance advertised as a manure, unless it happens to be a natural sub stance ; for, even in the hands of honest men , compounds may fail to con

tinue to afford the satisfaction they once did, as carelessness in compound ing an article thatis much in demand, and of which large quantities are made at a time, is a very natural and not an uncommon consequence .

Besides, failure in a case of this kind is a very serious matter to the farmer. It is not merely the value of the article itself which constitutes his entire loss, though even that may be considerable, but the consequence to future

years. The crop immediately dependent on the manure is not only defi cient, but the remaining part of the deficient crop. is always of inferior quality. This is an invariable effect in every crop; and its converse be ing equally true, that a full crop is always one of fine quality , and not only this, but every crop in the course of the rotation is affected by the state of the one which directly receivesthe manure, that is, if the fallow crop , as

the turnip crop is called, be deficient and of inferior quality,thesucceed ing ones will not exhibit that vigor of growth by which a full fallow crop is invariably succeeded. I do not pretend to explain the cause of this re sult, nor have I ever seen it attempted to be explained, but as a factit is indisputable, and I have heard the fact noticed by many farmers. You thus see how very

much it is for your interest to be assured of the efficacy

of every manure that you are to apply. To be assured of their efficacy,

it has been recommended to analyze every manure before it is applied, in order to ascertain whether it is really the article it is given out for. As

an instance of the necessity for such analysis, I will quote a case or two adduced by Mr. Madden .' He says : “ Three different specimens of ni trate of soda were submitted to analysis, when they were found to contain

respectively 14, 25 and 26 per cent. of common salt. Now these speci mens were purchased from extensive dealers in the article, and were con tained in the bags in which it was imported, so that we have no reason for suspecting the honesty of the retailer ; and it follows, therefore, that this

shameful amountof adulteration must be effected prior to its being shipped

for Britain. I would desire that you bear in mind, however, thefact that the presence of common salt, even to this enormous extent, may be

natural, but yet the imposition upon the British farmer is equally glaring, whichever be thecase, as will be seen by the following statement regard ing saltpetre. This article, likewise, contains common salt, though in much smaller quantities ; but in this instance the fact is not attempted to be concealed. Every cargo is analyzed at the India House before it is

sold, and the per centage of salt marked upon it ; and the amount of salt is deducted from the lot purchased. For example, suppose the saltpetre

contained 10 per cent of salt, ifthe purchaser buys 100cwts. he receives the 100, but only pays for 90. Hence, therefore, there is no deception ; but we would ask how it happens that the same is not done with the nitrate of soda, and that those specimens containing from 14 to 26 per cent. of salt, should all be sold at one and the same price ? Why, if justice were done in this case, the specimen containing 26 per cent. should have sold at 22s. in place of 25s., if that be the fair price for the lot containing 14 per cent. ; and if, on the contrary, 25s. is the proper price for the pure ar (332)

TURNING DUNGHILLS AND COMPOSTS .

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ticle , these three lots should have sold respectively at 21s. 6d., 18s. 9d., and 18s. 6d. per cwt."

II

may here mention, casually, in regard to the pres

ence of salt in both the saltpetre and nitrate of soda, that it must be natural, and not placed there by human agents ; for common salt in the countries whence these articles are imported, is much higher priced than the ar ticles themselves. Strictly in connection with the purity of manures is the price demanded for them of the farmer. If otherarticles are charged in the same proportion as saltpetre is, as is shown by the following

statement of Dr. Madden, the profits of the manure-dealer must be much greater than those of the farmer,even after all the risk he runs in using manures unknown to him. “ Before leaving this interesting sub ject," continues Dr. Madden, " I would make one other observation, viz.,

concerning saltpetre. I find by reference tothe most extensive purchas ers of this article, that it sells at the India House in 5-ton lots at a price varying from 25s. to 29s. per cwt.; whereas it is retailed to farmers at the enormous charge of from 50s. to 55s. For example, I analyzed a speci men sold to a farmer at 558. per cwt., and detected 2 per cent. of salt in it ; whereas another specimen, purchased at the India House at 28s.6d. per cwt., contained less than 17 per cent. of salt; and, be it remembered , the lots were purchased at nearly the same time, during which there had been lit tle or no Auctuation in the market.” In a note, Dr. Madden mentions the

practice of an extensive dealer in nitrate of soda in England, that he ex amines whatever he buys, and finds the average amount of salt to be from 8 to 10 per cent., and that he rejects as " useless stuf " any lot containing over 13 per cent.* The purityof so simple a substance as saltpetre or nitrate of soda can at once be ascertained by analysis, but the case is *

rather different with many of the compounds at present offered to the ac ceptance of farmers ; their analysis can hardly prove so satisfactory. If experiments are to be made with substances extraneous to the farm , I think that chemist would act most judiciously who would suggest a mix ture of a few of those simple substances which he conceives would benefit any particular crop , or the whole series of crops usual through a rotation,

rather than any compound, however high sounding. A farmer can at

once see whathe is aboutwhen he himself formsa compound of various simple substances, differently proportioned, as suggested to him by an in telligent chemist. He can purchase each of these in as pure a state as they usually are made by practical chemists, who make them on a large scale. He himself does not know what may be the result of their appli

cation ; he only expects results such as he is led to expect from the in formation given him by the chemist; but, working as he does, even in the dark , when he works under the guidance of a scientific man, who has no

interest in the materials he recommends, he has confidence in what he is about to undertake, because he considers himself as his own agent in the business, purchasing simple ingredients, the nature of which is known to every one, and the commixing of which has been performed under his own eye. Far different is thecase when he employs an article the purity

or impurity, the efficacy or inefficacy, of which is equally unknown to him, and in the application of which he cannot anticipate a single result. Till some such plan is established for the use of extraneous manures, their re sults will be determined by mere chance, and the confidence ofthe farmer in them will fluctuate every year as the result turns out favorably or oth erwise, till at length the use of them will be abandoned with contempt. All natural substances used as manure, such as bones, gypsum , guano,

nitrate of soda, &c., are not the objects of the foregoing remarks; but * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv . ( 333)

190

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

should it be objected that the substance ofthe compound manures, being themselves natural compounds, cannot be sold as simple substances, it may be answered that all the natural compounds which they contain, by being rendered dry or concentrated, could be sold as natural compounds, which

may perhaps become equally valuable as others ; but as long as they are mixed up with other matter, no one can say whether the valuable or val ueless materials in them predominate. ( 1867.) A simple list of the various ingredients at present in the market for the use of farmers will puzzle you as to the choice you should make among them . The names and prices are taken from the Mark -Lane Ex press of 24th April, and the New Farmers' Journal of 8th May, 1843. They are as follows : Animalized black, £3 3s. to £3 58. per ton at Owen's animalized carbon, 258. per ton , free on board at Copenhagen . Potter's artificial guano, 158. per cwt. Poittevin's patent disinfected manure, 138. 6d.

Dunbar.

Agricultural salt, 34s. per ton . Chie -fou, 218. per cwt.

Clarke's desiccated compost, £3 128. 6d. per

per qr .

Poittevini's highly concentrated manure , 308.

bhd . , sufficient for 3 acres. Chloride lime, 288. per cwt. Daniell's new Bristol manure, 88. per qr . Graves, £ 6 10s. per ton .

per qr.

Petre salt, 48. per cwt.

Rape-dust, £ 7 to £8 per ton. Gypsum at the water-side, 32s. 6d. per ton ; land Rape -cake, £6 10s. to £7 per ton. and housed, 388. to 42s. per ton , according to Rags, £4 to £ 4 10s. per ton. Soda-ash, 14s. to 16s. quantity.

Grimwade's preparation for turnip- fly, 10s. 6d. Sulphuric acid , 2} d. per lb. per packet, sufficient for 3 acres. Sulphur for destroying worms in turnips, 168. per cwt. Guano, 10s. to 14s.per cwt., according to quality. Hunt's bone -dust, 18s. per qr. Soap -ashes, 10s. per ton . Hunt's half -inch bone, 16s. per qr. Sulphate of soda , 78. 6d. per cwt. Hunt's artificial guano , £8 per ton. Sulphate of ammonia , 188. per cwt. at Dundee. Hunt's new fertilizer, 138. 4d. per gr . Trimmer's compost for clover, wheat and tur . Lance's carbon , 12s. per qr. nips. Urate of the London Manure Company, £5 per Lance's humus, 14s. per qr.

Liverpool Abbattoir Company's animalized ma

ton.

Watson's granulated compost, 10s. per cwt

nuring powder, £2 10s. per ton .

Wolverhampton imperial compost, (Alexan .

Muriate of ammonia, 24s. per cwt.

der's,) 12s. per qr., subject to carriage to

Muriate of lime, 12s . per cwt.

Nitrate of soda, 18s. to 18s. 6d. per cwt., duty London, or forwarded from Wolverhampton . Willey dust, £4 4s. per ton. paid . alkalies, 28s. to 42s. per cwt. Wright's 26s. 6d. per cwt. (saltpetre) potash of Nitrate

The following are the weights per bushel of some of the substances enu merated above : Per bushel- lbs.

lbs.

Agricultural salt..

75 to 80 Nitrate of soda ...

Alexander's compost

.65

Bone-dust .. Clarke's desiccated compost. Daniell's Bristol manare Guano, foreign ... Potter's..

Petre salt.

42 to 44 Rape-dust .

.60 to 65 Saltpetre .50

... 56 .... 65

Soda-ash

Sulphate of ammonia.. of soda ..

Gypsum .... Hunt's new fertilizer .

.80 to 84

Muriate of ammonia.

.65 to 70 Urate......

65

Per bushel - lbs. ..80 ..... 75

lbs.

... 56

... 80 ..60 .... 70 ..60 to 65

Trimmer's compost for clover, wheat .60 and turnips....

to 65

.50

(1868.) To reduce farm -yard dung to the saponaceous state recommended and described in nuring of the farm , the recommendation ,it may be acknowledged, is carried to an extreme ; but

(1863), is contrary to the theory propounded by non -practical writers; and for the ordinary ma

for the purpose ofraising a good crop of turnips, and especially of that invaluable kind the Swe dish, it is beyond dispute thatno manure, of whatever kind, is so congenial to their constitution as well-made old mack. Until, therefore, a substitute is found for this ingredient, equal to it in effica

cy, and as attainable, it will be made and applied by every farmerwho is desirous ofraising a good crop ofSwedish turnips. The recorded opinions of Sir Humphry Davy on this subject, though oft re examination,because ferred to 1o caution practical men against his conclusions, nevertheless deserve this account these should be ofthe common-sense like mannerin which he states his views, and on the more explicitly refuted ; and that they will one day be refuted I have no doubt, for I am per suaded that where practice and theory disagree, theory will be found to be in the wrong. In

regard to the general principle of the action of vegetable manures, he says: “ There can be no doubt that the straw of different crops, immediately plowed into the ground, affords nourishment to plants, but there is an objection to this method ofusing straw , from the difficulty of burying long straw , and from its rendering the husbandry foul." You observe at once, here, that the theory (334)

TURNING DUNGHILLS AND COMPOSTS .

191

of the use of clean straw as a manure is objected to solely on the score of a difficulty of using it in that state in practice. If such an objection may be valid against the use of straw , so may it

be against the use of unfermented dung. If practiceis to be respected in this instance, why not " When straw is madeto ferment, it becomes a more manageable manure ; but there is likewise,

in the other ; but Sir Humphry proceeds to render the straw more manageable when he says

on the whole, a great loss of nutritive matter. More manure is perhaps supplied for a rough

crop ; but the land is less improved than it would be supposing the whole of the vegetable matter could be finely divided and niixed with the soil.” Here the remark suggests itself, that if straw is allowed to be fermented because of its being more manageable in that state for prac tice, so might dung be allowed to be more fermented for the same reason. If deference is paid to

practice in one case, why not in the other ? To obviate the inconvenience of burying long straw , Sir Humphry recommends it to be chopped thus: “ It is usual to carry straw that can be em ployed for no other purpose to the dunghill to ferment and decompose ; but it is worth experi ment whether it may not be more economically applied when chopped small by a proper machine,

and kept dry till it is plowed in for the use of a crop. In this case, though it would decompose much more slowly, and produce less effect at first, yet its influence would be much more lasting.” I have no doubt that chopped straw would raise potatoes on strong clay land, and when applied on summer-fallow a good crop of wheat would also be raised ; but in all free soils, straw , in whatever state, whether long or chopped, would only keep the soil so open as to let in drouth, retard vegetation, and itwould be found lying at the bottom of the furrow in an inert state , as useless, in short, as fire-fanged straw . In regard to the fermentation of farm -yard dung - which is a composite manure - Sir Humphry admits the propriety of its undergoing a slight fermentation. as thus: “ A slight fermentation is undoubtedly of use in a dunghill ; for by means of it a disposition

is brought on in the woody fibre to decay and dissolve, when it is carried to the land or plowed into the soil,and woody fibre is always in greatexcess in the refuse of the farm .” So that fermenta tion in the dunghill is necessary to the dissolution of woody fibre,and as woody fibre isin great excess in the refuse of farms,it follows that fermentation ought to be generally allowed in dung Too greata degree of fermentation is, however, very prejudicial to the composite manure in a dunghill; it is better that

hills, so that the question of fermentation here is only one of degree.

there should be no fermentation at all , before the manure is used , than that it should be carried

too far. The excess of fermentation tends to the destruction and dissipation of the most useful part of the manure ; and the ultimate results of this process are like those of combustion.” If it is here meant to conveythe idea that fire-fanged dung is fermentation to excess, the idea is correct, for I suppose no farmer thinks otherwise ; but that the usual degree of fermentation

allowed in dunghills renders the manure useless, is inconsistent with experience. It is quite true, as Sir Humphry says, that “ it is a common

ctice among farmers to suffer the farm -yard

dung to ferment till the fibrous texture of the vegetable matter is entirely broken down,and till the manure becomes perfectly cold, and so soft as to be easily cut by the spade ;" but so far from

the most useful part of the manare being dissipated when thedung'attains this state, experience assures us that the finest Swedish turnips cannot be raised with dung in a less elaborated state ; and this conclusion is inevitable, that ifthe most valuable part of the manure is dissipated by the fermentation usually allowed in dunghills, that most valuable part is not required for raising the best crop of Swedish turnips, and that being the case, it is unnecessary to trouble ourselves to retain it. But what are the best parts of manure ? “ During the violent fermentation,” says Sir Humphry, “ which is necessary for reducing farm -yard manure to the state in which it is called

short muck, not only a large quantity of fluid, but likewise of gaseous matter, is lost ; so much so that the dung is reduced one half to two-thirds in weight; and theprincipal elastic matter disen gaged is carbonic acid with some ammonia ; and both these, if retained by the moisture in the soil, are capable of becoming a useful nourishment of plants." No doubt both the fluid and gas eous products of decomposing vegetables perform important functions in the economy of Nature, but ifthey escape while dung is preparing in the best state for use, according to invariable expe rience, it follows, as an inevitable consequence, that these products of fermentationare not requi site, in conjunction with short muck, to raise a crop of turnips. They may be useful ingredients for other purposes, and at other times, but it is clear that the turnip crop can be raised to a better state without than with them . Why, therefore, attempt to retain their presence on the particular occasion ? *

(1869.) Whether a more scientific mode of forming dunghills, in consonance with practice, will ever be discovered, I cannot pretend to say ; but, as there seem no bounds to the discovery of science in other arts, we should not limit its powers of application to the art of husbandry. Ex periments are at this moment in progress on the very subjectof the formation of farm -yard dung.

hills, in connection with which I may mention the distinguished name of Professor Henslow , of Cambridge,who ,in a series of letters addressed to the farmers of Suffolk, and which have ap peared in the public prints, suggests the propriety of their performing experiments to ascertain whether the ammonia which escapes in the gaseous state as a carbonate of ammonia may not be

retained in dunghills by the instrumentality of gypsum ? Should the event prove successful, we may perhaps expect to hear of important improvement in the management ofordinary dunghills.

Till the experiments are tried, which time alone can do, I am happy in placing before you the opinion of so distinguished a philosopher as Professor Sprengel on the value of old dung, when

he says in his valuable essay on manures, which ought speedily to appear in an English dress, that “the longer the dung is left in the dunghill, the more advantageous will be the preparation of the compost, because the ammonia. disengaged from the dung and urine in it, will become chemically combined with humic acid.” It will be observed thatthese sentiments bear a strong analogy to the subject which engages the attention of Professor Henslow . As a satisfactory con. clusion to the theoretical part of this subject, I give you the following explanation of the ferment ation of manure, and its effects, by Dr. Madden .-- [Whenever dead organic matter, either animal * Davy's Agricultural Chemistry, edition of 1839.

(335)

192

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING

or vegetable, is exposed to air in a moist state, it absorbs oxygen, which, by entering into combi. nation with its carbon, destroys its original composition,and gives rise to the production of various new compounds, which in their turn suffer decomposition by means of fresh supplies of oxygen being absorbed, and so on in a continued series until the whole mass is reducedto chemical com . pounds of such stability as to resist the farther action of oxygen under ordinary circumstances. During this series of changes, the various solid compounds are converted first into fluid and then into gaseous products ; which latter, by escaping into the air , become lost. Chemists are much divided as to what precise amount of decomposition is requisite to render organic matter in a proper state to become food for plants ; all agree that decomposition must have commenced, some maintain that it must be completed. My own belief, founded on extensive observation and not a few experiments ,is, that all the products of decomposition, in every stage, are available as food for plants, provided theyusare liquid or capable dissolving water. These observations will, of course, regulate in either the management of theof "“ midden .' inWhenever any moist organic maiter absorbs oxygen, its chemical union with its carbon gives rise to an increase of temperature, which increase enables the surrounding portions to absorb oxygen more rapidly than they other wise would do ; these parts in their turn become heated, andthus the influence extends through

the entire mass -- the amount of heat being proportionable to the size of the mass, its degree of moisture, and quantity of air contained within its interstices. By careful management, you can retard or accelerate the fermentation of your “ midden " to almost any extent, from scarcely any

change taking place, to so great a rapidity as to endanger the whole taking fire from the heat evolved. The most profitable way for dung to ferment is slowly but steadily , so that by the time it is required for use, it will readily cat with a spade likesoft cheese, and exhibit a uniform rich brown color, and emit no smoke unless the air be very frosty. During fermentation, the azote contained in the various constituents of the dunghill unites with hydrogen, and forms ammonia or hartshorn , which, being very volatile, is apt to escape with the watery vapor and other gaseous products of decomposition . Various means have been of late recommended to prevent this, but none of them appear to me at all satisfactory, and I believe have not as yet given very satisfactory

results when applied to practice. The best condition for a “ midden " to be in is when it contains a sufficiency of water to cut moist, and yield a little liquid by pressure, but not enough to run

from it spontaneously; this is easily effected by draining the “ midden " stance, if in the court, so that all superfluous moisture runs off into the drains, which , of course, must lead to the liquid ma. nure-tank , from which in dry weather it should be pumped up and scattered uniformly over the " midden " ; in this state of moisture, scarcely a perceptible quantity of ammonia is lost, as it all

remains in solution ; and I believe that this planwill befound inall cases to be superior to every other hitherto devised for preserving farm -yard dung.-H. R. M.]

17. PLANTING POTATOES . the potato plat Should now be delved, and, with no sparing hand, Manured ;

The dibbling done, the dropping of the chips Is left to little hands, well pleased to lend Their feeble help : GRAHAM .

( 1870.) The potato crop is cultivated on what is called the fallow -break or division of the farm , being considered in the light of a green or ameli

orating crop for the soil. Following a crop of grain , whose stubble is bare in autumn, the soil is plowed early in the season, that it mayreceive all the advantages which a winter's sky can confer it in rendering it tender ; and as potatoes affect a dry and easy soil, the piece of land intended for them may be plowed and even partially cleaned in spring. Time for cleaning is very limited in spring, and on this account the cleanest portion of the fallow break should be chosen for the potatoes to occupy.

The stubble will either

have been cast, fig. 135, in autumn, or clove down without a gore-furrow , fig. 140, according as the soil is strong or free ; and having been particu

larly provided with gaw-cuts, to keep the land as dry as possible all winter, for a crop which requires early culture in spring, as potatoes do, it is prob

able that the land thus appropriated will be able to be cross-plowed, fig; 312, soon after the spring wheat and beans are sown, if either is cultivated on the farm , and if not, the cross- plowing for potatoes constitutes the ear liest spring work after the lea. After the cross-furrow , the land is thoroughly (336)

PLANTING POTATOES .

193

harrowed a double tine along the line of the furrow , and then a double tine been broughtto the surface by the harrowing are gathered off, along with any isolated stones that would sp pear unseemly on the surface . If the land is clean, it will be ready for across it, and any weeds that may have

drilling; if not, it should receive another plowing in the line of the ridges, that is, across the cross -furrow , by being ridged up in casting, and then again harrowed a double tine along and across, and theweeds again gathered off. Should the surface be dry after the harrowing which succeeded the cross

plowing, and the weather appear not likely to continue dry, the grubber will be a better implementto give a stirring to the soil thanthe plow, as it will still retain the dry surface uppermost, and it will also bring up to the surface any weed that would entangle itself about the implement. The two-horse grubber is an excellent implement for stirring the soil when it has become somewhat solid by rain or by lying untouched for a time. The time occupied in doing all this, as the weather will permit, may be about a month , that is, from the middle of March to the middle of April,

when the potato crop should be actively preparing for planting. As the land cannot receive more plowing in early spring than itshould ,to stir the land a little more, and make it still more tender, the drills first made for

securing the manure of the potato crop should be set up in the double mode, as particularly described in ( 1740 ) and (1741). ( 1871.) The state of the potatoes, when taken out of the pit, will depend on the temperature of the weather in spring, and also on the state they were in when pitted in autumn. In cold weather, they will not be much sprouted in the pit by the time they should be planted ; but should they have been heated at all, in consequence of the wet state inwhich they had

been pitted,or the unripe state in which they had been taken up and pit ted, they will be sprouted independently of the temperature of the exter nal air. When the sprouts are long, they should be removed, as it will

be impossible to preserve them entire; but if the quickening of the tubers be mere buds, these can be preserved ; and theyare of advantage, inas much as they will push above ground several days sooner than sets that are not sprouted at all. Itshould be kept in mind, however, that sets with

long sprouts, and sprouted sets which have been long kept after being taken out of the pit until planted in the field , are apt toset up puny plants. In selecting tubers, therefore, to cut into sets, the middlesized that have

not sprouted at all, or have merely pushed out buds, will be found the soundest ; and wherever the least softness or rottenness is felt, the tubers

should be entirely rejected ,and even the firmportion of these should not be used as seed. The small potatoes should be picked out and put aside

to boil for poultry and pigs.

Those potatoes which are not required for

seed, but are nevertheless firm and of good size, whether intended for sale

or for use in the farm -house, should be placed in an outhouse, until dis posed of or used the apartment having, if possible, an earthen floor, and

kept in the dark , though with access to the air, and water thrown upon the potatoes occasionally, to keep them crisp, but not at all moist, and turned carefully over by hand , when the sprouts are taken off.

(1872.) To insure the vitality of the sets in the ground, even when planted under adverse circumstances, it has been recommended to dust them with slaked lime immediately on the potatoes being cut ; and the

sap,on exuding from the incised part, will then be immediately absorbed by the lime, which, on forming a paste, incrusts itself on the incised sur Others recommend to dip the sets in a thick mixture of lime and water, which, on drying, envelops them in a coating of plaster. This lat

face . *

* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. (385 ) .. .. .... 13

194

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -- SPRING .

ter plan would be attended with some trouble, and seems to offer no ad vantage over the former, which is easily done with a riddle, as the sets are cut, and can do no harm at all events. It has also been recommended to sprout the sets prior to planting them, in order to test their vitality. The

plan suggested is to spread the sets on the ground, in a part ofthe field they are to be planted , 2 or 3 inches thick , tocover them with a thin coat ing of earth, and then to water the earth frequently with a watering -pan, until they are all sprouted , taking care to have them sprouted by the time the land is manured to receive them . They are then to be carefully placed in baskets, and set in the ground with the sprouts uninjured. This process of sprouting is said to accelerate the vegetation of the sets in the drill at least 14 days. If potatoes that have sprouted in the pit are cut into sets and immediately planted, they should be in as favorable a state to grow in

the drill as when subjected to this process ; and however easily it may be conducted on a small scale — for garden culture, for example — I consider the suggestion as unfit to be practiced on a large scale on a farm ; and es

pecially as sets which are in a drystate when planted are found to come up in the drill more equally, provided their vitality has been preserved.Small whole potatoes make good seed. One season, happening to have fewer sets cut than would plant the ground the dunghill allotted tothe potato-land manured, some of the small potatoes, which had been picked out for the pigs when the sets were cut, were planted to finish theland with potatoes, and the crop from them was better than on the rest of the field.

(1873.) Having drilled up as much land as will allow the planting to proceed without interruption, and having turned the dunghill in time to

ferment the dung into aproper state for the crop, and having prepared the sets ready for planting, let us now proceed to the field, and see how opera tions should be conducted there, and in what manner they arebest brought to a termination .

The sets are shoveled either into sacks like corn, and

placed in the field at convenient distances, or into the body of close carts ,

which are so placed on the head -ridges as to be accessible from all points. When the drills are short, the most convenient way to take the sets to the

field is in a cart, as the distance to either head-ridge is short; but, when the drills are long, sacks are best suited for setting down here and there along the middle of the land . A small, round willow basket, with a bow

handle, should be provided for every person who is to plant the sets ; and, as a considerable number of hands are required for this operation, boys

and girls may find employment at it, over and above the ordinary field workers. A frying -pan shovel, fig. 176, will be found a convenient instru ment for taking the sets out of the cart into the baskets. Carts yoked to single horses take the dung from the dunghill to the drills. A dung -hawk or drag, with 2 or 3 prongs, and about 5 feet long in the shaft, such as fig.

343, is used by the steward for pulling the dung out of the carts . Boys, Fig. 343.

THE DUNG -HAWK OR DRAG.

girls or women are required to lead the horse in each cart to and from the dunghill to the part of the field which is receiving the dung. The plow men , whose horses are employed in carting the dung, remain at the dung (386)

195

PLANTING POTATOES .

hill, and, assisted by a woman or two, fill the carts with dung as they re

turn empty. One man, the grieve or steward, hawks the dung out of the carts, and gives the land dung in such quantity as is determined on before

hand by the farmer. Three women spread the dung equally in the drills with the small graips, while a fourth goes before and divides it into each drill as it falls in heaps from the carts. If the drills have all been made before, no plow is employed in that way while the other operations are

proceeding; but plows are required to split in the drills and cover in the dung and sets as fast as the planting is finished. All these materials of labor being provided for their respective purposes, let them startto work ; and, to render your conception the better of the manner in which they should be arranged relatively to each other, I have contrived the annexed cut, fig. 344, which shows you at once how all the people and horses are employed. Fig. 344.

LLY с

M M

U M U MU M

M M

A V M SU uM

m m

0

POTATO PLANTING.

(1874.) The first thing to be done is to back a cart to the dunghill,and

fill it with dung ; and in doing this the carts are usually not quite filled, and the dung is heaped as near the back end of the cart as is convenient

for the draụght of the horse, that the man who hawks it out may have the

The carts are filled, and the bottom of the dunghill shoveled clean by the plowmen whose horses are employed in carting the dung ;

less labor.

and whose number in the figure is 2, there being 3 carts employed at the dung : the men are usually assisted by a field -worker or two, in order to keep the carts a shorter time at the dunghill. Whenever the load is ready, the driver c starts with the horse and cart g, and walks them along the un

dunged drills, until the horse meets the steward, who placesthe horse and cart into their proper place in the drills, and then removes the back -board of the cart retain board within places .

To

this

reach, he

it

upon

its edge

on the nave of the near wheel, where it is held from falling off by passing the small coterel , at the end of the chain attached to the back -board, into the slit-eye of the stud , which projects from the hind -end of the side of the cart, and which coterel and stud keep the back -board , when in use, fast in (387)

196 its

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

proper place. If the carts are whole-bodied, the steward proceeds, after

the back -board is removed, to hawk out the dung ; but if they are tilt or

coup -carts, he elevates the front a few inches, by means of the hesp at tached there, that the dung may be hawked out the more easily. The wheels of the cart and the horseoccupy 3 drills, as at i, the horse being in the middle drill between them.

The steward h, with the hawk in both

hands, pulls out a heap of dung è upon the ground, and it invariably falls into the middle drill. The horse is then made to step forward a few paces

and to halt again, by the voice of the steward, who then pulls out another

heap of dung. An active man , accustomed tothis sort of work, does not allow the horse to stand still at all, but to walk slowly on while he pulls out the dung. When the cart is emptied, the steward fastens down the body of the cart, if it is a coup one, puts on the back -board , and the cart again proceeds by its driver to the dunghill. When the distance to the

dunghill is short, the carts are as slightly filled as to dispense with the back -board altogether ; and when it can be wanted, labor is considerably expedited. After the cart has proceeded a few paces, and deposited a few heaps ofdung , the foremost of the band of 4 women who spread the dung, as k , divides the heaps, as at m, with her small common graip into other

two heaps, l and n , one in each of the drills beside her ; and from m she goes to the next heap i and divides it into other two heaps, and so on with every heap of dung . The 3 field -workers, n o p, having each a small graip, fig. 151 , then take each 1 of the 3 drills occupied by the horses and cart wheels, and all spread the dung before them equally along the bottom of the drills l m n, each taking care to remain in her own drill from the one

end of the field to the other, shaking to pieces every lump of dung, and teazing out any that may happen to be ranker than the rest, trampling

upon the spread dung as she walks along the bottom , and keeping it with in the limits of the drill. Meanwhile the plowman a makes double drills from b to c, if they have not been already formed, and proceeds with the making of them toward e and d. Immediately that a part of 3 drills are dunged and the dung spread, the potato planters, after having plenished their baskets or aprons with sets from the cart t upon the head -ridge, pro ceed to deposit the sets upon the dung along the drills, at about 8 or 9 inches apart. Some women prefer to carry the sets in coarse aprons in stead of baskets, because they are more convenient. As setting requires

longer time than dung -spreading, there should be two sets of planters, as at r ands, to one set of spreaders — that is, 6 planters to 4 spreaders. One set of planters, as s, go in advance of the other, r, till the latter comes up to the place where the former began, and then the set r goes in advance,

and so one set after another goes in advance alternately, each set filling bor to 3 drills at a time. Whenever 3 drillsare thus planted , the plow

their baskets and aprons as they become empty, but all confining their la man double u commences splitarethe first cover way in theasthey way. The to dung and the drills split weresets in and the same setinup,

that is, as the plowman a turns over the first furrow of each drill upon the plain ground,stretching from a to e, so the plowman u, in splitting the drills, turns over the first furrow upon the dung toward the planters rand ; because the first furrow being the largest, it should have complete free dom to cover the dung and sets. If the land had been sufficiently worked

in spring, so as to be tolerably clean and free at the time of planting the potatoes, the plowman a may make up the drills in the single way, that

is, making one drill in goingaway, as he is represented in the cut, from b to c , and returning with another drill in coming from d to e, because sin

gle drills will be sufficiently deep to contain the dung within them . Pota (388)

PLANTING POTATOES.

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toes always receive a large dunging, they being in the first place a fallow crop , when the ground is entitled to be dunged, and, in the next place, they are considered a scourging crop to the land, that is, taking much nourishment out of it, and returning little or nothing to it -- yielding no straw but a few dry haulms, and the greatest proportion of the entire crop being sold and driven away from the farm . A large dunging to potatoes

always seems great, for time is wanting to make the dung short, and, of course, to reduce its bulk in the dunghill. About 20 single-horse loads, or 15 tons, to the imperial acre, is as small a dunging as potatoes usually re

ceive of farm -yard dung. In the neighborhood of towns, street-manure, to the extent of 30 tons per imperial acre, is given ; but there the crop is forced for an early market, and the street-manure has not the strength of farm -yard dung, and indeed is found to be not nearly so good for them as forturnips. The spreading should be kept up ascloseto the cart as pos sible.

The plowman u should not leave a single drill uncovered inthe

evening when he gives up work. If he cannot possibly split all the drills in the double way , he should cover up the dung and sets of a few drills at the last in the single way ; or he should receive assistance from the plow

man a to split them all completely, if he sees the weather showing symp toms of rain or frost. And even at the loosening from work at mid -day, or forenoon yoking, every drill should be covered in, even though the

plowman should work awhile longer in the field than the rest of the work people ; for which disadvantage he should be as long of yoking after them ; and he should make it a point to cover in the drills at the endof the fore

noon yoking in a complete manner, when the weather is hot and dry ; be cause dung is soon scorched by the mid-day sun, and its dry state is inju rious, not so much on account of the evaporation of any valuable material from it, the material being chiefly water, but because it does not incorpo

rate with the soil so soon and sowell as damp dung; and when both soil and dung are rendered hot and dry by exposure,their incorporation is rendered very difficult. If all the plows cannot cover in the drills within a reasonable time after the loosening time arrives, especially at night, much rather give up the dunging of the land and the planting of the sets a little sooner than usual, than run the risk of leaving any dung and sets uncovered .

(1875.) You will observe that the process of planting potatoes, as rep resentedin fig. 344, is composed of a variety of actions, which , taken indi vidually, are equally important, and none ofwhich can be carried on with

out the assistance of the rest, and all of which, if not proportioned to one another, would end in confusion. Thus, the plowing of the drills, the

dunging of the land, the spreading of the dung, the setting of the pota toes , and the splitting of the drills, are all equally important operations in without the rest. potato culture .

None of them would be of any use

There would be no use of making drills unless they were to be dunged, nor would the planting of the sets avail unless the dung were spread, nor would the planted sets be safe, even on the spread dung,unless the drills were split to cover the whole from the weather. But if these component operations are not proportioned to each other, the whole operation is thrown into confusion. Suppose, for example, that the plowman a, while making double drills, could not keep out before the party that is spread

ing thedung, it is evident that every other party would be constrained by his tardiness, and made to lose time; and the remedy for this inconve nience obviously is, that the plowman should have as many double drills made before the dunging commences, as that he shall not be overtaken in

the drilling; or that the plowman should make single drills, when he finds (389)

198

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

the dunging gaining ground upon him ; or that another plowman should

be sent to assist him in making double drills. Suppose, again, that more carts are employed in conveying the dung from the dunghill than the steward h can possibly hawk out, or the 4 women k n o p possibly spread ; or, the same effect would be produced by employing more peoplethan ne cessary at the dunghill to fill the carts ; the result would be that the stew

ard and women would be overworked, while the horses driving the dung, and thepeople at the dunghill would be comparatively idle, and of course losing time. Suppose there are fewer planters at r and s than can keep out before theplowman u, then time would not only be lost in covering up as many drills as might be, but the dung spread would lie exposed to the desiccating action of the sun and air between the plantersof the sets

and the spreaders of the dung. Were there, on the other hand, too many planters for those who spread the dung to keep out before them, then the planters would be comparatively idle. Suppose, lastly, that the plowman

u cannot keep up with the planters, who, nevertheless, do not proceed on their part faster than the dung is spread, the effect will be that the spread and planted dung will become dry before it can be covered up. The remedy for this inconvenience is either to employ another plowman to split in drills, or to make one plowman cover the dung with one furrow , and let another finish the drills behind him at his leisure.

( 1876.) I have dwelt the more fully on these particulars, because potato planting is one of those great operations which are made up of a variety of constituent operations that are performed simultaneously, and unless

they form a harmonious whole, tending in all its parts to a common end, the entire operation cannot be completed in the best manner ; but wherever

this harmony is seen to exist, it is a satisfactory proof that the person who has so arranged the working materials as to produce it, possesses the knowledge of combining varieties of field -labor . In effecting such an ar rangement as the above, he displays knowledge of a superior order to that which is usually displayed in conducting potato planting. A very com ' mon mode of dunging potato -land, for example, is to hawk the dung out of the cart for 5 drills instead of 3, though 3, or even fewer, women are sent to spread the dung over them . In doing this, each woman's attention is not confined to a single drill, but must be extended over the whole 5,

when each spreads the dung from the heap she takes possession of ; and

it stands to reason that she cannot spread dung so equally, and of course not so well, over 5 drills as along 1 ; and the work is not done better, though faster, even though the 3 women are all employed to spread from the same heap, as each has still the entire 5 drills to attend to. Besides,

when dung is hawked out of the cart for 5 drills, it is usually laid in large heaps at considerable distances, at from 5 to 10 paces apart, thereby in creasing the difficulty of spreading ; and a large space of the ground being thus heaped over, before the dung is begun to be spread, by the time it is spread, and the sets planted, the dung will have become quite dry. This plan may excusably be adopted on a small farm , where laborers are few , and it is desired to conduct operations with what is considered economy,

by the employment of as few hands as possible; but on a large farm it has the appearance of great slovenliness, and it certainly encourages careless ness in work , and evinces confusion of ideas in arranging it. It is no un

common sight, even on large farms,to see the dung carted out andspread in one yoking, and the sets planted and the dung covered in another, by

the same people and horses; doing a great deal of work, no doubt, in each yoking and during the entire day ; but the result would be much moresatisfactory were the entire work finished as it proceeded. A great (390)

PLANTING POTATOES.

199

number of dunged drills are usually begun to be planted with sets at the same time, instead of confining the setting to a few at a time, to get them finished as soon as possible, to be covered with the plow . In short, there is no end to the many ways in which field -work may be done in a slovenly manner ; but there is only one best way of doing it.

( 1877.) Drills of potatoes are recommended to be made at 30 inches apart, instead of 27 inches, which is the usual width for turnips, because the large stems of the potato-plant growing vigorously require plenty of Even 3 feet apart is recommended by some cultivators, and in deep , rich soils this width may not be too great ; but I observe that, in the

air .

neighborhood of large towns, where the greatest extent of ground is oc cupied by potatoes, the drills seldom exceed 24 inches, owing partly to the great value of land in that locality, and partly because the earlier va rieties of potatoes, which have small stems, are most profitable to cultivate there. The drills for potatoes are usually not m so very regular in width as for turnips, because the seed is not planted by a machine. It is very easy to ascertain whether the exact quantity of manure desired to

be given to the potato crop is actually given . Knowing the length of the drill and its breadth, a simple calculation will inform you of the number of drills in an acre, and, by apportioning the number of cart-loads that

should be applied on every 3 drills, the requisite quantity per acre can at once be ascertained with great precision ; and this as precisely on the very first 3 drills that are commenced to be dunged, as if the calculation had

been made over a large proportion of the field. (1878.) As to the varieties of the potato I would recommend for field culture, I find it impossible to tender an advice, because it would not be generally applicable. I have seen a potato transferred from England, where it was a favorite, to Scotland, another variety transferred from Scot land to England, another from Ireland to Scotland, and in each case pro duce a very inferior crop in its adopted country to what it ever did in its native one; and even in a transference from one part to another of the

same country, I have seen a material effect produced upon the plant, in creasing it in one case and diminishing it in another. The general result is found to be an increase of produce and improvement of quality in trans ferring the potato from inferior to better soil, and from an elevatedto a lower situation. The tendency of the potato to improve on being thus

transferred, is taken advantage of in its attainment as seed. When I men tion that there are upward of 100 varieties of field potatoes described by Mr. Lawson,* and as many experimented on by Mr. Howden, Lawhead, East-Lothiant you will not be surprised that I cannot confidently recom mend any particular variety for a particular locality. Nevertheless a good potato hascertain characteristics which distinguish it everywhere from an inferior one. A desirable potato is neither large nor small, but of medium size ; of round shape, or elongated spheroid ; the skin of fine texture, and homogeneous; and the eyes neither numerous nor deep -seated. The

habit of growth of its stem is strong and slightly spreading, and color lightish green. I believe that the intensity of the color of theflower is in some degree an indication of the depth of the color of the tuber ; and I believe, also, thatwhite potatoes are generally fit to be eaten when taken out of the ground, but that red ones are the better for being out of the ground for a shorter or longer time, before being used, according to the fineness of their texture. But color is by no means a fixed characteristic

of any variety of potato, as it changes by cultivation and other circuin * Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual, and Supplement. + Prize Essaysof the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xi. (391)

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-SPRING ,

stances. Mr. Lawson relates a curious circumstance which gave rise to a permanent difference in the color of the same variety of potato. 6 In the

first report of Messrs. Dickson and Turnbull's Agricultural Museum at Perth ," he says, “ a remarkable instance isgiven of a white variety of the Perthshire red potato, being obtained by Miss Bishop , New -Scone, from a red potato with a white eye, which she carefully cut out and planted by

itself, the result of which is that the produce has for several years retained the same color as the original eye, without the slightest appearance of change.” * Before determining the properties of a potato in a locality , it is necessary that it exhibit the same character for 2 or 3 years in the same .

circumstances of soil, manure and culture, otherwise errors may be com

mitted in your estimation of varieties. The intrinsic value of a potato , as an article of commerce, is estimated by the quantity of starch which it yields on analysis ; but as an article of domestic consumption, the flavor of the starchy matter is of greater importance than its quantity. Almost every person prefers a mealy potato to a waxy , and the more mealy it is usually the better flavored . The mealiness consists of a layer of mucilage immediately under the skin , covering the starch or farina, which is held consistent by fibrous matter. Light soil raises a potato more mealy than

a strong , and I suppose every one is aware that a light soil produces a potato of the same variety of better flavor than clay. So that soil has an influence on the flavor, and there is no doubt that culture has — for potatoes, whatever may be the variety, raised from soil that has been dunged for some time, are higher flavored than those grown in immediate contact with dung,

(1879. ) The most common varieties of potatoes cultivated in the fields in Scotland, are the common or Edinburgh Dons, very plentiful in the Edinburgh market. It is round, and is an early variety ; that is to say, the stems are entirely decayed by the time the tubers are fit for use. It produces about 16 - fold of the seed, and yields 576 grains Troy of starch from 1 lb. of tubers. The Buff is a mealy and superior-flavored potato,

yielding about 15 -fold, and 466 grains Troy of starch from 1 lb. of tubers. The Perthshire Red, an oblong flat potato, is largely cultivated for the London market. It yields about 15 -fold, and affords as much as 777

grains Troy of starch from 1 lb. of tubers. Of the late varieties, that is, those the foliage of which, in ordinary seasons, does not decay until

destroyed by frost, and the tubers of which generally require to be kept for some timebefore being used to the greatest advantage , the Staffald Hall, or Wellington, as it is sometimes called, is to be preferred. It is

represented to yield 22-fold ,and affords 813 grains Troy of starch from 1 Ib. of tubers. The Scotch Black potato has long been cultivated in Scot land ; and it seems to suit strong soil better than light, where it yields as high as 16 -fold of increase, and affords 522 grains Troy of starch from 1 1b. of tubers.t

Of the late varieties for field -culture suited for cattle, the

Irish Lumpers andCups appear prolific. The Lumper is a white, oblong potato of very inferior flavor, but yields 421 bushels, and 3,118 lbs. of starch per Scotch acre, I presume ; and the Cups are an oblong red potato!

yielding 479 bushels, and 3,539 lbs. of starch per acre . On recommend ing any variety of potato , however, it should be understood that potatoes will not permanently maintain their preëminence at all places ; on the contrary, a few years may witness their utter decline. The Leather -coats, for example, were a variety in very great esteem and in extensive cultiva • Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual. | Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual. 1 Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society vol. xi. (392)

PLANTING POTATOES.

201

tion some years ago, and now are hardly known. The small American white potato was extensively cultivated in the midland districts of Scot land about 20 years ago, but has yielded some of its ground to more pro lific varieties. For the table, however, when raised in hazel loam - the true potato soil — there are few arieties cultivated superior to it in flavor, richness and beauty as a dish. It is now, I believe, chiefly confined to the

garden. The finestflavored and most beautiful potato I ever saw on the table was a light red , small, round variety raised a few years ago in the sandy soil of the parish of Monifieth, in Forfarshire. It had quite the nutty flavor of afresh Spanish chestnut - a state of that fine fruit unknown in this country.

(1880.) There are other ways of cultivating the potato in the field be sides the one I have described. When light soil, in which the potato thrives, is clean and in good heart, it is frequently dunged on the stubble in autumn, and plowed in with a deep, square furrow by casting with or without a gore -furrow , fig. 139. Abundance of gaw -cuts are made to let

offsuperfluous surface -water in winter. It is then cross-plowed in spring, and harrowed a double-tine, when it is ready to be drilled up in the sin gle form , the sets planted, and the drills split in the double form , to com plete the operation. In the neighborhood of towns this is an expeditious

mode of planting a large breadth of potatoesinspring on light soil, but it requires the land to be in very goodheart. I have tried it on good land in middling condition,but could not succeed in raising much more than half the crop produced from dunging the same land in spring. ( 1881.) There is a modification of this plan which may be practiced with

success in very light soil, which is that after the cross-plowing and har

rowing in spring, the landis ridged again bycasting without gore-furrows in the opposite way it was cast in autumn when the dung was plowed in ; and at every third furrow two women follow the plow, and plant the sets in the bottom of the furrow . If the furrows are held 9 inches wide, the

distance between the rows of potatoes will be 27 inches ; and if they are 10 inches wide, the rows will, of course, be 30 inches apart ; so that this plan admits of the rows being made wide enough. (1882.) There is a sub -modification of this last method, which is, that the dung is spread over the smooth harrowed ground after the land has been cast into ridges in spring, instead of being applied on the stubble in autumn. The dung is raked in and spread evenly along the bottom of every third furrow by a woman with the small graip, fig. 151 , following

the plow, and immediately preceding the planters, and the plow which follows the planters covers up the sets. In both these modes the potato

plantscomeup in rows upon the flat ground at the same distance they do in drills, and after their stems have grown up in summer, theearth is plowed up toward them, so as to convert the flat ground into a drilled sur face by the time the culture is finished .

( 1883.) Another mode of the field -culture of the potato is in lazy -beds, a mode more generally practiced in Ireland than in any other part of the kingdom . This system , however, will likely become less general, being much condemned by the good farmers there. Nevertheless, on lea -ground and on undrained bogs the smallfarmer cannot,perhaps, pursue a better • In bogs and mountains,” says Martin Doyle, “ where the plow cannot penetrate through strong soil, beds are the most convenient for the one .

66

petty farmer, who digs the sod with his long narrow spade, and either lays the sets on the inverted sod — the manure being previously spread - cover ing them from the furrows by the shovel; or, as in parts of Connaught and Munster, he stabs the ground with his loy, a long narrow spade pe (393)

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

culiar to the laborers of Connaught, jerks a cut set into the fissure when he draws out the tool, and afterward closes the set with the back of the

same instrument, covering the surface, as in the case of lazy-beds, from the furrows. The general Irish mode of culture on old rich arable lea ( a practice very common in the county of Clare, and elsewhere among the

peasantry who pay dearly for old grass land ,) isto plow the fields in ridges, to level them perfectly with the spade, then to lay the potato sets upon the surface, and to cover them with or without manure by the inverted sods from the furrows. The potatoes are afterward earthed once or twice with

whatever mould can be obtained from the furrows by means of spade and shovel. And after these earthings, the furrows becoming deep trenches, form easy means for water to flow away, and leave the planted ground on each side of them comparatively dry ." “ The practice in the south of

Ireland is to grow potatoes on grass land from 1 to 3 years old, and tur nips afterward, manuring each time moderately, as the best preparation for corn, and as a prevention of the disease called fingers and toes in turnips. In wet bog-land, ridges and furrows are the safest, as the furrow acts as a complete drain for surface water; but wherever drilling is prac

ticable, it is decidedly preferable, the produce being greater in drills than The

in what may be termed, comparatively, a broadcast method. " *

spade-culture of potatoes seems an appropriate mode for small farmers and cotters, but it is by far too expensive a mode to be introduced into a farm where horse-labor is employed. ( 1884.) While speaking of the form of the double drill, I have said that one of its sides was larger or heavier than the other; that is, the first fur row with which it is made is much larger than the second, the effect of which relation of furrows is to make the line of their meeting at the side instead of at the top of the drill, ( 1744) and fig. 313. The germ of the potato, and of the bean too, in pushing upward, toward the top of the

drill, findingthe least resistance in the soilalong the line ofthe meeting of the two furrows, finds its way to the day through the side instead of

the top of the drill. Were the plants allowed to grow out from that part of the drill, they would not only be bent at the ground, but their stems would interfere with the horse -labor bestowed on the land in the hollows of the drills. To avoid this inconvenient and unnatural position

of the plants, the practice is to harrow down the tops of the drills with harrows, so that the drill shall have the lightest part of the earth upon its crown ; and, of course, the germ finding the least resistance directly up 'ward , will push out at the top of the drill. The harrowing down of the tops of the drills is executed with the common harrows, or with harrows made for the purpose . The common harrows are passed either along or across the drills, according to the nature of the soil. Strong soil bears the harrows being driven along the drills, and in very hard land, particularly

in dry seasons, theymay be passed along a double tine, buta single tine will usually be sufficient. Harrowing across, with tines well worn down,

will have the least chance of disturbing long manure when used for dung ing potatoes, as the drill which first receives the fore part of the harrow supports it and keeps the tines from penetrating too deep at once ; but the

walking across thedrills is irksome both for man and beast, so that the harrowing is most easilyperformed along the drill. The common harrow, however, is a harsh implement for harrowing drills, compared to a couple of curved ones, figured below, which embrace two drills at a time, and

which when pulled along do their work admirably. A modification of this last method has been recommended to be adopted on strong land in * Doyle's Cyclopedia of Practical Husbandry - art. Potato — second edition . (394;

PLANTING POTATOES .

203

dry weather, after much rain has fallen, and when such land has become very hard and cloddy. A wooden roller, curved so as to embrace two drills, is recommended to be passed along, and by it the clods at top are

either crushed or displaced to the bottomof the drills. Two pairs of har rows of a triangular form , suited to work in the hollows etween the drills, are then passed along, and they either remove the clods that were too hard to be broken by the roller, or they divide the large clods into a

number of small ones, and bring them all,the clods of every kind, into the hollows of the drills. In every one of these modes of rolling and harrow

ing the drills of bean or potato land, the bean and potato germs are per mitted to shoot perpendicularly up through their tops. This harrowing is given to the drills 8 or 10 days after the potatoes have been planted, if the land is dry, but, of course,it must be done before the germs have had time to penetrate the ground, although the weather be not altogether favorable for working heavy land. Of the two sorts of potato -harrows alluded to — the curved and triangular — the latter is best fitted to be used when the germs

have appeared above ground, as its outmost tineswork between the top of one drill and another, and not over the top ofthe drill like the curved harrows. (1885.) The potato is subject to disease at a very early period of its existence, not merely after it has developed its stems and leaves but be fore the germ has risen from the sets. The disease which affects the

plant is called the curl, from the curled or crumpled appearance which the leaves assume when under the influence of the disease . What the imme

diate cause of the disease is, it is difficult to say ; but the puny stem and stinted leaves indicate weakness in the constitution of the plant, and, like weak animals affected with constitutional disease, the small tubers pro duced by curled potatoes, when planted, propagate the disease in the fu

ture crop.

The curl is sowell known by its appearance, and the curled

plant so generally shunned as seed, that the disease is never willingly

propagated by the cultivator; still there are circumstances in the manage The experimentsof Mr. T. Dickson show that the disease arises from the vegetable powers of the sets planted having been exhausted by over-ripening, so that sets from the waxy end of the potato produced healthy plants, whereas those from the best ripened end did not vegetate at all, or produced curled ment of the tubers which induce the disease therein .

plants .* It is the opinion of Mr. Crichton, “ that the curl in thepotato may often be occasioned by the way the potatoes are treated that are in tended for seed.

I have observed ,” he says, " wherever the seed-stock is

carefully pitted, and not exposed to the air, in the spring the crop has sel dom any curl ; but where the seed -stock is put into barns and outhouses for months together, such crop seldom escapes turning out in a great measure curled ; and if but few curl the first year, if they are planted again , it is more than probable the half of them will curl next season .”+ (1886.) The other disease alluded to affects the seed or sets, and is call ed the failure or taint, which consists of the destruction of theirvital pow

ers. Many conjectures have been hazarded as to the cause of the failure, and most of them have ascribed it to the fermented state of the dung, to

the drouth of the season, to the heating of the sets, to the tuber being cut

into sets,and other secondary causes ; but all these conjectures leave un touched the principal consideration in the question, how these circum stances should induce failure now, and not in bygone years ? Cut sets have been used for many years without causing failure. Farm -yard dung, in various states of decomposition, has been used as long for raising pota toes. The extraordinary drouth of 1826 caused no failure, while in com * Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural Society, vol.i. (395)

Ibid ., vol. I.

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THE BOOK OF THE FARMSPRING .

paratively cool seasons the disease has made great havoc. Mr. John Shirreff takes a general and philosophical view of the cause of disease

in the potato crop, and though, no doubt, his observations are particular ly applicable to the curl, still they will apply equally well to the taint ; for the connection between the two diseases is so intimate , that you have seen Mr. Dickson's observation is that some sets “ did not vegetate at

all,” that is, failed, or produced curled plants."TheMr. Shirreff adoptsdura the maximum

general doctrine broached by Mr. Knight.

“

of the

tion of the life of any individual vegetable and animal,” he says, “ is pre determined by Nature, under whatever circumstances the individual

may

be placed ; the minimum , on the other hand, is determined by these very circumstances. Admitting, then, that a potato might reproduce itself from tubers for a great number of years in the shady woods of Peru , it seems

destined to become abortive in the cultivated champaign of Britain, inso much that nota single healthy plant of any sort of potato that yields ber ries, and which was in culture 20 years ago, can now be produced .” Mr. Shirreff concludes, therefore, that the potato is to be considered a short

lived plant, andthat though its health or vigor may be prolonged byrear ing it in elevated or in shady situations, or by cropping the flowers, and thus preventing the plants from exhausting themselves, the only sure way to

obtain vigorousplants, and to insure productive crops, is to have frequent recourse to new varieties raised from seed.* The same view had occurred

to Dr. Hunter. The fact ascertained by Mr. Knight deserves to be no

ticed — that, by planting late in the season, perhaps in June, or even in July, an exhausted good variety may, in a great measure, be restored ; that is, the tuber resulting from the late planting, when again planted at

the ordinary season , produces the kind inits pristine vigor, and of its for mer size. It is obvious that all these opinions refer to the possibility of

plants indicating constitutional weakness, and why may not the potato ? I have all along been of the opinion that the failure has arisen from this cause , nor does it seem to me to be refuted by the fact that certain varie ties of potato have been cultivated for many years in the same locality without fail; because it is well understood that every variety of potato has not indicated failure, and one locality may be more favorable to re

tention of and vigordiscrepancies of constitution than another ; at least, we may easily be in the case may arise, since we do not yet

lieve th

know the circumstances which must of necessity produce constitutional

weakness. I have no doubt in my own mind that, were seed -potatoes se curely pitted, until they were about to be planted — not over-ripened be fore they were taken out of the ground -- the sets cut from the crispest

tubers and from the waxy end - the dung fermented by a turning of the dunghill in proper time- led out to the field , quickly spread, the sets as quickly dropped on it, and the drills split in the manner represented in fig. 344, and described in ( 1874), there would be little heard of the failure even in the driest season-at the same time, the precaution of obtaining seed

frequently from an elevated and late district compared to where the seed the

is to be planted, should not be neglected. I ownit is difficult to prove existence of constitutional weakness in any given tuber, as its existence is only implied by the fact of the failure ; but the hypothesis explains many more facts than any other, than atmospheric influence - for example, pro ducing the failure like epidemic diseases in animals, for such influences existed many years ago, as well as now. The longer the cultivation of * Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural Society, vol. i. See also a well-reasoned essay by Mr. Aitken, Castle-Douglas, entitled ,“ The potato rescued from destruction, and restored to prestine vigor ; and who takes the same view of the subject. ( 396)

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205

the tuber of the potato, which is not its seed, is persevered in, the more cer tainly may we expect to see its constitutional vigor weakened, in strict

analogy to other plants propagated by similar means ; such as the failure of many varieties of the apple and pear, and of the cider fruits of the 17th century. This very season, 1843, contradicts the hypothesis of drouth and heat as the primary cause of the failure, for ithas hitherto (to June) been

neither hot nor dry, while,it strikingly exemplifies the theory of constitu tional weakness, inasmuch as the fine season of 1842 had so much over ripened the potato - farmers, still unaware of the cause of the failure, per mitting the potatoes they have used for seed to become over-ripened_that the sets this spring, to repeat again the words of Mr. Dickson, “ did not

vegetate, at all,” even in the absence of heatand drouth, and in the pres ence of moist weather. Had the potatoes been a little less over-ripened in 1842, the sets from them might have produced only curl this season,

though it is not improbable that the same degree of over-ripening may; cause entire failure now that would only have caused curl years ago

and as over-ripening was excessive last year, owing to the very fine

weather, so the failure is extensive in a corresponding degree in this, even in circumstances considered by most people preventive of its recur rence, namely, in cold and moist weather. And observe the results of both

1842 and 1813 as confirmatory of the same principle, illustrated by diamet

rically opposite circumstances. The under-ripened seed of the bad season of 1841 produced the good crop of potatoes of 1842, in spite of the great heat and drouth existing at the time of its planting in 1842 ; while the

over-ripened seed of the good season of 1842has produced extensive fail ure, in spite of the coolness and moisture existingat the time ofplanting in 1843. How can heat, drouth, or fermenting dung account for these results ?

( 1887.) As fact, I may mention the effects of comparatively dry and

moist soil, on cut sets and whole potatoes, which were brought to light by an experiment of Mr. Howden , and which results obtained no one coulă have anticipated . “ On the 28th June,” says Mr. Howden, “ I selected from

a store whichhad been repeatedly turned and kept for family use, 70 pota toes of the old rough black variety. I divided this number into 5 lots,

sizing them , so as each lot of 14 potatoes weighed exactly 4 lbs. I made on that day one lot of 14 into starch, and obtained 9 oz. On the same day

I put 14 potatoes whole, and 14 cut into 56 sets, into a deep box filled with dry mould . The remaining 14 whole and 14 cut I put into another box filled with moist earth, and which was watered from time to time.

At the

end of 3 weeks, with the exception of 5 sets, all the plants made their ap

pearance . All this time the dry box had been kept from moisture . On the 21st July, however , I allowed it to be moistened with heavy rain, and on the 28th July I took up and extracted starch from the whole. Before doing so, however, I weighed the several lots, and what seemed to me curious was, that each lot of the whole potatoes had gained 8 oz.; while each lot of the cut ones had lost 6 oz. of its weight, and of their number 10

did not vegetate. The sprouts from the whole potatoes weighed 4 oz., and those from the cut only 2oz.; yet the starch from the 28 cut potatoes was only 2 oz., and that from the 28 whole potatoes 9 oz ., being exactly the pro duce in starch of half that number , namely ,14, which was made into starch the comm at(1888.) encement of the experiment .”* The potato belongs to the natural order Solanacea, which also comprehends those re . markable but well-known plants, the deadly nightshade, the capsicum , the tobacco, the henbane, “ The potato is nowconsidered the most useful esculent that is cultivated, and who, ” Dr. Neill asks, “ could a priori have expected to have found the most use .

the stramonium , the tomato, & c .

* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xi. ( 397)

THE BOOK OF THE FARMSPRING .

206

ful' among the natural family of the Solanacea , most of which are deleterious, andall of which are forbidding in their aspect ?" * The genus Solanum stands in the order. Pentandria monogy nia , of the Linnæan system . • The name is given by Pliny, but the derivation is uncertain ; some derive it from Sol, the sun ; others say it is Sulanum , from Sus, being serviceable in the disor. ders of swine ; and others from Solor, to comfort. from its soothing narcotic effects ; all these con . jectures are, however, improbable. Solanum tuberosum , the common potato, has roots bearing tubers; stemsherbaceous; leaves unequally pinnate ; leaflets entire ; pedicel articulated. It is a native of South America, on the west coast everywhere. The cultivated potato varies much in the leaves, color of the flowers, shape and color of the tubers, & c." * “ Gerard ,” says Phillips, 66

" describes two kinds of potatoes in his Herbal ; and as the account is highly interesting I shall copy it verbatim . This plant,' saye he, which is called Sisarum Peruviorum , or Skyrrits of Peru, is generally of us called potatus or potatoes. The roots are many, thick and knob bed , like unto the roots of peonies, or rather of the asphodill, twined together at the top into one

head, in manner of the Skyrrit, which being divided into divers parts and planted,do make great increase, especially if the greatest rootes be cut into divers gobbets and planted in good fertill ground . Of these rootes may be made conserves, no less toothsome, wholesome, and domestic, than the flesh of quinces. These rootes may serve as a ground or foundation whereon the cunning confectioner or sugar-baker may worke and frame many comfortable delicate conserves and restorative sweet- meates. ' “ This was evidently the sweet potato," continues Phillips,

which was supposed to possess an invigorating property. Kissing-comfits were made of them in Shakspeare's time. Falstaffsays in the Merry Wives of Windsor, Let it rain potatoes, and hail kissing-comfits .'

Gerardcommences his second chapterwith the description of the common potato now in use, and . says, ' Battata Virginiana sive Virginianorum, et Pappis, potatoes of Virginia.' After an ac curate description of the plant and Hower, he adds, . The roote is thicke, fat, and tuberous; not much differing either in shape, color, or taste from the common potatoes, saving that the rooles hereof are not so great nor long, some of them round as a ball, some ovall or egge fashion, some The potato was introduced into Spain in the early part of the 16th cen

longer, others shorter.'

tury, and thence spread over the Continent, first to Italy , then to Flanders, and thence through Germany to Austria in 1598. It found its way to England by a differentroute, being brought from Virginia by the colonists sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584 and who returned in 1586 ,and probably, according to Sir Joseph Banks, brought with them the potato. This palladium against famine was not cultivated in Scotland until 1683, and was then confined to the gardens. In1728,

Thomas Prentice, a day -laborer, first planted potatoes in openfields at Kilsyth , and the success was such that every farmer and cottager followed his example. Potatoes were scarcely known in the East Indies 30 years ago, but they are now produced in such abundance that the natives in some places make considerable use of them. Bombay is chiefly supplied with this excellent root from Guzerat. And though the cultivation of this root is much increased in France within these last fewyears, the poor of that country cannot yet be prevailed on to eat it.”

(1889.) Rooks are very destructive to the potato cropjust as the germs of the plants are pene. which are mostpalatable to their taste. They steal very quietly into potato fields, and are there

trating the ground . and they seem to possess an exquisite sense of smelling to find out those pretty well hidden among the drills ; and in this respect their tactics differ from what they pursue when alighting among corn , which they do inlargeflocks. There is nothing but gunpowder will deter them from a potato -field ; they soon find out the innocuous character of a scarecrow , or tal tie-doolie, as that sorry semblance of humanity is always misnamed. One cannot always be firing

among crows with the gun, but an occasional shot does good, aided by that effectual check to - their visitation of any field — the burning of gunpowder matches here and there and now and then along the windward side of the field , the fūmes of which sweeping along the surface of the ground, being smelt by the rooks, put them in constant trepidation, and at length to flight.

(1890.) It may prove interesting to those of you who may possess a farm in the neighborhood of a large town, to know why it is that the street-manure of towns is not so suitable for raising potatoes as stable or byre manure. A paper on the subject by Dr. Madden enables me to give you an idea of the explanation he gives of the subject; to enable you , in the first place. to judge of the nature of street-manure, I will insert a part of a Table of his construction, showing the chemical difference between it and horse and cow-dung. MANURES.

Byre. 45.7

Street.

15.9 13:33 45.77

9.0 12.6 21.8 10.9

1.4 1.0 11.2 60.0

100.00

100.0

100-0

Stable .

Water, &c .

13.5

Organic Matter Soluble in Water .

11.5

Soluble in Potassa

Destroyed by Heat Saline Matter Total ...

26.4

The sum of the chemical nature of these three substances used in raising potatoes is that stable dung is the most heating, but not so durable — that byre-dung is cooler, and much more lasting and that street-manure is very inferior to the other two in every respect, and, in fact, would be

little better than soil, were it notfor the highly azotized nature of its organic matter, and probably also for the presence of a considerable quantity of chalk. The effect of applying street-manure to the soil is this: “ When any quantity of street-manure,” says Dr. Madden, “ is plowed into good * Don's General System ofBotanyand Gardening,vol. iv. - Solanacea. † Phillips's History of Cultivated Vegetables, vol. ii. ( 398)

BOOK OF THE FARM .

PLATE XXIX.

FINLAYSON'S IMPROVED GRUBBER .

Fig 412

P'

P

TI

7

Fig. 413

IMMUNALNIE

TUNTUURNN

O LIT IMIT L

MAL

in

PLATE XXX .

KIRKWOODOS GRUBBER .

BOOK OF THE FARM .

n acoDe

Fiy 414

ee

1

h

Fig 415 n i

al

I

h

h

h

THE

GRUBBER .

207

soil, the followingchanges takes place : The ordure and carbonate of lime, which are evidently the most powerful ingredients ofthis manure, will react upon the less decomposable organic mat ter, both of the soil and of the manure itself, and thus bring the whole into a state of fermentation, the extent and intensity of which will be regulated by the quality of these active ingredients, es. pecially the ordure. This action depends upon the fact that when any organic substance in a state of fermentation is brought into contact,or mingled with any organic matter capable of fer menting, but not at present in that condition, thewhole mass, after a time, undergoes the same series of changes, which are always accompanied with the escape of various gases, and the formation of certain soluble compounds, which latter constitute the chief food of plants. Moreover, it has been long ago proved that substances rich in azote are always the most prone to decomposition, and like wise are capable of exciting fermentation to a far greater extent in others of à less putrescible nature. Again, it is well knownto farmers that chalk or carbonate of lime possesses the power of increasing the putrescent tendency of many vegetable substances, so that, when applied to

soils, it renders them richer. But what is curious enough, at the same time that it causes the pro duction of suluble matter by promoting putrefaction, it renders less soluble those portions already in a state of solution , by entering into chemical combination with them. On these accounts,there fore, and especially from the ordure being a very highly azotized substance,street manure will be capable of exciting putrefaction to a greater extent, considering the small quantity of organic matter which it contains, than one at first sight would be led to suppose . It must, however, be remembered that as the putrescent effect will only be produced in the immediate neighborhood

of the active ingredients themselves, and as, moreover, these are mixed with a large quantity of other comparatively inert matters, their action is very liable to be confined to certain spots. Owing. likewise, to the presence of cinders, a certain portion of the soluble organic matter will

be absorbed by them , and thus for a time atleast, removed beyond the reach of plants. But, on the other hand, it will be observed that, from the highly azotized nature of its organic contents, the

fermentation will be rapid at first, and, consequently, the manure will be hot in proportion to the quantity of realmanure which it contains.” In the actual effect of this manure in raisingpota toes being } inferior to stable and byre dung, the following explanation ofits inferiority is offered by Dr. Madden. “ In the account of the culture of the potato, given in Professor Low's excellent

work on Practical Agriculture, we find the following expressions: ' Dung will in all cases act most quickly upon young plants when it is well prepared, but extreme preparation of the dung is not required in the case of the potato. It is enough that it should be in such a state of fermenta tion as that it may be readily covered by the plow . Thus proving that this plant does not require

an instant supplyof a considerable part of soluble matter. And, moreover,it is clear that as the useful part ofthis plant is produced during the later periodsof the growth of the crop, the great est supply of food will be necessary at that time. But we have already shown that street ma nure, from the nature of its constituents, ferments very rapidly at first, and consequently, its greatest effects will be in the very early periods of the growth of the crop. The next sentence in

requires a large supply ofmanure.' Professor Low's workcommences thus : The potato

But

we have already shown that street.manure does not contain as much real manure as either that derived from dairies or stables. And a little below the above quotation occurs the following sen

tence : • Lime does not appear to act in a beneficial manner, and is rarely applied directly to this crop. But our analysis has proved that lime exists in considerable quantities in the street manure of Edinburgh ; and as it has been exposed to great heat - for it is evidently -derived from the ashes - it will, of course , be in the same state as mild lime when it is applied, and will, most

probably, therefore, have the same effect, which, according to Professor Low , is not beneficial.' The potato possesses a spreading root, and, consequently, must require a uniform manure, in or der that all its parts may be equally supplied with soluble organic matter. But we have before shown that street manure is partial. The potato requires the greatest quantity of azote at the later

periods of its growth ; because the tubers contain considerably more of that substance than the leaves. But street manure, from the nature of its organic constituents, will ferment rapidly, and allow most of its azote to escape during the early periods of the cultivation of the crop.” As a general rule for the application of manure to potatoes, “ We may hence argue,” as Dr. Madden remarks, “ that a manure to suit well for the potato crop , should possess the following qualities : It

must bespread equally through the soil, so that the spongioles, at the termination of all the spread ing fibres of its roots. may be supplied with nourishment.” And surely there is no way of spread ingdung so equally as along only three drills at a time,and by spreaders keepingtotheir own drills. " It must yield azote during the whole period of the growth of the plants ; in fact, rather more is required during the later periods than prior to the development of the tubers ; for, from M. Boussingault's analysis, it appears that they contain 5-100 per cent more of this substance than the leaves. In an economical point of view , therefore, the best manure for potatoes would be one which contained plenty of azote, but still did not decompose very rapidly -- cow -dung, for example." ***

(1891.) Finlayson's Harrow or Grubber.- Fig. 346. Plate XXIX ., is a view in perspective of Finlayson's harrow of the improved form . The frame-work and the active parts are precisely the same as when the implement was manufactured under the patent, the improvement lying in the

parts which have been introduced for raising the tine-frame fromthe ground. The figure repre . sents the implements as carrying seven tines, and consists first of the body -frame, which is formed of twointerior oblong frames ac and d ' a, each 4 feet 6 inches in length, and 12 inches inwidth over all. These frames are welded solid at the angles, and rectangular; the sides a' and d ' are 3 inches in depth ,and inchin thickness, and are perforated to receive the tines at their full strength, whether of a square or oblong section ; the bars a ' and d ' are therefore allowed to swell out on both edges at the perforation, to preserve strength. The sides c and a , together with the ends of these frames, are only 24 inches in depth, and inch in thickness, and the perforations are only sufficient to pass the screwed tail of the tine. The side-bars a a and as all are bolted upon the * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiii. (399)

208

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

ends of the interior frames, as seen in the bar a " a" , and each is prolonged forward from a and all

tothe point b, forming the triangular prolongation a ' a' b ,and are connected by a bolt at b. These side-bars are 24 inches in depth, inch in thickness in the parts a a and a ' a' , while in the trian . gle they are reduced to į inch in thickness, and the distance from a ', the front of the bodyframe, to the apex b of the triangle, is 4 feet 6 inches.

( 1892.) The tines are always in this machine made of the swan -neck or self-cleaning form . They consist of the shankf', by which they are fixed in the interior frame, and of the prongm , which penetrates the ground. A cross section of the swan -neck and shank is either a square of 11 inches, or it is an oblong of 24 inches by ſ inch, some makers adopting the square, which was Finlayson's original form , while others adopt the oblong. The shank diminishes from the neck toward the tail, which terminate in a & inch screw , by means of which and a nut the tine is held firmly in its place. The prong, or forward end of the tine, diminishes gently in depth to the ex. tremity, which terminates in a chisel-shaped point of 11 inches broad, having a slight inclination

earthward,without which theimplement has a tendency torise outof theground. (1893.) The body-frame, with its tines, is supported on the two hind-wheels d d , 20 inches

diameter, which are mounted on the cranked-axle f ef, and upon the front castor-wheel g, of 12 inches, the former turning upon studs in the cranks f and the latter in the sheers h. Theaxle e is supported in brackets, bolted upon the inside of the side-bars a a and a' a', as seen in fig. 345, where a a is the side-bar,and e the bracket, the eye of which, for receiving the axle, stands 3 inches above the upper edge of the bar, and its thickness is 4 inch. The sheers h, fig. 346, of the fore -wheel are jointed into the bent lever at i, forming a bell crank-lever i k l by which the fore .

part of the machine is elevated or depressed. The hind-part is acted upon directly by the lever nu, which is also bent at n to nearly a right angle in the arm noe, the extremity of which passes through the axle at e, and is secured with a screw -nut. This form of the lever, n ne is rendered. in its effects upon the hind-wheel and axle, a simple straightlever ; but the angle which it forms

at no serves an essential purpose, as it affects the fore-wheels. It will be observed that the arm no e takes a position nearly parallel to the arm k l of the fore-crank, and by the introduction of the connecting rod n pl, jointed to the lever n e , and to the crank i k l, by this arrangement, whatever motion is communicated through the lever n ne, to the cranked-axle of the hind-wheels, a corresponding motion is simultaneously given to the fore-crank and its wheel, whereby the tine frame is uniformly raised or depressed at pleasure. The lever n ne is about 5 } feet in length, and is under the control of the conductor; its position in the figure indicates the bigbest position that the tine-frame can attain ; and to enable the conductor to retain it in any required position, the

quadrant qr, with its upright support s r, is bolted upon the back frame d ' a ; the edge of the quadrant-bar is notched with serratures about į inch deep, adapted to receive and retain the edge of the lever, as seen in the figure, occupying the lowest notch, which brings the tines entirely out of the ground. By removing the leverfrom this notch and putting the machine in motion by the horses, the tines immediately descend into the soil, and when they have attained the required depth the lever is laid into the notch suited to that depth, and the machine proceeds thus until the

attendant sees it necessary to withdraw the tines from the ground, which must be done at every lands-end, or oftener if obstructions are met with . (1894.) Fig. 345 is a geometrical elevation of the grubber to show more distinctly the relation and action of the elevating apparatus, the solid lines exhibiting the machine with the tines m and m nearly at full depth in the soil below the surface line, and the repetition of the figure in the dot. ted lines show it when the tines are fully raised out of the ground. In the first position ,

a a b is the tine-frame, e the brackets that support the crank-axle, and f the crank carrying the hind-wheel d. The fore-crank, including the sheers of the fore-wheel, takes the position i kl, and the back lever, which is broken off at n ', has the position n ' o e, opl being the connecting-rod. It will be easily seen that that e ol k approaches to a parallelogram , and theoretically it ought to be such, but from matters of convenience to suit the diameter of the wheels, the side o e is usually

made shorter than the side I k, and, to compensate for this difference, the arms t’f and i k of the cranksare made proportional to the arms oe and I k, and as these arethe members of the machine by which the elevations and depressions are produced, and being connected hy the rod o pl, the

arms o eand I k willmove through equal lengths of arc, but with unequal angles, the proportion al armsf'eand i k will describe corresponding arcs and angles, andso produce a nearly parallel rise and fall of the tine-frame moving round the centers f'and h of the hind and fore wheels, fig. 346. In this complicated combination of levers, it will beobserved that the principal lever n' o e, fig. 345, from its combination with the crank e f', is in effect resolved into a simple lever of the

first order, whose fulcrumisf", itspower is in n' and the point ofresistance in o ; for though kneed at o, and re -kneeded at e, yet from its construction, the parts n' o ef' form one rigid system and the result is the same as if a rigid bar were extended from n' tof', and then from f to o , but in which case a jointed bar must fall from o to e, to bear up the tine-frame. ( 1895.) In this, fig. 345, the dotted lines represent the changed position of all the parts where the tine-frame has been raised to its utmost limit ; the same letters, with an accent annexed, mark the position of the different points : and here it will be farther observed that the change of position

takes place by the parts turning about the centers of the hind and fore wheels. ( 1896. ) This form ofFinlayson's harrow or grubber is a very well marked improvement on the

original, arising from the facility now afforded of raisingthe whole of the tines out of theground. In the original form , the only provision of this kind that the machines possessed was the elevation of the apex b of thetriangle and with it, a partial elevation of the fore tines while those behind re mained always in the ground at their working depth . It is true that this depth could be varied. but only by shifting a bracket that carried the axles of the hind -wheels, and the adjustment of them was a work of considerable time ; a screw in some cases was attached to each bracket, by which it could be raised, but they were at best tedious and inconvenient compared with the new form oftheelevating apparatus. The original harrow was,in consequence of this defect, a much less manageable machine,and having four of its tines always in the ground, it was much more liable to accident and to fracture. With the improvement also of the elevating apparatus, the bulk and (400)

THE

GRUBBER .

209

weight of the implement has been reduced, and it is now very frequently used with five tines, in place of the original seven -tined implement as here figured with the improvements. ( 1897.) Kirkwood's Grubber.- Though in point of time, this instrument was introduced prior to that just described, it was several years later than that of Finlayson's original improved harrow , or about 1830.* In this machine the ingenious apparatus for elevating the tine-frame was, I be

lieve, first brought out, and from it has been deduced all the various forms in which this effect is now produced,though, as we shall see, some of them are so much changed from the original as hardly to be recognizable; still the elenients of the original are there, obtained in some cases at a greater, in others at a smaller expense . The present form , as figured here, differs in some minor points from the original, but not so much as at all to alter the character of the implement,

which is still essentially Kirkwood's, though the figure is taken from those manufactured by James Slight and Company, Edinburgh. The chief points of difference are in the length of the axle of the hind -wheels; this, in the original, was so short as to bring the wheels close to the levers : in the figure the axleis extended so far as to place the wheels on the outside of the extreme tines.

This extension of the axle gives the machine a broader base, and thereby a greater steadiness of motion, andto compensatefor,and give support to the extremities of the axle thus extended, it is supported by a trussed-tie with king-posts. (1898.) Fig. 348, Plate XXX., is a view in perspective of this grubber; it may be considered as consisting of two parts, the tine-frame, and the carriage with its wheels and handles, the two being connected by means of the apparatus for elevating the tine-frame, and by a joint-rod which is common to both , the whole being constructed of malleable iron, except the wheels. The tine frame is of an irregular triangularfigure, composed of two sides a a a , & c.; these are forged to

the peculiar form represented in the figure, and to the following dimensions : from extreme a to b ' in the oblique straight, the distance is 25 inches, b ' to d 21 inches, and c to a " 39 inches ; and

the lengths on the opposite side correspond exactly with these ; but the central distance from ex treme a to a" is 6 feet 6 inches. The breadths measuring from centerto center of the tines are at extreme a 4 feet two inches : V to a 2 feet 19 inches, and d to a 17 inches ; the fore-part of the

barsforming the neck, approach to within # inch of each other, between the points d' and m, and at a " they come in contact, and are fixed by the bolt at a '; the muzzle a" z is simply a prolonga tion of the bars, and is provided with several holes in which the draught-shackle and book canbe

attached to regulate insome degree the tendency to earth. That part of the frame d ' to m, form

ing the neck, is raised 9 inches above theline of the body, measuring from the upper surface of theone to thatof the other, and lies parallel with the body of the frame. The side-bars here de. scribed are 24 inches in depth and 1 inch in breadth, till they approach d ', when they are dimin ished in breadth 4 inch, and go on diminishing to } inch at a" ; the slot-holes for the tines are 24

inches by & inch. Besides the connection at the point a ', the side-bars are connected by the joint-rodg .which is inches square at the middle, tapering and rounded toward the end, where it terminates in a screw and nut of about 1 inch diameter; and a light stretcher a ' is also inserted

as a farther support to the frame. The beam b b is 24 by 1 inch from b to u, and diminishes from u lo d' to 2 inch ; it is kneed at extreme b, so as to leave space sufficient to receive the slot-hole for the middle tine, and it is bent upward at u to the hight of 10 inches above the frame as before

for the purpose of receiving the bridle u u '; at the end b of the beam is notched into the middle of the joint-rod g (which is here spread out to 2 inches in depth,) and fixed by a screw -bolt, tapped into the end of the beam , while its fore-end is secured between the sidebars by a through bolt at d '. The tines, of which this form of the implement contains seven, h h, & c., are at it inches by | inch, bent at the point as in the figure, with a slight tendency toearth, and are flattened out at the point to a breadth of 14 to it inches , their length from the level of the point to the top is 20 inches, and they are secured at any required degree of earth by one iron wedge to each tine. (1899.) The carriage consists of the axle d d, on which are mounted the two handles or levers cco, the axle passing through these, and fixed with cotterels on each side. At the distance of 13 ] inches from the center of the axle, the levers are also perforated for the joint-rod g, the posi

tion of which in the tine-frame is such as just to allow the extremities a to pass the axle when the frame is being raised ordepressed. A third perforation is formed in the fore-end of the lever at o, 2 inches forward of the joint-rod, for the attachment of the stays. The levers extend backward to

a length of 4 feet,and terminate in sockets, into which wooden helves are inserted ; and they are farther supported by the stay -rod and bow d. The carriage is now supported on the hind-wheels ff, of 22 inches diameter ; and the fore-part of the castor-wheel i, of13 inchesdiameter,with its sheers k l, and crank-lever l m n. The connections between the carriage and frame, and which also form the elevating apparatus,is arranged in the following matter. The right and left stay. rods o p q and rp sare bolted to the levers at qo and r s. The perpendicular distance p being 12 inches, and the like distance from the center of the axle d to p. 184 inches, the two stays being

brought together upon a stretcher -bolt at p,of1 inch in length , having a screw and nut at each end .

The connecting-rod pt n is 5 feet 2 inches in length , 1 inch diameter, and is jointed to the carriage by the short stretcher-bolt at p, and to the lever of the front wheel at n, which com

pletes the arrangement by which the tine- frame is moved up and down in positions alwaysparal . (1900.) Fig. 347, Plate XXX ., is a geometrical elevation of this grubber, showing in a more

lel to the horizon .

distinct manner the relation and action of the elevating apparatus. In this the solid lines repre sent the machine as with the tines in the ground, the surface being represented by the line x 2" ; and the repetition of the figure in dotted lines represents it as when the tines are elevated, and the machine in a traveling condition, the same letters applying in both positions, but in this with an accent. In the first position, applying the same letters as in the formerfigure, a a , & c., is the tiae -frame, b the beam , c the handles or levers, d the axle of the carriage, f the hind wheels, * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. viii. (401 ) ...... 14

210

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

the position of the joint-rod of the tine-frame, and h h are the tines. The front wheel is shown in the sheers k l, and I m n is the crank - lever , & pr is the stays, and t the connecting -rod.where it (1901.) In the apparatus of the front wheel, the distance from the sole of the wheel, touches the line xx" , to the center at m, is 23 inches, and from m to n 114 inches ; and as the car . has the riage lever, though in a complicated form , is resolvable into a more simple one, which same proportions as the former, the pointwhere the wheel touches the line x ' " is the fulcrum ,

be parallel with, and equal to ad" m, and and a line drawn from the point a ' to the joint at p will m n ; and the point p. n acting simultaneously, by means of the connecting. rod t, the point p rises byturning round the fulcrum x ',while m rises through the same space by the point d' turning round the point m in the opposite direction. By these motions the tine. frame will rise and fallthrough equal spaces before and behind, and thus preserve the parallelism of the frame in any position. & p will be equal

(1902.) In working the machine, it is requisite that the conductor have it in his power to regu late and preserve a uniform depth for the lines, and be able to withdraw the tines from the earth . To accomplish this part, the connecting-rod t, fig. 348, has small mortices punched in it, to the

number of6 or 8. at very close intervals between u and p, therod being square at this place. A nut or slide-box y' is fitted to slide easily upon it, and baving also a mortice punched through it cor responding to those in the rod, it can be fixed at any point by dropping a pin through this and

any required mortice. The bridle u n ' consists of two similar parts bolted oneon each sideof the beam ; and having the middleparts of its stay widened to admit the passage of the nut, it receives the folding link v upon the bolt, on which the link turns freely. The handle v x w is made of such length as will bring the eye w within reach of the conductor ; it is furnished with a cross head x, and the end v being screwed into the link v, the handle can be shortened or lengthened

at pleasure ; and this is done to make the cross-head fall in behind the end of the connecting-rod when the tines are in the ground, which thus lock them that they cannot rise out of the ground, although , from any malformation of the tines , they might have a tendency to do so were this lock not applied ; but while the tines preserve their due form , the lock is not required. A prolonged screw -nut at p is also put upon the handle ; it is forked in the prolonged part, and when the tine-frame is raised out of the ground for traveling, the nut is adjusted to fall in before the

checks of the stays at p, and thus keeps up the tine -frame without the continued aid of the conductor.

(1903.) The Drill-Harrow is another implement of recent introduction ; like the other members of its tribe, it is of extremely simple construction, and from its having been first applied to potato

culture, it is frequently styled the potato harrow. This harrow is always worked in pairs; and to render it applicable to its intended purpose, it is made of an arch form , partially embracing the curvature of the ridglet or drill. The two leaves of the pair are connected by twocoupling-rods, which are formed to expand or contract to any requiredwidth of drills; andeach leaf is furnish ed with a chain, to which a draught-bar or swing-tree is attached, and to which again the horse is

yoked : the bar and chains, in this mode of yoking, serve by their weight to produce such a cata . narian curvature as to make the vertical lineof traction leave the harrows nearly in a horizontal

line, giving thus the full effect on the drill. Simple though the construction of this implement be, I frequently see a malformation in the placement of its tines; its breadth does not exceed 26 inch es, and therefore, the number of its tines need not exceed 18, though a streak at every 14 inches

should be required; notwithstanding this, we frequently see these harrows with as many as 24 tines, and with such a number, unless a very careful division is made in their placement, many of them will follow in the track of others, and are bence of no use . In laying out this simple har

row , if the rule laid down in (1789), as applicable to all harrows, is attended to, such useless waste of labor and materials might be saved, and the work for which the implement is intended will be equally well done.

( 1904.) Fig. 349 is a geometrical plan of a pair of the rectangular drill-harrows, in which a regu lar division of the tines is observed , and as the harrows are 26 inches from center to center of the outside bars or bulls, and the number of tines 15, they will draw streaks on the surface at equal distances of iſ inches nearly : the three bulls a b c, and the three cross-bars d ef, form the body of the harrow; thebreadth over all is 27 inches, and thelength 33 inches ; the balls and bars are all 14 by l inch. There is no slotting, as in the common harrow , but the bulls and bars are simply

crossed, and secured by a small bolt and nut, or they may be riveted together, except where a tine falls in the crossing, when it is secured by the nut of the tine itself. The bulls and cross-bars are simply punched for the tines, which are secured by a screw -nut. The middle bull of each

harrow is prolonged a little forward at g ; and punched for the shackle of the draught-chain, which is affixed thereto by a bolt. The bolt which joins it to the cross-bar at each end is also prolonged upward 4 inches, having a collar above and nut below , forming a firm stud. on which the stretcher is placed, and retained by a nut above. The tines are about 4 inches in length below the bars,and are a inch square at the shoulder, tapering to ablunt point. (1905.) Fig. 350 is a cross section, at the front-bar, of both the leaves of the harrow . showing

the arched form and direction of the tines. The rise of the arch is 5 inches, but this may be varied, and if the arching is flat, the tines toward the apex should beshorter than those toward the sides of the harrow , to prevent injury to the young plants. In the front bar the right-hand tine may be left out, as its place may be taken up by that of the third bar, leaving 5 tines. In the second cross-bar there are also 5 tines, and in the third,5. The two leaves are connected and kept at

due distanceby the coupling-rods k, which are inch diameter,and flattened at the ends to the extent of 5 inches, and have 3 perforations made at each end, at 14 inches pitch, or closer if thought necessary ; this construction of the coupling -rods affords the means of adapting the har. rows to anywidth of drills. The draught-chains i i, fig .350 ,are about 2 feet long,and are shackled to the draught-bar, to which the horse is yoked bythe eyes at h h . The pair of harrows are drawu

by one horse, walking between the drills : the weight of the pair, with the mounting, is about 90 lbs., and the price from 30s. to 358.complete.

(1906. I'riangular Drill-Harrows are considered by some agriculturists as superior in effece (402)

211

THE DRILL-HARROW.

to the rectangular form ; with due attention to the division and placement of the tines, they may uo doubt be rendered equally effective, and probably more so, but the advantages are not perma nently marked .

(1907.) On farmswhere potatoes are raised only to supply the wants of the people who labor them , the drills may be made in the single or double way, as may suit the fancy of the farmer, Fig. 349.

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THE POTATO HARROWS,

but he should bear in mind that the more minutely the soil is pulverized, the better state it will

be in for thecrop. But wherepotatoes are raised for the London or the markets ofother great towns, a mode of culture should be adopted to admit of much work being done in the limited pe Fig. 350.

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SECTION OF THE POTATO HARROWS .

riod in which potatoes should be planted. Bearing this necessity in view , the land should de drilled up in the single mode in preparation for the dung, the dung then spread in the manner represented in fig. 344, and the drills split with a double mould -board plow ; butas it is desirable

that the earth in the drills should be as lightly put over the sets as possible , and as the common mould -board plow presses very much upon the lower part of the sides of the drills, the under part (403)

212

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

of the hind-endof the mould -board should be cut away, and the plow otherwise formed — that is,

of such size and length as to be worked by a pair of horsesinstead of one.

The double mould .

board, besides affording expedition, covers the dung equally with both furrows, puts less earth over the sets, permits the germs to grow upright at once, and thereby allows the access of more air to the sets. Still it will be requisite to harrow down the drills before the sets send up their germs to the surfaceof the ground.

(1908.) Being desirous of ascertaining the true cause of the failure in potatoes, I amready to recommend to your notice every rational explanation that is offered on the subject. The fol lowing explanation is, I believe, from the pen of Professor Lindley of London, and therefore de serves attention. At the same time, I must own that the explanation is unsatisfactory to me, in

asmuch as the tubers in the soil, in regard to their liability of being acted on by chemical agen cies, would be the same many years ago, when failure was not so universal as ithas been within The potato crop, " he says, “has of late years been seriously affected by a disease which consists in the production of tubers, instead of stems, when growth first commences

these few years .

66

after planting, and in the loss of all farther power of vegetation consequent upon this malforma tion. We haveexamined several specimens of the disease without succeeding indiscovering the smallest trace oforganic injury, and we feel satisfied that there isnothing in the visible formation of the potato which will account for it. All the tubers, young and old, seem perfect. It is therefore probable that Chemistry must be called upon to explain the source of the mischief, and that some

deficiency or excess of the proximate principles lodged in the tuber will befound connected with it. Although we have nothingpositive to state in confirmation of this suggestion, yet there are some

facts which may possibly lead to the discovery. We know all that the potato-shoots. when first produced, are fed by the matter lodged in the tuber from which the shoots proceed. That mat ter consists largely of starch-- an insoluble substance, whichonly becomes capable of nourishing a young shoot by changing into gum or sugar. Chemists tell us that such change is effected by a form ofmatter which they name Diastase, in which nitrogen is an element. Since we know that the quantity of azotized matter found in a potato varies very considerably, it is probable that the quantity of diastase also varies, and that insome cases it may be altogether insufficient to render the starch soluble, except to a small extent. If that were so, the bud, when it springs from a tuber, would be unable to grow into a shoot bearing leaves, but would develop itself in an imper

fect way, and remain as a little tuber, without any power of growing farther. This may be the his tory of the diseasein the potato nowunder consideration ; and if so, it would perhaps be removed by adding azotized manure ; for the latter, when decomposing in the soil, may furnish the nitrogen that is required. It is true that diastase is a peculiar compound, and that we have no authority for

supposing diastase itself likely to be formed in a potato by the addition of azotized matter to soil. On the otherhand, we know so little of nitrogen and its action in vegetation, except that its influence is

most important, that it is a fair subject of speculation . If leaves cannot decompose carbonic acid,

except in the presence of nitrogen, it may very well be that starch also cannot change into sagar or gum except in its presence, and that in any nascent state it may act just as well as ifproduced by the decomposition of diastase. We would recommend, then , those whose potatoes are thus affected to manure them at once with water containing ammonia. This can do no harm , and may

do good. Experiment, too , is somewhat favorable to the trial; for lately, in the garden of the Horticultural Society, some potatoes which had not made their appearance above ground at the time when others, planted at the same period, were in full vegetation, were, at the desire of Mr. Edward Solly, watered with a weak solution of muriate of ammonia ; when in a few days the leaves and stems came up, and are now the most vigorous of all." * This last recommendation, of course, can only be practiced in garden culture.

18. BREAKING IN YOUNG DRAUGHT -HORSES . “ Thy flattering method with the youth pursue ; Joined with his school-fellows, by two and two,

Persuade 'em first to lead an empty wheel, That scarce the dust can raise, or they can feel ;

In length of time produce the laboring yoke And shining shares, that make the furrow smoke." DBYDEN'S VIRGIL .

(1909.) Young draught-horses are never broke in . They are most fre quently yoked with an old steady horse at once into the harrows, accom panied with a few restrainers of reins and ropes, or an additional hand or two to assist the plowman, to prevent any attempt at a run away ; and, no

doubt, when colts have been haltered and led out from the timethey were

weaned by a steady, quiet -tempered man, they will soon submit to work, and become harmless in the course of a few short yokings. But, notwith * The Gardeners' Chronicle for June 24, 1843. (404)

213

BREAKING IN YOUNG DRAUGHT-HORSES.

standing their quietness, they cannot be said to be broke in , in the proper sense of the term ; that is, they do not yield to the guidance of the plow man, because they either know or understand what he means, or would subject themselves to his control, but because they feel they are subdued, and are obliged to move along with an older and stronger horse, to which

they are attached, as he may choose to lead them . Their mouth is quite intractable to the bit all the time they are apparently subdued ; they seize the bit with their teeth, and press upon it, with their head hanging down, their neck arched, and their eyes set back, as if suspicious of harm over

taking them. In this way, day after day, or at least in every yoking they are worked, they look more like objects of oppression and pity than of pride to the farmer, on seeing the young and noble steed he has bred and reared first undertake its work. The rein may be pulled this way and that to no purpose ; and in the end the dull, sulky-looking colt is confirmed in his natural temper, and the timid onerendered more afraid. No doubt time, in this as in every other thing, brings about a change ; but why should the change, even for the better, be allowed to be effected by a lapse of time, to the discomfort and annoyance of the animal in the mean time, when he can be broke into his work with comparative ease ? • Ay , 66

break him indeed, but remember the cost," is theready rejoinder to the question just asked ; and the answer to the rejoinder is as ready. What although it does cost some money to break in a colt to do his work in a proper manner, in the most easy way for himself, and in the shortest time

to his master ? Is a little cost to be put in comparison to giving trouble to people to teach a colt how to perform his work, who know nothing of the rules of tuition, and who therefore run the risk of spoiling the colt for life ? Is one guinea such a deadly sum as to induce any owner of a fine colt to run the risk of spoiling him — for no greater cost need be incurred in breaking in a draught-colt to his work.

(1910.) The easiest plan to make a draught-colt work well soon , is to employ a good horse -breaker to bridle, and handle, and lunge him for a

short time - aslong as is requisite to make his mouth yieldto the bit and then he will obey both voice and rein ; and while employing the rein , the horse-breaker should be instructed to use the language that will be spoken to him while at work, the terms of which I have fully explained in

(901). The harness required for this purpose is a breaking bridle , a cavesson, and pad for the back, all of which the horse-breaker will supply. I must remark, however, that most of the bits I have seen used in break ing bridles seem to me inefficient for the purpose. They are very thick at the guard, round, and jointed in the middle, a construction which gives

the horse an opportunity of seizing the round thick part with his grinders, when folded back by the force of the rein acting on thejoint, and of rest ing his head upon it. A more efficient bit is represented in fig.351, which I have seen used many years ago in Berwickshire, by Thomas Middlemiss of Norham, who was reckoned in his day one of the best horse -breakers and grooms that had practiced in that part of the country. It consists of ts, one twisted and the other square, both 81 inches in length. The WO square bit c d is į an inch square, and so is the diameter of the twisted one a b, and they both have a play of įan inch between the shoulders of the

guards a c and b d. The guards ef, g h, are 7 inches in length. The ring ilinks on each sideupon is 24 the inches in diameter and at khisis jaws. a bunchThe of to play tongue, and makeover the all, horse move straps connected with the bit are , first, the head -stool ; the hand -reins, 4 }

feet in length ; the check -reins to keep the horse's head in line, when strap ped to the pad , and which pass below the neck -strap of the martingale. All (405)

214

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

these 3 straps are buckled to the rings i i. There is, besides, a martin gale to prevent the head being thrown forcibly up. The breadth of the

straps is 1 inch ; that of the counter strap of the martingale 14 inches Fig. 351.

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THE BREAKING - BRIDLE BIT.

The bit can be buckled on in the reverse order shown in the cut, hav

ing the square bit c duppermost, and the bunch k is then screwed to

the twisted bit a b.

The cavesson is well known, and requires no par

ticular description, its figure and appointments being uniformly the same .

(1911). It is unnecessary to go through all the discipline of breaking in

a draught-colt, as is required inthe case of a saddle-horse, but a few pre liminary steps are necessary, such as playing the bit in the mouth for 2 or 3 hours in the stable, twice or thrice a day, the colt standing in the re versed position in the stall, which has the double advantage of making the mouth yield to the bit and of keeping up the horse's head. The bit is

buckledon slack forthis purpose, so as to lie upon the gums, on the bare space of the lower jaws between the front and back teeth, upon which place either the square or twisted bit is felt to rub sharply, while the bunch

of linkswhole k makes the mouth and tongue play as if desirous of getting quit of the concern . When the head is pressed

forward to get hold of the bit with the back teeth, the straps being too long, the head finds noth

ing to rest upon, while the bunch k is brought too far back upon the tongue according as it is seen that the colt yields to the bit, with occasional walks

to be agreeable. Afterthis discipline in the stable for two or three days,

out of the stable, he should be led out to walk two or three hours at a time

by the nose-reinof the cavesson , to learn to stepout, and to acquire a good pace ; and this is the most essential discipline for a draught-horse. A short lunge or two backward and forward round a circle, on red land, will be useful, not to teach him to trot ; but the trotting exercise will make him active, and sooner get the use of his legs in cases of difficulty. He should then be backed, and, while guided by the reins, should be spoken to in the language he will be addressed in the yoke. After that he should

be guided along a road with long double-reins, while carrying the plow chains to accustomhim to their noise and feel, and addressed in the appro priate language. Now all this discipline may be gone through in the course of a week, or 8 or 10 days, according to the disposition of the ani mal, the handling he may have received since he was a weaned foal, and (406)

BREAKING IN YOUNG DRAUGHT -HORSES.

215

the genius of the horse- breaker. The horse -breaker should groom the colt immediately after exercise, that the animal may become familiarized with

the usages of the stable, and the degree of exercise given should be with a discrimination suited to the condition and physical strength of the animal. The colt's food, too, should be so administered as to harden his condition

for labor; with the understanding, however, that, after the busy season of work is finished in the early part of summer, the young tyro shall be al lowed to have a run at grass for a few weeks, and then fall into his own share of regular work. ( 1912.) After the treatment and discipline received from the horse breaker, the colt will be easily made to understand work. The sort of harness with which he is first invested is that of the plow, consisting of a bridle, collar, fig. 197, and back -band and chains, or theats, as these are

called in some parts of the country. It is quite possible that the discipline received from the horse -breaker will make the colt suffer at once to be

yoked with an old horse at the plow ; but in case of accidents, and to err

on the safe side, it is best to use precaution, even though it should be proved to have been unnecessary. The principal precaution is to attach the colt to a strong , steady horse, that will neither bite nor kick him, and be able to withstand the plunges the colt may choose to make. The at tachment is made by a cart-rope being first fastened round the girth of the old horse, and then passed round that of the colt, leaving as little space between their bodies as is required for plowing ; and to afford no liberty to advance or retire beyond a step or two before or behind the old horse. Besides the usual rein employed by the plowman, the horse -breaker should have another in his hand from the colt's head. Thus equipped in plow

harness, the first yoking of the coltshould be to an old cart-wheel, placed on its dished face on plowed land, furnished with a swing -tree, which he should be made to draw, while the horse walks beside him ; and, in draw

ing this, the reins should be used, and the appropriate language spoken, that he may associate the changes of his motions with the accompanying sounds, and which are indicated by the reins while guiding him. I remark

in passing, how curious it is for us to have adoptedthe Romanmethod of breaking young horses by the employment of the wheel, as set forth in the

motto selectedfrom Virgil. Should the colt offer to wheel round, the gen tlest means should be used in putting him again in his proper position, as the start may have been made from fear, or from the tickling of a part of the harness. When a hind-leg gets over a trace-chain, the chain should be unhooked from the swing-tree, and hooked on again after the colt has

been put in his right position. Should he offer to rear or kick, from a dis position to break away, the old horse should be urged on to the walk , and be made to pull him along, while a smart tip of the whip will take the courage out of him. According as he evinces a disposition to go on qui etly in the work , should the length of time be determined atwhich he should work at the wheel. When submissive, he should be yoked to the

plow, for there is no species of work which calls forth the sympathyof horses to one another in soshort a time as when workingwith this imple ment ; and, after a few landings, it will be seen that he will work with en

ergy and good -will, and then heshould be kindly spoken to ,encouraged, and even fondled. The probability is that his desire for the draughtmay

be evinced too keenly, but the pace of the old horseshould be subdued, and the keenness mitigated by the rein and tug, which the short reins are called that pass

from the head of one horse to the collar of the other, and

which, in this particular instance, is fastened to the rope round the girth of the old horse. It is interesting to the farmer to see his young horse put (407)

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

216

his shoulder to the first work he has ever tried with a spirit even beyond his strength ; and, while he continues at the work until his nostrils distend

and flanks heave, his owner cannot help having a regard for him, hight ened by a feeling of pity for the unconscious creature acquiring experience of work at which he is about to be doomed to toil for the remainder of his

life. It should be mentioned , as a precaution, that all the harness em ployed about the first yoking of a young horse shouldbe fresh and strong, and not likely to break, even by violence. The colt should be broke in to the cart as well as the plow . He is yoked into a single horse-cart, but great care should be used on the first yoking, that he get no fright, by any

strap rubbing against him, or the shafts falling upon him when raised up to allow of his being backed below them ; for, if frightened at the first

yoking to a cart, a long time will elapse ere he will stand the yoking qui The horse -breaker should stand in the cart using double reins ; and a rein should be held by a man walking first on each side of his head, and then at a little distance on the sides of the road. The chief danger is kick etly.

ing, and thereby injuring the hocks against the front-bar of the cart ; to prevent which, a rope should be placed across the top of the colt's rump, and fastened to the harness on therump, and on each side to the shaft of the cart. There is little danger of his running away while all the reins are good. He will take with the traces of the cart more readily at first

thanwith the trams, as they are so similar to the yoking he has felt at the

plow , and he is conscious of having his companion behind him. ( 1913.) On the first use of harness by a young horse, the shoulders and back are liable to become inflamed, and even the skin to be broken by the

collar and saddle. It should be ascertained,in the first place, that the col lar he is to work in fits him properly ; and, if it does not, itshould be made to do so before he use it, as the first day's use 'may so injure his skin as to

give him pain for weeks thereafter. The usualaffection is heated swell ings in the line of the collar and seat of the saddle. A good lotion , to be

applied to those parts whenever thecolt comes out of yoke, is a solution of common salt in warm water, and, when cold, applied as a fomentation with a sponge. The water not only cools the skin, and keeps down the inflammation, but the salt hardens it for use ; and in the course of a short

time, particularly if the weather be dry, the skin will become inured to the pressure of the harness. A young horse may be broke in for work any time in the course of the spring, from the beginning of working the turnip land to its completion. I can affirm the efficiency of the plan I have rec

ommended by repeated experience, and it is one unattended with the slightest accident in practicing it. (1914 ,) It is the usual practice to shoe and dock the young horse before putting him to the yoke. I think he should first be broke in, and then he will suffer himself to be shod the more quietly. At the first shoeing it will

be useful, in making him stand quietly, and in diverting his attention, to take the old horse he has been working with to the smithy. By nailing a mat against the wall, and making him stand alongside the mat, it will save his skin beingruffled should he rub against the wall, while the wall will form a firm barrier against his retreating farther from the blacksmith. After the fore and hindfeet of one side have been shod, these can next

be turned to the wall to get his other feet shod. Gentle and coaxing means should be used, though a twitch on the nose has a powerful com mand over a horse. The first shoes of a young horse should be light, with

no heels, and the hoofs should not be pared down much at first. Rather renew the shoes, and pare the hoofs down again in a short time, than incumber a colt at first with heavy shoes with heels, to the risk of tram (408)

1

217

SOWS FARROWING .

pling himself, as to cure the effects of a severe tramp may cost much more than the price of many sets of new shoes. As to docking a draught-horse, I think it a necessary operation, because a long rump is very apt to get injured when the horse is yoked in the trams, by coming against the body of the cart, and in coup -carts especially it can scarcely escape being nipped when the body of the cart is brought down upon it when lying on the

front-bar, and besides, a draught-horse has no use for a long tail. A neat swish is all that is requisite at any time, and in winter even that is apt to be loaded with mud on dirty roads. Some writers affect to believe it pre

sumptuous in man to deprive any animal of six of the joints of the verte bralcolumn which Nature has given him ; and nodoubt were our horses always idle, especially in summer, when a long tail is of essential service in whisking off flies, the vertebræ ought to be kept entire; but surely

there is no greater absurdity in docking the tail, than in driving iron nails into the crust of the hoofs of a horse, and yet without iron shoes to pro

tect it, the horny foot of the horse would be beaten to pieces on hard roads at the pace many kinds of horses are driven along them ; and there is no necessary cruelty in the act of docking, for it is an operation of the sim plest form when properly done, that is, when effected in a joint where the wound is easily healed . As to nicking the tail and cropping the ears, such operations are never performed on draught-horses, and at best only serve

to disfigure the appearance of the animals subjected to such unnecessary torture . *

!

19. SowS FARROWING OR LITTERING. “ Sows ready to farrow this time of the year, Are for to be made of, and counted full dear , For now is the loss of a fare of the sow

More great than the loss of two calves of the cow .". TUSSER.

(1915.) It should be so managed where there are more than one brood sow on a farm , as to have one to bring forth pigs early in spring ; but, at the

same time, it should be borne in mind that young pigs are very susceptible of cold, and if exposed to it, though they may not actually die, their

growth will be so stinted as to preventthemattaining to a large size, how ever fat they may be made. Even the most comfortable housing will not protect them from the influence of the external air, any more than certain

constitutional temperaments can be rendered comfortable in any circum stance in spring, when under the influence of the east wind.

From

March to September may, perhaps, be considered as the period of the year when

young pigs thrive best.

[* The reasoning of the author in this case appears not to be conclusive. There is no reason to suppose there is any sensibility in the horn of the hoof, and the nailing of the shoe is intended

to prevent, not to give, pain — whereas docking gives much pain at the time, requires care to heal it up, and deprives the horse of the brush which Nature gave him to keep off the flies from a large portion of his body.

The exposure of the tail to be filled with mud, is an inconvenience, but when occasion re quires it (which is generally when there are no flies about, in winter,) the hair may be neatly plaited and tied up , as all good teamsters know how to do. We go against all nicking and dock . ing and cropping, and for saving beasts, as well as our fellow -creatures, from every moment of painful sensation that can be avoided. (409)

[ Ed. Farm . Lib .

1

218

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

(1916.) Whenever a brood -sow showssymptomsof approaching parturi tion ; that is, when the vulva is observed to enlarge and become red, it is

time to prepare the sty for her reception, for she will keep her reckoning not only to a day butto an hour. The period of gestation of a sow is 112 days, 16 weeks. The apartments meant to accommodate brood-sows in thesteading are marked by the letter c in figs. 3 and 4, Plates III. and IV. They consist of an outer-court 18 feet long by 8 feet broad, inclosed by a door, as represented in fig.23, and described at 5 in (68), and an in ner apartment 8 feet by 6, roofed in. This is the usual form of a sty for

sows,but others more convenient for overlooking the state of the sow and her pigs is when the outer court and inner apartment are placed under one roof, that is, in a roofed shed, or in a house which may be shut in by a door. The litter allowed to a brood-sow should be rather scanty and of short texture, such as chaff, short straw, or dried leaves of trees, as

young pigs are apt at first to be smothered or squeezedto death among long straw , when they get under it . When a sow has liberty before she is about to pig, she will carry straw in her mouth, and collect it in a heap in some retired corner of a shed, and bury herself among it, and the chance is, in such a case, that some of the pigs will be lain down upon unseen and smothered by the sow herself; when seen she will carefully push them aside with her snout before lying down. Some sows have a trick of wandering away to litter in a quiet place, such as in a field of corn, in a plantation among underwood, or in a dry ditch at the root of an old hedge or tree. I remember of a sow being missing for upward of

a fortnight,not a person having seen her leave home, or beingable to dis

cover where she had gone to ; butshe wassuspected of having disappeared for the purpose of littering. At length she appeared one day craving for food at thekitchen door, bearing evident signs of having littered, and of having suckled pigs. She was cautiously tracked to her hiding-place, though jealous of being discovered ; and it was found that she had formed

a nest with the straw gathered from the adjoining field of wheat, in a se cluded part of a dry ditch at the root of an old thorn -hedge, about 300 the yards from the steading. She had subsisted as long as she could

upon

corn , but hunger at length drove her to the house in search of food. Had she been allowed, she would, no doubt, have come to the house every day

for food ; but means, of course, were used to have the pigs conveyed to the steading, and this was a work of some difficulty, as the sow herself was perfectly savage when any one approached her young ones ; and these were so wild in their habits that they eluded capture for a long time among the standing corn. At length , by the assistance of the shepherd's dog, which seemed to enjoy the affair as sport, they were all caught, a large litter, and, on being conveyed home in a large basket, the sow naturally followed her captive young ones. I remember of another sow taking up her abode in the bottom of a pea stack, where a small hole was only left

as an entrance, but a large chamber was formed in the interior, and it was found impracticable to dislodge her from this stronghold, she keeping every man and the shepherd's dogat bay, and he was too knowing to ven ture to attack her in single combat; so she was let alone, and she pro

duced her young there, and kept them until they were able to runabout, forher. I mention these instances of the pe food having been set down domesticated sows, merely show you the propriety culiar habits of some

to

of securing the brood-sow that is about to farrow , and particularly one time beforethe period ofher reckoning, (1917.) Knowing the day of her reckoning, she should be attended to (410)

that is given to wander abroad in search of a nest, in a proper sty some

SOWS FARROWING.

219

pretty frequently, not that she will probably require assistance in the act

of parturition, like a cow or a ewe, butmerely to see that all the pigs are safe, and to remove any one immediately that may be dead when pigged , or may have died in the pigging. I have heard , however, of a sow in high condition whichdied because the second pig, on coming by the breech presentation, had a hind-leg folded back, whichcould not be put right by the sow herself in pressing, and having been neglected, her parts very much swelled . As an attempt to save her life, the Cesarian operation was

performed on her, and the obstructing pig was removed ; the animal lived, but the others in her womb were dead , and she herself did not survive the

operation above an hour, having been completely exhausted before it was attempted. I do not know whether it is generally the case, but I have frequently observed that pigs leave the womb alternately in a reversed order ; that is, they are projected by a head and breech presentation al ternately, not uniformly so, but most frequently. There is no doubt, how ever, of the fact that the first-born pigs are the strongest, and the last the

smallest and weakest, in a large litter, such as upward of 12, though the difference is less or scarcely observable in smaller litters of 6 or 8. The

small, weak pigs are usually nicknamed wrigs, or pock -shakings, and are scarcely worth bringing up ; still, if there is a teat for them to lay hold of, they ought not to be destroyed. Sometimes there are more pigs littered than the sow has teats to give to each. I have seen as many as 19 pigs when there were only 12 teats ; and I remember of a sow that never lit tered fewer than 17, when she had 14 teats, which are two more than the

usual number. Extra pigs, can, no doubt, be brought up by hand on cow's milk, but the last ones of a very large litter areusually so small and weak that they generally die off in the course of a day or two to the num ber of the teats. A young pig soon gets to its feet after birth, and as soon finds its way to the teat; but it can find no sustenance from it until

the sow pleases, so that until the entire parturition is accomplished and the sow recovered from it, there is no chance of the pigs getting a suck .

Many sows are very sick during parturition, and for some timeafter - so much so that the skin of their mouth becomes bleached and parched, and the breathing quick . To those unaccustomed to see a sow in that state, it would seem that she must die ; but a little rest recovers her, and she

betakes herself fondly to her young. It is necessary, as I have said, to re move the pigs as they die, if any die, as some sows evince the abominable

propensity of eating their own pigs when they die, whether the death

takesplace at the birth, or immediately after, or whether it happens on their being smothered or squeezed to death by being lain down upon by the sow herself, when nestled between her and the wall. I remember of a sow that was never sick at pigging, and such was her propensity to eat

every pig that died or was smothered, that even during parturition she would get up as every pig was born, to ascertain whether it was dead or alive, and, if dead , would eat it instantly, provided she was not prevented ;

and even after they were a weekold she would eat them , had they died by accident.* There is a peculiarity exhibited by young pigs, different [* There is much that is superfluous, in this chapter, for American farmers generally. But al though the business of hog -breeding is, perhaps, of all stock -breeding the most simple and the one in which Nature may be generally left unassisted and unattended to, still this inattention may be and is often carried to an extreme ; for although generally the pigs will live, how much better would they thrive if, at the time of farrowing, the sow were treated with a more liberal allow .

ance of suitable liquid and green food for keeping the system in a better condition, and expressly for producing a greater flow of milk . The growth and ultimate size of all animals depend greatly (411 )

220

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -SPRING.

from the young of other domesticated animals, in each choosing a teat for itself, and ever after keeping possession of it ; and this compact, as it were, is faithfully maintained. Should there be one pig more than there are

teats, it must take its chance of obtaining a teat when the rest are satis fied. It is generally observed that the pigs which are supported at the foremost teats become the strongest; and the fact was noticed long ago

by Tusser, who recommends storepigs to be those which are “ Ungelt, of the best keep a couple for store , One boar pig and sowpig, that sucketh before. "

Pigs require to use coaxing before the sow will give them milk. They make loud entreaties, and rub the udder with their noses to induce her to

lie down ; which, when she does, every pig takes its own place right earn estly, and nuzzles away at the udder with the teat held in the mouth, whether situate in the upper or lower row . After 'a good while of this

sort of preparation, the milk begins to flow on the sow emitting a fond like grunting sound, during which the milk is drawn steadily and quietly till the pigs are all satisfied, and they not unfrequently fall fast asleep with

the teat in the mouth. Young pigs are lively , happy creatures, and fond of play as long as they are awake, but they are great sleepers. When a week old, their skins are clean, hair soft and silky, and , with plump bodies and bright eyes, there are few more beautiful young animals to be seen about a farm -yard. Those of a white color look the most delicate and fine.

( 1918.) As to the food of the sow after she has recovered from parturi tion — which will be longer or shorter according to her constitutional tem perament - she should get a warm drink, consisting of thinnish gruel of Oatmeal and lukewarm water, and which serves the double purpose of meat and drink . If she is thirsty — which sheis likely to be on recovery from sickness — the gruel may beagain offered in a thinner state in an hour

or two afterward. The ordinary food mayconsist of boiled potatoes, with a mixture of barley -meal, among water, administered at a stated hour at morning, noon , and night, with such refuse as may occur from the farm

house. This food will be found to support her well while nursing ; and it should be borne in mind that, as long as she is nursing, she should re ceive abundance of food, if it is desired she should rear good pigs. Should the weather be frosty, or otherwise cold, the water may be given a little warmed ; but in fresh weather, or in summer, cold water is most accepta

ble to her. The mess should not be made so thin as to be sloppy and take a long time to drink up, or so thick as to be cloggy in the mouth, but in a

state of gruel- meatand drink at the same time. Whatever food is given to her should be cooked, and not in a raw state ; that is to say, the pota

toes should be boiled and not given raw , and the barley -meal should first be made into brose with warm water, and then mixed with the potatoes, and the whole mess made like gruel with cold water . The trough out of on their being well supplied in their infancy with suitable food. Yet to this it must be confessed that in our country generally too little attention is paid, and in no instance is this the case more than in our neglect to provide properly for the ewe and the sow during the period of suckling.

As to the propensity of some sows to eat their pigs, when they die young, it is by no means a rare thing — or rather it sometimes happens, as we know, that they will at once devour the whole

litter, though farrowed alive and well ! They seem to be animated to this horrible and disgusting act of infanticide by a sort offuror which is said to proceed from a morbid state of the blood, and to be most apt to happen with sows that are in too high condition. To guard against this mon .

strous disposition, it was recommended by the late GORHAM PARSONS, of Massachusetts, (whose

memory as a personal friend, and able promoter of the cause of agricultural improvement, we shall ever cherish with grateful recollection,) to give, for a week or two before farrowing, a spoon full of sulphur occasionally in their food, to " cool their blood," as he said. 14 : 2 )

Ed. Farm . Libo]

SOWS FARROWING .

221

which she receives her food should be washed every two or three days in

cold, and every day in warm weather. I believe itisthe common prac tice never to give pigs salt among their food, because it is said to encour age the scab. A large quantity of salt may have this effect, but I never

saw a relish of salt produce such an effect. When a sow leaves any of the food in the trough, it should not be presented to her again, but given to the young pigs, who will relish it. (1919. ) Most pigs are usually gelded, both male and female - the few that are kept for breeding forming but a small exception. They should be

gelded on the milk at from 10 to 14 days old. The malesare castrated on

being held between the knees, and the scrotum incised down upon each testicle, which is removed by the pressure of thefinger and thumb, and

the spermatic chord separated by the knife. The she -pigs are treated in a different manner. Being laid on a chair-bottom or table, on its far side,

the pig is there held by an assistant; the operator cuts an upright incision intothe flank , of about 2 inches in length, and, introducing a finger, brings out the ovaria of the womb, and .separates them by the knife. He then

closes the incision by a few stitches with a needle and thread, and the op eration is finished. There is very little danger attending the operation to either sex. In the case of rupture or hernia in the male

and some breeds

of pigs are very liable to this disease whenyoung-—it is necessary to stitch up the incision of the scrotum , and the testicle at castration should, in such a case , be removed with care, in case of producing inflammation in the intestines.

The incisions in both the male and female generally heal by

the first intention. The gelder should use the precaution of cleaning his knife before every operation. The usual charge for gelding pigs is 2s.6d. the litter, whatever number it may contain. Young pigs are not gelded

when intended to be killed for roasting. ( 1920.) It is seldom that any complaint overtakes the sow on littering, though she may be carried off by puerperal fever, and I suspect there is The pigs which she leaves may be very well brought up by hand on cow's milk, as they will soon learn to

no remedy for this disease in her case.

drink out of a dish, in which the milk should be given them warm from the cow, and as often as the cows are milked. It is surprising how small a quantity of milk a pig will drink at a time; and on this account they should get it frequently , and the dish in which it is served should not be

easily upset, because there will be a struggle to get first at the milk , and one or more will be sure to jump into it. The diseases incidental to young pigs are luckily few . Their tails sometimes drop off with a sort of canker, and a red eruption sometimes takes place on their skin, and sometimes one in a litter may take a wasting and die. I believe that if the sow is pro vided with plenty ofwholesome food, the pigs kept clean and warm in their sty and litter, and their sire and dam benot too near a-kin, that few dis eases will overtake pigs as long as they are on their mother's milk. A sow is not allowed to take the boar until after the pigs are weaned, but as soon after as possible, in a week or two ; and , to bring her into season the sooner, she should be fed with oats or oatmeal until she takes the boar . The symptoms of season in a sow are a redness and enlargement of the vulva – which, when observed, the boar should have access to her ; and,

should there be a boar on the spot, the meeting will be easily accomplished, and one embrace, which is usually a protracted one, is quite sufficient for securing a litter of pigs. When there is no boar on the farm , the sow is sent to him, and sheremains a few days with him to secure her impregna tion . Pigs are weaned at 6 weeks old, and some keep them on the sow for 2 months ; but there is little thrift in such management, as the suckling (413)

222

THE BOOK OF THE FARM- SPRING .

in the last week of a large litter of large pigs brings a sow very fast down in condition, and which must be made up again with extra feeding and a longer time before she farrowsthe next time. A sow that can bring up 10 pigs, and has 5 such litters in the course of 2 years, is a profitable animal, and deserves to be well maintained and taken care of. Even at 10s. apiece — which is thelowest sum a farmer should take for a pig, for he should keep it untilit is worth that sum, rather than part with it at a lower one - such a sow will return £25 in the course of 2 years. (1921.) As it is considered by farmers inconvenient to keep beyond a certain number of pigs on the farmstead, it is necessary to determine what thatnumber should be, and as it is difficult to fix its amount for every particular case, a few hints on different modes of managing litters, after they are weaned,may prove acceptable to you. Before investigating this point, a few particu

lars may be stated which you may regard in the light of maxims on this subject. A sow should always be either with young or giving suck,for if allowedtorunabout a -breaming, as it is termed, she will lose flesh instead of gaining it. A sow should inseason,or always be kept in good condition, whether with young or supporting young, because a lean sow never brings forth or can nourish strong pigs. Every breeder and feeder of pigs will find his own advantage in never allowing them togo to bed with a hungry belly. A sow that brings forth the greatest number of

pigs of the best quality, proves the best nurse ,and is most careful of her young, should always be preferred as a brood-sow . When a sow gets old , she is apt to become careless ofher pigs, so that 3 or 4 years may be age enough for a brood -sow . Pigs,though on grass during the day in summer, should, nevertheless, receive a drink of water and meal,or potatoes, or of whey at morn. ing and evening.

(1922. ) There are just two ways of rearing pigs on a farm - one is to have a large number of sows, and sell the pigs when they are weaned at 6 weeks old ; the other is, to have fewer sows,

and rear the pigs until they are fit for the pork -curers ; and the adoption of either of these plans depends entirely on the nature of the market of the locality. If there is a demand for young pigs immediately after being weaned, supporting the larger number of sows will be the most

profitable plan for the farmer, because the pigs have not to be maintained on food independently of their mothers ; but it is a plan attended with much trouble, inasmuch as food has to be daily cooked for the sows while supporting their young, and the market for pigs is, moreover,confined to one age. In the latter plan,on the otherhand, the sows are only supportedon special food as

long as they supportthe pigs, and there is notonly the choice of the market for newly weaned pigs, but for pigs of various ages, suited for the tastes of pork -curers. Suppose, then, that 2

sows are maintained , in pursuance of the latter plan, and that they bring forth 20 pigs twice a year. Retaining 4 of these for ham, and other two for pickled pork, for the use of the house, there will be 34 pigs to dispose of every year, and as these meet with a ready market when 4 or 5 stones imperial each , at 6s. a stone, will make them worth each from 24s.to 30s., or from £40 to £50 a year for pigs. It should be borne in mind that these 34 pigs, when running about the courts in winter, eating a few turnips or potatoes, or grazing in the grass-field in summer, do not cost much to rear them to the weight most desiderated by the curers ofpork, and they are in

that state fat enough for the purpose ,and make very wholesome meat.

Ona farm of 500 acres ,

2 brood - sows could thus be easily maintained ; on a larger farm 3 might be kept, and on a smaller

1 may suffice ; but circumstances must regulate the proper number. Where dairy husbandry is both, more sows may easily be kept in summer than where the dairy husbandry is less attended to . There is a remark of Mr. Henderson on this subject which is worthy of attention, in regard to the timing of sows in bearing their litters of pigs. “ Whenever," he says, “ farmers have an

more attended to on one farm than on another, and when the mixed husbandry is practiced on

opportunity of selling pork at all seasons, they do not think it necessary to make the sows bring

their litters at a particular season, as they wish to have a lot of a certain age to go off regularly at leastevery month ,” in autumn,winter, and spring.

They make them ready for the market,” he continues, " with little expense , only giving them close feeding 2 or 3 weeks previous to their being sold .” Pigs intended for pickled pork merely, do not require even this feeding, though

those sold for making hams are the better for a little extra and hardening feeding. " They have traveling throughthe country, purchasing swine of all descriptions, who receive them and pay the money at the farms." very little trouble in selling them ,” coneludes Mr. Henderson , " as there are jobbers continually

(1923 ) " The omnivorous disposition of swine is well known, and it is this disposition which makes them so easily maintained and so serviceable on a farm . "Swine, though exceedingly voracious,” remarks Mr. Henderson, "will feed on almost anything. In miry and marshy ground they devour worms, frogs, fern, rush and hedge-roots. In drier and woody countries, they feed on haws, sloes, crabs, mast, chestnuts, acorns, &c., and on this food they will grow fleshy and fat. They are a kind of natural scavengers ; will thrive on the trash of an orchard , the outcasts of the

kitchen, the sweepings of barns and granaries, the offals of a market, and most richly on the refuse of a dairy. If near the sea, they will search the shores for shell-fish , in the fields they eat

grass, and in great towns they are supported chiefly by grains. It is evident that the facility of feeding them everywhere at a small expense is a material benefit, more especially in a country where people are accustomed to eat flesh daily, or, on the otherhand, where there is so readya market for bacon and pork as we have. It is no less observable that,notwithstanding the fa .

cility of feeding, and the multitude of swine maintained, they seldom fail of coming toa good to give firmness to the flesh . This practice ought to be particularly attended to by those who feed at distilleries on burnt ale and grains, as the fat of pigs thus fed melts almost wholly away

market. Swine ought to have hard feeding two or three weeks previous to their being killed , in boiling or roasting. Peas and beans are excellent for the purpose, and acorns are still better. (414)

THE HATCHING OF FOWLS.

223

Where oak plantations are near, they will resort to them in autumn , and there remain until this

their favorite food is exhausted. The late Sir James Colquhoun of Luss, I have been told, was in the habit of sending his pigs to one of the islands of Loch Lomond, where there is an oak plantation, that they might pick up the acorns, which is said to have given a surprising degree

of delicacy to the flesh . Those who have woods of this kind, and orchards, ought to allow their

pigs liberty to range among the trees, to pick up shaken fruit and seeds." * . The hogs of Germany enjoy the droppings of the oak and chestnut forests, and it is supposed that it is this species of food thatimparts the very superior flavor which the hams of Westphalia are known to possess. That all the bams sold in this country for Westphalian are genuine, I have doubts, after having becomeacquainted with the true flavor in their own country. I remember of passing through a forest of sweet chestnuts of, I dare say, 3 miles in length , near Bellinzona, in the canton of Ticino, in Switzerland, in autumn, when the fruit was dropping from the trees; and into this forest the

peasantry , I was informed, turnedtheirpigs every year to getfattened at the season I allude lo. (1924. ) Swine should not be allowed to enter a field of any kind without a ring in the nose . Their propensity to dig for worms and roots makes them turn up the soil with their noses, and when a grass-field is thus treated, it presents a perfect scene of havoc, in so far as the grass is concerned. The best materialfor making the nose.jewels of swine ishorse -shoe nails, they being both durable and ductile. As there is no use of retaining the heads of the nails, they are hammered into a point, and the nail is then fit for use. It is inserted into a hole, formed byan awl or other

sharp -pointed instrument, through the upper point of the snout, and passing, witha good hold, through the cartilage of the top of the snoutto its front, where the points of thenail are twisted firmly together. A new hole can be made in the snout, and another nail substituted, when the od hole and nail have become worn .

20. THE HATCHING OF FOWLS. The careful hen

Calls all her chirping family round, Fed and defended by the fearless cock , Whose breast with ardor flames, as on he walks,

Graceful, and crows defiance. In the pond The finely chequered duck before her train Rows garrulous.

The turkey nigh,

Loud threatning,reddens ; while the peacock spreads Hisevery -colored glory to the sun , And swims in radiant majesty along. O'er the whole homely scene, the cooing dove Flies thick in am'rous chase , and wanton rolls

The glancing eye, and turns the changeful neck . " THOMSON .

( 1925.) Spring is the busy season of the feathered inhabitants of the farm . Thomson well describes the “ homely scene,” which these happy creatures present while tending their young, and which might be seen at

every farmstead in spring, were fowlscared for as they should be. In stead, however, of indulging in unavailing regrets,I shall endeavor, in as few words as the clear elucidation of the subject will admit of, to describe the mode of batching and rearing every sort of fowl usually domesticated on a farm ,and thereby show you that it is not so difficult nor so trouble

some an affair as the practice which generally prevails would seem to in dicate. Observation of the habits of domesticated birds, and punctual attention to their wants, are all that are required to produce and bring up plenty of excellent poultry on a farm.f [t As no fitter occasion may offer, we think it best to preserve here the following, which ap

peared in a late number of the Gardeners' Chronicle, and which applies to disorders of poultry of not anfrequent occurrence. The prescriptions appear to be of a practical character and to be founded on experience : [ Ed. Farm . Lib . DISEASES OF POULTRY - DISORDERS OF DIGESTION .- 1. Indigestion of, or Torpid ( full )

Crop . — This is a very common ailment, arising from taking cold , unsuitable diet, and other causes. The symptoms are moping, little or no disposition to take food, and hardness of thecrop when felt. As a remedy, one or two tea -spoonsfull of English gin , according to the size of the fowl, has almost an immediate effect. It appears to act as a solvent, for the crop soon becomes soft. * Henderson's Treatise on the Breeding of Swine .

(415)

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

(1926.) Inmy observations on the management of hens in winter,I men tioned that the early -hatched chickens of the former spring were the best to treat as laying hens during winter ( 1473). These same young hens

being in fine condition in spring, will prove good layers through the ensu ing summer, and should therefore be kindly treated for thatpurpose, and not encouraged to become sitters on eggs, which they will do, if allowed to wander in search of food , and to find out nests of their own to lay in. I and maceration soon goes on as usual. Possibly this may be owing to the presence of the es

sence of the juniper berry, as no other spirit has the same effect, but is, on the contrary, deleteri. ous to birds. This is infallible .

2. Indigestion of the Gizzard . - It would be difficult to enumerate all the causes for this, as

for the former fatal ailment ; but it often arises from confinement, locality, exposure to wet, damp and cold , and most frequently from unskillful treatment in the hands of negligent persons, or those ignorant of the habits or requirements of poultry, such as shelter, wholesome diet, sweet

green food, lime, sand , &c., which are quite as necessary as grain . In the farm -yard and fields, the more natural state, birds can procure most of these ingredients for themselves,which in towns, pens, coops, or cages, their perfectly artificial state, must be administered artificially. Rue and

fresh butter, or syrup of rue and barley -meal, or soot and fresh butter formed into pellets with bar -meal, with the addition of a little pounded red brick, ur pounded dry clay, are excellent remedies; or with the addition of a small pinch of allspice, or a few of the allspice corns. A very few minute grains of Cayenne pepper have been recommended, but with great caution ; in deed, I would scarcely advise anything so powerful and irritating. The best and only efficacious remedy, after all, is castor oil, one or two tea-spoonsfull.

Mechanical Aid, when the crop is overloaded and medicine fails to promote maceration, must be resorted to and be effected by discharging its contents by gentle pressure, with great care and patience, through the mouth . When, however, the contents swell, and are of a nature impossible to remove in that way without violence, which must never be used on account of the danger of lacerating the throat,

an operation by a skillful hand is necessary, but requiring great trouble and attention during the healing process. A small slit must be made in the lower part of the crop, through which the noxious substances can be extracted. One or two sutures should then be neatly made with a needle and thread to hold the sides together, which will soon heal. More satures than are absolutely necessary would prevent healthy, suppuration , which is requisite, in order to encourage the healing process , Care should be taken to keep the wound clean, but without damaging the sutures. The fowl must be kept within doors very quiet,and upon soft diet until recovered . But this sort of operation is often more curious than useful, if not cruel, unless the patient be one of some value.

3. Oon, or Lush, or Shelless Eggs.- When a hen lays this sort ofegg , and not habitually, the tion, to be treated as before with one or two tea -spoonsfullof English gin . One cause is said to be overfeeding when fowls are too fat. These eggs are generally dropped from the roost, and if it is not too high from the floor, or if

occurrence is generally accompanied with hard or full crop. In that case, it is owing to indiges

they fall onstraw ,may be saved entireand used for puddings. As to symptoms, experience will make known the indications, and the time when a hen is about to pass one of these eggs, by ap

pearing somewhat dull, and uneasy when walking about; when proper precautions should be

taken to secure it, and prevent the other hens from gobbling it up. When this occurs from indi. gestion. the shapes of these eggs are often twofold, either like a funnel, the protuberance being about 2 inches long, ending with a thin thread twisted up at the end, or otherwise twain (two small) eggs, joined by a membrane, about an inch long ; one containing the yolk, the other the white. The cause for this curious deviation of shape I have not ascertained. But when this happens habitually,which is not uncommon, the shape is in every respect as usual, and the cause

is some derangement or injury of the passages through which the egg has to pass, after the yolk has detached itself (by its own weight, as it grows from the size of a pin’s-head) from the pedicle which attaches it to the egg cluster, before the entire egg reaches the sack,just previous to being laid . The writer has a favorite hen, which always regularly drops these eggs from her roost, and never lays any others, and has done so for these five years past, although in perfect health . This circumstance is attributable to the ignorant and cruel practice of groping ." which can not be too often denounced and reprobated. When these eggs break within, the yolk and the white will pass off, but the skin will often remain and form a hard "extraneous substance," often becoming putrid. This is the case when the cause is indigestion, of which they often die, if not

assisted to getrid of this obstruction. The surest remedy in this case is a dose of castor-oil, which seldom fails to cure the cause and remove the obstruction. But a precaution against this occur rence (when possible) is to assist in removing this skin artificially, before it hastime to become a

fixture, when it is observed to hang from the fowl. Experience and observation alone can teach the extreme nicety of this operation, so as to lead to success. It often occupies a quarter of an

hour of time, and requires great forbearance and patience. 4. Egg-bound. This is a fatality which is not of unfrequent occurrence , arising from an inac remain in the egg-bag for some days, often producing very ill consequences. The symptoms tive state of the organs, when a fowl does not as usual , in due time, get rid of an egg, which will

are moping, awkward gait,enlarged appearance and hanging down of the abdomen. The causes

are various; but generally a cold , and often indigestion. The remedy is sometimes speedy : a few grains of salt put into the entrance, but without using any violence, will excite an immediate

disposition tolay,when the fowlwill run off instanter to thenest. If caused by indigestion, the cure must be treated accordingly .] (416)

225

THE HATCHING OF FOwls.

also mentioned that there was no great difficulty of bringing up chickens in winter, if it were thought expedient to do it, and should any have been

nursed in winter (1474 ) they will now in spring be in good condition, and be valuable birds, fit to make a handsome dish of roast or boil.

( 1927.) As soon as the grass begins to grow in spring, so early will cared-for hens delight to wander into sheltered portions of pasture, in the sunshine, in front of a thorn -hedge, and pick the tender blades, and devour

the tiny worms which the genial air may have warmed into life and activ ity. With such morsels of spring food, and in pleasant temperature, their combs will begin to redden , andtheir feathers assume a glossy hue ; and even by February their chant may be heard, and which is the sure harbin

ger of the commencement of the laying season. By March a disposition to sit will be evinced by the early laying hens ; but every hen should not be allowed to sit ; nor can any hen sit at her own discretion where the

practice is, as it should be, to gather the eggs every day as they are laid . It is in your option, then, to select the hens you wish to sit to bring out chickens. Those selected should be of a quiet, social disposition, not ea sily frightened, nor over careful of their brood, nor disposed to wander afar; and they should be large and full feathered, to be able to cover

their eggs well and brood their young completely.

Those which you

may have observed to be good sitters and brooders should be chosen in

preference to others ; but it is proper to begin one young hen or so every season, to sit for the first time.

(1928.) The eggs intended to be set should be carefully selected. If those of a particular hen are desired to be hatched, they should, of course , be kept by themselves, and set after her laying time is finished. In se lecting eggs, they should, in the first place, be quite fresh, that is, laid within a few days; they should be large, well-shaped, truly ovoidal ; nei ther too thin nor too thick , but smooth in the shell; and their substance

should almost entirely fill the shell, and should be perfectly uniform and translucent, when looked through at a candle, which is the best light for their examination. It is said that the position of the cell that contains air in an egg determines the sex of the chick that will spring from the egg,

that is, if the cell occupies the exact apex of the end, which is always the large end, the chick will be a male, and if on one side of the apex, it will be a female.

I believe there is truth in this observation , but to what ex

tent, and what experiments have been made to determine the point, I have

; but there is no doubt of this, that thelonger an egg has been creases in size, by the absorption of air through the shell, and, of course,

not learned kept with access to the air, until it becomes addled or dead, this cell in by absorption also of the substance of the egg, which makes room for the air. The matter of the sex of the egg is of no importance on a farm , as a good chicken of one sex is as valuable, as an article of food, as a good one of the other. Either 11 or 13 eggs are placed under a hen ; the former number, 11 , is more likely to be successful in being entirely hatched than

the latter, as few hens can cover in a sufficient manner so many as 13 large eggs. There is a freak, prevalent even at the present day, of the propriety of setting an odd number of eggs under a hen. This may have arisen from the idea that, allowing 1 egg to become rotten , an even number, or so many couples of chickens, will still be obtained in the hatching, and, ac

cordingly, it is considered a good hatching if 10 chickens are brought out of a setting of 11 eggs, or a dozen of one of13 eggs. As essential a mat ter as selecting the hens and eggs, is the making a proper nest for the sit ting hen. This should consist of a circular hassock of soft straw -ropes,or it may be a box, or a basket. The object of this foundation is to raise the (417)...... 15

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM -- SPRING .

real nest sufficiently off the ground to keep it dry, and to give the nest such a hollow as that none of the eggs shall roll out by any mischance that Either a box or a basket is a very convenient thing may befall the nest. for the purpose, but in using either it will be requisite to stuff the corners, as well as the bottom , firmly with straw , that the eggs may not drop into the corners, or the young chicks, as they are hatched , fall into them. The

nest itself should be made of soft, short straw, sufficiently large to contain the hen, just sufficiently hollow to prevent the eggs rolling out, and suffi ciently high above the floor to prevent any draft of air reaching the eggs. ( 1929.) Places should be chosen for placing the sitting hens in - for the

hen-house, common to all the laying hens, will notanswer, theperpetual commotion in it disturbing the sitting hens. A hatching-house should con tain one hen at a time, but as many may be accommodated in it as there are partitions to separate the one hen completely from the other, for hens are so jealous of each other, and especially when sitting, that they will sometimes endeavor to take the nest and eggs from one another. Other

places can beselected for sitting in, such asan outhouse, a loft, a spare room in the farm -house, or even the back -kitchen. The hen selected for sitting having been accustomed to lay in the hen -house, or elsewhere, will feel annoyed at first on being transferred to her new quarters ; she will have to be coaxed to it, and even after all may prove obstreperous, though exhibiting strong symptoms of clucking, in which case she must be dis missed and another chosen, rather than the risk be run of spoiling the

whole hatching by her capricious conduct. A couple or so of old eggs should first be put into the nest, upon which she should be induced, by meat and waterbeside her, to sit for two or threedays, to warm the nest

thoroughly, before the eggs she is to hatch are placed under her. After she shows a disposition to sit,and the nest has become warm , the eggs are put into the nest, 11, as I said before, being quite enough, and the hen allowed to go upon themin her own way, and to manage the eggs as she chooses, which she will do with her bill and body, spreading herself out

fully to cover all the eggs completely. The time chosen for setting the hen should be in the evening, when there is a natural desire for roosting and resting, and by next morning, by daybreak even, it will be found that she has taken to the nest contentedly. It is not an unusual practice to set a hen at any time of the day, even in the daylight, when she is almost certain to come off and desire to wander; and to curb this disposition, a tub,

or some such vessl, is placed over her to keep her in the dark, and the con sequence is, that the fright consequent upon such treatment prevents her paying any attention tothe eggs, and some may even be broken in her at tempts to get out of confinement. In such an attempt to keep the crea ture in the dark , it might suggest itself to a considerate person , one should think, that darkness would be most easily and naturallyfound at night, and that natural darkness was better than any that could be made artifi

cially. Thus situate, the sitting hen should be looked at occasionally every day, and supplied with fresh food, corn , and clean water. She will not con sume much food during the time of incubation, which is 3 weeks. Every 2 or 3 days, the dung, feathers, &c., about the nest or on the floor should

be swept and carried away, and the place kept clean and dry. In about 3 weeks a commotion among the eggs may be expected ; and should the hen have proved a close sitter, and the weather mild , it is not unlikely that 2 or 3 chickens will be seen peeping out below her feathers before

that period. The hen should not be disturbed during the time the chick ens are leaving the eggs, or until they are all fairly out and dry. Any at tempt to chip an egg infallibly kills the chick ; and every attempt to re (418)

THE HATCHING OF FOWLS.

227

move pieces of a chipped egg causes the chick to bleed. A good plan is to give the chickens,when fairly out, a drink, by taking themone by one and dipping their bills in water. Meat is then set down to them on a flat plate, consisting of crumbled bread and oatmeal, and a flat disk of clean water. The hen's food consists of corn or boiled potatoes and water. The chickens should be visited every 3 hours, and a variety of food presented,

so as to induce them to eat it the more frequently and heartily, such as picks of hard porridge, crumbled boiled potatoes,rice, groats, pearl barley -taking care to have their food always fresh, and their water clean , how ever small the quantity they may consume. The hassock, or box, or basket, should now be removed, and the true nest set down on the floor, with a slope from it, that the chickensmay have the means of walking up to the nest to be brooded at night. In the course of 24 hours after all

the chickens are on foot, the hen will express a desire to go out, which she should be indulged in, if the weather is dry, and especially when the sun is out ; but if it rain , she had better be kept within doors, unless there is a convenient shed near, in which she may remain with her brood for a short time. Visited every 3 hours during the day, and supplied with a change of food such as I have mentioned, and clean water, for about a

fortnight, or until the feathers of the tails and the wings begin to sprout, chickens may then be considered out of danger, and , of course, become less of a charge to her who has the care of them . During the remainder of the season the chickens should receive food 3 times a day, consisting of potatoes boiled as they are used at table, as long as they last, and they might last the greater part of the summer, provided means were used to

; and the fact of being able to rear poultry

preserve themfor thepurpose cheaper on potatoes than on any other sort of food, is a sufficient induce ment to preserve them as long as possible in auseable state. When po tatoes fail, or even along with them , hard -made oatmeal porridge is an excellent food for fowls, when administered in small bits at a time.

It is

not expedient to set a number of hens at one time, but in succession every 3 weeks or a month ; for a few chickens, ready in succession, are of great er value than a large number of the same age. As the season advances in summer, hens, as they become fat by picking up plenty of food in the fields, have a predilection to select places for nests in the fields, lay in them, and bring out chickens from their own eggs ; and it must be owned

that this is the most natural way of obtaining chickens ; but no depend ence can be placed for a supply of young fowls in this way, as the weather may not suit hens sitting in the open air; and hens may not be in a state forlaying a nestfull of eggs in the most desirable part of the year, namely, the early and late periods of the season. In short, it is impossible to de

pend on a regular supply of either eggs or chickens, unless provision is made forcollecting the one and hatching the other in a systematic man ner. Chickens go 6 weeks with their mother. A good hen that has

brought out an early brood will become so fat while rearing them that she will in time begin again to drop eggs, and of course again become a clucker, and may then be employed to bring out a late brood. Cock

chickens, just out of the egg, are distinguished from hen -chickens by their larger heads and stronger legs.

(1930.) In regard tothe hatching and rearing of turkeys, it is universally said to be a very difficult matter to accomplish ; an opinion I am by no means inclined to acquiesce in, for I am disposed to maintain that they are as easily reared as chickens, as may be seen in the sequel. When a tur key-hen is seen disposed to lay, a nest should be made for her in the hatch ing-house. It may consist of the same materials as the hen’s nest, but, of (419;

228

THE BOOK OF THE FARMSPRING .

course, of a larger size to suit the bird. A box or basket is an excellent

thing, with every corner filled up. When once the turkey -hen lays an egg, and a nest-egg is placed in the nest, she will use it regularly every time

she requires it, which will be once in about 30 hours. As the eggs are laid, they should be removed and placed gently in a basket in the house, in a dry place, and turnedwith caution every day. When she has done laying, which may not be till she has laid 12 or 13 or even 15 eggs,she will be

disposed to sit, when the eggs should be placed under her, to the number of 11 or 13, the former number being the most certain of succeeding, as a turkey cannot cover a greater number of her own eggs than a hen can of hers ; and a brood of 10 poults is an excellent hatching. Corn and water should be placed near the nest ; but the turkey need not be confined with in the apartment she occupies, though she is not disposed to wander, nor

is she jealous of another one sitting in the same apartment with her. A bationher food and water should be supplied to her fresh and clean daily, and all dung and dirt removed from her every two or three days. When the poults are expected to make their appearance, the turkey should be fre

turkey sits 4 weeks, and is proverbially aclose sitter. During the incu

quently looked at, but not disturbed until all the creatures are fairly hatch

ed. It is, I believe, a common practice to put a peppercorn down the tice originated I cannot say ; but as turkeys, when at liberty, have a great relish for ants, and seem to possess an instinctive faculty in discovering their hills, it is possible that the peppercorn may operate as a substitute for the ant. It is known that ants yield a peculiar acid called formic acid ; throat of every poult a very short time after it is hatched. How this prac

and it is not improbable that the pungency of the peppercorn may act as stimulant on the stomach in the same manner as the acid in ants.

Dr.

Thomson, in speaking of the origin of the formic acid, says that “ it is se creted by the Formica rufa or red ant, and is the liquid that renders the bites of these insects so painful. It was first publicly noticed by Mr. Ray in the year 1670. . . . Mr. Fisher had stated to Mr. Ray several years be fore, that “ if you stir a heap of ants so as to rouse them , they will let fall on the instrument you use a liquid which , if you presently smell, will twinge the nose like newly-distilled oil of vitrol.' Mr. Fisher farther stated that • when ants are distilled by themselves or with water, they yield a spirit like spirit of vinegar, or rather like spirit of viride aris. It dissolves iron and lead . When you put the animals into water, you must stir them

to make them angry, and then theywill spit out their acidjuice.' Mar graaf obtained this acid in 1749, by distilling ants mixed with sour taste and The acid obtained had awater

rectifying the liquid that came over.

and smell." * While considering this acid, I may say a few words on the Piper nigrum is the name of the plant which produces common pepper. It is a shrub which grows in India . The seeds

constitution ofpepper.

are berries, round , hard, having an aromatic smell and a hot acrid taste . These berries constitute pepper. The unripe berries are the common black pepper ; while the ripe berries, deprived of their epidermis , consti tute white pepper. In 1821 M. Pelletier published an elaborate ex amination of pepper. He showed that it contained the following constit. uents :

Piperin. A solid, very acrid oil. A balsamic volatile oil. A gummy-colored matter. Extract similar to that obtained

from leguminous seeds. * Thomson's Chemistry of Animal Bodies. (420)

Malic and tartaric acids. Starch . Bassorin .

Lignin. Earthy and alkaline salts in small quantities.

THE HATCHING OF FOWLS .

229

M. Pelletier showed that piperin did not possess alkaline characters, as Oestedt had supposed, but that it was a peculiar principle. He found, too, owed its peculiar taste to a volatile oil. This I had shown many years before,” adds Dr. Thomson.* From this account of it, it is not im probable that the solid and very acrid oil in the pepper may operate on turkeys in a similar manner to the formic acid in ants ; and this may form an excuse for an old practice for which a sufficient reason cannot be given

that pepper

by those who follow it. After the peppercorn is given, and itmay be given or not at the person who has charge may choose, the poults get a drink of water, and are returned into the warm nest, where the mother re

ceives them with characteristic fondness. But before leaving the turkey for that night, the box or basket in which the nest is formed should be ta ken away, and the nestbrought down upon the floor, with a sloping face toward the floor to enable the young poults to gain the nest. For 24 hours

the poults will eat nothing, though the turkey herself should be provided with corn or potatoes and water. Next morning the young creatures will be quite astir and ready to eat food, which should now be given them . It should consist solely of hard-boiled eggs, yolks and white shredded down very

small, and put on a flat plate or small square board. In one respect turkey poults differ in theirnature from chickens, inasmuch as they are more apt to purge for about the first fortnight of their existence, and when purging does overtake them it is difficult of cure, and indeed generally proves fatal; but hard -boiled eggs, forming an astringent and nourishing food, entirely

prevent purging, and are better for them than someother things I have seen tried. For instance, for the sake of experiment, hard-made oatmeal porridge was given instead of hard-boiled eggs, and in a short time two poults took the flux and died, the rest having been saved by a return to the egg. With egg, not a single death has occurred among one to two hatchings every year for upward of 20 years, and that is surely sufficient experience to justify the recommendation of any practice. Let the poults be visited every 3or 4 hours, supplied with hard -boiled egg and clean water. Let their food be removed after the poults are served, otherwise the turkey -hen will devour it, for she is a keen feeder, and not so disinter ested a bird as a hen. Let them remain 2 nights and a day in the house, and after that let them go into the open air and enjoy the sun and warmth ,

of which, it is hoped, there will be a plenty in themonth of May. In wet weather, however, they should either be confined to their house, or allow ed to go into a shed. When the birds become strong and active, in the

courseof a few days let the turkey be placed in a coop on the green to curb her wandering propensity, until the poults can follow her, which they will be ableto do after they have partaken of the hard -boiled egg for a fortnight. Their meat can be put down on a plate on the green beyond the reach of the coop, and where the poults canhelp themselves, while the food of the turkey is placed within reach of the coop, consisting of corn, andpotatoes, and water. After the feathers in the tails and wings of the

poults are beginning to sprout, the egg may be gradually withdrawn, and hard -boiled picks of porridge, with a little sweet milk in the dish, to facili tate theswallowing of the porridge, should be giventhem at least 4 or 5 times a day at stated hours, and will make wholesome food, until the mother

can provide insects and other natural food for them, which will form a de sirable variety with the food given them, and then they will thrive apace, and grow amazingly fast as the weather becomeswarm . Should the grass

be damp, letthe coop be placed on thegravel of the road or walk , as damp ness is injurious to all young birds of the gallinaceous tribe. After the egg * Thomson's Chemistry of Vegetables.

(421)

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM

SPRING.

the poults are fond of a little shredded cress and mustard , and when at full liberty, they will pick the leaves of nettles with avidity. These predilections for ants, cress, and nettles, show that turkeys enjoy stimulating condiments with their food .

(1931.) Turkeys are sometimes extraordinary layers. One season a hen turkey of my own, after bringing up 11 poults till they were 8 weeks old, made a nest in the middle of a large bush of nettles at the edge of a young plantation which she visited, and contrived to slip away unnoticed from

her brood to lay an egg in every day. The nest was soon discovered, the egg taken away every day as it was laid, and a nest-egg left in it, and thus she continued to visit it daily until she had laid the extraordinary number of 90 eggs. The consequence of this oviparous fecundity was, that the turkey did not moult till the depth of winter, and the moulting was so very bare that she had to be confined to the house ; and whether the catastro

phe which befell her before spring was owing to the severity of the late

moulting I do not know, but an inflammation and a consequent swelling seized one of her eyes, and she was deprived of its sight. By spring, how

ever, she recovered from the moulting, was furnished with a complete set of new feathers, the wound on the eye healed, but somehow she died in a very short time after. Turkey-hensare most watchful protectors of their young, and are particularly wary of birds of prey, which, whenever ob served, even at the greatest hight in the air, they will utter a peculiar

cry, and every poult willinstantly hide itself among the longest grass and other plants within reach . There is another peculiarity in regard to the

turkey -hen ; one impregnation from the cock fecundates all the eggs of the ovarium ; and on account of this property, I am told it is not uncom- ,

mon in spring in Ireland to see people carrying about a turkey -cock and offering his services atfarmsteads as those of a stallion are proffered. It is perhaps owing to this peculiar constitutional habit of the turkey that makes the cock so regardless of his own progeny ; and, indeed, the hen voluntarily shuns his attention when in charge of her brood. The brood goes with her for an indefinite length of time.

( 1932.) In regard to geese, they make early preparation for incubation. There are couplets in existence indicative of the period of commencement of their laying,namely , " By Candlemas day, Good goose will lay."

And,

“By St. Valentine's day, Good and bad goose will lay. *

Geese, however, seldom lay in Scotland till the end of February. The

goose and gander cannot embrace but in water, and if the pond which they frequent be covered with ice, it should be broken to allow them to get to the water, and every egg requires a separate impregnation. An attentive observer will know when a goose is desirous of laying, by her

picking among straws and placing one on this side and one on that of her, as if making a nest. Whenever this is noticed, or an embrace on the wa ter, a nest should be made for the goose to lay in in the hatching -house, and to which she should have easy access, for she cannot jump up with the

nimbleness of either a hen or a turkey, thoughher nest may be made in a box or basket, in the same manner as that of the hen, but of a size to suit the bird intended to occupy it. It is not proper to confine a goose a long time before laying her first egg ; but when symptoms of being with egg are observed, sheshould be caught in the morning, when let out, and the

lower portion ofthe soft part of the abdomen felt,where the egg may be easily ascertained to bein a state or not, for being immediately laid, and if

hard, the goose should be shown her nest and confined to it until she it feel(422)

THE HATCHING OF FOWLS .

231

lays in the course of the day, after which she is of course let out, the egg taken away and kept dry in a basket, and turned every day, until the whole

are placed under her. Every other day after this the goose will visit her though 18 have been known to be laid ; so, by the time she is done laying,

nest and lay an egg, and the number she may lay will seldom exceed 12, it will be about the end of March .

There is,however, considerable differ

ence in this respect with geese, onsome farms they being considerably earlier in hatching than on others. This may arise from the nature of the soil, for it is probable that a dry, sharp, early soil for grass and grain, will

also early promote thefunctions of the animals that live upon it.

After the

goose has finished laying her eggs she will incline to sit, and then is the time for her to receive the eggs ; and the best time for placing her upon them in the nest, as I have saidbefore, is in the evening , that, by the arri

val of the morning, the nest being warm and comfortable, the goose will haveno inducement to leave it. The number of eggs given to behatched should be 11, which is as many as a goose can conveniently and easily cover. The goose plucks the down off her body to furnish her nest with the means of its increasing its heat ; and one great use of the down is, that when she leaves her nestat any time it serves the double purpose of retaining the

heat about the eggs and of preventing the external cold affecting them . A little clean water and a few oats are put beside a goose whenshe is sit ting ; but she will eat very little food all the time of her incubation. A feed of good oats, such as is given to a horse, will serve a sitting goose for a month, yet this little handfull is actually grudged the goose, and instead

of good corn, only little better than chaff, the lightest corn that is blown from the fanners, is only allowed by many farmers who consider themselves

very good managers. Some hen -wives will not allow the goose to go abroad as long as she is sitting ; but this is an unnecessary constraint upon her. Let her go off whenever she pleases, and there is no fear but thatshe will return to her nest in time to retain the heat of the eggs ; for she

makes it a point to cover every egg with down before leaving the nest. Most people will not allow her to go to the water at all, alleging that if she return wet upon her eggs they will become addled, but this is a mis take. Let her go to the pond if she wills it, and wash herself in it, and, depend upon it, she will not continue long there ; she will be cooled and

much refreshed by it. The feathers will not become wet ; it is not their nature to become so ; and after such a relaxation, which she much enjoys, she will sit the closer. Geese are liable to become costive while sitting, and to counteract this tendency, they should be supplied now and then with a little boiled potato in a dry state, which they will relish much, and

feel much the better for ; and, indeed, every fowl, while sitting, should re ceive a little of this useful succedaneum at that peculiar juncture. The gander usually takes up with one mate, but if there are only two geese, he will pay attention to both; and his regard for his mate is so strong that he will remain at the door of the hatching-house like a watch-dog, guard ing her from every danger, and ready to attack all and sundry who ap proach her sanctuary. At theend of a calendar month the eggs may be ex pected to be hatched ; and during this process the goose should be left

undisturbed , butnot unobserved . After the goslings are all fairly out of the shell, and before they are even dry, they may be taken in a basket with straw to a sheltered dry spot in a grass-field, the goose carried by the wings, and the gander will follow the goslings ' soft whistle. Here they

mayremain for an hour or two, provided thesun shines, for in sunshine goslings will pick up more strength in one hour than all the brooding they can receive even from their mother for a day. The goose will rest on the (423)

232

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

SPRING .

grass, the goslings will endeavor to balance themselves on their feet to

pluck it, and the gander will proudly protect the whole. Water should

be placed beside them to drink . Should the sky overcast, and rain likely to fall, the goslings should be collected, and they and goose carried instant ly to their nest ; for if goslings get their backs wetted with rain or snow

in the first two days of their existence,they will lose theuse of their legs, never recover their strength , and inevitably die.

Should the weather be

wet, a sod of good grass should be cut andplaced within their house, with a shallow plate of water. In setting down a common plate to goslings, it should be prevented from upsetting, as they are apt to put their foot upon its edge, and spill the water. After two days' strength , and especially in sunny weather, the goslings may venture to the pond to swim ; but the horse-pond is a rather dangerous place for them as yet, so many creatures

frequenting it. Somewater, or a pond, in a grass-field, would be a better place for them . For the first two or three days after goslings go about, they should be particularly observed, for should they in that time happen to fall upon their backs, or even into a hardened hoof-print of a horse, they cannot recover their legs, will be deserted by their dam and the rest of the flock , and will perish. After three or four days, however, in dry sunny

weather, and on good grass, they will become strong, grow fast, and be all danger. It is surprising how rapidlya young gosling grows in the past first month of its life. After that time they begin to tire of grass, and

go

in search of other food ; and this is the time to supply them daily with a few good oats, if you wish to have a flock of fine birds by Michaelmas ;

any other grain will answer the purpose, as rice and Indian corn, let it be but corn, though oats are their favorite food. Even ordinary light corn will be better for them than none ; and if they get corn only tillharvest, they will have passed the most growing periodof their life, and will then be able to shift for themselves, first in the stack-yard and afterward in the

stubbles. The sex ofthe gosling may easily be ascertained afterthe feath ers begin to sprout, the ganders being white, and strong in the leg, head ,

and neck ; the geese are gray and gentler-looking. Goslings go with their parents for an indefinite length of time.

(1933.) Geese are in general close sitters; but sometimes they become so capricious as to forsake someof their eggs after a number of them have been hatched .

An instance of this sort of desertion I have witnessed .

A

goose after hatching 5 goslings, deserted her nest and would no longer sit on the other 6 eggsto bring them out, though one of them was chipped. Fearing that thedeserted eggs would perishfrom cold, my housekeeper -who took the charge ofall the poultry, cows, and calves, besides the duties of the house - brought the eggs into the house, put them in a basket among flannel and wool, caused the oven to be gently heated, placed the basket with the eggs in the oven, and continued the heat in it night and

day until all the goslings were hatched, which they were one by one, ex cepting one in which the bird had died. The young creatures occupied some days in leaving their eggs, and longer than they would have done

under the goose. They were carefully attended to and were taken out to the

grass in the best part of the day, kept warm in the house at night, and, when the weather was such that they could not get out, a grass-sod was brought to them into the house. The goose refused to take her own broken brood when offered to her, after they had gained sufficient strength to go about; and this being the case, they were brought up without her aid ,and became as strong birds as those of her own out-bringing. I consider this a

remarkable instance of the resources of a ready mind, and of disregard of personal trouble ; and it is an encouraging example of perseverance in an (424 )

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attempt to preserve the lives of useful annimals under very inauspicious and even provoking circumstances. ( 1934.) Ducks begin to lay eggs early in the season, as early as Febru

ary, so it is possible to obtain an early hatching of ducklings, if desired ; but early ducklings arenot desirable, for, during that unnatural period for them , they do not acquire much flesh, even with the utmost care ; their bills and bones grow disproportionately large, and altogether the experi ment does not succeed . It is early enough to set duck-eggs in Scotland by May, and by April in England. It is customary to place duck -eggs

under hens, owing I believe, to the great difficulty of making a duck take to a nest which she has not herself made. Hens make pretty good foster mothers to ducklings, though in becoming so, the task is imposed upon them of a week's longer sitting than is natural to them , and, after all, the natural plan is for ducks to bring out their own kind ; and there is no doubt that when a duck does choose a nest for herself, lines it with her

own down, and brings out a brood, the ducklings are better than any

reared under the auspices of a hen ; the instinct of the duck being more congenial to ducklings in leading them to places in search of food peculiar to their tastes, as well upon land as upon water. Still the entire production of ducklings on a farm should not be left to the chance of ducks setting themselves on eggs, for they are proverbially careless of where they deposit their eggs, and few broods.

on that account hens must be employed to hatch at least a

( 1935.) As in the case of her own eggs, a hen can only cover 11 duck

eggs with ease, and, of course, she requires the samecalend treatment when sit month is re

ar ting on them as she receives with her own eggs. A quired to bring out ducklings ; and the hen should be left undisturbed un

till all the brood comes out. Ducklings should be kept from water for a couple of days, until their navel-string is healed ; and the food which they receive should be of a soft nature, quite the opposite of that given to turkey

poults, such as bits of oatmeal porridge , boiled potatoes , bread steeped in water, barley-meal brose, and clean water to drink in a flat dish in which

they cannot swim . On this treatment, 3 or 4 times at least every day, they will thrive apace, and become soon fledged in the body, when they are fit for use ; but their quill-feathers do not appear for some time after. In this state wild ducklings, under the name of flaffers, make good sport, and are an excellent dish with green peas, when stuffed with onion and sage shred small, and

а.

little

pepper and salt among them, and roast

ed , and served up in a hot sauce of Port wine seasoned with pepper and mace .

(1936.) A great number of ducklings are bred and reared every year at Aylesbury in Buckinghamshire, for the London market, by people of the poorer class.

The eggs are hatched by hens, and 3 or 4 broods are put together into one division ; while other divisionscontain them in a different

state of growth, some half grown, others full fledged, and all are fed alike. In this way one person has 300 or 400 ducklings feeding about his house,

and perhaps under the same roof with his own family. A great many are housed in little space, and never allowed to go at large ; but are permitted to wash themselves every day in a pond made on purpose near the house. They are fed three times a day on potatoes, barley -meal, bran, greaves, &c., and receive as much as they can eat ; and it is said that they can eat an incredible quantity of food while thus forced for the market.

When

full-feathered they are sent to London, where they find a ready sale, at from 6s. 6d. to 8s. a pair. As the season advances, prices fall, till they

reach 38. a pair, whenthe breeding is given up for the season. These peo (425)

234

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

ple allege that they are not remunerated for their trouble even at the high est prices.

(1937.) Pea -hens, in their hatching, cannot be subjected to control. The

hen selects a secluded spot for her nest, not unlikely in the garden, where she feels herself secure from the attentions of the cock, whom she seems to avoid at this season , with marked assiduity. She takes care that he shall not know, not only where her nest is, but when the pea -fowls come

out, because, as is alleged, the cock would destroy them . A pea-hen in this country seldom brings out more than 3 or 4 birds, though usually laying 5 eggs; and these she tends with great care, taking them to places where wild food can be found in greatest abundance, such as insects of various kinds and in different states, and grain, while they are fed as young turkeys ; and she continues her attentions to them for the greater part of ye the

ar.

( 1938.) Pigeons, when their dove -cot is favorably situated for heat, be gin to lay in February, and will continue to do so until December. They make their own nests, which are of the simplest and rudest construction, and, indeed, the same nest will be used by the same pair season after sea son , even after it has been much elevated with dung. A fine nest is not required by pigeons, which only laying 2 eggs at a time, one of each sex , the hen can easily cover them ; and to secure them still more, she pushes

them below her with her bill, among the feathers, to keep them warm . A supply ofyoung pigeons might be found at the farmer's table all summer. To vary their cookery, they can be stewed, roasted, broiled, and made in

to pies, one and all of which, when properly seasoned with pepper, salt, onions shred small, and butter, makes a savory appendent to any dinner.

While touching on cookery, I may remark, in regard to other poultry , that a young chicken roasted or broiled, when in perfection, at 14 weeks old a young cock especially, or boiled - a young hen being the more delicate with a slice of ham, is a standing delicacy at a farmer's table. Duck

lings and green peas are seen for a short season in the early part of sum mer, but a roast duck may be had all autumn and the early part of winter.

Turkey-poults are never indulged in by the Scottish farmer, probably from the ideathat they have too little flesh upon them , and are too similar to boiled chickens ; and as chickens are more plentiful, and can be used with less scruple, the poults are spared until they attain full size. Young geese are never seen at a Scottish farmer's table, though a stubble-goose at

Michaelmas seems to be prized in England. With regard to themeans of supplying young fowls on a farm , 2 turkey -hens and 2 geese will rear as many turkeys and geese as will be required by a large family ; 3 or 4 broods of ducks will suffice; a brood or broods of chickens may be brought out from March to November ; and as to pigeons, it is the farmer's own fault if he has not a supply of them from March to December. Those who do not care for the flesh of fowls may send their poultry to market ; and those who breed for the market should provide a person well versed in rearing poultry to undertake the duty.

(1939.) With regard to the feeding of fowls in summer , boiled potatoes

and hard-made oatmeal porridge should be their staple food ; and so fond are all sorts of birds of potatoes, that there should some pains be taken by farmers to preserve a few of the best of them over the summer ,for the express purpose of feeding poultry. I have described a plan of keeping

them over a yearin a former paragraph ( 1871 ). Food, when distributed for poultry, should not be laid down in a large heap in one place, when birds of different natures partake of it, and are therefore almost certain of quarreling and fignting ; but it should be scattered thinly along a bare (426)

THE HATCHING OF FOWLS .

235

piece of ground, or, what is better, upon grass, which keeps it clean , and from which it can easily be picked up ,butit should not be laid among straw ,

as it is easily lost sight of among it . As different sorts of birds have different habits, and frequent different places, the food should be scattered for each kind as near their usual habitats as their natures indicate, and which the

person who has charge of the matter can devise - scattering some near water for geese and ducks, upon the margin of grass on the side of the road near the steading, for hens, and at a more retired place, though still upon grass, for the turkeys ; and the food should be thus be laid down for the

different sorts of fowls at a fixed hour of morning and afternoon. Cleanli ness, attention , regularity , and good food, constitute the grand secret of rearing poultry to the highest perfection .

(1940.) What I have described of hatching the different sorts of fowls usually reared, is suitable to every sort of farm , and may be acquired by any domestic of the farm -house : and that it is a practicable scheme my

own experience has demonstrated. Other schemes are recommended in books, and large establishments, consisting of buildings and ponds, and spare ground, are erected in the parks and farm -courtsof country gentle men ; but let any other plan be what it may, and the erections and other appliances of whatever magnitude, there is none, I feel confident, will af

ford poultry at all timesin a higher degree ofperfection than the simple one I have been describing, and recommending for your adoption — and experience is the true test to which every plan should be subjected. I do

not hold it out as a peculiarly cheap plan,that is, that it will supply good poultry for the table at little or no cost, though that is the idea of cheapness entertained by farmers, when they condescend to cast a thought on the poultry of their farms. I will not say, because I do not believe it, thatfowls

can be reared for nothing, or upon the refuse of the products of a farm ; because, when I see that it requires the best oats, the best turnips, and the best grass that a farm can raise, to rear such horses, cattle, and sheep, as

purchasers desire to have, I cannot believe that the best poultry can be reared but on the best sort of food suited for them ; but this I will

say for

the plan as a practicable one for an ordinary farm , that it requires no costly buildings, and that it will assuredly yield poultry in good condition at all times in return for the food and trouble bestowed upon them , and what more can any reasonable farmer desire ? (1941.) Fowls are kept in towns in places quite unsuited to their habits ; most frequently in a small court, surrounded by a high rail, except on the side in which the hen -house is situated ; and this consists of a flattish -roofed outhouse, pervious to rain and redolent of moisture - a condi tion the very worst for fowls. The floor of the court is generally covered with dirt, and the small vessel which is intended to contain water is as often dry as plenished with clean water, while the food is thrown upon the dirty court-floor. Add to these sources of discomfort, the sun, probably, never shines upon the town hen -house, or only for a few minutes in the afternoon, when the fowls are about to retire to roost.

Ducks are treated in even a less ceremonious manner than

hens ; having no water, their feathers become begrimed with dirt, and their food is given them in a state little else than a puddle. It is, of course, impossible that fowls can thrive in such cir cumstances, and, indeed, a sight of the poor creatures excites nothing but commiseration for their fate . What can induce people to keep animals in such a state of filth and suffering is what I cannot conceive. One cause of suffering to hens in such situations is the want of sand or gravel

to assist the trituration of food in the stomach. It is found that gallinaceous birds require a sup ply of quartzy substances, and these theyfind on any farm , as also calcareous matter, such as fime, to assist in the formation of the shell of the egg, without which hens will lay what are called wind eggs, that is, eggs without a hardened shell. In the case of the fowls on board a cer . tain East Indiaman getting unwell in their coops , notwithstanding the attention daily bestowed, and the good food allowed them, it was discovered by the surgeon, on dissection of some of the birds which had died, that the cause of death was the want of gravel to assist the digestion of food. A supply of stones to beat down small was obtained at a convenient port, andthe fowls became healthy and continued so afterward. Another source of suffering ofa similar nature to hens, isthe want of dust to flutter among their feathersin order to destroy the vermin that annoy their skin ; and the want of water for the ducks to wash in and clean themselves.

( 1942.) With the diseases of chickens or other young fowls, such as the pip or chip, I am not acquainted, not having seen any such disease after an experience of many years in rearing every (427 )

236

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING.

species of fowlthat is found on a farm , and, of course, I am inclined to maintain that, were others cess, and witness as few diseases among their poultry as I have. I am corroborated by a writer on the rearing of domestic poultry, whose experience I know is considerable - whose attention I am sure is unremitting — and whose good sense is evident. “ Of the diseases to which poultry

to follow a similar course to the one I have so successfully pursued , they would have equal suc

are liable we are practically ignorant,” says the writer, a lady of my acquaintance, “having been

for many years here so fortunate as to experience few or no instances of disease among our stock ; and we attribute the health of our various animals in the farm -yard entirely to strict at tention to cleanliness, diet, and rational treatment. Those who listen to advice of the ignorant and the prejudiced, nay, they who seek from books remedies for disorders which may appear

among their live-stock, will have to contend with monstrous absurdities, excessive ignorance, and barbarous cruelty, in the quackeries recommended. Nature will generally effect a cure, if her efforts are seconded by simple means on our own part. Calomel, sulphur, rue, pepper, and gin, are all absurdities, though all recommended for the ailments of poultry." Another writer

thus expresses himself on the same subject : " With regard to medical treatment applied to the diseases of poultry, but little regarding its efficacy is known. The nostrums and mode of treat ment adopted throughout the country, together with the greater part that has been written upon the subject, isa farragoof nonsense and absurdity. If shelter, warmth, food , and cleanliness, congenial to their habits, will not preserve them in health, but little reliance can beplacedupon medicine. Most good wives, however possess an insatiable itching to be considered skillful doc tors. From among some thousand birds that have come under my observation, I never could discover that common and universal disease called the pip . Yet show any farmer's wife a sickly chicken, and sħe immediately opens its mouth, andwith her needle tears off the cartilage

from the under part of the bird's tongue ,to show it is afflicted with it ! When will the light of knowledge banish these absurdities ? " * The former writer, however, alludes to an ailment among chickens which I have never seen , arising, it would appear, from their being hatched at a

particular period of the year. After adverting to the tender state of chickens superinduced by alluded to makes its appearance: “ There is yet another time, during which it is absolutely in.

both early and late hatching, the writer particularizes the period of the year when the disease dispensable that hens be prevented from sitting, and that is the month of June. Close observation

(after having suffered at that season numerous failures most unaccountably) enabled us to dis cover the cause, and thereby verify the truth of an old saying, which we have since met with • Between the sickle and the scythe, What you rear will seldom thrive.'

We had noticed that chickens which were hatched during the month of July were almost all at

tacked about the time of their first moulting (a period always attended with much suffering to them ) with a fatal disorder, the symptoms of which are unvarying: The chickens appeared to collapse,and moved about with difficulty, as if their joints were stiffened, or rather as if the skin had become tight and tender ; their feathers became rough and stood out ; their wings drooped and dragged on the ground ; they refused sustenance ; and becoming more and more weak and torpid, they in a day or two, died off in great numbers. Every rational means was resorted to in order to arrest, or even account for the disorder ; at length it was discovered that they were in a high state of fever, and that the extreme redness of theskin was caused by the irritation of

hundreds of that minute pest the harvest bug. Some - very few - were recovered by anointing them all over with oil and vinegar(which is also the best, nay the only remedy for the annoyance which human beings experience from the same source) ; but the receipt is too rough for little delicate creatures already enduring the pain attendant on the season of moulting. It became ob. vious that the period during which harvest-bugs are most numerous and tormenting must be in . imicalto the rearing of chickens ; and that if hens were notallowed to sit in June, or rather, if the chickens were either strong enough to cope with the evil, or were not hatched until the sea son for the pest had passedby,the destruction might be prevented, and so it has proved. " +

(1943.) On considering the hatching of fowls, the mind is naturally led to the curious artificial system of hatching which the ancient Egyptians practiced, and which afforded them an immense supply of poultry every year. It is unnecessary to detail the ancient mode of hatching. as it is unsuited to this country , our climate being much too unsteady for the purpose ; but particular accounts of it may be found detailed by authors. The modern Egyptians still practice the sys

tem , and as the results exhibit some extraordinary facts, I am tempted to give the following ac count of it from Mr. Mowbray. * Sicard,” he says, " gives an idea of the immense quantities of chickens hatched in his time in Egypt. The number of ovens for batching the eggs, dispersed in the several cantons of the country,was no less than 386. The business seems to be monopolized by the Agas or Government, and therefore cannot be varied in extent but by their permission .

Each mamal or oven has one managing Bermean, a native of the village of Bermé in the Delta, by whom the art of managing it has been retained, and is taught to his children. These man agers cannot absent themselves from duty but with leave obtained from the Aga of Bermé, never obtained but at the expense of 6 to 10 crowns. The Aga constantly keeps a register of these fees, which to him is a sort of rent-roll. The above number of ovens is kept at work in Egypt annually during 4 to 6 months, allowing more time than is necessary to ha: ch 8 successive broods of chickens, ducks, and turkeys, making in the whole, yearly , 3,088 broods. The number in

each hatching is not always equal, from the occasional difficulty ofobtaining a sufficient number of eggs, which may be stated at a medium between the two extremes of 40,000 and 80,000 to each oven . The Bermean contracts to return , in a living brood to his employer, f of the num.

ber of eggs set in the oven - all above being his own perquisite in addition to his salary for the season, which is 30 to 40 crowns, exclusive of his board . According to report, the crop of poul * Bucknell's Eccaleobion .

# Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii.

Wilkinsen's Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, vol. i., New Series. (428)

THE HATCHING OF FOWLS.

237

try thus artificially raised in Egypt was seldom or never below thatratio , making the enormous annual amount of 92,640,000. It is obvious that the apparent grand difficulty of obtaining a suffi. cient number of eggs nust subsist chiefly or entirely in the infancy of such an undertaking, and that its progress must infinitely extend that supply, as has been the case in Egypt, where the breeding siock has been so multiplied, and where, in consequence, the commodity is so cheap from its superabundance , that in the time of Sicard 1,000 eggs were sold for 30 or 40 medims,

making 3s. or 4s. English money. Indeed, the chickens were not sold from the stores by tale but by measure ; according to Keaumur, by the bushel ! And it appears from travelers of the present day, to be the custom in Egypt to purchase chickens by the basketfull." * M. Reaumur, under the French Academy, instituted experiments to prove that eggs could be hatched in

Krance as well as in Egypt; but it was soon discovered that the two countries were placed in different circumstances in regard to climate , and the project was abandoned as being impractica ble. Plans of artificial hatching were tried with better success by M. Bonnemain , by a system of supplying heat from hot water in pipes; but the French Revolution put an end to the experi. ment. It is worth observing, in passing, how strange it is to hear of the circulation of hot water in pipes. as a steady source of heat, recommended at the present day as a novelty . To supply the vithabitants of Great Britain and Ireland with fowls as the Egyptians are , namely, at the rate

of 16 1-5 fowls to each person every year, the number that would require to be hatched in the relative proportions of the two countries, would be 1,109,000,000 of fowls ! (1944.) A remarkable machine, exhibited in London some years ago, which I saw in the sum

mer of 1839, was said to have attained the power of supplying the requisite degree of tempera lure for hatching for any length of time. It was the invention of Mr. William Bucknell, and named the Eccaleobion, derived from two Greek words meaning “ I give forth life .” “ Rationally to hope for success in the artificial hatching of eggs,” says Mr. Bucknell, " it becomes necessary to be in possession of a power completely to control temperature, independent of climate ,seasons,

or changes in the atmosphere, and also uninfluenced by them. These invaluable properties the Eccaleobion possesses, in a perfect and absolute command over temperature, from 300° Fahr. to that of cold water; so that any substance submitted to its influence shall uniformly be acted upon over its whole surface, at any required intermediate degree within the above range, and such

heat maintained unaltered, without trouble and difficulty, for any length of time. By means, Hien , of this absolute and complete control over temperature, obtained by this machine, the im

pregnated egg of any bird, not stale , placed withinits influence at the proper degree of warmth is, at the expiration of its natural time, elicited into life without the possibility of failure,which is

sometimes the case with eggs subjected to the caprice of their natural parent.” I Without at tempting to describe the machine, I may mention that it is capable of containing 2,000 eggs, which are open to the sight through glazed doors, in different states of incubation, from the day the egg is inserted into it, until the bird is seen to leave it in the act of being hatched. It may

be interesting, however, 10 relate a few of the facts regarding the condition of eggs in different states, as to their vitality, observed by Mr.Bucknell in his experience of the machine. ( 1945.) Few eggs are worth the trial of hatching if more than a month old ; their condition, however, is greatly influenced by the season and the state of the weather. An egg retains its fresliness longest in moderately cool weather; very hot weather destroys vitality in a few days ; and an egg having been frozen is also worthless. Failures in hatching arise from want of im. pregnation in the egg- from age, commonly called staleness, whereby life has become extinct from weakness of the vital energy of the eggs, produced by age, lowness of keep, or ill health of the parent, in which cases the chick partially develops itself, but dies before the full period of incubation. Eggs may be brought to life, but unless the process of incubation be properly exe

culed, the birds will be weakly , ill-conditioned,and die in a short time afterward . To prevent the yolk of weak eggs from seitling by its specific gravity, and adhering to the shell, it is useful to pass the hand over them , so as to change their position every 24 hours. The egg of a strong, healthy bird, at the time of its protrusion from the body, is completely filled with yolk and albu

men . 'If examined a few days after, by holding it toward the light, a small cell of air will be dis coverable at the larger end, which increases with the age of the egg: This waste of itsinternal substance is occasioned by absorption of the atmosphere, through the pores of the shell, of the more volatile parts of its contents. When the cell is large in any egg, it is unfit for incubation ; nevertheless, in a good egg, as incubation proceeds, this cell becomes considerable, produced probably both from evaporation by heat and the vital action going on within the shell. It also serves an important purpose in the economy of this mysterious process. An egg will not hatch in vacuo .

( 1946.) The progressive series of phenomena daily observable during the process of incubation,

in the egg of a common fowl, are curious and instructive. In an impregnated egg, previous to the commencement of incubation, a small spot is discernible upon theyolk, composed of a mem brancous sack containing fluid matter in which the embryo of the future chick swims. Ist Day : At the expiration of 12 or 14 hours after incubation has commenced, the matter within the em. bryo evidently bears a resemblance to a head - vesicles assume the shape of the vertebral bones of the back. 2d Day: In 39 hours the eyes make their appearance -- vessels joined together indi. cale the navel- the brain, spinal marrow , rudiments of the wings, and principal muscles- the heart is evidently proceeding 3d Day : At its commencement the beating of the heart is visible

-some hours after, two vesicles containing blood appear, one forming the left ventricle and the other the great artery — the auricle of the heart is next seen, and pulsation is evident. 4th Day : Wings assume a defined form -- the brain , the beak, the front and hind parts of the head visible. 5th Day : Liver seen --circulation of the blood evident. 6th Day : Lungs and stomach distin . Mowbray's Practical Treatise on Domestic Poultry . Ure's Dictionary of the Arts and Manufactures, art. Incubation, Artificial. Bucknell's Eccaleobion ,

( 429)

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THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SPRING .

guishable — full gushof blood from the heartdistinct. 7th Day : Intestines, veins, and upper man . dible visible - brain becomes consistent. 8th Day : Beak opens_formation offlesh on the breast

9th Day : Ribs formed --gall-bladder perceptible. 10th Day: Bill forined - first voluntary mo tion of the chick seen. 11th Day : Skull becomes cartilaginous - protrusion of feathers evident. 12th Day : Orbits of sight appear - ribs perfected. 13th Day : Spleen in its proper position in the abdomen . 14th Day: Langs inclosed within the breast. 15 :h , 15th , and 17th Days :Mature state approached - yolk of the egg still outside of the body. 18th Day : Audible sign of life out side the shell -- piping of the chick heard . 19th, 20th and 21st Days : Increase of size and strength -yolkinclosed within the body - chick liberates itself by repeated efforts made by the bill, sec onded by muscular exertion of the limbs.

(1947.) The embryo of the chick is not in every egg placed precisely in the same situation, but varies considerably. Generally it develops itself within the circumference of the broadest part of the egg : sometimes it is found higher, sometimes lower ; and when held before a strong light has an appearance,when a few days old, somewhat resembling the meshes of spider's web, with the spider in the center. As it increases in size, the bulk of the contents of the egg de. creases, so that when the bird is completely matured , it has ample space to move, and to use its limbs with sufficient effect to insure its liberation . The position of the chick in the shell is such

as to occupy the least space. The head, which is large and heavy in proportion to the rest of the body, is placed in front of the belly, with its beak under the right wing ; the feet are gathered up like a bird dressed for the spit, yet, in this singular manner and apparently uncomfortable position, the bird is by no means cramped or confined, but performs all the necessary motionsand efforts required for its liberationwith the most perfect ease , and with that consummate skill which in stinct renders almost infallible . egg was at first.

The chicken , when it breaks the shell, is heavier than the whole

( 1948.) “ If chickens about 2 months old and upward," says Mr. Bucknell, “ are turned in among a brood of young birds that have no mother, they will sometimes take to brooding and tending them with the delight of natural parents. The gratification being quite mutual, the young chicks run after and strive with each other for their favors with the most untiring perseverance.Al. though, probably, it issimply the pleasurable sensation derived from the genial warmth commu

nicated by the young birds nestling under them which induces them to doit, it is nevertheless a striking and highly interesting picture to witness these mimic mothers acting the part of foster parents with so much apparent satisfaction, yet with the awkwardness with which a girl , in similar circumstances, fondles her doll.” I never witnessed such an instance of affectionate re gard, possibly because I never saw a brood of chickens deprived of their mother, but the senti mentsconveyed in the following sentence I have frequently seen realized, and can testify to the accuracy of observation and the correctness of the conclusions of Mr. Bucknell : - There is no difficulty," he says, “ in teaching the young of the various tribes of gallinaceous fowl to eat and to

drink ; they perform these operations spontaneously,or from observation,as appetite prompts them. Are not thefacts of the extraordinary fecundity of these tribes, their requiring no assist ance in hatching, and their being self-instructed in the manner of taking their food, abundant evi.

dence that an All-wise Providence ordained these peculiarities expressly for man's advantage ; as in all those families of birds not so fitted for his use, they do notexist,and consequently cannot be rendered by artificial means available for his benefit ?. Food is not necessary for the chick

until 12 or 24 hours after leaving the shell. Sickly and badly hatched birds seldom can be in. duced to eat, and die from inanition. Birds but a few hours oldrecognize the person who feeds them , and in a few days evince so many and such pleasing traits of confidence in her as their protector and friend, following her steps,and clamorously repining at her absence, as most induce in the most callous breast a delightful sensation of regard for their welfare." ( 1949.) It isof some importance to farmers to havethe question answered in a practical sense,

Whether the hatching and rearing of chickens is profitable ? Hear Mr. Bucknell's answer to this question, as it affects artificial hatching : “ Mr. Mowbray, in his standard work ," says Mr. Buck nell, “ gives the consumption of food by birds in the highest stateof condition as follows: By an experiment made in July, 1806, a measured peck of good barley kept in a high style of condition the following stock , confined, and having no other provision : 1 cock,3 hens, 3 March chickens, 6 April and 6 May chickens, during 8 clear days, and one feed left.' Here , then, are 19 birds, va rying in age from 2 months to their full size, consuming 1 peck of corn in 8 days, which, at 1s.

per peck ,gives a cost of 1f halfpenny per head, which , however, is considerably above the cost expense of each bird of 9d . all but a fraction, for 14 weeks'keep,at which age they are in the highest perfection, being the most delicate and easy to digest of all other animal food. Where they can enjoy the advantage of a good run, the expense would still be lessened perhaps}. Now , what is the price at a poulterer's, or in the London markets, of a fine fat chicken 14 weeks

of chickensfor the first 8 weeks of their existence. But taking it at this high average, it gives an

old , or nearly its full size ? Never less than 2s., and for 6 months in the year, or during the dear season, 4s. or 58.-- which, adding to 9d. an additional3d.for the value of the egg and extras, gives

the enormous profit of from 100 to 500 per cent. dividend between the trader, the middleman and the retailer. It need not be wondered at that such is the case , nor can it be otherwise while the present system continues. A poulterer whose sale is not more than 10 dozen per week, must keep a man and a horse and cart, and attend the different markets for his purchases. All these things, with incidental expenses, will amount at least to 2 guineas per week, which 2 guineas must be spread over the 10 dozen birds before he derives any profit for himself. Upon any artifi.

cial system , these expenses would be saved, and the 2 guineas thus thrown away would keep 1,000 birds. averaging all ages, 1 whole week . Buildings and machinery, and other necessary machine might be constructed, only requiring regulation once in 24 hours, capable of batching throughout the year 10,000 eggs per month , (a week being allowed for removing and re-fitting.)

apparatus being provided, no objection exists as to the expenses of hatching. An Eccaleobion

while the cost for hatching during the month would probably be } caldron of coke at £ 1 per

caldron, which would be the 1-20 part of 1 farthing per bird. Theexpense for artificial warmth (430)

THE HATCHING OF FOWLS .

239

during the time the birds might require it, would be somewhat more - perhaps 1 farthing per bird .' *

( 1950.) I mentioned, in an extract from another writer , that the harvest-bug annoys fowls. This short account of that animal may prove interesting. “ You have already ,perhaps,been satiated with the account given of our enemies ofthe Acarus or mite tribe," says Mr.Kirby or Mr. Spence ; " there are a few ,however, which I could not with propriety introduce here, as they do not take

up their abode and breed in us. which nevertheless annoy us considerably. One of these is a hexapod so minute that, were it not for the uncommon brilliancy of its color, which is the most vivid crimson that can be conceived, it would be quite invisible . It is known by the name of the harvest-bug ( Acarus autumnalis, Shaw ), and is so called , I imagine, from its attacking the legs of laborers employed in the harvest, in the flesh of which it buries itself at the roots of the hairs, producing intolerable itching, attended by inflammation and considerable tumors, and sometimes even occasioning fevers." + ( 1951.) In regard to the original formation of feathers in the chick of a bird, M. Raspail has the following observations:“ If we examine, ” he says, "the epidermis of a sparrow , as it comes from the egg , we shall find that we can isolate each of the small bottles, which the vesicles that form the rudiments of hairs assume the shape of, as well as the nerve of which it seems to be the

terminal development. It might almost be supposed that the object viewed was the eye of a to afforda passage for a cylindrical bundle of small fibres, which are also cylindrical, andwhich are nothing elsethan the barbs, as yet single, of the feather. If, afterward, weexamine a feather

mollusca, with its long optic nerve. The summit of this vesicle isopen, even at its early period,

at a more advanced period, we may, by a little address, satisfy ourselves that its tube is formed

and grows by means of spathæ , one within another, of which the external ones project over the inner ones. so that the tube seems as if divided by so many diaphragms. The interstices of these

diaphragms are filled with a fatty liquid . which condenses in them gradually, as the summits of the spathæapproximate and adhere to each other.” I

( 1952.) Capons of the common fowl are formed both of the cock and hen chickens,when they are fit to leave the hen, at about 6 weeks old. Chickens are transmuted into capons by destroy. ing the testicles of the male and the ovaries of the female. The testicles are attached by a mem. brane to what is called the back bone of the carved fowl. They are destroyed by laying the bird on its near side, keeping it down, removing a few feathers, and making an incision through the skin of the abdomen, and,on introducing the fore finger through the incision, first the one and then the othertesticle isobliterated or removed altogether by it. In the case of the hen, the ovary is nipped off by the thumb-nail, or cut off by a knife. The incision is stitched up with

thread,and little danger is apprehended of the result. The effect of castration is enlargementof the body of the fowl, an increased delicacy of its flesh, but its flavor is in no way improved, at least in none of the capons I have tasted. Time was when capons were more plentiful at the table than chickens, so that even kain-rent was paid in them ; but the conversion of fowls into capons is now abandoned as an unnecessary and troublesome operation, and will not probably be

resnmed as long as a well-fed delicate chicken canbe procuredwith little trouble.Il [ ll Our poulterers seem to make very slow progress in the art and mystery of caponizing. We are not aware that it is now practiced or understood in Maryland at all, although 50 years ago capons were made by a few old women in Calvert County for carrying chickens. It begins to be done for improving fowls for the table in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, and in New York it is so little practiced that the hotel keepers have “ CAPON CHICKENS ” announced in large let

ters on their bills of fare, and some of these probably never felt the knife until it was applied to their throats. It is to be lamented that the practice of caponizing were not more general -- surely he who pleases, ought to be able to command what a benevolent monarch said he would have all his subjects enjoy, afat capon . [Ed. Farm . Lib. * Bucknell's Eccaleobion . Raspail's Organic Chemistry.

1930.

† Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Entomology , vol. 1

240

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER. ,

SUMMER .

“ The season now is all delight, Sweet smile the passing hours,

And SUMMER’s pleasures, at their hight, Are sweet as are her tlowers ; The purple morning wakened soon, The mid -day's gleaming din , Gray Evening with her silver moon , Are sweetto mingle in.

“How sweet the fanning breeze is felt Breathed through thedancing boughs , How sweet the rural voices melt

From distant sheep and cows. The lovely green ofwood and hill, The hummings in the air , Serenely in my breast instill, The rapture reigning there." CLARE .

I HAVE represented Winter, in the agricultural sense, as the season of dormancy, in which everything remains in a state of quiescence. In the same sense I have said that Spring is the season of restoration to life,

in which everything again stirs and becomes active. SUMMER, on the same

principle, is the season of progress, inwhich nothing is begun or ended none of the greater operations of the field are either commenced or termi nated, but only advanced a step toward the consummation of all things in Autumn ; and, therefore, the mere advancement of the greater operations involves no change of principle , while the smaller ones present so varied anaspect as to excite considerable interest.

The astronomical cause of Summer, as one of the seasons, and the safety

in which every living thing — whether animal or vegetable- progresses or grows under its influence , are thus succinctly and welldescribed by Mr.

Mudie. “ Summer is the bloom of the year — the period during which all the growing and living children of Nature, which wax and wane with the revolving seasons, are in the spring-tide of their activity, and when all those general agencies by which they are stimulated are working to the very top of their bent. Summer is, both in the literal and the metaphorical sense, the

season of blossoms; and as the blossoms make the fruit, the time of them is really the most important of the whole. In our middle latitudes, there

is a very beautiful instance of design and adaptation in this. The grand

stimulating agent in all is terrestrialaction, at least in a natural view of it on the surface of the earth, and the intensity of this action is made up of two elements — the position of the twenty -four hours during which the sun is above the horizon, and the altitude of the sun above that horizon . Both of them , in either hemisphere, increase as the sun declines toward that

hemisphere, or rather as ihe hemisphere inclines to the sun ; though , as the first of these is the apparent result of the second as a reality, our using

an expression on the other does not affect the result. The increase or de crease of altitude is the same, with the same change of declination, in all latitudes ; but the variation in time above the horizon increases with the

latitude : consequently the higher the latitude the greater the change of solar action with the same change of declination. The change in declina tion increases from the solstice to the equinox, and diminishes from the

equinox to the solstice. Thus the increase of solar action begins to slacken at the vernal equinox in March, and gradually diminishes till it becomes 0 at midsummer ; after this the decrease commences.

This, however, only

in so far as depends on the altitude of the sun ; for the other element, the (432)

SUMMER .

241

time which the sun is above the horizon, goes on increasing till the longest day, or day of the solstice. Thus, in the advanced part of the summer,

there is a diminished increase of the momentary intensity of the solar ac tion, and a lengthening of its daily duration. What is given to thepresence of the sun above the horizon is taken from its absence below it ; and thus, as the summer advances toward the longest day, all that works by the action of the sun works with his increase of intensity and for a longer time. Af

ter the longest day is past, both elements of the sular action diminish, slowly at first, and more rapidly afterward, until the summer merges in the autumn. Near the Equator the changes are comparatively small, and they increase with the latitude ; and the differences in this respect are what may becalled the celestial differences of the character of summer in different

latitudes ; but terrestrial causes modify them so much , that the practical results as observed are very different from what the celestial theory would give. Still, any one who thinks but for a moment will not fail to discover

how beautifully the season of bloom is secured from violent action either in the one way or the other. This is enough to convince us that the action which goes on in the production of Nature during the summeris really the most important of the whole year; for it is performed with the maximum of power in the agents, and the minimum of disturbance in their operation. That resistance of winter, which but too often shrivels the young leaf and blights the early blossom in the spring, is vanquished andcompletely stayed

from making any inroad till the seasonal purposes of Nature are accom plished ; and the ardor of the stimulatingcauses which have vanquished the destructive one, are slackened, so that they may not injure that which during the struggle of the early part of the year they havepreserved. All this, too, is accomplished by means so very simple that their simplicity proves the most wonderful part of the whole , for it is nothing more than the planes of the annual and daily motions of the earth intersecting each other at an angle of about 23° 28'; and the line of intersection passing

through the equinoctial points of the diurnal orbit."* The atmospherical phenomena of summer are of the most varied and complicated nature. At one time the air is highly elastic, and feels balmy and bracing, indicated by the high position of the mercury in the barome

ter ; at another the mercury descends, and almost alwayssuddenly, to the lowest point, accompanied with gusts of wind and a deluge of rain, form ing what is callled a tornado in the tropics. The heat of the air at one time is so scorching as to cause us to seek the shade, and the thermometer

marks itsintensity ; at another, a chilling gust, accompanied with a heavy shower of hail, suddenly bringsdown the thermometer many degrees. The air to -day is so calm and breathless that not a ripple is visible even on the bosom of the great ocean ; to -morrow a hurricaneraises the waves of the sea.

to a state of agitation dangerous to the safety of the mariner. Not a cloud is seen at times to stain the purity of the blue vault of Heaven; at others the thunder -cloud hovers over the earth, and blackens its surface, with a

portentous shadow . These changes, in summer, are usually sudden and of short duration, and they are requisite to preserve the healthy state of the air. Did rain not fallin quantities, the vapor absorbed by the great capacity of heated air for moisture would accumulate beyond due bonds. Were there no colder strata of air moving about to condense the warmer, the warmer portion containing a large quantity of vapor in solu tion would always be elevated beyond the reach of the earth, and there

waste its latent heat. The thunder-storm of sheet-lightning passing from cloud to cloud, the most common display of electric action in summer, re * Mudie's Summer

( 481 ) ...... 16

242

THE BOOK OF THE FARMSUMMER .

stores the electric equilibrium of the air, and the forked lightning relieves both earth and air. Did not the hurricane at times force its way through

the calm and inert air, the same portion of the atmosphere would always remain over the same locality, and become vitiated by the breath of ani

mals and the exhalations of vegetables. If the dews failed to descend upon the grass , the pasture would soon become parched by the meridian fervor of the summer sun. Thus, all the agencies of Nature are required to keep

the air in a healthy state for animals and vegetables, and these operate in the most beneficial manner in summer the solar rays.

the season of the intensest action of

As I have already entered very fully into the state of the weather in win ter, in Section 18, p. 163 to 197 of the 1st volume, I have less occasion to re

vert to the subjecthere ; but the consideration of a few of the atmospheri cal phenomena which only occur in summer was purposely reserved until

the arrival at that season ; and these phenomena were, thunder and light ning, dew, hail, and easterly winds. The origin of the electricity ofthe air was indicated at sufficient length from (299) to ( 312) . The presence

of electric matter being accounted for, the rationaleof a thunder-storm is simple, and it is this : The electric fluid, as the agency of electricity is call ed, for want of a better name, derived from sources enumerated in the

above paragraphs, accumulates in the clouds of vapor. When two clouds, thus provided with electric matter beyond their usual state , are not far

from each other, the electricity of the one becomes positive, that is, in an active state ; and that of the other, as a necessary consequence, becomes

negative, that is, in a passive state. Why these opposite statesofelectri city always coëxist when near each other, it is impossible to say ; but the fact is established as an unvarying law of electric matter. When two clouds thus in these opposite states are near eachother, they attract and approach,

and when the approach comes within thedistance in whichthe force of the positive electricity is able to overcome the resistance of the air between the positive and negative clouds, the fluid leaves the positive and enters in to the negative cloud in such quantity as to restore the equilibrium of both. The forcible passage of the electric fluid causes a concussion in the air between the two clouds, and the vibrations occasioned by the concussion striking against the earth and mountains, cause the noise which is heard in thunder.

The time taken by the electric fluid in passing from one cloud

to another is inappreciable, but the velocity of sound is calculable. For

every 41 seconds of time which elapse after seeing the lightning to hear ing the thunder, the clouds are situate as many miles from the auditor. Far at sea, where there are no objects for sound to be reflected from , thun der is never heard ; whereas, in amountainous country, it inspires terror, though it is obvious that thunder, a mere sound, can do no harm , and light ning,which can do harm , does all the mischief it can do before we are made aware of its danger.

The phenomenon of dewis familiar to every person who lives inthe coun try. In the hottest day of summer the shoes become wet in walking over

a grass-field at sunset, andthey may thenbecome as effectually wetted asin wading through water. The late Dr. Wells investigated the phenomena of dew more closely than any other person ; and his experiments, as detailed in his instructive essay on that subject, appear to have been very satisfactori

ly conducted ; and the theory which he established on these experiments is the one now embraced by philosophers. From that essay I shall first relate a few of the circumstances which influence the production of dew ; and then give Dr. Wells's theory of its formation, in contradistinction to

those(482) of other philosophers. “ Aristotle and many other writers," says

243

SUMMER .

Dr. Wells, “have remarked that dew appears only in calm and serene nights. This remark of Aristotle, however, is not to be received in its strictest sense, as I have frequently found a small quantity of dew on grass, both in windy nights, if the sky was clear or nearly so, and in cloudy nights, if there was no wind. If, indeed, the clouds were high and the weather calm, I have sometimes seen on grass, though the sky was

entirely hidden, no very inconsiderablequantity of dew. Again, according to my observation, entire stillness of the atmosphere is so far from being necessary for the formation of this fluid, that its quantity has seemed to me to be increased by a very gentle motion of the air. Dew, however, has never been seen by me on nights both cloudy and windy. If, in the course of the night, the weather, from being calm and serene, should be come windy and cloudy, not only will dew cease to form , but that which

was formed will either disappear or diminish considerably.

In calm

weather, if the sky be partially covered with clouds, more dew will ap pear than if it were entirely covered, but less than if it were entirely clear. Dew probably begins in the country to appear upon grass,in places shaded from the sun during calm and clear weather, soon after the heat of the atmosphere has declined ; and I have frequently felt grass moist in dry weather several hours before sunset. On the other hand, I

have scarcely ever known dew to be present in such quantity upon grass as to exhibit visible drops before the sun was very near the horizon, or to

be very copious till some time after sunset. It also continues to form in shaded places after sunrise ; and if the weather be favorable, more dew forms a little before, and, in shaded places, a little after sunrise, than at any other time.

The formation of dew, after it has once commenced, con

tinues during the whole night, if the weather remain still and serene.

During nights that are equally clear and calm , dew often appears in very unequal quantities, even after allowance has been made for

any difference

in their lengths. One great source of their difference is very obvious, for, it being manifest, whatever theory be adopted concerning the immediate

cause of dew, that the more replete the atmosphere is with moisture, pre viously to the operation of that cause, the more copious will be the pre cipitation of moisture in the atmosphere, must likewise tend to increase the production of dew. Thus dew , in equally calm and clear nights, is more abundant shortly after rain than during a long tract of dry weather. than during those which It is more abundant during S. and W. w blow from the N. and the E. Dew is commonly more plentiful in spring

and autumn than in summer ; the reason is that a greater difference is

generally found between the temperature of the day and the night in the former seasons of the year than in the latter. Dew is always very copi ous on those clear and calm nights which are followed by misty or foggy mornings ; the turbidness of the air in the morning showing that it must have contained, during the preceding night, a considerable quantity of

moisture. I have observed dew to be unusually plentiful on a clearmorn ing which had succeeded a cloudy night. For the air having, in the course of the night, lost little or no moisture, was in the morning charged with more watery vapor than it would þave been if the night had also been Heat of the atmosphere, if other circumstances are favorable, clear.

which , according to my experience, they seldom are in this country, occa sions a great formation of dew . For, as the power of the air to retain watery vapor in a pellucid state increases considerably faster while its temperature is rising than in proportion to the heat acquired, a decrease of its heat in any small given quantity during the night must bring it, if the temperature be high, much nearer to the point of repletion before it (483)

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

244

be acted upon by the immediate cause of dew, than if the temperature were low.

I always found when the clearness and stillness of the atmo.

sphere were the same, that more dew was found between midnight and sunrise, than between sunset and midnight, though the positive quantity of moisture in the air must have been less in the former than in the latter

time, in consequence of a previous precipitation of part of it. The reason , no doubt, is the cold of the atmosphere being greater in the latter than in

the prior part of the night."

Theories of the formation of dew have been proffered by many philoso phers, from the days of Aristotle to the time of Dr. Wells. • Dew, ac cording to Aristotle,” remarks Dr. Wells , is “ a species of rain formed in the lower atmosphere, in consequence of its moisture being condensed by the cold of the night into minute drops. Opinions of this kind, respecting the cause of dew , are still entertained by many persons, among whom is the

very ingenious Mr. Leslie, of Edinburgh ." This view is erroneous, be cause

"bodies a little elevated in the air become moist with dew, while

similar bodies, lying on the ground, remain dry , though necessarily from their position as liable to be wetted by whatever falls from the heavens, as the former.” Dufay concluded that dew is an electric phenomenon, but it leaves untouched bodies which conduct electricity, while it appears upon those which cannot transmit that influence. All the theories on dew, to the time of Dr. Wells, omitted the important part that the pro

duction of dew is attended with cold, and this is a very important omis

sion , sinceno explanation of a naturalphenomenon can be well founded which has been built without a knowledge of one of its principal circum “ It may seem strange to many,” continues Dr. Wells, “ that neither Mr. Wilson nor Mr. Six applied the fact of the existence of cold to its production, to the improvement of the theory of dew . But, accord ing to their view of the subject, no such use could have been made of it by them , as they held the formation of thatfluid to be the cause of the cold

stances.

observed with it. I had many years held the same opinion, but I began to see reason, not long after the regular course of my experiments com menced , to doubt its truth, as I found that bodies would sometimes become

colder than the air without being dewed ; and that when dew was found, if different times were compared, its quantity and the degree of cold which appeared with it were very far from being always in the same pro

portion to each other. The frequent recurrence of such observation at length corrected the doubt of the justness of my ancient opinion into a conviction of its error, and at the same time occasioned me to conclude

that dew is the production of a preceding coldin the substance upon which it appears.” Dr. Wells's theory, therefore, is “ that the cold observed with dew is the previous occurrence, and, consequently, that the forma tion of this fluid has precisely the same immediate cause as the presence of moisture upon the outside of a glass or metallic vessel, where a liquid considerably colder than the air has been poured into it shortly before." As an obvious application of this theory , the experiments of Dr. Wells, which led to itsestablishment, evince that of all natural substances grass

is peculiarly adapted to the exhibition of dew , inasmuch as it becomes, under ordinary circumstances, colder than the air above it, by the radia tion of more heat toward the heavens than it receives in any way, and,

accordingly, whenever the air is calm and serene, dew may be seen on grass, when it may not be observed on other substances. But it has been alleged by Dufay that dew is the condensation of vapor rising out of the earth upon the grass on it, because objects removed higher from the surface of the earth, as trees, are exempt from dew ; and this is (484)

245

SUMMER

a very popular opinion ; but it is an erroneous one, and the phenomenon can be explained on other principles, because the lower air in a clear and calm evening is colder than the upper, and it contains more moisture than the upper ; and hence, on all these considerations, it will sooner de posit a part of its moisture. At the same time, it is true that vapor does rise from the earth , and it may be condensed as dew ; for we find the

grass first becoming moist with dew , then the substances raised above it, while both indicate an equal degree of cold ; but all the quantity of dew from this cause can never be great, because until the air be cooled by the substances attractive of dew with which it comes in contact below its

point of repletion with moisture, it will always be in a condition to take up that which has been deposited upon grass, or other low bodies, by warm vapor emitted by the earth, justas the moisture formed on a mirror by our breath is, in temperate weather, almost immediately carried away by the surrounding air. Agreeably to another opinion, the dew found on

growing vegetables is the condensed vapor of the very plants on which it appears; but this also is erroneous, because dewforms as copiously upon dead as upon living vegetable substances ; and “ if a plant,” as Dr. Wells observes, * has become, by radiating its heat to the heavens, so cold as to be enabled to bring the air in contact with it below the point of repletion with moisture, thatwhich formsupon it from its own transpiration will not then indeed evaporate . But although moisture will at thesame time be communicated to it by the atmosphere , and when the difference in the copiousness of these two sources is considered, it may, I think, be safely concluded that almost the whole of the dew which will afterward form

upon the plant must be derived from the air; more especially when the sence of light, both lessening their transpiration, are taken into account.”

coldness of a clear night, and the general inactivity of plants in the ab Hoarfrost is just frozen dew, but as it only appears when the surface of the earth is sealed with frost, the vapor of which it is formed cannot, of course, at the time, perspire from the earth. *

Another remarkable phenomenon in summer is hail. “ The difficulty for accounting for the retention of masses of ice in the free atmosphere, observes Professor Forbes, " is certainly very great. Perhaps no hy pothesis more satisfactory, certainly none more ingenious, has followed that of Volta, who conceived, from the highly electric condition of the atmosphere, almost universally attending the production of hail, that the

frozen masses were kept in a state of reciprocating motion between two clouds oppositely charged with electricity, until the increase of the mass rendered the force of gravity predominant, or the electric tension of the clouds was exhausted by mutual reäction .” ! As hail is a very curious and highly interesting phenomenon, a few facts regarding its occurrence and the forms of hailstones may prove instructive. " Hail generally falls in the hottest hours of the day in Spain, Italy and France. It falls in Eu rope generally in the day, and seldom in the night. It seldom falls in

winter, though at Plymouth, according to Mr. Giddy, there seems to be an exception. Thus, in the course of 21 years, the recurrence in each month was, in January .

February

... 23 times May ..25 June.. 25

March

April ....

27

..

July August

-7 times September 5 October , 1 0

O.

......

5 times .... 17

November ..

22

December

43

In August is absolute zero, andin December is the maximum . Rain falls in all seasons, snow in winter, hail principally in summer. The appear * Wells on Dew , second edition , 1815 .

(485)

† Forbes's Report on Meteorology, vol.

246

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

ance of haïl-clouds seems to be distinguished from other stormyclouds by a remarkable shading ; their edges presenta multitude of indentations, and their surfaces disclose here and there immense irregular protuber ances .

Hail seldom falls on mountains, which indicates lowness of clouds,

which Arago has seen cover the valley with fog, while the mountains were

clear above. The form ofhailstones varies. They are nearly uniform when they fall on the same level ; and in the same storm they have fallen

smaller on the tops of mountains than on the plains. Change of temper ature or wind changes the form of hail. On 7th July, 1769, M. Adanson observed 6-sided pyramids fall, but the wind changing to N.E., changed

them to convex lenses, and so transparent as to transfer objects without distortion . Hail is sometimes attended with spongy snow , which may have formed the interior of the hailstone, while its exterior was transpar

ent ice. It has been supposed from this, that the different portions have been formed under different circumstances.

Leslie imagines the spongy

texture to result from an atom of water having been suddenly frozen,and particles of perhaps rarefied air suddenly driven into the center. The pyramidal form fell at Aberdeen on 29th November, 1823. The usual form of hail is a concentric lamellar structure, with a stellular fibrous ar

rangement. There is great difficulty in accounting for large masses of ice in the atmosphere, as hail cannot take above 1 minute in falling from low clouds. "

The forms of the clouds in summer are very distinctly marked. When a deposition of vapor is taking place in the highest part of the atmosphere,

the cirrus, or curl-cloud, appears (283) , and it sometimes soon disappears, which is a sign of fine weather; but instead of disappearing,it may de scend a littlelower, and be converted into thecirro-cumulus (287), which is the form of that elegant, light, flocculent cloud so often seen in afine sum mer day. A farther deposition changes the small cloud into the larger

cumulus, called the day- cloud in summer, because it disappears into an other form in the evening. The cumulus or heap may may be seen dis tinctly represented in the plate of the Liecester tup, both above the animal and above the horizon, where it frequently takes up its position for the 1

greater part of the day, resting on the vapor plane. When a large cumu lus rises from the horizon in the daytime, and shows white towering heads, it is a sign of a storm or a fall of rain from that quarter ; and the wind will change to that direction in the course of thenext 24 hours. Chi threatening cloud,

is called

cumulo - stratus.

In calm , serene even

ings in summer, the day -cloud or cumulus descends and spreads itself along the bottom of valleys, or in hollows of the open country, covering the ground like a lake as seen in moonlight, or with a partial sheet of snow. This is the true stratus cloud. Tall objects, such as trees, steeples,

and even elevated ground, jut through it like rocks and islands in a lake. The air is then perfectly calm , the temperature is delightfully warm , and the intenseness of the silence is broken only by the snipe drumming in its curious somersets in the air — by the harsh ventriloquous cry of the corn -craik among the grass or by the occasional barking of the watch dog at some distant homestead. The morning after such a night is sure to usher in a bright and peerless sun, whose steady heat will soon evaporate the sheet-like stratus-cloud from the valley and hollows, and ele vate it, in the form of the beautiful day -cloud, above the mountain -top or the horizon .

The direction of the wind forms an important item in the consideration * Encyclopedia Metropolitana, art. Meteorology. ( 486 )

SUMMER .

247

of the weather in summer ; for in no other season does the slightest varia tion of the wind make so decided changes on the weather. If we assent to the general conclusion in regard to the cause of winds, that it is the par

tial changes of temperature which are their chief general cause, we may expect the winds to be most variable in summer, since changes of tempera ture are most likely to occur at that season ; and the change ofthe wind is the most ready indication of the change of temperature, especially in the

upper portion of the atmosphere. In the torrid zone, whilethe barometer seldom varies but in a trifling degree, in the temperate zone it is not less fickle than the wind. This indication of a loss of weight in the at mosphere can arise only from a local diminution of its elasticity, most like ly from changes of temperature. But the most remarkable effect in rela tion to the wind in summer, is the constancy with which it blows from the east in the early part of that season ; and so invariable is this phenomenon, that every person who dwells on the east coast of Great Britain is quite familiar with it, as every one feels the keenness of the east wind, and eve

ry one knows the aptitude with which catarrhal affections are produced by

it. An explanation of this remarkable phenomenon cannot failto prove interesting; and as a very rational solution of its recurrence has been giv en by Mr. Samuel Marshall, I shall copy his succinct but satisfactory ac

count ofit. After stating that the east windsin early summer usually prevail from the middle ofApril to the 7th or 8th of May, or even to the 18th of May, and I may add that it continued all June in 1843, Mr. Mar.

shall then proceeds to account for the cause of the phenomenon. " In Sweden andNorway, the face of the country is covered with snow to the middle of May or longer. This frozen covering, which has been formed

during winter, grows gradually shallowertothe15th or 16th of May, or until the sun has acquired 170 or 180 N. declination ; while, on the other

hand, the valleys and mountainsof England have received an accession of 24° or 250. On this account, when the temperature of Sweden and Nor way is cooled down by snow to 32°, that of Britain is 240 or 250 higher than that of the precedingcountries. Because, while the ground is cov

ered with snow , the rays of the sun are incapable of heating the air above 32°, the freezing point. For this reason , the air of England is 240 or 250 more heated than that of the before -mentioned countries. The air of Swe

den and Norway will then , of course , by the laws of comparative specific

gravity, displace that of England, and, from the relative situation of those countries with this country, will produce a N.E. wind.

The current is in

common stronger by day than by night, because the variation of tempera ture is at that time the greatest, being frequently from 500 to 600 about noon, and sinking to 320 in the night."* Some of the most obvious prog nostics of the wind in summer are, when the wind is variable, rain is not far distant; when it blows low, and raises the dust much, it has the same effect ; but when there are small whirlwinds raising the dust along the road or corn -fields, it is a sign of dry weather. I remember of seeing a beautiful whirlwind, in a calm hot day, in the neighborhood of Berlin,

raise the sand of a field, the soil being mostly composed of that substance,

in a perpendicular directionto a great hightin the air. When currents of air are seen to move in different directions, that which the upper current takes will ultimately prevail. At times in summer , and particularly in the evening, it is hard to say from which quarter the current comes, when a wet

ted finger held up will tell the quarter, from thecold produced on it by con sequent evaporation of the moisture. The pleasant phenomena of the Brewster's Journal of Science , vol. viü .

( 487)

248

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER .

land and sea breezes are distinctly marked in fine warm weather in summer. When winds blow strongly from any quarter, even from the warm west, for two or three days in succession, the temperature of the air is much diminished, sometimes as much as 20°, and seldom less than 100.

So much for the aërial speculations of summer. Let us now notice the

humbler toils of the field. These, as I have already observed, require to Th fir oper

be advanced a stage toward their completion in autumn,

e

st

a

tion which calls for the plowman's attention in summer is the turnip-land, which is now drilled up, dunged, and sown. The culture of the turnip is a most important and stirring operation, affording much interesting work in In the singling and hoeing the plants for the greater part of the season. hight of summer, young stock luxuriate on the riches of the pasture-field, while forage plants, consisting of vetches, rape, or broad clover, are allow

ed to grow until the general season of want, between the failure of pas ture and the premature consumption of turnip. Before stock take session of the pasture-fields, the hedger makes it a point to put the fences

in a complete state of repair, and to second his exertions, the carpenter and smith make the field -gates secure for the season. Fattened stock are seldom allowed to taste the pasture, they being disposed of off the tur nips to the butcher or dealer. The fat cattle are almost always then sold. Young cattle and cows are sent to the grazing field ofthe farm , though

turnip sheep are not unfrequently retained on grass until the fleece is clip ped from their backs (the season being nigh at hand,) and after that they also are disposed of. The separation of ewe and lamb is now effected ; and the respective marks of age, sex, and ownership, are put on each. Horses now live entirely another sort of life, being transferred from the confinement of the collar in the stable to the perfect liberty of the field , and heartily do they enjoy themselves there. The brood mare now brings

forth her foal, and receives immunity from labor for a time. Hay -making represented by poets as a scene of unalloyed pleasure. No doubt lads and lasses are then as merry and chirping as grasshoppers, but, neverthe

is

less, in spite of buoyant spirits, hay-making, in sobertruth, is a labor of much heat and great toil-- the constant use of the hay-rake and pitch-fork, in hot weather, being no sinecure. Early asthe season is, preparations are made in summer for the next year's crop. The bare fallow is worked and dunged, and it may be limed too, in readiness for the seed in autumn. Summer is of all others the season in which the farmer most seriously makes his attacks on those spoilers of his clean fields, and contaminators of the samples of his grain - the weeds. Whether in stocked pastures, upon tilled ground, along drills of green crops, among growing corn, or in

hedges, young and old, weeds are daily exterminated, and the extermination is most effectually accomplished by the minute and pains-taking exertions of female field -workers. For these purposes they are provided with appro priate cleaning instruments. This is the season, too, in which his stock and crops are sometimes seriously affected by the attacks of insects. Where building-stones are plentiful, and the risk great from the overflowings of

rivulets in winter, summer is also the season for the erection of stone dykes as fences between fields, and of embankments along the margins of rivers.

The former afford a substantial fence at once, the latter form insuperable

barriers against an element powerful alike whether exerted for or against Man's operations.

Every operation requires constant attention in summer, for, the season being active in its influences, farmers must then put forth their energies to meet its rapid effects, whether these tend to forward or retard his efforts. (488)

249

SUMMER .

The long hours of a summer day, of which at least ten are spent in the fields— the ordinary high temperature of the air, which suffuses the body

of the working man in constant perspiration — and the fatiguing nature of all field -work in summer, bear hard as well on the mental as the physical energies of the laborer, and cause him to seek for rest at a comparatively early hour of the evening. None but those who have experienced the fatigue of working in the fields in hot weather, and for long hours, can truly appreciate the luxury of rest — a feeling truly described in these sim ple lines : “ Night is the time for rest. How sweet when labors close To gather round the aching breast The curtain of repose Stretch the tirod limbs, and lay the head

Upon one's own delightful bed ! " MONTGOM

ERY .

The hours devoted to field -work vary in summer in differentparts of

the country. On the borders it is the practice to go very early to the morning yoke, as early as 4 o'clock , that the forenoon's work may be over by 9, and that there may be time to rest in the heat of the day ; the after noon's yoking commences at 1 o'clock, and continues till 6 o'clock. There

are thus 10 hours spent in the fields. But in most parts of the country,

the morning yoking does not commence till 6 o'clock , and, on terminating at 11 , there are only 2 hours for rest and dinner till 1 o'clock, when the afternoon's yoking begins. In other parts, only 4 hours are spent in the morning yoking, when the horses loose at 10 o'clock, and yoking again from 2 to 6 in the afternoon, only eight hours are spent in the fields, and the men

are employed elsewhere by themselves for 2 hours.

This is practiced where the plowmen are made to do the work of field workers, and where a large numbers of draughts are kept. Perhaps the

best division oftime is to begin the yoking at 5 o'clock in the morning, loose at 10, yoke again at 1 , and loose at 6 in the evening, affording 3 hours for rest to man and horse at the hight of the day, and 10 hours in the field. Day -laborers, when not dependent on the horses, as well as field -workers, usually work from 7 to 12, and from 1 to 6 o'clock in the

evening, having 1 hour for rest and dinner. When laborers take their din ner with them to the field of their operations, this may be a good enough

division of time ; but when they have to go home to dinner, 1 hour is too little for the purpose, and affords no time for rest between yokings, which is to be deprecated, as neither men nor women are able to work 10 hours without an interval of quiet rest . It would , therefore, be a better arrange ment for field -workers to go to work at 6 instead of 7, and loose at 11 instead of 12, when they have to go home to dinner ; but if they took their dinners with them to the field, then 1 hour is sufficient for rest and dinner at the same time.

Summer is the only season in which the farmer has liberty to leave home without incurring the blame of neglecting his business, and even then the time which he has to spare is very limited. There is only about a fortnight between finishing the fallow , the turnip and potato culture, and haymaking, and the commencement of harvest, in which the farmer has leisure to travel. This limitation of time is to be regretted, because it is proper that he should take a journey every year, and see how farm operations are conducted in other parts of the kingdom . An excursion of this nature is seldom undertaken by a farmer, who is generally a man capable of observation, without acquiring some hints which may

induce the adoption of a pratice that seems good, or the rejection of one which is bad. Such a journey exhibits mar' ind in various aspects, ( 489)

!

250

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -- SUMMER .

and elevates the mind above local prejudices ; and as husbandry is

a progressive art, a ramble of a week or two, through different parts

of the country, cannot fail to enlighten theobserve mind of the most experi enced farmermuch beyond anything he can by always remaining at home.

21. THE SOWING OF TURNIPS, MANGEL-WURZEL, RAPE , CARROTS AND PARSNIPS .

" They require the land to be well broken by frequent plowings and harrowiugs, and also to be well dunged ; this is of great importance, not only as the crop of these roots is thereby rendered larger, but asthe land is thereby prepared forCOLUM carrying good ELLA

crops of corn ."

.

( 1953.) The first great field operation insummer is the completion of the preparation of the soil for the sowing of the turnip crop. This crop commences the rotation of crops, is a substitute of bare-fallowing, and is of the same nature, as regards the amelioration and working of the soil, as the potato crop, and therefore admits of the soil being manured ; and, indeed, on account of all these properties, it is regarded and denominated a fallow crop. Being thus a renovator of the condition of the soil, the

turnip crop necessarily succeeds the crop which terminates the rotation, and beyond which the exhaustion of the soil is not permitted ; and, being

a fallow crop, the preparation of the soil for it requires much labor, and should therefore be begun as early as the breaking up of the stubble in

the beginning of winter. This fact is indicated in (916 ); and the differ ent modes of plowing stubble for fallow, according to the nature of the soil, are mentioned in (917), and the due precautions to be used to keep the soil in a dry state all winter are stated in (918) .

These constitute

the winter preparations for the turnip, crop ; and those in spring are be gun by cross-plowing, fig. 312. Should potatoes have been planted in the

same field intended for turnips, the cross-plowing for the potato land should be extended across the turnip land, if there is time for it ; but

should the time required for this extended cross-plowing encroachupon that which is devoted to potato -planting, the turnip land should be let

alone, until there is leisure . From the cross -plowing to the drilling of the land for the reception of the dung, the turnip culture is exactly the same as for potatoes, with perhaps theexception that as there is more time for

working and cleaningturnip -land, it receives one or more plowings or stir rings with the grubber than the potato land ; and in this cleansing process the grubber will be found a most efficient implement, and will save a the

plowing, while it keeps upper soil uppermost and in a firle loose state. When turnip land is manured with farm -yard dung, the drilling is best and

most expeditiously done in the single mode, fig. 313 ; but as the drills have to be kept in exact proportions, for the sake of the better operation

of the sowing -machine that is to follow , the best plowman should be de sired to make them . The position of the plow which makes the single drills is shown at a, fig. 344; the ground occupied by onefeering in drill ing is shown from a to e ; and the process of dunging, both in carting out and spreading the dung, and in splitting the drills in the double way, are conducted in the manner described for that figure, with the exception of thepotato planters at r and s. So far, then, the culture of potatoes and (490)

THE SOWING OF TURNIPS.

251

turnips correspond, but after this point a considerable difference ensues, which arises from the difference in the nature of the seed.

After the soil

on the top of the drills has become a little browned with the sun, or riz zared , asit is technically phrased in some, or with a proper tid in other places, the turnip sowing-machine, which sows 2 rows ata time, such as the one described below by Mr. Slight, is then used, with one horse, for

sowing the seed. The soil should bedry at the top of the drills before the seed is sown, because damp soil clings to the rollers of the machine, and causes them to make bad work .

One of these machines could sow a

great breadth of land in a day, but it is seldom that it can be employed throughout a whole day, for two reasons : One is, that the soil is seldom

in a dry enough state in the morning to be thus sown ; and the other rea son is, that a sufficient quantity of land will not be dunged and split in the course of a day to keep a machine going constantly, because one plow

can only split į more landina day than it can plow, so that 3 plows will only split 5 acres at most of drills over dung in a day, and thus i machine could hold 4 plows splitting drills; and as the dunging is carried on at the

same time, there are few farms so large as to employ 4 plows splitting drills.

(1954.) The quantity of seed sown need not exceed 3 lbs. to the Eng lish acre, nor should the quantity be much less, as thick sowing insures a

quick braird of the turnip plant, and the seed is not acostly article, being usually from 9d. to 1s. per lb. Fortunately, that the land may receive its due labor, the different kinds of turnips cultivated require to be sown at different times. Swedes, for instance, should be sown by the 15th of May at latest, and if the land is ready to receive the seed by the 10th, so much

the better. Swedes will grow on any kind of soil, except, perhaps, what is in a state of pure peat ; but they grow best in rich alluvial sandy loam -best , because largest, and in that state this particular turnipis firmest too .

The yellow turnip follows the Swedes, and then the white, which

may be sown any time in June. In England, white turnips are sown as late as July, because, if sown earlier, they would come toosoon to matu rity . The seeds of Swedish turnips are much larger than those of yellow or white, and require to be sown through a larger hole in the canister of the machine. They will retain their freshness for several years, and may be confidently sown though kept for 3 years ; but it would be hazardous

to sow yellow or white turnip-seed after the first year ; they somehow lose their vitality after that time. The reason why I give the preference to the purple-top Swedish, the Aberdeenshire yellow bullock, and the

white globe turnips, will be found in paragraphs from (1022) to (1031 ) in clusive, and these turnips are figured in fig . 214, at the same place. At

the same time, you should partly be guided by the practice of the district in which your farm is situate, what sorts you should sow on your first

coming into the district; but you should hear verysatisfactory reasons why those kinds will not thrive in that particular district, and should even experience their failure before you determine on preferring the culture of other kinds. When I began to farm in Forfarshire, I was told that the

Swedish turnip would notthrive on such soil as my farm , a light turnip soil, and that I would find the red -topped white the best ; but a very short trial showed every one that Swedesand the white or green -topped globe throve much better than the favorite red -topped , which is an early turnip, no doubt, but a very spongy one on that soil. For my part, I would have

no fears of raising a good crop of Swedes on any ordinary soil by proper culture, that is by giving them plenty of old well-made dung, and sowing them early. Give Swedes 15 tons, or 20 good cart-loads, of dung in that (491 )

252

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER .

state to the imperial acre, and sow them before the 15th of May, and little fear need be entertained of the crop on the most ordinary soil ; 12 tons of well-made dung will suffice for yellow turnips, and 10 tons of the same

for white globes ; þut, of course, the more dung each of the kinds receive, the largercrop may be expected. (1955.) It is not an unusual practice in England to sow turnips broad

cast on the flat ground, instead of in rows, and on ridglets or drills, as in Scotland ; and the reason I have heard stated in vindication of the broad cast method is, that it resisted the bad effects of drouth on the land in summer.

No doubt excessive drouth in summer is inimical to the full de

velopment of the turnip, andit is on this account that the turnip crop fails

so frequently in Germany; but, for my part, I cannot see how a broad cast crop can escape drouth more certainly than one in rows, since the

plants have to grow and be thinned out to proper distances in both cases ; and should the ground be foul with weeds it must be stirred to get rid of them in both cases ; and as the work ofweeding is done by hand instru ments in the case of the broadcast crop, it is, of course, not so effectually done as with horse-hoes, in the case with the crop in rows ; while I can

see,that as the dung must be spread broadcast for a broadcast crop, it will not have the same opportunity of promoting the growth of the crop at its early stage as when it is deposited in rows, so that the means employed

defeat its own purpose ; because I think it cannot admit of doubt that the same quantity of manure placed in bulk immediately under the seed should promote the growth of the plant more rapidly than when it is spread over a largersurface of ground, and there can be no doubt, also, in regard to

the turnip plant itself, that the more rapidly it grows in its early stage, the more certainly it will befree of danger from drouth and from some insects, at least ; for it is well known, in regard to the habits of some of those which attack the turnip, that they become innocuous to its leaves after the development of the rough ones. I do not aver that the sowing of turnips in drills will render them invulnerable to the attacks of insects or to the effects of drouth, but these evils being merely seasonal, the drill system

places the crop more immediately under the management of the cultivator, inasmuch as it enables him to apply the whole powers of the manure at once, and of cleaning the soil quickly with the assistance of horse-power. Besides all this, the period of sowing the crop should be suited to the climate of the locality. If drouth is too great in July, or the insects too

powerful, the crop should be sown earlier, and though it should reach ma turity sooner than desired, it can be drawn and stored until the season of its consumption arrives; or it should be sown later, such as in August,

when the genial climate of the South of England — where the nights are warm as well as the day, thereby affording every day the growth of two ordinary days in Scotland, where the nights are always cold — is sufficient to mature the crop before the end of October, which is as early as the tur nip crop is required for consumption in that part of the country, and where

till then the grass continues good. And were the soil properly cleaned before the crop is sown, comparatively little labor would be required to keep it so in the hight of summer, and of course the drouth would not then much affect it. Or, a part of the turnip crop could be taken after winter vetches, which, on being cleared off the ground in time by feeding sheep, or by cutting, would enable the land to receive a short fallowing for turnips before the end ofJuly.

( 1956.) Nor is a much earlier fallowing and cleaning of the turnip land an impracticable thing in England, since the corn crop is frequently cleared from the fields by the end of August, when the stubble could be broken (492)

253

THE SOWING OF TURNIPS .

up , harrowed, cross-plowed, cleaned,drilled, and even dunged, before the arrival of winter, as has been proved in Scotland, by the practice of Mr. James Scougall, at Balgone, East-Lothian, the seat of Sir George Grant

Suttie, Bart., in the autumn of 1841 , when he drilled and dunged good turnip land, at 32 inches apart in the drill, and otherwise finished its till age. Purple -top Swedes were sown on the 10th of May, 1842, the plants thinned to 15 inches apart, and the matured crop was drawn and stored by the middle of September following, when the ground was sown with

wheat. On comparing the produce of this mode of culture with the usual one of laboring the turnip land in spring, and at the usual distance of 28 inches between the drills and 12 inches between the plants, the ground

prepared in autumn yielded, in 429 links measured along one drill, 82 stones of turnips, whereas that worked in spring yielded only 58 stones, though the number of turnips in the former weight was only 238 , while

that in the latter was 276, thus giving to each turnip a weight of 4 lbs. 13 oz. in the former, and of only 2 lbs. 15 oz. in the latter case.

A single

horse -load of turnips selected from the ground prepared in autumn only numbered 141 roots, and weighed as much as 109 stones , showing the weight of each root to be 10 lbs. 13 oz.* This instance proves that land

for Swedish turnips may be prepared in autumn, and a heavy crop ob tained on drills as wide as 32 inches , and from plants 15 inches apart. A somewhat similar success attended the trial of raising turnips on strong clay land , at ordinary distances, by Mr. Peter Thomson, Peffermill, near

Edinburgh. So soon as the ground was cleared of tares , he cross -plowed it with a deep furrow , well worked it with harrows and grubber early in October , drilled it in the single way at 28 inches asunder, but, owing to the unfavorable state of the weather, was prevented applying the dung

until December and January, which consisted of 32 single horse -loads of street-manure per imperial acre, and which was covered in with the com mon plow . In March the soil was found in a fine state, but as it was

rather foul with weeds , the drills were harrowed a double tine , the ground stirred between them with the single -horse grubber, and set up with the double mould -board plow , and again set up just before sowing the seed of the green -top yellow turnip on the 15th, and of the white globe on the 25th and 26th of May. The yield was 32 tons of turnips per imperial

acre , including tops, and quite free of mildew . The field had been dunged 5years before, and twice since top -dressed with 8 bags of 4 bushels each of soot to the imperial acre.t Were such modes of culture adopted in the South of England, I have no doubt certain and abundant

cropsof tur- '

nips would be raised in spite of drouth and insects , and the slovenly prac tice of broadcast culture would then give way to the more scientific mode of the drill system .

(1957.) Besides farm -yard dung, a great breadth of turnips is raised every year with bone-dust. This manure is not only cheap, but insures a good crop of turnips in ordinary circumstances , and its useexpedites field labor very much . When the land is ready to be drilled up from the flat, the drills are made in the double way (1741); and that is all the prepara tion the land requires for bone-dust, which is then applied by the bone dust sowing-machine, represented in Plate XXXI., and described below

by Mr. Slight. This machine deposits the bone-dust and turnip -seed at the same time, and finishes the sowing of the turnip crop. The quantity of bone -dust used is commonly 16 bushels or 2 quarters to the imperial acre. There is something in the action of bone-dust on the soil, and its conse quent power to produce a turnip crop , which I do not understand, the * Mark -Lane Express, 17th October , 1842. (493)

# Ibid ., 21st November, 1842.

254

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

means being apparently so inadequate to produce the results obtained. What I mean is, that up to a certain quantity used, this manure has evi dently a beneficial effect, but, beyond that quantity, there is derived from

its use no apparent benefit, in as far, at least, as the crop is concerned. I have tried to raise turnips

with different quantities of bone -dust, varying from 12, 16, 20, and 24 bushels to the imperial acre, and have found the crop improved up to 16 bushels, but any quantity beyond that, even to 24

bushels, produced no greater effect on the turnips in the same field, and on the same sort of soil, than 16 bushels. Nay,more than this, my late agricultural preceptor, Mr. George Brown, when he farmed Hetton Steads, in Northumberland, raised as good crops of turnips as 16 bushels of bone

dust, with only 8 bushels of bone-dust, combined with an indefinite quan inite quantity of coal-ashes applied separately, produced a verypoorcrop of turnips. It is, therefore, unnecessary, in so far as the crop of turnips is

tity of sifted dry coal-ashes; and yet 8 bushels of bone-dust, or an indef

concerned, to sow more than 16 bushels of bone -dust alone, or 8 bushels

with coal-ashes, or perhaps street-manure. Both coal-ashes and street

manure, when proposed to be used with bone-dust, should be kept dry under cover and siſted free of large lumps. It is truly surprising what an effect on the soil so small a quantity of bone-dustproduceș. I have raised a portion of the manured soil of a drill with my hand before the turnip

seed had germinated, and found it agglutinated together in a lump with a greasy matter, and the lump interspersed partly with white mouldiness,

and partly with minute fibres of plants. When the turnip-seed germinates, which it will do in 8 or 10 days, according to the state of the weather, its radicle strikes into the greasy mass of earth, and sends out an immense

number of white fibres around and through it. Its cotyledons then expand upward into two rudimentary, smooth leaves, and immediately thereafter two true or rough leaves appear, and these last are called rough leaves, because they feel rough by reason of the small spiculæ which may be ob

served to occupy the surface ofevery leaf of the common turnip.

The

rudimentary leaves of the Swedish turnip are not rough but smooth, be cause the plant is not a trueturnip, but a species of cabbage, which are all smooth -leaved. The smaller bone-dustis ground the more effective it

is as a manure, because it then mixes more intimately with the soil, though its action upon it continues for a shorter time; and, on the other hand, large or drilled, or inch-bones, as they are called, remain longer in the soil

undecomposed , but produce less immediate effect. On these accounts, bone-dust is the more valuable manure forturnips, and inch-bones for wheat. But even bone- dust has effect beyond the turnip crop ; it extends its influence over all the crops of the rotation. I pulled off 4 acres of tur nips raised with bone-dust, and 4 acres adjoining these in the same field

that had been raised with 15 loads of farm -yard dung ; and the crop of turnips was not only better after the bone-dustthan after the dung, but all the crops that followed in the rotation , namely, barley, hay, pasture, and oats, were also better in their respective years. Bone-dust, when pur chase in that state on shipboard, is almost always adulterated with old

plaster, brick -dust, ashes, &c., and should therefore be purchased direct from the grinder, one who is on the spot. There are now many bone mills scattered over thecountry. To avoid adulteration, an association of farmers was formed a few years ago in Perthshire to import bones, rape cake, &c., and grind them at their own mills under the superintendence of a manager in whom they have confidence, and in this way they continue to supply themselves with genuine manures. Bone -dust is best conveyed in

sacks,(494) and 40 bushels will fill a double -horse cart and sow 2} acres impe

THE SOWING OF TURNIPS .

255

rial. It weighs 47 lbs. per bushel. It should be immediately emptied out of the sacks and kept in small heaps in a cool shed until it is used, as it is

very apt to heat, and one consequence of recent heating is to become lumpyand troublesome to sow by the machine, though otherwise it is not injured, but rather improved by it. In some parts of the country, par

ticularly on the Borders, bone-dust is sown by hand either along drills made up

in the single way, which are then split in the double

way, while

this plan imposes the trouble of asecond drilling, or it is sown onthe flat ground and covered by drilling in the double way. In both cases, the seed is sown afterward by itselfwith the common turnip -sowing machine. The only reason I have heard in favor of sowing bone-dust by hand in steadof machinery is saving the cost of the machine ; but whatever ad vantage is gained by this saving, it is, I think, evident that the machine must deposit the bone -dust much more regularly than the hand ; and as to the cost of a machine the saving must be trifling, as hoppers for contain ing bone-dust can be attached and made to remove at pleasure from an ordinary sowing -machine. I always used a machine of this form myself. But in a case of this kind accuracy of work is a more potent considera tion than the cost of a small machine, even though it should be used but for a few weeks every year.

There is another consideration, too, of even

greater import, that the nearer bone-dust is placed to the turnip -seed the quicker will the seed vegetate , and experience has proved that turnip -seed may safely be placed among bone-dust. In sowing by hand, the manure is not placed near the seed in as far as the sower knows, and when the seed is sown by itself after the bone-dust has been covered up by the drill, the sowing-machine is as likely to deposit it away from , as near to,

the manure, and hence a regular braird cannot be insured by the practice. The ordinary bone-dust sowing-machine, as well as sowing by the hand, deposits the bone-dust in a continuous line along the drill; but a sowing machine has been lately invented, and is partially in use in Perthshire, which deposits the bone-dust in small portions at regular intervals. The

argument in favor of this mode of depositing manure is the comparatively small quantity required by it to produce a full crop ; and certainly when

bone-dust is either very scarce or very dear, this is a fair argument to use in its favor. If by depositing as much bone-dust at given distances of 12 inches as would be deposited at those distances were 16 bushels per acre sown in a continuous line, and if the quantities so deposited at intervals of 12 inches are found to produce as well-grown turnips as a continuous sowing, then the saving of manure must be as great as from 1 to ļ, be. cause the intervals between the distances are not manured at all; and

even if a greater quantity than usual were sown on the spots at intervals, still a saving would be effected upon the whole ; and if these greater quantities are found to produce a greater crop than the usual mode, then the plumping mode, as this method of sowingby intervals is termed, may

be regarded as a valuable discovery. Still more experience of its results is required before implicit faith can be placed in it as a practice fit for general adoption ; although it must be owned that the anomalous circum stance regarding the action of bone-dust already noticed, namely, of its maximum effectbeing produced by a given quantity, and not by indefinite

quantities - favors the pretensions of the plumping mode, and renders it deserving of experiment. The very best method of using bone-dust in small quantity, both for increasing the fertilityof the soil and rearing a good crop, is to sow the seed alongwith it in drills already manured with

farm -yard dung. The bone- lust secures agoodand quick braird of the plant,and the dung supports it powerfully afterward. This plan I would (495)

256

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

recommend to be pursued, particularly in England, on the land prepared for turnips in autumn, and were it practiced we need not despair of raising heavy crops of turnips, especially Swedes, on the strongest soils, and most certainly they would be obtained after thorough-draining. On using bone dust, it should be measured from the heaps in the shed in bushels, and put into the bodies of close carts, which should be left at stated distances upon

the head-ridge ; it being exceedingly inconvenient to take bone-dușt out of sacks. A field -worker should take the charge of replenishing the hop pers of the machine as the steward returns with it to the head -ridge at

every bout, with a rusky, fig. 315,filled by thefrying-pan shovel, fig .176. you will keep bone-dust over the year, it being more profitable to put it into the ground, yet in case you should have any left over, or in case you should purchase a lot cheap out of season, it may be proper to let you know how to keep it in the best state until it is used for turnips orfor any other purpose. The mode of keeping it is this : Whenever you get

As bone -dust is apt to heat in heap, and although it is improbable that

it on a dry pavement floor, as a damp one rots it fast away. It will heat again, but not so violently as at first after being made, and would heat again every time it is turned, which it should not be. It

it you should put

should not bekept in bags, as it will soon rot them, as I have experienced, nor should it be kept upon or under a wooden floor, as it will rot them both ; nor should it be kept near horses and cattle, as they evince a strong dislike to its smell, on feeling which, horses actually become restive and troublesome. If new bone -dust obtained from the mill is desired to be heated at once, which it should be when it is to be kept, the process is

much accelerated by the addition of a little sifted coal-ashes or earth , and as much water as will make the whole mass only damp, and turning it over several times until the entire mass is incorporated ; and in 48 hours the heat will be so great as that you cannot hold your hand in it. The heat will gradually subside, the mass become dry and in a good state for

passing through the sowing-machine. Heating has the effect of increasing the weight of bone-dust from 47 lbs. to 49 lbs. per bushel, and this increase is no doubt effected by the heating having taken off the angles of the par ticles, and allowing them to come closer together in the bushel. The color is also changed toblue and yellow, and on examination by the microscope, the mass will be found full of mites.*

(1958.) The established manures for raising turnips are farm - yard dung, street-manure in the neighborhood of towns, and bone-dust. There are many other substances which have been recommended for the same purpose , such as guano, animalized carbon, & c.; but as they are only of comparatively recent introduction, and cannot be said to bave yet estab lished their characters, I shall decline entertaining their pretensions here,

and shall rather notice what promise they hold out when I come to men tion the subject of making experiments in Agriculture. Bone-dust . — The specific gravity of bone, as determined by Dr. Thomson, is as follows : Os femoris of a sheep .... Tibia of a sheep ... Vertebræ of haddock .

. 2.0345 .2.0329

Ilium of an ox ...

1.8353

Human os humeri .

..1.7479

... 1.6350

The nature of this remarkable substance , as a manure , demands attention . Bone consists of or

ganic and inorganic matter, and these are found in the following proportion in the bones of those animals which supply the largest quantity for manure, namely , the ox and sheep : * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xiii.

( 496)

257

BONE-DUST AS MANURE .

Tibia of a Vertebra of Snout of -aw

Ilium of

Ilium of a

parala

an Ox .

Sheep.

Haddock .

48-05

51.97

39.49

46-310

45:02

40-42

0.19

7.03 0.22 0.19 trace .

56.08 3.57 0.79 0.79

42.550

6.10 0.24 0.20 0.11

99.73

100.35

99.83

Sheep. 43.30 50:58 4.49 0.86 0.31

Organic matter or cartilage ( Phosphate of lime .. Carbonate of lime ..

Inorganic

Magnesia ... Soda ...

Potash

fish ,deprived of Teeth .

2.638 0.101 0.141 water 6.920 :

100.72

98.66 *

In an analysis made by Dr. Henry R. Madden, to ascertain the relative component parts of bones and farm -yard dung, the following results were obtained, the bone being used in the state it is ap

11:5

FARM - YARD DUNG.

4.7

Soluble in cold water... hot water

Destroyed by heat

5.5 26.0 15.5 6.0

Phosphate of lime

28.0

weak potass in strong potass.

Carbonate of lime

Organic

Water

matter .

s . material

BONE -DUST .

saline some with

Organic matter

plied to the soil, and the dung consisting of a proportion of both stable and byre manure :

2.8

Water

45.535 10-750

Soluble in water potass.

14.250

Destroyed by heat.

18.565

Salts of potass of soda . of lime.. Silica

7.900

Earthy phosphates

3.000

..

100.0

100.00

Another analysis gave of azote in bone-dust 1.77 per cent., in farm -yard dung .45 ; 80 that in this respect these substances stand comparatively thus : Bone-dust. Farm -yard dung.

Soluble matter .. .10.20 Easily rendered soluble ...41:50

10.750

Bone- dust. Farm -yard dung 1.77 .450 38.50 33.565 55:00 10.900

Azote ...

14.250 Total organic matter.

Saline matter ........

Hence 1 ton bone-dust equals, as regards organic matter ...... soluble matter

1 ton farm -yard dung. 1

easily dissolved matter 2.9 3.9 5

azote .

saline matter .

earthy phosphates ..... 18:3 If all the various degrees in which bone -dust is superior to farm -yard dung be added together, 1

ton of it equals 30 tons of dung, bat as only 16 bushels of bone-dust are applied* to the acre, which at 47 lbs. per bushel, weighs 7 cwt., this quantity is equal to 104 tons of dung.* It is still a gues tior, whether the organic or the inorganic portion of bone-manure bestows the greatest benefit on

the land, and from its effects extending over more than one crop, some are of opinion ,among whom are Liebig and Sprengel, that its principal efficacy is in all cases to be ascribed to the

earthy ingredients, and especially to the phosphate of lime ; but ithas been brought to light that bones do not lose their organic matter entirely, though they should have been buried foryears un der ground . Thus the bones of a bear and a stag, after being long buried, were found by Marchand to consist of Bones of the bear buried .

Deep.

Shallow.

Femur of

a Stag

Animal matter .

16.2

4.2

7.3

Phosphate of lime .

56.0 13.1

62.1

54.1

13.3

19.3

7:1 0 3 2.0 2.0 1 :1 2.2

12: 3

12.2

0.5 2.1 2.1 1.3 2.1

2.1 2: 1 2.9

Carbonate of lime.

Sulphate of lime Phosphate of magnesia Fluoride of calcium

Oxides of iron and manganese . Soda .. Silica

100

100

100

“ The most striking change," as Professor Johnston observes, “ undergone by these bones, was the large loss of organic or animal matter they had suffered. The relative proportions of the phos

phate and carbonate of lime bad been comparatively little altered. The main effect, therefore. owing to the animal matter they contain the elements of the animal matter, as it decomposes, being absorbed by the roots with which the bones are in contact." Still, it is found that bones, after

produced by bones, when buried at the roots of trees, and their first effect, in all cases, must be

* Thomson's Animal Chemistry. (497) ...... 17

† Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv.

258

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER .

having been boiled, and of course deprived of the greater part of their animal matter,make excellent manure ; but as they at the same time take up a considerable quantity of water, which will cause them to decompose more rapidly when mixed with the soil, they will appear to act as beneficial ly, Professor Johnston conjectures,as unboiled bones. "He who candidly weighs the considera tions above presented, will, I think, conclude,” says the Professor, " that thewhole effect of bones cannot in any case be ascribed exclusively either to the one or the other of the principal constit

uents. He will believe, indeed, that in the turnip husbandry, the organic part performs the most permanent andmost immediately useful office, but that the earthy part, nevertheless, affords a ready

supply of certain inorganic kinds of food, which in many soils the plants could not otherwise easi ly obtain . He will assign to each constituent its separate and important function, being constrain. ed at the sametime to confess that,while in very many cases the earthy part of bones applied alone would fail to benefit the land , there are few cultivated fields in which the organic partap plied alone would not materially promote the growth of most of our artificial crops."*, When bones are heated to redness in the open air, the organic part burnsaway, and leaves the white earthy matter, in the form and nearly of the bulk of the original bone. It is very brittle, and con. sists chiefly of phosphate of lime, and is sold at the chemical works at 9s. per cwt. Bones of cat. tle and other animals, and of fish, except whale- fins, whether burnt or not. or as animal charcoai,

pay a duty by the new Tariffof 6d. perion. The declared value of bones imported into this coun. iry in 1832 was £91,755 5s. 5d.; and the duty paid thereon was £940 58. 9d. I should suppose there has been a considerable increase in the import since that period. The price of bones at Hull, the great mart of their import, in 1843, was from £3 15s. to £4 per ton .

(1960.) Turnip -drills, like the other members of the class of implements employed under the drill-system of cultivation, mark an improved state of the art, for in theearly history of the turnip culture, we find the broadcast method of sowing generally adopted, and in some parts of England at the present day, where farming is otherwise well understood, we yet see the broadcast system of sowing turnips not only practiced, but advocated as the most productive. That great aggregate weight of turnip may be produced in broadcast in particular soils and seasons, may be true,but doubtless a greater certainty of success is to be obtained from the drill practice ; and it appears now, from the latest English authorities , that the former practice will soon be rooted out by the

unflinching hand of experience. In the early stages of the drill practice of turnip culture, the breadth of land sown being but small, a single row hand -drill or barrowseems to have been gen erally used, but a simpler implement than even this has been employed—the hand -flask sower. As the practice extended, machines of two rows were introduced , drawn by one horse, and this

in various forms continues to be the chief instrument employed in sowing the seed of this im ( 1961.) The varieties of the turnip -drill are too numerous to be detailed here in full, nor would

portant root.

it be profitable to follow allthe fancies of machinemakers, some of which have produced but cum brousand inconvenient vehicles, which, when their purpose is considered , are cumbrousnot only in their bulk, but in the multiplicity of their parts, and hence are complicated and tender, liable to de

rangement and failure, and are marked by an absence of that simplicity of construction sodesira. ble in agricultural mechanics. In many of our more modern turnip -drills, however, there is to be

seen a marked simplicity of construction, that accords well with the objects in view , and this more so than the machine now very generally known as the East Lothian drill, which I shall have holds especially with those machines which are employed for sowing the seed alone ; and in none

occasion more particularly to notice. The recent introduction of numerous granulated manures has called forth a new class of machines, whose object is to deposit the manure along with the seed either in immediate contact, or in close contiguity, and these compound machines have again in volved a degree of complexity of construction ; for whenever a machine is required to perform compound functions, a necessarily increased complication of structure is entailed upon it to a greater or less extent, proportionate, perhaps , to the mechanical talents of the fabricator. An ad ditional cause of complication in the compound drills has arisen within the last few years, from a desire to economize the distribution of the modern expensive manures, by depositing small por tions of it at the points only where the future root is intended to grow , leaving the intervals desti. tute of manure . The propriety of thus dealing so niggardly with the soil in withholding those substances in abundance by which it is enabled to continue its fertility, is atleast questionable ; but the experiment has effected what I am at present endeavoring to establish - the farther com

plication of structure in themachines employed. The drill-sowing machines adapted to this pur pose are designated in Scotland plumpers, from their dropping their gifts on one point. In Eng. land they are better known by the name of dibbling-machines, or drop -drills. [ Of turnip and other drills and complicated machinery used in England, they have either been excluded from use in this country on account of their cost and complexity, or they have been great.

ly simplified if not improved. The agricoltural warehouses everywhere abound in drills of vari ous forms adapted to various purposes.

Although the cheapness of Indian corn and the dryness of our climate will prevent the general introduction of turnip husbandry on a large scale in this country, the dearness of labor adding an

other objection, we are strongly persuaded that through all the mountainous ranges of the Southern States, where morning fogs prevails through the summer so favorable to the grasses, they might profitably cultivate the Swedish turnip, to be employed in feeding their cattle, intended to be fat

led on grass the next summer. Turnip crops and sheds for sheltering and feeding their cattle in * Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry. † McCulloch's Dictionary of Commerce , art. Bones.

* Journal of the Royal English Agricultural Society, vol. iv. (498)

REPAIRING THE FENCES OF GRASS -FIELDS .

259

winter, would, we think, on trial be found a great improvement on their present system . The ex tent of the country referred to, the value of its industry, and our partiality for that branch of hus bandry, and some of those who pursue it, induce us to give what otherwise might have been Ed . Farm . Lib .] omitted with prejudice to the mass of American farmers.

22. REPAIRING THE FENCES OF GRASS-FIELDS , AND THE PROPER CONSTRUCTION OF FIELD -GATES. " At neglected gaps Burst scrambling through , and widen every breach . A stake put timely in , or whinny bush, Until the season come when living plants May fill the vacant space , much harm prevents ." GRAHAM .

(1962.) The season being almost arrived when the grass is able to sup port stock, and of course , when the cattle are permitted to leave their win ter quarters in the steading, it is necessary to ascertain, inthe first place, whether the fences of the grass-fields are in such a state of repair as will offer no temptation to stock to scramble through neglected gaps, much to the injury not only of the fence, but perhaps of themselves, oratleast much to their disquietude ; and in the next place, to watch the period when the

grass is in a fit state to receive them . Sometimes a good deal of work is re. quired to put grass-fields in a proper state for the reception of stock, owing principally to the nature of the soil, and partly to the state of the weather. On every kind of land the small stones lying on its surface should be gathered by the field -workers and carted off for the use of drains,

or be broken into metal for roads. It may happen that the throng of other work may prevent the assistance of horses and carts being given for this purpose, in which case the stones should be gathered together in small

heaps on the furrow -brow of every other single ridge ; but in doing this, it should be remembered that these heaps occupy so much of the ground,

and, of course, prevent the growth of so much grass, that, on this account, it is a much better practice to cart them away atonce if practicable. When carts are used the stones are thrown directly into them ; whereas in making heaps, the stones require some care to be puttogether, and, of course, waste time, and they have to be removed after all. Some farmers are re

gardless of gatheringthe stones from any of their fields, even from grass fields which are to be in pasture ; while all acknowledge that fields of grass which are to be madeinto hay ought to be cleared of stones to save the scythes at hay -time. On clay soils there are veryfew, or perhaps no stones to clear off, and in wetweather no cart should be allowed to go on new

grass.

As every field, whether of new or of old grass, should be roll

ed some time before the stock enter them , it is clear that the ground can not receive all the benefits of rolling as long as stones are allowed to re main on its surface. The best time for rolling is when the surface is dry -mark you, not when hard and dry — for when grass, especially young grass, is rolled in a wet state, it is very apt to become bruised and black

ened. When dry, grass is elastic and able to bear the pressure of the roll er without injury. Light land will bear rolling at any time when the sur face is dry ; but plants are very liable to be bruised by the roller against

the hard clods ofclay land, andin a soft state, on the other hand, clay land (499)

260

THE BOOK OF THE FARMSUMMER .

is apt to become hardened or encrusted by rolling. The rolling of heavy land is thus a ticklish matter ; but a good criterion to judge of its being in

a fit state for the roller, is when clods crumble down easily with the pres

sure of the foot, and not press flat, or enter whole into the soil. The roll ing is always given across theridges. The stones should be gathered, and the land rolled at least a fortnight before the stock are put on grass, to al low the grass time to grow after these operations, when it will be found to grow rapidly, if the weather is at all favorable.

(1963.) Besides the fences, the gates of grass-fields require inspection and repairs, so as they may be put in auseable state for the season. When any of thetimbers, posts, or bars, are broken or wanting, or the fastenings loose, the carpenter or smith should be made to repair them ; and the posts on which the gates hang should be made firm in the ground when loose, or renewed when decayed. In putting up new gate- posts, the

firmest mode I have found, is to dig as narrow a hole as practicable 3 feet deep for the hanging-post, and then to ram the earth, by little and little,

firmly around the post without any stones. Charringorpitching the part under ground is a pretty good prevention from rot for some time. The

simplest mode I have seen of fastening field-gates is with a small chain at lached to the fore stile of the gate, to link on to a hook on the receiving

post. The most convenient position for field -gates is at the ends of head. ridges,which may be regarded as the roads of fields. Field -gates should be made to fold back upon a fence ; to open beyond the square ; and not to shut of themselves. When they shut of themselves,and are not properly set when opened, and which requires greater care than is usually bestowed

on these matters, they are apt to catch a wheel of the cart which is passing, and, of course, to be shivered to atoms, or the post to be snapped asunder; and more than this, self-shutting gates are apt to be left unfastened by most

people who pass through them , and are therefore unavailing as a fence to stock , especially to horses when idle, which seem to take delight to loiter about gates, and they not unfrequently find out the mode of opening them. One reason, perhaps, for horses loitering about the gates is to rub them selves, to prevent which, thorns are wattled into the bars: but independent of this casual safety, every pasture-field should be provided with one good rubbing-post at least,standing 6 feet in hight. The proper construction of

field-gates is generally very little attended to, if one may judge by those usually to be seen in the country. Some judicious remarks by Mr. Slight, with appropriate figures, in reference to this much neglected subject, will

be found below , and which I hope will tend to the diffusion of an improved form in this necessary portion of farm furniture. (1964.) The importance of field-gates, whether viewed as themeansof securityto crops and live stock, or as a portion of the peri hable stock in trade of the farm , is an object deserving of grave consideration. Hitherto, it may safely be averred that very little attention has been paid to principle in the construction of field -gates ; and for the truth of this, we have only to look around us, where the eye of the constructive student will detect probably not more than one in a hun.

dred of our field -gates that are notglaringly defective as pieces of extremely simple constructive carpentry. Defects in point of construction are not even confined to the field -gate : we find them in manyof those gates of much higher pretensions, and where the hand of a master having been at work, wemight be led to expect something like an approach to the true and simple principle :

yet how seldomdoes theeye, experienced indirecting those geometricaland dynamial principles, on which alone a just and permanent system of construction depends, light upon a form that satis fies its discriminating glance. We do, indeed, occasionally meet with examples wherein is evinced a correct knowledge of those arrangements of the parts, in a rectangularframe, whether of wood or iron , that at once secures permanency of form , and stability in the entire structure. In such cases we are sure to find that the proprietor possesses not onlyan educated mind, but one

that has not disdained to stoop to the drudgery of acquiring a competentknowledge of practical mechanics, leading him also to see the advantage of securing the assistance of mechanics whose education qualifies them to perform their duties in accordance with the laws of that science. It

may seem trivial to apply remarks of this kind to such a simple matter as the construction of a field -gate ; but assuredlythere is no part of our agricultural economy that points out so broadly the (500;

THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIELD - GATES .

261

ignorance of our artisans in those important branches of their education, the elementary truths of Geometry and Mechanics. ( 1965.) A gate, generally speaking, may be described as a rectangular frame; there are excep . tions to this definition applicable to gates as a whole, but to field-gates there are none. A gate, to

be permanent, should be immutable or unchangeable in its form ;a simple rectangular framewith . connected structure of frame-work. The triangle, on the other hand, is the most immutable

outupfillings, if they are placed at right angles to each other, is the most liable to change of anyor least liable to change ; it is, in short, so long as the materials remain unchanged, perfectly immu. table, but a gate in a form of a triangle would, in most cases, be very unserviceable, though a com

bination of triangles may produce the requisite figure for a serviceable gate. Ifthen we take the rectangular frame so essential to a field -gate, and apply a bar in the position of the diagonal ofthe parallelogram , we immediately convert the original rectangular figure into twotriangles, applied to each other by their hypothenuse, and this gives us the true elements of a properly constructed gate, all the other partsbeing subordinate to these, and adapted solely to the practical purposes of the gate as a defence or for ornament. In many cases depending upon the material employed, an

opposite diagonalmaybe applied.dividing thegate into four triangles; but, in general, this isonly necessarywhere flexible rods of iron are applied as the diagonals.

(1966.) In looking at the construction generally of field -gates, we observe traces of an incipient knowledgeof the usefulness of a diagonal bar, but in very many cases it is applied with that un. certainty of purpose that marks a doubtfuland hesitating knowledge of the subject; we see it, in short, applied in all the possible positions that may be conceived to deviate from the one, true, and simple position - extending from an angle to its opposite - which is the simple and universal rule applicable to gates. Let it, then, be borne in mind that the essentials of a field -gate, whether of wood oriron, are a rectangular frame.consisting of the heel and head- posts, and a top and bottom bar or rail, which foar parts. properly connected at the angles, are rendered ofan unchangeable figure, by the application of one or more diagonal bars, and these diagonals should in no case be applied short of the whole length between any two of the opposite angles. The upfilling, whether ofrails or otherwise, as may be desired to attain any particular object , are mere accessories, and not in any way tending to the stability or durability of the fabric.

(1967.) The choice of the material forthe diagonal is of some importance, and here the maxim of universal application in mechanical construction :

6

Tie with iron and strut with wood ," is es.

pecially applicable. The field-gatesconstructed entirely of wood, thediagonal should invariably be applied as a strut; that is tosay, itshould rise from the foot of the heel post. and terminate at the top of the head -post. Placed in this position, the diagonal supports the head or swinging end of the gate, by its resistance to compression, a duty which, from the area of its cross section being considerable, and hence capable of resisting lateral flexure, it is well adapted to perform ; while, at the same time, the above sectional property gives it a broad terminal resistance, where

it abuts upon theangles of the external frame. Thesame diagonal bar, if appliedin theopposite position, and performing a duty ofa tie or stay, its great sectional area would avail but little, for,

though woody fibre is capable of resisting very considerable tension, larch -wood having, with equal sectional areas, a power of resistance to tension equal to about $ that of malleable iron of medium quality : and thoughthis wooden tiemight be found to possess in its aggregate section a cohesive force greatly beyond that of an iron bar applied in the sameposition, for the wooden bar

wouldhave a sectional area at least twelve times greater than could be requisite for an iron tie, thus yielding an aggregate force double of the iron ; yet as the wooden tie must depend for its 'connection in the structure, upon nails or bolts only, its ultimate power of resistance to tension depends not on its own sectional area, but on that of the nails or bolts by which it is fastened ,

and these again, may be very greatly reduced by the rending of the extremities of the wooden tie. (1968.) The advantages of iron as a tie, and its disadvantages as a strut, are just the converse of the foregoing. From the smallness of sectional area requisite in an iron bar applied in this

construction, as compared with its length, it is not capable of withstanding compression even to the smallest extent without suffering lateral flexure, and this defect unfits it entirely for the pur pose of a strut. Applied as a tie the iron bar is perfect; the cohesion is sach that a very small sectional area is sufficient for the purpose under consideration ; thus, a rod of 1 inch square even of inferior iron will bear a tension, with safety, of two or three tons,while the best quality will bear six tons; a rod of balf this sectional area may, therefore, be held as sufficient for the diag. onal tie of a gate, and as it can be fixed by bolts without risk of fracturing its ends, asin the case

of wood,its application in principle becomes as perfect as it is possible to approach . But though this construction is in principle completely supported by the tie from any force tending to de. press the head -post of the gate, there is yet a defect in practice; for a gate isliable, from various causes, to be forced upward at the bead-post. We have seen that a slender and flexible iron rod can . not resist compression without flexure, and, therefore, a gate with only one iron diagonal tie will still be practically imperfect, and it becomes necessary to apply an antagonist placed in the

position of astrat, but virtually performing the dutiesof a tie arising from the antagonist effects of the two, the tendency of the one being to hold the head of the gate up, while the other exerts an equal force to keep it down, whereby a perfect equilibrium is preserved within the structure .

(1969.) In treating of the practical construction of field -gates, it is, perhaps, unnecessary to dwell upon the strainsthat occur in the individual horizontal bars, because, if the principles incul cated above are attended to , all cross strains in the principal joinings areavoided ; and, except when any extraneous force is applied, the strains are resolved by construction into those of direct compression or of tension. Thus, in fig. 352, which may represent the elements ofa fly.gate, ap plicable to a drive or thoroughfare, and opening either way ; ifwe take the heel-post a b and the

bar a c alone, and hinged in any manner at a and b ; and if the bar a c is 10 feet long, the breadth of the heel-post at a 5 inches, and the parts being joined by mortise and tenon : suppose, then, a

load applied to the bar at c, the mechanical effect ofthe load wouldbe a cross strain at h, tending to break the bar directly across with a force equal to 24 times the load, exclusive of the effect of (501)

262

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -- SUMMER .

the bar itself, the bar a c forming here a lever of the first order, whose arm h c is to the arm ha , or the breadth of the heel- post, as 24 to 1. By increasing the number of bars we do not alter the Fig . 352. a

7 THE ELEMENTS OF THE TRUSS IN A WOODEN FIELD -GATE .

total effect of the load, but simply divide it equally over the superinduced bars, supposingthem to be connected with a head-post at i. But reverting again to the single bar a c, andapplying to it the diagonal b c, we have now the triangular figure a b c, the parts ofwhich being firmly connected attheir points of junction, the form becomes unchangeable, and the effect of the load at c is instantly altered. The effect of the load at c is now resolvable by the parallelogram of forces into two others, the one of tension on the bar a c, the other of compression on thediagonal

b c, and taking the length a bas a representative of the gravitating or direct effect of that load, then the tension on a c will be to the absolute load as the length of a b is to that of a c, and the

compression on the diagonal will be asb c to b a. In this example the hinges of the gate are not shown, but in actual practice the tails of the upper hinge stretch along part of the top bar, binding it securely to the heel-post, while the bottom hinge may be made to form an abutment to the foot of the diagonal.

(1970.) The practical insertion of the diagonal is also of some importance. Fig. 353 exhibits one mode of performing this, where a b is the strut halflapped upon the heel-post atbottom and while it acts as a strut, it bindsthe top of the head-post to the top -bar, and prevents it from flying

upon the head -post at top ; it is not an elegant mode of insertion, but it is efficient, in so far that off by the thrust of the diagonal.

(1971.) Fig. 354 exhibits another mode of insertion of the diagonal, which is perhaps preferable to the former ; here the head of the diagonal is attached to the top bar, half lapped upon it at b, and notched into the lower edge as an

Fig. 353.

abutment, forming a very efficient strut, the tension strain being brought entirely upon the top -rail, which is always securely tied to the heel-post by the tails of the hinges at c .

These examples are applicable to field -gates where the bars are always much thinner than

the heel and head-posts, the latter being gen . erally about 21 to 3 inches thick, and the for mer only 11 inches. In such cases the diag. onal is slightly notched upon all the bars, and deeper upon the heel andhead -posts, where & adopted ; but in no the method fig . 353 , case should the bars be notched except in the edge of the top bar, where it receives the head of the diagonal. (1972.) I have hitherto alluded only to the simplest efficient form of wooden field-gates, in the construction of which cheapness is al.

Fig. 354.

ways an object, and I have, in order to avoid

confusion of ideas, restricted the description to the essential parts, the number of bars, or other means of rendering the gate a sufficient fence, is left to be filled up at discretion. In making these upfillings the maker should studiously keep in mind that no curved bars

EXAMPLES OF THE APPLICATION OF THE DIAGONAL

or timbers, of any description, should enter into the construction, either for ornament or ostensi bly for use.

(1973.) In the construction of wooden gates for drives or approaches, where utility is still the tade may be admissible in point of finish and expense. For such purposes, the rails and posts

chiefobject, strict attention should still be paid to the principles ofconstruction, but a little more lati. of the gate should be all of one thickness, or at most, the only difference should be a gradual

diminution in thickness toward the head, to lessen the effect of gravity on the hinges and gate . post ; and for pleasant effect, there should not be more than three horizontal rails, with two diay. (502)

THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIELD - GATES .

263

onals; and if it is necessary to have a closer apfilling, it should be of an upright light balustrade form . Fig. 355 is an example of this form of gate, which I adopted 26 years ago, and the ori. Fig. 355 . d

8C

0

3

Feet. WOODEN GATE SUITED FOR THE APPROACH TO A VILLA.

ginals then constructed are still good and serviceable, but it is considerablymore expensive than the common field -gate. The heel-post a b is 5 inches broad and 3 inches thick, while the head . post c d may be reduced to 24 inches if thought advisable. The top and bottom bars are formed

with abutment pieces at both ends, which are 5inches broad, the intermediate parts being re duced to 3} inches ; the middle bar has the samebreadth, but is made up in the middle withcor exactly fitted between the abutments of the bars . The hinges are of the common double-tailed form , binding the top and bottom rails firmly to the heel-post, and the gate may be hang upon pillars of stone, or of wood well secured. The best balustrade fora gate of thiskind is rods of iron 1 inch diameter, as in the figure, passed up through the bottom and middle bars and the diagonals, the holes for these being easily bored with an auger after the gate is formed ; but a simpleand cheaper balustrade is formed of light wooden spars sunk into the bars and

responding abutments, and the two diagonals, of 2 inches in breadth , are inserted infour pieces,

diagonals .

(1974.) For all wooden gates, the method of bracing with light iron diagonals is to be preferred to wooden struts, but to be effective two diagonals must always be applied. In some cases, they

may pass from one angle to its opposite in one length, but in others it is necessary to apply them in four pieces, the connection at the center of the gate being effected either by a ring of iron, in which thefour ends are screwed, or by bolting the palmated ends of the four parts, two and two together, through the middle bar, as applied at x x fig. 355, one bolt securing the four ends, and ineither case the rods pass throughthe top and bottom of the heel and head -posts ofthe gate, and are there secured by screw -nuts . It is obvious that iron diagonals would apply in this manner to the gate , fig. 355, instead of wooden braces.

(1975.) Field -gates of wood, from the cheapness with which they may be furnished when im . perfectly constructed, have been long in use , and in many localities continue to be more exten . sively used than any other; but malleable iron is gradually taking the place of wood, and, from its greater durability, may be expected to supersede woodentirely. In the construction of mal leable iron gates, we as frequently find malformations as in those of wood, such as placing all the

bars on edge except the heel and head -post, misplacing the diagonal, if single, and not unfre quently applying bars variously formed in curves and fancifulfigures, to serve the purpose of the diagonals. The field-gate maker should be instructed to hold steadily in view that there is but one position and formfor that member of the structure that can be fully efficient, and these are, the straight bar extending from the upper angle at the heel to its opposite angle at the head -post, and, if the materials of the gate are light, to apply an antagonist diagonal crossing the first. In framing the gate, also, the top and bottom barsshould be set flat-ways, to enable the structure to resist lateralstrain from animals rubbing or pushing against it.

(1976.) One of the latest improvements in iron field -gatesis the introduction of angle.iron, now so extensively used in boiler-making, ship-building and other purposes. In the application of the angle -iron to the construction of gates, the fabric acquires the rigidity of a massive wooden

gate , with all the tenacity and strength of the iron, while its weight is little more than that of alteration , from a design of Mr. William Danlop, Edinburgh, and is manufactured by James Slight & Co., Edinburgh. The external form is composed of four bars of angle-iron, measuring

wood. Fig. 356 is a form of gate of this construction, which I have lately adopted, with some

14 inches oneach side, and to give security to thejoinings at the four angles ofthe truss,the ends of the bars are riveted upon cast-iron corner-plates, those of the heel-post a b being formed with strong projecting pivots, by which the gate is hinged. Any number of interior bars may be ap

pliedto suit the objects ofthegate. The figure exhibits the arrangement adapted to retain sheep and lambs. The diagonal b dºis contrary tothe general rule, for it is apparently a strut, but being a bar ofangle-iron, of the same breadth as before, it possesses the stiffness ofwood. to resist lat eral strains and is hence properly adapted for a strut ; to render the bracing, complete, the an. tagonist diagonal a c is applied, and this, acting as a tie, is only a flat bar 1 inch by 1 inch . The

external frame is thus rendered unchangeablein figare by any force that may be applied to the (303)

4

264

THE BOOK OF THE FARM

-SUMMER.

head-post in a vertical direction, either upward or downward, short of what will fracture the gate ; and the point e , where the diagonals cross each other at the center of the gate, becomes also immovablo in the plane of the truss ; hence the perpendicular bar f eg, being riveted to the Fig. 356 f

9

3 P

m 2

‫سلسبيل‬

2 었

3 Feet. 1

+

THE FIELD -GATE WITH ANGLE-IRON FRAME-WORK.

diagonal at e, acquires the same property, and by attaching all the horizontal bars to feg at their several crossings, each of them is rendered permanent in its position at that point, and no force short of breaking down the gate can bend any of the parts upward or downward in the direction of the bar feg, so long as this last remains attached to the crossing of the diagonals ate. In or. der to give farther support to the horizontal bars by the principle of construction, we have only to take a

point where a diagonal crosses a bar, as at h , forming the opposite triangles e h i and

a h k, which, when the bar and diagonal have been connected, become also immutable, and the

perpendicular bar l h m being secured to the point h, and again to the different bars at their in tersection with ?h m , thewhole are again rendered immovable asin the middle. The support given to the horizontal bars in the line l h m , would have been still more complete if there had been only one intermediate bar below the middle one, as the three parts would then have met in one point, as they do at h, but two bars are introduced to render the gate fencible for sheep of all ages. The perpendicular bar n o p is applied on the same principle as laid down for 2 h m, the point of support in this case beingo.

(1977.) In this construction of gates, the greatest possible amountof mutual support among the parts is obtained with a given quantity of materials ; hence gates of this construction may be made lighter than any other form where iron is the material employed, andyet have a greater amount ofstrength. In this example, the dimensions ofthe angle-iron are 1 } inches each way, and about inch thick ; all the other parts are 14 inches broad by } inch thick , the cast- iron corner plates being, of course , stouter, and the entire weight of the gate is 112 lbs. It may be of use to those

who make iron gates, but who have not taken time to study the first principles of their construc tion, to notice this farther remark. Any number whatever of additional upright bars to those shown in fig. 356 would add strength or support to the horizontal bars only on the principle of superposition, or adding bar to bar, without the advantages which arise from the principle of un

changeableness in the triangle whenapplied in the construction of frame-work, whether in a sim . ple field -gale, or in the highest branches of constructive carpentry in wood or in iron. In the one

case, the stress on the parts continue to act at right angles to thebars, the direction in which they are weakest, while in the other — the principle of throwing the frame into triangles — the whole stress isthrown upon one or more parts in the direction of their length, in whichposition all bars and beams are strongest.

(1978.) An example of an ingenious construction of iron gate is given in Parnell's work on Road. Making, which has been improved upon by Mr. Buist, now of Bombay, and described in the Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society. These gates consist of a wrought- iron

diagonal ties of external frame, which is supported by a very perfect system of bracingwith , iron wire, and filled up in a variety of forms with the same material. Fig. 357 represents Mr. Buist's gate with the fundamental braces and ties,which he thus describes : “ The framing abcd

is fashioned like that of an ordinary gate ; ef, g h , and k lare three light slips of iron parallelto the ends of the gate, and riveted to the upper and lower rails ; apb is a wire about the thickness

ofa goose -quill, fastened by a rivet atone end, and a screw and nut at the other; it passes through holes in the slips e f. g h, and k l, and serves as a brace to support the bar a b. In the same manner d pc serves as a brace to dc, while the two sides of the gate being coupled together by the slips e f, gh, and k l, the lower and upper railshave severally the benefit of both braces. The

diagonals a c and db keep the frame in shape, whilea s d and bt care braces to a d and b c, by means of the light bar m n. It will be seen that all the wires and straps which act as fills-up,

are either braces or supports, so that nothing can be more stiff than the gate thus completed. It weighs about 80 lbs., and costs £1 8s. Its dimensions are 9 feet by 31 feet, but may be made of any size, the price varying in proportion . It may be observed that a gate with one bolt,when

shut suddenly, vibrates for some time at the fore-foot; this is obviated by two bolts coupled to gether, as in the figure, near b and c, and acting simultaneously. It is also convenient for gates opening into policy grounds, getting bolted when thrown back by means of a short stump driven

into the ground, with a catch at the hight of the lower bolt c." ( 504)

THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIELD - GATES.

265

(1979.) Fig. 358 represents a gate of this construction filled up with wires in the form of rays from a center.

“ The horizontal bar m n , and the braces a s d , and btc, of fig. 357 are here omit.

ied as superfluous. The rays consist of wires of the same thickness as before, and about 9 inches Fig . 357. k

0

S

t

m

n

h THE ELEMENTS OF THE BRACING OF A WIRE FIELD -GATE .

from each other. Their lower extremities are upset as nail-heads or rivets, and their upper ends fastened are with a nut and screw . For the admission of the screws a strong iron arch is placed in the corner of the gate, and fastened at each end with screw -nuts ; its range down the heel-post

Fig. 358 .

THE WIRE FIELD-GATE WITH RAYED UPFILLINGS .

as compared with that along the upper rail, should be as the length of the gate is to its hight, which in this example, is 18 inches down the heel-post, and 6 inches along the upper rail. A gate of this form , and 9 feet by 31 feet, costs £ 1 15s." * (1980.) The wire-gates above described are admirable examples of the principles of trussed frames, and for gates. So far as that principle gives them firmness and support, they can hardly be excelled ; but there is one defect attendant upon thewire upfilling, its too great tenuity, which renders the wires liable to derangement on being loaded with any cross-strain, such as a person

attempting to climb over the gate ,and setting footon the wires. A diagonal wire undergoing euch treatment will be liable to stretch, and thereby lose its effect. Could such accidents be effec. tually guarded against,these gates might be regarded as almost perfect. In regard to the expense of the gates first described, the common wooden field -gates may be considered to range from 158. to 25s. The gate, fig. 355, about £ 1 158.; and the selling price of the angle-iron -gate, fig. 356, is about £ 1 5s. (1981.) Gate-pillars and fastenings. For field -gates where hedges form the inclosures, the simplest kind of gate-posts are those of larch or common Scots fir. They may be set in their natural state, or peeled or dressed in any form to the taste and means of the farmer; but in what

ever formthe body of the post may be, the top should be cutoff eitherin form of a cone or pyra mid, or a hemisphere, to prevent the lodgment of water on it. The simplest means of fastening wooden gate-posts is by beating or pinning in the earth around them as described ( 1963), but the most effectualand permanent mode is to form a pit of at least 24 feet square, and of the same depth, and thepost being set in it, the pit is filled up with rubble masonry in mortar packed firm . ly, and groutedround the post. This an expensive mode, but is more permanent, and a greater durability of the timberis effected by contact with the lime.

(1982.) In the Isle ofMan , though ite agriculturists cannot boast more than ourselves of the per fection of their gates, Nature has supplied them with an admirable material for gate-posts. The that serves all the purposes of beams and planks of wood, and of this many, indeed, most of the gate -posts are formed . In Scotland we have now in abundance a material equally suitable for transition-slate with which the island abounds is found in one locality, Spanish -head , of a nature

the same purpose, in the Caithness pavement, which is now applied for gate -pillars, and for which

no material can surpass it. They are built into the ground in the samemanner as wooden posts, and look very much like a plank of wood, but possessingstrength, and especially durability, far beyond wood. The crook -hinges are either fixed into them by passing through them as bolts

through a jumper hole, or they may be put in the form of a hoop, and secured with wedges. For * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. (505)

266

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER .

field -gates built pillars of stone are seldom used, and only when the inclosures are formed of stone .

dykes, and these forms are so various, that it is out ofplace to describe them here. ( 1983.) The hanging of gates has already been slightly adverted to ; the crook and band hinges are those chiefly employed, andof them it is only necessary to say that the hinge should be always double-tailed. The fastenings of gates are stiil more various, and many of them so simple and effi cient that it were difficult to point out which is the superior.- J. S.] (1984.) While treating of fences andiron gates, I may mentiona simple plan by which grass .

use lawns,or the small plats usually formed in front of farm -houses, may be kept short withoutthe hurdles of the of scythes, or incurring much trouble and expense . Let a bught be made of wire

form ofthe gate fig. 357; and, that it may be movable, let the hurdles be fixed together. If the plat is very small,one inclosure composed of 4 hurdles, forming a square of 9 feet, will suffice ; if it is larger, any number of such bughts may be be employed . The use of these inclosures is to fence 1 or 2 sheep within each, so that when they have eaten downthe inclosed grass, thebughts may be moved forward, or backward, or sideways to a fresh division of grass, until the whole grass-plat is eaten bare. The sheep may then be removed for a time till the grassgrows,andagain brought back. Or, since such bughts would be rather ornamental as otherwise, only as many sheep maybe inclosed within them as will just suffice tokeep the grass in good order,and where they may constantly grace the lawn. A few Leicester tups or tup-lambs may thus be kept separate ail the summer from the rest of the flock, and be pretty objectson the lawn,while, at the same time, they may be doing good in keeping the grass in order, and top -dressing it

23. THE WEANING OF CALVES, OF BULLS, AND THE GRAZING OF CATTLE TILL WINTER . “ Dissolved in pleasure, crowned with buds of May,

They, for a time, in their fat pastures play.” FLAVEL.

(1985.) The cattle which were accommodated in their respective places in the steading at the beginning of winter, continue to be treated through the spring months in the same manner as is pointed out in the 32d section, In fact, their treatment is throughout the same until turned outto grass ,which is usually some time in May ; unless varie

p. 495 of the first volume.

ty of food may be regarded as difference of treatment.

It is found that

cattle in a state of confinement in a steading, thrive better on a variety than on the same food ; and yet when on grass they require no variety of food, and thrive the better the longer they are kept upon it, except that a

change of pasture is desirable when it becomesbare. Grass is thus evi dently the natural food of the ox, and his anatomical structure is peculiarly suited for it. Whatever kind of food he is supplied with in winter partakes of an artificial character, and that being only a succedaneum for grass when

it cannot be obtained, the food he receives should be made as palatable to him as circumstances will allow , whether by variety or in in superior quality.

(1986.) The grass should be ready to afford a bite for cattle whenever the turnips are all exhausted ; at which time the cattle will be found to be in this state : The 2 -year-olds, now 3 -year-olds, will be full fat, and ready to be disposed of to the butcher or dealer. The 1 -year-olds and

calves will have grown much to hone , and their condition will have im proved in proportion to the quantity of nourishing food they have received during the feeding season. The cows will all have calved, or should all have calved, for a May calf is too late to bring up and form a part of the herd ; they will be in milk, and in fresh condition to put to grass. The

early calves will have just been weaned, and in excellent order to put on grass; and the remainder will be in rapid progress toward weaning. These cattle, in their respective states, are treated in summer in a different man

ner from each other, and different from the way they were treated in win ter, and they are treated thus. (508)

GRAZING CATTLE TILL WINTER.

267

(1987.) Thefat cattle are seldom put on grass, being disposed of to the butcher or dealer, either at home or in markets held for the purpose.

Breeders of their own stock seldom dispose of their fat cattle until the tur nips are nearly consumed, being anxious to keep them as long as possible for the sake of the excellent manure which the turnips afford. Those who purchase oxen to fattén usually buy a larger lot than can be maintained on full turnips till the grass is ready, in order to dispose of them before the season arrives when fat oxen are usually sold. Such fatteners of cat

tle dispose of their lots in whole, or in part, from the end of the year to April, whenever the market offers them the most profit. As you are sup

posed to breed and feed your own stock, you are supposedto retain your fat oxen to the end of May, when Swedish turnips are still fresh, sweet

and nutritious, though perhaps a little shriveled and even sprouted. There are then plenty of opportunities to dispose of them , such as the weekly markets of large towns, fairs for fat stock, butchers from the neighboring towns, dealers from a distance, and shipment by sea to London, under con signment to a respectable salesman. Before disposing of your oxen , how ever, you should be acquainted with their weight; otherwise you will not

know what to ask for them at the current market prices. Experience will teach you'to estimate the weight of an ox by the eye, not the actual live weight of beef it will yield after deducting weight of the animal, but the the weight of what is called the offal, that is, the weight of every part but the beef and bones, such as the skin, head, entrails, and loose tallow .

It

is understood that the farmer is entitled to the value of the entire weight of the beef at the current prices, and these are always understood to re late to the prices of the meat alone ; and that the profit of the purchaser consists of the value of the offal, subject to the deduction of incidental ex penses before the animals are slaughtered. The available parts of the of fals are supposed to be equal to the value of } of that of the animal, so

thatan ox of £20 value should leave the purchaser £4 profit, subject to incidental expenses. But if the buyer is a good judge of cattle , and knows their exact available weight of beef, which he will know to within a very small fraction, he may make such a bargain with the farmer as will not only cover his expenses, but leave a profit on the carcass over and above the value of the offals ; and as dealers are constantly in practice, they gen

erally contrive to make pretty good bargains for themselves, in as far as their judgment is concerned , at the time the bargain is made, but their

purchases are subject to fluctuation of price, which may fall without an adequate cause, and occasion them serious loss ; or they may rise and leave them a handsomer profit than was anticipated, so that the profession

of dealers resolves itself into a speculation , which, if prolonged in its issue, is involved in uncertainty. Dealers formerly made large fortunes when breeders and feeders of stock could estimate the value of even

their own stock but indifferently ; but nowadays I believe few dealers make fortunes, owing partly to competition, and partly to greater skill on the part ofthe farmer, and partly to the great expense incurred on driving their purchases to suitable markets, and in leading a roving sort of life. ( 1988.) But assistance may be afforded you in ascertaining the weight of your cattle untilyou are better taught byexperience, and this consists in measuring their bulk, or in weighing their live-weight. The live-weight of cattle is easily ascertained by placing the animals upon a steel-yard,of which convenient forms have been recommended for the specialpurpose ; but I am not aware that any of those which have been specially recom

mended are as accurate or convenient as might be. The rule to determine the quantity of beef by the live -weight is to multiply the gross weight by (507)

268

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

•605 of a decimal, if the ox is ripe fat, but if not so, by : 5 of a decimal ;

that is to say, that the offals of an ox in ordinary condition weighsabont as much as its beef and bones. An ox should not be weighed immediately after it has fed, as it will weigh too heavy, but after it has chewed the cud,

and is ready again to feed. Ascertaining the weight by measurement is a more convenient method than by weighing ; and when the measurement

is properly taken, and the ox of an ordinary size, it is about as accurate, though every person cannot measure an ox, that process requiring judg

ment to do it properly and accurately. Suppose fig. 358 to represent an ox whose weight, sinking offals, is de

Fig. 358.

sired to be ascertained by measurement.

The mode is, measure with a tape-line from the top of the shoulder a to the

tail-head c, and mark this forthe length,

then measure round the body at f, im mediately behind the shoulder, and mark

this for the girth, and on consulting the tables calculated for the purpose of af fording the results, the weight of beef

will be found . Upon what principle this rule for measureinent is founded I can

HOW TO MEASURE A FAT OX IN ORDER TO

ASCERTAIN HIS WEIGHT , SINKING THE

not say, and suspect that it is entirely

OFFALS .

empirical. The rules by which the tables are calculated seem to be these two, namely : multiply the square of the girth in inches by the length in inches, and divide the product by 7344, and the quotient is the weight in

imperial stones. Or, square the girth in feetand multiply it by the length in feet, and multiply again by the decimal .238, and the sum is the weight in imperial stones . For example : Suppose the girth is 7 feet, or 84 in ches, and the length 5 feet, or 60 inches, the weight of beef in imperial stones , according to Strachan's Tables , which are the most recent, is 57 sts. 10 lbs. by the former rule, and by the latter it is 56 sts. 4 lbs. These results show that there is no fixed principle upon which either rule is founded . ( 1989.) This seems a very simple process, and so it would always be, were the form of the ox alwaysperfect, which is very seldom the case, the fore and hind-quarters, instead of being equal, being more frequently otherwise ; and were the condition always the same. Therefore, the judg ment is called into exercise to make allowance for those differences. When the fore - quarter seems heavier of the two, the line should be stretched

nearer the head than a, the exact top of the shoulder; and so in like man ner, when the hind -quarter seems heavier than the fore, the line should be stretched beyond c. In regard to the girth, it is no uncommon fault in an ox to have the carcass gripped small behind the shoulder, so that the ex act girth of such a shoulder would be below the truth. It is very rare to find the girth too much filled out. You thussee that judgment is required

to apply the tape-line to an ox ; and as an illustration of the practical ef fects ofmisapplying the tape-line, I may state that 1 inch only added to the girth and length given in the above example, makes a difference in the above weight of upward of 2 sts. The addition of 1 inch in the length is a mistake which may easily be made by the ox merely standing with his head down and back up ; and a similar position may may as easily cause an error

in the girth. Experience alone can makeyou proficient in measuring .. I knew a steward in Berwickshire who hadso much practice in measuring and so frequent opportunities of verifying his measurements, that he meas

ured any ordinary sized ox, whether fat or halflean, from 1 st. to į st. of its true weight. ( 508 )

GRAZING CATTLE TILL WINTER.

269

( 1990.) To an ox from 40 to 70 stones the rule ofmeasurement applies pretty near, if it is applied with judgment, and it is but fair to the princi ple that it should be so applied; but in weights both below and above these figures the rule is usually at fault. I have no instances of error in very small weights to adduce, but many of large ones, and shall adduce only two. A Short-Horn white ox belonging to Mr. Boswell of Kingcausie was exhibited at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at Aber deen in October, 1834. Its measurement was 9 feet 3 inches in girth, and

6 feet 2 inches in length. According to Renton's Tables, the farmer of Dykegatehead , in Berwickshire, the weight should be 126 stş. 9 lbs.; Strachan's Tables, 124 sts. 2 lbs.; Ainslie's Tables, 122 sts.; and Stewart's The actual weight of beef yielded by it was 136 sts. 10

Tables, 117 sts.

lbs., after being slaughtered by Deacon Sparks of Aberdeen, being 10 sts. 1 lb. more than the heaviest weight indicated by all these tables. This difference of weight, at 6s. per stone, would make a loss to the feeder of

£ 3 upon a single animal! A 2 -year -old light-red ox, also belonging to Mr. Boswell, and exhibited at the same time,measured 7 feet 10 inches in girth , and 5 feet in length. Stewart's Tables give a weight of 80 sts. 3 Ibs.; Renton's, 73 sts. 8 lbs.; Ainslie's, 73 sts.; and Strachan's, 72 sts. The actual weight obtained by Deacon Sparks was 89 sts. 10 lbs., showing

the enormous difference of 17 sts. 10 lbs. between the real weight obtain ed and the lowest weight indicated by Strachan’s Tables, and which, esti mated at 6s. per stone, would cause a loss to the feeder of £5 6s. 3d. The rule derived from live weight is also liable to err, or when applied to oxen

ofinordinate weights. Thus, Lord Kintore’s black ox, 7 years off, exhibited on the above occasion at Aberdeen, weighed 28 cwt., or 224 stones. By the rule of multiplying the live weight by the decimal -605, the dead weight should have been 135 sts. 7 lbs.; but when the ox was slaughtered by Mr.

Roger, Crown Street, Aberdeen, his 4 quarters weighed 173 sts. 4 lbs., or 37 sts. 11 lbs. more thananticipated, which, at 6s. per stone, made him worth more by £11 6s. 8d. !

On the other hand, a small spayed heifer,

belonging to Mr. Boswell, weighed 88 sts. live weight, and should have yielded 53 sts. 3 lbs., but her 4 quarters only weighed 49 stones.* In con sequence of such discrepancies, it would certainly be desirable were means used to render the rules of measurement, as well as of weight, more

correct than they are ; and I see no way of effecting this desirable end

except by collecting data, by instituting a set of experiments in different parts of the country, to measure and weigh every animal before slaughter ing, be it ox, sheep, or pig, be it large orsmall, for a given period, say 12 months, and see how far the results coincide or differ from the actual

weight of meat afforded by the 4 quarters. ( 1991.) The fat cattle being disposed of, the pasture should be judi

ciously distributed among the remaining stock ; and first, as to the cows, they should be supplied with the best pasture, the object of keeping them being tobreed calves and to afford plenty of milk to bring them up ; the more milk they yield the better will the calves prove, and the more prof itable they will themselves prove after the calves are weaned. Cows in

summer are treated in a different manner bydifferent people, some taking them into the byre at night, and even at all times of milking, whereas others allow them to lie out all night, and milk them in the field. Which

soever mode is adopted, it should be kept in mind that cows are peculiarly susceptible of sudden changes of temperature, especially from heat to colă and from drouth to rain, so that whenever cold or rain, or both together, which is the most common circumstance, occur, they should be brought * Seepaper by me on this subject in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. v . (509 ) ,

!

270

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER .

into the byre. For some time after they are put out tograss they should be brought into the byre at night, where they are milked , and again in the morning before they are let out to the field , and milked in the field at mid-day. After the nights become warm I have found it conducive to health, and it is both a rational and a natural plan to allow them to lie out in the field all night, and to milk them there at stated hours, three times every day, the shepherd or cattle-man taking it as a part of his duty to

bring them to a certain spot of the field to be milked, and which is usually named the milking loan. This mode of allowing them to lie out always in a sheltered field, no doubt imposes a good deal of labor on the dairy maid and her assistant in carrying the milk to the dairy after the calves

have been weaned ; but I am persuaded it is anexcellent system for the health cows. of the

Under it cows rise from their lair at daybreak and

feed while the dew is still on the grass, and by the time of milking ar

rives, say 6 o'clock, they are already partially filled with food, and stand contented, chewing the cud, while themilking proceeds. They then roam and fill themselves, and by 9 o'clock lie down in a shady part of the field

and chew their cud until milking time arrives at mid -day, when they are again brought to the loan and milked. Again they roam for food, and , when the afternoon is hot,will stand in the coolest part of the field whisk

ing away the flies with their tail and ears. The evening milking takes place about 7, after which they feed industriously, and take up their lair about sunset, and from which they rouse themselves in the morning before being milked. Some people are apprehensive that cows must injure themselves by eating grass which is wet with dew in the morning ; but it is a fact, which I believe is not so sufficiently known as it should be, that

bedewed grass before sunrise , and grass after it is dried by the sun, are alike uninjurious to animals, and it is only when the dew is in the act of be

ing evaporated, immediately after sunrise, that grass proves injurious to do not pre

animals. Why it should be injurious at that particular state cisely know, but imagine it to be so, because the grass then becomes sud. denly cold by evaporation of the dew. When cows lie out, they have

nearly filled themselves by the time the dew is evaporated, and therefore feel less impelled to eat much of the grass in the dangerous state ; where as, cows that are housed in the byre all night are usually milked about sun

rise , and put out to grass just at the very time the dew on it is being evaporated, and is, of course, in the most dangerous state ; and it is, more over, just then that cows feel the greatest hunger, and eat most grass. The effect of this state of grass is to produce hoven ( 1294 ), and especially on aftermath in autumn. Be the cause of injury what it may, it is certain that cows let out to grass from the byre are far more liable to be affected

with hoven on wet grass than those which lie out all night,and especially on new grass. supper for the

The lying out at night, too, saves the trouble of providing cows, which they must have when housed in the byre. But whenever the weather becomescold and wet, cows should be brought into the byre at night, and supplied with supper, such as cut aftermath or tares .

( 1992.) The weaning of calves should not exceed one month after the

cows have been on grass, that is, by the end of June,for a calf later weaned than that period has been too late brought into the world to be worthy of belonging to the standing stock of a farm . As cows increase in gift of milk after the grass has fairly passed through them, the late calves

should have as large an allowance of new milk,three times a day, as the quantity obtained will allow, reserving a little for the use of the house, The elder calves are off sweet milk by the time the cows go to grass, and (510)

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have received lythax ( 1685 ) with a little skimmed milk among it, cut Swedish turnips and hay, until the grass is ready. These calves having been in the court k, fig. 3 , Plate III.of the steading, for some time, may be put on grass when the cows are let out.

The most convenient first

grass field for calves is a contiguous paddock, from which they should be brought into the court for a few nights and receive turnips and hay, until

the grass has safely passed through them , and the weather prove mild and dry for them to lie out all night in the paddock. The youngest calves should now leave their cribs R, and pass a few days in the court k until they become accustomed to the air and sun , when they also may be put into the paddock during the day, and there supplied with their diets of milk, and brought into the same court at night until they are able to lie

out all night. În weaning the youngest calves, the milk should be gradu

ally taken from them until they take with the grass, upon which they must then entirely depend. A little after all thishas happened, say by the middle of July, the pasture in the paddock will become rather bare, and the whole lot of calves should then be taken to good pasture, where they will have a full bite, for nothing can be more injurious for calves than

to place them on bare pasture to fallaway in condition immediately after weaning, and which they will assuredly rapidly do, and from which it will be very difficult to recover them all summer. Calves may be grazed

among cows, or in a field by themselves . In their peregrinations through the field, it will be found that those which have been brought up and weaned together will keep together for the greater part of the season. The older calves may be 4 months old before they are weaned ; but as the season of grass approaches, the younger ones may be weaned at an ear lier age, being seldom indulged with milk for more than 13 weeks , but it should never be forgotten that the first month's nourishment to a calf is of

much greater importance to its future growth and health, than any pe riod beyond 13 weeks, supported on a stinted allowance of inferior milk . There are parts of Ireland where calves are brought up on buttermilk and gruel, after the first 8 days they have received sweet milk, and it is boast ed that they thrive well on that beverage. This is possible , but they will thrive far better on sweet milk.

( 1993.) Bull-calves should have good milk every day until the grass is

able to support them , in order to strengthen their bone, and maintain their condition. When a number are brought up together, they should

be grazed by themselves on the best grass the farm affords, or they may go along with the cows, or they may go along with the ox -calves while

the quey-calves are with the cows. Under any arrangement, they should not be allowed to accompany the quey -calves. I knew an instance of a quey -calf being stinted at so early an age as to bear a calf at 15 months

old ; and I knew another quey -calf, one of my own, that was so injured by a young bull-calf, that she was thereafterrendered incapable of im pregnation, though her season recurred periodically. To avoid every such vexatious casualty, it is far better to keep apart young animals of different sexes that are capable of breeding. When there is only a single bull-calt he may go with the cows, or with the young oxen .

( 1994.) The young 1 -year-old bulls should now be furnished with a

ring in their nose.* This instrument is useful not only in leading the animal, but being constantly in use, in keeping his temper in subjection.

I haveno doubt whatever that such a ring affords the most complete com mand over the most furious bull. In case of a bull becoming more irri tative and troublesome as he advances in years, which many bulls are The form of this ring will hereafter be given by an engraving. (511)

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inclined be, the ring furnishes theget means him It at affords once, when also it would tootherwise be impossibleto holdofofcurbing his nose. an easy means of suspending a light chain from the nose to the ground, upon which the fore-feet arereadyto catch the chain in walking, when the nose receives so sudden a check that whenever the bull attempts to run at any one in the field he pains himself. Even a youngbull in a field may follow you at first in sport, and run at you afterward in earnest. The ring is put into a bull's nose in this way: Let a ring of iron be provided of perhaps 24 inches in diameter over all, and 1 inch diameter in the rod, when finished . It should have a joint in it, to let the ring open wide

enough to pass one end through the nose, and the two sides ofthe ring, on being closed again after theoperation, are kept together with two coun An iron rod taperingto the point,and stouter than the rod of the ring, should be provided. Let a cart-rope have a noose cast firm at its middle, and put the noose over the bull's head, and slip it down

tersunk screws.

his neck , with the knot undermost, till it rests upon the breast. Any mor tared wall sufficiently low to allow the bull's head to reach over it will

answer to put him against; or what is safer for hisknees, any gateway with a stout bar of wood placed across it as high as his breast.

Place the

bull's breast against the wall or bar, and pass therope from the lowest

part of the neck along each side roundthe buttock like a breeching, and bring one end of the rope over the wall or bar on each side of the bull's

head, where a stout man holds on at each end, and it is the duty of both these men to prevent the bull from retreating backward from the wall or bar. A man also stands on each side of the bull's buttock to prevent him shifting his position. The operator having the iron rod givenhim heated

in the fire, just red enough to see the heated part in daylight, he takes the bull by the nose with his left hand and feeling inward with his fingers, past all the soft part of the nostrils, until he reaches the cartilage or sep.

tum of the nose, he keeps open the nostrils, so as on passing the hot iron skin of the nostrils, taking care to pass the iron parallel to the front skin of the nose, otherwise the hole will be oblique . Immediately after the

through the septum it may pass clear through without touching the outer

rod has been passed so far as to make the hole sufficiently large, and the

wound has been sufficiently seared, the operator takes the ring, opened, and still keeping hold of the bull's nose with the left hand, passes it through the hole, and on bringing the two ends together, puts in the screws , and secures

them firmly with a screw -driver. On being satisfied

that the ring turns easily round in the hole, and hangs or projects evenly, the bull is then released. The ring, asit should appear in the nose, is. represented inthe portrait of the Short-Horn bull. Itcannot betoo highly finished or polished, and its cost in this state may be 28. The ring should

not be used until the wound of the nose is completely healed, though it is not uncommon to see the poor animal tormented, in theattempt of being led about by the ring immediately after the operation, when every part of the nose is still tender and sensitive.

So alarmed do some bulls become

from the operation, that they hang back from the leading rope of the ring with such force as topull the ring through the nose ; but such a use is an abuse of the rope, and rather than such a result shall occur the rope should

be slackened , and the animal relieved from pain as often and until he learns to yield to the rope. The readiest and neatest way to attach a rope to a bull's ring is witha swiveled hook, retained in its place by a spring, and a rope should be kept for the purpose. On first trying to lead a bull by the ring, the drover should not endeavor topull the animal along after himself, but allow him to step on while he walks by his side, or even (512)

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behind him , with the rope in his hand. While so following, to relieve the

animal as much as practicable of theweight of the rope upon

the nose ,

the drover should throw the middle of the rope upon the bull's back, and

retain a hold of its end . Should he offer to step backward, a tap on the shank with a stick will prevent him ; and should he attempt to run for ward, a momentary check of the rope will slacken his pace. On no account should the drover attempt to struggle with the bull on the first occasion ;

on the contrary, he should soothe and pacify him, and endeavor to inspire him with confidence in himself and the rope, and to show him that he will receive no hurt if he will but walk quietlyalong. The animal ,in the cir

cumstances, will soon learn the nature of the tuition he is undergoing if he is properly dealt with, but if tormented merely that the drover may show hispower over a powerful animal, it may be a long time, if ever, be fore he will learn to behave quietly when led. A useful instrument for

leading a bull by occasionally,when he has not been ringed, or for leading

a cowto the bull at some distance, or for taking away any single beast, and at the same time retaining a power over it, is what is named the bullock -holder. It consists of iron in two parts jointed, which are brought

together or separated by a thumb-screw passing through them . The ends farthest from the joint terminate in a ring havingan opening at its ex treme side, each end of which opening is protected by a small ball. The arms of this ring embrace the septum of the nose gently between them ; and the shank of the instrument being screwed close together, the balls

approach no closer than just to embrace the septum, and the nose of the animal prevents them slipping out. The leading rope is attached to the jointed end of the instrument,which is formed for thepurpose into a small ring.

( 1995.) A bullthat is serving cows is never in a better position than when attending them in the field. He knows much better than either the shepherd or the cattle-man when a cow is coming into heat, and he will attend her faithfully until the proper time of service ; and I believe it is

a fact, thata bull which is constantly among cows in a field never teases or abuses them so much as one that is taken to them for the occasion out

of his own house . At any rate, I have seen very striking instances of what have now stated. But a bull can only be left in the field where he is in tended to serve all the cows. It may be necessary, however, in the course

adopted by you for the improvement of your stock, that different bulls shall serve the cows, in which case no single bull can have access to all of them alike , and therefore cannot be grazed in the same field with them. When

a bull goes among cows heis usually quite safe to approach, and is quiet withinthe fence; but a bull is alwaystroublesome by himself in a paddock or field , or even among oxen. He is restless, often bellows, and few fences will retain him when he is resolved on breaking through, especially where he can snuff the cows at a distance. In such circumstances, it is much bet

ter to confine him in his hammel or byre, and support him on cut forage of some kind, such as clover, lucerne, tares, and the like. When so con

fined, bulls, like watch -dogs always kept on the chain, dislike the approach of any one but their keeper, and even a keeper has been known to fall a victim to resentment. Some bulls become so prone to mischief when con

stantly confined, that they will attempt to run on any one, when brought out of the house to serve acow, the presence or smell of the cow in heat having so maddening an effect upon them as to render them reckless. The

air and daylight together have an intoxicating effect upon them . Besides or chain in the ring, a safe precaution for the keeper, in such a

the rope

case, is to to have a stout stick about6 feet long, with a swiveled hook (513) ...... 18

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on its end to fasten into the ring, and with this he will not only have a

better command over the ring than by the rope, but it will enable him to keep the bull off to a certaindistance, the animal not being able to run at him without first giving a warning of his intention by pushing thestick. Bulls display a natural fondness for calves. Bulls that have served cows should never be allowed to herd together, as they will inevitably fight, and a serious bull-fight is a terrific thing, seldom terminating before the infliction of serious injury to both parties. (1996.) The young cattle — the 1-year-old and 2 -years -old - may be put on the inferior pasture, that is, on the second and third year's grass ; in ferior, not because it is insufficient to maintain the stock in full condition,

but because new grass is usually considered the most nourishing on a farm for the youngest stock, and most profitable for cows when bringing up calves .

Certainly it is the most succulent grass, and stockare fondest of

it, and it springs the earliest of any on a farm ; but then all the stock can not have new grass at the same time, and that part of the stock which are

not employed in reproduction, should receive the least valuable grazing in summer, though the entire pasture may be very good. ( 1997.) Grass land requires peculiar management to render it the most available as pasture in every variety of season. The circumstances which most injure grass are overstocking and continual stocking. The most ob vious plan, of course, of avoiding overstocking is to have no more stock upon the farm than its grass will in summer maintain in good condition, and to avoid continual stocking, the stock should not be allowed to remain

too long on the same field . I believe the safest principle upon which each grazing field can be treated, is to stock it at once as fully as that it shall be eaten bare enough in a short time, say in a few weeks, and then it

should be left unstocked altogether, hained, as it is technically called, for perhaps a fortnight, in order to allow the grass to grow sufficiently to af for cattle. One obvious advantage of this plan is, that

ford å bite

the stock at periodic times during the grazing season will enjoy fresh grown grass; and another is, that the same growth of grass will not be so

long depastured as either to cloy the appetite of the animals, or become foul by being constantly trodden upon. That this is a rational and natural mode of managing grass land is evinced by the fact that all stock delight in consuming fresh grown grass, and all loathe grass which has been long trampled and dunged upon, andthe breath passed over ittimes out of num ber. There is another important consideration to be borne in mind in conducting the grazing of grass land, which is, the modes in which differ ent kinds of stock crop the grass, one kind biting it close to the ground,

while another bites it high. The ox gathers each mouthfull of grass with his tongue before he cuts it with his teeth, and therefore requires the grass

to be some inches in length before he can obtain a full bite. Grass which is not sufficiently long for this purpose, either before it is grown,or after it has been eaten down, is in an unfit state for cattle ; they may live, but cannot gain condition upon it, and as long as they are confined upon it will lose so much time. Horses and sheep, on the other hand, crop grass in

quite a different way ; their lips being very mobile and muscular, seize the grass

firmly, while the teeth cut it over, and in doing this they bite

very near the ground. This is a remarkable peculiarity in regard to the sheep, inasmuch as the arrangement of their teeth being the same as that of the ox, but wanting them in the upper jaw, one would have expected them to employ a similar mode of cropping ; but the difference in the form of their lips explains the peculiarity, those of sheep being decidedly pre hensile, like those of the horse, while those of the ox are thick and inac (514)

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tive, but the ox's tongue is prehensile, and thus we see that it is the pro are the active agents in the collection of food . And

hensile organs which

this is a wise distinction in the formation of these two classes of ruminants,

in as far as it is suited to their respective natures - sheep being suited to

mountainous regions, where pasture is always short, and where they are able to crop it with the assistance of their prehensile lips, notwithstanding the want of teeth in the upper jaw ; whereas the ox is better suited to the plains and valleys, where grass grows long, and is therefore better suited

to be cropped by the scythe-like operation of the ox's tongue and teeth. Thepractical conclusion to be drawn from these different distinctions in the formation of these animals is, that the horse or sheep should follow the

ox in grazing, or graze in company with him, but not precede him . When they follow , the pasture will be eaten barer by the horse or sheep than when the ox left it ; and, when in company, it will be eaten barer by the

horse or sheep where the ox has eaten before, and it may first betopped by them before the ox has touchedit. Of the two modes of treating the horse or sheep, the latter is the preferable, because choice is offered them to take the long grass as well as the short. The same reason, however, that should graze the ox with the horse or sheep should cause the separa

tion of the horse from the sheep, and especially in the latter part of the bare for the maintenance of both. Horses too, work-horses especially, seem

pasture season ; both kinds of animals biting close, will render thegrass too to have a greater dislike to sheep than to cattle.

(1998.) There is a difficulty attending the grazing of all kinds of stock on a farm of mixed husbandry which I must mention, that as there is every summer the same number of stock, there may not be the same quantity of grass to support them ; for the same number of acres of grass, secured by

following a regular rotation of crops, may produce different quantitiesin differentseasons— one year being scanty, another superabundant. The number of stock, therefore, should correspond with the produce of an average year. In such a case, a bad year very much stintsthe condition, while a good year supplies perhaps even more than the same stock can consume . The stinted condition cannot be alleviated by the sale of any of the stock, as it is impolitic to disturb the equilibrium of the stock of sev

eral years ' produce which exist on the farm at the same time ; and if the

stock suffer hunger, as it did in the severe drouth of the summer of 1826, there is no alternative but to make up the deficiency by hay, even though it should be purchased for the occasion. On the other hand, superabundance of pasture does no harm, for, independent of its maintaining the entire stock in high condition, the rough aftermath will be of essential use to

sheep in winter. Of farms whose stock are purchasedofevery year, the num crop grass, but even in this case the season may turn out worse than was expected. Seeing, there ber can be regulated by the likelihood of the

fore, that no one can foretell the future state of any crop, the prudent plan is, in every case, to keep the number of stock under the mark which a farm can support.

( 1999.) One essential requisite in all pasture-fields is an abundant sup ply of water for stock to drink. Both cattle and horses drink largely, and sheep, grazing early on the dewy grass, do not require so much water to keep them in a healthy condition; still, when there is no dew, they do drink water. The proper construction of a watering -pool is sadly misunderstood

in this country. The entrance to it generally consists of poached mud of at least half afoot in depth , and to avoid this, the animals go into the wa ter before they drink, when, of course, it is at once rendered muddy. Not

unfrequently there is scarcity of water, and if there is just sufficient sup (515)

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ply to prevent the pool being evaporated to dryness, the water is rendered almost stagnant. So obvious are the objections to this mode of adminis

tering so necessary and wholesome a beverage to the brute creation as water, that all that seems necessary to an amendment of the system is to point out its inconveniences. True, in some cases, tanks of wood or stone are provided in fields, which are supplied from some adjoining spring, or even pump-well, and, as far as the quality of the water is concerned ,this is a much better mode of supplying it than in pools ; but this mode, good

as it is as far as it goes, does not provide all the requisites of a good wa tering-pool. In hot days, a walk though a pool is very wholesome to the feet of cattle, and in dry weather, a stand for some time among water is an

excellent preventive ofthat troublesome complaint, the foot-sore. The ex ternal application of water in this manner allays inflammation, and pre vents irritation , and permits animals to take their food in peace even in

scorching drouth . Besides the tank of a pump-well is not unfrequently neglected to be filled — because in cold and rainy weather it is scarcely visited by the cattle, in hot weather it is supposed to be viewed with the same indifference ; and, even where tanks are duly attended to for cattle, there are none set down at a lower level for sheep. A watering -pool should be securely fenced, as cattle arevery apt to push one anotherabout while in it, and for that reason it should also be roomy.

It should be of

considerable length and narrow , to allow access to a number of animals at the same time, if they choose to avail themselves of it ; and I have often

observed cattle delight to go to the water in company. Pools are usually made too small and too confined .

The access to them should be made

firm with broken stones in lieu of earth, and gravel placed on its bottom keeps the water clean and sweet, while the water should flow gently through the pool.

(2000.) The want of shade in pasture-fields is also a sad reflection on our farmers. Observe, in summer, where the shade of a tree cast itself

over the grass, how gratefully cattle resort to it, and where a spreading The stirring breeze under such a tree is highly grateful to these creatures ;

tree grows in a pasture -field, its stem is sure to be surrounded by cattle.

and such a place affords them an excellent refugefrom the attacks of flies. In cold weather, also, observe how much shelter is afforded to cattle by a

single tree , and how they will crowd to the most wooded corner of a field teach us to afford them the treatment most congenial to their feelings ? |

in a rainy day, even in summer. Ought not such indications of animals

am no advocate for hedge-row trees,even though they should cast a grate

ful shade into a pasture-field, and still less do I admire an umbrageous plane in the middle of a field that is occupied in course with a crop of grain or tur nips ; but similar effects as good as theirs may be obtained from different agencies. A shed erected at a suitable part in the line of the fence of a field, would not only affordshade in the brightest day in summer, but com Such an fortable shelter in a rainy day, or in a cold night in autumn. erection would cost little where stone and wood are plenty on an estate, and they could beerected in places to answer the purpose of a field on

either side of the fence when it was in grass. But no matter what it may may cost, when the health and comfort of stock are to be maintained un impaired by its means. The cost of a shed may, perhaps, in this way be

repaid in the first year of its existence, and it would stand, with slight oc casional repairs, during the currency of a long lease. When such an erec

how many years it will tion is properly constructed at first,it is surprising Let it beroomy, and its structure may be roofed at a moderate cost with zinc, or composition of light,( asit 516 ) continue to be useful with a little care .

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some sort, or tiles, when they are manufactured in the neighborhood. It

may be troublesome to carry straw for litterfrom the steading to a shed situate at a distance, but there is no occasion for straw for litter in summer ;

the rough grass from an adjoining plantation or ditch will supply litter, and the dung at any rate should be shoveled up and carried away before it becomes uncomfortable to the animals .

I should like to see a farm with

such a shed erected in it for every two fields. (2002.) The teats and udder of cows are at times subject to certain complaints in summer ; and these are chapped teats, sore teats, warty teats, and cow -pox. Chapped teats consist ofcracks occur.

ring across the teats, which when drawn downward, the cracks are forcibly opened, and, of course, inflict pain on the animal ; and the cows then become troublesome to milk. The easiest mode of milking them while under this complaint, is that described by nievling in ( 1667), while stripping

aggravates the complaint. I do not know the certain cause of this complaint, but suppose it to ground may have the same effect. Sore teats are, whenblotches of skin come off the teats, and

arise from leaving the teats in a wet state after milking ; and perhaps cows lying upon wet

their fleshy substance becomes sores by exposure to the air. This complaint may arise from the milker who strips seizing a particular part of the teat too hard , where an inflammation being set up , terminates in the sloughing of the skin , and consequent exposure of the fleshy substance to the air. Warty teats, I conceive, may originate in the skin of the teats being ruffled by too much force in stripping, or by too long a nail upon the thumbs ; and the warts produced in consequence

be exuberances of the skin in covering the injured parts. I am not sure that these conjec. tures, for they are nothing more , will explain the causes of these complaints, but I believe when care is used not to abrade the skin or pinch the substance of the teat, but to keep it clean and dry, may

these complaints seldom or never occur. As to the cow-pox, it is a constitutional disease, and can not be either induced or retarded . The pock makes its appearance both on the udder and the teats of the cow ; and as milking must be performed frequently by all the teats, the operation

feels very painful to the cowand sheof course,becomes very troublesome to milk. Verysoon the pustules are rubbed off by the operation, and their sites become skinless sores. Nothing but

the utmost gentleness will prevent the cow becoming distracted under the torture. After having run its course, the disease declines, the sores become less acute, and heal up by degrees. The disease fortunately is not of frequent occurrence ; I have only seen it once in the course of a fifteen years' experience, and it affected all the cows I had at one time - 9 in number. I acquaint ed several of my medical friends of the existence of a disease, imagining that they would have

been glad of so favorable an opportunity ofobtaining fresh vaccinating matter, but they treated the offer with indifference. There was an ointment I found very efficacious in affording relief to the cows when afflicted with the cow.pox, sore teats, or hacked teats. It consisted of fresh butter melted and burnt in a frying - pan, and mixed with half its quantity of tar. While hot it

was poured into a gallipot. and applied cold to the affected parts. The tar had the effect of keep ing off the flies, while the burnt butter never became dry. The ointment was washed off with warm water before milking commenced, and the udder and teats dried with a soft linen cloth ; they

were again bathed with warm water after milking, again dried with the soft linen cloth, and the ointment again applied . Calves, afterbeing weaned, are subject toward the end of summer, to

a disease commonly called the joint-fellon, which, when oxen take it upon the loins, is named the chine-fellon. It is nothing else than acute rheumatism , ending in a resolution to low fever, and so severe is it at times upon calves, that they cannot bear to be moved when lying stretched

out all their length upon the ground. Had cattle sheds to retire to whenever a cold dash of rain came in the evening of a cold day, even in summer, this disease would perhaps never occur. Its treatment is removal to the courts and sheds of the steading among straw , bleeding, moderate

parging , with fomentation , and embrocations of liquid blister, forcibly and long rubbed in, of the swelled joints. Another effect of the same frebile affection on calves in autumn is the quarter ill or evil. “ Itscharacteristic symptoms are general disturbance of the circulation, and feeble, rapid pulse, weakness, prostration of strength, determination of blood to particular, but in different in. stances and epidemics, very different parts, producing pain, and manifesting a tendency to in . Aammation , but of a degenerate kind, so that thevery texture of the tissue becomes disorganized .

The progress of the disease is often rapid, and the result very fatal. In some cases the lungs or heart are attacked. and in others the liver. bowels, or even some external part of the body." Its immediate cause is plethora , or fullness of blood in the system , which shows its effects in this man. ner :

“ When the supply of food is greater than the exigencies of the system requires ," as Pro fessor Dick observes, “ an animal usually becomes fat, but still may be tolerably healthy. When, however, a sudden change is made from poor to rich feeding, not fatness butplethora may be the consequence ; more blood is formed than the system can easily dispose of,and it becomes oppress ed. The effect is often witnessed in cattle and sheep, which, after indulging for a time inluxa. riant pasture, take what is called a shot of blood. All at once they become very ill ; some part of the body swells, becomes puffy, as if containing air, and in two or three hoursthe animal is dead, from the quarter evil already described . Upon dissection a large quantity of black and decom.

posed blood is found in the cellular membrane, which during life was distended." *

This disease

is of frequent occurrence on farms where fine stock are bred, and from the above description of its nature, there is no wonder that the best calves first fall victims to it. As its name implies, the disease attacks the hind quarter, and its effects are as sudden as described. Since its cause is known, calves should not be put at once on strong foggage from a comparatively bare pasture ,

nor, for the same reason, should calves in low condition be put on rank foggage ; the transition, both as regards the pasture and the state of the calves, should be gradual. As a preventive, some * Dick's Manual of Veterinary Science. (517)

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farmersintroducea seton into the dewlap of all their calves before putting them on foggage in an tumn. The use of the seton is to produce counter- irritation. The seton consists of a piece of tape and the cordmay be moved every other day from side to side, being previously lubricated with

or soft cord passed under a portion of the skin by a seton -needle ; the ends may be tied together, oil ofturpentineor blister-plaster, and in this way the amount of irritation may be regulated. As

to the cure, I believe every oneis unavailing after the disease has been observed to excist; but as a remedial measure applied by anticipation, large blood-letting with purging ofrepeated doses will reduce the plethoric tendency of the animal system . Perhaps a cribfull of hay, with some salt, placed in a foggage field, would not be a bad alternative for calves to resort to at times, in order to modify the effects of the succulence of rank aftermath.

24. MARES FOALING, OF STALLIONS, AND OF HORSES AT GRASS. “Yet when from plow or lumbering cart set free, They taste awhile the sweets of liberty : E'en sober DOBBIN lifts his clumsy heel And kicks, disdainful of the dirty wheel" BLOOMFIELD .

(2002.) Whenever field -labor commences in spring, whether with bean or oat-seed, draught-horses are indulged with hay instead of straw , and their allowance of corn is increased. The hay is supplied to them at will, and a strong work-horse is supposed to eat about i ; stones, or 33 lbs. a-day, and some will eat even more.

The oats are increased to 3

feeds a -day, which at 40 lbs. the bushel, will weigh 73 lbs., but if the

measure is heaped , which some farmers will allow to be done with horse corn, the feeds will weigh 8 lbs. The quantities of hay and corn here speci fied are supposed to be given in their ordinary state, but when given in a cooked state, I have already described their treatment in (1351) to ( 1353) inclusive.

(2003.) The hay -stack is seldom broken upon until the horses get hay in spring. Its sitein the stack -yard is marked by an n in Plate IV ., fig. 4, of the steading, and the hay -house is contiguous to it at H, the apartment which also contains the corn - chest y, and the whole adjoins the work -horse stable 0. When the hay is to be used, as much ofthe stack is brought in as will fill the hay-house, and thence distributed to the horses.

Every portion cut off the length of the stack should be 4 or 5 feet, and they are cut off witha hay -knife, fig. 360, which represents the usual form of that instrument. It

Fig. 360 .

will be observed in the figure, that the line of the back

of the blade is not so much as at right angles to the han dle, a position which givesthe cutting edge of the knife an inclination to the line of section, which, when the knife

is used alternately up and down in a perpendicular mo tion with both hands, causes it to cut a longer space

than

the breadth of the blade. The person whousesthe knife, usually the steward, while it is the field -workers who car

ry thehay and fill the hay-house, sets himself on his knees THE HAY-KNIFE. upon the part he is cutting off, with his face to the body of the stack. This form of knife requires considerable strength inits use, and unless the edge

is kept remarkably keen with a whet-stone, and the hay is firm , it does not make good work. The hay -knife I prefer is of the form of the dung spade in fig. 308, which, being used when standing, can be wielded with more force and make a deeper cut ; and it cuts equally well in both direc tions,whereas the common knife cuts only in one direction — to the right. (518)

279

MARES FOALING.

(2004.) There is considerable waste of hay as it is commonly used in hay-racks i, fig. 7. The plowmen stuff the rack not only full, but squeeze the hay firm , from a mistaken notion that they cannot give too much at a time to their horses ; but when horses find it in this compressed state, and are unable to select the morsels they want, they toss out a considerable

quantity among the litter, with which, after being trampled upon, and re fused to be eaten, it is thrown into the dung-yard . True, the cattle there will eat it, and prefer it much to straw, because of its being hay and hav ing a saline taste, so that it cannot be said to be entirely lost, yet the ob ject of supplying the horses only upon hay is frustrated. If it is desired to give hay to cattle also, it should be given them in a direct manner. To avoid waste, therefore, small quantities should be put into the racks at a

time, and these frequently; but the best way to prevent waste is to chop the hay and bruise the corn , and the mixture will also go a greater length

in feeding the horses. Young horses should also receive hay after the stack has been broken up, straw becoming too hard and dry after March ; and hay, besides, serves to improve their condition, and prepare them for grass.

They should also get a little corn every day, until grass time, as nothing tends so much to enlarge and strengthen the bone, and confirm the spirit of young horses as corn .

So much am I convinced of the truth of such a

result, that I entirely agree with the observation of the late celebrated Nimrod (Mr. Apperley ), that the belly of the young horse should be the measure of his corn . It is to the niggardly disposition, in regard to corn , which farmers evince toward their young horses, that is to be ascribed the number of weak horses that are met with on farms; for the greatest

abundance of corn administered to the adult state, will never compensate for its want when the animal was in the state of adolescence .

(2005.) May is the particular month in which draught-mares usually drop their foals. They continue to work until the immediate symptoms of foaling are observed. These are great loosening of the ligatures on each side ofthe root of the tail, and the appearance of a waxy-like matter

projecting from the point ofthe teats. As it is impossibleto predict a mare's foaling within afew hours, it is proper to put her into a loose

house or a box by herself, and to watch ber every night.

Too many farm

ers contemn such precautions, and allow their mares to foal in their stall

inthe stable, to the risk ofhaving both them and their foals kicked by the other horses. That watching is necessary at night, evenina loose house, is evinced by a fact mentioned to me bythe late Mr. Airth, Mains of Dun, Forfarshire, of a mare of his which, having been neglected to be watched at night, or even removed from the stable, was found in the morning lying

on the floor with her womb protruded and the foal smothered in it. The mare shortly after died in great agony.

It is a remarkable fact that few

people have observed mares tofoal, even though watching for the purpose, for somehow they contrive to foal when left by themselves for even a few moments. I have endeavored for successive years to witness the foaling

both of blood and draught-mares, and wasalways disappointed. A mare will eat with heartiness until the pains of labor seize her, when she sud

denly lies down, foals easily, quickly, forcibly, requiring no assistance, and starts to her feet almost immediately after parturition, takes up with, though licks but little at her foal, and soon begins to eat again.

The foal

is not long of gaining its feet after a few staggering attempts on its long legs, but some time elapses before it can steadyitself, so as to lay hold of It should be assisted in this its first attempt, in order to get

the teat .

filled with milk, after which it may lie and sleep among straw until it be comesdry. The placenta soon drops from the mare, and should be imme 1

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280

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER .

diately removed . The thin pellicle which covers the foal is, when dried,

very like the finest gut-skin used by gold -beaters, and it forms a very good protection fromtheair when applied as a plaster over the surface of a green wound. The mare should have a drink of lukewarm water and oat meal, and a few handsfull of corn , after parturition, and, on partaking of which, she may be left with the foal. For the sake of increasing her milk she should be put to grass immediately after foaling ,if she is not on grass, and should remain there without being putto work for a month ; by which time she will have recovered her tone of body sufficiently to bear again the fatigue of labor. The sort of work for a mare having a foal should

be of a natureto interfere but slightly with themore important operations of the farm ; because having to suckle the foal every half yoking, she should be employed singly, such as at sowing and scuffling turnips, scuf fling potatoes, and leading grass or other forage. When the mareis again made to work , the foal should be left by itself to rest in a well-littered

apartment of the steading until it become accustomed to be alone, rather than in a court or hammel, out of which it may attempt to escape and in jure itself. Should there be two mares with foals, both should be worked together ; the treatment of both being alike, little inconvenience will arise

to work , from being taken to their foals out of yoke together (3141). A stout mare will be able to perform her own share of summer work , and bring up a foal at the same time ; but should she be in a weakly state ,

which she will be when becoming old, or is overworked , she should be put either to very gentle work, or towork only in half yokings, or one yoking a day, or be idle altogether and constantly with her foal. She should not

be neglected of corn , however , though idle at grass with her foal. It is seldom that any illness attacks a draught-mare while bringing up a foal, and it is as seldom that anything is the matter with a foal. I had one work -foal, however, which, though safely and easily foaled , and seemed lively enough, could never stand upon its feet, or lay hold of a teat, and it died in the course of a day after it was foaled, though fed on cow's milk.

A mare when thus deprived of her foal, should be occasionally milked, and kept on dry food for a few days, until the tendency of the milk to se crete subsides . The mare will be ready to receive the horse in 3 weeks, or a month at farthest, after parturition, and thefirst symptom ofheat is

frequent twitching of the vulva, and emission of a clear Huid. When a d in this state, she immediately presses toward the object mare is touche s

that touche her.

(2006.) In presenting a mare to the stallion, caution should be used to prevent her striking him with her heels when she refuses his attentions ; and this consists simplyin holding her by the head with a bridle across the outside of the stable door,while the stallion is kept within, and allowed to snuff and pinch her flank. If she takes the teasing kindly, presses closer toward him , twitches the vulva, and emits, she is in proper heat, but

if she squeal and kick whenever he touches her, she is in an unfit state for

him ; but the tickling of the horse for a time not unfrequently Ifconfirms in sea the season of the mare when it at first evinces a doubtful issue. son, she should be taken to an open piece of level ground, and held by

the head as long as the horse covers her, and the time occupied by a stallion in covering is much longer than by the bull or tup, which is in stantaneous. A horse which is safe to use requires no encouragement

from his leader, but many need some assistance from him. Making a mare stand to the horse by a twitch on her nose is an unnecessary act of

cruelty ; for if she will not voluntarily receive him she will not become impregnated by any force that can be used against her. One cover is quite ( 520)

HORSES AT GRASS .

sufficient at a time.

281

In about 3 weeks it will be seen whether the mare

has held to the horse ; and should she again exhibit symptoms of season , simple and safe expedients may be used to secure her holding, such as throwing a bucket of cold water upon her rump the moment the horse leaves her, or drawing blood from her neck vein while the horse is cover

ing, or, what is betterthan all, unless the season is going rapidly off her, retaining the horse all night and offering her a fresh cover in the morning, or, to adopt a different plan altogether, covering her with another horse, or another kind of horse - one or other of which expedients generally se

cures the holding, unless the mare is past bearing, which casualty befalls mares at very different ages. I was told by a man who led stallions for many years , that the expression of a sigh,from both horse and mare, im mediately after an embrace, is an infallible sign of the mare proving in foal. The circumstances which militate against a mare's holding in foal is

too high and too low condition. Whenever a mare is seen to eject semen as soon as the horse has left her, she will certainly not hold. Sometimes the fault is as much that of the horse as the mare, for when subjected to

much traveling, and is, moreover, not a good traveler, and has undertaken more service than he can easily overtake, he is often so much fatigued when brought to a mare, especially toward evening, as to be quite unfit for effective service.

When a horse is observed to be in a state of lassi

tude, the very best policy for the farmer is to give the horse and his leader a night's quarters, and let him cover the mare in the morning when he is

comparatively fresh . Many farmers grudge maintaining a horse and man all night, but much better incur that small expense than run the risk of a mare proving barren. When a mare has been covered 3 separate periods

without success, it is needless to persevere with her, as the foal will come too late next season, and a late foal is as objectionable stock to bring up as a late calf.

(2007.) The usual treatment of draught-horses in summer is to allow

them to lie out in the pasture-field_all night, and give them cut grass be tween the yokings in the stable. Forage is ' supplied them, because the time between the yokings is too short to fillthemselves with grass on pas ture ; but on the Borders,where the first yoking is over by 9 or 10 o'clock in the forenoon , the horses are put into the pasture -field until the afternoon

yoking at 1 o'clock ; and this plan saves all the trouble of cutting grass for the horses. The piece of grass allotted to horses is cut by the plow men, who each take the duty for a week by turns, and he quits the yoking in time to allow him to cut the requisite quantity and cart it to the stable.

It is not his duty to supply the racks in the stable, except his own horse's, but to empty the load of grass on some convenient spot near the stable door - a dirty and slovenly practice. No doubt it is better to keep the

fresh cut grass in the open air than to put it into a house ; but still a crib or inclosure couldbe made in a shady place conveniently near the stable, to keep the grass fresh, and place it off the dirty ground. ( 2008.) Grass is cut with the common scythe, which is so well known an implement that a particular description of it seems unnecessary. A few words, however, on the choice of scythes and of the manner of mount ing them, may be useful to you. The handle, or snead or sneath, fig. 361 , a b, is made either curved to suit the sweep of the instrument by the hands round the body, as in the figure, or straight, and the suitableness of both for work you shall learn when we come to consider harvest-work. The

curved snead is usually made of willow, which, being shaped in hot water, and restrained , on being released when the wood becomes cold, retains

the shape. Of scythes there are various kinds : the common kind keeps (521)

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

282

its edge but a short time, and in the long run is, I believe, more expen sive than the patent kind, which consists of a steel plate riveted between 2 small rods of iron, and which plate will continue to cut keenly until it is worn to the back-bone.

The length of the blade of scythes varies from

28 inches to 46 inches, and the price of the Fig. 361.

common kind varies between these lengths

from 2s. 4d. to 3s. 3d. each, and the patent from 3s. 2d. to 4s. 8d. each .

There are be

sides these, other kinds termed crown, la

beled, and extra -warranted scythes. Bent sneads cost from 1s. 3d . to 1s. 6d. each,

straight ones 1s. each.

The straight are

made of any sort of wood ; I have seen good ones of larch. Scythes are sharpened with strickles and stones. The strickles are made of fine sand imbedded in an adhesive

medium laid over the surface of a piece of wood of square or flat shape, and cost 6d. each.

They are used to smooth the

edge after the stone, and serve of them selves, for a time, to keep the edge keen ; and they are always attached to and car ried along the

upper

end of the snead at d,

by a T headed nail and spike.

Scythe

are either square or round, are formed of the same sandstone as grind stones, and cost 4d . each. They are only occasionally used to set a new edge on the

stones

blade. Ragstones cost 4d. per lb.

The

blade of a scythe is mounted in this man

re

THE PATENT SCYTHE WITH BENT

SNEAD .

ner : the snead is furnished with an iron ring at the end, to which the blade is attached ; the projecting hook at the butt-end of the blade is imbedded flush into the snead by taking away a portion of the wood, and the ring is then slipped over the imbedded hook, and is held tight in its position by an iron wedge as at a. The peculiar position which the blade bears to the snead is determined by measuring the

length of the blade a c straight along the snead from a to d, where is

fastened the handle for the right hand, and the same length from d to c fixes the point of the scythe, so that a d c forms an equilateral triangle ;

and of course the blade stands at an angle of 600 with the snead. Theory would advise the placing of the plane of the blade parallel with the ground, when the scythe is held as intended for cutting ; but practice requires the

cutting edge to be a little elevated above theground,and above the back of the scythe which sweeps along the surface of the ground; and the rea

son for keeping the edge elevated is, that it would not only be apt to run into the ground if swung parallel with it, but the scythe would be worked with greater labor, as the stems of the plants to be cut would present an obstacle directly at right angles against the blade, whereas the edge set upward cuts the stems in an oblique direction. The blade is still farther secured in its position by the grass-nailf, which is hooked by one end into a hole in the blade, and is nailed through an eye by the other to the snead ; and a great use of the grass-nail is to prevent any plants cut from being entangled between the blade and snead. The left-hand handle e is placed to suit the convenience of the workman .

I shall reserve remarks on the

of using and sharpening the scythe until we treat of harvest-work . mode(522)

HORSES AT GRASS.

283

(2009.) Objections have been made to pasturing grass at all by any spe cies of stock , inasmuch as the same extent of land will maintain a greater number of animals when cut and given them in houses or yards. To ex press this proposition shortly, soiling is a more profitable and less waste ful mode of using grass than pasturing. Although there is much truth in the observation, it is too generally expressed to be true in all cases. In the case of mountain -grass it is evidently an impracticable proposition to use it by soiling. Much cattle and sheep must ,therefore, be allowed to pasture ; and with regard to much of the old grass of the low country a

great part of the summer would elapse before itwould be fit for the op only other grasses left are the cultivated kinds, such as clover and rye-grass, and that from irrigated meadows. Of these two kinds it is quitepossible

eration of the scythe. What is to become of stock in the mean time ? The

to procure a supply of cut grass from water-meadows by the time the Swedish turnips are exhausted in the beginning of June ; but the culti

vated grasses are not fit for cutting by that time except inthe neighbor hood of large towns. What, again, is to become of stock in themean time ? Some other plants than clover and rye-grass must be cultivated to

support the stock till that period ; perhaps lucerne and Italian rye -grass

every might be cultivated for the purpose, but both cannot be cultivated either could be where, for lucerne will not thrive in Scotland, and before

cultivated anywhere for an extensive system of soiling, a different system of husbandry will have to be contrived, and a system to produce early forage in a late climate will not be easily discovered. In regard to the comparative extent of a ground required for soiling and pasturage , it has

been alleged to be 3 to 1 in favor of soiling; that is, 33 head of cattle were soiled from 20th May to the 1st of October, 1815, on 171 English acres, and which number of cattle, it was said, would have required 50 acres to pasture them . *

On the face of this statement I would say, that

any 33 head of cattle that could be maintained on 173 acres of cutting grass, would as easily be maintained on the same land on 33 acres of pas ture -- 1 acre of pasture to an ordinary sized ox being quite sufficient to maintain it from May to October. So that the proportion is reduced from 2 to 1, which I believe is near the truth in regard to the maintenance of oxen . In regard to work -horses, it is different, for they will certainly re

quire a muchgreater extent of ground in cuttinggrass than inpasture. To cut grass, however, for all the cattle on a largefarm , to lead it to the steading, and to supply them with sufficient litter in summer, is what I con sider an impracticable thing,were it for no other reason than that the crop of grain on any farm that admits of its grass being pastured cannot afford sufficient straw to litter stock the whole year ; and if sheep are to be in cluded in the soiling system , where is the steading that could afford them

accommodation ? Nor is the objection against grazing of the manure of animals being entirely lost, altogether valid, because land that is constantly grazed will support stock to an indefinite time; whereas where grass is

cut and carried off every year, the time will soon arrive when the grass

can no longer be cut until manure be applied to the ground. Does not this circumstance of itself show that thedung dropped on pasture is not entirely lost, and that the land derives considerable advantage from being

pastured ? I have often thought that all the work -horses on a farm might be supported in the steading night and day upon cut grass. I have tried the experiment twice myself, but failed in both cases, at one time for want of cuttinggrass, the second cutting having entirely failed that year, and the other for want of straw for litter until the arrival of the new crop. * See Sinclair's Code of Agriculture, and Notes.

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284

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

The straw might have been economized in the stable , but the stable in summer, even with open doors, ventilators, and no hay-loft, is insuffera

ble ; and the horses required far more straw tokeep them dry inthe ham mel on cut grass than they did on straw and corn in the stable in winter. Taking all these untoward circumstances into consideration , they led to the conviction that soiling on a large scale is impracticable ; and until

early growth of grass, as well as a late growth of aftermath, and plenty of straw , are assured to the farmer every year, I cannot see how soiling can be established as a regular practice in husbandry on a farm of even mod erate extent. On a small scale where only a few animals of every kind are kept, I conceive that soiling might be practiced with advantage, and it behooves all small farmers to make their grassland go as far as possible. ( 2010.),Work -horses,when on grass, are subject to few distempers, the principal being an noyance from a host of insects, and among these the common horse-fly or cleg, and the bot-fly, are the most troublesome. The cleg delights in warm and sultry weather ; is most active on

the wing during the day , and therefore most troublesome to horses and cattle when they stand is in a warm and humid state, such as it usually is after a thunder shower; and it is this circum . most in need of repose. They are particularly excited and eager for blood when the atmosphere stance which has obtained thespecific name ofpluvialis forthe cleg. Another pest tothe horse

is the great spotted horse-bot, Gasterophilus equi, seen at a, fig. 362. It is about; lines in length ; Fig. 362.

‫و‬ -

o

THE HORSE - BOT - GASTEROPHILUS EQUI.

general color clear yellowish -brown ; thorax inclining to gray ; abdomen rust-brown, with a

tinge of yellow ; wings whitish ; and legs yellowish. The antennæ are inserted in the cavity of the face , as seen at b, the second joint large and kidney -shaped, the remaining three forming a paked bristle as at c . The eyes are equally distant in both sexes ; mouth either entirely want ing, or consisting merely of an indistinct line or opening. This insect takes no nourishment of any kind ; in fact, the alimentary canal has no opening at its anterior extremity. It flies in com pany, producing a humming sound. “ The female having selected the individual to which her

treasure is to be intrusted,” says Mr. Duncan, “ she continuesto hover about for a short time till propelled through the oviduct, and placed in the pincers at the extremity of the anal tube . Thus prepared , she makes a sudden descent upon the horseher body carried nearly in

the egg be

a perpendicular direction, and the ovipositor curved forward — and deposits the egg upon a hair,

to which it instantly adheres by means of a glutinous matter secreted along with it. This process, which is performed with so much expedition that the fly can scarcely be said to alight on the horse, is repeated at intervals till the whole of the mature eggs are discharged.” These egys, which are very numerous, 400 or 500 being sometimes placed on a single hair, are somewhat pouch -shaped, and shagreened with transverse and longitudinal striæ , as seen at d. Under the guidance of an instinct which cannot be sufficiently admired , the fly almost invariably attaches hereggs tosomepartof the fore-quarter of the horse,theinsideof the kneeand the shoulderbe. ing the spots most commonly selected, so as to be within the reach of his mouth, for he is himself to be made the unconscious instrument of conveying them into his stomach, where alone they can be brought to maturity, the temperature of a hörse's stomach being as high as 1029 Fahrenheit. Even when beyond the reach of the mouth, the eggs are not necessarily lost, for the horses are in the habit of licking each other, and a horse free from botsmay thus receive them from another. * When the eggs are mature," continues Mr. Duncan, “ it would seem that the larvæ make their appearance very soon after they are touched by the tongue, the warmth and the moisture both contributing to their immediate development. Indeed, if the larvæ were not disclosed before reaching the stomach , or very shortly after, the eggs would very soon pass into the alimentary canal. The larve fix themselves by hooks to the inner tissue of the stomach, where they remain

in security,uninjured bythepowerfulaction of the gastric juice, and enjoying the warmth of a (524)

SHEEP -WASHING.

285

tropical climate." . A small group of these larvæ adhering to the coat of the stomach are repre sented by e. Their color is pale reddish -yellow . Their only food seems to be the humor secreted by the internal membrane of the stomach, or it may be the chyme, the latter undergoing a farther elaboration to adapt it to their system . Bots take up their quarters in the stomach in the end of summer or autumn, and pass the whole winter and spring months there, without undergoing any change, save gradually enlarging and advancing to maturity. When that is complete, they cease to retain theirhold, pass intotheintestinal canal, and are ejected by the anus. On account of the many ordeals which this insect has to pass in its transformation, perhaps not 1 in 100 of the eggs ever arrive at the perfect state of fly. The red -tailed horse-bot, Gasterophilus hæmorrhoidalis, though only half the size of the preceding, is nevertheless a greater torment to the horse. The female parent fly deposits her eggs on the lips of the horse, and this operation is attended with

so much pain, that no sooner does it make himaware ofthe presence of the fly, than he tosses his head and gallops off to a different part ofthe field, or, ifhe has the opportunity, betakes himself 10 the water, where his tormentor generally leaves him, having a peculiar dislike to that element.

Indeed all the tribe of gad-flies have, and, to avoid them, it is not uncommon to see numbers of fly succeeds in fixing an egg,the horse rubs his mouthagainst the ground or upon his fore-legs in great agitation, frequently striking out with his fore -foot, which occasionally comes in contact cattle lying on the sea -shore until the approach of tide alone compels them to retire. When this

with the jaw, and serves but to increase his irritation . The larvæ are taken into the stomach , and fix themselves there, exactly in the same manner as the greater bot. When they reach the in

testines, they remain a long time, casting anchor again in the rectum, where they cause great un. easiness to the horse, causinghim to kick frequently ,and even rendering his movements awkward. These bots should occasionally be looked for in horses that have been outat grass the preceding year, at the extremity of the anus. The only speedy remedy for getting quit of them is in back. raking by the anus. The more rare species are the Gasterophilus nasalis, salutiferus, and

Clarkii. Mr. Bracey Clark was of opinion that the presence of bots in no way injured the horse, but on the coutrary, by stimulating the stomach, they tend to prevent colic, gripes, and other in digestions which affectthe head of the horse and produce staggers. The appearance of exan themous eruptions on the skin ," he says, " and the formation of local abscesses, from the same cause ofpartial irritation, often relieve a general disorder of the system . The mucous membranes of the skin possess this power, when irritated, in the most eminent degree, and to these the larve of the Estri are applied. Irritating the membranes of the stomach in other animals would ex cite nausea and vomiting; but the horse not possessing this power, his stomach is peculiarly fitted for the stimulus of such animals ." * An annoying insect of less importance is theChrysops cæcu . 66

tiens, which is of a bright color, and though frequent in some parts of England, is not so great a pest there as to horses on the Continent. Another fly, the Stomoxydæ calcitirans, is in size and markings not unlike the common house - fly, Musca domestica. This insect attacks various animals,

as well as man himself, and becomes very troublesomein certain localities. It attacks the legs, and its panctures are attended with great pain, especially in damp, moist weather. Another an 66

noyance to horses is the forest-fly, Hippobosca equina. The attacks of this insect." says Mr. Duncan, “ are principally confined to horses. It occasions no other harm than an extreme degree of irritation, and if the flies are numerous, the animal is apt to become unmanageable. It insinu.

ates itself by a sideling, crab -like motion beneath the hair, and anchors itself to the skin by means of its largely-toothed claws. It also runs about among the roots of the hairs with great ease, cre ating aninsufferable titillation, which is still more increased by the frequentinsertion of its pro boscis into the pores of the skin. The places to which it prefers attaching itself are the under side of the belly, beneath the tail, and on the under side of the jaws. The insect is so flat, tough, and

unyielding, that it is by no means easy to kill it by pressure, and it is, moreover,tenaciousof life. It is said that horses long accustomed to its attacks become, in some measure, indifferent to them ; those which have never experienced this plague, which is enough to render some animals almost frantic , may be saved from it, according to M. Kõllar, by the following application. Take of • mineral earth 8 oz. and of lard 1 lb., and make them into a salve. Some of this salve is to be

rubbed on here and there upon the hair, and worked in with a wisp of straw . After 24 hours the salve is to be washed off with warm water, in which brown soap has been dissolved. Care must be taken that the horse does not catch cold.”

25. SHEEP-WASHING, SHEEP-SHEARING, AND THE WEANING OF LAMBS.

" Gay shearing time approaches. First, howe'er, Drive to the double fold, upon the brim Of a clear river - gently drive the flock And plunge them one by one into the flood ." DYER .

(2011.) I have said that as lambs become strong enough to be put to pasture, they always get new grass, in order to increase the milk of the * Clark's Essay on Bots.

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286

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

SUMMER .

ewes ( 1835 ) . The new grass, to be pastured by ewes and lambs, should be selected with judgment, and that intended for hay should first be stock

ed, because itis found that new grass, if moderately eaten down in spring, stools out, and affords a thicker cutting at hay -time, than if it had not been so pastured. For the same reason,the new grass intended to cut for horses' forage, should also be earlier pastured than what is to be pastured all the season, not only to give both it and the hay -grass time to attain their growth

when they shall be wanted, but to give thepasture - grass time to become so strong as to support being pastured . None of the new grass should be eaten too bare, even the part which is to be pastured by the ewes ; and rather than commit such a mistake, even in a late season, the ewes should

have a hasty run over the best of theolder grass for a fortnight or so, till the hained new grass has revived. After the castration of the lambs ( 1841), there is nothing to do to them until the ewes are washed preparatory to shearing the wool for them , and which is done about the beginning of June ( 1843 ) .

(2012.) When the turnips are all consumed, and the time has arrived for the last of the turnip land to be plowed up for barley ( 1852 ), the hoggs receive a change of treatment. The wether-hoggs are either sold to the

dealer of the turnips, or put to grass till shorn of their wool, and then dis posed of ; but the ewe-hoggs are always retained on the farm , because it is

they which supply the waste of ewes, and are, of course, clipped of their wool in due time . The circumstance that determines which of these ways the wether-hoggs should be treated , is the state of the wool and mutton markets. If you find, on examination, that the hoggs are so forward in condition as to realize as much money off the turnips,with current prices, as they probably would after being kept for a month on grass, and

washed and clipped, it is, of course, more profitable to dispose of them at once ; and , independent of this circumstance, should you fear the grass to prove

insufficient to support them well till they are clipped, there is a

necessity for parting with them immediately off the turnips; but should you find that you have grass to maintain their condition, and that the wool market is likely to be brisk, it would, of course, be advisable to clip them . It is of less importance to increase the condition of the ewe-hoggs off the

turnips by putting them on the best grass, nevertheless they should not be allowed to fall off in condition, for fear of injuring the quality of their wool. If you determine on selling the wether -hoggs, you should first ascertain their value ; and in attempting this you will at once perceive,

that a sheep wearing its coat of wool cannot be subjected to the ordinary rules of measurement; nor can its true weight be found by weighing it alive, because the weight of the wool enters as a disturbing element into the calculation , and the value of that material depends on very different circumstances from that of mutton. A new clipped sheep, however, may either be measured or weighed, and its value ascertained pretty nearly. -

The eye and the band must be employed to judge of the weight of a rough sheep ; and there is no more certain way of acquiring a correct judgment of its weight in that state, than by first handling the sheep in the way I have before described , and weighing the 4 quarters after it is slaugh tered.

An average sized sheep of alarge flock thus treated will enable

you to form a pretty correct idea of the average weight of the whole, and the market price of mutton per stone is quoted in all the newspapers of the day.

(2013.) The season for washing sheep having arrived, a fit place should be selected for the purpose . It should consist of a natural rivulet, or,

where that is wanting, of a large ditch, having both its banks clad with (526 )

-

287

SHEEP-WASHING.

clean sward. The next step is to form a damming across the rivulet, if it is not naturally sufficiently deep of water to conduct the operation of washing. The bottom of the river or ditch should be hard and gravelly,

and the water in it pure, or it will not answer the purpose ; as a soft and muddy bottom, and dirty water, will injure the wool more than do it good.

A damming may be made either entirely of turf-wall built across the stream , though that imposes considerable labor and waste of grass, or with an old door or two or other boarding placed across the bed of the stream , sup ported by stabs against the weight of water, and the chinks at the bottom

and sides filled up with turf; and over which, when the water accumu lates, the water falls. In constructing this dam, the overflowing should be as great as to cause such a current in the pool as to carry away quickly all impurities, such as earthy matter, greasy matter, small locks of wool, and scum . One side of the pool is occupied by the unwashed, and the oppo

site by the washed sheep. They are confined in their respective places by flakes, fig. 216, or nets, fig. 217. To prevent any sheep taking the wa ter of themselves, which they are apt to do when they see others in before them, the fence should be returned along the sides of the pool as far as the men who wash the sheep are stationed. Fig. 363 brings out all these Fig. 363.

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particulars pretty well. The damming a a, by means of doors and stabs, and turfing, retain the water until it overflows.

The net on each side of

the pool is returned so far down both its sides. The depth of the water is seen to take the men to the haunches — the proper depth . ( 2014.) Everything being thus prepared at the pool, the sheep are also

prepared for the washing . The lambs not being washed, and to save trouble with them at the washing pool, they are separated from their ers, and left in a court of the steading until the washing is over. moth The ewes, hoggs and dinmonts are all taken to the pool in a lot. They should be driven gently, and not allowed to be at all heated. The ewes will be troublesome to drive, being always in search of their lambs ; but, notwith standing this annoyance, they should not be dogged, and rather give them plenty of time upon the road. They should be driven along the road most The men who are to wash also prepare themselves

free of dust or mud .

by casting their coats, rolling up the sleeves of their shirts , and putting on (527)

288

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

old trowsers and shoes to stand inthe water with. The shepherd and

other 2 men are quite enough to wash a large number of sheep thoroughly, but, if the stream is very broad, another may be required to save time in

handing the sheep across. These 3 men are represented in the figure, e being the shepherd, and the last man to handle the sheep, and d and c his assistants. At least 2 men are required to catch the sheep for the wash ers, of whom 1 is seen at b.

On an occasion of this kind the men receive

a gratuity of bread and cheese, and ale, and also a dram of spirits as a stimulus, as at h, where the dog is seen to keep watch. Indeed, some stimulant of this kind is requisite for men who stand for hours in the wa ter, the lower half of their body being chilled by the water, and the upper half being heated by the work. If they were provided with large fisher men's boots, they would less require such a fillip. (2015.) The washing is performed in this way : While the 3 men are taking up their positions in the water, the other 2 are catching a sheep ; and, to render this fatiguing work more easy, the fold should not be made

larger than to contain the sheep easily. Asheep is caught, and is being presented by b to the first washer c, who takes the sheep into the water,

and, allowing its wool to become saturated with it, turns it over upon its back, keeping up its head, and taking a hold of the arm of a fore-leg with either hand, and of the wool on the opposite side of the head with the

other. He then dips the sheep up anddown, to and fro, and from one of its sides to the other, slowly, causing all the wool to wave backward and forward, as if rubbing it against the water. In doing this the water be

comes very turbid about the sheep, and he continues to do it till it clears itself, when he hands the sheep to the next washer d, standing in the mid dle of the stream. Whenever c gets quit of one sheep, another should be ready by the catchers for him to receive into the water. The second washer d holds and manages the sheep in the same manner, and then hands it to the shepherd e, and is immediately ready to take another sheep from the first man. It is the duty of the shepherd to feel if the skin of the

sheep is clean , and every impurity removed from the wool. The position of the sheep on its back is favorable for the rapid descent of earthy matter from the wool. Wherever he feels a roughness upon the skin, he washes it off with his hand ; and wherever any clots are felt in the wool which

have escaped the other washers, he rubs them out. The belly, breast, and

round the head, he scrubs with the hand. Being satisfied that the sheep is clean, he dips it over the head while turning it to its natural position, when it swims ashore, and gains the bank at g. Its first attemptsat walk ing on coming out of the water are very feeble, its legs staggering under

the weight of the dripping fleece; in a little after it frees itself from the waterentirely by makingits fleece whirl like a large mop. It will be ob served in the figure that the 3 men do not stand abreast across the water, but in eschelon ; and they stand so for this reason, namely : the sheep be

ing in the dirtiest state when in the hands of the first man c, his standing farthest down the stream allows the dirtiest water to flow away at once, and not come near the stations of the other men . The sheep being in a comparatively clean state when it reaches the second man d, the water from it cannot render that more dirty which runs past the first man c. In

fike manner, the same sheep, when with the shepherd e, can but very slightly render the water impure to those belowit, and, being washed highest up the stream , gets an immediate supply of the cleanest water for

finishing its washing. This is the way in which sheep are washed in the Lowlands; and from 2 to 3 scores may be washed in 1 hour, according to the size of the sheep, the activity of the washers, and the supply of water. (528 )

289

SHEEP-SHEARING .

Tups are washed 2 or 3 weeks before the rest of theflock, and clipped as

long before to allow time to their wool to grow ; and, as they areusually in high condition, their new wool rises soonest, and, of course, soonest al., lowsthe old fleece to be taken off. After washing, sheep should not be driven alonga dirty or dusty road, nor should they be put into any grass field having bare earthy banks, against which they might rub themselves. In fact, they should be kept perfectly clean until their fleeces are taken off. How long they should be kept depends on the state of the weather ; for the wool must not only be thoroughly dry, but the yolk, as the natural

oil of the wool is called, must return again into it. Perhaps 8 or 10 days may suffice to produce both these effects. But another circumstance, more

important than either, shouldreceive attention before the wool is clipped, which is, that the new wool be risen from the skin before the old be at

tempted to be taken off. Disregard to this state of the fleece will make good clipping very difficult to accomplish, and it will certainly deteriorate the appearance of the fleece. You need be under no apprehension of the wool falling off when the new growth commences, for wool will remain for years upon the sheep's back if not clipped off, and the sheep be in a clean and healthy state. How many years the fleece may continue to grow I do not know, but I have seen a 3 -years' fleece. Lord Western showed Anglo -Merinos, at the Show of the Royal English AgriculturalSociety at

Oxford, in 1839, the fleeces of which, when clipped,weighed, I think, 20 lbs. each.

( 2016.) A place under cover should be selected for clipping the fleeces. Thestraw -barn L f, ig. 4, Plate IV. ofthesteading,is a very suitable place for the purpose. The end next the chaff -house r , between the two doors, will answer for the clipping process, and the remainder will contain the sheep under cover until they are returned clipped to the fields again. The

clipping floor is prepared inthis way : Letclean wheat straw be spread equally over the floor 2 or 3 inches thick, and spread over it the large can

vas barn -sheet, the edges of which should be nailed down tight to the floor.

The use of the straw is to convert the floor into a sort of soft cush

ion for the knees of the clippers, as well as for ease to the sheep. A hroom should be provided to sweep the cloth clean. A board 21 feet above the floor should be provided to wind the fleeces upon, and it may be placed along the wall of the barn opposite to that occupied by the clip A space near this should be cleaned, and a sheet spread upon it, for putting the rolled fleeces upon. The remainder of the barn should be cleared of dust both from the floor and walls as high as the sheep can reach , and a little clean straw strewn upon the floor for them to lie upon. (2017.) The instrument by which the wool is clipped off sheep is named wool-shears, as seen in fig. 364. They re Fig. 364. quire no particular description farther pers .

than to explain that the bend or bowl a, which connects the two blades, acts as a

spring to keep them separate , while the pressure of the hand on each side of the

handle b overcomes and brings the blades together. There are wool- shears which

THE WOOL-SHEARS .

have additional springs placed between the handles b to separate the blades more forcibly, but are not so agreeable to the hand as the simple bent spring a. Sometimes the spring of a is so strong as soon to tire the hand,

to relieve which a piece of cord is wound slackly round the handles. Strong shears are more easily worked if held near the blades; but if held upon their sharp edges they will soon hurt the hand. When not in use, (585) ......19

290

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

the blades are held together by their points being passed through a ring of leather. A rag -stone is used to sharpen wool-shears. The cost of the shears is from 2s.6d. 10 3s. 6d. each. A shepherd requires 2 or 3 pairs to

do other jobs, and he makes it a rule to use clipping-shears on no other occasion than at regular shearing.

(2018.) In case of dew or rain in the morning, it is customary to bring into the barn as many dry sheep on the previous evening as the clippers will shear on the ensuing day. About 1 score of Leicester sheep toeach

clipper is considered a very good day'swork. Itis a frequent custom for neighboring shepherds to assist each other ; and though the plan does not, perhaps, expedite the entire sheep -shearing of the country, yet a number of men clipping at the same timemakes work seem lighter, and it gets the clipping of any individual flock the sooner through . It is seldom that a

steward can clip sheep, butit is an accomplishment not unfrequently pos sessed by a hedger ; and, if the cattle-man has been a herd, he can lend a able, and in this way a party of clippers is mustered

hand as far as he

upon the farm itself. Clipping being both a dirty and heating work , the coat should be stripped, and the oldest clothes worn ; and the hat and the vest are commonly thrown aside. Garters or tight knee-breeches will be

found very irksome pieces of dress in clipping. There is an order fol lowed in the classes of sheep as they are clipped — the tups are taken first, then the hoggs, and lastly the ewes ; and , where there are dinmonts or wethers, they follow the tups. The reason for adopting this order is, that

as tups are highest in condition, and having been earliest clipped the sea son before, their fleece rises earliest in this ; and, if they are to be let in

autumn on hire, the sooner they are washed and clipped, they will then show in better wool. Hoggs, too, being forward in condition, should be ready before ewes, as the latter lose their flesh by suckling, or require longer time to bring the yolk again into their old wool, and for the new to rise. The object of washing the sheep perfectly clean will be apparent at

shearing, for if the shears grate upon anything, they will make bad work ; and if any dirt is found on clipping, either upon the skin or fleece, the shepherd is alone to blame who had the sheep last through hands, and had thecharge of them afterward on pasture. (2019.) Clipping is done in this way : Whenever a sheep is caught in

the barn, every straw or dirt on the wool or hoofs should be taken away before it is laid on the canvas carpeting. Clipping consists of 3 stages , the first of which is represented infig. 365. After setting the sheep on its rump, and, on the supposition that the clipper is a right-handed 'man, he goes down on his right knee, and leans the back of the sheep against his

left leg a. Taking the shears in his right hand, and holding up the sheep's face with his left, he first clips the short wool on the neck, and passes down the throat and breast between the fore-legs to the belly. Then placing the fore-legs under his left arm, as seen at b under C, the belly is left exposed

to be next shorn across from side to side down to the groins. In passing down here, while the shears d are at work, the lefthand e is engaged keeping the skin tight where it is naturally loose. The scrotum f is then bared, then the inside of the thighs g g, and then the under side of the tail

h. These complete all the parts of this position. For clipping this part of the sheep, small shears, as in the figure, will suffice ; and as the wool isshort and of a detached character on the under side of a sheep, it is best clipped away by the points of the shears, as by d . (2020.) The shears are used in a particular manner, to be safe alike to the fleece and the skin of the animal. The essential thing is to keep the pointsalways clear of the skin, for, if held downward , they will inevitably (586 )

SHEEP-SHEARING.

291

run into it ; and, should such a prick be made when the hand is about to

close, the consequence will be that a large piece of the skin will almost be clipped out before the clipper is aware of what he is about. This is a Fig. 365.

THE FIRST STAGE OF CLIPPING A SHEE

common error committed by new clippers, and it is a great offence in any clipper's hands. The only way to avoid this serious injury to sheep is to restthe broad part of the shears only and always upon the skin. In this

position, with the skin drawn tight by the left hand, the shears are made

to move forward with a hold ofthe wool not exceeding 1 inch in breadth, in very short and frequent clips, taking care only to bring together the broadparts of the blades fromwhere they are seen to separatein fig. 364 to as far as c, keeping the points always apart. The form of the carcass

of a sheep being round, it is clear that the shears cannot make a long clip by bringing thepoints of the blades together at every stroke, without cut ting the wool with the points at a considerable elevation above the skin. Very short clips, no doubt, make slow work, but rather work slow with

short cuts than injure the wool with long. Experience will teach you to make longer clips effective when you know how to manage the shears dex terously .

(2021.) Fig. 366 represents the second stage of clipping. Its position is gained by first relieving the fore -legs from the first position, fig .365, and,

gently turning the sheep on its farside, the fore-legs c are put under the right or clippingarm f, while the clipper, going on both knees, supports the shoulder ofthesheep upon them , thus giving the animal an easy re clining posture. You may rely upon this fact, that the more at ease the animal feels, the more readily will it lie quiet to be clipped. Supporting

the head of the sheep with his left hand, the clipper first removes thewool from behind the head, then around the entire back of the neck to the shoul

der-top. He then slips its head under his left arm, as a under g. Having the left hand thus at liberty, he keeps the skin tight with it, while he clips (587)

292

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

the wool with the right, from where the clipping in the first position was left off to the back -bone. In the figure the fleece appears to have been removed about half way down the carcass ; the left hand b is laid flat,

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THE SECOND STAGE OF CLIPPING A SHEEP.

keeping the skin tight, while the right hand e holds the shears at the right part and in the proper position. The clipper thusproceeds along the thigh and the rump to the tail d, which is entirely bared at this time. (2022.) Clearing the cloth of the loose parts of the fleece, the clipper, holding by the head, lays over the sheep on its clipped side, and still con tinuing on his knees, slips his left knee a , fig. 367, over its neck to the

ground, while his left foot b, resting on the toe, supports the left leg c over the neck of the sheep, and keeps its head d down on the ground. This is the third position in clipping. The wool having been bared to the

shoulder in the second position, the clipper has now nothing to do but to commence where it was left off in the first position, and clear the fleece entirely to the back -bone, meeting the clips where they were left off in the second position, the left hand e being still at libertyto keep theskin tight, whilethe right hand f uses the shears along the whole side of the tail. The fleece g is now quite freed from the sheep . In allowing the sheep to rise, care should be taken that its feet do not become entangled

in the fleece, for in its eagerness to escape from the unusual treatment it has just received, its feet will tear the fleece to pieces. Immediately that

the lot of sheep in the barn is clipped, it is taken to the field , and another brought in its place. (588)

293

SHEEP- SHEARING.

(2023.) A new clipped sheep should have the appearance of fig. 368, where the shear-marks are seen to run in parallel bands round the carcass, from the neck and counter a, along the ribs b, to the rump, and down the

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Fig. 367.

E THE THIRD AND LAST STAGE OF CLIPPING A SHEEP .

hind leg c. When pains are taken to round the shear-marks on the back of the neck d; to fill up the space in the change of the rings between the counter and the body at e ; to bring the marks down to ſ to the shape of the leg ; and to make them run straight down the tail, a sheep in good condition so clipped forms a beautiful object. A sheep clipped to perfec tion should haveno marks at all,for they are formed of small ridglets of wool left between each course of the shears ; but such nicety in clipping

with shears is scarcely possible, and, at any rate, the time occupied in do ing it would be of more value than all the wool that would be gained. It should be borne in mind, however,that the closera sheep is clipped, it is in a better state for the growth of the next year's fleece. (2024.) I have introduced so many illustrations on this subject, in order to show the most easy positions that can be assumed in clipping, both to

man and animal, that those positions may easily be compared with the On making this comparison, it is necessary to lookagain at the first stage of the process, fig . 365, the common practice being to place the sheep upright on its tail, and the clipper to stand on his feet, supporting itsback against his legs — an insecure and painful position for

common ones.

the sheep, and an irksome one for the man when he bows downto clip the lower part of the animal. Again, in the second stage, fig. 366, it is customary for the man still to remain on his feet, and the sheep upon its

rump( 589) ,while he secures its head sideways between his legs, in order to

294

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

tighten the skin of the entire side which is now bent outward. The skin is thus certainly tightened, but at the expense of the personal ease of the animal ; for the hand can tighten the skin as well, as shown in figs. 366

and 367, by b and e, while the bowing down so low, and as long, until he Fig 368 ,

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mm A NEW-CLIPPED SHEEP-THE PARALLELOGRAM SHOWING ITS SYMMETRY .

clips the entire side, cannot fail to pain the man's back . The third posi tion is nearly the same in both plans, with this difference in the old one,

which keeps the right leg bent, restingon its foot— a far more irksome position than kneeling on both knees. The treatment of the fleece I shall consider in a separate section ; and the mode of washing and clipping

Highland sheep will be found below. I may here remark that sheep shearing is usually held as a merry season , asort of harvest in which an allowance of good victuals- beef and broth and beer — is usually awarded

to clippers engaged at their fatiguing task . (2025.) Clipping makes such a change on the appearance of sheepthat many lambs have difficulty at first in recognizing their mothers, while a few forget them altogether, and wean themselves, however desirous their mothers may

be to suckle them ; but as the ewe is contentwith one lamb,

many a twin which does not follow her is weaned on this occasion. It

should be the shepherd's particular care to mother the lambs frequently after clipping ; but I am aware of the difficulty of bringing an old lamb and ewe together, without much disturbance to the rest of the flock ; and

besides, theshepherd cannot attend constantly on the clipped portion of his flock while engaged with clipping the rest, and this being the case constitutes another reason, besides those previously given ( 2018 ), for clip ping the ewes last. Leicester lambs are weaned at the end of June or be

ginning of July ; and the process is simple and safe, as most of them by that time chiefly depend upon grass for support. All that is required is to separate the lambs from the ewes, in fields so far lying asunder as to be beyond the hearing of the bleatings of each other. "Where there is the convenience, lambs should be put on hilly pasture for some weeks at this (590)

SHEEP- SHEARING.

295

time, the astringent quality of which gives an excellent tone to their sys tem, and renders them more hardy for winter.

Some farmers even hire

rough hill pasture for their lambs, but where such cannot be had, they

are put on the oldest, though good pasture, for a few weeks before the af termath is ready to receive them .

( 2026.) The ewes, when separated from their lambs,should be kept in a field of rather bare pasture, near at hand, until their milk be dried up. They must be milked bythe hand, for a few times, till the secretion ceases -once, 24 hours after the lambs are taken away - again , 36 hours there after — and the third time perhaps 2 days after that. Even beyond that

time a few may feel distressed by milk , which the shepherd should re lieve at intervals until the udders become dry. Indeed, milking after weaning of lambs, is essential to the safety of ewes, and I fear it is not so

effectually performed as it should be until the udders go dry. The dan

ger to be apprehended from its neglect is the plugging up of the teats with caseous matter, deposited therein by the milk which should have been drawn away ; and which plugging, in the next lambing -season, will

probably prevent the naturalflow ofthe new milk ; and the consequence take puerperal fever, that is, udderclap, or garget (1847), and die,or her

will be that inflammation will be set up in the udder, and the ewe either lambs be so restricted of milk as to be half starved . Ewes are milked in

a very different manner from cows. A long, narrow bught, formed of hurdles on both sides is erected along a fence close to the gate of a field near the steading or dairy, and it should be no larger than to contain all the ewes in a crowded state. The ewes being driven into the bught head inward , women proceed with the milking, which is accomplishedby hold

ing a small handy, that is ,a smallvessel formed like a milking -pail, in the left hand, and, squatting down behind the ewe, the milk is stripped clean from the teats alternately, with the right hand into the handy. The milker requires to be always on her guard, and remove the handy the in stant she sees the ewe showing the least symptom of voiding either water

orfæces, and a eweis very apt to void the former whenever she is touched behind for the first time. Every ewe is turned out of the bught by the shepherd as it is milked, to prevent its coming in hand again. Time was when ewe-milking created a great stir in the farm -house for the making of ewe-milk cheese, and so much anxiety did housewives evince to make it, that the ewes were milked till they were perfectly lean to supply a suf ficiency of this sortof milk. Better ideas now prevail, and farmers very properly will not allow their ewes to be milked oftener than is requisite

to render them completely dry. It was misplaced economy to reduce the condition of the entire ewe flock for the poor boastof making afew strong tasted cheeses .

(2027.) When lambs cease to bleat for their mothers, they should be marked and buisted, not only to identify them with the flock of the farm on which they are bred, but as a record of the particular blood from which they are descended. The markings are confined to the ears, and consist of small pieces being cut out, or slits made in the tips, with a knife, from

the fore or back margin, or of holes made with punching-nippers, or of a combination of both sorts of marks. The female stock are always marked on the near ear, and the male on the far one . Thus, a single round hole is punched through the near ear of all the ewe -lambs, and a similar hole

through the far ear of the wether-lambs ; and should any of the ewe-lambs be considered fit for breeding tups, they either receive an additional hole

through the near ear, or a bit cut out from a margin of the same ear, cor responding to a similar mark on their dams or sires, to distinguish their (591)

THE BOOK OF THE FARMSUMMER .

296

particular blood from the rest of the flock . Twin ewe-lambs receive a hole through both ears. Tup-lambs receive no ear-marks, their long tail serv ing the purpose till they are weaned, when they are at once transferred to the tups. Individual tupsare so easily identified, and their descent so well known by the shepherd , that they require no marking. Fig. 369 are the

punching-nippers, of which the Fig. 369.

inverted hollow cone a, having its small end sharpened , is em ployed to cut the hole out of the ears ; and , to save the ears

from being unduly pinched, a

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pad of horn b is inserted into the straight under -arm of the

nippers, thepieces nipped out rising out of the orifice c. The figure at once shows how the

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je 7 THE PUNCHING -NIPPERS .

instrument is used, being sim ilar to the one used by shoemakers to punch holes into the lappets of shoes, through which the shoe-strings are passed, and it costs 28.9d. Buisting consists of stamping a letter or letters, expressive of the initials of the name of the owner or of that of the farm , or of both.

rument a, fig. 370, whic ted by aalsimpler instThis is effec theh es the mark is made on capit lette S. carri same principle as the ear -marks, the near side indicat

ing the female, and the far side the male sheep. The

The buist or mark Fig. 370 .

28

material of which the buist is made is boiled tar, made

viscid by a little pitch. The sheep to be buisted are put into a convenient apartment of the steading, and handed out one by one , and kept steady by holding the head and rump by the hands; and a knee being placed against the opposite side causes the side to bemarked

4

to project. The buist is then dipped lightly into the melted tar, to prevent its dripping; and , to make the mark vivid, it should be applied with some force, and with the entire surface at once, to compress the wool equally , and then quickly withdrawn. The wool must be quite dry, or the tar will not adhere to it. All new clipped sheep are buisted in this manner ; and though but a temporary mark , being in time obliterated ,

though not on short wool, it serves the present purpose well. To my taste, the buist looks best on that point which is the roundest part of therib , but others prefer it on the shoulder, the rump, or the loins. In fig. 370 THE BUISTING - IRON AND is another instrument b, the branding -iron , also bearing BRANDING - IRON . the capital letter S. It is sometimes used, and , on be

ingheated in the fire, is applied to brand the letteron one side or other of the nose, or on one of the horns, of Black -faced sheep, or onthe horns of Highland cattle, in lieu of the punching -nippers or knife, and it makes an indelible mark. To save twice handling of the lambs, they should be marked and buisted at the same time - one person making the marks, an other applying the buisting -iron. The buist costs 3s., and the brand 4s., though a smaller instrument, as the letter has to be cut out of the brand like that of a die, and it must be made of the best iron to stand frequent

heating. These are all the operations to which sheep are subjected in summer .

(592)

297

SHEEP- SHEARING.

( 2028.) ScaldedHeads. - Sheep are much infested in summer with flies.

As a protection to

the head against them , the simple cap, or hood, as seen in fig. 371 , is effectual. It may be made of stout linen , and fastened

Fig. 371.

with4 tapes tied crosswise un der the chin , or of leather, and buckled at the same place.

Hin

Leicester tups should not be without these caps in summer, especially when grazing near woods ; and, as tups are occa sionally apt to box each other, any little portion of skin which may thereby be abraded on the head will receive immediate

protection from the cap. (2029.) Doddering:--One great means ofwarding off the attack of the fly on hoggs is doddering, especiallyin locali ties obnoxious to flies.

This

operation consists of clipping away all the wool off the tail EXBANK SC

and between the hind -legs. Should boggs scour,whichthey not unapt to do when put are on foggage immediately after

THE HEAD-CAP, OR HOOD, FITTED ON THE SHEEP.

being weaned, and when there

isno rough mooryor hillypasture to put them upon previously for some weeks, the removal of the wool will prevent the discharge remaining about the animal, and, of course, deprive the fly of one object of attraction. The use of docking the tails of sheepis now made obvious (1841). ( 2030.) Those who have many horse-chestnut trees, Æsculus hippocastanum , may be pleased to learnthat their fruit, which is considered worthless, and even poisonous in this country,though both opinions are erroneous, may be usefully employed in feeding sheep. " While I was at Ge neva in the autumn of 1837,” says a correspondent, "I observed every one collecting carefully the fruit of the horse -chestnut, and on inquiry I learned that the butchers and holders of grazing stock

bought it readily at a certain price perbushel. I inquired of my butcher, who himself kept a very extensive grazing farm , and he told me it was given to those sheep in particular that were fattening. The horse -chestnuts were well crushed - something in the way, so I understood, that

apples are - previous to cider being made. In Switzerland,they are crushed or cut up in a ma chine kept solely for that purpose ; then about 2 lbs. weight is given to each sheep, morning and evening. Sheep eat it greedily ; it must be portioned out to them , as too much would disagree with them , it being of a very heating nature. The butcher told me that it gave an excellent rich flavor to the meat . The Geneva mutton is noted for being as highly flavored as any in England or Wales ." *

( 2031.) Sheep on hill-pasture delight in summer to spread themselves over, and to go to the highest point of their range. Ewes are restricted in their range by the lambs, which, when young, show little inclination to wander afar, but rather to lie down and sleep after being satisfied with

milk . Hoggs keep much together, and on that account do not wander far from their morning lair, wherever that may be. Wethers, on the other hand, attain the hight of their pasturage at an early period of the day, and remain till dusk. You thus see, when sheep of different ages are brought up together, how usefully they distribute themselves over their entire pasture ; and where

only one class of sheep are reared, they extend their range according as their age increases, or their food becomes bare. On contiguous estates, where there is no march dyke to define their

common boundary, it is quite possible that the lock of one property may occasionally trespass on the pasture of another. Should this happen in the early part of the day, the shepherds should not

dogoff the strange sheep, as that may render them restless evenfor days; but wait till nightfall, and then point them gently over the march to their own ground, where they will take to their usual lair . Sheep usually select a spot for resting at night, and it will mostly be that which is safest for them , especially if the sheep are aged , and well acquainted with the ground. In fine weather they should not be disturbed in thusselecting their lairs, but in case of threatening storm they had better be directed to the sheltered side of the pasture, or even near the stells, if need be.

Within inclosed fields in the Lowlands, sheep can hardly go wrong in summer in selecting their lairs for the night

(2032.) The figures of the bull's ring and bullock -holder nothaving reached me when their use was describedin (1994) , I here give them before concluding the account of the treatment of stock in summer. Fig. 372 represents the bull's ring in an open state , ready to be inserted into the bull'snose , the joint a allowing the two sides of the ring to open as wide as the end b may be in

serted into the hole burned into the septum of the nose . Fig. 373 shows the ring closed , after it has been fastenedinto the nose, a being the joint, and b the two ends of the ring lapped overand secured together by 2 countersunk screws. The ring is formed of 4-inch rod -iron, and its diam eter over all is 2} inches, and it should be highly finished. + The Gardener's Chronicle, 21st October, 1843. ( 593)

298

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

(2033.) The Bullock -holder is well represented byfig. 374, where a is the joint which allows

its two parts to open so far as each to enter a nostril of the animal. The levernut c brings the knobbed

points b as close as to embrace and hold firm the septum of the nose. The leading two rein is fastened to the under ring e. This form of bullock -holder would allow the points b to be Fig. 374 .

Fig. 372.

Fig. 373.

o od THE BULL'S RING IN A STATE TO BE INSERTED INTO THE BULL'S NOSE .

THE BULL'S RING AS FASTENED IN THE BULL'S NOS E.

THE BULLOCK HOLDER .

screwed to any degree of tightness, until they meet each other ; and it is, in my opinion, so far objectionable, as the screwing may be carried as far by a rash hand as to hurt the animal when the instrument was moved in the least degree to either side. Another form which I have seen

and approve of, neverallows the two knobs b of the instrument to be screwed closer than just to embrace the septum of the nose , allowing the holder to swing from the nose at ease while it holds the nose firmly whenever the animal attempts to move away. The cost of a bullock-holder of either of these forms is 48. each .

26. ROLLING THE FLEECE, AND THE QUALITIES OF WOOL. “ Collect Come, :gentle swaing, the bright unsullied locks Be faithful ; and the genuine locks alone

Wrap round ; nor alien flake,nor pitch enfold ; Stain not your stores with base desire to add Fallacious weight.” DYER .

(2034.) Whenever a fleece is clipped from the sheep, a field -worker should be ready to roll it up. I have already said that a board should be

provided to roll the fleeces upon , and it may be erectedeither in the clip ping-barn, or any other adjoining apartment, such as the corn -barn ; but themost convenient place for it is besidethe clippers, as is also the stance for the rolled -up fleeces to lie upon till the end of the day's work, when they are removed to the wool-room . Suppose the board to be placed in

the clipping -barn ,the fleece, whenever separated from the sheep, is lifted unbroken from the cloth , and spread upon the board on its clipped side. The winder examines the fleece that it is quite free of extraneous sub

stances, such as straws, bits of thorn, of whin, or burs, and removes them, and she also removes, by pulling off, all locks that have lumps of dung adhering to them , and which have escaped the notice of the washers. The farmer should be very particular in giving instructions on the purity of the fleece, as the purchaser cannot unloose every fleece he buys ; and should be find as much filth in the fleeces after purchase as to warrant the belief

that it had been purposely left in them , he may either relinquish his bar gain, or make a large deduction from the price -- in the former case imply ( 594)

ROLLING THE FLEECE .

299

ing fraud on the part of the farmer, and in the latter diminishing his profits. And besides the disgrace, any person who attempts to commit fraud in

the case of wool is liable to be merced in heavy fines when informed against, which he puts in the power of the purchaser of the wool to do. The winder being satisfied that there are no impurities in the fleece, folds in both its sides, putting any loose locks of wool into the middle, and

making the breadth of the folded fleecefrom about 24 to 30 inches, ac cording to its size. She then begins to roll the fleece from the tail toward the neck as tightly and neatly as she can, and when arrived at the neck, draws the wool there as far out, twisting it into a sort of rope, as will go round the fleece, hold its own end firm , and make the entire fleece a tight bundle.

The fleece is then easily carried about, having the clipped sur

face outside, which, being composed of wool saturatedwith yolk, exhibits a shining, silvery lustre. Fleeces are by no means all alike either in struc ture or color. Those of ewes, for instance, will be found thin and open in the locks, of pale color, and feel light in hand ; those, again, of hoggs

will be close and long inthe pile, of a rich color, and the rolled fleece will feel heavy and be bulky in hand. Neither will all the fleeces be alike entire and in proper condition.

An occasional fleece may want some part,

having been shed off; and another may be coated , that is, have its wool felted together like a piece of very thick cloth ; while another may be a black fleece. Whenever any such difference is observed in a fleece, it

should be laid aside. The inferior stray locks, and those clotted with

dirt, should be put into a basket by themselves, to be afterward washed, dried, and used at home for various purposes, such asin repairingof sad dlery. Every day's clipping is carried into the wool-room , at W in the

steading, fig.4, Plate IV., which enters by a stair from the straw -barn. Previous to being occupied, the room should be completely swept ofall dust from its floor and plastered walls, and washed clean and dried. The fleeces are built up on the floor at a little distance from the wall, putting

thehogg and ewe fleeces in separate divisions.

The whole are covered

with clothes, and the shutters of the window closed.

The reason for

these precautions, which are too seldom attended to by farmers, is, that

the cloths keep off dust, prevent too quick evaporation of the yolk of the wool, which, if allowed, will diminish its weight, and the window -shutters being closed excludes the light, which obscures the bright lustre of clipped

wool. The odd fleeces and locks should not be brought into the wool

room at all, but the former sold, and the latter prepared for useimmedi ately, as their unclean state creates an effluvium which induces the wool moth, the Tinea sarcitella of Linnæus, to come into the wool-room .

If the wool- room is too dry, the natural moisture, occasioned by the yolk, evap orates, and the fibres become curled, and feel harsh ; and on the other

hand, if it is too damp, which is its usual condition, the fleeces become compressed, feel clammy, and affected with green and yellow mould. The wool-moth then takes up its residence, in summer, among such fleeces, and breeds numerous larvæ, which subsist on the very fibres of the wool, and

of course entirely destroy their character. There are farmers who have no wool-room , but keep their wool in the granary or an outhouse, where,

of course, either of these effects are aggravated . The best means that I know of preserving wool for a length oftime in the fleece, is to keep it in a wool-room with a wooden floor, packed in the pack -sheet, in which it will be out of reach of dust, light, and moths, and where no more air and

light need be admitted than is desirable. If it is meant to keep wool only for a few weeks, the means spoken of in the last paragraph are all that (595)

300

THE BOOK OF THE FARM- -SUMMER .

are requisite. The safest plan for the wool-grower is so sell it every year at the current prices, which are determined at the great wool fairs that take place in summer in many parts of the country, where wool-dealers attend, and whose proceedings are duly reported in the newspapers. (2036.) When a wool-dealer purchases wool from a farmer, he sends his own people to pack it in his own pack -sheets. Wool is weighed and

packed in this way: wool is sold in Scotland by the wool-stone of 24 lbs. avoirdupois, and it is weighed out in double stones of 48 lbs., each being

called a weigh. Usually 7 Leicester hogg and 11 ewe fleeces make i weigh. In England, wool is sold by the lb. and weighed out by the toà of 2 stones of 14 lbs. each, or 28 lbs. In weighing out, the above number of fleeces may not exactly weigh the double stone; and, as fleeces are never broken to equalize the scales, a few small weights are used to

balance the scale either on the side of thewool or of the weights, at each weighing. In this way the weight of the number of scalefulls required to fill each pack are correctly ascertained, a memorandum

being taken of the number of weighings. While a simple and large beam and scales for weighing the wool is erecting, the pack for contain ing the fleeces is also making ready, so that they may be packed imme

diately from the scales , and save much handling. Pack -sheets are made of thin canvas, of the shape of an oblongrectangle, about 8 feet long when empty, and open along one side. A small stone being placed in each end

ofthe opening of the sheet, a rope for each end beingsuspendedfrom the ceiling, the stones form knobs which prevent the corners of the sheet slip ping through the ropes, as at a a, fig . 375. The sheet d is suspended just Fig . 375.

BE

OL

WO

W

Ꭷ L

THE WEIGHING AND PACKING OF WOOL .

to swim above the floor. Two men, b and c, then get into the sheet, anc placing the fleeces, as handed to them by the woman e, in regular order

lengthways across its bottom, trample them down with considerable force especiallyat the corners, where they are pushed down with both feet set to

gether, while both hands are holding firm by the outside of the corner of the sheet immediately under the tying, as shown in action by the man b The second layer of fleeces is laid contrary to the first, that is, in length along the sheet, placing 2 or 3 fleeces parallel in the breadth of the sheet; but the fleeces at the ends are always placed across the length of the sheet, in the same position as before, and pressed down in the same manner. The sheet is thus filled with alternate layers of fleeces to the top, when (396)

THE QUALITIES OF WOOL.

301

the packers leave it, and then loosening the ropes, and reserving the small

stones for the next sheet, immediately close themouth of the pack ; for if left open, the elasticity of the wool will cause the fleeces to rise so far as

to render tắe closing afterward impracticable, and a pack is difficult to close at any time. With the aid of hand -cramps, inserted into the oppo site sides of its mouth, the edges are brought together, and are so held by

iron skewers being passed through both edges. When a farmer is pack ing wool on his own account, it is as well to know that common table forks answer as well as hand-cramps for pulling the edges of the pack sheet together, and for keeping them as close as skewers. The edges be ing thus brought together, they are permanently secured by sowing with

packing-needle and stout twine, andthe skewers are removed as the sew ing proceeds. Thus, one pack is filled after another. A pack of wool f contains 10 stones, that is, 240 lbs. Any wool I have seen packed in the

Highlands, was not put so regularly into the sheet as I have described ; the fleeces were crammed in and trampled down in the most irregular and promiscuous manner. I once had an opportunity of seeing merino wool packed on a large scale at Leipsic. The sheets were made of horse-hair, and, during the packing, were occasionally subjected to the pressure of a

long pole of wood acting upon them as a lever. The polewas fastened at one end by a ring tothe ground, and heavy weights were suspended, and a rope passed from the other through a ring in the ground, to keep good what the lever had gained. The wool was packing for Great Brit ain, and was to be conveyed in large wagons, each drawn by 8 stallions to be shipped at Rotterdam . In the rest of the cut the wool is seen piled

up at g, and the man i is in the act of weighing a scalefull with the large beam and scales h.

(2037.) Even on the slightest inspection of a fleece on the sheep's back ,

one can perceive that it contains wool of different qualities; the coarser is evidently below and the finer above ; but none but wool-staplers would discover 10 different qualities of wool in the same fleece. As a general

description of a fleece, I may mention that the finest wool is upon the shoulder and along the top of the back to the rump ; the next best is be low the shoulders, along the ribs to the rump — the coarsest being on the haunches — and that below the belly is short and detached, and cannot be classed with the rest . Each of these parts have their respective qualities,

which wool-staplers classify, in order to satisfythewants of their custom ers, the manufacturers. The subdivision of the fleece by wool-staplers, after they have purchased the wool from the farmers, is technically in these

terms: Prime - choice - super - head - downrights - seconds — fine abb coarse abb_livery_short coarse or breech -wool. It would be well for wool- growers to receive lessons from wool-staplers on the essential prop erties which constitute good wool, that they may be able to judge whether

the wool which they grow be intrinsically good or bad, comparatively im proving or deteriorating, or to what species of manufacture it is besť suit ed. According to present practice, wool-growers, I believe, demand prices ool on faithof markets, without knowing whether their wool

for their

is really worth a high or low price.

(2038.) Good wool should have these properties : The fibre of the sta ple - a staple being any lock that naturally sheds itself from the rest

should be of uniform thickness from root to point; it should betrue, as the phrase has it : the finer the wool, the smaller is the diameter of the fibre ; the fibre should be elastic, and not easily broken ; its surface should have a shining silvery lustre ; and it should be of great density or specific grav

ity. Of a staple, all the fibres should be of the same length, otherwise the (597)

302

THE BOOK OF THE FARMƏSUMMER.

staple will have a pointed character ; the end of the staple should be as bright as its bottom , and not seem as if composed of dead wool ; the entire staple should be strong, and its strength is tested in this manner : Take

the bottom of the staple between the finger and thumb of the left hand, and its top between those of the right; and, on holding the wool tight be

tween the hands, make the third finger of the right hand play firmlyupon the fibres, as if in staccato on the strings of a violin, and if the sound pro

duced be firm and sharp, and somewhat musical, the wool is sound ; if the fibres do not break, on repeatedly jerking the hands asunder with consid erable force, the staple issound ; if they break, the wool is unsound, and, what is remarkable, it will break at those places which issued from the felt of the sheep when the sheep was stinted of meat or had an ailment;

though it will not break at every place simultaneously, because the weaker part, occasioned by the greaterillness, will first give way. A good fleece should have the points of all its staples of equal length , otherwise it will be a pointy one ; the staples should be set close together; and it should be clean. One essential good property of wool is softness to the feel like silk , which does not depend on fineness of fibre, but on a peculiar property of yielding to the touch at once,and readily returning to the hand. There should be no hairs in wool - neither long ones, which are easily distinguish

able from wool, and give the name of bearded to the fleece ; nor short ones, soft and fine, like cat's hair,which are not easily distinguishable from wool, and are denominated kemps. The long hairs are frequently of a dif ferent color from the wool, but the kemp hairs are of the same color ; and, of the two, the latter are much the more objectionable, as being less easily detected.*

( 2039.) Keeping all these properties in view , it is clear that a farmer who breeds sheep having fleeces with pointy staples, thinly set on, and of unequal lengths - who stints his sheep of food at one time, and overfeeds them at another, thereby producing wool of unequal size, and therefore untrue — who, moreover , does not wash his sheep clean, or, having so

washed them , allows their wool to be again dirtied before being clipped, thereby creating much waste to the manufacturer to bring the wool again to a clean state the farmer who manages his sheep and wool so as to pro duce these effects, injureshimself to an incalculable extent. (2040.) It is remarked by Mr. Culley that “the Herefordshire sheep that have the finest wool are kept lean, and produce 13 lbs. each ; if better kept, they grow larger, and prodace more

wool, but inferior in quality.”

This is true of every breed of sheep, and particularly of the Me.

rino, whose propensity to leanness caused their culture to be abandoned in Great Britain, as be. ing unprofitable. Their wool did not so much deteriorate in this cold climate, as there was no

possibility of getting mutton upon their carcass. But, though leanness produces wool of finer quality than high condition, yet the remark is only strictly true when applied to breeds which yield fine woolin every state ofcondition ; for no degree of leanness will cause a coarse -wooled

breed of sheep, such as the Black -faced, to produce fine wool. To obtain any given quality of wool, therefore, it is necessary to possess the breed that produces it, and then the wool will be finer or coarser in comparison as the sheep are kept in low or high condition. There is no doubt

that the general quality of wool in this country has become coarser than it was years ago ; pot because the breeds of sheep have deteriorated -- for, on the contrary , they have all improved — but because the animals are now kept throughout the year in much higher condition ; and this result might have been anticipated, for, if there is any analogy between the vegetable and animal econ .

omy; we know that well manured soil will produce flax of thicker and longer fibre than the same soil in poor condition ; so, in like manner, sheep when in high condition produce wool of thicker and longer fibre than when lean. During the improvement that has taken place in the breeds of sheep, a counteracting influence, as I conceive, has been atwork to retain the woolof finer qual ity than the high condition would produce - I mean the influence of shelter ; and though it may only be of a negative character, preventing unequal evaporation of the yolk of wool, by warding off coldand drying winds, yet, in preventing these,its effects are positively beneficial, inasmach as Mr. Luccock observes that “the silky softness, like most other good qualities of the fleece, de

pends very much upon the breedof the sheep,and thequality of yolk which they constantly af. ford .”

It is difficult to say whether the density of the fibre ofwool,that most desirable property,

depends on some general law connected with the breed, or the circumstances in which the fibre *

See Luccock on Wool; Ed. 1805 .

(598 )

† Culley on Live- Stock - Note .

303

THE QUALITIES OF WOOL.

is produced ; for the mere coarseness or fineness of the fibre does not affect its specific gravity

as, for instance, the close full-grown wool off theshoulder of a sheep does not differ materially in density from that from the thin and hairy breech ; and hence, perhaps, the density does not de pend on the breed. I am inclined to believe that soil and climate very much affect the general condition of fleeces, for we find wool grown in the chalky districts of England much drier and

coarser than thatwhich is produced on fine,soft hazel loam ;and wool grown upon turnipsap pears tome coarser than when grown on grass in the same soil in similar condition. This fact is undeniable, that fleeces from the same breed. reared even in similar circumstances, differ much in

density. The conclusion to be inferred from all these considerations seems to be, that whatever induces the greatest secretion of yolk, whether it be breed, condition of animal, nature of soil, or

climate, will produce fibre of the greatest specific gravity ; and hence on grass on a deep mellow condition throughout the year, should produce the densest and the finest quality of fibre of wool. If these views be atall correct, you can easily perceive how much depends on the judgment of the farmerhimself,to produce wool that will possess the greatest number of good qualities. (2041.) Chemically , “ wool has not yet been subjected to a rigid examination ,” says Dr. Thom soil in good heart, and in a sheltered situation, a breed of sheep, capable of continuing in good

son ; "but, from the experiments made on it by Berthollet, there is reason to conclude that its chemical qualities do not differ much from those of hair. When growing upon the sheep, it is

enveloped in a kind of soapy matter, which protects it from the attacks of insects, and which is afterward removed by scouring. Vauquelin has examined this matter, and found it to consist of the following ingredients : A soap of potash - carbonate of potash — a little acetate of potash , Jime - a verylittle muriate of potash - and an animal matter." *

(2042.) Mr. Youаtt has examinedthe external structure of wool with the microscope, and has ascertained that the surface of the fibre is covered with a sort of scale which forms a series of ser .

rations along the entire length. The general outline of the woolly fibre consists of a central stem or stalk , probably hollow , or at least porous, and possessing a semi-transparency not found in the fibres of hair. From this central stalk there springs at different distances, in different breeds of sheep, a circlet of leaf-shaped projections. It is thus ascertained that wool possesses a property

common to all independent hornyfibres which issue from the felt of animals - namely, an irregu. larity which constitutes a certain degreeof roughness upon their surface from the root to the point. Hence, both physically and chemically, wool and hair are analogous substances. Some of the re sults of Mr. Youatt's investigations with the microscope, in conjunction with the micrometer, were these : Diameter.

Merino wool ... Picklock

Serrations.

757 an inch, and 2,400 in an inch. 2,560 750 ..

2,720

Saxony

1,860 1,280 2,080

Leicester

5o

Deccan, black

τόσο

Odessa Wallachian .. Australian New South Wales

750 750 750

2,080

750

2,080

780

2,400

Mr. Arthur's Van Diemen's Land .... South-Down .. Wiltshire

Ryeland Cheviot, hill- fed ..

750 660 500 750 500

good pasture . Norfolk ...

530

Lincoln ..

ao

..

1,920

2,080 1,860 2,420 1,860 1,440 1,600 1,280

1,920 of Irish 560 Another instrument besides the micrometer, named the eirometer - the invention of the late cele

brated optician, Dolland, of London,and which reads off diameters to a very minute fraction of an inch , is used for measuring the diameters of wool, and it may be emplayed by an inexperi. enced hand with less chance of error than a micrometer. It produces a double image of the fibre which are brought in contact, and the resultis then read off from a circular index. (2043.) Wool is well known to have a felting power, but it is unknown in whatthat power consists. A coated fleece is a natural instance of the felting tendency of wool. Mr. Youatt seems

10 believe that the discovery of the serrations on the fibre of wool accounts for its felting property. * Thomson's Animal Chemistry.

(599)

+ Youаtt on Sheep .

304

THE BOOK OF THE FARM.SUMMER.

• It is a curious and interesting point that has been established," he says, " the existence of an irregularity ofform in the wool. accounting for and necessarilygiving it a felting power — is there a variation in this structure corresponding with the degree of felting power ? ” Mr. Boyd, of In .

nerleithen, Peeblesshire, is much disposed to question Mr. Youatt's views. “ Mr. Youatt asserts with much confidence, " he remarks -- and in this remark Mr. Boyd is supported by Mr. Luccock " that the felting properties depend entirely on the structure of the wool. During an experi ence of many years I have found this not to be the fact, and therefore state, without fear of contra diction, thatin many instances it is impossible toestimate the extent of the felting properties in a variety of wools, until they have been submitted to the actual test of experiment; and I am de

cidedly of opinion ,” he adds, “ that however perfect the structure of wool may be, if producedin the absence of an oily or saponaceous substance, it cannot possess the requisite properties of a clothing material.”* Mr. Boyd is again supported by Mr. Luccock, when the latter says, “ If the wool.grower be anxious to promote the growth of Aeeces in which the felting quality greatly pre. vails, I should recommend , from the little knowledge at present possessed, that he attend closely to the supply of natural, rich, and nutritious yolk , which the pile receives while growing ." I confess that Mr. Youatt's theory to account for the felting property of wool, in reference to the action of the serrations on the surface of the fibre upon one another, appears to me unsatisfactory . On the authority of Mr. Luccock, the appliactio ture,warmth and pressure are necessary cation. of“ mois Without the aid of moisture," he affirms, “ it of wool into to brin the felti prop n g

ng

erty

rema ins perfectly dormant ; the warmth and pressure are required to quicken the process." And he adds, the degree of heat required to make the felting properly act with the utmost force is considerably below the boiling point of water, " and that “a higher temperature loosens the text

ure ofthe thread, and increases the elasticity ofthehair, thus giving it a disposition to start from the substance of the cloth and spoil its surface.” + If the action of the serrations on the fibres is the principal means of felting wool, it must be proved that they change their structure on being immersed in water of a temperature near the boiling point, which hasnot yet been done . It is also known that wool, after being combed with heated iron combs, will not felt ; and yet the fig . ures given by Mr. Youatt , of combed and uncombed wool of different varieties, indicate no such decided change by combing , on the structure of the serrations , as to warrant us in believing that in the ope state wool shall felt, and in another it shall not.

(2044.) Having mentioned the application of the microscope to the structure of wool, itmay If the fætus of a sheep," says M. Raspail,“ taken when it is of the length of about 41 inches,and preservedin prove instructive to show, by thesame instrument, in what manner wool grows.

66

alcohol, be examined, it will be found studded with globules of uniform size, elegantly arranged,

and almost at equal distances, round certain white spots disposed in quincunxes, which seem , even at this early period, to indicate the places where the hairs are to grow . On the epidermis of the temple, instead of thin white spots, we find vesicles . projecting in the form of bottles, or rather of urns, whose sides are granulated in the same manner as the epidermis. These vesicles are the rudiments of hairs.:'#

(2045.) The number of sheep in the empire, estimated by Mr. Macculloch, from different sources of information, is the following : .26,148,463 In England. In Scotland . In Ireland ..

3,500,000 2,000,000

Total.. 31,648,463|| By a statement made by the late Mr. Hubbard, an eminent wool-stapler in Leeds, the number

of packs of wool grown every year in England is 463,169, of 240 lbs. each, or of 111,160,560 lbs., (2046.) The term Merino, applied to a particular breed of sheep and variety of wool, is of ob scure origin. Mr. Southey informs us that “ Merino is an old Leonese title, still preserved in Portugal,though long since obsolete in the other kingdoms of Spain. Perhaps it is a mongrel which gives an average weight to each fleece, including those of lambs, of 44 lbs.

diminutive of the Arabic title mir or emir, likely enough to have been formed when the two lan .

guages, Spanish and Moorish, were, as it were, running into each other. Mirquebir, the augment. ed title, was in use at Ormuz. Merino would be sufficiently explained by supposing it a dimin .

utive grade. The old laws of Spain define it thus : ' He is a man who has authority to administer justice within a certain district. The first mention of this office is in the reign of Bermudo II. The Merinos then commanded the troops of their respective provinces in war; but, before the time of Henrique II., it was become wholly a civil office, and the title was gradually giving place

to that of Alguacil, mayor. Most probablythe judge of the shepherds was called the Merino, and hence the appellation extended to the flocks under his care." It is the general opinion that Me rino sheep came to this country from Spain , and so they did at the end of the last century ; but it

appears that fine-wooled sheep were sent from England to Spain a very long time ago. That sheep were sent from England to Spain at a known period is certain, for Mr. Youatt quotes from the chronicles of Stowe, that “ thisyere ( 1464) King Edward IV. gave a license to pass over cer. tain Cotteswolde sheep into Spain . ' And he quotes Baker also, who says : " King Edward IV .

enters into a league with John, King of Arragon, to whom he sent a score of Costalewes and four ramsa small present in show , but great in the event, for it proved of more benefit to Spain, and more detrimental to England, than could at first have been imagined." The wool of the

Cotteswolde sheep of the presentday is long, and not remarkable for fineness. Perhaps the old woolwasfiner than the present, because the latter has been much crossed with the Cotteswolde Leicester. But if the old Cotteswolde conferred so much benefit on Spain, it may be fairly in .

Ed. Farm . Lib .] [ll Recent estimates make the number from 50 to 70,000,000. + Luccock on Wool. * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. Raspail's Organic Chemistry, 1 $ Macculloch's Dictionary of Commerce, art. Wool (600 )

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

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ferred that thewool of Spain was not so fine as that of England at the time. But sheep were ex . ported from England to Spain prior to the reign of Edward IV., as Mr. Southey intimates that * Fernan Gomez de Cibdareal, in one of his letters (Epist. 73), mentions a dispute between two Spaniards concerning rank in the presence of Juan II., 1437. It was objected tauntingly to one of them , that he was descended from a judge of the shepherds. The reply was, that this office had always been held by hidalgos of great honor, and that King D. Alfonso had instituted it in the person of Inigo Lopez de Mendoza,when the English sheep were first brought over to Spain .' ' This dispute occurring in 1437, and referring to an ancient title of honor which had been conferred

as farback as the time of the introductionof Englishsheep into Spain, and a taunt being given in 1437 to a descendant of a judge of the shepherds — that is, of a Merino - thereby implying that he, the descendant, was at least of the second or third generation, it is clear that the English sheep referred to could have no reference to the Cotteswoldes exported in 1464, as mentioned by

Stowe. " How long was it before theMerinofleece became finer than that of the original stock ? ** asks Mr. Southey ; and he replies, “ Brito , who wrote toward the close of the 16th century, says, in praise of the wool grown about Santarem , it is so fine that it may vie with that of England, ( Monarchia Lusitania, f. i.. p. 93.) If the Spanish wool had been as fine then as it is now, he would hardly have drawn his comparison from the English ." * While these facts are recorded in Spanish literature regarding the origin and ancient quality of the wool of Spain, the opinion of Mr. Youatt seoms much too strongly expressed, when he saysthat "Europe and the world are

originally indebted to Spain for the mostvaluable material in the manufacture of cloth .” And, again, " The chunahs, therefore, may be descendants of the English sheep," namely, those sent to Spain in 1464. “ mixed with the common breed of the country ; but farther than this England

cannot, with any degree of justice, urge the claim which some have done, of being instrumental in producing the invaluable Spanish wool.” + And yet, as we have seen, sheep were probably sent from England to Spain long before that date, or even long before 1437; for if the King Al phonso,mentioned above as having instituted the order of judge of the shepherds, be Alfonso the

Wise, King of Leon and Castile, who is stated to “ have digested a code of excellent laws, and rendered his name famous in history by his patronage of the arts and sciences," I he reigned at the early period of from 1252 to 1284. And another fact mentioned by Mr. Southey - when Catherine, daughter of John of Gaunt, was espoused to Henrique III. , she took English sheep with her as

her dowry -- fixes another exportation of sheep to Spain about 1390,a considerable while prior to the Cotteswolde exportation of 1464 ; and, if the English sheep had been of an inferior descrip. tion to those of Spain, it is not likely that the future Queen of Castile would have taken them with her as her own dowry. In concluding this subject, Mr. Southey puts this doubting query:

· Can there possibly be any truth in the remark of Yepes (t. 7, Ø 134), who says : Daily experi ence shows us that, if a lambis suckled by a goat, the wool becomes hard and hairy ;‫ ܪ‬and, on the contrary, if a kid is suckled by a ewe, the hair becomes soft ? ' "

27. THE MAKING OF BUTTER AND CHEESE.|| " And now the DAIRY claims her choicest care, And half her household find employment there : Slow rolls the churn - its load of clogging cream At once foregoes its quality and name: From knotty particles, firstfloating wide, Congealing butter 's dashed from side to side ; Streams of new milk through flowing coolers stray, And snow -white ourds abound, and wholesome whey." BLOOMFIELD .

(2047.) The dairy operations on afarm of mixed husbandry are limited, both in regard to the season in which, and the quantity of materials by

which, they can be prosecuted. Until the calves are all weaned , which can scarcely be before the end of June, there is no milk to spare to make butter or cheese, but what of the former may suffice for the inmates of the farm -house ; and as some of the cows, at least, will have calved 4 months

before all the cows are free to yield milk for the dairy, a full yield of milk

cannot be expected fromthem even when entirely supported on grass. But though thus limited, both in regard to length of time and amount of

milk, there is ample opportunity for performing every dairy operation, ac cording to the taste and skill of the dairy -maid. For example : Butter [ll The dairy products of the United States in 1840 were put down at $33,787,008. Ed. Farm . Lib.] * Southey's Omniana, vol. ii.

(601)..... ,20

Youаtt on Sheep.

1 Bigland's View of the World , vol. li.

306

THE BOOK OF THE FARMSUMMER .

may be

made from cream, or from the entire sweet milk. It may be made

up fresh 1

for market, or salted in kits for familiesor dealers. Cheese may

also be made from sweet or skimmed milk, for the market; and any vari ety of fancy cheese may bemade at a time - such as cream-cheese, imita tion Stilton, Gloucester, or Wiltshire. With all these means at command,

to a moderate, indeed, but available extent, it is quite possible for the dairy-maid to display as much skill and taste in her art on a mixed as on

a dairy farm — not only in these respects, but in the endless forms in which milk may beserved on the table ofthe farmer . In short, the only advant age a dairy -farm possesses over one of mixed husbandry is, that all its dairy operations are conducted on a larger scale. (2048.) The milk -house, large enough and otherwise convenient and suitable for a farm of mixed husbandry, may be seen represented in plan

at m, fig. 32 ; and the cheese-room adapted to the same is seen in plan al h, fig. 33.

The mode in which a milk-house should be fitted up ,

is de

scribed in (231), as well as a cheese-room in (237). (2049.) The utensils with which a dairy shouldbe supplied, comprisea large number of articles, though all of simple construction. The milk dishes are composed of stone -ware, wood, metal, or stone.* The stone

ware consists of Wedgewood and common ware ; the wooden of copper work , of oak -staves bound with hoops of iron ; the metal of block-tin , or of zinc ; and the stone are hewn out of the block , and polished . Besides these, utensils formed of a combination of materials are used , such as wooden vessels lined with block-tin or zinc, and German cast-iron dishes

lined with porcelain . Of the whole variety, the stone and wooden ones lined with metal, are stationary, and the rest movable . All milk -dishes should be of a broad and shallow form , for the purpose of exposing a large

surface with a shallow depth of milk, in order to facilitate the disengage ment of the several parts of the milk. There seems to be a difference of opinion , which of those substances have the greatest influence in disen gaging the greatest quantity of cream from the milk. I have heard it maintained at one place that stone is much the best ; at another, that wood is the best ; at another, that stone-ware is preferable to all others, and of the two kinds of stone-ware that of the common ware is better than

Wedgewood's ; and at another, that zinc is by far the best ; from all which difference of opinion I would infer that the subject has not been satisfac torily ascertained by comparative experiment, and which I believe to be the case ; but I am sure that different management, even in the same cir cumstances, will produce very different results in this product of milk. Independently of the consideration of cream , however, other circumstances should be regarded in making choice of milk -dishes. Wooden ones re quire much labor to keep them thoroughly clean, though they are the least liable to injury in the use. Metal ones also require much cleaning, and are liable to be bruised ; and it is not questionable that they are unwhole some for milk, if not kept thoroughly clean . Tin produces no injurious

salt with the acid of milk ; but the salt produced by the action of lactic acid upon zinc, is believed to be in a slight degree poisonous to the human stomach . At all events , the thought of keeping milk in metallic dishes is unpleasant to the mind. Stone-ware is easily frangible, but is, neverthe less, so cheap, so easily cleaned , and so safe in use, that it forms the most convenient material for milk-dishes to every class of country people. The advantage of Wedgewood ware consists in its hardness, and the durability of its glazing. The price of dishes of common ware, of 15 inches in di [ * Better if made of glass, with their capacity stamped in the making. (602)

Ed. Farm . Lib .)

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.

307

ameter, is 9d. each ; of Wedgewood's ware, from 12 inches to 24 inches, from 2s. to 8s. each ; of wood, 16 inches diameter and 4 inches deep, 2s. each, and of zinc, 18 inches in diameter, 3s. 9d. each , and others are 3d. per inch more or less, as the diameter increases or diminishes from this size.

(2050.) The other utensils are : Creaming scallop, for taking the cream off milk ; a jar for containing the cream until it is churned ; a Wedge wood one, with top and opening in it to be covered with muslin, to keep out dust and let in air, costs from 6s. to 7s. 6d. ; a churn , of which there

are many forms, all of which will be found described below by Mr. Slight; a flat wooden kit, to wash butter in ; scales and weights for weighing but ter, whether in pounds, fractional parts of a pound, or in the lump ; jars

or firkins for packing salted butter ; moulds for forming prints of butter for the table ; covered dishes for holding fresh butter in pounds ; a tub for earning the milk in when about to make cheese ; a curd -cutter, and a curd -breaker; a drainer to lay across the cheese -tub while the whey is straining from the curd ; cheese-vats for giving the form to cheese ; a

cheese -press, a figure of the most convenient and powerful form of which

is given below ; a furnace and pot for heating water and milk ; and a sup ply of spring -water is an essential concomitant to a dairy. (2051.) A word or two on churns. The old -fashioned upright hand plunge -churn is now confined chiefly to the use of small farmers and cot ters ; but, when inanimate power is applied to the making of butter, the

upright churn is yet used by many dairy farmers who conduct their opera tions on alarge scale. About 20 years ago the barrel-churn was much in

vogue, and itwas very well suited for making butter, as it kept all the cream in constant agitation ; but the trouble required to keepit clean, from its inconvenient form to get within it, has tended to bring it into dis repute.

It is now superseded by the box -churn, whose construction ad

mits of its being easily taken to pieces and cleaned. Of the two forms of box -churn , I prefer the one in which the agitators move horizontally, be

cause it can be filled to any degree of fullness, without danger of the cream or milk working out of the journal-holes of the axle. Long ago, small churns were in repute ; though they fell into desuetude, but lately have

again come into use, and for making small quantities of butter theyare admirably adapted. Various constructions of small churns, intended to regulate the temperature of the cream, have of late been proposed, some ofwhich are noticed below . (2052.) A word or two also on cleanliness. Unless the milk-house is kept thoroughly clean, in its walls, floors, and shelves, the milk will be

come tainted ; and in order to keep them clean, the floor and shelves should be of materials that will bear cleansing easily and quickly.

In

most farm -houses the shelving is of wood, and the floor of pavement or brick. Wooden shelves can be kept clean, but are too warm in summer.

Stone shelving is better,but must be polished, otherwise cannotbe suffi ciently cleaned ; and to bekept clean, requires at times to berubbed with sandstone. Marble shelving is the best of all for coolnessandcleanliness, and they are not so expensive as many imagine. Polished pavement makes a more durable, easier cleaned , and cooler floor than brick. There should be ample means of ventilation in the dairy when required ; the principal object, however, not being so much a constant change or a larger

quantity of air, as an equality of temperature through summer and win To obtain this desideratum , the windows, which should face the N. or E., should not be opened when the temperature of the air is above or

ter.

below the proper one,which, on an average, may be stated at 500 Fahren (603)

308

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

heit. The milk -house should be thoroughly dry ; the least natural damp in the walls and floor will emanate a heavy fungus-like odor, very detrimen tal to the flavor of milk and its products. The utensils should all be kept thoroughly clean, and exposed to and dried in the air. Some dairy -maids are so careless in this respect, that I have seen seams of green and yellow rancid butter left in the corners and angles of churns, and a heavy smell

of dirty woolen rags pervading wooden utensils. However effectual woolen scrubbers may be in removing greasiness left by milk and butter on wooden articles, they should never be employed in a dairy, but only coarse linens, which should always be washed clean in hot water without soap, and dried in the air. All the vessels should be quickly dried with linen cloths, that no feeling of clamminess be left on them , and then ex posed to the air. In washing stone-ware dishes, they should not be dried

at that time, but set past singly to drip and dry ; and they should be rubbed bright with a linen cloth when about to be used. If dried and set into

one another after being washed, they will become quite clammy. The great objection to using stone milk -coolers is the difficulty of drying them

thoroughly before being again used. No milk -house should be so situate as to admit the steam rising from the boiler which supplies hot water for

washing the various utensils; nor should the ground before its windows contain receptacles for filth and dust, but be laid out in grass, or furnished with evergreens. It is said that the odor from the blossom of the com

mon elder, Sambucus nigra, in summer is a complete muscafuge, if I may be allowed to coin a word .

(2053.) The articles which engage the dairy -maid's attention within the dairy are milk, butter, and cheese ; and, first, as to milk . I have already said that the milk is drawn from the cow into a

pail ( 1670), the most convenient form of which is

Fig. 376 ,

given in fig. 376, and the size of which may vary to suit the pleasure of the dairy-maid.

It is made

light, of thin oak staves bound with iron hoops , and costs from 2s. 6d. to 5s., according to the size. The milk , in being drawn from the cows, is put into a tub, and left to cool ; but not to become so

cold or stand so long as to separate the cream . The tub should be placed in the air, and out of reach of animals, such as cats and dogs. After it

has cooled , the milk is passed through the milk sieve into the milk -dishes, and as much only is put

into each dish as not to exceed 2inches in depth. To know at once the age of milk in the dishes , one mark or score should be made with chalk on THE MILKING - PAIL .

the dishes just filled, to show that they contain the last drawn milk, or freshest meal ; a second mark is made, at the same

time, on the dishes containing the meal before this; and a third is put on the dishes containing the milk drawn before the second meal, and which constitutes the third meal, or oldest milk. If the cows are milked

three times a day, when the first mark is put on thedishes of the evening

meal, those of the morning meal of the same day will have 3 marks, to in dicate its being the third meal previous, and the dishes of the mid -day or second meal will have 2 marks. At every meal all the utensils that have been used should be thoroughly cleaned , and set past dry , ready for use when required.

(2054.) The next care of the dairy -maid is taking the cream off the milk . In ordinary weather in summer the cream should not be allowed to remain (604)

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

309

longer on the milk than 3 meals — that is, when a fresh meal is brought in, the cream should be taken off the dishes which have 3 marks, when the milk will be 20 or 22 hours old ; but, should the weather be unusually warm , the milk should not be allowed to be more than 18 hours old, or

that having 2 marks, before the cream is taken off it. For example : in ordinary routine, the cream of the previous mid-day's milk should be taken off in the morning, and at mid -day the milk of the previous evening would be creamed , and so on ; but, when the weather is very warm, it would be

well to anticipate the creamingof one meal, and take the cream of the two oldest meals at one time, and in this way take off all the cream that can be got every 18 hours. The reason for using this precaution in taking off cream is, that the milk should on no account be allowed to become sour before the cream is taken off, because the cream of sour milk makes bad butter.

Let sweet cream become ever so sour after being taken off the

milk, and no harm will accrue to the butter. Not that sour cream off sour milk is useless, or really deleterious, for it may be eaten with relish by it

self, as a dessert, or with porridge. The cream is skimmed off milk with a thin, shallow dish, called a skimmer or creamer .

It may be made of wood

or of stone-ware ; and, of the two substances, the ware is preferable for

cleanliness; and, of ware, Wedgwood's or porcelain is the best, being light, thin, hard, highly glazed, and smooth . There is no other way of taking cream off dishes but with a skimmer; but in stationary coolers, of

metal or of stone, a spigot is drawn cautiously from a hole in the bottom, through which the milk runs slowly down into a vessel, and the cream is left on the bottom of the vessel ; and this manner of separating the cream from the milk is said to be the most effectual; but, of course, the skimmer can be used for creaming the milk in coolers,as well as other dishes. The cream, when taken off the milk, is put into a cream -jar, in which it accu mulates until churned into butter. Every time a new portion of cream is put into the jar, the cream should be stirred , in order to mix the different

portions of cream into a uniform mass. The stirring is usually done with a stick keptfor the purpose , but spoons of Wedgwood ware are made for

doing it. The cream soon becomes sour in the jar, and it should not be kept too long, as it is apt to contract a bitter taste . Twice a week it should

be made into butter, howeverlittle the quantity may be at atime. The skimmed milk is put into a tub and made into cheese ; but, if a cheese is onlymade every other day, the milk kept for the following day should be scalded before it is put into the tub. (2054.) On converting cream into butter, the first act is to put the churn into a proper state. It is assumed that thechurn when last used was put

aside in a thoroughly clean and dry state. This being the case, a little hot water, about 2 quarts, should be poured into it to scald and rinse it. In summer it should be rinsed with cold water after the hot, but not in win ter. Some people sprinkle a little salt into the churn before the cream is put into it, but whether it does any good or not I cannot say. The churn being thus prepared, the cream is strained into it through a bag of coarse, open sort of linen cloth , well known under the name of cheese - cloth . This

cloth is alwayskept in a sweet state, no soap ever being employed to wash it. It is dipped inwater, and then held over the churn ; and, on the cream being slowly poured into it from the jar, the greater proportion will run through into the churn ; but the clotted part, which will contain in it dust, drowned flies, moths, and spiders, and other impurities, which it is impos

sible to keep out of an open cream -jar, the cloth will keep back , on being gently pressed. In the small hand plunge- churn, and in a barrel-churn, a churn -cloth is required to be put round the mouth of the former, and un (605)

310

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

der the bung of the latter, to prevent thecream being thrown out in churn ing. The temperature at which cream is put into the churn has a consid erable influence on the time which the butter will take to make, and also

on the weight of butter obtained from a given quantity of cream. It has been found that 550 Fahrenheit is the temperature which bestattains these ends, and it is one easily attained in a cool apartment early ofa summer's morning. The churning should be done slowly at first, until the cream has been completely broken — that is, rendered a uniform mass - when it becomes thinner, and the churning is felt to be easier. During the break ing of the cream a good deal of gas is evolved, which is usually let off by

a small spigot-hole, if the churn be tight, such asa barrel-churn ; but in other churns, which have a cover, the air escapes of itself. When the mo

tion of churning is rotatory, it should be continued in the same direction, and not changed backwardand forward. I am not sure that asatisfactory reason can be given for continuing uniform motion, but the opinion is that the butter is formed more simultaneously, and that the backward and for

ward motions are apt tomake the butter soft. It is certain, at all events , when the motion is uniform and rather slow, the butter, whenever it is

formed, is felt to stop the motion of the agitators at once. After the cream has been broken, the motion may be a little increased, and continued so until a change is heard in the sound within the churn, from a smooth to a

harsh tone, and until an unequal resistance is felt to be given to the agita tors . The buttermay soon be expected to form after this, and, by increas ing the motion a little more , it will form the sooner, and, the moment it is formed, the motion should cease. The rate of motion in churning butter is of some importance, for, when performed too slowly, a longer time will be spent in churning than is necessary, and the butter will bestrong -tasted ; and, on the other hand, when the motion is too rapid, the butter will be

soft and frothy, when the churning is said to have burst. In very warm weather, and when the cream is put in too warm ,thechurning is liable to burst with any degree circumstances of fast motion, and hence the judgment is required to be exercised in the

. I suppose that the most proper mo

tion in churning has never been ascertained by experiment, and to deter mine which would probably be tedious, but it would be worth while being tried. When butter forms from cream in of an hour to 1 hour churning, it is satisfactory work ; when it comes much sooner it will be soft, and when much later it will be strong-tasted. The temperature, by agitation during churning, rises 30 or 40.

(2055.) Immediately on being formed, butter should be taken out of the churn and put into the butter tub, one of a broad and shallow form , to be worked up

A little cold water being first put into the tub, and the tub set in an inclined position, the butter is spread out, rolled up round the edges, and pressed out by the palm of the hand, in order to deprive it of

all the buttermilk - for the least portion of that ingredient retained in it would soon render it rancid. The milky water is poured off, and fresh poured in, andthe butter is again washed and rubbed as often as the wa

ter becomes milky. If intended to be kept or disposed of in a fresh state, the large lump is divided and weighed in scales in 1 lb. or { lb.lumps each, and placed separately in the tub among water. Each lump is then

clapped firmly by the hand and formed into the usual form in which pounds and half-pounds of butter are disposed of in the part of the country in which your farm is situate. For the table any requisite number of the pounds should be moulded from the lump into prints according to taste, or rolled into forms with small wooden spades, figured or plain. The (606)

-

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

311

made-up butter is then floated in jars with covers, in a clear, strong brine of salt and water, fit to float an egg, made ready for the purpose. ( 2057 ) Objections have been urged against the use of the hand in mak ing up butter, and small wooden spades recommended to be employed for the purpose ; and the use of water has also been objected to makingwup of butter, as it is said to deprive the butter of its pleasing aroma. A o man who has hot, clammy hands, should never become a dairy -maid, for,

butter being verysusceptible of taint, its flavor will, no doubt,be injured by the heavy smell of sweaty hands; but clean, cool hands — rendered so by washing in warm water and oatmeal, not soap, and then rinsed and

steeped in cold water - hands so prepared will make up butter farcleaner oth

and more solid than any instrument, whether of wood or of any er ma terial; and as to cold water injuring butter, there can be no such strong affinity between a fatty matter like butter and cold water, as that the lat

ter shall dissolve any essential ingredient out of the former ; at all events, water will more effectually take away any milky substance from butter than any dry instrument that can be used , or even all the art the hand alone can accomplish .

Let the trial be made both ways, and their com

parative efficacy be tested by keeping the butter fresh , and seeing which will keep the longest sweet.

(2058.) If the butter is intended to be salted, it is somewhat differently treated. After being washed clean, as above described , it is weighed in the scales, and salt is immediately applied. Practice varies much in the quantity of salt given to butter, so much as from 1 oz. of salt to 1 lb. of

butter, to } oz .of salt to 14 lbs. of butter : 1 oz. to 1 lb. is too much — it is like curing butter with as little art as a salt herring- oz. of fine pure salt being quite sufficient; and this quantity is intended for keeping-butter, for

as to powdered butter for immediate use, 1 oz. to 2 lbs. is quite sufficient. of salting, the butter is spread out in the tub, and the salt, ground fine, is sprinkled over it by little and little, and the butter rolled up and rubbed down with the side of the hand until the whole mass ap pears uniform , and is considered to be incorporated with the salt. To in sure uniform salting, only half the salt should be applied at once , and the In the process

butter lumped and setaside until next day, when the other half of the salt should be rubbed in. Whatever of brine or milk may have subsided from

the lump, in the mean time, should be poured off. The salted lump is then put into the jar or firkin on the second day. One great advantage of de ferring the making up of butter until the second day is that, without it, the butter will not assume that firm , smooth, waxy texture, which is so charac

teristic a property of good butter. Butter when kitted is pressed firmly down in all points, and great care taken that it be particularly pressed with the side ofthe finger round the circumference of thejar, andits sub stance made solid, and its surface flatand smooth. If a former churning

of butter had been put into the jar, its surface should be raised up into regular furrows, that the new lump of butter may be commingled with what was put into the kit before. The compressing of butter, then, into the kit, is of great importance, inasmuch as, if the least cell of air be left in its mass, or get access by the side of the kit, it will wind the butter that is, impart to it a rancid taste.

After the kit has been filled within an

inch of the top, the butter is made smooth , and covered with a new piece of wetted white linen or cotton cloth. To secure its goodness, butter should be salted immediately on being made.

(2059.) The state of the kit should be particularly examined before it is

it is easily cleansed used for packing butter. If composed of stone-ware, used before should be

and rendered sweet. (607)

A wooden kit that has been

./

312

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

filled with water for some time, torender it water-tight by the swelling of the edges of the staves. It should then be repeatedlyscalded withhot water, and exposed to the air, and, just before being used, should be rinsed

with cold water, and a slight sprinkling of salt scattered over its bottom . A new wooden kit requires somewhat different treatment, because the odor from the new wood will impart a disagreeable flavor to the butter. It should be filled with water mixed with garden mould, or with lime-shells

and water, for somedays, and the mixture occasionally stirred ; after which it should be thoroughly scrubbed and cleansed with hot water, and rinsed with cold water, and salted before being used. (2060. ) The quality of the salt has a material effect on the taste of the

butter that has been salted with it. Ordinary sea -salt contains a consider able proportion of other salts which are bitter, and, of course, they will have effect upon the butter as well as the true salt. “ It is easy, however,

to purify the common salt of the shops from these impurities," says Pro fessor Johnston, " by pouring 2 quarts of boiling water upon 1 stone or 2 of salt - stirring thewhole well about, now and then,for a couple of hours, and afterward straining it through a clean cloth. The water which runs through is a saturated solution of salt, and contains all the impurities, but

may be used for common culinary purposes, or may be mixed with the food of the cattle. The salt which remains in the cloth is free from solu.

ble salts of lime and magnesia, and may be hung up in the cloth till it is dry enough to be used for mixing with the butter or with cheese."* (2061.) Butter assumes a texture according as it has been treated. When burst in the churning, it is notonly soft but frothy, and, on being cut with the knife, seems as if it could be compressed into much less bulk . When

churned too rapidly, especially in warm weather, the churning may not advance to the degree of bursting, but the butter will always continue soft, and never assume a firmness, though worked up with ever so much care,

and in the coolest manner; and, when one piece is separated from another, they are drawn asunder with a jagged surface, and stick to the knife that cuts them . Soft butter will not keep long, whether salted or fresh. When over-churned — that is, when the churning has been continued after the butter had been formed, it becomes soft, not unlike the state when it is too

rapidly churned. When properly churned, both in regard to time and

temperature, butter becomes firm with very little working, and is tena ed into any shape, and may be drawn out a considerable length before breaking. It is only in this state that butter has the rich nutty flavor and cious ; but its most desirable state is that of waxy, when it is easily mould

smell, which impart so high a degree of pleasure in partaking it. To judge of butter, it is not necessary to taste it — the smooth, unctuous feel, on rubbing a small piece between the finger and thumb, expresses at once its richness of quality ; the nutty smell indicates a similar taste; and the

bright, glistening, cream -colored surface shows it to be in a clean state. (2062.) What I have stated in reference to the making of butter, applies especially to that obtained from cream alone, and from cream in the usual

state forbutter - namely, after it has become sour by keeping ; but butter can be obtained from sweet cream as well, though churning renders its buttermilk sour, as well as that always is from sour cream . To have but ter in perfection from sweet cream , it should bechurned every day ; and,

as thesupply of cream daily is usually very limited, a smaller churn than haps, none better than the table -churn figured hereafter — by the peculiar

usual is most convenient to be used ; and for this purpose there is, per Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry. (608)

-

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

313

construction of which , being placed in a vessel, the temperature of the cream can be regulated in all seasons. I see it alleged in advertisements of churns of similar construction to this, that butter may be made from cream in 10 or 12 minutes. I have made several experiments with such a table -churn, in churning cream at different temperatures, and with differ ent velocities, but never obtained good butter in less than 30 minutes ; and, when formed so quickly as in 15 minutes, the butter was as soft as froth .

I have heard it alleged that butter of the finest quality cannot be obtained from sweet cream ; but the allegation, I suspect, is made by persons who have little experience of butter from sweet cream . So far am I from co inciding in this oplnion, that I know butter of the richest quality, and of the finest flavor and appearance, can be made from sweet cream . Were

this butter not necessarily good, would the nobles of the land have it upon their tables every morning ? It is true that sweet cream requires longer churning than sour-still, butter is obtained from it in from 30 to 40 min utes ; and, if it is an unprofitable mode of using cream, that is a different question. For my own taste, I would never desire better butter, all the year round, than that churned every morning in a small churn from sweet cream . Such butter, on new baked oat-cake, cooled, with a little virgin flower -honey, and a cup of hot, strong coffee, mollified with crystalized sugar and cream , such as the butter had been made from , is a breakfast worth partaking of, but can seldom be obtained .

(2063.) Besides cream, butter is made from sweet milk ; but, to obtain which, a large churn is required , and the churning continued for a long time, seldom less than 3 hours. When the quantity of milk is large, power human, whether of steam , water, or horse, is employed to move other th the churn . The butter obtained from this method is very good.

The ob

vious objection to this method is, the labor imposed in agitating a great quantity of milk, and in consequently having a large quantity of butter milk ; which , however, may easily be disposed of in towns, and may even

be converted into very good cheese. The method has its advantages in the uniform character of the butter which it affords in all seasons, from the

certainty of obtaining a churning at theproper temperature, which is re quired to be higher than that of cream , being 650 Fahrenheit, and easily obtained, in winter and summer, by the addition of hotter or colder water

among the milk. Churning from sweet milk is thus a comparatively sim ple process . The milk is poured into coolers at first, and from them “ it is drawn off by siphons into vats sufficiently large to contain both the eve ning and morning meals ; and the vats are then put by, tostand totally un disturbed , till the whole acquires a sufficient degree of acidity . The time required for this purpose varies a little according to the heat of the weather and the temperature of the milk-house. The point is ascertained by the formation of a strong, thick brat or scum on the surface, when this becomes uneven .” All the milk is not of the same age, but this does not affect the quality of the whole.

The times of churning are these : “ The milk of

Sunday and Monday is churned on the Thursday morning ; that of Tues day, Wednesday, and Thursday mornings, on the Saturday evening ; and that of Thursday evening,Friday and Saturday,on the Monday morning." * (2064.) In churning either ingredient the residuum is buttermilk, which , when obtained in large quantity from milk, may be disposed of in towns, or converted into cheese ; and ,when derived in small quantity from cream , a part may be used for domestic purposes, and the remainder mixed with the food given to the brood-sow. * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, for July, 1843. (609 )

314

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER .

(2065.) It is now time to say something on the making of cheese. On a farm of mixed husbandry, as much skimmed milk cannot be procured ev

ery day as to make a cheese of ordinarysize, but there may be one made every other day. To save skimmed milk from souring in warm weather till the next day, it is necessary to scald it — that is, to put it into a furnace

pot, and heat it sufficiently, and then let it cool . The fire should be a gen tle one, and the milk should be so carefully attended to as neither to burn nor boil, nor be made warmer than the finger can bear. After being thus heated in the morning, the milk should be poured into a cheese -tub, to

await the cheese -making of the following day. The skimmed milk of next morning is poured into the same tub, except about į of it, which is put into the furnace or another pot , and made warm for the purpose of ren dering the entire milk of the tub sufficiently warm . Theheat is applied slowly to the pot ; the milk occasionally stirred with a stick, and made as

warm as the finger can hardly bear. This warm portion is then poured into the tub, the contents of which are thereby made as warm as new milk --that is, about 110° or 1120. The various degrees of heat here referred

to are in rather vague terms, but I believe nospecific degree of heat is required in scalding, provided the milk is not allowed to burn at the bot tom of the pot, and is prevented from boiling ; for, if it boil, the milk will coagulate instantly, and be useless for cheese-making, because the cheese will then be hard or flinty ; and, so far as these two points are concerned, the ready and practical test of the finger is sufficiently accurate. On the

contents of the tub being mixed by stirring, the rennet or earning is added some time to coagulate, with a cloth to the milk, which is allowed to stand heat.

thrown over it, to keep the proper

(2066.) In the meanwhile, I shall describe the method of preparing the rennet, or reed, or earning. A calf's stomach is usually recommended for this purpose ; but as calves' stomachs are not easily obtained in districts where calves are reared, a pig's stomach, which can be easily. obtained on every farm , will answer the purpose equally well — and, indeed, many be

lieve that it makes the strongerearning of the two. When the pigs are killed for hams in winter, their stomachs should be preserved for rennet,

and they are preserved in this manner : Let the inside skin of the stom achs be taken out; the operation is somewhat troublesome, but may easily be done by an experienced dairy -maid. Any curdling in it is thrown away, as being unnecessary, and tending to filthiness ; and the skin is then wiped clean with a cloth, not washed. It is then laid flat on a table, and

rubbed thickly over with salt on both sides, and placed on a dish for 4 days, by which time it has imbibed sufficientsalt to preserve it. It is then hung stretched over a stick near the fire to dry and won, and in the dried state is kept for use as rennet by the next season. Some people place a layer of clean wheat straw on the skin, after it is salted , and roll the skin

over it to keep it open - tie a piece of paper around it, and then hang it up near the kitchen -fire to dry and won. This plan is good enough, but not better than the other. When the rennet is to be used, a strong brine

of salt and boiling water, sufficient to float an egg, is made and sieved

through a cloth, and allowed to cool, to the amount of 3 imperial pints to each skin. One skin is allowed to remain in that quantity of brine in a

jar, with its mouth covered with bladder, for 3 or 4 days, when the coag

ulating strength of the brine is tested by pouring a drop or two into a tea cupfull of lukewarm milk ; and, when considered sufficiently strong , the brine is freed of the skin, bottled and tightly corked for use. The skin is salted as before, and spread over a stick to dry and won, and is again (610)

MAKING BUTTER AND

CHEESE .

315

again ready for use when required. Half a tea -cupfull of this rennet will coagulate as much milk as will make a 15-lb. cheese.

(2067.) When the milk is sufficiently coagulated, which it will be in half an hour, the curd is cut in the tub with the curd -cutter, fig. 377, which con sists of an oval hoop of copper ab, 9 inches long and 6 inches wide, and 11 inches deep, embracing

Fig 377.

a slip of copper, of the same depth, along its longi

tudinal axis a b. The stem c of round copper rod

d

rising from each side of the oval hoop unites at c, and after attaining in all 18 inches in length , is sur mounted by a wooden handle d, 9 inches in length , but 6 inches would be enough , by which it is held either by one or both hands , and on the instrument

being used in a perpendicular direction, cuts the curd

aktthe curd bremen into pieces in the tub.d Some peopletru at first with the han , but this ins

cuts it

more effectually . On being cut, the curd lets outits whey , which is drained off by means of a flat dish being pressed against the curd -cloth, linen of open fabric, spread upon the curd. As much of the whey is removed in this way as practicable , and the curd will be left comparatively dry, when it receives an other cutting with the cutter, and the whey again

THE CURD-CUTTER.

expressed from it. The curd is then lifted out of the tub, and wrapped lying across the mouth of the tub, and the whey is pressed out of it by

into the curd -cloth, which , in the form of a bundle, is placed upon a drainer

main force. This is the laborious part of the operation, and to save both time and labor in large cheese dairies, the bundle of curd is placed in a large cheese-vat, and subjected to pressure in the cheese-press to get quit of the whey. The curd becomes very firm after this pressing, and must be cut into small pieces by some instrument before it can be put into the cheese -vat. In most small dairies, I believe that the hand alone , or a table

h as rep knife, is employed to divide the curd, but a simple implement, suc ative

ease resented and described below , effects the purpose with compar and sufficient minuteness. The curd, being made small enough, is salted to taste with salt ground fine. In some parts of the country , such as in Cheshire , and in Holland , cheeses are salted by being floated in a strong solution of salt in water, which no doubt penetrates thenew formed cheese,

but it seems an uncertain mode of giving any desired degree of saltness . After being salted , thecurd is put intoa cheese-cloth, spread over a cheese vat, and firmly packed into the vat higher than its edge, and on the curd being covered with the cloth, the vat is placed in the cheese-press and sub

will probably exude by jected to pressure, upon which a quantity ofwhey In a short lapse of time, 2 hours or -cloth put more , the cheese is turned out of the vat, a clean and dry cheese ected ed the holes in the bottom of the vat.

to in in, the cheese replac into it upside down, and again subj creased pressure in the press. Should whey continue to exude, the cheese must again be taken out of the vat, and a clean cloth substituted ; in short, a clean cloth should be substituted, and the pressure increased , as long as any whey is seen to exude ; but if the prior operations have been properly performed, the exudation should cease in about 12 hours, after which the

pressure is continued until the press is wanted for a new cheese on the second day. Fig . 378 shows the common cheese -vat or chessart , as it is called ,theform being varied according to that adopted for the cheese . This

vat isbuilt in elm staves, as being less liable to burst with pressure, (611)

anj

316

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -SUMMER .

strongly hooped, and is furnished with a sub stantial bottom , pierced with holes, to allow the whey expressed to flow away, and a strong wooden cover cross doubled.

Fig. 378.

It is of advan

tage that the cover fit the vat exactly, and that

the vat have as little taper interiorly as possi ble. In some parts, as in Cheshire, cheese- vats are made of tin, with holes in the bottom.

The

old and inconvenient form of cheese -press, as well as the new and convenient one, are both

found figured and described below by Mr. THE CHEESE-VAT. Slight. In some dairy districts large cheeses aresubject to immense pressure. In Cheshire the cheese is subject to three presses,

the first giving a pressure of 1, a second of a }, and a third

of 1 ton weight. There the cheeses being unusually large, are bound round with fillets of linen until their form attains consistency.

(2068.) After the cheeses have been sufficiently pressed , they are put into the cheese-room h, fig. 33, which should not be exposed to too much heat, drouth, or damp, as heat makes cheese sweat ; drouth dries them

too quickly, and causes them to crack ; and damp prevents them harden ing exposed to a cool, dry, and calm air upon the shelves m, will dry by degrees, and obtain a firm skin. The skinbecomes harder by beingdip ing and wonning, and causes them to contract a bitter taste. Cheeses be

ped in hot water, but I see no benefitto be derived from such a practice. They should be wiped with a dry cloth, to remove any moisture that

have exuded from them, and turned daily. To expedite the processmay of turning and rubbing, a cheese-rack, such as is figured below , has been in

use in England,and found to answer the purpose. New cheeses, as they are made,are set in the rack, while as many of the oldest are removed from it and placed upon the shelves. Some cheeses burst, and throw out a serous-like fluid, which accident happens in consequence of the whey

which was left in it fermenting, and which should have been pressed out. Any cheese that changes the shape which the cheese-vat gave it, shouldbe suspected of some organic change taking place within it; but if such a cheese does not crack, so as to admit the air into it, it may soon become

ripe and mould, and prove of fine flavor. The inconvenience of cracks in cheese, is the facility afforded to the cheese -fly to enter and deposit its

eggs ; and to prevent their egress, the cracks should be filled up every day with a mixture of butter, salt, and pepper, made to a proper consistency with oatmeal.

( 2069.) But the casualties which I have mentioned are less likely to be

fall skimmed -milk cheese, the making of which I have been describing, than new or sweet-milk cheese. These are made exactly in the same manner with the milk as it comes from the cow. One day's milk being insufficient for a cheese, the fresh morning's meal is mixed with the meals

of the previous day, the oldest part of whichwill have thrown up a cov ering of cream, which is mixed throughthe milk, and the entire gatherings are heated with a portion of the morning's milk. The rennet is applied in the same manner, but in rather larger quantity. Greater difficulty will be foundto squeeze the whey entirelyfrom the curd than with the skim med milk, and it is the difficulty of expressing all the whey out of them which renders sweet-milk cheeses more liable to ferment, and burst and

lose their shape. (2070.) I have said nothing of employing annotto or arnotto for dyeing

cheese,(612) because I think it a very useless piece of trouble which cheese

-

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

317

farmers impose upon themselves . It is employed in Gloucestershire to the extent of 1. oz. of arnotto to 1 cwt. of cheese ; and in Cheshire, 8 dwts.

to 60 lbs. of cheese, and it costs from 1s. to 1s. 6d. per lb. Arnotto is a precipitate from maceration of the pulp which covers the seeds of the Bixa orellana of Linnæus. It is manufactured in two forms, one in flags or cakes of 2 lbs. or 3 lbs. each, of a bright yellow color, soft to the touch, of

good consistence, and comes from Cayenne wrapped in banana leaves,and is much used in giving an orange tint to silk and cotton goods, but which is not permanent; and the other kind is called roll arnotto, which is small, not exceeding 2 oz. or 3 oz. each, hard, dry, and compact, of a brownish color outside and red within, is brought from Brazil, and is the kind used

in the dairies . The duty on the roll kind used to be £5 128. per cwt., and is now 4s.* When employed it is put into the milk before the earning, and it is prepared by rubbing down the requisite quantity in a bowl of

warm milk . All the quantity employed is said to impart no peculiar fla vor to the cheese, and this being the acknowledged case,of what utility is

it ? for as to the appearance of cheese, I suppose it will be allowed that Stilton and Dunlop cheese look as well on a table as that of Gloucester and Cheshire. Marigold flowers, saffron, and carrots, are also employed to give color to cheese. (2071.) The yield of dairy-cows varies so much, even in the same circumstances , that no aver age result can be depended upon. I have had cows of the same breed give from 8 to 17 Scotch pints a -day, that is, from 16 to 34 quarts ; and I have known a cow of a cross-breed give 60 quarts a -day. So is the variation in respect of the quality of the milk. I have had cows whose milk would only yield a thin film of cream in the course of 24 hours, while that of the others would almost admit of its cream of the same age being lifted off with the fingers. But though I can say nothing satisfactory on this head, I may state a few of the circumstances which are supposed to have a controlling influence onthe quantity and quality of the milk of cows.

(2072.) The circumstances which affect the quantity of milk are the breed ; the smaller breeds yield thesmaller quantity, and the yearly quantity of the large and small breeds may vary from 49007 to 24001 quarts ; the kind of food, cows fed on succulent food, such as moist meadow -grass, brewers' and distillers' refuse, and new sown grass, will yield a larger quantity of milk than when fed on hay and roots, and old pasture : and the time from calving, which, according to a state . ment of Mr. Aiton, causes a variation from 1200 quarts in the first 50 days, to 300 quarts in the sixth 50 days after calvingill

( 2073.) The circumstances which affect the quality of milk are more various. The breed has is superior to the large Yorkshire. The kind of food ,hay, corn and oil-cake, produce richer milk than turnips and straw, and yield more butter ; and bean -meal and tares afford more cheese than oil-cake, corn, potatoes and turnips. In the time from calving, it is well known that the first an effect; the small ones yield richer milk than the large, in which respect the small Kerry cow

milk of a cow, called the biestings (1677), is much richer than the ordinary milk which the cow afterward gives. It has a different composition from milk , and acts as a purgative to the new

born calf, which is of essential use to it at that period of life, in removing the sticky sort of dung called the meconium , from its bowels. You thus see how erroneous is the practice of those breed ers of calves who throw away the biestings as injurious. In wet and cold weather the milk is less rich than in dry and warm ; and on this account more cheese should be obtained in cold, and but

ter in warm weather. The season has its effect ; the milk in spring is supposed to be best for drinking, and hence it is then best suited for calves ; in summer it is best for cheese, and in au . tumn for butter ; and hence, perhaps, autumn butter keeps better than that of summer, because

contains less of the caseous principle. Cows less frequently milked than others will give richer milk, and consequently more butter ; morning's milk" is richer than the evening's ; and the last

drawn milk of each milking, at all times and seasons, that is, the afterings or strokings, are well known to be the richest part of the milk, and the first drawn the poorest. A cow , before she is again in calf, gives richer milkthan when she is pregnant, a portion of the secretion which sup

plies the richer milk being, no doubt, withdrawn to support the foetus. A well -formed cow will old pasture will produce richer butter than

give more and better milk than an ill -formed one.

new. Cows kept constantly in the byre are said to give richer milk than those allowed to goat large at pasture, but the latter are supposed to yield more cheese ;—the exercise, perhaps, preventing the due proportionof the richer secretion. Many other circumstances may be known in different localities to affect the quantity and quality of the milk of cows; but a sufficient number are here

related to show how perplexing a thing it is to conduct a dairy in the most profitable way. (2074.) The phenomena accompanying the changes inmilk are well known to every dairy -maid, but few of them know that the constituent parts of milk are only mechanically commixed ; and this must be their state even in the udder of thecow, otherwise the afterings, which had occupied

the upper part of the udder, would not be the richest portion of the milk, nor the first drawn the * McCulloch's Dictionary of Commerce, and Ure's Dictionary of the Arts, art. Annatto. t Dickson on Live Stock , vol. i. Aiton's Treatise on Dairy Husbandry. | Ib . (613)

318

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

poorest. All. therefore, that is required to separate the different parts of milk is rest and time

The cream or fatty part floats to the surface in the course of a few hours; in a little longer time, according to the state of the temperature, the caseous portion becomes sour, and in a still greater length of time the acidity becomes so powerful as to coagulate the milk in one mass, and in a still greater lapse of time the coagulated mass separates into two parts, one becoming firmer, or cheese, the other againfluid , or whey. The rationale of this natural process is thus well given by M. Raspail : -Milk, when viewed bythe microscope with a power of only 100 diameters, exhibits spherical globules, the largest of which are not more than .0004 of an inch in diameter, and which,

from their smallness, appear of a deep black at the edges. These globules disappear on the ad dition of an alkali, such as ammonia, and the milk then becomes transparent. If the proportional quantity of milk be more considerable, it forms a coagulum of a beautifulwhite color, on the ad dition of concentrated sulphuric acid . This coagulum does not arise simply from the adbesion of

the globules to each other, but it may be plainly seen by the microscope, that the globules are evolved in a transparent albuminous membrane,which has no appearance of a granular structure. Milk, then, is a watery fluid , holding in solution albumen and oil, by the agency of an alkaline salt ora pure alkali, and having suspended in an immense number of globules which arein part

albuminous and in part oily. The albuminous globules must tend to subside slowly to the bottom But the oily globules being dispersed in myriads amid equally numerous albuminous the globules, they cannot rise to the surface, withouttaking with them a greater or less numbera of crust

of the vessel by their specific gravity, while the oily globules must have a tendency to rise to the surface .

globules of albumen. Hence, at the end of 24 hours, we find on the surface of the milk composed of 2 layers, the upper one of which contains more butter than milk , while the lower

contains more milk than butter. This separation will take place equally with or without the con . tact of the air. The liquid part which lies under the crust contains the dissolved albumen and oil,with a portion of the sugar, the soluble salts, and a certain quantity of the albumen and oily

globules."* Cream cannotrise through a great depth of milk . If milk is, therefore, desired to

retain its cream for a time,it should be put in adeep narrow dish ; and, on the other hand, if it is desired to free it most completely of its cream , it should be poured into a broad flat dish, not much exceeding 1 inch in depth. The quantity of cream which any given milk contains can be easily measured by the Galactometer, which consists of a narrow tube of glassnot more than 5 inches in length, 3 of which are divided into 100 parts, and on being filled with milk to the top of the graduated scale, whatever number of degrees the thickness of the cream embraces, will be the per centage of cream yielded by the milk. For example, if the cream covers 4 lines of the scale , itis 4 per cent., if 8 lines, 8 per cent. The evolution of cream is facilitated by a rise, and retard ed by a depression, of temperature. At the usual temperature of the dairyat 50 ° Fahrenheit,

all the cream will probably risein36 hours, and at 70° it will, perhaps,all rise in half that time, and if the milk iskeptnear the freezing point, the cream will rise very slowly, becauseit becomes partially solidified. Milk boils and freezes about the same temperature aswater. Milk may be prevented becoming sour by being kept in a low temperature ; in a high temperature, on the otherhand, it rapidly becomes sour, and, at the boiling point, it curdles immediately. The acid ou milk is called the lactic acid , and, in its nature, resembles acetic acid , the acid of vinegar .

( 2075.) Milk containsmany very different substances in its composition, to each of which may easily be traced the origin of its various properties. I shall give the composition of biesting, along with that of milk, from the analyses of MM . Henri and Chevalier, in order to shew the great dif

ference between them . It appears that biesting contains nearly 3 times more casein thanmilk, and only a trace of sugar of milk, no salts, and a large proportion of mucus; and more than 9 times more casein than mare's milk : According to Luiccing

According to Henri and Chevalier.

and Bondt .

Cow .

Casein , Mucus,

Butter,

Biestings.

Milk.

Goat

Ewe.

Woman .

150.7 20.0 26.0

44.8

18.2

40.2

45.0

15.2

16.2

31.3 47.7 6.0 870.2

1.1 60.8 3.4 916.5

33.2 52.8 5.8 868.0

42.0 50.0 6.8 856.2

35.5 65.0 4.5 879.8

trace . 87.5

Sugar of Milk .

trace .

Salts, Water,

803.3 1000.

1

Ass.

|

2

1000.

1000 .

1000.

1000.

1000 .

Mare .

896.3 1000 .

Butter gives its richness to milk, sagar its sweetness, casein its thickness, water its refreshing property as a drink , and salts its peculiar flavor. Of the different kinds of milk enumerated above, the superior sweetness and thinness of mare'smilk are accounted for by the large proportion of sugar and the small quantity ofcasein it contains. “ The change which takes place when milk becomes sour, is, therefore, easily understood,” as well observed by Professor Johnston . “ Un

der the influence of the casein the elementsof a portion of the milk -sugar are made to assume a new arrangement, and the sour lactic acid is the result.

There is no loss of matter, no new ele.

ments are called into play, nothing is absorbed from the air, or given off into it, but a simple trans position of the elements of the sugar takes place, and the new acid compound is produced. These

changes appear verysimple, and yet how difficult it is to conceive by what mysterious influence themere contact ofthis decaying membrane, or of the casein of the milk, can cause the elements of the sugar to break up their old connection, and to arrange themselves anew in another prescrib * Raspail's Organic Chemistry. (614)

-

319

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.

edorder, so as to form a compound endowed with properties so very different as those of lactic acid ."

(2076.) “ Cream does not consist wholly of fatty matter (butter)," observes Professor Johnston, " but the globules of fat, as they rise, bring up with them a variable proportion of the casein or card of the milk, and also some of the milk -sugar. It is owing to the presence of sugar that cream is capable of becoming sour, while the casein gives it the property of curdling when mix. ed with acid liquids, or withacid fruits. The proportion of cheesy matter in cream depends upon the richness of the milk, and upon the temperature at which themilk is kept during the rising of the cream . In cool weather the fatty matter will bring up with it a large quantity of the curd, and form a thicker cream , containing a greater proportion of cheesy matter. The composition of

cream , therefore,is very variable - much more so than that of milk and depends very much up on the mode in which it is collected."

In warm weather, therefore, the cream should be rich

thoughthin. Cream, at a specific gravity of 1.0244, according to the analysis of Berzelius, con sists of 4.5

Butter, separated by agitation,. Curd, separated by coagulating the buttermilk ,.. Whey ,

3.5 .92.0 100.

(2077.), “ Bulter, " says ProfessorJohnston.“ prepared by any of the usual methods,contains more orlessof all the ingredients which exist in milk. It consists , however, essentially of the fat of milk , intimately mixed with a more or less considerable proportion ofcasein and water,and contain about 1-6 of its weight with a small quantity of sugar of milk. Fresh butter is said toing to Chevreul. How much of ( 16 per cent.) of these lattersubstances, and 5-6 of pure fat, accord the io per cent. usually consists of cheesy matter," may be seen by this statement : - “ two sam ples offresh butter from cream , examined in my laboratory, have yielded only 0.5 and 0.7 per cent.

butter from respectively. This is certainly a much smaller quantity than I hadd expected. Does erably s

, the whole milk contain more ? ' * The proportions of butter yielde by milkvarie consid from 1 lb. of butter to 15 quarts of milk, as in Holstein , to 8 quarts of milk of the Kerry cow.t common properties in Casein many has . “ casein is of purity named state ( 2078.) Curd in a with the albumen of blood, ” says Dr. Thomson , " and, like albumen, may be obtained in two

states, namely, uncoagulated,when it is soluble in water, and coagulated, when it is insoluble in that liquid . It is precipitated from its aqueous solution by acetic acid, which is not the case with albumen . It is coagulated by a boiling heat, but slowly ; separately in films, which collect apon the surface of the liquid. Coagulated casein subjected to pressure to free it from the whey con stitutes cheese. If cheese consists of nothing but casein, ithas a bluish -whitecolor, is very hard , almost like horn , andis quite insipid. Good cheese is always made from milk still retaining its cream. It is impossible to state the proportion of casein which exists in milk, because it varies

so much, not only in the milk of different animals, but also in that of the same animal at different times. According to Berzelius. 100 parts of skimmed milk, which he analyzed, contained 2.8 of casein ." The average proportion of curd to milk is thus given by Dr. Dickson,—“ Exact and re . peatedtrials have shownthat about 15 gallons ofmilk are necessary for making about 11 lbs. of 2 meal cheese, and that 1 lb. of curd is produced from 1 gallon of new milk. And as the food af. forded by the extent of from 24 to 3 } acres of land is commonly supposed sufficient for the sup

port of 1 cow the year round, by taking the medium of 355 lbs. of cheese for each cow, the quan. by the authority of many tity of cheese produced by 1 acre will be 118 lbs., which is supported or to of 14

statements.

But during the summer season , cows will afford from

lbs.

20 lbs.

cheese,

more , in the week , when no butter is made ."

(2070.) Whey has a yellowish-green color, and an agreeable and sweetish taste, in which the flavor of milk may be distinguished. Almost the whole curd may be separated by keeping the

whey for some time at a boiling temperature. " It still retains its sweet taste,” says Dr.Thomson, “ butmuch of the milky flavor is dissipated. If it be now evaporated over the steam -bath, it de posits a number of crystals of sugar of milk. Toward the end of the evaporation, some crys.

tals of chloride of potassium , and some of common salt, make their appearance. According to Scheele, it contains also a little phosphate of lime, which may be precipitated by ammonia ." “ The sugar of milk constitutes, at an average, about 3.5 per cent., while the saline ingredients do not exceed 0.22, or 2-9 of a per cent. of whey. The water, of course, constitutes about 93.3 in the 100 parts." (2080.) Schwartz found that 1000 parts of cows' milk left 3.697 of ashes, and of woman's milk 4.407, composed of Cow's .

Phosphate of lime,.

Phosphate of magnesia , Phosphate of iron ,. Phosphate of soda ,.. Chloride of potassium ,..

Soda, combined with lactic acid ,.

1.805 0.170 .0.032 0.225 .. 1.350 ..0.115 3.697

Woman's . 2.5 0.5

0.007 0.4 0.7 0.3

4.407

( 2081.) There are a number of other facts given by Dr. Thomson connected with milk in vari

ous states,worth mentioning. The constituents of skimmed milk, for example, according to the analysis of Berzelius in 1808, are ** Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry.

+ Journal of the Royal English Agricultural Society, vol i. (615)

Dickson on Live Stock , vol. ..

320

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER. Water ,

92.875

Curd, not free from butter,. Sugar of milk ,

2.800

Lactic acid , and the lactate of potash, Chloride of potassium ,.. Phosphate of potash ,... Phosphate of lime and magnesia, with a trace of iron, .......

0.600

3.500 0.170

0.025 0.030 100.000

Brisson states the specific gravity of various milks : but it is important to remark, that it varies so much even in the milk from the same animal, that it is impossible to give a correct mean. The

specific gravity of cows' milk is the lowest, being 1.0324 ; its whey is, of course, still lower, 1.0193 ; and thatof ewes milk is the highest, being 1.0409. Lassaigne examined the specific grav. ity of cows' milk at various distances of time before and after parturition, at a temperature of 46° Fahrenheit, and the results were generally, that at 21 days before parturition it was highest, be. ing 1.064 ; and lowest at 6 days after parturition, being 1.033 . The cow , from 42 days before to 30 days after parturition. was fed on the same kind of food, namely, beet-root, hay, and straw . Lassaigne also ascertained the quantity of cream yielded by the same animals at different times. There was no difference in the ratio between the bulks of cream and whey from the same cow,

fed on beet- root, hay, and straw , from 42 days before to 4 days after parturition, when the quanti

ties were 200 yolumes of of cream to 800 of whey; but by 30 days after parturition, the volume of cream had decreased to 64, and that of whey had increased to 936, and by that time the water

in 100 parts of milk had also increased to 90.0. Lassaigne made a curious remark respecting the milk of a cow. which he examined at 10 different periods, 4 of these before and 6 after parturi. tion. The milk examined during the first three of the former periods, namely, 42 days, 32 days, and 21 days before parturition, contained no casein at all, but in place of it albumen ; no sugar of

milk and no lactic acid , but a sensible quantity of uncombined soda. The milks examined 11 days before and just after parturition, contained both albumen and casein; while milk 11 days before parturition , and always after it, contained free lactic acid and sugar of milk. but no free soda .

The milks examined 4 days, 6 days, 20 days, 21 days, and 30 days after parturition, contained casein and no albumen. It would appear from these observations that themilk of the cow is at first verysimilar to the serum of blood, and that the casein, sugar of milk, and lactic acid , to which it owes much of its distinguishing characters, begin first to make their appearance in it about 11 days before parturition.

(2082.) A great deal more might be given in detail of experiments made in different parts of the country on churning butter at different temperatures, and of the various recipes for making

the innumerable variety of cheeses to be found in this country ; but as those experiments are merely so many isolated attempts to illustrate particular points, without reference to general prin ciples, their results are unsatisfactory. In like manner the numerous experiments in the labora tory on milk and its constituents have as yet led to no improvement in practice. The field , there. fore, to the practical and chemical experimenter is still open, and it might be usefully explored by their combined labors, with a view to the establishment of general principles on the best mode of keeping dairy stock, and of evolving their products , in a superior degree than hitherto attain ed. As one instance of a want of common understanding on this subject, I may adduce the na

merous forms in which the cheeses of Scotland are made, whether in the homely kebbuck, or in the finished new-milk cheese intended for city epicures. Everywhere else but in Scotland the place of origin of a cheese may be told by its form . A Parmasan, a Gruyére, a Gouda, a Kanter, an Edam , a Cheshire, a Gloucester, whether double or single, a Wiltshire , a Cheddar, or a Stilton, can be named at siglit, but who can tell wherea Scotch cheese, whether of skimmed milk or new , whether poor or rich, comes from , until examined by a connaisseur ? for its Stilton or Wiltshire form would not necessarily imply an imitation of those celebrated substances. There should be some settled conventional forms adopted for the identification of the respective classes of cheese of this country, that they may pass current in commerce without suspicion and challenge. I shall finish this interesting subject with recipes for making a number of pleasant dishes from milk, all of which are in the power of every farmer to have in summer as a cool diet. Curds are obtain . ed by simply earning a dishfull of new milk. When served up with grated loaf-sugar, sprinkled over the curd deprived of whey, it has the appearance of a prepared dish, and is eaten with sugar and cream . A sour cog is a dish of milk allowed to stand with its cream until the milk be .

comes thoroughly coagulated by sourness , and the sour cream and milk are eaten together. Plain

cream , whether sweet or sour, is an excellent accompaniment to oatmeal or barley-meal porridge, or to sowens. The clouted cream of Devonshire is prepared by straining the new milk into a shal. low dish , into which a little warm water has previously been put ; and after allowing it to stand from 6 to 12 hours, it is carefully heated over a slow fire or hot plate till the milk approaches to the boiling point, but it must not actually boil, or the skin of cream be broken. The dish is then removed to the dairy, and the cream allowed to cool, when it may be used as cream or made into batter. Milk oatmeal porridge is more agreeable to the palate than water porridge. and when eaten with cream forms a rich diet. Half churned cream is better with oatmeal porridge

than plain cream , having a slight taste of acidity. New unwashed butter is a great treat to break fast. Hatted kit is one of the pleasantest preparations of milk. Make 2 quarts of new milk scalding hot, and pour upon it quickly 4 quarts of fresh buttermilk , and let it stand, without stir

ring, till it becomes cold and firm . Then take off the hat or upper part, drain it in a hair-seive, and put it into a shape forhalf an hour, and serve with cream . The slight acidity of this dish, with the rich sweetness of the cream , and the addition of a little sugar, combine to make this a very delicious dessert. Float-whey is another preparation equally good as hatted kit, and more delicate. Pour in all the whey drained from the new-milk cheese that has just been made, into a small furnace pot; apply a slow fire, and raise the whey near the boiling point,but notto let it boil, else the card will fall to the bottom . During the heating, a scum of curd forms upon the (616)

-

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

321

surface of the whey. Take, then, 1 quart of fresh buttermilk, and pour it gently over the scum ,

and pour as much more buttermilk till the scum has attained some thicknessand consistency. After pouring in some cold water to lower the temperature of the whey, thereby rendering the scum more consistent, skim off the scum upon a hair-sieve, put it into a mould ,and on turning it out a short time after, serve with sugar and cream. A treacle posset is made by boiling a littlo

milk in a pan and putting a table-spoonfull of treacle or molasses into it. On removingthe curd put i of sweet milk into a saucepan, and make it boiling, hot, then pour in } of buttermilk, gently stirring it round the edges of the pan. Let the whole come to a boil ; take it off the fire, let it settle, and strain off the whey, which is an excellent drink in fever. Cream may be used as an emul. sion with all sorts of preserved fruits,and it enhances the flavor of every kind of fruit used with

the wheyis ready for use for a sore throat or cold . White-wine whey is made exactlyin a simi. lur manner, but is sweetened in addition. To make Irishtwo-milkwhey,

it ; and there is, perhaps, no form of cream more agreeable or more generally admired, than

blanc mange flavored with almonds. Iced -cream flavored with pine-apple is a delightful cooler in warm weather. I conclude with a recipe for making cream -cheese. " One pint of cream be.

ing mixed with 12 pints of noonday milk, warm from the cow, a little rennet is added, and when

the curd is come the whey is poured out gently, so as tobreak the curd as little as possible.

It is then laid in a cloth, and put into a small sieve ; the cloth is changed every hour during the day, and in 24 hours it will be fit for use . It may beserved on a breakfast-plate with vine-leaves un . " '* der it, and it will keep perfectly good only one day.” (2083.) Notwithstanding the immense quantity of cheese made in this country, a large importa tion offoreign takes place every year, not less than 132,000 cwt chiefly from Holland . duty of 20s.per cwt. is retained by the New Tariff.t

The old

(2084.) Cheese is liableto many casualties besides those already alluded to as arisingfrom fer mentation, chiefly from the attacks of animals. When yet quite fresh, the cheese-fly ( Pio. phila casei), a, fig. 379, is ready to deposit its eggs in the deepest crack it can find by means of Fig. 379.

CHEESE-FLY AND MAGGOT - PIOPHILA CASEI ; AND WHEAT- STEM-FLY- CHLOROPS PUMILIONIS.

an extensile abdominal tube. The specific distinguishing characters of this insect are, in the words of Mr. Duncan, “about 2 lines in length , thewhole body of a greenish -black color, smooth and shining ; front of the head reddish -yellow , paler yellow on the under side ; thighs ochre yel. low at the base and apex ; tibiæ deep ochre, the first and last pair black at the apex ; anterior tarsi black, the others ochrey, with 2 last joints and the claws black ; wings clear and iridescent,

slightly tinged with rust-color at the base ; halteres ochrey." # The cheese maggots produced from this fly are commonly called jumpers, and it prepares itself for jumping as seen atb. “ When

it prepares to leap, our larva firsterects itself upon its anus, and then bending itself into a circle, by bringing its head to its tail,it pushes forth its unguiform mandibles, and fixes them in 2 cavi ties in its anal tubercles. All being thus prepared, it next contracts its body into an oblong, so

that the two halves are parallel to each other. This done, it lets go its hold with so violent a jerk that the sound produced by its mandibles can be easily heard, and the leap takes place. Swam merdam saw one, whose length did not exceed the fourth part of an inch, jump in this manner

out of a box 6 inches deep, which is as if a man 6 feet high -should raise himself in the air by jamping 144 feet! He had seen others leap a great deal higher." '). When cheese passes its stage of ripeness, it is liable to become mouldy, if kept in a damp situation, which all ripe cheeses should be to retain their moisture and flavor, and where the latter is much enhanced by the pro duction of blue mould. It is possible to inoculate new cheese with the blue mould of old , and

thereby at once impart the flavor of' ripeness. This process is easiest done by inserting rolls of moulded cheese , extracted by the scoop or spyler, into holes previously made in the new cheese

by the same scoop,aninstrument usually employed by cheesemongers to taste cheese.g Toward * Dalgairn's Practice of Cookery. † McCulloch's Dictionary of Commerce, art. Cheese. Quarterly Journal of Agriculture,vol. ii. || Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Eatomology, vol. ij Prize Essays of the Highland and Agriculturai Society, vol. ix (681 )

322

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER .

a still farther period of decay, cheese is attacked by the well-known, and, by some, the highly. prized cheese-mite ( Acarus siro of Linnæus). “ We often wonder how the cheese -mite is at hand to attack a cheese wherever deposited ; but when we learn from Leewenhock that one lived 11 weeksgummed on its back to the point of a needle without food, our wonder is dimin .

ished,” say Kirby and Spence. Both cheese-maggots and mites, when numerous, destroy cheese rapidly , by crumbling it into small pieces, and by emittinga liquid substance, which causes the

decayed parts to spread speedily. Theymay easily be killed, however, by exposure to strong heat. or by plunging the cheese in some liquid capable of destroying the larvæ, without commu nicating any disagreeable flavor, such as whisky: Rats and mice are remarkably fond of, and commitsad" havoc among, old cheese. Nothing but a cat can deter them from acheese cellar, where poison cannot be employed with impunity. (2085.) [The process of churning, or agitating milk and cream for the production of butter, is

performed in such a variety of machines, and in vessels so variously formed, each ofwhich has the principal results, that it becomes a its advocates, and, probably, with but little difference innumerous forms is the best. That there question of no small difficulty to answer, which of these will be slight differences is at the same time sufficiently apparent, but these will arise more fromthe capacity of the vessel, as affecting temperature, than from peculiarity of structure, and probably, It also, from other conditionsaffecting the chemical changes that take place during the process. will also be obvious, on a full consideration of the subject, that causes of difference will arise, to some extent from the circumstances attending the more or less perfect nature of the agitation

produced, as arising from the peculiar formation, and the motions, whether of the containing ves sel or of the agitators. (2086. ) The peculiarities of form may be viewed under four distinct classes. 1. Those in which

both the fluid and the containing vessel, with its agitators, are in rotative motion ; 2. In which the containing vessel is at rest, and the agitators in rotative motion horizontally ; 3. In which the

containing vessel is at rest,and the agitators in rotative motion vertically

; and 4. Wherein containing vessel is still at rest, and the agitator having a rectilineal vertical motion.

the

( 2087.) In the first class are to be noticed those machines acting by their gyration on a center, such as the old barrel-churn , wherein the contained fluid will have a tendency to acquire a mo tion of rotation approaching to that of the vessel ; and if this rotation werecontinuedalways in the same direction , the process would be very much retarded from a deficiency of agitation ;

hence, in such machines, very frequent changes in the direction of the rotative motionis abso lutely necessary to the completion of the process. (2088.) The second classembraces those in which the vessel is permanent, and an agitator of

two or four arms revolveshorizontally within it. If the vessel is cylindrical the agitation will be the arms of the agitator, undergoing such agitation only as will arise from the central portion, acting by the centrifugal force, havingalways a tendency to fly toward the circumference of the

imperfect, for the fluid will very scon acquire a motion en masse, and will be carried forward by

revolving mass. This will no doubt ultimately, though slowly, produce the requisite effect, but it will be more speedily accomplished if the vessel is of a square form ; for in that case the rota tion of the mass will be interrupted at every angle, and eddies formed therein of such force as will not only cause disturbance of the fluid in these angles, but in doing so will produce corre sponding counter-motions in the entire mass.

From such causes, churns of this class and of the

square form are found, especially on the large scale, to be very efficient, though, from the incon. venience of adapting manual power to a horizontal motion, itis seldom resorted to in the small scale.

(2089.) In the third class of machines, where the vessel is also permanent, but having the agita tors revolving in a vertical direction, the agitation is regular, and pervades at all times the entire mass of fluid ; and in this respect there is little if any difference in effect, whether the bottom of the vessel be fat or cylindrical, nor is there any necessity for changing the direction of motion. We accordingly find that whether on the large or smallscale, churns of this class find favor in almost all localities.

(2090.) The fourth class of this usefulmachine is the upright or plunge churn . The vessel in this is also permanent, and its hight, unlike all the others, is considerable, as compared with its breadth. As a matter of convenience, it is always made cylindrical, or rather slightly conical, which last property is given to it for the convenience of booping, for in every other respect its

tapering form is a defect. The plunger must necessarily always move vertically, without any rotative motion , and, when extended throughout the entire column of fluid, the agitation must be as complete as it is possible to attain. Plunge or vertical churns, therefore , are by many held as the most perfect for the production of butter, as well as for saving time in the operation ; but there are objections to it as regards fitness for the adaptation of manaal power. It is obvious to

even a careless observer, that the humanarm, if applied directly to the upright staff of this churn, the bodybeing also upright, will be employing that power under the greatest possible disadvan.

tages. The muscles of the arm acting, as they do,in allcases under great nataral disadvantages in respect of their leverage, will, in their peculiar position, be deprived of nearly all aid which the muscles of the trunk in many positions are calculated to give out to assist those of the arm ;

hence it is that the labor of working these churns by hand, is found so oppressive that the opera tor is unable to keep up a constant action ; and the principle on which the churn is based is blamed for that delay in the operation, that ought rather to be attributed to the defect in the me dium through which the power is applied. Inproof of this, we find that when animal, or any of the inanimate powers, are applied to the vertical churn , it attains a character superior to all oth ers, both as to time and production,and this character is sustained throughout some of the best

dairy districts in Scotland. The advantages of applying hand-power through a proper medium are also observable in the case of this churn, when such power is applied through a winch -handle with a fly -wheel. Examples of this arrangement have been attended with the best effects, and

with much ease, as compared with the direct application of the power to the plunger-rod. (2091.) In proceeding to the details of the churning machinery, the first class embraces those (682)

323

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

machines that act by their gyration round a center, the fluid and the containing vessel revolving

together, or partially so ; ofwhich the commonbarrel-churn may be taken as the type. The bar rel,which is of capacity suited to the dairy , is sometimes provided only with a large square bung-hole, secured by a clasped cover, by which it is charged and emptied; while in other cases one of its ends is movable, and made tight by screwing it down on a packing of canvas cloth. In all cases it isnecessary that the interior of the barrel should be armed with three or more lon gitudinal ribs of wood standing as radii toward the center, and perforated in various forms; these constitute the agitators of the churn. Each end of the barrel is furnished with an iron gudgeon

or journal strongly fixed to it, and to one of them is applied the winch -handle by which the ma chine is turned; while it is supported on a wooden stand, having bearings for the two journals. More than one imperfection attends this construction of churn ; from the circumstance of its rotatory

motion, it will always have less or more of a tendency to carry the fluid round with the barrel and the agitators, more especially if a rapid velocity of rotation is given to it ; and to counteract this tendency, it becomes necessary to reverse the motion at every few turns, which is ofitself an

inconvenience. There is, besides, the great inconvenience of getting access, either to remove the butter that may adhere to the agitators, or to cleanse the interior of the barrel. This is espe cially the case where there is nomovable end ; and even with this convenience for cleaning, the trouble of opening and closing the end is considerable. To those imperfections it is, no doubt, chiefly owing that this churn, once in high repute in East-Lothian and Berwickshire, has gradu ally fallen into comparative disrepute ; and from these circumstances, it has been deemed neces sary to give figures of this class of churn. (2092.) Themachines to be here noticed under the second class, are of a less varied character than any of the others, are seldom , if ever,used with hand-labor, but are generally worked by

horse-power, and chiefly in town-dairies, or in those around Edinburgh. From the comparatively small importance of this churn, it has been deemed necessary to give a figure of it ; but its struc tare is so simple, that the following description will convey a tolerably correct knowledge of its

construction to the mechanical reader. The horse -path, especially in towns, where space is valu able, seldom exceeds 16 feet: the horse-beam . with yoke, is fixed to an upright central shaft, which carries a spur-wheel placed at a hight of about 31 feet from the floor, the wheel being about 4 feet diameter. One, or sometimes two, churning vessels are attached to the machine ; their di mensions vary with theextent of the dairy, butfor one of 25 or 30 cows, where much of the pro duce is sold as sweet milk , the vessel may be 2 feet 8 inches square and 2 feet 8 inches deep ; they are placed securely on the floor at a proper distance from the central shaft, to suit the spur-wheel. A foot-step of metal is placed in the center ofthe bottom , and a cross-head is attached to two up rights fixed on opposite sides of the vessel. The foot-step and cross-head serve as the two bear ings for an upright spindle, which carries the four-armed agitator, and a pinion of 31 inches di ameter adapted to the spur-wheel. These parts, and a close cover for the vessel, complete the machine, which is, therefore, extremely simple, and in a dairy which is too extensive for manual power being applied effectually to churning, while want of space may preclude the adoption of more bulky machines, the one here described may be resorted to with advantage. ( 2093.) In the same class stands the table churn, remark

Fig. 380.

able for its elegance and cleanliness, and which, though adapted only for the lighter purposes of the batter-dairy, I have considered as deserving a place here. This utensil is represented in fig. 380 in perspective, exhibiting it in the most recently improved form , with outer case to contain hot or cold water. This churn has for the last few years been brought prominently before the public as a recent in vention ; but on close inquiry, I find that the merit of its

original introduction is due to the late celebrated Mr.

Wedgewood, and that it hasng been in use for a period of 30

or 40 years. The containi vessel is still formed of the Wedgewood stoneware ; and, as I am informed by Mr. Child of Edinburgh ,the indefatigable purveyor of elegance, c utility , and comfort, in the china, stoneware, and glass trade. it was in great request about 30 years ago, its lately extended appearance being merely a revival . The chief

part of the utensil is the Wedgewood receptacle a, formed of the finest and strongest white glazed ware of that man ufacture ; they are of various sizes. from 1 to 4 gallons ca pacity ; it is furnished with a varnished wooden coverb . The outer case c is made of zinc or of tin plate ; it is 2 inches wider than the churn , furnished with handles d. and two ears to which the iron cross-bar e is attached by two thumb -screws e and d, serving to secure the cover to the top of the vessel. A brass socket f is fixed in the cover, and an iron spindle armed with three vanes is fitted to turn

in the socket , a wooden pulley is usually placed in thepo sition of the wheel g on the top of the spindle, and when secured there it holds the spindle and cover in constant connection . The common drill-bow is the usual medium of power , the string of which being held in tension by the

THE WEDGEWOOD TABLE CHURN

elasticity of thesteel-backor bow . any movement backward or forward of the instrument will cause the pulley and spindle to revolve, and the movements are effected by applying the hand to the handle of the drill-bow . When the cover and spindle have been secured by the screws ed, and the bow-string applied as above, which is effected by bending the bow until the string is suf ficiently relaxed to allow of its being laid once round the pulley,the bow is then allowed to ex (683)

324

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

pand, and the operation proceeds. It has been stated ( 2087) that vessels in this class, if cylindrio al, do not produce the effects of churning so speedily as if the form were square , Fig. 381. toobviate which themotion of the agitator must be frequently reversed in the cylindrical vessel. The drill-bow motion is admirably adapted to the reversing g d ess hin war ator d l proc the bow for ; for in pus by the han , the agit wil be made to revolve 2 or 3 times, the number being in the proportion of the length of the string to the proportion of the pulley a ; nd in drawing them back the

same number of revolutions will be performed in the opposite direction, and so on till the process is completed,

Fig . 381is a view of the agitator, a a a are

d

the vanes of strong tin -plate with perforations. b is that part of the spindle that falls within the socket, and c that on which the pulley or the wheel is fastened. (2094. ) The drill-bow being rather an awkward medium of power, especial ly in non-mechanical hands, an attempt has lately been made to substitute for

it, in this case, the common winch handle turning horizontally. This arrange ment is

exhibited also in fig. 380, where h is a toothed beveled wheel of 4 inch

es diameter, on the axle of which the handle ¿ is fixed , and it works into the wheel 8 fixed on the top of the agitator spindle in the place formerly occupied

by thepulley, the two standards ll being fixed on the cover b, to carry the axle of the wheel h. By this arrangement two turns of the handle i produce the same result in the agitator as was done by one stroke of the bow , and the

motion of the handle being reversed at every second revolution, the ultimate effect is the same as before , and the manual operation is more easily effected in. THE AGITATOR . the one case than in the other. With a view to determine whether the alter

vessel, I have instituted experiments nate motion may notrbe dispensed with even in a cylindrical in which the interio of the vessel is armed with combs, and the agitator being converted to a ed like form, but having its prongs or teeth adjust to the intervals of those of the vessel ; with this apparatus I have found that like quantities of milk and cream , and with the same temperature , yield their butter in the following times : In the plane cylindrical vessel, with the agitator always moving in one direction , butter was not obtained in 55 minutes. In the same vessel, with the agitator moving alternately right and

left, at every two revolutions, butter was obtained in 25 minutes. In this same vessel, fitted as above described, with counter-agitators, but with the agitator moving in one direction only, butter was obtained in 20 minutes. From these results it appears, that, even with a cylindrical vessel, if prop erly armed, the process is performed in a shorter timethan with the inconvenientreversed motions.

(2095.) It is well known that a certain elevation of temperature is acquired by the fluid in the process of butter-making, and that the process is accelerated by producing this temperature arti. ficially, from the application of heated water. For this purpose also, a practice is becoming prev. alent to apply the water externally to the vessels containing the milk and cream , and not in mix. tnre with them . Fig. 380 exhibits the application of this process to the utensil now under con sideration, where c is the water case formed of tin-plate, zinc, or of wood, at the bottom of which is fixed a circular stand to place the receptacle a upon, that the water may be under as well as ar und the receptacle. Wood, from its non -conducting quality, is perhaps better adapted than any metal for a water-case, Water brought to the proper temperature is poured intothe space between the case and the retaining vessel,and if found necessary to increase or diminish the tem

perature, partof the contained water is drawn off below bya spigot, and hot or cold added tore store the requisite degree of heat. Experience seems to point out that, in operating on the large scale in wooden vessels, no extraneous heat is required, the naturally acquired heat appears to be

sufficient, especially if aided in winter by the admixture of a small quantity of moderately heat ed water,and the non -conducting quality of the wooden vessel retains it ; whereas the stonware vessel will be continually abstracting heat, and giving it off by radiation , if not surrounded by a medium of equal temperature. (2096. ) Churns of the third class are

Fig. 382.

much more numerous than the two UTIN

former, and though in themselves not differing much in the essential points, they yet exhibit a variety of struc ture in their details . They are usual ly distinguished by the name of box churns, though the class embraces not only the cubical and oblong box, but also the cylinder or barrel, the dis tinctive character being an agitator revolving in the vertical direction within a stationary case of any form . (2097.) To illustrate this class, I have selected, first, the box hand . churn , in very general use. The

present example, fig. 382, is18 inches in length , 11 inches in width, and 20

inches in depth, inside measure. Birch or plane-tree are the best mate rial for the purpose , and it requires to be very carefully joined so as to be water-tight. As before noticed (2088) it is ofvery small moment whether the bottom is formed to the circle of the ag. itatcr, or remains flat, in as far as the (684)

tir THE BOX HAND -CHURN .

325

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

production of the butter is to be considered ; but for the process of cleansing, the curved bottom will present some little advantages; a cover of the same material is fitted close in the top of the box. with convenient handles. The agitator, fig . 383, is of the usual form ; the dimensions of its parts are unimportant, except that they have sufficient strength, and present sufficient surface to pro duce the requisite degree of agitation in the fluid. The two pairs of arms are half lapped at the center, and the cross-bars mortised into them ; the dimensions in lengthand breadth being such as to allow it to move with freedom within the box. At the center a perforation is made through the sides to admit the iron spindle, which, at this part, is a square bar, fitting neatly into socket. plates of iron let into the agitator on each side, as seen in the figure ata . The farther end of the

spindle projects about an inch beyond the agitator, and is rounded to form a journal, which has its bearing in a close brass plate-bush or socket, which is sunk into the side of the box, and fixed screws.

with The outward end of the spindle is furnished with a conical journal, the smallest diameter of which is equal to the diagonal of the square part of the spindle, and is furnished with a raised collar or ruff; the conical journal lying in a thorough brass plate -bush, leaving the collar outside, but embraced by a cup of thebush, upon which a coupling-ring is screwed, covering the collar, and. pressing home the conical journal,preventing thusthe spindle from being withdrawn until the coupling-ring is removed. The spindle extends be

yond the collar about 2 } inches, and is here formed into a square stud, upon which the eye of the winch-handle f isship ped when in work. In rigging this apparatus, the agitator is placed within the box, and the spindle is pushed through the outer bush and the agitator, until its two journals rest in the bushes; the coupling-ring is then screwed on to the out

Fig. 383.

er bush, until the spindle with the agitator just turns round with freedom in the conical bush . To prevent the ring from turning round by the motion of the spindle , a smooth ring or washer of steel may be interposed between the collar and the brass ring. Various other modes ofsecuring the spindle areem ployed, but in all, the object is to prevent leakage at the bush . To prevent taint from galvanic influence also, itis not uncom mon to apply bone or other animal substance for the bushes. (2098.) Churns of this kind are made of all sizes, without any change in the principle of their construction. They are

a

applied to allkindsofpower, and thecapacity is proportioned THE AGITATOR OF THE BOX -CHURN . to the extent of the dairy ; but the entire capacity of the churn must be in generalabout double the quantityin gallons, of the fluid intended to be acted upon. In operating with the box-churn, it may be filled to the hight of the spindle,or, if that member

is well fitted, the milk may rise considerably above it, though in general practice it rises but little above. To adapt the churn to power, it is only necessary to put a pulley for a strap ,or a chain, upon the end of the spindle, in place of the handle ; or the spindle may be attached to another shaft, having the proper velocity, by means of a slip -coupling. The velocity of the agitator must depend upon the size of the churn ; one of 24 inches diameter may make 60 revolutions per min .

ute on the average, but may be higher or lower in different stagesof the process. (2099.) A new churn of this third class has been lately introduced, and meets with much favor in the north of Ireland . It is believed that its introduction from France is due to Mr. Blacker of Fig. 384.

:

THE IRISH BOX - CHURN .

Armagh, who is ever zealous in the advancement of objects tending to the improvement of his country , but the manufacturing of it is conducted by Mr, R. Robinson, Lisburn . This churn is ( 685 )

326

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

represented in figs. 384 and 385 ; the first a perspective of the machine as it appears when in work, the second a cross section, showing the chief peculiarity of its construction. In the prin ciple of its operation, this churn is the same as the one last described, but, like that alluded to un . der our second class, it is furnished with a case for containing water to regulate thetemperature. It differs also from the common box -churn, in having the spindle or axis of the agitator passing throughthe length, instead of the breadth , of the containing vessel. ( 2100.) In construction, fig . 384 represents a hand -churn of ordinary size; the containing vessel is of anoblong form , with a semi-cylindrical bottom , its length a b is 22} inches, the breadth b c 14 inches, and the depth to the axis of the semi-cylinder 11} inches, the entire depth being 21

inches, all inside measure. The sides and ends are formed of birch or plane-tree,14 inches in thickness, securely joined at the angles; the ends of the vessel thus constructed descend to the full depth of the semi-cylinder, while the sides are only 12 inches in depth. The bottom is form . ed in two plates of zinc, the edges of which are secured to the outer and inner faces of the sides, by means of close nailing, and also to the ends, making water-tight joinings all round, in the man

ner seen in section at d and e, fig. 385, where the space d f e, between the outer and inner plates, form the receptacle for the water. In the edge of one side there is inserted a funnel g, by which the water is introduced into the receptacle. by passing down through a small bore in the side of the vessel, and the spigot h serves to drawoff the water when required. A wooden cover is fitted

into the opening in the top, with knobs for the convenience of lifting it out. The chamberthus con . structed is set in the iron frames i i i, which are attached to each end of the box, with screw nails, and are farther secured by the stretcher-bolts k , and furnished with stud-handles 1 l, for the convenience of lifting the churn .

(2101.) In fig. 385 the agitator is also seen in section, whereof m m, &c., are the four arms, the three transverse bars in each arm being in this case round rods,which are here shown cut across

Fig. 385 .

by the section, as is likewise the square spindle passing through the center. The spindle is formed and inserted in the same manner as described for the box -churn (2097), and dif fers only from it in the mode of securing it in place. In this machine the spindle is pressed home by a perforated oblong plate, as seen in fig. 384, which passing upon theoutward end of the spindle till it rest against the collar, it is

I

ma

then passed upon two stud -bolts fixed in the

end of the vessel, having a screw.nut on their point, which presses the plate and the spin. dle , by means of the collar, home to the conical

m

d

m

bush with any degree of tightness ; and the

applied to the extreme winch -handle is then rved that both this and end . It will be obse the last described churn require being placed upon a stand or table about 24 feet high when worked by the hand , in order that the handle may be brought to a proper hight for the full effect of the hand.

DU

When either of them are

worked by power, they are then most con veniently seton the floor of the dairy. (2102. ) In the fourth class of our subdivision ,

f

RA

there is only to be considered the plunger churn ; for in this class there is no variety, ex- 12

6

0

Foot. I

cept as to the dimensions. The means of work

ing the plunger, and the differentmedia through TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE IRISH CHURN-BOX. which the power is applied , whether of man or of animals, are of a character much more varled than in all the others put together ; and all these varieties seem to have been suggested with a view to overcome the very unfavorable position in

which a man applies his force directly to the plunger -rod of this churn . Among these varieties of construction in the mechanical media through which power,of whatever kind, may be applied. we find all possible varieties of the lever and its combinations, the loaded pendulum, with com binations of the lever and of rack -gearing, crank and lever,and crank with connecting-rods; but it

would be profitless to enumerate all the forms that have been devised forthe improvement of this particular kind, and much more so to attempt to describe them . I will, therefore, rest satis fied with one that has long been in extensive use, and is equally well adapted to the hand or to power of any kind . (2103.) The upright or plunge churning-vessel,is always apiece of cooper-work varying in ca. pacity, according to the extent of the dairy in which it is to be employed, from 10 to 130 gallons. It is built slightly tapering upward for the convenience of being tightly hooped, having astrong bottom and a movable cover, which may be fastened down with an iron clasp -boop ; a per. foration is formed in the center of the cover for the passage of the churn -staffor plunger-rod, and this is surrounded by a wooden cup, to prevent the lashing over of the fluid in the act of

churning. The plunger or agitator, whichis attached to the bottom of the plunger-rod, is acir. cular reticulated frame of wood ; the meshes may be from 1 } to 2 inches square , and the bars

formingthe reticulation about ſ inch thick and11 inches deep, the whole embraced by a wooden hoop, whose diameter will just enter the top of the churn. The structure of the plunger is by no means important, the only essential point being, that it shall not present too much resistance to

the passage ofthe fluid through its interstices,nor too little to give it a too easy passage, whicla might render the agitation so slight as to be ineffectual; a good medium is to make the horizon . (686 )

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.

327

tal area of all the interstices 1.5 times the area of the solid parts, and this rule will apply to the agitators of all churns. Such is the simple construction of this churning vessel, which is capable of adaptation to any kind ofpower, and to any extent of dairy .

(2104.) As an example of the application of power to the plunge-churn , the accompanying illustrations are taken from those extensively used in Lanarkshire and the neighboring counties, where they are usually worked by one horse. It will sufficeat present to show the internal me.

chanism , leaving the horse -wheel and intermediate gearing for another occasion. Fig. 386 is a Fig. 386 .

m

9

12

6

0

1

2

Feet. THE PLUNGE-CHURN WITH POWER -MACHINE .

side elevation of the churn, and the mechanism required within the churn -room of the dairy. It is here represented as being for hand-power, but the arrangements of the machine, so far as here exhibited, are the same whether for man or horse. Fig. 387 is a back view of the same, and the same letters apply to the corresponding parts in each figure . The floor-line of the churning-room is represented by the line a a, and b c is an upright frame of cast-iron, which is bolted to the floor. The frame consists of two cheeks, which are boltedtogether on the flanged bars d, d : it is 5 feet 9 inches high, and 16 inches wide. The reciprocating cast-iron lever e f is supported by its ful cra on the top of the frame, by means of a center-shaft-passing through the lever. The length from the fulcrum to the head f is 4 feet 2 inches, and from the same point backward to the ex . tremity is 2 feet 3 inches ; a counterpoise is here placed upon the lever to bring it nearly to an

equilibrium. The connecting-rod g h is jointed upon a bolt that is fitted to move along the oblique groove gi formed in the lever, and the crank k is formed on ashaft that turnsin bearings in the upright frame; its throw is 8 inches, less or more, proportioned to the hight of the churning-ves sel, and the foot h of the connecting -rod is fitted to thecrank-pin. l is a light sheers of malleable iron, whose forked ends embrace the head of the connecting-rod, which is also forked at the

head ; and the pin of the groove passes through all the three. The adjusting-screw m, with its winch-handle n ,is supported in a swivel-socket in the bracket 0 ; while its screwed end m works in the bend of the sheers l, which is screwed as a nut to receive it, for the purpose of shortening or lengthening the distance mg, and so changing the position of the head of the connecting-rod. The head f of thelever is mounted with apair of side -links P p, jointed ona cross-head inf ; the links are again jointed on a wooden cross-head u, into which the head of the planger-rod q is in

serted, and fixed by a pin or key ; these side -links, jointed as they are at top and bottom , produce a very imperfect parallel motion, but sufficient to answer the rise and fall of the plunger-rod. The handle s is fixed on one end of the crank -shaft, and on the other is placed the fly -wheel t, to equalize the motion of the lever, and compensate the inequality of the resistance to the plunger in

its ascent and descent. The churning.vessel r is 3 feet high with an average diameter of 15 inches, and its capacity about 23 gallons. In extensive dairies, it is common to have two churn . ing-vessels attached to the machine, in which case the wooden cross-head u iselongated so asto receive the head of the planger-rods of both vessels, the vessels standing side by side during the operation .

( 2105.) When this machine is in operation, the revolutions of the crank produce a reciprocating (687)

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER .

328

action in the connecting.rod, which is communicated to the lever, and thence to the plungers and it will beseen that, by moving the head g of the connecting-rod in the oblique groove of the lever, the strokes or reciprocations of the plunger will be long or short as the joint at & is moved upward or Fig. 387. downward in the groove gi. It is found from expe es ce e ntag rien that ther are adva to the process deriva ble from this ; hence, at the commencement of the op eration , the head of the rod g h is kept at the lower ex .

tremity of the slit, producing the shortest stroke ; as vescence, its bulk is increased, the stroke is grad. ually lengthened by turning the handle n of the screw ; and by thus shortening the distance gm, the pin at g the fluid becomesheated, and from the consequent effer.

a

is brought to the head of the slit, producing a stroke of the greatest length ; and when theeffervescence ceases, and the butter has begun to form , this state is reversed ,

the stroke is gradually shortened , till the process is fin ished with the shortest stroke .

(2106.) The application of power to this machine is

U

easy and commodious. It may be effected bya pulley placed on the crank -shaft instead of the handle s, and so driving with a strap or a chain ; or it may be driven

by a spur-wheel placed on the same point, calculated to the speed that may be afforded by the power,whether horse , water, or steam. The usual rateof the plunger in these churns is about 50 to 55 double strokes per minute , subject to the usual variation that is required in the different stages of the process. The price of the hand m- achine, as in the figure, is from £6 to £8 ; and,

7c

ኢke

when completed with horse-wheel and gearing, it is

di

from £15 to £ 18 .

(2107. ) Besides the four established classes of churns now described, there are a few other anomalous cases which have of late years been brought forward by in ventors, and though they ultimately may be found to possess merit, they cannotyet be received as of estab . lished character. The machines to which I here allude

may be named “oscillating churns." They possess no distinct agitator, but produce their effects by a species of oscillation produced in the fluid. Among these may be mentioned a vessel of an oblong form , placed upon skids, curved in a manner that when the vessel is

a

BACK VIEW OF THE PLUNGE - CHURN WITH POWER -MACHINE .

touched with even a gentle force, it will assume a mo tion resembling the well-known swing of a child's cradle, which will thereby produce a constant succession of irregular oscillatory motions in the contained fuid, which will produce the effect of churning.

(2108.) Another of these forms is an upright cylindricalvessel containing the fluid, and which is attached by its bottom to a crank revolving horizontally: The vessel is restrained from re. volving on its own axis, but is madeto describe a small circle, and every pointin its base will

virtually describe that circle which will be equal to that described by the crank that gives it mo tion . The effect of this oscillating, motion in the vessel is to produce oscillation in the fluid, which will ultimately make gyrations within the vessel, combined with an undulatory motion, that will again produce the effect of the churn . In the first of these proposed machines, the motion would be so easy and equable that there appears no mechanical difficulty

Fig. 388.

in the scheme ; but in the second , when we consider the mass of fluid

that may be contained in the ves.

sel, and then thewhole putin that kind of motion that may be de

scribed as reciprocating -circular, which , when combined with the

unequal effects of the undulatory motion on the fluid within , would ,

it is feared , require either a much stronger fabric than is usually allotted to such operations, or oth erwise the machine would be

very liable to derangement and to fracture . A churning -ma THE CURD -BREAKER . chineed , on this principle, was ex y hibit at the Show of the t d, y vemen ltural held at Belfast in August, 1843, and excited Irelan Societ of Impro Royal Agricu considerable interest from its apparent novelty. (2109.) The utensils and machines yet remaining to be described in the cheese-making department of the dairy, consist principally of the curd -breaker, cheese-press and cheese turner.

pepper

(688 )

‫܀ ܕܓܚܪ ܦ‬

329

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

(2110.) The curd-breaker,* of which fig. 388 is a plan, and fig. 389 a transverse section, consists of a hopper-shaped vessel a b, 17 by 14inches at top , and 10 inches deep. It is fixed upon

Fig. 389. 8

two bearers e e, which are set upon a stand or tub when in

operation. A wooden cylin der f, having an iron axle, which passes through the bear ers e, and is turned by a winch handle d. The axle is kept in

e

its bearings in c by means of slots h on each side, which slide in grooves in the bearers,

h

THE SECTION OF THE CURD-BREAKER.

and are held intheir place by a slider at h. The cylinder is 7

incheslong and 34 inches in diameter, studded all over with pegs of hard wood 4 inch square, and projecting inch . These pegs or teeth are set in eight regular zones round the cylinder, each zone containing 18 teeth . Two wedge-shaped piecesc c are attached tothe sides of the hopper below, serving at the same time to reduce the opening between the cylinder and the hopper, and to carry a row of pegs similar to those of the cylinder, but falling into the spaces between the zones of pegs, as seen in fig . 389. In using this machine, it is placed over the tub or other recipi ent for the broken curd ; the bopper is filled with the curd that requires to be broken ; and while

one hand is turning the winch -handle, which may be turned either way, the other hand may oc. casionally be required to press the curd down upon the cylinder. To prevent the curd being passed beyond the ends of the cylinder, it is covered at each end, to the extent of į inch, with an overlap of the sides of the hopper. (2111.) The cheese-press comes next in the order of business, and of that machine the varieties are very numerous, though they may be all resolved into three kinds, namely, the common old

stone-press ; the combined lever-press, of which the varietiesare themost numerous,embracing from the single lever, through the various combinations of simple levers, to the more elaborate Fig. 390.

9

d

THE STONE CHEESE-PRESS .

one of the rack and levers ; and the atmospheric or pneumatic press. An essential characteristic of these presses must always be, that the load , in whatever way produced,shall, when left to itself have thepower to descend after the object being pressed, as that may sink by the expression of the whey from the card . Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iv. (6891

330

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER .

( 2112.) An example of the first of these is shown in fig. 390 ; it consists of a strong frame of wood, of which a is the sill, 2 feet long, 18 inches broad, and 4 inches thick ; two uprights bb are

mortised or dovetailed into it ; these are each 6 inches broad by 24 inches thick , and 3 feet high, and are connected at top by the cross-head c mortised upon the posts. A cubical block of stone de is squared to pass freely between the posts ; an iron stem of 1 inch diameter is fixed into the upper surface of the block , and the upper end of it being screwed, is passed through the centre of the top bar, and the lever-nut fis applied to it for raising or lowering the block. In each end of the block a vertical groove is cut corresponding to the middle of the posts ; and a baton of wood is nailed upon the latter, in such form and position as will admit the block to rise and fall freely, while it is preventedfalling to either side. When put in operation , the block is raised by means of thescrew until the cheese -mould, with its contents, can be placed upon the sill a under

theblock. This being done,the nut isscrewed backwardtill the block rests lightly on the cover of the mould ; it is let down by small additions, as the curd consolidates. until it is thought safe to let the entire weight press upon the mould, which is done by withdrawing the nut f. Instead of

the solid block ofstone de, which, when left to itself, will alwaysproduce the same pressure, it is better to have one block d g into which thesuspending bolt is fixed, and the remainder of the mass made up of smaller pieces, as shown in the figure, by which means the amount of free pres sure can be regulated to the particular size and state of the cheese ; or blocks of cast -iron are sometimes used in the form last described, which are more commodious,and less liable to be broken . ..(2113.) The next class of this machine,the lever-press, to speak in general terms, possesses the sill of the former in some shape or other, but generally ofwood , with two uprights as before;but instead of a heavy block of stone, a simple movable sill of plank is employed, having an iron or a wooden stem attached to it, upon which simple or compound levers are made to act in pro ducing the pressure. An improved form of this lever-press was brought out by the Shotts Iron Company, * made entirely of iron, of a more commodious and compact construction than had

hithertobeen attempted, and,with slight alterations, is here presented as the type of the class. (2114.) The combined lever cheese Fig. 391.

press of iron is represented in the perspective view , fig . 391, and is constructed in the following man ner : a a are a pair of cast-iron feet, on which the machine is supported ;

they have a socket formed at the crown to receive the malleable iron

pillars b b. The sill-plate c is 18 inches in diameter, cast with two perforated ears, through which the feet of the pillars b b also pass, and

secure the sillto the feet,-thecross

70

lines in the sill indicate channels for

the escape of the expressed whey. The movable sill d is of the same

size as the one below, with corres ponding ears perforated and fitted to slide on the pillars, and having the rack -bar f fixed in its centre. A top frame ė, 18 inches by 9 inches, and 3 inches deep, is seated upon

my

the top of the pillars, where itis fix. ed by two screw -nuts, and adapted to carry the gearing of themachine. The action of the rack and its sill is effected in the following manner : The ratchetwheel g is fixed upon an axle that has its bearings in the top frame; on the same axle is fix ed a pinion of eight teeth , not seen

in the figure, which works in the wheel i of twenty-four teeth , fixed upon an axle which has its bearing also in the top frame ; and this axle carries also a pinion of eight teeth, which acts upon the rack,but is also hid from view in the figure. The ratchet-wheel g stands clear of the top frame about an inch , and its axle

is prolonged beyond the wheel double that extent. The lever k is forked at the extremity g, and the terminations of the furcation are re ceived upon tbe axle of the wheel 8 , -- the wheel being embraced by

THE COMBINED LEVER CHEESE - PRESS.

the fork of the lever, but the lever moving freely upon the axle. The furcation is also lengthened toward k to an extent that receives a pall at h ; between and in the throat of the fork, the pall is jointed upon a pin that passes through both , the edge of the pall pointing downward to catch * PrizeEssays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. .. (690)

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

331

the ratchet, while it has a knob -handle standing upward,by which it can be conveniently disengag.

ed from its wheel. A small winch -handle 1 is also fitted upon the axle of the ratchet-wheel, and a pin scen near h is adapted to a perforation in the top frame, by the insertion of which the de scent of the lever is checked, when such is required , and this completes the mechanism of the press.

(2115. ) In pressing with this machine, the cheese -mould is placed upon the lower sill,and the lever being supported on the pin at h , the winch -handle is turned to the left, depressing the rack and its sill till the sill presses upon the cover of the mould. The lever is now lifted by the hand,

and the pall allowed to take into the ratchet ; while the lever, being loaded by the weight, will cause the ratchet to turn , and produce the descent of the rack . If necessary, this is repeated again and again, till a considerable pressure is produced ; and if it is wished that a continued pressure is to goon ,the lever is again raised considerably above the horizontal line, andleft to descend gradually, following the consolidation of the cheese. If it is wished that the load shall not follow the shrinking of the cheese, the pin h is inserted, which, when the lever comes to rest uponit. checks farther descent. The amount of pressure is alsoregulated by the disposal of the weight m in the different notches of the lever. The usual selling price of this machine is £4, when constructed of iron. as in the figure ; but with wooden framework, and the rack and other gearing of cast-iron, the price is £3 58.

(211€.) In the third divisionof the cheese-presses there is not such a variety as in the others, and what does exist is of recent introduction. I have to notice only one — the pneumatic cheese press of the late SirJohn Robison ofEdinburgh - asan elegant application ofScience to a homely though important domestic purpose. The principle here applied is the pressure of the atmó. sphere, brought to bear,withany degree of force compatible with that natural pressure, upon thecurd when placed in the mould, by exhausting a vessel placed below and in communication with the mould, by means of a pipe descending from the bottom of the mould to a receiving. vessel. To this pipe of communication a small air-pump is attached, and the mould having, be sides its true bottom , a movable one of wire or of wicker-work, the curd, wrapped in a cloth, is laid upon the pervious bottom , and gently pressed with the hand till it fill the vessel all round. The pump is worked a few strokes to produce a partial vacuum in the receiver and below the curd, when the atmosphere, by its pressure on the surface of the curd, causes the whey to separate and descend into the receiver. The pressure may be continued or increased at pleasure by a few more strokes of the pump, until the cheese has acquired sufficient consistency to allow of its being bandled, when, as recommended by Sir John , it is to be removed from the mould and placed within another of close wire-work, with aweight placed over it to complete the consolida tion.* The whey that is discharged from the curd while under the atmospheric pressure, being collected in the receiver, isdrawn off by means ofa stop-cock . (2117. ) There falls yet to be taken notice of an important article in the cheese department of the dairy machinery -- the tumbling cheese-rack, or cheese-turner. This machine is the invention of Mr. William Blurton, of Fieldhall, Uttoxeter, and its merits are believed to be sufficient to war rant its adoption on dairy -farms. The object of the machine is to save much of the labor re .

quired in the daily turningof a large number of cheeses in the drying -room , and this it does very effectually, for with a rack containing 50 cheeses, they are turned over in very little more time than would be required to turn a single one. (2118.) Fig. 392 is a view of the cheese-turner, as constructed to stand alone, and on its own feet; though this is not the best mode of constructing the machine. It consists, first, of an exter nal frame abcd. of which the two parts a b and c d are 61 feet high, and 7 inches by 24 inches; they are here represented each with a crossfoot a and c, and connected attop by atop- rail b d. If constructed ina cheese-room , the posts should be at once fixed to the floor at bottom, and to the joisting or tie-beams overhead, becoming thus a fixture in so far as regards the external frame. The second part of the machine is a movable frame or rack, formed by the two interior posts e and f, which are framed upon the 12 shelves g h i, &c.; the posts are 6 feet high, and are

again ? by 24 inches, theshelves being7feet long and 14 inchesbroad,or more, according to the size of the cheeses manufactured, by1 inch thick . The shelves extend to 51 feet in hight over all, and are tenoned into and lipped over the posts , and each shelf is finished on both sides with a knife-edged lath, nailed along the back edge: these laths are 2 inches broad, and 4 inch thick at the back, thus increasing the thickness of that edge ofthe shelves to 14 inches. As the figure

represents a rack that willcontain 5 cheeses on each shelf. a corresponding number of pairs of broad and 1 inch thick, chamferedoff to one side to the thickness of 3 inch or thereby at the edges, against which the cheeses are laid, and are checked upon the shelves, and securely nailed. The shelf-frame thus formed is provided with two strong iron gudgeons or pivots fixed in the side

vertical laths, k, k, &c., are nailed upon the back edge of the shelves. These laths are 13 inches

posts atmid-bight, and these are received into corresponding holes in the outer or bearing-posts,

so that the shelf-frame swings poised upon the two pivots ; and it is farther provided with an iron latch at top and bottom on one end, by which it may be tilted and secured with either the shelf gor e f uppermost. The catchesof the two latches are both placed at top on the external post at one side, suited to the motion of the shelf-frame, and to prevent its being turned with the back edge of the shelves upward .

(2119.) When cheeses are placed upon the shelves, it will be found that the knife- edge laths keep them free of the body of the shelf, and thus permit air to pass under them , while the pair of vertical laths keep the cheese in its proper position on the shelf. The hight between the shelves is such as to leave a free space of 1 inch between the cheese and the shelf above it ; and what

ever number of cheeses may be lying upon the shelves, the simple act of tilting the frame will

place every cheese which was resting on a shelf, on its opposite side, upon that shelf which im . mediately before was above the cheese, but by the tilting is now below it. It will be observed that the vertical laths serve to prevent the cheeses from falling out while the frame is tilting, and * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society vol. X. (691)

332

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER .

each cheese has only to fall one inch in that operation, or from the one shelf to the other, in a re versed position. (2120.) It will be also observed that the fixed external frame is best adapted for an extensive Fig. 392. d

TC

UT O

ETT

IAL

TAB ாயா

பப்ப

THE CHEESE -TURNER.

cheese-room , where the racks may be placed in rows extending the length of the room , leaving free passage between the rows. The width of the passages requires to be equal to half the bight of the shelf-frame, or 3 feet ; a room , therefore, 20 feet wide would contain 4 rows of such racks ;

and if the length were equal to 10 diameters of the cheeses, or containing that number in the length, the room would contain in all 440 cheeses in the best possible condition for their being

prepared for market, having free ventilation , and access for the dairy -maids to handle and wipe any cheese at any time. We have no experience of this cheese -rack in Scotland ; but, judging from its apparent capabilities, there is much reason to think that it might be employed with ex

cellent effect in the extensive cheese-dairies of Ayrshire andGalloway. The price ofa portable rack, as here figured, capable of holding 55 cheeses, is £ 4. - J. S.]

28. THE DOUBLE MOULD - BOARD PLOW.

(2121.) [The double mould-board plow, is an implement essentially requisite in the cultivation of the turnip and potato crop. When duly constructed, it is highly efficient in the formation of thedrills or ridgelets for either of these crops, setting up at each turnthe half of a ridgelet on each side, while the common plow, or one-borse plowso much employed for this purpose , sets up

only a half ridgelet at each turn, doing, therefore, but half the work. In a variety of forms also,

it is much employed in the earthing-up of the potato crop ; for this purpose it is frequently made of wood, but in all cases the iron plow is to be recommended. (2122.) Fig. 393 is a representation of a common double mould -board iron plow equipped for

the purpose of earthing -up. The framework of it is pretty much in form of the common plow, except that the beama lies right in the central line of the whole plow. The bridle b is variously formed according to the taste of the maker, but always possessing the properties of varying the (692)

333

DOUBLE MOULD - BOARD PLOW.

point of draught upward and downward, as well as right and left. The breast d is a shield form . ing part of the cast-iron body-frame afterward described . The share e is plain on both sides, spear-pointed, and set upon the head of the cast -iron body-frame. The right and left mould -boards Fig. 393.

of

TH

DOUBLE MOULD- BOARD PLOW.

ffare hinged to the edge of the shield d with drawing hinge-pins, and they are supported be. hind by a jointed iron -strap affixed to the back of each mould-board, and which slide through a socketin the body.frame, where the tails of bothstraps are secured by means of a pinching -screw , setting the mould -boards at any required width behind. The handles are bolted on each side of thebeam , as seen at f f, and are supported near the helves by the usual stretcher and bow . The dimensions of the plow are : from the breast d to the point of the beam 3 feet, 6 inches, from d to extremity of mould -board f, 2 feet 6 inches, and from d to end of helve 6 feet 6 inches. The hight of the mould -board, where it joins the shield, is 12 inches, and at the point f 10 inch es ; length of share 16 inches. The mould -boards of such plows are liable to great variation in their form ; some of them have little or no twist, and others variously contorted. Those of the present figure have been selected as possessing all the requisite qualifications for an earthing-up plow . At the fore -edge, where theyjoin the shield, the surface is nearly in a straight line, and

along the upper edge they are slightly convex ; from these two lines they twist gradually, round ing away below toward the tail, so as to leave the furrow of a round -bottomed trough shape. Where the double mould -board is employed for fornuing the ridgelets, the mould-board is made to

fit the shield d, as in the figure ; it then stretches away to a length of 2 feet 6 inches along the up per edge, the point f being at a hight varying from 11 to 14 inches above the sole-line. At this point the depth of the mould -board is only6 inches, so that the lower edge runs off at a consider. able elevation, and the surface having not more than 3 inches of twist, it is the lower edge only of

the board that effects the purpose of laying up the earth to form the ridgelet. In working the plow, for the purpose of forming drills, there is frequently a marking -bar jointed to the beam im .

mediately before the breast d ; the bar folds to either side, and having an adjustable double-edged scraper fitted to it, a rut is drawn on the surface at the proper distance for the centre of the next farrow .

(2123.) The plow just described and represented, is convertible into a scuffling or cleaning plow , or horse -hoe. To effect this, the hinge-pins of the mould -boards are withdrawn, and the mould.

boards removed, when we have an implement represented by fig. 394. which exhibits the body. Fig . 394.

f C .

2

m

THE BODY OF THE DOUBLE MOULD-BOARD ALTERED TO A SCUFFLING PLOW .

parts of the same plow upon an enlarged scale, and from which portions of the beam and han . dles are cụt off. Here a is the remaining portion of the beam , and b b those of the handles, ex hibiting also their junction with the tail of the beam . The body-frame cc, is of an irregular rhomboidal form , whereof the front bar forms the shield ; its breadth from right to left behind is 3 inches, running off forward to a sharp edge, and is hollowed out behind. The top bar c, by which it is bolted to the beam , is 21 inches broad, and 1 inch thick ; the sole -bar c is formed flat below . (693)

334

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER .

to receive the plain sole-shoe m, and the hind bar is formed to receive the malleable iron socket l, through whichthe tails of the mould. board straps are passed, and secured by the pinching -screw bars & g are jointed toa stud that projects from the beam on each side at k. A quadrant bar f,2 feet long, and 1 } by 1 inch is attached by bolts to the two stilts at f, and the ends of the wing bars having a mortise formed to receive the quadrant, are moved upon this to any required width , and secured by the screws i i. A second mortise is punched in each wing-bar to receive the scuffling coulters h h ; these are 2 inches broad by 1 inch thick, thinned off to a knife-edge in front, and bent inward below till the points stand 6 inches to the right and left of the shanks. A double-feathered share e is now fitted to the head of the body-frame, which completes this simple 1, when these are in use . To complete the implement for the purpose of scuffling, the two wing

horse-hoe, and the change from the one state to the other is effected in a few minutes, for, in re

turning it to the double mould -board state, it is only necessary to remove the scufflers and the feathered share . The dimensions of the body are, hight at the breast from the sole to thetop of the beam 14 inches, length of sole 2 feet 6 inches, including the feathered share. The effect of this horse-hoe in the soil is to loosen the earth between the rows of drills, or if foul, to under -cut

all the weeds that exist in that space, or to such breadth as the two scufflers may be set ; the up right part of these coulters performing a species of paring along the sides of the two contiguous rows. If the land is in good order, and tolerably clean, stirring it with this scuffler will be suf ficient ; but if overrun with weeds, one or other of the drill-barrows or grubber will be found

necessary to prevent a re-vegetation of the weeds, and the following will be found to answer this purpose well.

(2124.) The common drill-grubber, fig. 395, is a light and convenient implement drawn by one

horse. It consists of a central beam abc, the neck partof which a b is 18 inches long, the body Fig. 395 .

ガンダム THE COMMON DRILL -GRUBBER .

part 3 feet 6 inches ; and of the two wings b d , which are extended to c c, forming the handles, the length from d to c is 3 feet 4 inches. The neck part ofthe beam is 14 inches square, and peen

ed, or rounded, and this strength is carried past the first tine ; the remainder of this bar, as well as of the wings, is 1} inches deep by į inch thick , the handles becoming lighter backward. The beam is punched at the front for the passage of the stem of the wheel, and at b for the fixing of the two joint-plates for the wings, as well as for the front tine ; and it is also perforated horizon tally at the end c, for the quadrants of the wings. The wing,bars require to be very neatly forged in forming the swells, in which the tine boles are to be punched, and also for the joint at b, where they are hingedto the beam, between the two joint-plates, which, being riveted deadupon the beam , leave a chamber on each side for the reception of the ends of thewing -bars, and through these their joint-bolts are passed. The wing-bars are each furnished with a quadrant-bar riveted

into the wings at dd ; the tail of the quadrants passing through the mortise atc are secured by

apinching -screw fixing the wingsat any requiredwidth . Tothe point of the beam is affixed a simple bridle f with a cross-web and shackle, giving a small range of yoke right and left ; the rise of this point is 10 inches abovetheline ofthe body of the beam . The front wheel, whose office is to regulate the depth of the grubbing. is usually 8 or 9 inches diameter, set in the sheers of the stem , whichmay be 20 inches long, and is 14 inches broad by 1 inch thick. The lines g are 15 inches long, the body being 14 inchesbroad byinch thick, forged with duck -feet not exceeding 24 inches broad and pointing slightly forward. In many localities this implement is used for all thepurposes of horse-boeing, except the process of paring or of earthing-up, and having cheap ness as well as utility as a recommendation, it is very generally approved of. It is, however, subject to variety in the different districts where it is employed ; in some it is shortened to five tines, in others lengthened out to nine, and in many cases the tines are plain -pointed, or not ex . ceeding 1 inch broad. It is frequently also made with the tines standing in zigzag position ; butexceptinthe second pairoftines, this is oflittle importance, as those behind the second are sufficiently far apart to prevent them getting choked with weeds. The price of this grubber is about £ 2 10s.

(2125.) In this class of implements, we find a very handsomely constructed one, known as (694)

THE WILKIE DRILL-GRUBBER.

335

Wilkie's drill-grubber and harrow , which is here represented in fig . 396. The implement is,

however, of older date, and seemsto have been invented by a Banffshire farmer ,* the original having been constructed with wooden framing until Mr. Wilkie adopted the iron instead of wood. Fig . 396 .

意 , 这

24

WILKIE DRILL- GRUBBER AND HARROW

This implement is constructed with a beam a b, and a pair of handles c c attached to the tail of the beam , one on each side, in the way formerly shown in fig. 394. It has no proper body-frame, but is merely a skeleton, the grubbing parts of it being the three tines or coulters d , e,f. The foremost of them , d, is set in a coulter-box in the beam , the two others, e andf, are continuations of the two wings, which are hinge-jointed to the side of the handles as at g, and where they are kneed downward at h, they areperforated for a quadrant bar, on which they are moved outward

or inward, and are secured by the pinching-screwsat h. The front tine terminates in a double spreading feather or duck’s-foot point of about 11 inches in length , and 8 inches in breadth at the heel; the two back tines are flat on the outward sides, and feathered inward ; their effect on the

soil is therefore somewhat similar to that of the scuffler, fig . 394, paring and undercutting ; but the implement is furnished with an appendage in the attached harrow i, which completes the operation at one turn. The harrow consists of two bars jointed to the middle of the quadrant .bar which sustains the back grubber tines, and are suspended by a small quadrant attached to each of the bars i, from the first stretcher of the handles at k, and each of the harrow -bars carries

three common harrow -tines, but somewhat longer than usual. The harrow is, besides, capable

of adjustment to depth by means of its suspenders, and tobreadth by means of its two small quad rant-bars. The regulation of depth is aided by the wheel 2, which may be from 8 to 10 inches in diameter, hung in the sheers 1, which is jointed to the beam at a, and is capable of being shifted up or down upon the cross-head o of the beam, and fixed by a bolt at n , passing through the per forations of the cross-head, to which also a shackle and hook are attached for the draught.

(2126.) It requires no demonstration to show that the principle of this instrument is good - grub bing or scarifying to undercut all weeds, which are immediately brought to the surface by the action of the harrow , to wither and die-but it is believed that defects of construction exist in it

that in some measure mar its utility. In stiff soils the broad -feather shares will with difficulty be kept in the ground ; and, from their great length and breadth , will have the effect of consolidating

that part ofit which they pass over, into a hard crust. The harrow is an important part of the implement, but adds considerably to the draught ; and the implement, upon the whole, is too heavy for one horse being able to produce efficient work with it; by lightening the entire struc ture,and altering the form of the tine, it might be rendered a very useful horse-hoe. Its general dimensions, as constructed by Mr. Wilkie ,may be shortly stated. Length of beam from cross head to coulter-box 2 feet 10 inches ; thence to quadrant of the back tines 1 foot 10 inches, and thence to end of handles 4 feet 6 inches ; hight of beam at coulter-box 16 inches, at quadrant 14 inches, and at the point 18 inches. The depth of the beam at the coulter-box is 2 inches, and its breadth 1 inch, from which point it tapers off forward and backward ; the handles are 14 inches in

depth by jinch in breadth . The length of the harrow -bars is 2 feet 9 inches, and the length of the tines 10 inches ; the weight is 145 lbs.; and the price of the implement is £4 15s.

(2127.) The foregoing constitute a series of green-crop horse-hoeing implements, that possess all the principal points requisite for this operation ; but there are numerous varieties of all the types bere exhibited, though all are referable to one or other of them. It is, or ought to be, an essential point in all implements of this kind , that they possess a principle of expansion and con

traction, to suit the different widths of drills ; and , with few exceptions, this is the case. In many of those in use, however, the mode of expansion is attended with an inconvenience arising from the shortness of the expanding wings, which throws the coulters or tines out of parallelism , and

thus proves detrimental to their perfect working in the soil. This inconvenience is more felt in those implements which have their tines formed like those of fig. 396, and least of all when the

scuffling -tines are employed as in fig. 394. Mr. Wilkie, with his usual ingenuity, has invented, some years ago, an implement of this class, inwhich the expansions and contractions are effected bymeans of a parallelmotion applied to the tines, as exhibited in the following figure.

(2128.) Fig. 397 exhibits Mr. Wilkie's horse-hoe with parallel motion ; it is very similar in figure to the last, but the two back tines have their tails jointed at a , b, c, d, to two transverse parallel bars, which traverse, to a small extent, upon pivots placed in the middle of their length , attached to the tailof the beam . By moving these bars upon their pivots, from the position of a right an. glewith the central line of the beam , the one tine is pushed forward and the other backward, which must cause the points a, b, c, d, to approach the central line, and along with these the points of the tines, preserving a perfect parallelism , and capable of being secured at any required Agricultural Report for Banffshire . (695)

336

THE BOOK OF THE FARM- SUMMER.

width by pinching-screws. This is the most perfect mode of adjustment for the tines of a hoe of

this construction - three -tined -- but it does not apply to those with more than three, and is, withal, perhaps. too refined for a field implement. The self-cleansing form of the tine which is exhibited Fig. 397.

22ब्र

und

WILKIE'S HORSE-HOE WITH PARALLEL MOTION.

here, and in fig. 396, in the two back tines of each, has been often dwelt apon as of much im portance ; but the truth of the matter seems to be, that though that particular form is beneficial in

the great field-grubber, it seldom occurs, and ought never to be the case, that a drilled field-crop is so overrun with weeds as to require a self-cleansing tine.-J. S.]

29. HAY-MAKING. 46

as they rake the green appearing ground, And drive the dusky wave along the mead, The russet hay.cock rises thick behind, In order gay .' THOMSON .

(2129.) Hay is made both of sown and of natural meadow -grasses. The sown grasses are employed for hay in Scotland, and of these the hay con sists of red clover ( Trifolium pratense ), and rye-grass (Lolium perenne) ; for although the white clover ( Trifolium repens ) is sown along with the seeds of the other two, it scarcely forms a part of the first year's grass, and constitutes no part of the hay, which is always taken from the grass of the first year. As hay is thus taken from the first year's grass, it mat ters not whether the rye-grass made into hay is annual or perennial. The

annual yields the heavier crop, but the perennial the finer quality of hay . The natural grasses constitute the hay of England and Ireland. These two sorts of hay are certainly very different in appearance , the sown

grasses showingthe strong and stiff stemsof the red clover and rye -grass, and especially when the rye -grass is annual, while the hay from the nat ural grasses is soft and woolly to the feel, and more odorous to the scent,

because the sweet-scented vernal- grass ( Anthoxanthum odoratum ) always forms a component part. In so far as their nutritive properties are con cerned, if both are equally well made, there will probably be no material difference ; but this fact has been established in Scotland, that the sown grasses are more nutritive for young stock, both sheep and cattle, than natural grasses, and for that reason we may hold it as true that their

hay will also be more nutritious for young stock ; and in like manner the hay of natural grass should be more nourishing to old stock than from that which is sown ; and hence natural hay is best for cows.

(2130.) I have heard farmers express the opinion that sown grasses re

quire a different treatment on being made into hay than natural grasses. If the object is to obtain rye -grass seed while hay is being made, then , of course, the two processes should be different; but if the object is to make (696)

HAY - MAKING .

337

the best hay from both the substances, then I cannot see why the processes should be different.

On the contrary, the nature of all the plants employea

being the same, the same treatment should produce in all the same re sults ; and as the art of hay-making is merely to expel the water which

the plants contain without injury to their texture, the only danger to be apprehended is excessive fermentation, which is easily excited in warm weather , and will proceed to a destructive extent, if not subjected to con Still hay-making vạries according to the means used for conducting it ; for if manual labor alone is employed, one process should be adopted,

trol.

but when mechanical assistance is received, the process should be modi fied accordingly. (2131.) First, then, as to hay -making with manual labor alone. The implements required for the purpose are few and simple. The grass is cut with the common scythe, fig . 361 ; and the cutting is either let to la borers by the piece, or the plowmen of the farm do it, should there be spare time from horse-labor between the sowing of the turnips and the

hay-harvest. The grass will be better and more expeditiously cut down if let by the piece, as the contractors will exert themselves more, and work more hours, than plowmen who have charge of horses can be ex

pected to do. The usual cost of cutting grass for hay is 2s. 6d. or 3s. per imperial acre. On commencing to cut a field , the direction toward which

the clover leans,or, should it be thin and upright, the quarter of the wind, which always influences the direction of thin grass, should be attended to ; and in both cases the grass should lean away from the mower . It always makes the best work for the grass to be mowed across the ridges. It is fair work for 1 man to mow 1 acre every day ; and I may here remark , it

is no good sign of the weight of the crop if the mowers go over more ground every day. The other implements used in manual hay-making are forks and rakes. Forks are shown in fig. 279, and rakes are figured and described below ; and of the two kinds I prefer the right-hand figure, as being the neatest and lightest.*

(2132.) Let us next consider the making of hay with the aid of horse labor and suitable implements, the employment of which makes a consid

erable difference in the process. The tedding-machine, represented in

Plate XXXI. fig. 368, is used to ted hay, and which it best does by pass ing across the swathes, taking up and teasing and scattering them on the ground in the most regular manner. It is alleged that this machine is only suited to ted natural grass, but why so is not obvious, for its struc

ture is capable of laying hold of any kind of grass. It would indeed shake rye -grasstoo much that is intended for seed ; but I have already said it is impossible to obtain good hay and good seed from the same crop. If the objectbe merely to ted grass, this machine will doubtless ted sown grasses as well as natural, when theyare cut at the proper age. After the grass has thus been tedded , it is allowed to dry in the sun and wind all the forenoon. In the afternoon the hay -rake, whether the common horse -rake or American hay-rake, both of which are represented and described be low by Mr. Slight , is employed to rake the tedded grass into a windrow across the 4 ridges which intervene between every fifth ridge which con tains a row of cocks. Where the crop of grass is very thin , the horse rake might carry the grass into a windrow over more than 4 ridges upon

the fifth ridge ; but with an ordinary crop it could not, perhaps, accom plish this, and much less with a heavy crop . After the grass , therefore , [ * Here follow minute directions for hay-making, not applicable to our country, from various circumstances, which the reader can imagine. The difficulty with us is to get the grass or the Ed. Farm . Lib.] ground. The process of curing is simple enough . (697 )..

22

338

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

SUMMER .

has been withdrawn across the 4 ridges, manual labor is employed to put it into grass-cocks, as in the case with manual labor. It will be observed

that few people, and especially women, are required to conduct hay making in this way, the heavy part of the duty consisting of making the cocks as often as requisite, which is best done by men.

(2133.) A large oblong hay-stack should be built in this way : In the first place a dry stance should be chosen, for a damp one will cause the destruction of several stones of hay at the bottom of the stack.

The

stance should be raised 1 foot above the ground with large stones inscribing the circumference, and the interior filled up with stone shivers or gravel beat firmly down. Upon this space the stack should be built by 2 men,

who are supplied with armsfull of hay by a number of field -workers, whose duty is not merely to carry the hay but to tramp it under foot in a regular manner from one end of the stack to the other. The 2 men, each

occupying a side of the stack, shake and build up what is called a dace of che hay before them as high as their breast, from one end of the stack to the other ; and after half its length is built

up in this manner, the women

go upon it and trample it, and if they hold by one another's hand in a row their walking will prove the more effective. The breadth of the stack is

The hay is forked from the ground by ? or 3 men, and when the stack has attained an inconvenient hight for this purpose, there are 2 or 3 modes by which hay may be carried to greater hight ; one is by placing short ladders against the stack , and a man on a little increased to the eaves .

each , some way above the ground , with his back to the ladder, where he

receives the forksfull of hay from the forker on the ground , and raises the load above his head upon the stack. Another mode is for men to carry back -loads of hay up long ladders, and empty them on the stack .

A third is to erect a scaffolding of planks upon a couple of

tresses of 6 feet in hight, and to fork the hay off the scaffolding to the stack as it is forked upon it from the ground . Of the 3 modes, the last of the scaffold affords the most secure footing to the men at an eleva

tion from the ground , and in the end is the most expeditious ; and in all the modes 4 men will be amply employed in forking up the hay to keep 2 builders in work. The hay is forked off the ground instead of the cart, as the latter mode would hinder the horses too long to make them stand

till the cart is cleared of its hay by forking. The hay is,therefore, thrown down upon the ground from the cart, and if the cart is constructed to tilt up, the deposition of hay is easily effected ; and even from a whole-bodied cart hay is easily thrown off by the forkers sticking their forks under the

load along one side of the cart, and pushing upward and from them to the otherside, one person holding by the wheel nearest the men to pre vent the cart upsetting. The position in which the load is thrown upon the ground requires to be considerately chosen. The load should be thrown away from the spot upon which the men stand to fork , when the hay will easily come away with the fork, because each stratum of hay, as it was forked on the cart, then lies toward the men ; whereas, when the

load is thrown toward the forkers, the inclination of the hay abuts against

them, and every forkfull must then be pulled away by main force. A hight of 12 feet is enough for the body of the stack, and a breadth of 15 feet is convenient for a hay -stack, and with these fixed dimensions, the

length may be made more or less, according to the quantity of hay to be stacked. With these dimensions a new -built stack of 40 feet in length

will contain about 2,000 imperial stones. After the bcay of the stack has attained 12 feet in hight, the heading is commenced by gradually taking

in the(698)breadth on each side to the ridging, which is elevated half the

HAY- MAKING.

339

breadth of the stack above the eaves, and the ends are built perpendicular.

One man and one woman will only find room at the finishing of the top of the stack. A few straw ropes are thrown over the stack to prevent the wind blowing off its new -made top. The stack is left for several days to subside, and unless it has been slowly built and firmly trampled, it may subside in the body to the extent of 2 feet. Very probably heat may be

indicated in some part of the stack a few days after it is built, by a leaning toward that part, because heating causes consolidation of the hay. A prop of wood placed against the place will prevent the stack subsiding much

farther, and the handle of a rake pushed in here and there into the stack, will indicate whether the heating is proceeding upward or to a dangerous extent. A gentle heating will do no harm , but rather good, by rendering the quality of the hay uniform , and horses do not dislike its effect. Salt has

been recommended to be used in hay, and when hay is in a damp state in consequence of the weather, it is an excellent remedial measure against mouldiness, and it may be sown by hand upon every dace of hay laid down by the two builders. The proper quantity of salt is to be used, ac cording to the state of the hay, has never been correctly ascertained, and must, therefore, be left to your own judgment according to circumstances.

Salted hay is very much relished by all kinds of stock, and especially by cattle.

(2134.) When the hay has fairly subsided, and the heat, if any, is no longer félt, the stack should be thatched ; and as a preparatory operation, the sides and ends are neatly pulled straight from angle to angle of the stack, with a small increase of breadth to the eaves . This operation sim. ply consists of pulling out the straggling ends of the hay, which give a

rough appearance to the sides and ends, in order to render them smooth ; and its useis to save the hay pulled out which would otherwisebe bleach ed useless by exposure to rain, and to prevent rain hanging upon them about the stack. The heading or thatching consistsof straw drawn straight in bundles, held on by means of straw-ropes. When a hay -stack is to be

thatched, the drawn bundles of straw, and the straw -ropes, should,

of

course, be prepared in time ; and yet it is a matter not of unfrequent oc currence for farmers to allow the hay-stack to stand unthatched until the

corn harvest, for want of straw ; or even to allow the hay to be left in ricks

on the field till just on the eve of harvest. Straw, in some instances,may indeed be scarce, but in that case rushes and other tall- grown wild plants form an excellent substitute, both for thatch and ropes. Ferns and heath

are good materials for thatch. The thatching should be carried on both sides of the stack simultaneously by 2 men , and begun at the same end. The men being mounted on the head of the stack ,the bundles of straw are handed up to them on a fork one by one as they are needed, and each

bundle is retained in its place on the roof, beside the thatcher, by leaning against a graip stuck into the bay. The straw is first placed over the eaves, handfull after handfull from the eave to the top of the stack , each length of the straw being overlapped by the one immediately above it. When the thatcher feels a hollow or soft part with his feet in the head of

the stack, he makes up thepart bysome of the hay that was pulled out of the stack, to save the wasting ofthatch straw in filling up such hollows. The straw is thus laid from the eaves to the ridge of the stack to a breadth as far as the thatcher can reach at a time withhis arms. When the men on both sides meet at the ridge, straw is laid along the stack upon the

ridge, to cover the terminal ends of the thatch on thesloping roof, and to support the ropes

which keep down the thatch. When this breadth , of

perhaps 3 feet, or a little more, of the thatch is laid down, its surface is (699)

340

THE BOOK OF THE FARM

-SUMMER.

switched down smooth by the thatcher with a supple willow rod, and then a rope is thrown across the stack at its very end, and another parallel to it at 18 inches apart, and made fast at both ends, in the meantime, to the sides of the stack. Other ropes, at right angles to the first, are fastened 18 inches apart to the hay at the end of the stack , and supposing the side of the roofto be 11 feet along the slope,6 ropes running horizontally will be required to cover the depth of the slope, leaving a space of 9 inches from the ridge for the place of the uppermost rope, and the rope at each eave is put on afterward . Each of these horizontal ropes is twisted once round every perpendicular rope it meets, so that the roping when com

pleted has the appearance of a net with square meshes. “ As every subse quent breadth of thatch is put on , the roping is finished upon it, the ad

vantage of which is, that the thatching is finished as it proceeds, and placed beyond danger from wind or rain, or disturbance from after work. "If th6

stack stands N. and S., the E. side should have a thicker thatching than the W.,‫ ܕ‬as being most liable to damp, and the thatching of both sides should be thicker toward that end of the stack which is farthest from the

steading, as it will stand longest, and the process of thatching should ter minate at the end which will be first broken upon, that is, nearest the steading, because the thatch will come away more freely when removed in the opposite direction from which it was put on. The horizontal ropes at their termination are fastened into the hay at the end of the stack. The eave is finished by laying a stout rope horizontally along the line where

the roof was begun to be taken in, and twisting it round each perpendicu as it occurs; when each perpendicular rope is broken off at a prop er length and fastened firmly to the hay immediately under the eave, and

lar rope

after the eave-ropes have thus been fastened down, the projecting ends of the thatch over the eave are cut straight along the stack, and give to the

heading a pretty finish. Another mode of roping thethatch is to place the

ropes in a diagonal direction across the stack, and when one set of ropes cross the other diagonally, the effect is lozenge-shaped, which looks well ; but roping in this fashion requires the thatcher to place all the straw upon the roof before he guides the ropesover the ridge of the stack, to do

which he must stand upon the ridge and step backward upon it - a plan which allows the wind to have liberty to blow off the thatch before it is roped at all, and also obliges him to trample down the ridge straw to a certain degree.

(2135.) On the other hand, when the stack is built under cover of a rick cloth or shed, the hay may be led in by'a cart-load at a time, employing only 3 hands, for the builder forks the hand - cocks in the field to the cart,

and the carter forks the hay to the builder off the cart, while the same field -worker who rakes the bottoms of the hand-cocks in the field car

ries the hay to the builder on the stack, each forkfull of hay, in this

case, being thinly scattered over the stack, is easily trampled down, and has time to subside, before another load is put over it on the following day. Where the rick - cloth is used, the stack should be thatched on its removal ; but where a shed is erected, no thatching is re quired.

(2136.) Hay is sometimes built in round stacks, which are kept of a cyl. indrical form for 7 or 8 feet from the ground, and then terminated in a ta

pering conical top, and thatched. Such stacks contain from 300 to 500 stones of hay.

This form of stack is convenient enough when a whole

one can be brought at once into the hay-house, but should the stack be of :

such a size as to be necessary to bisect it perpendicularly, the remaining half is(700apt to be blown over ; or should its upper half be brought into the )

HAY- MAKING .

341

hay -house, the under part must be protected by a quantity of straw kept down by some weighty articles, and in such a case it is seldom that these are put on with sufficient care to keep out rain and resist wind. Upon the irhole, the oblong form of stack admits of being most conveniently cut for lise, and left at all times in safety ; because a section of any breadth can he cut from top to bottom to fill the hay-house. * (2137.) The rule for ascertaining the number of stones of hay in oblong stacks is simple enough, but not so for conical stacks. To find the weight of hay in an oblong stack :-To the hight from the ground to the eaves add one-half of the hight of the top above the eaves for the mean hight, then multiply the mean hight by the breadth , and then multiply the product of both by the length. Divide the gross product by 27, and the dividend will give the number of cubic yards in the stack , and that number of yards multiplied by the number of stones of hay in a cubic yard, will give the weight of the stacks in stones imperial. It is not easy to state the exact pumber of stones of

hay in a cubic yard, as that must vary according to the compressed state of the hay, the weight actually varyingfrom 5 stones to9 stones per cubic yard , according to the age and size of the stack , and the pari of thestack from which the hay is taken; but perhaps 6 stones may be near enough the mark of the weight in a new stack , 7 stones in one that has stood for some months, and 8 stones in one that has stood over years. Thecontents of a round stack with a conical top may be ascer tained in this way :-Take the hight of the round part from the ground to the eaves, and add to it one-third of the perpendicular hight ofthe conical top above the eaves for the mean hight of the stack. Take then the mean girth, which , if the stack is wider at the eaves than atthe ground,

is ascertained by taking the girth at the eaves, and also at the ground, and dividing their sum by 2. Square the mean girth, and multiply the product by the decimal .0795, which will give the area of the base of the stack. Then multiply the area by the mean bigbt, which will give the contents of the stack in cubic feet, divide the contents by 27, which will reduce them to cubic

yards, and then multiply the yards by the supposed number of stones of hay in the yard, and the capacity of the stack will be found in stones. To know the contents of a conical stack or coll,

take the girth at the ground in feel, find the area of the circle in the ordinary way , and multiply the area by one-third of the bight. The contents thus found in feet reduce to yards, and then

multiply by the number of stones in a cubie yard. But the simplest plan in all such cases is to use any ofthe Tables which are published for the purpose of saving tedious calculations, such as those of Anslie or Strachan, the latter of which, however, are not extended far enough to com prehend stacks of the largest dimensions.

(2138. ) A crop of hay varies from 150 to 300 stones, per acre, according to the season and the On light gravelly soils the crop is never heavy, but its quality is generally is usually heavy, and the plants large and strong, the clover predomina ting. For quantity and quality combined, a deep mellow clay loam may be regarded as the best texture of soil. On thin clay, and on thin light soil resting on retentive clay, the clover is fre nature of the soil.

fine, and on good clay

quently thrown out by frost in spring, and the bay then consists chiefly of rye -grass, and on the

samesoil thesame effect is produced by severedrouth in May. Good hay should consist of equal quantities of clover and rye.grass, feel pleasant to the hand, and smell fragrantly, and, when

well prepared,possess alight brownish-greencolor ; but asitiscommonly prepared,the coloris usually light brownish -yellow . Hay of naturalgrass, when well prepared , is darkish green in color, feels soft, is generally of fine quality, and highly fragrant. Grass usually loses two-thirds of its weight on being made into hay.

( 2139.). Of3060 grainsofwhite clover, as much as 2430 grainswere water, 100 grains nutritive matter, and the remaining 470 grains were insoluble matter. The nutritive matter in the 100 grains consisted of 77 of starch, 2 of sugar, 7 of gluten, and 14 of bitter extract and saline matter.* “ When green grass or clover, approaching to maturity," says Professor Johnston, “ is first cut down, it contains a considerable proportion of starch, sugar, and gum still unchanged into woody

fibre, as it would mostly be werethe plant allowed to become fully ripe.” Here you see the pro priety of cutting down grass for hay before any of its seed approaches to maturity, because lat terly it contains woody fibre instead of the nutritive ingredients just mentioned. But even when

succulent grass is “ left to dry in theopen air, the circulation proceeds to a certain extent, and, until it becomes completely dry." And " it may even be a matterof doubt whether the process of change does not often proceed after the hay has been carried off the field and stacked." All under the influence of light, woody fibre continues to be formed in the upper part of each stem ,

which considerations tend more and more to prove that the longer grass is allowed to stand after the plant has attained its full stature, the less digestible or nutritious the hay will become ; and

more than this, the longer the process of making thegrass into hay is delayed, the more woody, into

and,ofcourse, the less nutritious the hay will be. Every quick process of converting grass hayis, therefore, better than any slow one. There is a very quick mode practiced in Saxony,

which is this :-The grass that has been cut down during the day is put into large cocks late in the afternoon . A very strong fermentation soon ensues, which continues all night untilthe morn

ing, when the work -people return to the field, by which time the cocks have contracted much in bulk , and the steam rises briskly from them . They are then thrown down and scattered on the ground, and their contents allowed to remain all day exposed to the sunand air, and by the after.

noon the hay is so dry and won as to be fit to be stacked, and accordingly it is gathered from the ground andcarried to the stack . The new -mown grass of the day is put into large cocks in the

evening,to be treated the next day in the same manner. This mode ofhay-making might be fol lowed in this country , provided we could trust our climate ; but should the next morning prove a rainy or even a damp one, the contents of the cocks would inevitably be rotted . The modes of * Sinclair's Hortus Gramineus Woburnensis .

+ Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society for October, 1843. ( 701)

342

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

SUMMER .

hay -making, both manually and mechanically, which I have describedabove, are both expeditious asare alsothe modes described by Mr. Little, Carlesgill, and Mr. Miller of Forest, both in Dam . friesshire . *

(2140.) As hay is usually made in a thriftless manner, and as grass is morenourishing to stock than hay, and as good food can be cooked for horses inwinter without hay, I have often thought it a loss to farmers to make hay at all . The grass would pay better on being grazed, and the land

would be retained in better heart. In the vicinity of large towns, itmay be expedient to make hay, and yet when the crop proves heavy the price is low - the average may be stated from the tramp-rick at 8d. per stoneof 22 lbs. I have seen the price as low as 4d. and as high as 1s.4d. per stone; but when the price is high , the crop is deficient, and the quality of the hay bad. Taking the heaviest crop of 300 stonesat 8d., it will yield £10 an acre, but 220 stones is nearer the mark ,

and yet grass letsfor cutting £12 or £ 14 per acre in the neighborhood of Edinburgh, without in . curring any trouble to the farmer. I am sure if half the labor spent in making hay were bestow . edin winter in cooking food for the horses, farmers would derive a profitfrom theexchange.t (2141.) [Of the hay-making implements, the scythe (2615), and fig. 361, and the hay-fork, fig. 279, havingbeen already alluded to, I have now to notice a machine which is extensively em. ployed by the English farmers in the preparation of meadow -bay, or hay prepared from the mix . ed natural grasses, in contradistinction from the artificial, or rye-grass and clover hay.

(2142.) The English hay -tedding machine, which is represented in perspective in Plate XXXI. fig. 368, consists of a skeleton carriage, having a series of revolving rakes occupying the place of the body. The carriage is composed of the transverse bar a, 6 feet in length, into which the horse -shafts b b are tenoned. An iron stay-bar cc on each side connects and supports the shafts, and the stays are continued backward, and attached to the center of the box that carries the axle of the carriage-wheel on each side. The length of the bars c from a to the center of the axle-box is 3 feet 10 inches, and the bars are 21 by 1 inch. The carriage-wheels d d are 3 feet 10 inches diameter, and turn upon arms cast on a circular box, into which the nave of the wheel, armed with a ratchet e, is received . The ratchet-wheel e, thus attached to the nave of the

carriage-wheel, takes hold of the spur-wheel f by means of a pall, and carries it round when the machine advances, but slips hold on backing or turning. The spur-wheelf works into the pinion g; which is mounted on the end of the hollow shaft h, extendingfrom side to side ofthe machine ; and though in the figure, for the sake of distinctness, the spur-wheel and pinion are exposed to

view, they are in the machine closely boxed up in a cast-iron casing, which, for perfect and safe working is necessary to prevent entanglement from thehay falling between the wheel and pin ion . A bar of 13-inch round iron passes through the hollow shaft h , and hasits end fitted tightly

into the outward side ofthecase that contains the pinion g, and there fixed firmly withascrew . nut on the outside of the case ; and the hollow shaft and pinions being firmly connected by thin

flanges (which are left out of the figure ), they revolve round the central rod or shaft as one body, the rod having turned bearings where the pinion embraces it. The two rake-wheels i i are 2 feet 8 inches diameter, and of very light construction ; they have eyes sufficiently large to pass overthe end flanges, of about 7 inches diameter, of the hollow shaft, to which the pinions gare attached by means of their flanges ; and, to fill up the large eyes of the rake-wheels,the shaft h is swelled out at the points of bearing. The rake-wheels, fixed dead upon the shaft h, are now armed with the eight rakes k k ; these are wooden bars 5 feet6 inches long, and 24 inches square, each carrying 10light iron teeth about 7inches in length. The rakes are attached to the wheels by a tumbling jointm m, &c. , and are held to the work by the springs ! only ; by which arrange ment, when any undue resistanceis opposed to a rake, such as a stone or other obstruction, the rake falls back till the obstruction has been passed, when the springs immediately return it to its working position. (2143.) It will be observed that there is no thorough axle in the machine,as the revolution of the rake occupies the place where that member should exist ; hence the axle -armsor heads are

simply studs projecting from the box which contains the machinery e,f, g , and hence also the necessity for the connecting-bar which passes through the hollow shaft ; that, together with the * See Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv .

[t We have before us a letter from Henry Ancrum , of Ashley, Missouri, in which he says:" I have tried a great many experiments on animals. I have kept 20 Durham cows, 7 horses, and other stock, in a situation where hay was $25 a ton, in the highest health and condition without a

blade of hay ; and the result of my investigations and trials is, that cooked food in winter is the cheapest and most wholesome,

I have found that it is pretty indifferent as to the quality of the food by which the alimentary ca val is filled , if ample, provided a certain quantity of concentrated food is given containing nitro genous substances, and a small quantity daily saffices. No animal can be brought easily and read .

ily to his highest pitch of perfection on one kind of food alone. The great secret is to keep up the animal heat in the winter. Where this is strictly attended to , any inferior food at discretion ,

and given with stated regularity, will make an animal fat. I have seen oxen of the largest size made completely fat with a moderate allowance of hay, with cabbages of the Anjou kind ; but these animals were fed with the greatest regularity, carried, kept extremely warm , and the chill taken off the water in cold weather. How many millions are lost in the United States by not keeping up the animal heat in the winter ?"

These suggestions, sustained by modern experiments on the nature and action of food, we con sider important, as going to show that good hay is not so indispensable as may be imagined by those who have it not within their reach or to whom it would be very costly. Ed. Farm . Lib.] (702)

343

HAY-MAKING .

bar a and the longitudinal bars c c, being the only parts which constitute the frameworkof the machine. Besides thecapability of backing, without turning the rakes,there is provision for dis engaging them when the machine is advancing. To effect this, the pall which is attached to the spur-wheelf, for the purpose of deriving its motion from the ratchet-wheel of the nave, is held in action by means of a spring pressing on the tail of the pall, and the disengagement of the whole

machinery from the carriage.wheel or first mover, is effected by a smalltumbling lever affixed also to the spur-wheel, andfitted to bear upon and throw the pall out of gear with the ratchet of the carriage -wheel nave. The machine is also furnished with the means of elevating and de pressing the center of the revolving-rake, and,of consequence, bringing the rake-teeth nearer to, or farther from the ground, and this is effected by turning round the circular boxes that contain the gearing to the extent required, which is then fixed bymeans of a quadrant bolted to the bars

C , C ;a small portion ofthis quadrant, which is a part or flange of the gearing-box, is seen with its bolt-holes at è on the left, and at i on the right of the figure . Whenin operation the machine is drawn by one horse,or sometimes two horses, and the result of the combination of the gearing is that the revolving-rake makes 4f revolutions for one of the carriage-wheel. The latter being 3 feet 10 inches diameter, will pass over 12 feet or thereby in one revolution, and the rakes being 4 feet 6 inches diameter over the extreme points of the teeth , will describe a circle of about 14 feet in circumference, and this revolving 41 times for one of the other, the points of the teeth, will pass through 63 feet while the carriage has moved over 12 feet, and as there are 8 rake-heads, there will be 8 X 4.5 = 36 contacts with the substance which is to be lifted, in a space of 12 feet, or

one at every 4 inches. From this calculation it will be seen that the hay under the operation of this machine will undergo a process of teazling or tedding of the most perfect description ; it will be separated andtossedabout until no two stems of the plants will beleft in contact, and by this exposure the drying process is effected ina period greatly shorter and more effectually than could be done by any numberof hands. Thus, if we suppose the horse to walk 21 miles per hour, and the machine to cover 6 feet in breadth, we have a surface of 14 acres nearly covered in an hour. ( 2144.) The following machines, though not confined to the hay-field alone, but are also em .

ployed in the grain harvest, are very frequently employed in hay -making, for the sole purpose of collecting the bay into heaps after the tedding processhas been gone through. (2145.) The hand hay.rake is an implement of great simplicity, but though almost elementary in its construction, it has been subjected to numerous variations, chiefly in one point, with a view to improve its construction. It consists of a head c d, fig. 399, g h, fig . 398,of from24 to 27 inches

in length, made of hard wood 1 } inches broad in the middle, tapering a litile to each end, and from 1 to 17 inchesthick. The head is armed withtwelve or thirteen wooden teeth a or e, made ofoak

or ash ; inch in diameter, and. when first made, about 34 inches long. They ought to be formed

a t n

Hi

e Att

Fig. 399.

Fig. 398 .

A

f

THE HAND -RAKES.

with a slight swelling in the middle, or rather towards one end, the shorter end being adapted to fit into holes previously bored at ? inches apart centres ; and when the teeth are driven into their holes the swell on the tooth fills up the hole tightly, giving the tooth much greater strength than if it were quite cylindrical. The teeth are then properly secured by wedging,and the wedges and ends dressed off ;the points of the teeth are likewise dressed off to a uniform length , 24 inches or thereby, and sharpened off from the back. The shaft or helve, which is 5} feet long, is usually made of ash , but as lightness is an object, its thickness ought not to exceed 14 inches, dressed neatly smooth and round except where it enters the head ;here, and for a length of 12 inches,it is usually kept square. This part of it is either let into the middle of the head by a tenon , asin fig. 399, or itis split as in fig. 398, and enters it by two tenons. Itis in this point of the construc tion that the variations have occurred, and from the slightest consideration it will be evident that the single tenon alone, as in fig. 399, is defective and weak ; hence the grounds for the variation, to afford some additional support to the simple tenon, and fig. 398 exhibits one mode of accom plishing theobject ; the helve is splitwith a saw from the end backward to f, at which pointit is prevented from splitting farther by the application of a rivet put through the termination of the split part, or, what is much better , an iron ferule, as in the figure, is drawn tight upon it; the fork isthen opened, the ends adapted to the respective mortises and secured into the head of therake. This is apparently a very simple mode of accomplishing the object, but it is not by any means a perfect one. Were it possible to make the two parts f g and f h free of curvature, the object would be attained ; but as this cannot under the circumstances be done, the head and the belve

will have a very unstable attachment to each other, and a consequentweaknessof parts ; neither is it less expensive than other and better methods, though the rake of this formis always light in band, which is its only commendation. A semi-circular bow of bent ash wood has been often ap plied , passing through a hole at b, fig. 399, and entering the head at c and d, but this, by reason of

its curved figure, is also especially defective, besides weakening the helve. Equally so is a light iron bow of the same curvature, but, instead of passing through the helve, it is simply attached to (703)

344

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

it, and to the head with a nail ateach of these points. This will be better in degree than the last, applying the bow is that exhibited in fig. 399, where the parts b c and b d are perfectly straight,

from the greater rigidity of theiron, but is not better in principle. The true and only mode of and formed ofvery light iron rod ; it need not exceed 4 inch diameter, flattened at the two extrem eties and at the point b into a small fat palm , and fixed to the helve and the head by a screw -nail at each point. This part of the rake is called the stay or brace, and in the last described form is as perfect as the case will admit of.

(2146.) To have said so much on an implement so simple and of such small intrinsic value may appear trifling, butthe hay -rake is not so much the object here as the developmentof the princi ple, on which depends the strengthening and supporting the parts of any form of frame-work , whether of wood or iron, by the aid of diagonal stays or braces. This single member in all con structions is of such importance that no opportunity should be lost in impressingthe principle on the mind of all, whose business or interest lies in those departments of Mechanics where its ap plication is required. (2147.) The American hay -rake, is so called from its having been an importation from America. This implement is represented in fig. 400, in perspective, and lying in the working position. It Fig. 400.

h

THE AMERICAN HAYRAKE .

consists of a beam or head a a, 94 feet long and about 4 inches square ; it is perforated with 18 square mortises, into which the transverse bars or teeth b b, cc, & c . are firmly fixed. These teeth are about 3 feet 10 inches long, or 21 inches on each side of the head a a , and are about 17 inches square on the body, slightly tapering to each end, where they are rounded off to a blunt

point, but chiefly upon that side which isto lie next the ground, and this constitutes the body of the

rake. It is drawn bya horse yoked to the draught-frame de, of which d and e aretwo naturally. bent bars of wood about 3 feet long and 4 inches by 24 inches at the butt-end ; at the butt they are worked out to the end in a semi-circle half embracing the head a a, which is here dressed in.

to a cylindrical journal, and the bars d e are secured to the journals by a strap of iron passing round each and nailed or bolted upon the bars, leaving them freedom to traverse upon the jour nals. The stretcher-barf is mortised into d and e at a distance of not less than 2 feet from the head a a. The handle-frame by which the implement is guided has the two bars g and h 41 feet long and is 21 feet apart ; the bars being attached to the head in the same manner as described for dē. The two bars g, h, are also connected by 2 stretchers,and upon the lower one is appendedthe light pendent and movable frame i, the depth of which from the stretcher, to which it is appended, to the bar i is 10 inches, and is jointed to swing freely on the stretcher. The bar i of this last frame is put in connection with the draught-frame,by means of the connecting-rod i k, which is

jointed movable at both ends on round journals, and strapped as before. The stretcher on which the frame i is appended is prolonged at each end to receive the catch -bars 1, on the outside of the frame gh ,one of which bars is seen at l,jointed onthe prolonged stretcher, the position of which is 2 feet 3 inches from the journal of the head a. The catch -bars are 31 inches by 11 inches at l, but diminish forward to 14 inches square at the point, wherethey abut upon an iron stud, which

is presented at two of the opposite corners of the rake-head, at each side of the handle - frame, serving an essential purpose in the management of theimplement.

(2148.) In the working of this rake, it lies nearly flat on the ground, and when the draught tremity of the teeth that are then behind, and nearly bearing upon them . In this position also , the point of the catch -bars l is quite free of the studs of the head or beam , and by pressing down the handle-frame, the pendent i will come down upon and depress the teeth that are looking back ward, raising at the same time those in front, such as for the purpose of passing over any obstruc tion . When, on the contrary, it is wished to depress the front teeth, the handle-frame is raised till the points of the catch -bars press against their studs, which will depress the front-teeth ; and

frame is at its proper hight, the connecting -rod i k keeps the hanging frame just within the ex .

by continuingto elevate the handle-frame, theconnecting-rod, from change of position in the bars

ik, i l, and I f,will push the pendent i beyond the extremity of the teeth behind, when, the front teeth taking the ground, and nothing to resist the rising of those behind, the rake will immediate

ly tilt over ,the fore and hind teeth changing places ;but, in other respects, everything will be the same as before. The effects of the motion and tilting, it is evident, will be, that in the pro gressive state the rake collectsthe hay or straw upon it chiefly in the front part ; and when the attendant sees that the rake is filled, he raises the handles andtilts the rake as above described , leaving the collected mass at the spot where the tilt occurs.

[* Invented by Moses Pennock of the Society of Friends, in Delaware. Men's names have been immortalized by acts of much less public service. (704)

Ed . Farm . Lib .]

THE FLAIL .

345

(2149.) A slight consideration of this implement will show the effectual and convenient manner in which its work is performed ; but it will also probably occur to the observer, that, for pro gressive motion, it is by no means so well adapted as forcollecting and depositing the products. The heavytransverse bar, or head of the rake,is drawn forward in the worst possible position, or what is called broad-side on ; and it appears very obvious that this defect could be removed by simply applying a pair of low lightwheels to the ends of the head ; their diameter need not ex . ceed 8 inches, and they should be very light. Perhaps it may be owing to this defect that the Americau hay-rake has of late years not been in suchhigh repute as formerly.

( 2150.) TheFlail, fig. 401, is an implement of considerableantiquity, and of very extended ap plication. Till about 80 years ago, it was the sole implement employed in Britain,and to this day isnearly so over a great part of Europe, for threshing out thegrain from the straw . Though falling rapidly into disuse in England, it is nevertheless an important implement in many oth ers, and therefore claims our attention in common with those of higher pretension. The fiail con sists of two parts, the hand-staff or helve a b, andthe supple or beater b c ; the first is a light rod of ash about 5 feet in length, slightly increased in breadth at the lower extremity, where it is per . Fig. 401.

C THE FLAIL .

forated for the passage of the thongs that bind the beater to it. The beater is a rod of from 30 to 36 inches in length, frequently also made of ash, though a more compact wood, such as thorn, is

better adapted for it. If not properly applied, the ash beater will very soon separate into thin plates, which are portions of the concentric layers ofthe wood, and their separation arises from the beater falling upon the flat or convex side of these annular layers or the reed of the wood, as vul. garly called. To prevent this disintegration of the wood, the beater should be constructed to fall upon the edge of the segmental portions of the reed, which iseasily accomplished in its formation.

The usual form ofthe beater is cylindrical, but frequently thickened a little toward the extreme end, the diameter being from 14 to 1 } inches. For the most part, it is attached to the hand staff by a strap of leather, or more frequently of hide untanned ; when mounted in this manner, the beater is formed with two projecting ears,standing at right angles to the side on which it is intended to

fall, and about 1 } inches from the end by which it isattached, serving the purpose of retaining the end of the beater within the strap. Thestrap is about 8 inches long and 11 inches broadit ; is bent over the end of the beater, and the tails brought to embrace the sides of it beyond theears. The strap being previously perforatedwith fourholesin each tail, it is bound by athong of leather laced through the holes and round the neck of the beater ; the upper turn of the lacing thong

catching the ears, prevents the strap from slipping off. The strap, thus applied, forms a loop standing about 1 inch beyond the end of the beater ; and through that, and the perforation in the end of the hand-staff,another and stronger thong is passed several turns and secured, forming thus a kind of loose swing-joint that allowsfree action to the beater in its gyration round the head of the thresher, and its descents upon the threshing.floor. Another mode of mounting the beater is

by applying a strap of iron in place of leather, which is fixed to the wood by riveting, leaving a loop as before,which must be nicely rounded and smooth , to prevent the too rapid chafing of the thong by which it is bound to the hand -staff, in the same manner as described above. The figure here described exhibits the iron strap. In constructing a flail, a very general practice prevails, which is, to have the beater club-shaped, or thickest at the farthest extremity c - intended, no

doubt, to give the better effect to the blows ; but when we consider the effects arising from the manner of wielding the instrument, any additional weight at the extremity seems misapplied. The greatest amount of useful effect will be produced by the beater when every point in its length strikes the floor with an equal amount of momentum or force ; but there will be a constant tendency to a larger amount of momentum at the extremity c than at any other point, and a club .

shaped beater will always augment this tendency, for the greater velocity of the extreme end, during the gyration of the instrument, multiplied by its greater weight, must give an undue pre ponderance ofeffect to that part of the beater, thereby lessening the general effect upon the work (705)

346

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER .

ander performance. The opposite mode, which is also practiced, to make the beater thinner to ward the extremity, as exhibited in the figure, ismore consonant to the laws of dynamics, and there can be no doubt that its practical effects will be equally favorable as compared with those of the club -shaped beater.*.J. 8.]

30. SUMMER-FALLOWING, AND LIMING THE SOIL. “ The bare fallow brings to teeming foyson .” MEASURE FOR MEASURE .

(2151.) Although summer -fallow occupies the same division of the farm as green crops-- turnips, potatoes, tares - yet it may mostcharacteristically

be regarded as the first preparation for the crop of the following year ; it is a transferrence of a portion of the land, with the labor bestowed

upon it,

from one year to another; it forms the connecting link between one crop and another. But although the preparation of the soil for a part of the crop of two consecutive years are conducted simultaneously by means of

summer-fallow, yet the crops which occupy the soil thus simultaneously prepared are committed to it at very different periods — the green fallow

crops being sown early in summer, while the sowing of the fallow crop on the summer-fallow is delayed to autumn ; so that before the latter makes its appearance above ground, the former have almost advanced to matu rity . Since the crop on summer-fallow is delayed to autumn - till the eve of commencing another agricultural year — the practical effect of the delay

is to dispense with a crop for a whole year on that part of the fallow -break which is summer-fallowed, and, on this account, such a fallowing is com monly called a bare-fallow . As an entire crop is dispensed with , bare-fal lowing should impart such advantages to the land asto compensate for the rest and indulgencewhich it receives; and so,in fact, are its advantages felt on some sorts of soils. But the truth is, after all, that bare -fallowing is a necessitous operation in soils that will not carry green or summer

crops; and if such soils will not carrythem, they must be operated on so as to be made suitable for a crop which they will not only bear to perfec tion, but will pay the expense of the operation. The sort of soils alluded to are heavy clays; and why will they not bear green summer -crops ? A satisfactory reason cannot be given ; but the fact, as developed by experi ence, is, that their nature is unkindly to the growth of plants commonly used in a green state ; and their heavy, wet and obdurate nature prevents

them , at any rate, from being prepared in time for sowing such plants. Could clays be altered in their nature by any means, they might be em ployed in raising summer crops as well as the naturally more kindly soils ; and such a change has been effected on many clay soils which were for

merly incapable of rearing them ; and the change has been effected by ameliorating their texture by thorough -draining, skillful tillage, and liberal manuring and liming. In this way the bounds of bare -fallow have been much circumscribed , and those of green crops as much extended. Still the heavier class of clays — the deep alluvial clays — have not yet been ame liorated to the degree of bearing green crops profitably, so they must con tinue to be bare-fallowed ; but more than this, part of even the ameliorated ( * This implement is still mach used in the Eastern States. Col. Chapman, President of the Sara . toga Agricultural Society, still uses it on the ground of employment to the poor men who do the work . Ed. Farm . Libe (706)

347

SUMMER-FALLOWING , AND LIMING.

soil of almost every farm is necessitated tobe bare-fallowed, for want of an adequate supply of farm -yard manure.

Farms in the vicinity of large

towns may be amply supplied with extraneous manure, to

make up for the

deficiencies of the farm -yard ; but as most farms are beyond the reach of

such assistance, it may be alleged that bare-fallowing, to some extent, is practiced every year upon every farm ; though the limits of compulsory fallowing havebeen much circumscribed of late years by the purchase of extraneous manure from distant sources, which are easily conveyed , and sold at prices that afford a profit. Those manures —and I only allude to them here -- are bone-dust and guano. These, superadded to draining

and deep-plowing, have afforded the power to cultivate green crops upon soils which were naturally unfit for them ; and, without such auxiliaries, soils suitable for their growth would be obliged to be bare-fallowed, to al low time to collect the requisite quantity of manure to support their fertil

ity. Until manure is, therefore, obtained in sufficient quantity, bare- fallow must exist ; but whenever that desideratum shall be accomplished, many farms will dispense with bare -fallow altogether. But there is a natural obstacle to the increase of manure in farmsthemselves; for it so happens

that the greatest quantity of straw , which is the great source of fertilizing manure, is afforded by land the least fitted for green crops ; and, on the contrary, land best fitted for green crops affords the least quantity of straw . Turnip -soils cannot supply as much straw as to manure, to the degree and in thestate it should be applied to green crops, little more than } of the fallow -break ; whereas clay soils afford as much straw for manure, in the state in which it may be applied to them in bare -fallow , as sufficiently to manure the fallow -break.

(2152.) The land subjected to bare-fallowing should have the strongest texture ; be foulest of weeds, if any there be ; and be situate farthest from the steading, that the carriage of turnips may be rendered as short as prac ticable .

The winter treatment of the fallow land is the same as that for

the summer crops, and this has already been described in preparing the

soil for potatoes ( 1870) and turnips (1953 ). If one furrow - that of two out-and-two-in, or of four -out-and-four-in - has been given to the fallow

break after cross-plowing,it will be as much as timecan afford from work ing the potato and turnip land ; and when it is found that the fallow -break will not likely be worked for some time to come, it is better to let it lie in the rough state left by the plow, than to render it smooth with the harrow ; because, should dry weather ensue, the air will more easily affect rough than smooth land ; or should it prove wet, the rain will less likely render

rough land tough, than land in a compact and smoothened state; and, in strong soil, rain most advantageously moulders down rough clods.

(2153.) When leisure is again afforded to pay attention to the fallow break from the advanced working of the turnip -land, the state of the fal low-soil should be particularly examined. Should the weeds in the soil consist principally of fibrous and fusiform -rooted plants, they will be easily shaken out by the harrows in dry weather ; but should the running roots of weeds be found to have threaded themselves through hard, round clods, these will not be so easily detached, and it requires considerable skill in the farmer to conduct his operations so as to detach them with the least application of labor. It is inattention to these states of the weeds which

causes so much unnecessary work in the subsequent part of summer in cleansing fallow land. If clods containing portions of the running roots of plants are knocked ever so much about in dry weather, they may be

broken into smaller fragments ; but the roots in them will besubdivided into as many pieces as there are broken clods, and the land will be as far (707)

348

THE BOOK OF THE FARM

SUMMER .

from being cleaned of weeds as ever ; nay, the greater number of parts in which the roots are divided, so many more chances have the weeds of being disseminated over the land .

(2154.) In such a case, which is of frequent occurrence on strong land, the best plan is to allowthe roots to grow for a time, and the force of

vegetation will have sufficient power to break the clods, or will render them easily so by the roller, to reduce the clods by rolling after such a shower of rain asshall have nearly penetrated them . A precaution in the use of the roller should , however, be here observed. When most of the

soil is in a mouldy state , rolling the hard clods found on it, will only bury, not break them. Rolling, with a view to breaking large clods, should therefore be performed when the soil is in a firm state, against which the clods will be reduced to powder. After such a rolling, the land should be harrowed a double tine, first one way and then across another way. The weeds and weed -roots will then be seen upon the surface. It is not expe

dient to gather weeds immediately on their being collected by the har rows, as a good deal of fresh soil adheres to them . A day or two of drouth should intervene, and the weeds will then be easily shaken free of

soil by the hand. It has been recommended by writers to gather the weeds of fallow land by a raking implement, such as the American hay

rake, fig. 400 ; but every instrument of the kind will rake together clods as well as the weeds adhering to them , and if these are carried away with the weeds, the land will be impoverished by the loss of its finest soil ; whereas the hand which throws the weeds into convenient heaps, can at the same time shake them free of soil. In collecting weeds, the field workers should be ranged in a row as when weeding corn, every two

throwing the weeds into the same heap ; and the rows of heaps should be them , and take a cart to pass betweenweeds placed as far asunder as to allowwriters to be burnt recommend the

away 2 rows at a time.

Many

on the ground. No doubt, weeds will burn readily enough when dry, and the ashes of weeds constitute good manure, but, for my part, I never saw

heaps of weeds thoroughly burned, and have seen their remains scattered, againto render the land foul. I agree with Lord Kames, that it is better to make a vegetable compostwith weeds,than to destroy them by incine ration, and with him readily demand, “What better policy than to convert

a foe into a friend ?" Itis impossible to determine beforehand how many times fallow land should be plowed, harrowed, grubbed, and rolled, to render it clean ; but it should be borne in mind, to incur the least expendi ture of labor in accomplishing the object fully. It was once the practice to work fallow land until it was reduced to the state of meal; butexperi ence has long established it as a fact, to be better for theensuing crop of wheat to preserve a good -sized clod upon the surface of the ground in winter, however much the ground may be otherwise pulverized. The land must have been very foul, the weather very unpropitious, or much time wasted, if the fallow land is not ready for the manure by the begin

ning of August, before the chance of harvest interfering with the process of manuring (2155.) The usual mode of laying dung on fallow land is to feer the ridges (660), cart on the manure in heaps, spread them, and plow the

manure in. So far as I have observed, the manure is spread over a large portion of the surface some time before it is plowed in, when, of course, much of its moisture will be evaporated. I very much prefer another mode

of plowing in the dung, which is, to angle-drill the land in preparation for the dung; that is, to set up the land in single drills ( 1735), and fig. 323, from the flat without any feering, beginning at one corner of the field, (708)

_

SUMMER- FALLOWING AND LIMING .

349

and terminating at the opposite one : the plow making the drill in one bout, the cart depositing the manure for 3 drills, 4 women spreading it immediately after the cart, and the plow following and covering up the dung in one drill in another bout (exactly as represented in potato

planting, fig. 344 ), is a process which so quickly and completely covers in the dung, while in possession of its moisture, that it should be univer

sally adopted. The land remains in the drilled state until prepared for the wheat seed in autumn .

(2156.) Fallow land is not dunged so heavily as thatfor green crops, not so much from fallowed soils not bearing heavy manuring,as from want of

manure . From 12 to 15 tons the imperial acre is an ordinary manuring for fallow . The manure need not be so well fermented as for green crops, as there is usually sufficient time for its fermentation in the ground before

the wheat is sown .

If there is not sufficient time, it should be fermented

before its application, as it is not expedient to sow wheat to stand the win ter in soil rendered hollow by rough dung. In strong carse clay, the ma nure is often applied in a state little removed from wet straw , and yet it

seems to answer well in such a soil.

(2157.) While treating of fallow , it is necessary to notice the liming of land, as lime is commonly applied at that period of the rotation of crops, though by no means applied every time the land is fallowed. It has al

waysbeen a favorite practice with farmers to apply lime in as caustic a state aspracticable ; because, perhaps, it is then in the state of finest pow der, and easily commixes with every species of soil. When obtained from

the kiln or from shipboard, it is in lumps, light in weight, and is techni cally called lime-shells. Thereis a difference in the practice of disposing

of lime-shells while inpreparation for the soil. Some lay down the shells in small heaps upon the feered ridges, while others lay them in large heaps along a head -ridge. It is clear that shells cannot be laid at once

upon the land, unless the land had previously been sufficiently fallowed ; and as land occupies a considerable time in being fallowed in a proper manner, it is also clear that no considerable quantity of lime can be driven , after the fallow is ready, unless the kilns are situate very near; and, at any rate, it is unnecessary to lay the lime upon the land," but at a short

period before the wheat is sown. Besides, whenshells are placed in heaps on the ridges, they must remain a considerable time there till reduced to powder by the air, when thelime will have lost a considerable portion of its causticity by union with the carbonic acid of theair, unless a good deal of rain shall have fallen to hasten its slaking. To preserve the shells intact, till needed, they should be put in large heaps, the outer surface of which may become neutralized by the action which will not be so affected . Meantime the

of the air, but the interior of land is worked as opportu

nity offers, while the heaps occupy a head -ridge. (2158.) A week or so before the lime is applied, water is poured on the large heaps of shells, in order to reduce them to a state of impalpable powder. The water will all be absorbed by the lime, which will, never theless, continue quite dry, thereby indicating that the water has disap peared by reason of its chemical union with the lime. A great quantity

of heat is evolved during the time the lime takes to fall to powder; and when that last has been accomplished, the heaps will have swelled to more than three times their former size, when the lime is said to be slaked, and is then in its most caustic state. While the slaking is proceeding, the land that was manured in drills is cross -harrowed a double tine, to make

it flat ; after which the ridges are feered ; and the lime is then spread along the feered ridges. The lime is spread in this way : The frying-pan (709)

350

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER .

shovels, fig. 176, are the best implements for filling carts with , and spread

ing lime on land. A calm day should be chosen for the purpose, but shouldthere be an air ofwind, the single-horse carts should be so placed at the heaps asthat the lime-powder which floats in air should be blown away from the horses and men . Powdered lime is heavy, but all that can

a shovel is so light that one plowman takes a heap, and with one of his horses in a cart, for a yoking at a time, fills his own cart, and

lie upon

spreads the lime from it uponthe land,with the shovel. The liming should be conducted against the wind ; and when a number of men take from dif ferent heaps, they should so arrange themselves alongthe feered ridges as

that the cart farthest down the wind takes the lead in spreading. In spreading lime, the man walks along the middle of the feered ridge, and casts theshovelsfull right and left from the middle toward the feering fur rows, which will, of course, become, by plowing,the crowns of the future ridges. The man who can cast the shovelsfull with either hand will

spread lime better than one who is right or left handed only. The lime should be spread evenly over the surface, but it may be spread thicker on

one partof the field than another, according to the nature of the soil. On light knolls it may be spread thinner than in hollows, where the soil is either deeper or stronger. Progressively as the lime is spread, ridge after ridge, it is harrowed in and mixed with the soil ; and immediately on the entire field being limed, the ridges are plowed with a light furrow , to bury the lime as little as possible, and which constitutes the seed -furrow

of the future crop. It will be observed, from what has been said on the manuring and liming of fallow land, that the lime is spread above the

dung, and some time after its application. This relation between the two substances is held, because it is conceived that, as dung has a natu ral tendency to rise to the surface, and lime to descend, this is the proper relation they should bear in the soil. Whenever rain falls, the liming should be discontinued.

(2159.) It is proper to put a cloth over the horse's back and the harness, and the men may cover their face with crape, to save its orifices being cau terized by the quicklime. The horses, when loosened from work , should

be thoroughly wisped down and brushed, to free them of every particle of lime that may have found its way among the hair ;and, should the men feel a smarting in their eyes or nose, a little sweet thick cream will be felt

as an agreeable emollient; and the same application will prove useful to the horses' eyes and

nose .

(2160.) The quantity of lime that should applied depends on the nature of the soil, the lighter soils requiring the less , and the stronger soils the greater quantity . On light turnip -soils, some think 120 bushels to the im perial acre sufficient, while I have used 150 bushels with benefit.

I have

seen as much as 510 bushels applied to the imperial acre, wheat-land, with

manifest advantage . But perhaps from 150 to 240 bushels may be con sidered fair average quantities, according to the nature of the soil. On weak moory soils, 75 bushels are, perhaps, enough to commence its im

provement with. The sort of lime should determine the quantity applied , the stronger being used in less quantity than the weak. The English lime is much more caustic than the Scotch. It is not customary to apply lime

often to land, a farmer not thinking it expedient to apply it oftener than once in a lease of 19 years, on account of its expense. Its common price is 3s. per boll of 6 bushels; consequently its entire cost, at those quantities, will be from £3 15s. to £ 6 per acre for the best sea -borne English lime,

exclusive of carriage ; the Scotch sells for 10s. per cart - load of 4 bolls, including carriage for 10 miles. (710)

SUMMER -FALLOWING AND LIMING.

351

(2161.) Lime is applied at different periods of the year, according to the state of the land. On 'summer-fallow it is applied immediately before

the wheat is sown in autumn. It is also used immediately after taking up the potato crop in autumn.

It is applied to the land cleared of

turnips by sheep, just before the sowing of the barley -seed in spring. It is also applied before the turnip -seed is sown in the beginning of sum mer ; and it may be applied to lea immediately before being plowed for oats in early spring. I do not say that it is immaterial to the proper use of lime to choosethe season in which it is applied, convenience often determining that point as much as propriety ; but experience has taught that it is used to manifest advantage when spread on land in summer

fallow , and for barley -seed immediately after the ground has been cleared of turnips by sheep. (2162.) Lime is usually procured in summer and autumn, as the kilns

are onlykept in activity inthose seasons, so when it is intended to apply it in spring , it is necessary to procure it in autumn, and keep it all winter; and to preserve it in the desirable state in winter, the heaps of shells should be covered with a thick coating of earth, and every crevice that appears in it should be immediately filled up. . I am quite aware of the opinion of some farmers that lime is equally efficacious in the soil in the effete as in the caustic state, and Lord Kames was of that opinion ; and, therefore,

precautions to preserve it in a caustic state in winter may, by them, bé deemed unnecessary ; but as the general opinion runs in favor of quick lime, and which opinion I support, I have treated the subject accordingly,

until experience shall instruct us better. There is this advantage, how ever, using quicklime, in

that it is much more easily spread upon, plowed

into, and mixed with the soil than effete lime. (2163.) It is supposed that light and heat. together with cleansing and working, have a benefi cial effect upon soil. That these agencies promote fertility in some way, perhaps by affording facility to the union of oxygen with the soil, appears certain, fora smaller quantityof manure willraiseas largea crop with bare-fallow as a greater quantity withoutit ; and yet this particular result is only obtained from a peculiar class of soils - namely, the strong clays, for all turnip -soils actually become more fertile by the overshadowing of a luxuriant crop of leaves than by bare fallowing

(2164. The action of lime upon land seems generally well understood by farmers. They con ceive that lime operates in two ways upon soil, namely, mechanically and chemically. Mechani.

cally, it subdivides the adhesive portions of obdurate clay ; hence it was customary in the Carse ofGowrie, when the high priceofgrainremunerated theoutlay, toapply lime to the land every time it was bare fallowed , that is, every 6 or 8 years, according to the rotation of crops pursued. I suspect that liming is not now so frequent there as it was wont to be. Chemically, lime unites with vegetable matter, and assists in its decomposition ; hence it has been found to act very bene

ficially on all deaf soils. Itrenders loose soilsmore firm . In strictly chemical language, quick limeacts as an alkali, and this property has led some writers to assert that green vegetablesare not decomposed, but rather preserved , by caustic lime- a result which cannot be experienced by

the practical farmer in the soil ; because, as caustic lime very soon becomes a compound of á hydrate and a carbonate in the soil, the property of this latter state is to accelerate rather than retard the decomposition of vegetable matter. As the consideration of this subject would lead us into a long discussion, I must content myself with quoting only a part of the account of the theory

of its action by Professor Johnston, in order to show that the opinions of farmers is not far astray on this subject, which, in some respects, is yet but obscurely understood. “ Lime acts in two " It produces a mechanical alteration, which is simple

ways on the soil,” says the Professor.

and easily understood, and is the cause of a series of chemical changes, which are really obscure, and are asyet susceptible of only partial explanation. In the finely divided state of quicklime, of soft and crumbling chalk, it stiffens very loose soils, and opens the stiffer

of slaked lime ,

clays; while in the form of limestone gravel, or of shell-sand, it may be employed either for open ing a clay soil, or for giving body and firmness to boggyland. These effects and their explana tion are so obvious to you that it is unnecessary to dwell upon them . The purposes served by lime, as a chemical constituent of the soil, are atleast of four distinct kinds. 1. It supplies a kind of inorganic food, which appears to be necessary to the healthy growth of all our cultivated plants. 2. It neutralizes acid substances which are naturally formed in the soil, and decomposes, or ren

ders harmless, other noxious compounds which arenot unfrequently within reach of the roots of plants. 3. It changes the inertvegetable matter in the soil, so as gradually to render it useful to vegetation. 4. It causes, facilitates, or enables other useful compounds, both organic and inor.

ganic, to be produced in the soil, or so promotes the decomposition of existing compounds as to (711)

352

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

SUMMER .

prepare them more speedily for entering into the circulation of plants." * In conclusion on this sub ject, when we consider that 1 ton of limestone is reduced in weight to a little more than 11 cwts. of shells by burning, we cannot but admire the simpleart which renders so valuable a material avail.

able to the purposes of the farmer,even when it is situate at a considerable distance from his farm . (2165.) As fallowed land is usually manured along the feered ridges by depositing theloads into heaps. I might here give a Table showing the number of heapseach cart should afford in manur . ing an acre with a given number of cart-loads; but as heaps of manure are so indefinite a star dard of measure, such a table would practically prove of little service. Amuch more accurate plan is to namber the ridges on an acre in eachfield, and at every part of a field where the ridges are changed in length, as I have recommended before (386) , and try and lay down the manure on the first ridgein the proportion it is proposed to manure the acre, and by the time the second ridge is gained, the man who hawks out the dung, fig. 343, will have found out how close the hawksfull should be laid down, and how large the heaps, if any, should be made.

(2166.). [Of the pulverizing implements used at all seasons, there have been already described the grubber, Plates XXIX and XXX, brake ( 1797), and the common land -roller, fig. 327 ; but

there remains a class of implements of the same nature, which, though not numerous, are yet of considerable importance ; they come also under the denomination of rollers, but are peculiar in their construction, and are particularly adapted for being used in summer-fallowing. The object of these machines being to break down the more indurated clods in clay soils, they are fitted to act either by abrasion, or by disintegration, or both combined. One of the simplest of them is the common plain roller, armed with strong and broad iron spikes, the latter splitting the clods, while the weight of the roller produces their farther abrasion : this implement , however, stands

low in the scale ofefficiency when compared with others which I have to notice. (2167. ) Crosskill's clod -crushing roller is one of the most efficient implements of this class, and is here represented in fig. 402, which is a view of the machine in the working state ; but to con Fig. 402

CROSSKILL'S CLOD-CRUSHING ROLLER.

vey any idea of its construction we must exhibit it somewhat in detail. With this view , fig.403 is a side elevation of one of the individual wheels or plates that go to form the body of the roller. and consists of a ring or web of 30 inches diameter over the Fig. 403. extreme points ; the web is 2} inches broad and -inch thick ,

formed into angular-pointed teeth . The ring is supported on the four feathered arms, and an eye formed in the center 3 inches in depth and 21 inches diameter, fitted to move easily on the axle of the roller. Corresponding to each tooth of the wheel, studs are cast on each side of the web, which project 1 inch from it, as seen in fig. 404, an edge view of the wheel, where a a a a are the projecting studs, and b the eye, show ing also the feathers of the arms. The wheels thus formed are threaded , to the number of 28, upon a round axle, 21

inches diameter, upon which they are at liberty to turn sepa rately, making up the body of the body of the roller a a ,fig. 402, to a length of 6 feet. A cast-iron end -frame b is then placed on each end of the axle, and these are bolted to the wooden transverse bars c c , and to these last also the horse.

shafts d d are bolted. The axle is prolonged at each end e to an extent of 4 or 5 inches, forming the arm on which the car riage -wheels are placed for the removal of the roller from one field to another. The carriage -wheels are also of cast-iron, 3 feet diameter, plain of course on the sole ; and when these are to be placed or removed, a hole is dug in the soil under each wheel , until the wheel turns freely round and can be moved on or off the axle, the roller then resting on the ground ; but when the carriage-wheels are shipt on the axle and brought on level ground, the whole weight is borne by them, while the body is 3 inches clear of the surface. In this state it is traveled ' from field to field, and, when about to be

SIDE VIEW OF ONE WHEEL OF THE CLOD-CRUSHER.

Fig. 404 . a

8

LUGU a

EDGE VIEW OF THE WHEEL .

worked, the carriage-wheels are removed by the process just described. * See the whole of the xviith Lecture of Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, for a careful

examinationof the properties ofLime in reference toitseffects onthe soil. This, in my opinion, is the most valuable monograph on Lime, as a material used in Agriculture, that has ever appeared. ( 712)

BUILDING STONE - DYKES .

353

(2168.) The effect of such a roller upon rough clay land may be easily conceived, and that where such a great number of points are brought into contact with the indurated clods, the result

must be their reduction to a state approaching to the granular, especially if the operation is re peated. The effect is entirely different from that of the plain roller, for with it, if a clod does not crumble at once with its pressure, it is forced downward into the soil in a still solid state ;

whereas, with the one now described, the numerous points, acting like so many wedges, will almost infallibly split such a clod into numerous fragments, and repetitions of the process will produce a well pulverized surface . *

31. BUILDING STONE -DYKES. “ It is by artificial calms that fields

Are warmed ; and WALLS but slightly check The sweeping blast." GRAHAM .

(2169.) After the general principles upon which inclosures should be made have been explained, it is unnecessary to dwell on the subject of field -fences when treating of stone- dykes, but describe at once the best mode of constructing them . It may be premised that many dry stone-dykes in

this country are constructed on erroneous principles, the stones being laid in an irregular manner, and more with a view to give a smooth face than

a substantial hearting to the wall. The coping, too, is often disproportion ately large for the body of the wall, whichis not unfrequently too narrow

for its hight. I suspect that many dry stone-dykes are built by ordinary masons, who, beingaccustomed to the use of lime-mortar, become regard less of bedding theloose stones of a dry dyke as firmly as they should be, and , of course, are unfitted to build one. It is true that a proper form of stones is a great assistance to the builder of stone -dykes — flat ,thin stones

being the best: but flatnessand thinness are not the onlyrequisites ; they should also have a rough surface, by which they may adhere to one an

other in the wall; and no material, on this account, is sowell adapted for the purpose as those derived from sandstone-boulders of gravel deposits,

which split with the pick into flat stones of requisite thickness when first taken from their matrix, and, on beingexposed to the air, become dry and hard. A builder of dry stone -dykes should , therefore, be brought up to the profession ; and, when he has acquired dexterity, he will build a sub

stantial wall, at a moderate cost, which will stand upright for many years. (2170.) Dry stone-dykes are measured by quarters, that is, quarters of

a yard of 9 inches each. A 5-quarter dyke is the usual hight of a field fence - that is, 45 inches, or 3 feet 9 inches to the under side of the cover

upon which the cope-stones stand — the cover and cope -stones usually measuring 12 inches, so that the dyke stands altogether 4 feet 9 inches in

hight. The dyke, when finished,is measured bythe rood of 36 square yards upon its face under the cover, so that every 30 yards of a 5 -quarter dyke will be 1 rood in length. The usual thickness of such a dyke is 2 feet at the base, and 15 inches under the cover.

But the best way to con

tract for the erection of stone-dykes is by the rood of 36 cubic yards, when every temptation on the part of the builder to contract the breadth, and [* A very simple and most useful contrivance, not generally known for pulverizing cloddy land

is a " drag -log " of say 12 or 14 inches square, according to the hight of the wood and the work to be done, and 5 feet long, more or less, with tongue or shafts fastened on the top of it. This, dragged over the surface by a yoke of oxen or other suitable force, will at one operation produce a degree of pulverization of which few would have any idea who had not witnessed its effect. Ed. Farm . Lib.) Any, the roughest, carpenter can make it.

(713) ...... 23

354

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

make the heart of the dyke hollow, will be removed. A dyke that has 2

plain faces is called a double-faced dyke ; and one with 1 face, as when built against a sunk -fence, is called a single-faced dyke. A double-faced

5 -quarter dyke requires 1 ton of stones for every square yard of its face so that 36 tons of stones are required for every rood of 30 yards long The expense of quarrying that quantity of stones is about 10s. the rood ; carriage of them at a reasonable distance beyond 1 mile is also 10s. the rood ; and the building is commonly undertaken, when the stones are good, at 10s. rood also ; so that such a dyke costs 30s. the 30 yards, or the

Is. for every yard in length. The tools of a dry -stone dyker arefew and inexpensive, consisting only of a mason's hammer, a frame as a gauge for the size of the dyke, and cords as guides for the straightness and thickness A dyker cannot continue to work in wet or in very cold weather, as handling stones in a state of wetness is injurious to the bare of the dyke.

hand ; on which accounts, dry stone-dykes are commonly built in summer. (2171.) The line of fence being determined on, it is marked off with a row of stakes driven firmly into the ground. The upper soil, to the depth it has been plowed, is removed from the line to form the foundation of the dyke, and itmay be driven away, or formed into a compost with lime near

the spot for top dressing grass. When driven away, it should beso imme diately, and not lie to annoy the builder. When the surface consists of old firm sward, especially of moory turf, the dyke may be founded upon it ; but, in forming foundations, it should always be borne in mind that dykes

are apt to sink into soft earth of every kind to the injury of the dyke, not merely in curtailing its hight as a fence, but in twisting its structure and causing it ultimately to fall : so, when the soil consists of vegetable mould, it should be removed altogether, and its intrinsic value in a compost will amply repay the trouble of removing it. After the foundation has been formed by the removal of the earth, the stones should be laid down on

both sides as near the line of foundation as practicable, for it is of consid erable importance to the builder that the stones be near at hand. Indeed, when stones are laid even as far as 2 yards from the foundation, the builder incurs loss of time in throwing them nearer ; but, on the other hand, no stones should be thrown into the foundation, as they will have to be re

moved by the builder before he commences operations. Where large boulder-stones exist, they form excellent material for the foundation of

stone-dykes, and shouldbe laid close to the foundation before the building stones are brought. The simplest mode of conveying large boulders is upon a sledge, shod with iron ; and it is better for putting on and taking out than a common cart, the bottom and sides of which are apt to be in jured by such boulders. Indeed, when many stones of ordinary kinds are

intended to be driven for buildings, the carts should receive an extra tem porary bottoming and lining with deals of common Scots fir, or deals of willow, which are better, as being softer and less liable to split. A pair of horses, yoked as in a plow, will draw a very heavy boulder upon such a sledge.

(2172.) Every preparation being thus made, the builder proceeds to his work - or rather 2 builders together, as they make the best work, and as sist each other with stones which one would be unable to manage. They

beginby setting up the frame a , fig. 405, in the foundation of the proposed line of dyke. The frame is made of the breadth and hight of the proposed dyke under the cover ; and it is set in a perpendicular position by the

plummet c, attached to it. A corresponding frame should be placed be yond the point at which the dyke commences; or 2 stakes, such as d and é, driven into the ground, having the same inclination as the sides of the (714)

355

BUILDING STONE -DYKES .

frame, answer the temporary purpose of an auxiliary frame. In uneven ground, a space of į a rood, or 15 yards, between the frames, is a sufficient stretch of building at a time ; but, on even ground, a rood may safely be Fig. 405.

10 m d

THE FRAME AND COMMENCEMENT OF BUILDING A STONE-DYKE .

taken in. The cords f g and h i are then stretched along the space be tween the frames, and fastened to each frame respectively, to guide, as lines, the side of the dyke straight, and to gauge its breadth. The frame

is held upright and steady by a stiff rail k, having the nail projecting through one of its ends 1, being hooked on to the top -bar of the frame, and a stone m laid upon its other end.

(2173.) When the dyke has a scuncheon for its end, a large boulder, such as n, should be chosen as the foundation -stone; and if no boulders exist, a large stone should be selected for the purpose ; for no better pro tection can be afforded to the end of a dyke than such a foundation , espe

cially if the scuncheon forms at the same timeone side of a gateway to a field. Another boulder, or large stone, should be placed at a little distance from the first, as at o, and the smaller stones are used to fill up the space between them , until the space is raised to the hight of the boulders. There

is a great art in laying small stones ; and it is, in fact, this part of dyke

building which detects the difference between a good and bad builder. In good dry building, the stones are laid with an inclination downward, each face, as seen at a to a, and b to the dyke, toward from the middle ofcontrivance causes the rain

b, fig. 406 .

which may

This

Fig. 406 .

have found its way down through

the top of the dyke to be thrown off by both

e

sides ; and, to susta ." the inclination of the

stones, small stones mus he packed firmly un der their ends in the very heart of the dyke ;

2

whereas stones, ' when laiu dat, require no hearting to place them so, and may receive none, to the risk of the dyke bulging out in both faces.

It tends much to the stability of a

dyke to have what is called a thorough -band stone c d, placed across it at such a hightfrom the ground as represented in the figure. In like manner the cover e f acts as a thorough band at the top of the dyke ; but in laying the

cover , the leveling of the dyke to form its bed

SECTION OF STONE -DYKES, SHOWING HOW THE STONES SHOULD BE LAID .

should not be made of very small and very

thin stones, as is too often the case, as these have little stability, being ea

sily shifted from their position, easily broken , and, of course, constantly endanger the safety of both cover and cope. Thorough -band stones are frequently left projecting from one or both sidesof the dyke by some build ers, merely to indicate that they are thorough -bands ; but the practice is objectionable, inasmuch as projections serve as stepping-stones for tres passers to climb over the dyke . Fig. 407 shows how a scuncheon should be formed of in -band a a a, and of out- band stones b bb, hammer- dressed, (715)

356

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

SUMMER .

and firmly bedded upon one another. The covers c should project 1 or 2 inches beyond the face of the dyke, to protoct the top. They should be 2 inches in thickness, and without a flaw throughout their length, which should be 2 feet at least, that Fig. 407.

their weight may keep them firm , and their size cover

a

large space of building . In forming the cope , a large stone should be placed at theend, as d, in order to keep down the cover , and act as an abutment

against which the smaller cope stones may be wedged . Other large stones , such as e, should

be placed at short distances from each other, and upon the joining ofhtwo covers , to keepr them bot

secure .

Thinne

stones should then be placed between these on edge , and wedged firmly, with small

D a

7

a

5

CL

stones driven between them

with a hammer ; but the wedg .

ing should be delayed until a

SCUNCHEON , COVERS , AND COPE OF A STONE -DYKE .

considerable length of coping

is finished, which will be the better able to resist its force. Fig. 407 shows how the stones should be laid in the body of the dyke , those placed uppermost covering the joinings of those beneath them ; and small, thin stones are introduced here and there in the finishing to act as wedges be tween the large ones. The cope -stones should be nearly all of the same bight.

(2174.) In building a stretch of dyke, such as the rood above referred to), it is customary to carry up the building at both ends, as well as at the

middle, of the stretch to the leveling of the top, before the intermediate

spaces are built up, because those partsbeing built almost independently, act as pillars in the dyke to support the intermediate building plumb; and they are convenient for pinning the cords into while the intermediate spaces are being built. (2175.) When a few stretches of a dyke have thus been finished, the surplus stones, if any, should be removed, and laid where they are wanted ; but should there be a deficiency, stones should be immediately brought,

to allow the builder to finish one stretch before he proceeds to another. The debris of stones caused by the hammer should be removed either to drains or roads.

(2176.) These are all the particulars to be attended to in building dykes

for ordinary purposes ; but there are a few modifications which require attention in order to render dykes, as a fence, convenient. 1. The first I shall mention isan opening left forthe passage of sheep from onefieldto another, where the access between them by road is at a distance. Fig. 408,

though a mere elevation, obviously shows how such an opening is made.

A bunch of thorns or whins, ora board, closes the opening when no longer needed . Such an opening gives sheep access to pasture banks, or to a grass-field from theirturnip -breaks in wet weather in winter, and it allows ewes to go to a turnip-break for a few hours every day from the grass

field theyare grazing in . For such purposes, an opening of from 3 feet (716 )

BUILDING STONE -DYKES.

357

to 31 feet will suffice. 2. Another convenience is seen in fig. 409, con sisting of a gap near the top of the dyke, which map be useful as a stile in the line of a foot-path, or a gap at the side of a cover, for hounds and Fig. 408.

THE OPENING IN DYKES FOR SHEEP .

huntsmen to enter with ease ; and here the whipper-in may stand on the out- look for a burst. When not constantly in use, such a gap is easily fenced with a bunch of thorns or whins. Fig. 409.

THE STILE OR GAP IN A DYKE .

(2177.) Dykes such as I have been describing, namely , of 5 quarters in hight, will fence horses, and cattle, and Leicester sheep, but will not con fine Black - faced sheep. For these, higher walls must be built, or expe

dients used to make ordinary dykes confine them. Some of these expe dients are shown in fig. 410 , where part of an ordinary dyke with its cope Fig. 410 .

d

SOME EXPEDIENTS FOR INCREASING THE HIGHT OF STONE - DYKES .

is seen ; and the expedients consist, 1. Of cope-stones a, b, c, d , and e , set on edge to a considerable hight, say 9 inches or 1 foot, abovethe ordinary cope -stones. In one case, such as that of the stones a , b, c, fillets of wood

are laid along notches formed on their top, and wedged into them . In the

case of the stones c, d, e, astrong rope of straw , laid somewhat loosely over the notches, and dangling occasionally with the wind, form a suffi (717)

358

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

cient scare to sheep. 2. Another expedient, where the dyke is built

against rising ground, consisting of plantation or of cultivated land, is to sow a few seeds of whin or broom in the soil behind the dyke, and cause their shoots to push forth between the cope-stones, and grow into bushes, f and 8,

in front of them .

3. Where good stones for covers are scarce,

and where turf is tough and heathery, thick turfs cut of the size of the top of the dyke, and laid firmly and neatly on, make very good covers, and

will last a long time. Cope-stones are placed upon the turfs, which afford them a firm bed ; and as heath and other wild plants, including the grasses, continue to grow in the turf, they serve to raise the hight of the dyke, and enhance its appearance as a fence.

(2178.) When dykes run at right angles into one another, and are erected simultaneously, they should be built in connection ; but where a new dyke comes against an old one, the old one should not be touched ,

and the new built firmly beside it. Where 2 dykes cross and the place is naturally wet, or water maybe easily brought to it, a watering -pool to serve 4 fields may be easily formed ; and there are two ways of making such a pond -When the ground is firm , and the water shallow , the z

dykes may cross, as in fig. 411, and allow the water to pass throughthem , and form a watering-pool in each field , such as a, b, c, and d outof a sins gle pond. Where a pond e, fig. 412, already exists, and its water is too Fig. 411.

Fig. 412 .

Fig. 413,

37

HOW TO FORM A WATERING POOL TO FOUR FIELDS .

HOW TO FORM A WATERING -POOL COMMON TO FOUR FIELDS .

A CLUMP OF TREES AT THE MEETING OF DYKES .

deep for dykes to traverse, the dykes must terminate at its edge and con

vert the pond into a watering-pool common to 4 fields. When the pond by means of hurdles, as f,g, and h ; but when it is used by more than 1 field at a time, a fence should berunacross the pond, beside the hurdles in the fields not occupied by stock. Where the ground is firm , and there is used by only 1 field at a time, it should be fenced from the other 3 fields

is no prospect of obtaining a site for a watering -pool, the dykes should be made to cross, and a well sunk in a corner of one of the fields, with a pump in it of such hight as to supply all the fields with water in tanks by means of a spout. This expedient I used successfully on one occasion. Where the ground is firm , and no water wanted at that spot, the dyke should be built curved, as from i, to k, from k to 1, from 1 to m, and from m to i, fig. 413, and the space included between them planted with trees for orna ment and shelter.

There will be here little waste of land, even should it

be of the finest #ality, as the corners of 4 adjoining fields always contain ground that cannot be reached by the plow, while the plow can pass along such curves as near as to a straight fence. In building curvatures in dykes, builders charge ] more per rood than for plain work. (2179.) A stone-dyke is in the highest perfection as a fence immediately from thehands of the builder ; but every day thereafter the effect of the atmosphere upon the stones, at all seasons, and the accidents to which (718)

BREAKING IN YOUNG SADDLE -HORSES .

359

they are liable by trespasses of individuals, and the violence of stock, ren

der it necessary to uphold their repairs frequently ; and this consideration should cause the best suited materials to be selected for their original erection .

32. BREAKING- IN YOUNG SADDLE -HORSES. " Which with a snaffle you may pace easy .'1 ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA .

(2180.) As I have mentioned how your saddle-horse should be groomed

( 1398), I would wish to say a few words on breaking him in. And, in the first place, I may remark that, judging by the conduct of roadsters one meets with every day on the public roads, we may fairly conclude that the profession of horse-breaking is not well understood in this country ; and the conclusion need create no surprise, when we observe those who be come horse -breakers to be generally cast-off grooms unable to procure a

permanent situation, just as we occasionally see a discarded plowman become a spadesman , to save himself from starving ; but it ought to excite even wonder to see farmers, who ought to be somewhat acquainted with the nature of horses, employsuch persons to break -in their saddle-horses, merely because they demand a small fee, and undertake to finish a horse

in all his paces in the course of 2 or 3 weeks. In fact, the farmer grudges the time, beyond afew days, any horse requires to be broke -in, and acts as if he conceived the animal should knowthe art of carrying him by in stinct, when he himself may have been practicing horsemanship all his

days, and neverperhaps become a horseman after all. Notwithstanding the folly of employing inexperienced men, I am convinced were men of experience, address, and character to undertake horse-breaking in a per fect manner, they would receive encouragement from the farmer. No miracle is required to break - in a horse ; he is naturally docile, and may be taught to do anything, as those who have witnessed the evolutions of the late Ducrow's stud with wonder and delight can believe ; but the horse is naturally fearful, and, endowed with an undying memory, henever for

gets any circumstance, however trivial, which may have aroused his fears. ſf the breaker, therefore, proceeds on the principle of subduing what he calls the horse's temper, by a constant endeavor to curb him, he may tame

him for a time, but will never break him in ; and even this subjection will

only last as long as the horse finds he cannot obtain the mastery over his rider, who, on some occasion, may be a timid one ; whereas, were it shown to the horse that no irritation awaits him in the stable, or on being

ridden , he will place confidence in his rider, will regard him with attach ment, and will take him everywhere, even through danger, by the gentlest touch of the rein, or exhortation of the voice. Why should the Red In dian of North America never put a bridle on his horse's head, and only have a piece ofcord round the under jaw, by which to pull him up in a

gallop, and guide him, with the greatest nicety, in the hottest pursuit after buffaloes, by thepalm of the hand against the side of the head ; as much so as to enable him to point the arrow with unerring aim into the heart of his prey ? Why should the Arab’s horse come into his tent like one of

his family, lie down and rest, and never think of running away from his master when his services are required ? Does the horse of the accom plished European display the least degree of such confidence in his rider ? (719)

360

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-SUMMER.

Is it possible that a savage knows better how to break -in a horse than an European ? The difference between the cases can be explained in a few words; the savagemakes his horse his companion and friend, the civilized man treats his as his slave. And can any doubt, were the same gentle ness, kindness, attention to his wants, which secure to the savage the will ing assistance of his horse, bestowed by the civilized man on his horse when young,

would also inspire him with confidence ? Every one has felt

the satisfaction of riding a horse one knows thoroughly. It should also be borne in mind as an incentive to kind treatment, that were horses gene

rally well broke-in, they could not be spoiled by even bad riders, fortheir paces would be so pleasant the rider would have no inducement to try and mend them .

(2181.) The age of 3 years seems an excellent one for breaking -in a saddle-horse. The colt should be set to grass in the end of May, and taken in to break by August at latest, by which time the grass will have operated beneficially upon him as medicine, and there will be sufficient time to teach him his paces and put him in working condition before

the fall of the year, when horses are apt to become soft, and catch cold ; but were he kept longer at grass, his condition might become sofat as to endanger his constitution, were it suddenly reduced to working order. (2182.) The first thing, in bringing a horse into the stable, to which he should have been accustomed from his foalhood, is to give a gentle dose of medicine to clear the bowels of a load of grass. Asecond dose may be repeated in a week. A little new -made hay with oats is the best food as a transition from grass to hard food . The first treatment with the cavesson and bridle being the same as that described from ( 1909) to (1911) for breaking -in the draught-horse, I need not repeat it here. I may mention, however, that much lunging in a circle is not advisable for a young riding -horse, though horse -breakers are very fond of giving him this sort of exercise, because it saves themselves a good deal of traveling ; the motion round the circle being apt to cause the colt to contract a long

step and a short. The circle is of most use in training to canter, when a leadingfoot is requisite to be used in that sort ofaction. The first tuition shouldbe a straight-forward pace, as on a lea-field, and the only pace a walk, which shouldbe taughtto be both free with an easy head, and short with a tight rein. During theperiod of the walking-tuition, agreat many useful lessons should betaught the colt, such as turning off you and to you - backing,whether quickly or slowly - leading, whether by the side of the head with the hand on the bridle -bit, or in front with a slack rein

standing still, whether for a short or long time- suffering to be tied to any object, such as a gate or tree - passing objects of terror, or of uncertainty, causing the animal to become acquainted with everything it does not seem

to recognize - becoming accustomed with the crack of the long, and the touch of the short whip— lifting the fore and hind legs when desired — and suffering the groom to go about him and arrange the breaking -barness. With all these matters the young colt will become much sooner fomiliar ized, by the breaker going constantly about with him on foot as a compan ion on the road and the field, than when mounted on his back. In the

stable, too, the same system of tuition should be followed out, such as suf

fering a person to go up on either side, and in any way — suffering to be groomed, and rather liking it than opposing it, as is too often the case drinking out of a pail in the stable and at the pump, or outof a trough or a brook - taking up with a dog in the stable or on the road - bearing,without a startle, the fallof the pail-handle, the broom, or anything else - lifting the

feet atthe pail to be washed -- being led by the forelock to the door, or (720)

BREAKING IN YOUNG SADDLE - HORSES.

361

the pump, or anywhere. These and many other things, the colt can be taught to know in and out of the stable before he is mounted at all. Thus

familiarized, he will allow himself to be mounted without any trouble ; and all the assistance of boys with whips, and of men to hold downthe oppo site stirrup, recommended by Mr. Youatt, dispensed with. Tom Mid dlemiss, the horse-breaker whose name I mentioned before (1910), never required any assistance to mount a young horse , nor did any person ever see him mount one for the first time. The truth is, no fuss should

be made about the colt ; but when a number of persons are about him

when anything is done, there cannot be but fuss, and he cannot fail to be come apprehensive. He will soonconfide in one person, the breaker who is constantly about him , but he will not confide in a number of persons at the same time, nor will he confide even in his breaker, when others are

engaged along with him ; and hence no considerate horse-breaker will permit any one to be near him, to distract the attention of the colt, when

he is subjecting him to tuition of any kind. When mounted, the colt should bear his rider in standing for some time before he is urged to walk, as it will habituate him to stand at all times when mounted until his rider

is ready to move. Every one must have felt theannoyance of mounting a horse that will not stand. His first pace should again be a walk, which having accomplished well with a rider, the trot should be taught. It is said that trotting is not a natural pace for a horse, he either walksor starts off at a canter. However this may be, trotting is an indispensable pace on our roads. On teaching trotting, horse -breakers are very apt to de generate the pace into a jog, the most dangerousof all paces for a young horse in causing him to trip, and the most difficult to break a horse from ,

when contracted . A short , hitching walk , ready to break into the jog allu ded to, is as bad as the jog itself, and is a favorite pace with horse -breakers

in chewing off their wards as fast walkers; but in such a pace a young horse is almost sure to dig a toe into the ground, and if a stumble is not the consequence , it is not the man's fault. Let the walk be a sound walk,

and a trot a fair trot, and let no bastard pace be permitted to spoil both. It is not easy to teach a young horse to canter from a trot in a straight line, as he is more apt to start off to the gallop ; but a few lessons in the circle will give him an idea of acanter, as he will there learn to point the leading foot. There is some risk at first in making a young horse reduce a canter into a trot, the actions being so very different, he seems at a loss

what to do, and would rather halt. The tightening of the rein by degrees is the only way of reducing the pace in safety, as it likewise is from a fast to a slow trot. A sudden halt might throw the colt upon his haunches,

and irrecoverably bring him over upon his back , and such an accident as this the colt willnever forget,and, in fear of it,may become restive when

pulled up suddenly at any time afterward. Every maneuver that may occasion any sort of accident to the colt should be avoided by the rider with care, and counteracted with firmness. Thus day by day the young

horse acquires experience in the management of himself on the road, or in the field, but this series of experiences is a work of much time to both man and horse - of much patience and perseverance to the man - of much endurance and irksomeness to the horse ; and more than all this, much of the benefit derived from the horse -breaker will be in a manner lost, if the

future rider of the horse does not guide him in a similar manner, and with equal care for some time to come.

If considerations such as these do

not induce the owners of horses to employ only men of skill and character

in breaking them in, I do n't know what stronger motive can be placed before them to do it. (777)

* Youаtt on the Horse, edition of 1843.

362

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

AUTUMN .

“ Ye balmy breezes ! wave the verdant field ;

AUTUMNT all your bounties, all your lustre yield ; That fruits and herbage may our farms adorn, And furrowed ridges teem with loaded corn ."FERGUSO

N.

In contemplating the nature of the different seasons, we have seen Winter the season of dormancy, in which all Nature desires to be in a

state ofrepose - Spring, the season ofrevival, in which the returning power of Nature inspires every created being with new vigor - Summer, the season of progress, in which Nature puts forth all her energies to in

crease and multiply her various productions— and, now, we see Autumn, the season of completion and of consequent decay, in which Nature, in

bringing the individual to perfection ,makes provision for thefuture pres ervation of the kind. While, therefore, the natural action of spring and summer is single, that of autumn is of a compound character. Thus, if we follow out the study of the autumn in a proper manner, it leads us to all the revolutions that have taken place in the surface of our planet; and

in this way, a plant of which we can, in a few months, see the beginning, the perfection , and the decay, becomes to us an epitome of the system of

growingNature in its widest extent, and through its most prolonged dura tion. This is the grand advantage while studying the productions of

Nature in their connection, and the events and occurrences of Nature in their succession, has over the mere observations of the individual substance and the passing momeut ; and it is this which gives to the law of the sea sons so high a value above all the beauties of the seasons taken in their individual character."

Autumn brings fruition, in which the toilsome labors of the husbandman, for the preceding twelve months, find their reward. It is the season in which hope is lost in the possession of the thing hoped for, and because of a harvest of plenty, it is the season of gratitude. “ It is this which makes the principles of seasonal action thicken upon us as the year ad vances, and the autumn to become the harvest of knowledge, as well as

the fruits of the earth. Nor can one help admiring that bountiful and beautiful Wisdom which has laid the elements of instruction most abun

dantly in the grand season of plenty and gratitude." But grateful husbandman must always feel for the bounties of Providence, so much labor is bestowed, so much anxiety is felt by him, as regards the effects of the vicissitudes of the seasons, before “ he gathers his wheat into the garner," that the reflections which the consummation of harvest is calcu lated to give rise to are , I fear, narrow , and even selfish . “ For as the

annual harvest which we obtain from the earth is received by us as result both united, we are apt to forget the part which Nature has in the pro

ing from that in which we have a right of property , a merit in labor, or ductiveness of the year, and look upon the whole produce as the return of our own capital and our own skill, just as we do in any mechanical

work or mercantile speculation . That this is the true state of the case is proved by the habitually proverbial fact that the cultivators of the ground, for what purpose soever they may cultivate, are always complaining of ( 778)

363

AUTUMN.

the weather, as the grand enemy by which all their labors are frustrated,

and all their products diminished. They are nowise at fault themselves, but the ' weary weather ' never will be obedient to their dictates. What with rain, what with drouth, what with heat, what with cold, each thrust

ing itself forward at the time when its opposite would have been by far the more beneficial, the crop they get is always 'below a fair average,' and what they do get is got in in spite of the weather, and not by means

of its coöperation. It is in vain that the fable of the farmer - into whose hands Jupiter gave the management of the weather, and who, by having rain, and drouth, and sunshine, and snow, when and where he wished,

brought his land into a state of such utter sterility, that he was fain to plead more earnestly than ever that so dangerous a power might be taken

out of his hands — has stood onthe record againstthem from remote anti quity ; for the majority contend stubbornly that all the merit is their own, and that all the blamefalls upon the weather,which, notwithstanding ali the examples which have been setbefore it, and all the experience it must have had, will not understand and obey the rules of good Husbandry.'" * The colors displayed by the autumnal setting sun are exceedingly rich ;

one form of the phenomenon not uncommon at that period is attempted to be penciled in Plate XIV ; but afar finer picture is to be seen in these words of a revered bard, who can feel intensely as he can describe beau tifully : - A cloud lay cradled near the setting sun ; A gleam of crimsontinged its braided snow . Long had I watched the glory moving on O'er the soft radiance of the lake below .

Tranquil its spirit seemed, and floated slow ; E'en in its very motion there was rest ; While every breath of eve that chanced to blow Wafted the traveler to the beauteous West.

Emblem , methought, of the departed soul, To whose white robe the gleam of lightis given ; And, by the breath of Mercy, madeto roll

Right onward to the golden gates of Heaven, Where to the eye of Faith it peaceful lies, And tells to Man his glorious destinies." WILSON .

Objects in the horizon -- trees, houses, and ruins -- are projected in bold relief against the clear, deep sky of a calm autumnal evening at sunset.

Such a scene asthis—if gemmed, moreover, with the radiant and lustrous evening star — affects themind to thoughtful meditation, not untinged with melancholy .

The temperature of autumn is high - August, in Scotland , affording the highest average of the year, on account of warmth in the night as well as the day, though the sun is not more hours above the horizon than in

March — but Autumn follows the radiance of Summer, while Spring just escapes from the frigidity of Winter. Such is the heat that it is no un common occurrence for reapers to be seriously affected by it in the harvest. field .

The labors of the field partake ofthe compound character of the season itself. Just as one crop is reaped from the ground, part of the succeeding one is committed to the earth ; the autumnal wheat of two successive

years being sown and reaped about the same time.

The toil endured in

harvest is almost incredible. Only conceive the entire bread - corn sufficient to support the population of such a kingdom as this to be cut down and carried, in minute portio'.is, in the course of a single month ! The usual season of reproduction among the animals of the farm is spring ; but the most useful animal of all,the sheep, forms an exception to the rule, Autumn

being the season in which the ewes are drafted, and the tup is allowed to * Mudie's Autumn.

(779)

364

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

AUTUMN .

go with them.

There seems in autumn a tendency in the animalframe to disease ; sheep are liable to hepatitis, calves to quarter -ill, the horse to colic and even inflammation in the bowels, and stallions and geldings be

come dull in spirit. Perhaps the feeding nature of aftermath, on which all animals live in autumn, may cause a tendency, in the animal system, to predominant secretion of one of the fluids, and thereby predispose the sys tem to particular complaints. If there is probability of truth in this sur

mise, preventive measures should be sought for and obtained ; and oil-cake seems to possess this property. One preventive remedy against annoy ance from parasitic insects and from cold to sheep, is bathing or smearing. The sports of the field all commence in autumn. The long-contem plated gatherings in the hills, on the noted 12th of August, in quest of grouse - game, par excellence, of which our country should be proud as its

only indigene - cause every sheiling to afford shelter to many who , at other seasons, indulge in the far different enjoyments of urbån luxuries. Partridge-shooting comes in September, sometimes even before the corn is cut down, and is followed by hare-hunting in October ; and after all the

fields are cleared of their valuable produce, the inspiring “ music ” of the pack is heard to resound through hill and dale. The great event of autumn — the harvest - naturally claims a prepon derating share of the husbandman's solicitude ; and until this important issue of all his toil is secured beyond danger, he cannot rest in quiet.

He

looks around him , night and day, regarding the “ face of the sky," and acts with circumspection. He sees his whole year's bread at stake, and feels that its safety depends on his own skill ; and should he fail to exer cise this aright, he would never cease to blame himself. None is more anxious to follow this advice than he : “ The wind, the rain , the sun , Their genial task have done. Wouldst thou be fed , Man, to thy labor bow , Thrust in thy sickle now ,

Reap wherethou once didst plow God sends thee bread." MONTGOMERY.

When every straw is safe in the stack -yard, and the stack -yard gate closed for the season, then, and not till then, is he satisfied of his task being fin ished, and enjoys undisturbed repose. Now that we have surveyed all the seasons as they present themselves in this country, we must own our climate to be anything but genial. The frequent changes to which it is daily susceptible renderthe culture of the soil always a difficult, and not unfrequently an irksome occupation. Those

vicissitudes, no doubt, sharpen the intellect of the farmer, and perhaps have been the chief means of eliciting the high skill which is so universally

acknowledged to be exercised in the Agriculture of this kingdom . Such ject our atmosphere to perpetual changes dependent on different condi tions of heat and moisture produced by the state of the surrounding ocean. skill will always have a field for exercise, forour insular position will sub Notwithstanding the farmer is held to his task by a frowning climate, he would rather wish to have a smiling one, and sometimes envies the bright skies which he hears illumine the Continent.

There is much truth in the

desire expressed inthe following observations, lightly as they are put to gether, for no one but enjoys fine weather, which is, indeed , always the

source of gratulation when it occurs : “ It may declare in the presence of his mistress that “ All seasons and their change All plcase alike ; "

(780)

be very well for a lover to

365

PULLING FLAX AND HEMP, AND THE HOP.

but to common mortals, occupied with the ordinary affairs of life, there is

no truth in it. Who in his senses ever affirmed thatthe fogs of Novem ber were as delightful to him as the balmy breath of May ? If any one has, as I have, a horror of icicles, and who would never have the mild temperature of the air interrupted by the presence of a hoar-frost, let him

migrate with the climate. Let him spendthe month of January in Portu gal; February in the Madeiras ; March in Spain ; April in Sicily ; May in Lapland ; June in Italy ; July in Switzerland ; August in France ; September in England ; October among the forests of America ; Novem ber in Crete ; and December in the islands of the Cape de Verd. By this temperature, and revel in honey rotatory motion he may enjoy a delicious *** suckles and roses all the year round.'

33. PULLING FLAX AND HEMP, AND THE HOP. “ Now pluck up thy flax , for thy maidens to spin ;

“ Lo ! on auxiliary poles, the hops,

Ascending spiral, ranged in meet array !!!

First see it dried ,and timely got in ." TUSSER ,

PHILLIPS.

(2183.) I propose here merely to speak of flax as to its treatment

in summer, and the mode of harvesting it ; for as to its treatment after ward as an article of manufacture, that is beyond my province. The only care required by the growing crops of flax in summer is weeding, and in its early stage of growth it will be much injured if weeds obtain the mastery . To obviate this inconvenience, and, indeed, to save alto

gether the trouble of weeding, it has been recommended to sow the land at the time of sowing the flax-seed with grass-seeds, or to sow the flax -seed in drills ; but neither expedient is so suitable for flax itself as land kept clean by weeding a broadcast crop ; for as equality of fibre is of the utmost importance to the value of flax, sowing it in drills admits the air unequally to the crop, and the fibre of the plants on the outside of the drills would thereby be much coarser than that of those in the interior. And as to sowing grass-seeds, even the low - growing white clover among flax, it should make no difference to the flax-plant whether it was choked by a valuable or a worthless plant, since both would equally be weeds in reference to it. (2184.) Besides the common weeds which infest the soil, according to its nature, there are others specially found among flax ; of these, one is the common gold -of-pleasure, Camelina sativa , the seed of which is im

ported among flax -seed; and the plant may be known by its attaining from 2 to: 3 feet in hight, having small yellow flowers, and very large pouches on long stalks. But a more troublesome weed than this is the

Hax -dodder, Cuscuta Europea, inasmuch as it adheres parasitically to the

flax plant, and, of course, injures its fibre ; while the gold -of-pleasure may be pulled out before the flax is ready. The habits of the flax -dodder are these : “ It is a plant which germinates in the ground, and sends up a slen der, thread -like stem, which , twisting itself about, soon touches one of the stems of the flax among which it is growing. As soon as this takes place, the dodder twists itself round the flax, and throws out from the side next Note- Book of an Oxonian - John Bull, for 5th August, 1843. ( 781)

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THE BOOK OF THE FARMAUTUMN.

to its victim several small processes, which penetrate the outer coat or cu ticle of the flax, and act as suckers, by which the parasitical dodder appro priates to its own use the sap which has been prepared in the flax, upon

which the growth of the flax depends. The dodder then separates itself from the ground, and relies solely upon the flax for its nourishment, pro ducing long, slender, leafless stems, which attach themselves to each stem

of flax that comes in their way. Thus large masses of the crop are matted together, and so much weakened as to become almost useless. This plant produces great quantities of seed, which is usually threshed with the flax seed, andsown again with it in the succeeding year. Several years since I took considerable trouble to ascertain if all foreign flax -seed was mixed with that of the dodder, and was led to the conclusion that the American

flax-seed is nearly free from this pest, and that that from Russia, and espe cially Odessa, is peculiarly infested with it. ” * The weeds, when very young, are picked outby hand from the flax by field -workers; and , in do

ing this, the kneeling down upon the flax does it no harm . If weeding be once effectually and timeouslydone, the weeds will not again much trouble the crop ; and, though it should cost several shillings the acre, the increased value ofthe crop will repay it all. Before leaving the subject of weeding, I may remark that, though the American flax -seed be free from dodder

seed , it is far inferior in giving a crop to that imported from Riga, the Riga-kind, which also bears the name of Belgian seed, from the Belgians

sowing it. And I may also remark that sowing flax on clean land will save much of the cost of weeding — that is, after a green crop ,as turnips

and potatoes , the cleansing ofwhich will have rendered the soil compara tively clean for flax. If flax be thus cultiv ed in lieu of a corn -crop, its culture may be practiced without much deterioration to the land ; but if it is determined to regard flax as a green crop, and cause a corn -crop to fol

low it, the land will in time assuredly feel the scourging effects of such a system , and oblige its cultivators to abandon it altogether. (2185.) The pulling, steeping and drying of flax are simple enough, and are processes generally well understood ; but Mr. Henderson's account of managing the crop , whose sample of Irish flax obtained a gold medal from

the Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland, at their meeting at Bel fast, in August, 1843, being the most practical, and at the same time suc cinct, I have met with, I shall transcribe it.

1. And , first, as to test of

ripeness, Mr. Henderson says : “ I have found the test recommended by Mr. Boss to ascertain the degree of ripeness that gives the best produce, with the finest fibre, perfect. It is this : Try the flax every day when ap proaching ripeness, by cutting the ripest capsule on an average stalk across (horizontally), and when the seeds have changed from the white, milky substance which they first show to a greenish color, pretty firm , then is

the time to pull. The old prejudice in favor of much ripening is most inju rious, even as regards quantity; and the usual test of the stalk stripping at the root and turning yellowshould not be depended on. Where there is one man that pulls too green, fivehundred over-ripen .” 2. When prop : erly ripened, flax should be pulled in this way : " I use the Dutch method -say, catching the flax close below the boles ; this allows the shortest of the flax to escape . With the next handful the puller draws the short flax,

and so keeps the short and the long each by itself, to be steeped in sepa rate ponds. It is most essential to keep the flax even at the root end, and this cannot be done without time and care, but it can be done, and should always be done. The beets should always be small, evenly sized, straight, * Gardeners' Chronicle and Agricultural Gazette for 10th February, 1844.

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367

and even, and should never be put up in stooks or windrows, but taken to

the pond the day they are pulled, or the day after at longest, especially in bright weather ; for the discoloration produced by the sun on greenflax will never be removed till it goes to the bleacher, and will give him some trouble also." 3. Next comes the steeping, which is a most important process,

and is the one least understood by growers of flax in this country. You, perhaps, require to be informed of the object of steeping the flax -plant.

The stem of flax consists of two parts possessing very different properties : the one, the outer, is fibrous, and affords the substance of flax ; the other,

the interior, is pithy, and isgot rid of by fermentation in steeping, loosen ing its hold of the fibre. There is alsomuch mucilage to be got quit of ; and the sooner flax is put into steep after being pulled, the more mucilage will be dissolved fromit. If steeping is so long continued as to affect the texture of the fibrous coating, the flax will be injured ; and should it not be as long applied as the pithy matter may be easily loosened, much labor will be afterward incurred in getting quit of it. Proper steeping, then , is an essential and delicate process, and on this account Mr. Henderson's in structions are valuable : “ Flax is subject to injury from neglect in every

process, but in this especially. The water brought to the pond should be pure from all mineral substances, clean and clear. Thewater of large rivers is generally to be preferred ; but spring-water, which has run some

hundred yards, becomes soft, and will have deposited any mineral impuri ties it contained ; immediately from the springit seldom does well. If the water be good and soft, it is injurious to allow it to stagnate in the pond before steeping. I put in two layers, each somewhat sloped, with the root-end of each downward : one layer at a time is said to be safer, and, perhaps, is so, though I have tried both and seen no difference. The flax should be placed rather loose than crowded in the pond, and laid carefully

straight and regular. Having an abundant supply of water, I do not let any into the pond till the first layer is in. I cover with moss -sods ( from the turf-banks) laid perfectly close, the shear of each fitted to the other. Thus covered, it never sinks to the bottom , nor is it affected by air or light.

It is generally wateredin 11 or 13 days. A good stream should, if possi ble, always pass over the pond — it carries off impurities, and does not at allimpede due fermentation; flood and all impure water should be care fully kept off. The Dutch test of being sufficiently watered is certain and perfect ; at least, I never found it otherwise. It is this : Try some stalks

of average fineness, bybreaking the woody part in two places, about 3 inches apart, at the middle of the length ; catch the wood at the lower end, and if it will pull (downward) for those 3 inches freely, without breaking or tearing the fibre, it is ready to take out. This trialshould be made ev

ery day after fermentation subsides, for sometimes the change is rapid. Flax is more frequently injured by too little than too much of the water. Great care and neatness are necessary in taking it out. Broken or crum

pled flax will never reach the market. Spread the day it is taken out, un Iess it is heavy rain_light rain does little harm ; but, in any case, spread

the next day, for it will heat in the pile, and that heating is destructive . The most particular cause of injuryin steeping is exudation of water from the sides or bottoms of the pond. Stripe and discoloration are mostly im puted to the quality of the water brought to the pond ; while, in 9 cases out of every 10, the water oozing from the sides and bottom of the pond itself is the cause . Even if such water were pure, which it seldom is, it

is injurious; but when impregnated with iron or other materials, it does immense harm . If such ponds must continue to be used, the injury may be partially amended by draining around the sides and ends, at 6 or 8 feet (783)

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distance, and 18 inches deeper than the bottom of the pond, and filling the drains with stones. No other thing I know of does such extensive injury as this springing of water within the pond.” 4. Flax " should be spread even , straight at its length, not too thick, and well shaken, so that there

shall be no clots ; indeed, if possible, no 2 stalks should adhere. I have ever found it injurious to keep it long on the grass; it is in the steep the

wood is decomposed ; on the grass the fibre is softened , and the wood lit tle, if at all, affected. I rarely let it lie more than 5 days, sometimes only

3 ; this year it had only 3 days, and I never had better flax. It should never, if possible, be spread on the ground flax grows on -- it claps down, and the clay and weeds discolor it ; clean lea, or lately cut meadow, is the best.” 5. “ Lifting, like all other operations, requires care and neatness to keep it straight to its length, and even at the roots. This operation is too frequently hurried and coarsely done.” 6. If the steeping and grass ing have been perfect, flax should require no fire; and, to make it ready

for breaking and scutching, exposure to the sun should be sufficient; but if the weather be damp, the flax tough, and must be wrought off, then it

must be fire-dried . Such drying is always more or less injurious ; but, if it be put on the kiln in a damp state, itis ruinous — it is absolutely burnt. before it is dry. All who can afford it should keep such flax over to the ensuing spring or summer, putting it dry into stacks—then it will work

freely without fire-heat.” 7. In the concluding remarks of Mr. Hender son, there is much good sense : “ The proper culture and preparation of flax require more care, exertion and expense than the old, slovenly meth

ud ; and those who will not give those requisiteswoulddo wisely to abstain from growing flax altogether. Any other crop willabide more negligence.

So much has been said and written oflate ofthe advantage of flax -culture, that it is to be feared some may be led to carry it to an undue extent, and sow it on land not fitted for it; indeed, this is already often done, and I know of nothing more injurious to the farmer. Flax is proverbially either the very best or the very worst crop a farmer can grow ."

( 2186.) The crop of flax, after it is dried, is bulky for its weight; and yields from 3 to 10 cwt. per imperial acre of dried plants. From 30 to 40 stones, of 14 lbs. each, the acre, of dressed flax , is considered a fair crop , and if fine quality, will fetch perhaps £ 90 a ton ; that is, from 4 to 5 acres

are required to furnish 1 ton of flax, and a return obtained of from £18 to £22 per acre, exclusive of the expense of preparing it by beetling, scutching, and backling, and may still leave from £10 to £15 an acre of profit, which is a large one ; but should the flax prove coarse by improper management, or be injured in drying, much waste will be occasioned in dressing it, and the profit reduced to perhaps of these amounts. So the observation of Mr. Henderson , of flax being either the best or worst crop

for the farmer, thus receives corroboration ; and it should also be borne in mind that flax, like the potato crop, leaves no straw for manure to the land .

(2187.) Hemp is a crop scarcely cultivated in Scotland, and its culture

in England is confined to the southern counties, being a plant indigen ous to the south of Europe and India. Being tall of growth in com parison to flax, it receives no injury from weeds, but, on the contrary,

smothers by overtopping them. This plant is best cultivated in drills. The crop is pulled andwatered, and dried like flax, the weight of pro duce dressed being little more than flax, from 40 to 45 stones the impe rial acre, and the profit derived from it, after deducting expenses, seems * Dublin Farmers' Gazette .

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PULLING FLAX AND HEMP, AND THE HOP.

369

to be from £5 to £6 per acre, though Lord Somerville, in sanguine expectation of extending the culture ofthis plant in England, estimated it at £8. The dried refuse of the stems of hemp, after the fibre has

been separated, is used as fuel, and may be converted into charcoal fit for gunpowder. The seed yields about 3 quarters per acre, and from it is expressed an oil “ employed with great advantage in the lamp, and

in coarse painting. They give a paste made of it to hogs and horses to fatten them ; it enters into the composition of black -soap, the use of which is very common in the manufacture of stuffs and felts; and it is also used for tanning nets.” The common hemp is raised in India, not for the sake ofits fibre, but for the intoxicating quality of its seeds when eaten green and fresh ; the hemp of commerce of that country is derived from a different plant.*

( 2188.) The hop is not cultivated in Scotland but as an ornamental plant

in the shrubbery ,because the climate is not sufficiently warm to develop its cones, constituting the ripe fruit, which is its useful part. The culture of the hop is confined to the south of England, where, in 1835, the extent

of groundoccupied by it was 53,816 acres ; and its culture is very differ ent from that of usual field -crops. When a new hop-garden is formed,

the ground is trenched to the depth of 2 feet; and as the plants occupy the ground several years, their roots strike to a considerable depth, where the more of better soil they find near the bottom of the trench, the better

they grow , for as to the surface soil, it can be manured at any time, and in many ways. The plants, previously raised from seed, as being more hardy in constitution than raised by cuttings, are placed in quincunx order,

at 54 feet distance each way, which give 1,440 plants to the imp. acre. The hop -plant being diæcious in its nature, that is, having different sexes on dif ferent plants, 1 male is planted among every 10 female plants. The female plants only bear fruit, which has the form of solitary cones or strobiles, ovate and pendulous, composed ofmembraneousscales of a pale-green colour, each.

containing one round flattish seed of a bay -brown color, surrounded with a sharp rim , and compressed at the top.

Being climbers, as the plants shoot

up, they are tied toand trained along poles pushed endwise into the ground beside them ; and in the first year's growth of the bine the poles used may

be short ; but afterward, when shoots spring from the old stock, 3

bines are preserved from each shoot and trained up upon 3 poles placed around each plant-hill, with their upper ends divergent, that the air and

sun may find their way into thecentre of each cluster of plants; and the poles are, besides, so set as to allow the forenoon sun to reach the plants, and also to receive as little injury as possible from the prevailing wind of the district. The poles are from 16 to 18 feet the longest, and 14 the shortest ; and as 3 are required for every hill, 4,320 are wanted for every acre . The best poles are of yew, next of chestnut, then larch, ash , willow, oak cut in winter, Scots fir, birch alder, beech , in the order enumerated.

Theylast from 3 to 5 years, according to the wood, and cost 1s. per foot per 100 poles ; that is, poles 18 feet long will cost 18s. the 100, or nearly every year to keep up about 500 polesare wanted £39 peracre; and asand tear costs about £4 10s. the acre. In order to the stock , their wear

lessen this great annual expense, it has lately been suggested to stretch a stout wire along each alley, to which the poles should be fastened. The advantages of this plan are said to be, that poles of much less value than those usually employed may be used, injury from gales of wind avoided, and the alleys being open to the influence of the sun and air, the mould, * See Wisset's Treatise on Hemp, which contains all that can be said on the subject. Quarto edition, 1808 .

1785)......94

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that fatal disease of the hop, prevented ; and it is said that a garden of 9

acres at Halling, near Rochester, is cultivated in this way. Poles are carefully laid aside at the end of every hop-season. The bines, as they shoot up, are tied to the poles by women, who use dried rushes for the

purpose. The ground receives culture to keep it clean and open till the season of picking or gathering the flowers arrive, which is commonly the first week of September. The hop properly so called, is picked from the bine by the hand ; and, to facilitate that process, the bines are cut over at 3 feet from the ground, and the poles raised and laid on their side in a convenient position andplace for the pickers. Whole fam ilies of laborers are employed at picking, receiving 1 d. per bushel, at which rate a family of 5 will earn from 78. to 10s. a -day. There being 1,440 hills in the acre, and allowing 1 bushel of hops to each hill, and 1} lbs. to each bushel, the acre will yield 19 cwt. 32 lbs.; but the crop is some times not į of that quantity. Indeed, so precarious is the crop of hops, that, at Binstead, in Hampshire , a farmer grew 41 cwt. on 10 acres, in the year 1825, and in the following year, 1826, he realized 9 tons from the same land ! This diversity of crop is greatly owing to the effects of in

sects, of which a considerable variety and in great numbers affect the hop plant, and also of blight or mould, occasioned by damp or confined air. When ripe for picking, the hop is of a lightish -green color, and gummy to the feel when in the highest perfection. In a few days longer it becomes

brown and strong-tasted. At Farnham, in Kent, the hops are always picked in the perfect state, and every injured flower is put into a separate basket ; and, on this account, the Farnham hops always command the highest price in the market. This hop is eagerly sought after by pale-ale brewers; while the brown, stronger-tasted hop is better liked byporter brewers. After being picked, hops are immediately subjected to artificial heat in a kiln to be dried, so that they may keep ; and to show the value of a delicate-colored article in the market, the brown samples are strongly

fumigated with sulphur, to give them a fairer and more equal appearance. It is surprising that purchasers who are judges of hops, and aware of such a practice, submit to it, unless they themselves employ it as a means of

deceiving customers who never sawhops growing, and know not howthey are treated. What would be thought of a corn -farmer, were he to fumi gate the barley he had to dispose of with sulphur, in order to make the

bright-colored, overripened, and stained samples look all alike ? If light colored hops are indispensable to the brewer, let him manufacture his com modities as he pleases, but let the farmer deal only in the genuine produce of the soil.

If hemust have fair-colored hops, let him pick them in due

season, and exercise his skill in a legitimate way, and eschew every spe cies of deception. The drying is effected with coke and some charcoal, the drying heat being 1120 Fahrenheit; and costs, including every ex pense, 14s. the cwt. After being dried, hops are laid in a heap, to sweat and grow tough , and there they lie longer than merely to cool ; for they must feel moist and clammy, and be squeezable in the hand, before they

are bagged, when 5 lbs. of fresh hops will weigh only 1 lb. when taken from the kiln. A bag of hops weighs 21 cwt.; and is fixed by statute 4 feet wide, 74 feet long, and to contain 5 yards of cloth, weighing 51 lbs., which usually costs 6d. per yard. A Kent pocket is 3 feet wide, 71 feet long, weighs 4 lbs., and contains usually 14 cwt., but 2 cwt. of Farnham hops. Such a pocket will occupy a man from 3 to 4 hours to tread the

hops into firmly ; andto tread 4 of them in a day, at 9d. per cwt.,is a very good day's work ; and in doing which he becomes covered with yellow to which powder Dr. Ives ascribed the whole virtue of the plant. dust, (786)

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371

Hops cannot be tread too firmly into the bags, for the more the air is ex cluded the better; and, for this end, the use of the Bramah hydraulic press

is recommended. It is not an easy matter to keep hops when they shrink in the bags, and the air finds admission to them , and they then lose from

5 to 10 lbs. per cwt.; but the greater quantity of sulphur and saltpetre employed in the drying, the worse will hops keep. Damp is ruinous to them. In most cases,the price of old hops drops down to the half of that of new. Hops containing the most seed will retain their weight the longest.

(2189.) The [excise] duty on hops is 2d. per lb., and it amounted to £409,055 in 1835, on the produce of 53,816 acres, being 49,086,600 lbs., or 81 cwt. per acre. Small as this impost appears, it made that year a

direct tax upon the land on which the hop grew, of £7 19s. 6 d.per acre ! I never could understand why hops should be subjected to direct taxation, when all other agricultural productions are exempt from it. I can see the plea upon which a duty on malt may be urged, of its truly being a manu factured article ; but the tax on hops is a direct impost on the produce of the soil.

Whatever benefit is derived from this impost to the revenue,

from which nearly £4,000 a year must be deducted for its collection, is more than counterbalanced by the spirit ofgambling engendered in specu lators, who make purchases solely in accordance with the palpable amount of duty to be exacted. Offers made to farmers, resting on this contin gency, lure them also into that vice, and frequently make them suffer; and they cannot avoid the temptation, for the casualties affecting hops are so

uncertain, that the prospects of a crop may be blighted or secured in the course of a few days. Thus, in 1834, the hop was so much affected by the aphis, that the whole amount of duty was struck at about £ 100,000 over all the districts ; but on thunder-showers falling and destroying the insects just in time, and the weather afterward proving very favorable to the growth of the plant, actually raised the duty, which was paid , to £ 329,936, thus indicating an increase in the value of the apprehended crop of

more than 3 times. Were there no duty, the farmer would dis pose of his hops, when he realized them , as he does any other crop ; The

expense of forminga new hop garden is £ 15 13s. per acre, including a half-year's rent. The yearly expense of maintainingan acre of hops is, up to picking time, including rent, & c., £17 8s.; picking, drying, and in cluding duty on 6 cwts., £ 15 2s.; together, £ 32 10s.

It is not an uncom

mon practice to let the working of the ground, the poling of the hills, and the tying of the bines to the time of picking, to laborers at £3 10s. per acre . (2190.) Flax ( Linum usitatissimum ), from the Celtic Llin , a thread, in the class and order

Pentandria Pentagynia,ofLinnæus, and in the natural order ofLinea,isa native of many parts of Europe, as well as of Nepaul and North America, in corn -fields, and is said to be originally from Egypt. It has been cultivated for an unknown length of time in Britain, of which it is now considered a naturalized inhabitant ; and it is cultivated both for its fibre and oil, and the husk

of the seed, after the oilhas been extracted from it, is employed in the fattening of live -stock . (2191.) “ Mr. James Thomson and Mr. Baner,” relates Dr. Thomson, “ bave shown that the

fibres of flax are transparent cylindrical tubes, articulated, and pointed like a cane ; while the filaments of cotton are transparent glassy tubes, flattened, and twisted round their own axis . A section of a filament resembles, in some degree, the figure 8, thetube, originally cylindrical, hav. ing collapsed most in the middle, forming semi-tubes on each side, which giveto the fibre, when

viewed in a certain light, the appearance of a flat ribbon, with a hem or border on each edge. The uniform transparency of the filament is impaired by small irregular fissures, probably wrin kles arising from the desiccation of thetube. In consequence of this difference between the structure of linen and cotton fibres, Mr. Thomson and Mr. Bauer were enabled to ascertain that

the cloth inwhich the Egyptian mummiesare wrapped is always linen, and never cotton .

It is

clear from this, that the opinion entertained by some, that what is called in our translation of the

Old Testament fine linen ofEgypt, ought to be the cotton cloth of Egypt, is erroneous. We have * See Lance's Hop-Farmer, edition of 1838, for a great deal of information regarding the culture of this interesting plant.

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no evidence from the cloth wrapped about ancient mummies, that the Egyptians in those early 29 *

times were acquainted with cotton. '

(2192.) Large quantities of flax - seed, commonly called linseed, are annually imported into this country. It is imported for the purposes of growing the flax -crop, and for crushing into oil. Vi. tality not being certain in the flax-seed raised in this country, it is necessary to receive a sapply from abroad, and of all foreign kinds, that from Hollandis the preferable for seed , while our own answers for crushing into oil. Crushing-seed is principally imported from Russia, but consid. erable quantities are also brought from Italy and Egypt. Of 2,759,103 bushels of linseed imported in 1831, 2,210.702 were brought from Russia, 172,099 from Prussia ,106,294 from the United States. 68

105,448 from Italy, 98,847 from Egypt, 53.738 from the Netherlands,” + &c. By the New Tariff, the duty on foreign linseed, and that from British possessions, is only nominal, being 1d. per quar. ter. The prices by the quotations in February, 1844, are from 50s. to 60s. per quarterfor English sowing, and from 258. to 37s. for Baltic crushing.

( 2193. ) Linseed contains a great proportion of mucilage, and, when converted into jelly, con

stitutes an excellent nutriment for stock. The process of making the jelly is this: "The pro . portion of water to seed is about 7 to 1. Having been steeped in water 48 hours previous to boiling, the remainder is added cold , and the whole boiled gently for 2 hours, keeping it in motion during the operation, to prevent its burning to the boiler, thus reducing the whole to a jelly-like, or rather a gluey or ropy consistence. After being cooled in tubs, is given with a mixture of barley-meal, bran, and cut chaff'; a bullock being allowed about 2 quarts of the jelly per day, or somewhat more than 1 quart of seed in 4 days; that is, about 1-16 of the mediam allowed of oil -cake ." I

(2194.) The mucilage of linseed does not belong to any of the genera of gums; but its nature has not yet been ascertained. Its general composition and elementary constituents were ascer. tained to be these, by Guerin - Varry : General Composition.

Elementary Constituents.

Soluble gum

52.70

Carbon

Insoluble . Ashes ....

29.89

Azote

Water .

Total.

7:11 | Hydrogen 10-30 Oxygen . 100.00

Total.

34:30

7.27 5.65 52.78

.100.00

The ashes contained carbonatesof potash andlime, phosphate of lime, chloride of potassium , sul phate of potash, oxide of iron, alumina, and silica. || ( 2195.) The oil afforded by linseed is in the proportion of 22 per cent., that is, about 15 gallons

of oil from 1 quarter of seed, at a weight of 7 ] Ibs. to the gallon; the remainder is oil-cake. The process, as having most oil in it. The warm -drawn oil is obtained by heating the seed by steam to a temperature of 200° Fahrenheit ; and as theheat liquefies the oil,no doubt moreis expressed from the seed, and the oil-cake cannot be so rich. Both the cold and heated seed are put into woolen bags, and pressed by means of the hydraulic-engine or a wedge, and the cake, on being best oil is that which is cold -drawn; and I suppose that the best oil-cake is obtained from this

taken out of the bag, is already quite firm ; its weight at most is 8 lbs., and sells for £9 10s. to £ 10 per 1,000, or 14 farthings per lb., and the foreign from £5 to £ 6 108. per ton, or 24 farthings

per lb. From thisdifference in the price, it would appear that theforeign is the more valuable oil-cake, owing, perhaps, to its being manufactured by imperfect machinery, which cannot extract so much of the oil out of it as our own ; but be this as it may, I am not aware that any experi ments have ever been made on theircomparative fattening powers. A substitute for oil-cake, or what is called Hutchinson's patent oil-cake, is compounded, I understand, of 3 cwts. of linseed -oil

and 1 ton of barley-meal, and is sold at £12 per ton . I have given the proportions of Mr. Warnes's (2196.) Oil-cake, independently as an article of food, is an excellent medicine for live-stock , preventing constipation in the bowels, and giving to the hide a sweetness of coat unattainable by other means. Mr. Wilson of Edington Mains, in Berwickshire, tells me that ever since he has

compound ,which is similar, in (1264).

given oil-cake to his calves after being weaned, they have not been affected with that fatal com

plaint the quarter-ill, already described in the latter part of ( 2001), and he has experienced this beneficial effect for 6 years without any external application ofsetons. By administering oil-cake to my cows after calving, I certainly prevented their being affected with red -water (1699). (2197.) Hemp ( Cannabis sativa ) is in the class and order Diæcia Pentandria of the Linnæan system , and of the natural order Urticacee, or nettle tribe. Being a diecious plant--that is, hav.

ing the sexes in different plants — it is necessary to have a mixture of both sexes in the same plot

of ground,if seed is desired to be raised and collected; though, I presume, for the purpose of raising the fibre merely, that condition is not requisite; but,as apparently similar seed produces plants of different sexes, a mixture of the sexes cannot well be avoided inpractice. The male plant is more slender and delicate in appearance than the female, which bears the seed ;and, though this is the usual distinction of sexes in plante, yet, strange to say that, in speaking of the hemp-plant, most writers denominate the plantwhich bears the seed the malemowing, perhaps, to its more robust appearance, in comparison of the true male, which is, of course, barrenof seed. On this misapplication of the sexes, it has been well remarked : “ We are the more surprised that botanical writers should fall into the error, or rather copy thisblunder from one work into another,

for so many ages, without correcting a mistake that inverts the order of Nature." ( 2198.) The principal use to which hemp is applied is the making of cordage of all kinds, the fibre being both strong and durable. A first-rate man -of-war is said to require 80 tons of rough * Thomson's Organic Chemistry of Vegetables.

McCulloch's Dictionary of Commerce, art. Flas . Don's General Dictionary of Botany and Gardening, art. Linum , vol. i. Thomson's Organic Chemistry ofVegetables.

Phillips's History of Cultivated Vegetables, vol. i. (788 )

REAPING RYE , WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, PEASE , &C .

373

bemp to supply her with her necessary tackle . Taking 40 stones the imperial acre as a good crop, 4 acres are required, at that rate,to raise 1 ton ; so that a man -of-war consumes at least one

year's produce of 320 acres of hemp for an outfit of cordage ! “ By this cordage,” says Coles,

quaintly, in his Paradiseof Plants. “ ships are guided, bells arerung, beds are corded, and rogues kept in awe.” Old cordage is converted into paper, and should , therefore, never be destroyed.

(2199.) The Hop ( Humulus lupulus) ,like hemp, stands in the class and order of Linnæus, Diæcia Pentandria, and natural order Urticaceæ . It is not a native of Britain , nor was its use

known in this country till the reign of Henry VIII., in 1524 ,* when it was used in the composi tion of malt liquor — thus franking the truth of an old English distich, that “ Hops, Reformation, Bays, and Beer, Came into England allin one year."

It had not become a favorite with the people for many years after that period ; for Walter Blith records, in 1653, this remarkable popular error, only 200years ago and such errors are rife in all ages of the world – that itis not many years since the famous city of London petitioned thePar. Jiamentof England against two nuisances; and these were, Newcastle coals, in regard of their stench , & c., and hops, in regard they would spoilthe taste of drink, and endanger the people.”+ Itwould appear that this public expression of dislike against hops had prevailed in high quarters, for their use was forbidden by act of Parliament in the reign of James I., though the mandatewas little attended to ; and, by the time of Anne, public opinion had so entirely changed, that hops

were considered so superior to all other bitter principle, thatbrewers were prohibited from using any other, under a penalty of £20. Hops had not thriven for some time after their introduction

into England ; and, even so lately as 1695, enough was not grown to serve the country, for 510 cwt. were that year imported from Flanders and Holland. For many years past this country has been able not only to supply itself, bnt to export hops,and few foreign bops are imported. In 1832 therewere 703,153 lbs. exported ,and only 11,167 lbs. foreign imported ; but even this small importation was not required for home consumption, for in the same year the much greater quan tity of 50,113 lbs. of foreign were exported. The English hop is accounted the best in the world.

Hops maybeused medicinally ; a hop-pillow will insure sleep to a patient in fever, when all other expedients will prove ineffective. The tender shoots of the hop in spring may be used as a pleasant, bitter salad ."

(2200.) The yellow powder of hops was named lupulin by Dr. Ives,whichMessrs. Payen and

Chavallier found by analysis, to contain the following substances: Volatile oil 2, bitter principle and some salts, unascertained portions of each. In another analysis, they found it to contain 13 per cent. of the weight of th cones, but, deducting 4 per cent of foreign matter, there was left per cent. of lupulin. When distilled with water, it gives about2 per cent. of its weight of color . less volatile oil, to which hops owe their peculiar smell. This oil dissolves in considerable quan . 12.5, resin 52.5, silica 4, and of di-acetate of ammonia, gum , bi-malate of lime, tracesof fatty matter,

tity in water, and it seems to contain sulphur .

34. REAPING RYE , WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, BEANS, AND PEASE. “ Here, stretched in ranks, the swelled swarths are found

Sheaves heaped on sheaves here thicken up the ground. With sweepingstroke the mowers strew the lands The gatherers follow and collect in bands ; The rustic monarch of the tield descries.

With silent glee, the heaps around him rise ." POPE's HOMER.

(2201.) We are now arrived at the most important of all field opera tions -- that for which every other that has hitherto been described has

been merely preparatory — the grand result, to attain which the farmer feels the greatest anxiety, and which , when attained, yields him the great

est happiness, because it bestows upon him the fruit of all hislabor ; but the fruit will be great or small,in proportion - all other things being alike -to the skill and industry he hasdisplayed during the course of the pre paratory year ; for no adage conveys a stronger truth than this, when ap plied to the farmer, “ As he has sown, 80 shall he reap .” If he have dealt

with the land in a penurious spirit, laboring with inadequate means, stint ing manure,and grudging seed, he will reap a scanty produce, a deceitful crop, and grievous disappointment; but should he have done all that skill, * Beckmann's History of Inventions,vol. iv .

# Thomson's Organic Chemistry of Vegetables. (789)

† Blith's Improver Improved.

374

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

AUTUMN .

industry and liberality could effect, he will assuredly reap a bountiful re

ward, for the earth is ever grateful of kindness. Not having yet experi enced it, you can hardly conceive the difference between these two posi tions of the farmer; in the latter case, the very rustling of exuberant straw , while the crop is handling, is delightful to his ear , and his heart is made glad when he sees every one bestowing with heartiness the severe labor

required in cutting down and carrying in a heavy crop . In the former case, on the contrary, the boneless straw is easily squeezed in the hand of

the reaper - the light, scanty-grained heads are almost disregarded by him, and a single cart-load clears a large space of the field. Such a contrast is

indeed lamentable, and unfortunately may be made every harvest; but it is true, nevertheless, that the contrast is becoming less striking yearly—

for it is within my own recollection that 9 bolls, or 54 bushels, barley are now as easily raised as 7 bolls, or 42 bushels, were 20 years ago ; and should the present spirit of inquiry continue, and lead to still more amend ed practice, it is certain that the range of comparison between former and present crops will be still more narrowed ; and to the furtherance of this

there is, besides, this great stimulus to improvement of poor soils, that the effect of amended practice is far more apparent on them than on better soils.*

( 2202.) As harvest -work requires a greater number of laborers than usu . ally live on a farm , it is requisite you should hire beforehand a band of reapers on whom you can rely on remaining with you all harvest, and not

trustto the chance of a casual supply. No doubtfarms in theimmediate vicinity of large towns can obtain a great number of reapers daily, who go to their own lodgings in town at night ; and the convenience of obtaining a day's work at good wages, within a few minutes' walk of their own homes, will tempt most of the inhabitants of towns to prefer farms near them ; and this being the case, farms so situate may not require a hired

band, but depend on the chance of finding reapers from day to day. When harvest-work goes on in a regular mannerthroughthe country, this is an easy and simple mode of conducting harvest-work ; but should a

great proportion of the crop become sooner ripened than was expected, or the weather endanger the safety of the standing crop everywhere, the gen eral demand for hands renders the farmers near towns no better off than

those at adistance, for town reapers will then go anywhere for higher wages. The farmers near towns may, no doubt, then give higher wages as well as others ; but the excitement of raising wages renders reapers un settled, and their chief anxiety then is to inquire where the highest wages are to be obtained, not who the possessor is of the nearest farm . In such circumstances, the farmers near towns must put up with the services of the infirm , the young, and those who are burdened with household cares. The safest plan , therefore, for every farmer to follow , is to hire a band of reap

ers, proportioned to the extent of work to be performed, to remain with him all harvest, and to obtain auxiliary hands,as he wants them , on any hiring-day in theneighboring town. (2203.) Reaping -scythes being of different forms, and having to be

mounted in a peculiarmanner, are figured and described hereafter, and the mode of using them I shall soon describe. [* The same spirit of inquiry is producing like results in some parts of the United States ;

but

there is no sort of industry that experiences as much difficulty in commanding the use of the cap ital necessary for its advancement - except it be in the New England States, where facilities exist for the incorporation and loaning out of capital, and where consumers employed in every trade are close alongside the producers, ready to demand and pay for every species of the fruit of agri cultural industry, from an onion to an ox . (790)

Ed. Farm . Lib.]

REAPING RYE, WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, PEASE, &C.

375

(2204.) Before proceeding to employ reapers in the field, it is requisite you should know when corn is fit to be cut ; for if cut down too soon, or allowed to stand too long, loss of produce will be incurred . It may be laid down, as a general rule, that corn in a healthy state comes to maturity first in the ear, and then in the straw ; and when it does not, that is, when

the straw becomes matured first at the root, then, of course, the grain suf fers premature decay. Whenever a crop is observed tobe in the latter state, it need not beallowed to stand longer on the ground, as it can de rive no more benefit from the soil, and its grain will won as readily in the stook as on foot ; and so, in like manner, whenever the ear is observed

to be sufficiently ripe, the crop should be cut down, as the straw will won more rapidly in the stook than standing on the ground. The only matter of doubt, then, in the case is, when the ear is sufficiently ripe. The most

ready way of judging of this, in wheat and oats, is the state of the chaff, and of 2 or 3 inches ofthe top ofthe straw under the ear; if all these are of a uniform straw -yellow colour, and feel somewhat hard in the ear, in the oat, and absolutely prickly to the hand, in the wheat, when grasped, they are ripe ; or the grain itself may be examined, and should it feel firm

under pressure between the finger and thumb, it is ready for reaping ; or should the neck of the straw yield no juice when twisted round by the fin

ger and thumb. Barley should be of uniform yellow color in the grain and awns, and the rachis somewhat rigid ; for as long as it moves freely

by a shake of the hand, the grain is not sufficiently ripe, nor will it be of uniform color. It is not equally prudent to reap all sorts of grain in the

same degree of maturity. When wheat is reaped before it is sufficiently ripe, it is apt to shrink, and have a bluish tint in the sample; and when too ripe, the chaff opens from the grain, which is apt to be thrown out by the

least agitation of the air; and somesorts of white wheat are very subject to be thrown out by the wind, even before reaching the point of maturity. When very ripe, wheat bends down its ear, opening thechaff, and becomes stiff in the neck of the straw , indicating that Nature intends the grain to be

shaken out. Red wheat is less liable to be shaken than white; but any kind will shake out when too ripe, provided the plant is in good health ,

and the grain of good quality ;for as to immature grain, it is difficult to

make it leave the chaff even when hardened, and the spelt wheat has so tenacious hold of its capsule, that it is difficult to be disengaged from it even by the blows of the flail, fig. 401. It may be supposed that, when ever the ear and the entire straware of uniform yellow colour, the plant is no more than ripe, and so it is; but by the time the straw has fully ri pened to the root, the ear will be rigidly bent, and ready to cast its seeds

with the slightest violence. The same rule may be applied to barley as to wheat, that is, whenever the neck of the straw is ripe, it is time to cut,

for when too ripe, the ear bends itself down, diverging the outward row of awns nearlyatright angles with the rachis, and is apt to be snapped off altogether by the wind. In regard to oats, the same rule also applies ; but there is much less risk of cutting oats unripe, in comparison to al lowing them to stand till perfectly ripe, as they are, easily shaken out

by the wind, -- the chaff standing apart from the grain. "When bean straw turns black, it is fit to cut, and so is pease-straw, when the pease

become firm in the pod. In every case it is much safer for the crop to be cut before it is ripe than after it has become too ripe, as I shall show below.

(2205.) With all these preliminaries arranged, and with your mind satis fied that the crops are in a fit state for reaping, proceed with the reapers to the(791 harvest field, and conduct the reaping in the best manner for each )

376

THE BOOK OF THE FARMAUTUMN .

respective sort of grain. And, in regard to this, I should remark that the

harvest-field will not be properly conducted unless a person is appointed to superintend the reapers ; forto none of the reapers can such a task be deputed, as his own occupation is sufficient to occupy all his attention. The steward is the personwho should undertake this duty, unless you un dertake it yourself. It is his duty to mark the time to commence work,

and to leave it, and of the hours of meals and of rest ; it is his duty to re strain the impetuous, to urge the slow worker, and to keep every one in the best spirit for work ; and it is his duty to see the ground neatly cleared of the crop , and the crop itself judiciously handled. The man who fulfills all these duties as they should be during the entire harvest, accomplishes no easy task, either of body or mind.

He should not be mounted on

horseback, butbe on foot, ready to keep everything right; for it should be remembered that a single minute's loss of work of a large band of reap ers, causes a great loss in the gross amount of work. The farmer himself,

when not superintending, may move about on horseback ; but a horse is a troublesome companion to a man who has to move about close to work

people in a harvest-field. (2206.) Reaping with the scythe is a nice operation, and requires consid erable skill. The scythes should be mounted as figured hereafter, and made fit for work some time before being wanted in the harvest-field. There should be a number of small articles always ready in the field in case of accident, the procuring of which wastes much time, when not at hand.

These are, a small hammer for fastening the wedges of scythe-ferules and of rake-handles; bits of old sole -leather for bedding the tines of the scythes upon ; pieces of cord for tying anything; small large-headed nails for fix ing the stays to the snead of the scythes ; a large coarse file for rubbing down

the turned -up point of a scythe, when it happens to come against a stone ; a sharp knife for cutting bits of leather, and for removing any raggedness upon the rakes or, cradles.

(2207.) The various forms of scythes are the cradle-scythe, the straight sneaded scythe, and that with the bent snead, fig. 361 , already described ; and the greatestfavorite among mowers is the cradle -scythe, because it is easiest to wield by the arms, and does not twist the lumbar region of the

body so much as the two common scythes ; and I may remark that it is thislast effect which forms the great objection against the scythes in ordi

nary use . And yet it is not easy to seewhy theuse of the cradle -scythe, which is borne by the arms alone, in front of the body, and which does not

admit of being balanced in one hand like theother scythes, should be less fatiguing to work with ; yet there is no doubt of the fact, and on that ac count more work is done with it.

(2208.) In commencing to cut a field of corn with the scythe, that side should be chosen from which the corn happens to lie, if it be laid, and, if not, then the side from which the wind blows.

The scythe makes the low

est and evenest stubble across the ridges, and then also most easily passes over the open -furrows. Other things being favorable, it is best to begin at that side of a field which is on the left hand of the mowers.

If all these

conveniences cannot be conjoined , as many as can should be taken ad vantage of. The ground should have been rolled, and all large stones removed in spring, otherwise the scythes will run the risk of being injured in the face by stones, and even by clods.

(2209.) I have already said that reaping with the scythe is best exe cuted by the mowers being in what is called heads, namely , a head of 3 scythesmen, 3 gatherers, 3 bandsters, and I man -raker, or of 2 scythes men, 2 gatherers, 2 bandsters, and 1 woman -raker. On a large farm the (792)

REAPING RYE , WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS , PEASE , & C. heads may

377

consist of the former, and on a small one the latter number,

l'he best opening that can be made of a field forscythe -work, is tomow along the ridge by the side of the fence, which is kept on the left hand,

from the top to the bottom of the field ; and while one head is doing this,

let another mow along the bottom head -ridge, thewhole length of the field, and thus open up 2 of its sides. After this, the first head commences mowing at the lowest corner of the standing corn , across 6 ridges, or 30 yards, which is as far as a scythe will cut corn with one sharpening. Sup pose all these preliminaries settled, the scythesman who is to take the

lead first sharpens his scythe. In sharpening a scythe for cutting corn, the scythe-stone has to be put frequently into requisition, for unless the edge is kept keen, the mowing will not only be not easy but bad ; and

unless a scythesman can keepa keen edge on his scythe he will never be a good mower, and will always feel the work fatiguing to him. The sharpening should always be finished with the straik or strickle. The stone need not be used at every landing, the strickle answering that pur pose ; but whenever the scythe feels like a drag on the arms, the stone

should be used. In mowing, it is the duty of the mower to lay the cut corn or swath at right angles to his own line of motion, and the straws parallel to each other, as at a, a, a, fig. 414, and to maintain this essential Fig. 414.

re

|

vo

o

C m

a

e .

m

y

,

n a m

a m

THE MOWING OF CORN WITH THE SCYTHE .

requisite in corn-mowing, he should not swing his arms too far to the right in entering the sweep of his cut, for he will not be able to turn far enough round toward the left, and will necessarily lay the swath short of the right

angle ; nor should he bring his arms too far round to the left, as he will Jaythe swath beyond the right angle ; and, in either case, the straws will lie in the swath partly above each other, and with uneven ends, to put

which even in the sheaf is waste of time. He should proceed straight for ward, with a steady motion of arms and limbs, bearing the greatest part of the weight of the body on the right leg, which is kept slightly in ad vance, as seen at b, b, b.

The

sweep of the scythe will measure about 7

feet in length, and 14 or 15 inches in breadth. The woman-gatherers C, C, C, follow by making a band from the swath, and laying as much of the swath in it as will make a suitable sheaf, such as d, d. The gatherer (793)

378

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

is required to be an active person , as she will have as much to do as she can overtake.

The bandster e follows her, and binds the sheaves in the

manner already described, and any 2 of the 3 bandsters,f,f, set the stooks g together, so that a stook is easily made up among them ; and in setting them, while crossing the ridges, they should be placed on the same ridge, to give the people who remove them with the cart the least trouble. Last of all comes the raker h, who clears the ground between the stooks with his large rake i, described below, of all loose straws, and brings them to a bandster, who binds them together by themselves, and sets them in bun dles beside the stooks. This is better than putting the rakings into the heart of a sheaf, where they will not thresh clean with the rest of the corn ;

and, moreover, as they may contain earth and small stones, and also infe rior grain, from straws which may have fallen down before the mowing, it is better to thresh bundles of rakings by themselves. The figure exhibits the 3 kinds of scythes in operation.

(2210.) A scythesman will cut fully more than 1 imperial acre of wheat in a day. Many farmers affect to believe that the scythe is an unsuitable

instrument for cutting wheat ; but I can assure them, from experience, that it is as suitable as the sickle, and that mown sheaves may be made to look as well as reaped. No doubt mowing wheat is severe work , but so is reaping it. Of oats, 1 scythesman will mow fully 2 acres with ease .

The oat crop is remarkably pleasant to handle in every way ; its crisp not too long, is easily bound in sheaf and set in stook. Nearly 2 acres straw is easily cut by the scythe, and being hard and free, and generally

may

be mown of barley ; but the gummy matter in the straw, which gives

it a malty smell, causes the stone to be frequently used in mowing barley, and the straw being always free, the bands are apt to break when rashly handled in binding the sheaves. Fig. 415. (2211.) One mode of setting up corn to dry quickly is in gaits, that is, the band of the sheaf is tied loosely round the straw, just under the corn, as at a,

fig. 415, and the loose sheaf is made to stand upon the lower end of its straw

being spread out in a circular form , as b

to c,and they are set upon every ridge. The wind whistles through the open sheaf, and even the rain passes through ,

and does not hang upon it. The expe dient of gaiting, however, is only prac ticed in wet weather, and even then only

should the crop, if allowed to stand, be endangered by a shaking wind. It is confined also to a particular kind of crop, namely, oats — wheat and barley never

being gaited, because when wheat gets dry, after being cut in a wet state, it is apt to shake out in binding the gaits ;

VIA A GAIT OF OATS .

and when barley is subjected to the rough usage of binding, after being won , the heads are apt to snap off altogether, and, besides, exposure \in gaits would injure its color, and render it unfit for the maltster. Oats are protected by a thick husk, and the grain is not

very aptto shake outin handling, excepting potato -oats, which are seldom gaited, the common kinds only being so treated. But, for my part, I would not hesitate to gait any sort of oats when wet with dew in the morn (794)

REAPING RYE , WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, PEASE , &C.

379

ing, or even when wetted with rain, rather than lose a few hours ' work of

reaping every morning, or at nightfall. Gaits, it is true, are very apt to be upset by a high wind ; but after having got a set, it is surprising what a breeze they will withstand. After being blown down, however, they are not easily made to stand again, and then 3 at least are required to be

set against each other ; but whatever trouble the re-setting them should create, they should not be allowed to lie on the ground, and it will be found thata windy day dries them very quickly, and secures their winning. (2212.) Rye may be reaped or mown in the same manner as the other Its straw, being very tough, may be made into neat slim

cereal crops.

bands. It usually ripens a good deal earlier than the other grains; and its straw being clean and hard , does not require long exposure in the field, and on that account the stooks need not be hooded .

(2213.) Beans in drills are reaped only with the sickle, by moving back ward, taking the stalksunder theleftarm, and cutting every stalk through with the point of the sickle. When beans are sowu by themselves straw ropes are required for bands ; but when mixed with pease, the pea-straw answers the purpose. Beans are always the latest crop in being reaped, sometimes not for weeks after the others have been reaped and carried . In stooking, bean -sheaves are set up in pairs against one another, and the stook may consist of 4 or more sheaves, as is thought most expedient in the circumstances for the winning of the crop, the desire being to have

them won as soon as possible, to get the land sown with wheat. Pease are also reaped with the point of the hook, gathered with the left hand, while moving backward, and laid in bundles, not bound in sheaves, until ready to be carried, and are never stooked at all.*

(2214.) It will be observed, from the foregoing statements, that mowing is by much the cheapest mode of cutting down corn, and on that account should be universally adopted ; for the item of harvest expenses is a heavy one in the farmer's books, and every legitimate means should be used to lessen it. Any plan that would deprive the inhabitants of a farm of work , I would hesitate to recommend ; but when the farmer, as at present situa

ted, is very dependent on the public market of labor to secure his whole year's produce, he isjustified in the endeavor to make himself independ

ent in this respect. It is scarcely practicable to render himself entirely independent of the market, without throwing his horses idle for a long time; and, as there is no economy in such a course, the only other left

him is to economize on the usual cost of harvest-labor. Now , the scythe offers this advantage, and so efficient is that implement that whoever has

tried it fairly, andfor a whole harvest, has never relinquished it. I know a prejudice exists against it, on the ground that a mown stook does not look so well as a reaped one, and that is difficult to build a neat stack with mown sheaves. I own there is a roughness in the appearance of mown sheaves, but I can assure every one who has not discovered what I am going to state by his own experience, that that is no detriment to the corn , and the objection disappears as work -people become accustomed to the implement. Such a roughness would not exist were mowers careful to laytheswathes at right angles to theirline of motion, and were gatherers to lift the swathes even , and lay them down in armsfull even in the bands ;

and though it is scarcely possible for work -people to bestow utmost atten [* Is there not, in many of the United States, an opening for experiment in an extended culti vation of the bean and pea crops ? Indian corn , it is true, profitably supersedes various staple crops much relied on in Europe ; but when we consider the very nourishing quality of beans and

peas, we have room for surprise that neither should be even enumerated or alluded to in the de cennial return of our agricultural produce. (795)

Ed. Farm Lib.]

380

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

tion at all times, yet practice makes great proficiency in this matter, which compensates, in a great measure, for want of constant attention. I found

this effect produced after employing the same hands at the same work for successive years, and who at length became as neat and clever at their respective works as I could wish them . Besides the actual economy in em ploying mowers, only conceive the advantage of being able to carry in the corn after it has been exposed in the air to win onlyhalf the usual time.

Reaped oats require to stand in the stook a fortnight before they will keep in the stack ; mown oats, in the same weather, may becarried in a week .*

Barley, when reaped, is scarcely fit for leading in less than 3 weeks ; when mown , it may be

put

into the stack in safety in 10 days. And as for mown

wheat, about 3 days will suffice to win it. It is an error to suppose, as is too commonly imagined, that a mown stook takes in rain : on the contra I have frequently ascertained that it takes in rain less than a reaped In one instance I remember of a field of potato -oats being finished cutting, that heavy rain fell the next day, and continued without intermis

ry ,

one .

sion for 3 days, the last ofwhich was very windy,and the wind had changed from E. to W., when it faired . About

of this field had been reaped with the sickle, and the reason that implement was used in it all, was to give a

little harvest-work at threavingto a few elderly men and women, cotters, and hinds' wives who, having to attend to young children, could not un

dertake the regular work of a harvest-field. Impressed with the common belief that a mown sheaf must take in rain, I went to the field after the

rain had ceased, to ascertain the state the stooks were in , never doubting they would be soaked, whilethe reaped ones would be comparatively dry ; but judge of my surprise when the fact was the very opposite, the mown sheaves not being wetted to the heart, while the east side of the reaped sheaves were soaking to the bands. On consideration, I accounted for the difference of the phenomena in this way : In reaped sheaves, and espe cially when cut by threave, the straws are straight and hard pressed, be tween which the rain finds its way into the heart of the sheaves ; while

the straws in the mown stooks, being somewhat bent and broken and in

terlaced on the surface, this texture prevents the rain penetrating , and is rather serviceable in throwing itoff. Besides this property, mown sheaves are evidently more pervious to air than reaped. (2215.) An advantage of another kind obtained in mowing corn should not be overlooked, which is the very short stubble left in the field, and the

larger quantity of straw carried to the stack -yard. The following state

ment may be depended on, as being the result of experiment : Cwt. qr . lbs.

Weight of straw per acre , when cut to 2 inches of the ground ...... 26 i 8 12

23 21

1 0

0

6 2

So that } cwt. of straw is left per acre on every field by every 1 inch of per ton, or 15s. per load of 36 trusses, we cannot but feel surprised at the barbarous mode of using the wheat-straw in some places of England - in stubble . " When we know that the value of straw is commonly about 28s. first reaping the ears of corn , and then mowing the straw .

(2216.) It is not easy to state, with sufficient accuracy, the proportion which the straw and grain bear to each other - nor, of course, the ratio realized by the farmer , which must depend on the mode of cutting adopt ed by him. I have received the following statement of their relative

weights in the neighborhood of Edinburgh, from Mr. Andrew Gibson , of [ * Depending, of course , on climate and weather. ( 796 )

Ed . Farm . Lib.]

REAPING RYE, WHEAT , BARLEY, OATS, PEASE , & C .

381

the Dean Farm , whose good farming is well known : From a crop of

wheat, of40 bushels to the acre, or of 2,600 lbs., at65lbs. per bushel, the straw will weigh 9 kemples of 440 lbs. each, or 3,960 lbs., affording just more weight of straw than of grain. From a crop of barley of 60 bushels, weighing 56 lbs. per bushel, or 3,360 lbs. per acre, the weight of straw is

7 kemples, or 3,080 lbs., being to more weight of grain than of straw. From a crop of 60 bushels of oats, at 45 lbs. per bushel, or 2,700 lbs. per acre, the weight of straw is 8 kemples, or 3,520 lbs., being more weight

of straw than of grain. These are all average quantities . In ordinary

crops at a distance from towns, the proportion between the grain and the straw is supposed to be - for, I believe, it has not been satisfactorily ascer the grain } and the straw byop experiment— tained of the cr .

of the entire weight

(2217.) There is another curious inquiry connected with this subject namely, the proportionateweight of roots and stubble left in the field after the crop is reaped. In reference to the roots of natural grasses left in the soil acting as manure, Professor Johnston observes that “ the same is the case, to a greater or less extent, with all the artificial corn , grass, and le guminous crops we grow. They all leave their roots in the soil ; and, if the quantity of organic matter which these roots contain be greater than that which the crop we carry off has derived from the soil, then, instead of

exhausting, the growth of this crop will actually enrich the soil, in so far as the presence of organic matter is concerned. No crops, perhaps, the whole produce of which is carried off the field, leave a sufficient mass of roots behind them to effect this end ; but many plants, when in whole or in part eaten upon the field, leave enough in the soil materially to improve the condition of the land — while, in all cases, those tare considered as the

least exhausting to which are naturally attached the largest weight of roots. Hence the main reason why poor lands are so much benefited by being laid down to grass, and why an intermediate crop of clover is often as

beneficial to the after-crop of corn as if the land had lain in naked fallow .” The remarks here given are not all connected with our present subject, but they show the partial compensation which white crops return to the soil by means of their roots. The Professor then gives the results of some

experiments of Hlubek, conducted on a small scale, with a view to ascer tain the quantity of rootsleft in the soil by plants after their parts above ground had been removed ; and though the experiments were made with a few of the natural grasses, after they had been made into hay, I shall transcribe them, as the results give the proportion between the roots and stems of gramineous plants. [* Obvious as is the usefulness of facts thus exactly ascertained, how few farmers in our country have been at the pains to inquire after them for his own government. The relative weight of grain and straw will depend on various circumstances. On the fertile lands of Prince George's and other counties, where the soil is deficient in clay, and yields heavy crops, say

from 40 to 60 bushels of Indian corn, you hear them complain that their wheat runs to straw In such cases the proportion of straw to grain would probably be much larger than is here desig nated. It is, however, obvious that every farmer should , in the commencement of his career

ascertain these matters for his fature government. Every farmer can make a near approach to the quantity of grain he makes on his estate ; and having done that he will have the satisfactior

to know how much provender he has for his stock, and how much ofthe fertilizing properties of his land has been carried and sold off in the grain crop, and how much remains to be returned to the land. This relative weight of grain and of fodder needs to be nicely and thoroughly ascertained as to Indian corn . Ed. Farm . Lib.] (797)

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

382

AUTUMN . Weight Produce in

ENGLISH AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF GRASSES.

Produce in Roots .

Grass. Hay. Fresh. Dry. Ibs . 36 30 25 67 17 35 60

lbs .

Timothy — Phleum pratense .. Rough cock’s-foot- Dactylus glomerata .. Perennialrye -grass — Lolium perenne .. Meadow fox -tail- Alopecuruspratensis.

124 90 90 202 50 106

Couch - Triticum repens .

120

Tall fescue - Festuca elatior ...... Sheep's fescue - Festuca ovina..

Annual meadow -grass Poa annua.. Soft and smooth brome-grass — Bromus mollis and racemosus ..

lbs. 56 56

lbs. 22 80 17

22 } 50 24 70 ..

Sweet-ecented vernal-grass - Anthoxanthum odoratum .

of dry Roots to 100 lbs.

of Hay. lbs. 61 266 60 33

300 70

116 111 105 93

“ The fourth column of the above Table, " observes Professor Johnston, “ shows how large a quantity of vegetable matter some of the grasses im part to the soil, and yet howunlike the different grasses are in this respect. The sheep's fescue and perennial rye-grass-besides the dead roots which

detach themselves from time to time- leave at the end of the fourth year

a weight of living roots in the soil , which is equal to 3 times the produce in hay. If we take the mean of all the above grasses as an

of that year

average of what we may fairly expect in a grass-field, then the amount of living roots left in the soil when a 4 -year old grass-field is plowed up, will

be equal to 1 more thanthe weight of that year's crop .” The mean of the Table gives a weight of 121 lbs. for every 100 lbs. of crop ; and if we take this as a rule for estimating the weight of roots left in the ground by the cereal crops mentioned above in reference to their weight of straw, andif

we take their respective weights of grain and straw as given above, the following will be the entire weights grown of those crops : Grain ....... 2,660 lbs. Of Wheat, Straw Roots .

4,779

11,339 lbs.

Tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. = 5 1 0 17

Grain

.3,360 3,080 Of Barley, Straw .. Roots ......3,726

- 10,166 lbs. = 4 10 Of Oats ,

Grain Straw Roots ...

3

2

2

7

.2,700 .3.520

4,259

10,479 lbs.

= 4

13

(2218.) Although it is perfectly true what Professor Johnston says in his concluding remarks on this head,that “this burying of recent vegeta ble matter in the soil, in the form of living and dead roots of plants, is one of those important ameliorating operations of Nature which is always, to some extent, going on where vegetation proceeds : it is one by which

the practical man isoften benefited unawares, and of which — too often without understanding the source whence the advantage comes — he systematically avails himself in some of the most skillful steps he takes with a view to the improvement of his land,"* it is, nevertheless, of greater benefit to the farmer to cut his crops as near the surface of the ground as possible, thereby putting it in his own power to return the straw to the soil in a state of manure best suited to the wants of the crop, than to cut the stubble high, merely because the soil will derive benefit from it, as an organic substance, when it happens to become decomposed in the soil. (2219.) That one period of their age is better than another for reaping grain crops, has been

proved by very careful experiments made by Mr. John Hannam, North Deighton,Yorkshire. Without entering into the details of these experiments, it will be sufficient to give only their re . sults. Of derived :

wheat reaped at various times, the following were the advantages and disadvantages

* Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology .

(798 )

REAPING RYE , WHEAT, OATS, BARLEY, PEASE , &C.

383

No. 1 , reaped quite green on 12th August, and stacked 26th August, gave a return of £11 178. per acre. No. 2, reaped green on 19th August, and stacked 31st August, gave a return of £13 6s. per acre. No. 3, reaped raw on 26th August, and stacked 5th September, gave a return of £14 188. per acre.

No. 4, reaped not quite so raw on 30th August, and stacked 9th September, gave a return of £14 178. 4d. per acre. No. 5, reaped ripe on 9th September, and stacked 16th September, gave a return of £13 118. 8d. per acre. Hence a loss of £ 1 14 8 per acre upon No. 1 as compared with No. 5. 0

gain of 1 1 3

5 6 5 1

8

4 8 0

..

..

No. No. No. No.

No. No. No. No.

2 3 4 3

5. 5. 5. 1.

Hence, also, wheat reaped a fortnight before it is ripe gives an advantage on every point, viz : .13 1-5 per cent. In weight of gross produce, of... equal measures, nearly ... 21 equal number of grains, nearly.. In quality and value , above ... In weight of straw , above . Besides these, other advantages are, strawof better quality, a better chance of securing the crop , and a saving in securing it. On the other hand, wheat, reaped a month before it is ripe, gives an ..

advantage of 22 per cent. in weight of straw compared with the ripe, but suffers disadvantage in every other point, namely :

In weight of gross produce .... equal measures, above... equal number of grains , above .

In quality and value, above....

.11 5-13 per cent. 1.3 13 1-6 4-5

(2220.) These may seem trivial advantages and disadvantages, when confined to the area of a single acre ; but apply the particulars to the extent of ground under wheat-culture in the king dom , and the truth of the Scottish adage, “ mony a little maks a muckle,” will be clearly seen ; for, as Mr. Hannam observes, “ When we consider that there are in England and Scotland about 4,000,000 acres of wheat grown annually , producing i2,000,000 quarters of grain, of which are allowed to become ripe ‫ ;ܪ‬when we consider that by cutting this sooner we should produce an in

crease of 15 1-7 per cent, of flour, and realize an increased value of 78. 6ļd. upon every quarter produced ; and that we should produce food for 1,362,857 persons over and above what we now

thatthis increase would produce, and an extraannual income of £ 512,491; and whenwe consider the proceeds, at 3 per cent., of

be so much added to the wealth of the country, that it is equal to an estate worth £17,083,033 ; and that the increase of our population demands an increased sup. ply of food, I would ask , what is our duty in this case ?''* (2221.) Upon one occasion I cut down a few stooks of potato-oats when quite green , thoagh full in the ear, to allow carts to pass to a place destined for the site of a hay -stack ; and, after standing till the rest of the field was brought in , they were threshed with the flail by themselves, and the

sample they produced was the most beautifully silvery grain I ever saw ; but,not having made the experiment with any view to the crop. I pursued the investigation no farther, andcannot say what effect so very early reaping bad produced upon the quantity and quality of meal. (2222.) [The first and most important operation of the harvest season being the reaping of the

crop, I have now to proceed with the description of the machines and implements used in that interesting operation. It is more than probable that, in the dawnof Agriculture, the tiny crop of grain was plucked by the roots from the earth without the aid of any instrument otherthanthat most comprehensive one, the human hand ; but the inconveniences attending this mode must have been soon superseded by the adoption of the reaping-hook, or sickle, which is coeval with the most remote history. It is believed that instruments or machines of a more complicated form than the sickle have been resorted to by some of the nations of antiquity; but of these we have no certain historical information ; and when it is considered that, even in modern times, with all our advantages of mechanical knowledge, and the numerous appliances of mechanical experience

and skill, we have, as yet, failed in producinga really effective reaping machine, we are led to the conclusion that nothing of the sort in a perfect form had ever been achieved by the ancients. During the last sixty years, many attempts have been made to produce a perfect reaping-ma chine, but, with few exceptions, they have proved abortive, and the problem , in its fullest extent,

remains yet unsolved ; but, nevertheless, several of these attempts have been attended with at least partial success -- a success which has extended to the reaping of grain when it stands erect, or even slightly inclined , if all in one direction-but have all failed in making satisfactory work when the crop has been lodged by rains, or contorted by winds. The step which has been made

in achieving even this much is, however, of importance, and holds out a prospect ofthe probabil. ity that we shall yet see a reaping-machine adapted to the reaping of at least a very large propor tion of our fields, in the situation in which they are found in general, when ready forthe sickle . But as none of these machines can be considered perfect in their present state,I deem it unneces rary to enter into any minute details of their construction here ,and will only give a summary * See Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vols. xii. and xiii., for the detailed particulars of Mr. Hannam's wteresting experiments. (799)

384

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

view of their principles, and the leading features of their construction, with a reference to writers whose more detailed information may be obtained by those who desire to prosecute the subject. (2223.) The first reaping -machine that came before the public with any claim to efficiency was

thatofMr.Smith, of Deanston, about the year 1814–15, when itwas tried before a joint.committee of the Highland and Agricultural Society, and of the Dalkeith Farming Society, the latter having previously offered a premium of £ 500 for a perfect reaping-machine. * On that trial, the machine operated with very considerable effect ; but though much approved of, in a general view , was not considered so complete as to warrant the committee to award the premium . Mr. Smith's ma chine continued for a number of years to be the only one at all effective; but, as it did not possess all the requisite qualities for perfectreaping, it didnot come into actual use beyond a very limited extent. The cutting principle in Smith's original machine is beautifully simple, being a plain, smooth -edged,annularknife, of about 6 feet diameter, and 6 inches broad,attached by arms to an axle, with which it revolves with a velocity that makes one revolution for every 2 that the ma. chine travels over the ground. The cutter was surmounted by a light sheet-iron drum , or rather frustum , of an inverted cone, about 3 feet in hight, which serves as the collector or gatherer ofthe machine ; and this was attached to, and revolved along with, the cutter and its axle. The motion of the cutter and gatherer was derived froma pair of carriage-wheels fixed upon an axle, which carries a toothed bevel-wheel, and from this last by a pinion and horizontal shaft, and second pair of bevel-wheels, the last of which was fixed upon, and gave motion to, the cutter-shaft. The car. riage -wheels, with their axle, bore all the framework and gearing of the machine, with a slight

preponderance forward ; and this preponderance was borne by a small roller, placed under the fore-part of the framework, near the center of the catter, serving to preserve the uniform hight of the cutter from the ground - a pole projected backward from the body of the machine, to which two horses were yoked, one on each side, by a splinter bar, pushing the machine before them .

and, as the pole projected a few feet behind the horses, it served as a rudder to the machine in the hands of the driver. The circular cutter here adopted is, perhaps, the most perfect method of performing the act of cutting the grain ,which is done by it in a very successful manner - the machine being provided with apparatus for cutting higher or lower, as the crop may require. The gathering process is less perfect — the cut grain is carried round by the motion of the drama to the left side, where, as soon as it is clear of the standing corn in front, it falls outward , forming a continuous swath at one side of the track over which the machine has passed. (2224.) At a subsequent period, Mr. Smith effected various improvements on his reaping-ma

chine ; and in 1837 it was exhibited in operation at Ayr, before a committee of the Highland and Agricultural Society, where it performed to the satisfaction of all present, both in cutting and gathering ; but, at the same time, it showed marks of unwieldiness, especially from its great length, which is about 20 feet, that still rendered its general application doubtful. The chief point of its improve nent, at this trial, lay in the gathering-drum being now adapted to revolve separate from the cutter, with a velocity at its periphery equal to the progressive velocity of the machine ; and in the drum also being armed with rakes, or wooden teeth inserted all over its circumference, which supported and carried the cut grain round to the proper point of discharge.

(2225.).The next machine of importance, in the order of time, is that of Rev. Patrick Bell, now minister of the parish of Carmylie , in the county of Forfar. It appeared in operation in 1827-8, and received the sanction of the Highland and AgriculturalSociety in 1829, by a premium of £50.t For several years thereafter this machine retained considerable repute, and a consid . erable number of them were made. and successfully applied in the counties of Fife and Angas ,

but after all this apparent success, it has also fallen into disuse, like its predecessor. Mr. Bell's machine acts upon the clipping principle, the catter being a series of scissors,the upper blades of which are immovable, and of the form of isoceles triangles, whose hights are 10 inches, and bases about 4 inches, adapted to cut on both edges. The lower blades are of a similar form , each

jointed upon a pin , in a position corresponding to the space between the upper blades, and their shank or handles are all jointed to a traversing bar, put in motion by a crank ; there are ten pairs of such scissors, and by the above arrangement, the whole are made to cut simultaneously right or left. The motion of the cutter is communicated from the carriage wheels, as in Smith's ma chine, there being two principal wheels for that purpose, and two minor wheels to bear up the

cutters and fore part of the machine. The gathering process is accomplished by an endless web, which is placed above and behind the cutter, revolving either to right or left ; itreceives the grain as it falls from the cutter, and is regularly carried to one side, and dropped in a continuous swath, as before. To insure the falling of the cut grain upon the web, there is a light four-leaved vane placed in front of the machine, and ismade to revolve by means of a band ; the leaves of this vane

press gently upon the yet uncut grain, gathering it toward the web, until it is severed below by the scissors, when the web carries it off. For several years this machine bid fair to become a favorite ; the work was well performed wherever the corn stood upright, and that it would work

among laid corn was not expected of it ; yet it is now seldom seen in the field , and the only cause to which its failure can be attributed, is ihe complicated structure of the cutter. A cutter con sisting of such a number of parts, each of which requires the most perfect adjustment to render it

effective, being, besides, liable to unequal wear, renders it yet more liable to derangement ;and, farther, as the derangement of a single blade of the cutter is sufficient to destroy the usefulness of the machine; and the rectification of the defective blade requiring a workman of superior tal ent, it must have become both troublesome and expensive to effect such repairs ; and this, added to the risks of delay in an important season, seem to bave contributed to the gradual disuse of the machine.

(2226. ) Soon after the introduction of Mr. Bell's reaping-machine , there appeared another com . petitor, Mr. Joseph Mann, Raby, near Wigton, Cumberland. Mr. Mann's machine appears to have been constructed, after many years' labor, so early as 1826, but it was not exhibited in Scot. * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. x . Preliminary Notice. | Ibid ., vol. iv . t Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. i. (800 )

385

REAPING -MACHINES .

land till 1832, at the Highland Society's Show in Kelso, where it was tried before a Committee with a success very similar to those that had gone before it. Though not affording entire satisfac tion, it nevertheless possessed some points of considerable importance. In construction it was more compact than some of the previous machines ; and, from the simplicity of its movements, would be less expensive. It was drawn by one horse, walking before the machine, and by the

side of the standing corn, a breadth from 34 toprinciple, 4 feet, and cut nearlyit Thecutting cutter was on theofrevolving butwould, insteadtherefore, of being circular, formed a polygon of 12 sides, each side of the polygon being a separate blade, easily removed

10 acres in 10 hours.

and changed . The gatherer was the revolving cylindrical drum with rakes, afterward adopted by Mr. Smith, of Deanston, before alluded to ; but in Mr. Mann's machine the drum revolves at a

considerably higher velocity, making 26 revolutions in a minute, while the cutter makes about 200. In this machine, therefore, the velocity of the rake-teeth is 400 feet per minute, or nearly double that in Mr. Smith's improved form . This high velocity of the rake carries awaythe cut grain in a thinner layer upon therakes, but it requires the application of a comb to strip the corn from the rakes, and thus secures its being always dropped at one point in the machine. The mo tion of the cutter and rake were obtained from one of the carriage-wheels as in the others ; but here they were communicated by pitch -chains, and the front part of the machine was supported by a castor-wheel, to the stem ofwhich the horse-shafts were attached, the castor -wheel running

by the side of the standing corn . I am not aware of this machine having ever made farther pro gress ; though I do consider that it possesses some advantages over any that have yet been tried, and, if fully matured, mightbave superseded its competitors.

(2227.) În viewing the subject of the reaping machine, three things have to be specially consid . saving in expense that may be effected by it. The last described machine could certainly be procured at a price not exceeding £ 30. The same machine was, perhaps, not capable of reaping

ered. The expense of the machine, the expedition it may effect in reaping the crop, and the

an acre per hour consecutively ; its effectmay, therefore, be restricted to 8 acres per day, being about 12 days to every 100 acres. It will follow , therefore, that on a large farm two machines

might be requisite, making an outlay of £60. To qualify this outlay, the expenseof reaping (as ascertained , by Bell's machine,) has been estimated, including the expense of binding up the sheaves, at 38. per acre ; while the minimum expense of reaping by the hand is taken at 75. per acre, and the maximum may run to 128.,* but taking the mean at 9s., gives three times the ex. pense of machine-reaping.. For 100 acres , therefore, cut by hand, the expense would be £45, while that by the machine is only £ 15, giving a saving of the entire price of the machine in one

year. But suppose the price of a machine could be saved even in two years, the advantages It is deserving of consideration , also, thatalthough no reaping machine is to be expected capable

would be very great, under the supposition that an effective machine could be procured for £ 30. of cutting down the crops in every possible state, yet we may infer that, even on a farm of or dinary extent, such a breadth of crop may be found , in almost any season, capable of being cut by a machine, as would save half the expense of its purchase. To obtain an effective and durable reaping-machine is, therefore, yet an important object to the farming interest.t

( 2228.) In the present times, it may be safely averred that the only means of reaping is by the efficient instrument. It is employed in various states, not differing

sickle and the scythe. The first is a very simple, but, at thesame time, so far as it goes, a very much in general form , though exhibiting marked differences in the detail ; but these varieties are confined under two very distinct forms,the toothed and the smooth -edged sickles. Fig. 416 repre.

Fig. 416 .

sents the toothed sickle, an instrument so well known that it re

quires little description here. The blade, in the common toothed sickle, is principally made of iron, but with an edging of steel; the teeth are formed by striking with a chisel and hammer, in the man. ner of file-cutting, the cutting being only on the lower side; but when the blade has been bent to the proper form , tempered, and

ground on the smooth side, the serratures are brought prominently performed in a position ublique to the edge of the blade, at an angle

out on the edge of the blade ; and as the striking of the teeth is of about 70°, the serratures on the edge acquire what is called a hook toward the helve, thus causing the instrument to cut keenly in that direction when drawn through the standing corn . When the blade has been thus finished, a wooden helve of the simplest form is fitted upon the pointed tine formed at its root for that purpose.

The toothed sickle is made with various degrees of curvature and the subject of several patents, chiefly depending on the formation

of weight, but chiefly as represented in the figure, and it has been

THE TOOTHED SICKLE.

ofthe blade. One of these is only of two or three years' standing, and promises to be an im portant one. Messrs. Sorby & Son, of Sheffield, are the patentees ; and the principle upon which

their patent is based is a blade of rolled cast-steel swedged into aform that givesa sufficient de. gree of stiffness to the blade, without theincrease of weight thataccompaniesthe thick -backed or the other patent ribbed -back sickles. In the new patent, the advantage of a small quantity of the very best material-- cast-steel - is combined with extreme lightness and a due degree of strength and stiffness, the latterarising from the swedged or moulded back. (2229.) The smooth -edged sickle, or scythe-hook , assometimes called, differs from the former [t For practical remarks on the two most promising machines in use in the United States, see

the letter from Mr. Bowling, of Virginia, in the present (March) Number of the Monthly Journal of Agriculture. * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iv . (801)......25

Ed. Farm . Lib.)

386

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

in being broader in the blade, and longer withal, but in curvature it- resembles the former ; and

its chief difference lies in being ground on both sides, to form a fine and thin sharp edge. Like the toothed sickle, the blade has undergone various improvements; and Mr. Sorby's cast-steel swedge -blade is also extended to the smooth-edged sickle.

(2230.) Inthe formation of the sickle, the curvatureof the blade is a point of more importance tiran to á careless observer may appear; and though the ordinary reaper is seldom qualified to judge in this matter, he may feel pleased to be informed that there is a certain curvature ihat will

give to the muscles of his right arm the least possible cause for exertion, while there are other curves that, if given to the blade of the sickle, would cause him to expend a great amount of un necessary exertion in the arm , and a consequent unnecessary fatigue would follow . Fig. 417 wbich represents the smooth -edged sickle, has a curvature ap Fig. 417. proaching very near to that which, in this instrument, may be termed the curve of least exertion ; and throughout that portion ses g s rms cattin posses perfo sickle proces that the of the , it this peculiar property, from the following circumstance, that lines

diverging from the center of the handle of the sickle at a, and intersecting the curve ofthe cutting-edge,allthediverging lines will form equalangles with the tangents to the curve at the points of intersection. This property gives to the cutting -edge a uniform tendency to cut at everypoint in its length, without any other exertion than a direct pull upon the helve ; were the

D

curvature less atany point, a pressure of the hand would be re quired to keep the edge to the work, and were the curvature greater at any point, or on the whole, the exertion to make the cut would be greater, as it would then become more direct, in. stead of the oblique drawing or sawing cut, which, in all cases, is the most effective, and productive of leastresistance .

(2231.) A mode of using the smooth -edged sickle has of late years comeinto some repute, known in Scotland by the provin. cial term dinging -in (striking-in ). In this process the sickle is notdrawn through the straw , but is struck against it, somewhat in the manner of using a scythe ; indeed, the practice originated THE SMOOTH - EDGED SICKLE. in the attempt that was made some years ago to introduce the Hainault scythe inthe harvest operations of this country, but without success . In the (dinging in) practice, the left hand is employed, with its back toward the right, in slightly bending down the grain, and holding it to the blow of the sickle. A man practiced in this mode of working re work than is sually done in the common way ; but the stubble is left less

will do one-half

regular,and, except by very expert hands, there is a want of tidiness in the process. (2232.). The scythe is also extensively used as a reaping instrument, but more especially in Eng. land , and in some of the northern counties of Scotland, chiefly for the barley and oat crops, though in some localities, also, for wheat. The common hay-scythe is used for this purpose, in most cases, with the addition only of a very light rail or cradle, sometimes attached to the handle, and in other cases 10 the heel of the blade, as in the annexed cat, fig. 418, which is the common Fig . 418.

도

Fig. 419.

I

THE COMMON REAPING - SCYTHE .

THE CRADLE-SCYTHE FOR REAPING.

scythe, fitted for reaping. In the scythe mounted in this manner, the use of the rail or cradle will be obvious, being the collecting of the swath into a compact body, and depositing the same in as regular a manner as possible, preparatory to the binding ofit into a sheaf. (2233.) For a considerable period, a scythe mounted in a different form has been in ase for the purpose of reaping, and it isbelieved that its introduction can be traced to BanffshireorAber. ( 802)

387

REAPING - MACHINES.

deenshire, where the scythe is rather extensively used for reaping. About ten years ago this form of scythe came more prominently before the public,* and, for a time, gained considerable

repute under the name of the Cradle-scythe. Of this form of mounting a reaping -scythe, there are many varieties; but they all agree in one point, that of having two short helves, the one branching out ofthe other, instead of the common long helve or snead. Fig . 419 is a view of the cradle-scythe in one of its most approved forms, wherein a is the scythe-blade, b the principal helve, to which the blade is attached in the usual way, the hook of the tine being sunk into the wood, and an iron ferule brought down over the tine, binding it firmly to the wood ; but the blade

is farther supported by the addition of the light stay c, termed by mowers the grass -nail. The minor helved is tenoned into the former, and the two handles e f areadjusted by wedges inthe usual way, to the hight and mode of working of the mower.

The cradle or rake consists of a

little wooden standard g , about 8 inches high, jointed to the heel of the blade, so as to fold a little up or down across the blade ; into this are inserted three slender teeth, following the direction of the blade, and may be from 6 to 15 inches long ; the head of the standard is supported by a slen. der rod of iron, which stretches about 18 inches up the handle, where it is secured by a small

screw -nut, capable of being shifted up or down to alter the position of the standard and its teeth to suit the lay of the corn . The standard or rake -head was at one time recommended to be made

in the segment of a circle,t for which there seems no good reason, either practical or philosoph . ical ; but the idea was seized upon, and the cradle-scythe mounted in that form was widely dis tributed ; but instead of this supposed improvement tending to increase the favorable opinion of

scythe-reaping, the practice seems rather on the decline ; and there is good reason to believe that

this malformation of the rake may havehad no small share in producing a distaste for scythe reaping as a practice ; whereas, under proper management, and a judicious choice of imple ments, there can be no doubt of considerable advantages being attainable from scythe-reaping, as compared with the sickle. (2234.) It is believed by very competent judges, that the figure here given of the cradle -scythe possesses all theadvantages that are derivable from using this instrument; and, in addition to the details already given, I may add that the length of the blade is from 3 feet 4 inches to 3 feet 6 inches ; the left or principal helve is about 4 feet, the other 3 feet, measuring direct from the heel in both cases ; the distance between the helves, where the handles are applied, is 24 inches ; and in setting the blade the following rule is to be observed : When the framed helves are laid flat on a level surface, the point of the blade should be from 18 to 20 inches above that surface, and

measuring from a point on the left helve, 3 feet distant from the heel of the blade in a straight line, as at b, the extremity of the blade should be also 3 feet distant from the point b. Iron has, in many cases, been substituted for wood in the construction of the helves ; but it does not, by any means, appear to be so well adapted to the purpose as the wooden helves; when construct ed of iron, if they are made sufficiently light, there istoo much elasticity in the fabric, which is fatiguing to the workman, by reason of the tremor produced atevery stroke of the scythe. ( 2235.) As essential appendages ofthe scythe,there must be kept in view the scythe-stone, with which it is kept in proper cutting order : a soft, fine-grained sandstone is the proper material from which it should be selected ; and as for applying it, it were difficult in words to describe the

proper mode of doing so, butthe following may suffice to give the uninitiated some notion of the process. The scythe is placed on the leftsideof the mower, with the point of the blade resting on a small stone on the ground, the heel of the blade and helve being supported by the left hand ; the scythe-stone, which is about 10 inches long, is grasped by one end in the righthand, and is

thus applied, crossing the blade. The effectof the sharpening is produced by making sliding strokes with the stone along the blade on each side alternately, upward and downward ; but the down. ward strokes only, or those toward the point of the blade,should be the effective ones, the return ing stroke of thestone touching the blade but lightly. The object of this mode of treatment is

based on the principle that the scythe cats after the manner of a saw; though the teeth are not very prominent, still the fineserrature is there; and, to make it cutwith the best effect, itmust be hooked toward the point of the blade, or in the direction of its motion, when catting; and the ap plication of the stone, as above described , produces this direction of the minute teeth in the cutting. edge. The strokes of thestone cannot conveniently be carried over the wholelength of the blade at one throw of the hand, hence the sharpening begins at the heel, and proceeds downward ; but, from the position described, there still remaina few inches at the point untouched ; and, to reach this part with the stone, the mower lifts up the blade, by seizing it about the middle with the left

hand, and bringing it to a horizontal position — the helve still resting, partly on the ground. and

partly against his body,he is enabledto complete the process ofsharpening; Throughout this oper ation, itis to be speciallyobserved that, in applying the stone, it must always be held flat upon both sides of the blade ; if this is not attended to, either the edge will not be improved , or it will be rounded off,and the consequence of this last effect will be that the scythe will speedily be unfit for cutting until it be re -ground. . (2236 .) The strike or strickle, which is also used in the sharpening of the scythe, principally for giving it a finer edge — though this is veryfrequently a mistaken notion — is formed of a piece of hard wood, about 15 inches long, one end of which is shaped into a handle ; the body of it is some. times 1 } inches square, but in most cases it is about 2 inches broad, by 4 inch thick. It is coated over with granalated emery, imbedded in a cement such as glue ; and, to produce the best effects, the emery should be of a medium degree of fineness. Thestrickle being a light instrument, it is

always attached to the helve of the scythe, and is, therefore, always at hand, ready to be applied in the event of any accidental injury to the edge of the scythe being sustained ; while the stone,

from its greater weight, can only be resorted to at the landings, whereit lies in readiness. (2237.) The hand stubble-rake.-- The gleanings of the stubble is an object of considera.

hle value, and, to secure it for the benefit of the farmer, different implements are employed. * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture,vol. V. (803)

† Ibid ., vol. vi.

388

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

The principal and the most effective of them is the horse -rake ; but, in the absence of that machine, the hand-rake is found to serve a very good purpose. Fig. 420 is a representa tion of this rake, and it is of very

simple construction, the form be. ing precisely that of the hay -rake,

Fig. 420.

but of enlarged dimensions. The

head, ab, is 5 feet long, and should be made ofgood, tough ash, 2 ; by 2 inches; the helvec may be 6 feet in hight,of the same material, and furnished with a handle e that

can be fixed in any desired posi- ] tion , by means of a ferule and

wedge . The helve is tenoned in to the head, and supported by the iron brace foc, & The teeth are of iron, 7 inches in length, and set at 4 inches apart, but formed in the lower part so that the bend

с

rests on the ground, preventing the points of the teeth penetrating and mixing the earth with the gleanings. The best method of fixing the teeth is by a screw -nut, as in the horse -rake, as they are

THE HAND STUBBLE-RAKE.

thereby easily removed in the case of being broken, withoutrisk of injuring the head . It is also advisable to have the ends of the head hooped, to prevent splitting.- J . S.]

35. CARRYING IN AND STACKING WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, BEANS, AND PEASE ; AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF CARTS.

" Inwardly smiling ,the proud farmer views The rising pyramids that grace his yard, And counts his large increase ; his barns are stored , And groaning staddles bend beneath their load . " SOMERVILLE .

(2238.) Itis necessary that reaped corn remain for some time in stook in the field, before it will keep in large quantities in the stack or barn . The length of time will, of course, depend entirely on the state of the weather ; for if the air is dry, sharp, and windy, the corn will be ready in the shortest time-- while in close, misty damp, it will require the longest

time ; but, on an average, for wheat 1 week, and for barley and oats 2 weeks, will suffice. In this respect, the superiority of the mown over reaped corn manifests itself- mown wheat being ready for the stack in 4

or5 days, and barley and oats in 8 or 10 — the chief cause of the difference being the loose and open state in which mowing leaves the straw in the sheaf.

(2239.) Mere dryness to the feel does not constitute all the qualities re

quisite for making new cut corn keep in the stack. The natural sap of the plant must not only be evaporated from its outside, but also from its inte rior ; and the outside may feel quite dry, while the interior may be far from it ; and the knowledge of the latter property constitutes the whole difficulty of judging whether or not corn will keepin the stack. There is

one criterion by which whether or not a sheaf is fit to keep may be ascer tained with almost certain success, which is, that if the sheaf feel quite dry,

the straws be loose and easily yield to the fingers, and the entire sheaf feel

light when lifted off the ground by the hand thrust through the middle of the band, the sheaf is ready ; for if it present all these qualities at the band,

where it is most compressed, the rest will be sure to be won. While win (804)

CARRYING IN AND STACKING CORN.

389

ning, it is as probable that the sap of the cereal grains is converted into woody fibre, as that of clover on being converted into hay (2139). (2240.) The winning of corn is comparatively an easy matter, when the weather is dry ; but, in windy and showery weather, the stooks are apt to be blown down and become wet, and incur the trouble of setting up again at the first moment of calm. When the air is calm, dull, damp and warm , every species of grain is apt to sprout in the stook before being ready for the stack. When much rain falls, accompanied with cold , the grain be comes sooner ready than the straw for the stack ; and, to win the straw , the bands are not unfrequently obliged to be loosened, and the sheaf spread out to dry in the wind and sun ; and in like manner the sheaf should be

spread out, even in dry weather, when a large proportion of young grass is mixed among barley -straw. When barley is mown, it is quite practica

ble to get rid of much of the grass among it, by the gatherers shaking the grass out of the swathes by the corn end, before laying the corn into the bands. This extra process of shaking will, no doubt, lose some time, but it is probably better to lose a little time in the mowing than subject the

corn to perhaps a week longer exposure in the field. It is scarcely practi cable to shake out grass inreaping, as the hook would require to be laid

aside while both the hands were engaged in shaking every handful; and to cul the stubble as high as the grasswould be preposterous. An extra hand, therefore, wouldbe required for this purpose among reapers on ev. ery 2 ridges. Corn wins in no way so quickly as in gaits, fig . 415. (2241.) While the first reaped corn is winning in the field, the stack yard should be put in order to receive the new crop, by removing every:

thing that should not be in it — such as old, decayed straw, weeds, imple ments , &c.; but no such use as the latter should ever be allowed of a stack

yard , as implements should be put into their proper places when their re spective season for use expires.

Where stathels are used, it should be

seen that they are in repair; dry straw should be athand to form the bot toms of new stacks, where stathels are not used ; and, even where they are in partial use, straw is required for the stacks built on the ground , as sta thels can only be placed round the utmostlimits ofa stack-yard,unless an

inordinate space of ground is appropriated to it, with a cart -road between every2 rows of stathels, as already commented on at (70). Straw -ropes should also be provided for covering the barley-stacks, in case of threat ened rain. (2242.) The description of a stathel or staddle is given in (70), and a

perspective view in fig. 24, which is a framing of wood put together, to remain in a permanent form upon stone props, made

up of 3

parts — a sole

b, a pillar c,and bonnet d. It has been brought to my notice that a better form of stathel would be to have the frame in 2 pieces, to remove into a shed , and be protected from the weather, when not in use. Such a mova

ble frame would answer the purpose as well as a permanent one ; but,

when removed , the props should require to be removed also, otherwise and their replacement would create a good deal of trouble when wanted ; and this is a species of trouble, perhaps, more serious than the decay of

they will be driven over, and perhaps broken, or at all events disjointed ,

the wood of a frame 1 year or 2 sooner than it would otherwise be. True, the props

could be made of one piece of cast-iron, which they sometimes are ; and, where stones are scarce, this material seems indispensable ; but,

where stones are plenty, they make cheaper props than cast-iron ; and, al though cast-iron ones would be easily removed, the soles on which they rest would still be liable to be broken, and the setting them again on a

level would impose considerable trouble and expense. So that, on the (805)

390

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

AUTUMN .

whole, such a stathel as is shown in fig. 24 will, in my opinion, answer well

for ordinary farms. The framing is made heavy, the scantlings being 9 inches in the side—a size which the Scots fir easily attains, because it is

to be permanent in its position, and tolast a long time,remaining service able for a lease of 20 years ; but, of course, where larch is abundant,

smaller scantlings will be handier, equally strong, and last perhaps longer. Stathels require no straw to render them fit for building stacksupon. (2243.) A stool of straw for a stack is made in this way : Stick a fork a , fig. 421, upright in the ground in the center of the intended site of the Fig. 421. T

m

THE FORMING OF A STOOL FOR A STACK ; THE LOADING OF A CART WITH SHEAVES ; AND THE BUILDING OF A STACK.

stack. Put a quantity of dry straw around the fork , and shake it up as you would do the litter of a horse, spreading it out to about the size and form the stack should occupy on the ground . Take a long fork b, with the radius of the stack marked upon its shaft - embrace the upright fork a be

tween its prongs, and, holding its shaft at the specified distance of the ra dius, push in or pullout the straw with your feet, as seen from c to d, into the shape of the circle described by yourself in walking round the circum ference of the stool.

(2244.) Having made these preparations,on the supposition that the corn is ready to be carried in and stacked, the first thing is to provide an efficient person to fork the corn in the field to the carts — a man being the best for the work, as he is able not only to wield the sheaves with ease,

but possesses dexterityto place the sheaves inthe position most convenient for the plowman to build them on the cart; for, throwing sheaves in any manner upon the cart makes the forking no easier for the forker, while it gives the plowman much additional trouble to turn the sheaves upon the load, where his footing is not very secure.

A loss of 2 or 3 minutes in the

curred in this way in loading each cart makes a considerable loss upon

day's work. The steward should build the stacks, unless he is specially engaged with the reapers in the field , when another man should be hired (806 )

391

CARRYING IN AND STACKING CORN.

to stack ; but on a large farm more than 1 stacker may frequently be re quired at a time. When more than 1 stacker is employed, each should have the same head of carts leading to him, even when both heads are

leading from the same field, that the corn may be regularly supplied to him .

(2245.) The cart is the vehicle employed in carrying in corn . The common cart, mounted with a framing called tops, is used in some parts of the country ; while, in others, the corn -cart, different forms of which

are represented and described below by Mr. Slight; is employed, the body of which is put on the axle andwheels of the common cart, and provided with ropes to hold on the load. Of the two sorts of carts for this purpose, I prefer the corn -cart, as it carries the load lower to the line of `draught; and it is provided with a plank, called the lead -tree,

for the plowman to stand upon when forking off the lower part of the load.

(2246.) The horses are usually yoked double in leading time, as thereis only one man to each pair of horses ; and there may be inequalities in the fields and roads which require the force of 2 horses to surmount. As I have had occasion to mention the price of the harness required for the plow, I may here enumerate those for the cart. In addition to the collar and bridle, there are Saddle and girth

Breeching Two back -bands and girth Cart- chains. Stretcher

Total ....

-22 lbs. weight, worth £1 2 ... 10

1 0 0 16

8

.14

at 7d. per Ib . O

8

2

0

3

0

£3

9

2

..

54 lbs.

0 0 0

In Forfarshire the trace -horse is harnessed in a different manner. A broad strap

is hooked to the back of the upper part of the collar, and ter

minates atthe other end in a crupper, and a haunch -strap passes down in each side to support the trace-chain. This plan supports the stretcher

well, and prevents it falling so low as the hocks of the horse in the turn ings, but it confinesthe action of the horse by buckling the shoulder and tail together, and when the bearing -rein is passed over the harness, the horse's head is very much confined. Harness leather is best, in the long run, though dearest at first. Double cart-ropes measure 24 yards, single 12 yards, and cost 4įd. per lb. Hemp and Manilla reins cost 5 d . perlb. There should always be double reins used with the cart, whether the horses be yoked single or double. The double reins are connected at the

end with a tie and loop to hang on any hook, or slip below any partof

the harness. With the collar and bridle, the shaft-horse carries 581 lbs. of harness, and the trace-horse 34 } ]bs. (2247.) În carrying the crop off the ground, the object is to do as little injury as possible to the land with the cart-wheels, especially to young grass ; and for this reason, as well as forming an excellent guide, the horses should walk in the open furrow between the ridges in every alter nate furrow , while the wheels pass along the furrow -brow of the ridge on

When corn is cut with band-won reapers , the stooks of 2 ridges being placed on 1 , the cart clears the produce of 2 ridges, and the

each side.

same may be the case with mown corn , provided the bandsters are in

structed to set the stooks in the same manner upon the ridges while work ing across them. In threaving, the stooks being set on every ridge, the

former is obliged to go from one ridge to another to clear 2 ridges, which occasions much loss of time. (807)

392

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

( 2248.) A corn -cart is loaded with sheaves in this way : The body e, fig. 421, is first filled with the sheaves lying with their butt-ends toward the shaft-horse's rump at one end, and the back end of the cart at the

other. When the cornis on a level with the frame or shilments of the cart, the sheaves are then laid across the body of the cart in a row along both sides of the frame, with the butt -ends projecting as far beyond the frame

asthe band, as at f and g ; the sheaf on each corner of theframe being held in its place bybeing transfixed upon a spike attached to it. Another row of sheaves is placedabove the first, and the corner ones kept in their

places by a wisp of corn , held fast by the band being placed under the adjoining sheaf. Sheaves are then placed along the cart with their butt ends to both its ends, in order to hold in the first laid sheaves, and to fill

upthe hollow in the middle of the load. Thus row after row is placed, and the middle of the load filled up till as much is built on as the horses can conveniently draw, 12 large stooks being a good load . It should be ascertained that the load is neither back -laden nor too heavy upon the

horse's back ; and, indeed, if the cart has been evenly laden according to its form , there is no risk of either inconvenience being felt by the shaft horse. A load thus built will have the butt ends of all the sheaves on the outside, and the corn - ends in the inside.

(2249.) The ropes are then thrown overthe load to keep it from jolting offthe cart upon the road, and in necessarily crossing gaw -cuts in the fields.

There is usually a ring in the back -bar of the cart to which the rope is fastened by the middle, whence it is wound round each back -stay;

but fastening the rope round the back -stays will answerwithout a ring. The ropes are then thrown across the load diagonally to the opposite an gles in the front of the cart, and one end is made fast to each shaft, with as much force as the forker can exert on the ground, with the assistance

of the plowman on the top of the load. The crossing of the ropes pre vents the load splitting asunder over the sides of the cart, while it is jolted along the road. Some plowmen profess to show their dexterity in build ing loads of corn, and of bringing them to the stack-yard without the as sistance of ropes ; but there is no use of running the risk of losing time

by breaking the load and strewing the road with sheaves. Such a fate at tended the first load I tried to build even with the assistance of ropes.

Whenthe corn is mown, a woman is usually employed to rake the ground on which the stooks stood, because they were set upon the ground at the

time of mowing before it was raked.

(2250.) When corn is fit for stacking, the carrying is continued from break of day to twilight, provided there be no heavy dew at morning or night. From a little after sunrise to a little after sunset, the corn may be taken in with great safety. It is customary, in some parts of the country, to keep the horses in the yoke when employed at leading, and feed them

with corn from nose-bags, while the carter is taking his cinner, and to give them green food, such as tares, while the cart is unloading at the stack. In other parts the horses are taken out of the yoke, watered, and put into the stable, where they receive their corn while the men are at dinner. This is the best way for the horses, though it usually puts off one hour of the best part of the day before the horses again take the road, whereas half an hour in the other case is quite sufficient for the men to dine, and the horses to eat their feed of corn . Some horses are apt to

take fright, owing, no doubt, to the mode in which they had been broke

in, when the bridles are temporarily slipped off their head for the purpose of taking the bit out of their mouth , to allow them to eat the tares with

freedom ; and, to avoid such an accident with a horse known to be easily (808)

CARRYING IN AND STACKING CORN.

393

frightened, its bit should be made to fasten with a small strap and buckle to the near side of the bridle.

(2251.) A load of tares is brought to the steading freshin the morning for the horses. They are not fit for the use of horses until the pods are

pretty well filled with grain, prior to which state they are apt to purge and weaken them , when subjected to much work in the cart, as in the time of carrying in corn. For cows it matters not how succulent tares may be, as they yield much milk on them ; and, indeed, no other green food is so productive of milk.

(2252.) In setting a loaded cart to the stool or stathel of a stack, it

should be studied to let the plowman have the advantage of any wind go ing in forking the sheaves from the cart. The stack should be built in this way : Set up a couple of sheaves against each other in the center of the stathel, and another couple against them in the other direction. Pile

others against these in rows around the center, with a slope downward toward the circumference of the stathel, each row being placed half the length of the sheaf beyond the inner one, till the circumference is com pleted, when it should be examined, and where any sheaf presses too hard upon another, it should be relieved, and where there is slackness, another sheaf should be introduced. Keeping the circumference of the stack on the left hand, the stacker lays the sheaves upon the outside row round the stack, putting each sheaf with his hands as close to the last set one as he can get it, and pressing each sheaf with both his knees, as represented at h, fig. 421. When the outside row is thus laid, an inside one is made,

with the butt end of the sheaves resting on the bands of the outside row , thereby securing the outside sheaves in their places, and at the same time

filling up the body of the stack firmly with sheaves, as seen at i. A few more sheaves may be required as an inmost row still, to fill up and make the heart of the stack its highest part. It is of immense benefit to a stack to have its center well filled with sheaves, as it is the heart -sheaves which

retain the outside ones in their places with an inclination downward from the center to the circumference ; and this position of the outside sheaves

is necessary to prevent the rain finding a passage along the straw into the very heart of the stack, where, of course, it would find its way easily, were the sheaves to lie with an inclination downward to the center of the

stack, and where it would soon spoil the corn .

The sheaves are then said

to take in pen -wet. The number of rows required to fill the body of a stack depends on the length of the straw and the diameter of thestack.

ordinary length of straw, such as from 41 to 5 feet, a stack of is well adapted ; and 1 inside row , along the bands of the diameter feet 15 with a few sheaves laid across one another in the center, will outside

In cropsof

one ,

make the stack completely hearted. Where much wheat is raised, and which often reaches from 5 to 6 feet in length, the stack should be 18 feet in diameter, to give room for hearting. In a stack of 15 feet, the breadth

is rather too much for the plowman to fork heavy sheaves across to the stacker, when the stack attains a certain hight, and when the load in the cart becomes low ; and the stacker should always receive the sheaves within his reach , as he cannot rise from his knees to take them without

much lossof time, and risk of making bad work. To expedite the build ing, a field -worker k should stand onthe stack, to pitch the sheaves with a short fork to the stacker in the position they are wanted by him, to save him the trouble of turning them , as the sheaf I is shown in the cut. By a little management, the field -worker may receive every sheaf as the plow

man pitches it from his fork upon her fork, and prevent it falling upon the until she throws it in its proper position beside the right hand of stack (809)

394

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -AUTUMN.

the stacker; and in doing this she should not give him more sheaves than 1 by 1 as he builds them ; nor should she receive them faster from the

plowman than the stacker can build them, for no time is gained, but lost, in piling more sheaves upon the stack than the stackercan dispose of. The proper relative positions of the plowman m and the field-worker 1, for thus giving and receiving the sheaves, are endeavored to be represented by those figures in the cut.

( 2253.) As every cart is unloaded, the stacker descends to the ground, by means of a ladder, and trims the stack, by pushing in with a fork the end of any sheaf that projects farther than the rest, and by pulling out any that may have been placed too far in . It seems to be considered necessary to make the stack swell out as it proceeds in hight, if we may judge from common practice ; but it is not necessary to swell it out in the building, in order to throw off the drops of rain from the eaves-- for the spreading of the eaves by the stack itself, in settling down after it has been built for a

few days, is quite sufficient to throw off the drops. The leg of the stack may, therefore, be carried up nearly perpendicular. (2254.) As the stack rises in hight with cart-load after cart -load , the trimming cannot conveniently be done with a fork ; a thin, flat board, about

20 inches in length and 10 inches broad, nailed firmly to a long shaft, is an appropriate instrument for beating in the projecting ends of the sheaves, and giving the body of the stack a uniform roundness. A stack of 15 feet in diameter should ultimately stand 12 feet high in the leg ; and an allow ance of 1 foot, or 13 feet, for subsidence, after thetop is finished , accord.

ing to the firmness of its building, is generally made . The hight ismeas ured with the ladder, and, allowing 2 feet for the hight of the stathel, a 15 feet ladder will just give the required measure of the hight of the leg be fore the top is set on. The eaves of the stack are formed according to the mode in which it is to be thatched. If the ropes are to be placed lozenge shaped, the row of sheaves which forms the eaves is placed a little within

the topmost outside row ; and, after the top is fully finished, its slope will be the same as that of a roof - namely, 1 foot less of perpendicular hight than half the diameter. In finishing the top , every successive row of sheaves is taken as much farther in as to give this requisite slope ; and the beveled bottomsof sheaves, as they stand in thestook, answer this purpose well — the hearting being particularly attended to in every row,till the

space in the center of the stack is limited to an area upon which 4 sheaves can stand with their tops uniting, and their butt-ends spreading outto give a conical form to the top; and these sheaves are kept firm in their place against gusts of wind with a straw -rope wound round them and fastened to the sheaves below . If the thatching is made with heavy ropes, running from the top of the stack to its eaves, the eaves-row of sheaves is made to project 2 or 3 inchesbeyond the upper row of the body of the stack, and

theslope of the top is formed from the pointof projection of the eaves, and the top finished as in the other modē. The field -worker remains on the top as long as she has footing to hand the sheaves to the stacker .

Thus,as one stack is finished, another is founded on the adjoining stathel, and, as one is finished on a stool of straw, another stool should be ready to have another founded upon it.

(2255.) There is seldom leisure to thatch stacks as longas there is corn to carry in, and the finer the weather the less leisure will be found. A

damp day, however, which prevents leading, answers very well for thatch ing, as the straw is not the worse of being a little damp ; but in heavy rain it would be improper to thatch and cover up so many wet ends of sheaves

as the(810) top of astack contains. But, before thatching can be carried on,

CARRYING IN AND STACKING CORN.

395

preparations should be made for it some time before - that is, straw should bedrawn in bundles, and ropes twisted ready to be used ; and a rainy day in harvest cannot be better appropriated than to such purposes. The straw is drawn in handsful out of one another, till the individual straws become

parallel, when the handsful are carefully laid together till as much as a thick bundle is drawn, and the bundle is then tied in the middle with a

piece of straw - rope, which is the quickest mode, or with a thumb-rope. (2256.) Straw is twisted into rope with different instrumentsand in dif ferent styles. The simplest instrument is the old -fashioned throw -crook . It is used in this way : The left hand holds by the ring at the end of the shank, and round the point of the head is received a wisp of straw from the person who is to let it out to be spun. The right hand holds the middle of the shank loosely, and causes the head to revolve round an

axis, formed by the imaginary line between the head and ring, and the twister walks backward while operating with the instrument. The person who lets out the straw sits still on a stool, or on bundles of straw, and, using the left hand nearly closed, restrains the straw in it till sufficiently twisted, and then lets it out gradually, while the right hand supplies the

straw in equal and sufficient quantities to make the rope equal throughout, the twister taking away the rope to the requisite length as fast as the spin ner lets it out. The spinner then winds the rope firmly on his left hand in an ovoidal ball, the twister advancing toward him, as fastas the spinner coils the rope, with a hold of the end which secures the ball firm . In the Borders the spinner lets out the straw with both hands, while stooping with his head down and his back turned to the twister; but the rope made

in this manner is always thick and rough, compared to the other mode. A woman is usually employed as the twister,and a man as the spinner. It is great ease to the left hand of the twister to have the crook fastened

round her middle with a piece of stout straw-rope. The best sort of straw for rope

is that of the common or Angus oat, being soft and pliable, and it makes a firm , smooth, small rope. An ordinary length of a straw-rope

may be taken at 30 feet. Counting every interruption, a straw -rope of this length may take 5 minutes in the making — that is, 120 ropes in 10 hours : a man's wages 20d., and a woman's 10d., making together 25. 6d., will make the cost of twisting a single rope just 1 farthing. Straw -ropes are twisted in quite a different way, with amachine similarto the one used by rope-makers to twist their cords. In using it the twister sits still, ' while the spinners carry the straw under their arm , and move backward as they let out the straw . The spinners then wind the rope upon the left hand, and advance, during the winding, toward the machine, where they are ready to begin to spin again. Usually 3 spinners let out to 1 twister, and as they can spin as fast with this machine as with

the crook, the cost of making each rope will be less than that given above ; but an inconvenience attends the use of this twister — when one of the spinners breaks hisrope, he is thrown out of work till the others begin a new rope ; and all the spinners must let out with the same ve locity, otherwise one will make a longer or a harder-twisted rope than the other.

(2258.) It is the duty of field -workers to fetch bundles of straw and straw -ropes to the thatchers as they are wanted.

( 2259.) Having the materials ready - drawn straw and straw -ropes — the covering or thatching of a stack is done in this manner : On the thatcher ascending to the topof the stack by means of a ladder, which is immedi ately taken away, a bundle or two of straw is forked up to him by his as

sistant, a field -worker, and which he keeps beside him behind a graip, as (811)

396

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

noticed in covering the hay-stack (2134). The straw is first laid upon the

eaves, beyond which it projects a few inches, and then in an overlapping manner upward to the top. Where a butt-end of a sheaf projects, it should be beaten in, and, where a hollow occurs, it should be filled up with a lit tle additional straw. In this manner the straw is evenly laid all round the

top of the stack to the spot where the thatcher began. Suppose he has laid the covering on the top of the stack, fig. 422, all round to the line from a to b, before closing up Fig. 422.

which he makes the top

a , consisting of a small bundle ofwell-drawn long

a

e

straw , tied firmly at one

end with a piece of cord ; the tied end is cut square with a knife, as shown at a, and the loose end is

h 1

75

spread upon the covering and forms the finishing to it. To secure the top in its place, a straw-rope is thrown down by the

C

thatcher from a to d, the end of which his assistant

on the ground fastens to the side of the stack.

After passing the other end of the same rope

round the top, he throws it down in the same direc

tion , where it is also fast ened to the stack. In like

manner, he throws down THE LOZENGE MODE OF ROPING THE COVERING OF A STACK . both the ends of a rope

from a to c, where theyare also fastened by the assistant. These 2 ropes are seen at e and f. Having thus secured the top, the thatcher closes in the covering from a to b, when the ladder is placed to receive him. Tak ing the ladder to c, he inclines its top over the covering of the stack, and secures its lower end from slipping outward by a graip thrust against it

into the ground. He then mounts and stands upon the ladder at the re quisite hight above the eaves at c, and there receives a number of ropes from his assistant,which he keeps beside him , between the ladder and the

stack. Holding on by the end of a coil of rope, he throws the coil from where he stands at c down in the direction of d, to his assistant, who, tak ing it in hand, allows the thatcher to coil it up againupon his hand, with

outruffling the covering of thestack, till of sufficient length to be fastened to the side of the stack. The thatcher then throws the other newly coiled end in the same direction of d, where, on his assistant taking hold of it, the thatcher retains the rope in his hands by the double, and places it in its position at g, a little way below e, and keeps it in its place till the as sistant pulls it tightly down and makes it fastto the stack like the other

end. Thus the thatcher puts on every rope below g, tillthe last one on that side has reached h. He then takes the ladder to d , where he puts on

every rope below f, till they reach the last one, i. Ropes thus placed from opposite sides of a stack cross each other in the diamond or lozenge shape represented in the figure. It will be seen that a windy day will not an (812)

CARRYING IN AND STACKING CORN.

397

swer for laying on the covering of stacks. To give the thatch -straw a smoothness, it should be stroked down with a long, supple rod of willow ; and to givethe ropes a firm hold, theyshould receive a tap here and there with the fork, while the assistant is pulling the last end tight. The thatch er is obliged to throw down the rope at first coiled, and to coil up again the second end before it is thrown down, because the loose ends of straw

ropes would not descend within reach of the assistant.

The ends of the

ropes are fastened to the stack by pulling a handful of straw from a sheaf a little out of the stack, and winding therope round it ; and the knot thus

formed is pushed betweenthe rope and stack,and keepsthe rope tight. On such a stack , which is 15 feet diameter at the base, 17 feet diameter at

the eaves, 12 feet high in the leg, andit.61 feet high in the top, 10 ropes on

each side are quite sufficient to

rope

(2260.) It is seldom that the covering of a stack is finished when the straw and ropes are first put on - the stack being placed beyond danger, others are covered to the same state, and the finishing is left till more leis ure is found ; and, indeed, all the stacks to be early threshed seldom re ceive the finishing work at all. Many farmers only finish the outside rows of stacks. However, as I am speaking of the subject just now, I shall de scribe the finishing process at once. An eaves-rope, k l, fig. 422, is spun

long and strong enough to go round the stack. Wherever 2 ropes from opposite directions cross at the eaves-rope, they are passed round it, and, being cut short with a knife, are fastened to the stack, immediately below the projecting part of the thatch over the eaves. Thus the 2 ends of all the 20 ropes are fastened to the stack, and the thatch is cut with a knife round the eaves, in the form shown from d by b to c. (2261.) Another mode of roping the covering of a stack is shown in fig.

423, where the covering being put as described above, ropes are put over the crown of the stack all round, from a to b, a to c, a to d, &c. These ropes , at their crossing over

Fig . 423. d

the top, are fastened together by a rope, which is tied above them , and cut off in the form of a rosette, as

at a. The ropes which cross these

are either put on spirally from the top a, till they terminate at d, or put on separately in bands, paral

lel to the eaves-rope e f. In either case they are twisted round each

crown -rope, from the top to the eaves, ash is seen twisted round,

a d , a c, and a b, by g, till it reach es the point h again. The crown

THE NET WORK MODE OF COVERING AND ROPING A STACK .

ropes, such as ab, a c, and a d, are

made to pass round the eaves-rope e f,and fastened to the stack under the projecting covering; and the covering is cut short round the eaves, from

e to f, in the manner described above. This mode of roping, though re quiring fully more ropes thanthe last, perfectly secures the thatch against the strongest winds ; though the crown-ropes may be fewer in number than shown in the figure.

(2262.) There is still another mode of roping the covering of a stack, and it is applicable to the heads of all stacks whose eaves are formed of a

row of sheaves projecting beyond the body of the stack . It is shown in fig. 424, and is in common use in Berwickshire. The first thing done is (813)

398

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

to put a strong eaves -rope round the stack, below the projecting row of sheaves from a to b.

The straw is then put on much the same way as be

fore described, but rather thicker, and it projects farther beyond the eaves . The tops of the finishing sheaves Fig. 424. of the stack are pressed down,

and a rather large, hard bundle

e

of short straw is placed upon them, to serve as a cushion for

the ropes to rest upon, and which is put on after most of the cover ing has been laid on. The thatch er then perches himself upon the top of the hard bundle, where he

receives the ropes as they are wanted, and, on being thrown to

him, he catches them readily on the point of a long fork . Some THE BORDER METHOD OF COVERING AND ROPING A CORN -STACK . dexterity is required to throw a coil of straw -rope to the top of a

stack. The best position to do it isto stand as far from the stack as to see the thatcher fully in the face, and clear of the head of the stack ; then, 10

take the coil by the small end, pitch it upward with a full swing of the arm

toward the thatcher's feet, and he will catch it firmly on the prongs of the fork ; if aimed to a higher level, the fork willbe almost certain of missing it—thecritical position of the thatcher not allowing him to turn his body, but only to move his arms. Uncoiling the half of a rope, the thatcher throws it past the eaves to his assistant, who fastens that end, and while this is doing he throws the other half of the coil down in the opposite di rection , across the top of the stack, to another assistant, who fastens it to

the stack at the opposite side : 1 assistant may suffice, by tying first one

end of the rope, and then the other ; but, with 2 assistants, this mode of roping is conducted with great celerity. Thus, rope after rope is thrown, to the number of 30, before the top of stack is sufficiently roped, as seen in the figure, from c to d, e, f, & c. The rupes, where they cross at the

top, are tied together with apieceof straw -rope, to prevent their slipping off. The difficult part of this mode of roping is in finishing the eaves which , if well done, looks remarkably neat, but, if otherwise , is apt to have a slovenly appearance. In finishing, the ends of the ropes are loosened from the stack, andpassed between the eaves-rope and stack, and, on be ing brought upward, are passed behind the ropes themselves , about 8 or 9

inches above the eaves-rope. The end of the first rope, suppose c d thus fastened, with the part of the covering which projects beyond the eaves, are brought along the face of the eaves, and the second rope c e is placed over them before it is passed below the eaves -rope and turned upward, and passed behind itself. The end of the first rope, that of the second, and the projecting covering, are then all brought along the face of the eaves, and

the third rope c fis placed over them , and treated like the 2 preceding, and thus all the way round the stack with both ends of the 30 ropes. The last finish is made by bringing the ends of the 2 or 3 last ropes along the face of the eaves, behind the 2 or 3 first ropes. It will be observedthat,

while the end of one rope fails to go beyond its length, the end of another rope is gained, so that the band of ropes along the face of the eaves re mains about the same breadth round the stack. The ropes between the

eaves(814) and top are held down by 4 or 8 ropes, a hb, g i, k i, which are so

CARRYING IN AND STACKING CORN.

399

thrown across as to quarter the top of the stack, and their ends are fastened to the eaves -rope.

(2264.) There are still other modes of thatching stacks, such as sticking in handsful of straw into the butt-end of the sheaves, and keeping them down with stobs of willow, or with tarred twine, both in imitation of the

thatching of cottages; and they are modes in which the use of straw -ropes

are dispensed with altogether. Whichever may be the plan adopted, the chief object should be to secure the corn in the stack in a dry state, with

the least trouble and expense. Of all the modes in practice, I see none more efficient and better-looking than the lozenge -shaped roping of fig. 421 .

(2264.) Where rough grass is found on a farm , such as on a bog which is partially dry in summer, I would suggest its being mown and sheafed, for covering stacks. A day or two spent in mowing such grass, after the harvest is over, are well spent, even at the rate of wages and food of ordi nary harvest-work. Not only does this stuff save the drawing of good

straw whereit is scarce, but of itself forms good covering for stacks which are soon to be threshed ; and, by the time it has served the purpose

of

thatch, it will be dry enough to litter courts, and thereby add to the ma nure-heap. Reeds might be used in the same way, where they do not find a profitablemarket as thatch for cottages. (2265.) These are the usual modes of stacking and covering stacks of wheat, barley and oats, in good weather ; but in wet weather many expe

dients in sťacking are triedto preservethe corn from heating, and it is ne cessary you should be made acquainted with them to put them in practice when required. The most common expedient is to erect a pyramid of 3 small trees or weedings of larch or Scots fir, tied together at the top, and fastened together by the sides with thin fillets of wood. Around this

pyr

amid is the stack built, and its use is to form a hollow space in the center of the stack, into which the air may have access . These structures are

commonly called bosses. When placed on a stathel, the air enters them directly from below, but, when on the ground, it is requisite to form an opening from the outside of the stack tothe boss, by means of a low tres

sle; and if a tressle is placed on each side of a stack, and the position of both chosen with regard to the direction from which the wind most pre vails, a complete circulation of air may be maintained through the stack . The greatest inconvenience felt in the use of this form of boss is that, on

the stack subsiding, its sharp point is apt to pass to one side of the center of the top, and thereby to give a high shoulder to the stack; and it is well known that rain is almost certain of entering a stack by such a shoulder. (2265.) In wet weather corn is built in small stacks even in the stack

yard ; and should the weather prove settled wet, a dry moment should be seized to put 2 or 3 stooks into what are called hand -huts in the field, that

is, small stacks built by hand, by a person standing on the ground. Some times corn is built on a head -ridge of the field, instead of being carried to the stack-yard, as the same strength of men and horses will stack more corn in this way in a single fine day, than carry it to the stack -yard ; and

the stacks derive more benefit from the air in the field than in the yard. These stacks are also thatched in the field, and carried to the threshing machine some time during the winter. It is not an uncommon practice of some farmers to build a portion of their crop in the field every year ;

but the practice is not commendable, for, besides the trouble and dirt created in carrying straw for thatch to the field , as much confusion and

dirt are created in carrying the corn to the steading in winter, when some of it cannot fail to be shaken out of the sheaves, and when the stacks (815)

400

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

wanted cannot, perhaps, be brought in for a track of bad weather or

through deep snow. À scheme may be justifiable under peculiar circum stances, which would be wrong in ordinary practice; and this is one of them .

( 2266.) Of the 3 species of cerealgrains, barley is most liable to heat in the stack, partly, owing to the soft and moist quality of its straw , and

partly because clover is always mixed with it ; and, on these accounts, it is advisable, in most seasons, to make barley -stacks smaller than others,

both in diameter and hight, and always to support them with prismatic bosses. Much care should be bestowed, not only by the use of these ex pedients, but on building barley -stacks safely with proper hearting, to prevent heating ; for the least touch of heat spoils it for malting purposes, and malting barley always carries the highest price in the market . Be

sides injuring the grain, heating compresses barley-straw very firmly to gether, and, in fact, soon rots it. When a single stack only is seen to instantly carried into the barn and threshed, the air attend

heat, it maybe

ing which will cool both grain and straw ; but when a number show symp toms of leaning on one side, about 24 hours after being built, or exhibit a depression in the top, a little above the eaves, you may suspect heating

not only to have commenced, but to have proceeded to a serious degree. An incipientsymptom of heating is when moisture is observed on any part of the top of a stack early in the morning, delicately indicated by cob webs, before the sun has evaporated it ; and , when heated air is felt, or steam seen to rise from the top of a stack, the symptom is unequivocal. Heated barley lubricates the parts of the threshing machine with a gummy matter. Oats are less apt to heat than barley, though their heat is stronger.

If there is the least sap remaining in the joints of the straw, oats will be sure to heat in the stalk . Heating gives to oat straw and grain a reddish tinge, and renders the straw quite unfit for fodder, and the grain bitter

and unpalatable, both to horses, in the shape of corn, and the people in that of meal.

Wheat seldom heats, but, when it does, the heat is most

violent. I never saw stacks of wheat heated but once, when it was fool

ishly led into the stack-yard the day after it was reaped . Partial heating will be induced in stacks by leaning over after being finished in building,

when the compressed part may be expected to heat ; and to avoid the tendency of a stack leaning to one side or another,a safe practice is to set props loosely round a stack, to guide it in its subsidence, especially if it has been rapidly built ; but it should be borne in mind that if one prop is pushed harder in than the others, it will cause the stack to swerve from it. Some stacks begin to sway the moment the top is put on, and such

should be supported with props to keep them right. (2267.) Infilling a stack -yard, respect should be had tothe convenience of taking in the stacks to be threshed as they are wanted. As barley is the sort of grain first disposed of in the market, the barley -stacks should

be built nearest the barn, except those intended for seed. Wheat, except in very fine seasons, is seldom firm enough to be presented to market till the spring, and on that account may be built on the outside of the stack yard, and wheat-stacks grace a stack -yard well. Oats are wanted at all times, for horses and fodder, and should, therefore, be always at hand, as

the stack -yard becomes cleared. Consideration in these particulars saves a great deal of trouble and confusion in bringing in stacks to be threshed.

(2268.) With regard to the carrying of beans and pease, they are usu ally the last of being brought into the stack-yard, and particularly beans.

The bundles of pease are turned in the field till they are won, when they

are rolled up in smaller bundles, and tied by a wisp of their own straw . (816 )

TWISTING STRAW- ROPE .

401

Pease-straw is very apt to compress in the stack, and, of course, to beat, and should therefore be built with bosses, either in round stacks or oblong ones, like a hay-stack. The largest stack of corn I ever saw was one of pease, which was 150 yards in length ; but there was an opening in it, in

which any person could have walked upright through the entire length of the stack. When pease becomevery dry in the field before they are led, the pods are apt to open and spill the corn, particularly in sunny weather ; and to avoid this loss, the crop is usually brought quickly into the stack yard, and built in ventilated stacks. , Beans are a long time of winning in the field in calm weather. As it is desirable to have the land they grow on plowed up for wheat, they are not unfrequently carried to a lea

field and stooked upon it, till ready to be stacked. Being hard and open in the straw, they keep pretty well in small stacks, though not quite won, and the risk of keeping is worth running in dry weather after much rain,

when the pods are very apt o burst and spill the corn on the ground. In building pease and beans, the sheaves are not laid with nicety, nor do the stacks receive much trimming, the pease none at all, the beans with the back of a shovel. Thatching pease and bean stacks is conducted in the

same manner as described above; but less pains are bestowed in finishing them off. As, however, a good deal of corn is exposed on the outside of those stacks, the thatching is not unfrequently brought down their legs, and kept on by ropes.

(2269.) In connection with this latter subject, I may mention that when corn is mown in a slovenly manner, a good deal of heads of grain may be observed exposed to the air on the outside of the stacks ; and to save these, the stacks are shaved down with the blade of a scythe, fastened length wise on a shaft, upon the barn -sheet laid upon the ground to receive the shaved- off corn. This process not only saves the grain, but gives a smooth ness to the appearance of the stack, and prevents the mixing of sprouted grain among good samples from the body of the stack, and which mix

ture would inevitably occur were the grain on the outside allowed to be exposed to the weather. The shaving, it is obvious, should be done im mediately after the stack has subsided, and even before, if there is ap of rain ; and it is easily done, and does not occupy much time.

pearance

(2270.) These are all the particulars which occur to me to say on bring ing in the crop. In conclusion, I may advise you not to imitate those farmers who, because they are gratified on having their crop safe in the stack -yard, seem regardless of the state of the stack -yard itself, and leave

it for a long time littered with the refuse of the thatching straw, which, when it becomes wetted with rain, is not only useless as litter elsewhere,

but soon heats, and causes an unpleasant odor around the stacks. The spare straw should be removed immediately after it is of no use in the

stack -yard, either to the straw -barn, if it is drawn and bundled, or, if loose, into the sheds of the hammels, where it will be ready for littering the cat tle that may soon be expected to occupy the hammels for their winter quarters.

The ground should be raked clean ; the air will then become

sweet, the stacks have free circulation of it among them , and the poultry

will have the opportunity to pick up everyparticle of grain that had fallen upon the ground. This act of cleanliness being done, the stack -yard gates may be shut, and the labors of the farm , in so far as they concern the crop, may be said to have been brought to a termination. (2271.) [The throw -crook, fig. 425, is an instrument that has been long in use for the purpose of cutting of the first crooked sapling that might come to hand ;for though our figure represents an artificially formed implement, any piece of bent material will answer equally well, all thatis re quired being such aform as will give it the character of what we now denominate a crank, and

spinning or twisting straw -ropes, and is one of those primitive inventions that required only the

(873)...... 26

402

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN .

to have a swivel-joint at the end, to allow it to turnfreely and independent of that appendage by which it is attached to the body, or to the left hand of the person who turns it. The implement represented in fig . 425 is made of a piece of tough ash, about 31 feet long ; the bent part is thinned off until it is capable of being bent to the curve, and is there retained by the iron stay a, the part b being left projecting beyond the stay, for the attachment of the first end of the rope that is to be made. The end c is furnished with ferule and swivel-ring, by which it is attached to the person , by a cord passed round the waist. In using the implement, the rope-maker is sta tionary, usually sitting beside the straw , and the spinner moves backward as the rope extends. Fig . 425 .

Fig. 426 .

1 I THE THROW - CROOK .

THE STRAW -ROPE SPINNER.

(2272.) The stráw - rope spinner, fig . 426, is a machine of recent introduction to the operations ofthe harvest season , and is of considerable importance in facilitating the process of straw -rope making. Comparing it with the old instrument, the throw -crook , the advantage is considerable ; for with that two people must be occupied in the making of one rope, whereas with the spinner four people only are required to make three ropes, being a saving of one-third of the time occu

pied by the old practice. Thespinner hasbeen constructed in various forms,though exhibiting but two distinct varieties of the machine -- the first distinguished by the spinner being stationary, and the rope-maker moving away from it; the second by the rope-maker being stationary, and the spinner moving away from him . The first kind is found to be the best in practice, and I have therefore chosen an example of it for illustration . Fig. 426 is a view of the machine, consisting of a sole-frame, a, a, measuring about 2 feet each way, with an upright post b teponed into the sole, and carrying the cross-head cd. The cross-head is a hollow box or case,adapted to contain the machinery of the spinner, consisting of 5 light spur-wheels, about 6 inches diameter, placed as seen in the case cd. Of these, the central and the two extreme wheels are mounted npon axles,

which terminate in thehooks e, e, e ; the other two wheels being, merely placed intermediate,to produce revolution in the three principals in one direction . A winch-bandle, f, is fixed upon the axle of the central wheel, on the side opposite to the hooks; and, to prevent the machine from

moving with the strain ofthe ropes, a few stones, or otherweighty substances, are laid upon the sole-frame. The machine is then put in operationby the driver turning the handle,and the three rope-makers, each with a quantity of straw under his arm , commences hisrope bybinding a few straws round the hook appropriated to himself. He then proceeds backward , letting out the straw as he advances, and the rope takes the twist, until the length required is completed, when each man coils up his rope into an oval ball. ( 2273.) Some machines of this form are mounted on wheels, thereby coming under the charac. ter of the second kind. when the rope-maker is stationary ; but great inconvenience must attend any attempt at working in this manner. Another form of the machine adapted to work, as one

of the second kind, is that which is strapped to the body of the driver, he moving away from the stationary rope-makers. This method also is attended with inconvenience, especially to the driv . er, who, having the machine strapped in front of his body, the handle being at the end, and the machinery consisting of bevel-gear,having the external form of the cross-head alone of fig. 426, the handle is brought so near to his body that much of the muscular force of the arm is lost by this misapplication. By usingawell-constructed machine for straw -rope spinning, not only is there a

saving of expense effected, but the ropes are much better twisted, and, of course, stronger than those made by the old implement. The price is from £2 58. to £2 108.-J. S.] (2274.) Cart-ropes last according to the care bestowed on them . When used with the corn . cart, they should never be allowed to touch the ground, as earthy matter ,of whatever kind, soon causes them to rot. On being loosened when the load of corn is to be delivered to the stacker, they should be coiled up before the load is disposed of,and the coil suspended from the back part

of the cart quite clear of the ground. A soft rope holds much more firmly, and is less apt to cat, than a hard one. (874)

403

DRAFTING EWES AND GIMMERS.

36. DRAFTING EWES AND GIMMERS, TUPPING EWES, AND BATHING AND SMEARING SHEEP. " But rather these, the feeble of thy flock . Banish before the autumnal months : even age Forbear too much to favor ; oft renew ,

“ The ewes , being rank , In the end of autumn turned to the rams. "

And through thy fold let joyous youth appear." DYER .

MERCHANT OF VENICA

( 2275.) When last speaking of sheep, the lambs were weaned and buist ed. One of the processes among sheep in early autumn, in the beginning of August, is drafting ewes and gimmers — that is, separating those to be

disposed of from those to be kept. Drafting, however, applies only to a standing flock of ewes, By a standing flock is meant a fixed number of ewes, which are made to rear their lamb year after year. Instead of hav ing a standing flock , some farmers are in the custom of buying every year a flock of ewes big with lamb, receiving the lambs from them , and dispos ing of both ewe and lamb at such a season as best suits the market for those respective sorts of stock. The ewes are sold in autumn to be fed on turnips, and the lambs are disposed of, after being weaned, to rearers of sheep who breed none. Sucha one is called a flying -flock. Of course, flying-stock require no drafting ; where all are disposed of, none obtain the preference of being kept. (2276.) There are various marks of deterioration which determine the drafting of ewes.

Bareness of hair on the crown of the head , which makes

them obnoxious to the attacks of fly in summer - deficiency in cyesight,

which prevents them keeping with the flock, and choosingout the best parts of pasture and best points ofshelter - ill-shaped teeth andjaws, which disable them from masticating their food so well as they should — want of

teeth from old age, when, of course, they cannot rope sufficient food to sup port their lambs - hollow neck, which indicates breeding too near akin

hollow back, which implies weaknessin the vertebral column, thereby ren dering them unfit to bear lambs to advantage- flat ribs, which confine the

space for the fætus within the abdominal region - a drooping tail-head, which affects the length of the hind-quarter, a space occupied by superior

flesh_bad feet, which prevent traveling with ease along with their com panions - round and coarse bone, which indicates coarseness of flesh — thin or short coat of wool, which lessens the clip and the profit of wool - dis eased teat or udder, which diminishes the supply of milk for the future progeny - scarcity of milk, by which lambs, not obtaining sufficient nour ishment in the early period of their existence, are stinted in growth , and weakened in constitution — carelessness of disposition ,which induces neglect

of the lamb, particularly one of twins, which is in consequence ill-nursed producing worthless lamb, by which profits are much diminished - missing

Being in lamb, a failing which is apt to recur in any future year - casting lamb, a propensity likely to recur every year - rottenness, which is, of

course, objectionable in every animal that produces young-- shortness of breath , which prevents them seeking their food, and eating so much of it as they should - tendency to scouring, or the opposite, the former imposing weakness, the latter inducing inflammation - delicacy of constitution,which disables them from withstanding the ordinary changes of the weather

diminutive stature, or inordinate size, which destroys the uniformity of the (875)

404

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

AUTUMN .

flock . This is a long list of faults incidental to ewes, and yet every one may be observed, and which every breeder of sheep is desirous to getrid of.

(2277.) It is not at all probable that any flock of ewes presents all these objectionable qualities in one season ; but, notwithstanding this favorable circumstance, it is not in the power of the breeder to draft every ewehav

ing an objectionable property every year, because, the farm supporting a stated number of ewes, the extent of their draft depends on the number

of good substitutes which may be obtained from the gimmers; for it is ob vious no good object is attained by drafting a bad ewe, and taking in its stead a bad gimmer. The number of gimmers fit to be transferred to the ewe flock should therefore be, in the first instance, ascertained, and a cor responding number of the worst ewes drafted . *

(2278.) In drafting gimmers, many of the above faults may be observed in them also, though every fault arising from lamb -bearing cannot possibly affect young sheep. The faults incidental to gimmers are, bareness of hair on the crown of the head — ill-shaped teeth and jaws_hollow neck - hol low back - flat rib - low tail-head - bad feet - round, coarse bone - thin

and short fleece - rottenness - shortness of breath - tendency to scouring, or otherwise-delicacy of constitution—and diminutiveness of stature and inordinate size. These faults are numerous enough, but not likely to be all observed in the same year, and less likely in the same individual. Most of them may be got rid of by rejecting females which have more than one of them , and by employing tups free of them all. When the external form is improved, the constitution is also strengthened. Gimmers, when they become ewes, are moreover likely to be deficient in milk, careless of their young, and produce small lamb ; but these faults disappear in the

succeeding year -- and should this not be the case, the ewe, though young, healthy, and fresh, shouldbe drafted. Thus, ample drafting canalone in bure a sound, healthy, well-formed, young, and strong-constitutioned flock of ewes .

(2279.) After being drafted, the ewes and gimmers are buisted (marked] with tar ( 2027 ), those to be retained, on the near rib, and those drafted, on the far.

(2280.) Tups require but little preparation on being put among ewes. If their skin is red in the flanks when the sheep are turned up, they are

ready for the ewes, for the natural desire is then upon them. Their breast,

between the fore legs, is rubbed with keil or ruddle, on being placed among ewes, that they may mark their rump on serving them. It is the duty of the shepherd to mark every ewe so served, that he may observe whether or not the season returns upon her, and to be prepared for the day of her lambing when it arrives. The period of gestation of the ewe is 5 months, and as the tup is usually put among the ewes from the 8th to the 11th October, the first lambs may be expected to appear on the 8th or

11th of March following. A young, active tup,a shearling, will serve 60 [* In our Eastern States, where more care and exactness prevail in all branches of husbandry, it is probable that flocks of sheep are periodically overhauled , and all that are defective from age, or disorder of any kind, drafted and in some way disposed of; but, in the Middle and Southern States, very gross neglect is observable, almost universally on this point. Now, every farmer of true spirit will endeavor to attain all practicable excellence in whatever he undertakes in the quality of his flocks as well as of his implements — in the purity of his butter as in the plumpness of his grain ; and nothing requires more searching vigilance than the health and condition of his

sheep. It is with them , especially, that a single rotten or diseased individual may infect the whole flock ; and no inducement, no false calculation of economy, should induce him to retain such an

animal, even for a day, after it is discovered . His character, as well as his interest, forbids it. Ed. Farm . Lib.] (876)

TUPPING EWES .

405

ewes, an old one 40 ewes. Tup -hoggs are not used, not having attained maturity in any particular, though one is sometimes put among ewes to make an old tup more active. When tups are too fat, they are apt to be come lazy, and will only willingly serve a very few ewes ; and when this is the case, it is better to put him in a field by himself with a few ewes, selected to suit his particular qualities, than to urge him to over-exertion

by means of a tup-hogg, because several of the ewes served by him in such case may miss being in lamb. A tup -hogg so employed is seldom allowed by the tup to serve a single ewe, beingdriven off wherever he is seen to go with one; but as a sure prevention of his serving, a piece of cloth is sewed to the wool on the under part of his belly. Tups, when too heavy, are apt to contract spavin in the hock joints, in consequence of the great weight of the carcass upon the hind legs, in the act of serving ewes . Most of the ewes will be tupped during the second week the tup is among them ; and, in the third , they will all be served. It is likely that some of the first served ewes will return in season, and these should be

specially noticed by the shepherd , as it is not improbable they will be

come tup-eild. The ruddle requires to be renewed almost daily, and even oftener, when the tupping is active.

(2281.) Tups are not selected for ewes by mere chance, but according as their qualities may improve those of the ewes. When ewes are nearly

perfect, they may be selected for breeding-tups. A good ewe flock should exhibit these characteristics : strong bone, supporting a roomy frame, af

fords space for a large development of flesh - abundance of wool of good quality, keeping the ewes warm in inclement weather, and insuring profit to the breeder - a disposition to fatten early, which enables the breeder to get quit of his draft-sheep readily - and being prolific, which increases the flock rapidly, and is also a source of profit. Every one of these proper ties is advantageous in itself, but when all are combined in the same indi viduals of a flock, that flock is in a high state of perfection. Now, in se

lecting tups, it should be observed whether or not they possess one or more of those qualities in which the ewes may be deficient, in which case their union with the ewes will produce in the progeny a higher degree of perfection than is to be found in the ewes themselves, and such a result will improve the state of the future ewe flock; but, on the contrary, if

theewes are superior in all points to the tups, then, of course , the use of such tups will only serve to deteriorate the future ewe flock . (2282.) After 3 weeks have elapsed from putting the tup among the ewes, he should be withdrawn ; because lambs begotten so long after the rest, will never coincide with the flock. Tups should, after serving, be

put on good pasture, asthey will have lost a good deal of condition, being indisposed to settle during the tupping season. The ewes and gimmers may now be classed together, and get such ordinary pasture as the farm

affords. During the autumnal months, they will find plenty of food in the pasture fields, but in winter, rather than be fed on turnips, a rough pasture When theyhave nosuch pasture, they will require to be put on a break of turnips for 2 or 3 hours every day ; but it should be borne in mind that a fat ewe always bears a small lamb, and is very subject to inflammatory fever after lambing, from the recovery field should be reserved for them .

ofwhich, if she ever recover, the probable result will be scantiness of milk. Swedish turnips will produce this effect on ewes more readily than other kinds, therefore a few white turnips should be reserved for them as

long as practicable, should they receive turnips at all. * * See paper by me on Drafting Sheep, in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iti. (877)

406

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

(2283.) Immediately after the arrangements for tupping the ewes are made, part of the sheep-stock undergo a preparation for being put on tur nip, and the preparation consists of bathing them with a certain sort of liquid. Sheep are affected by a troublesome insect, the keb or ked, or sheep -tick, which increase so much in numbers as the wool grows,

toward autumn, as to become troublesome to sheep ; and were means not taken to remove them , the annoyance they occasion the sheep

would cause them to rub themselves upon every object they can find, and in thus breaking their fleece deteriorate its value to a considerable

extent. Another reason for bathing sheep is, that on experiencing so great a change of food as from grass to turnips,cutaneous eruptionsare aptto appearon the skin, even to the extent of the scab, which would deterio

rote the fleece even more than the rubbing occasioned by the ked. The liquid, then, which would be of service, should combine the properties of killing the ked with certainty, and of preventing eruptions on the skin,

without injury to the staple of the wool; and these effects are attained by the use of tobacco-liquor and spirit of tar, the former instantly destroying the ked, and the latter acting as a preservative to the skin . The former precaution is necessary to be exercised on all classes of sheep, but the lat ter is the more necessary on sheep bought to fatten on turnips, as traveled

sheep are almost always affected with cutaneous eruptions, and especially Black -faced sheep direct from the hills, after they have been on turnips for some time. As a matter of safety, then, for your own flock, however

clean it may be, every sheep that you buy from another flock , whether in tended for feeding on turnip or for augmenting your own flock, should be bathed immediately on its arrival on your farm , and before it can possibly have had time to contaminate your own sheep.

(2284.) The materials used in the bath are tobacco, spirit of tar, soft soap, and sulphur vivum. The tobacco is best used in the state of leaf,

butI understand it is illegal for tobacconists to sell tobacco in the leaf. Being used in the proportion of 1 lb. of tobacco to every 20 sheep, it is put into a boiler with 1 quart of water for every 1 lb. of tobacco,and

boiled gently for several hours. The tobacco isthen wrung out, and re turnedagain into an empty boiler with ] quart of fresh water for every 1 1b., and boiled as long as any coloring matter can be obtained from it, when it is wrung out and thrown away. The entire water will have boiled in to 1 quart to 1 lb. of tobacco. This forms a decoction of tobacco which is much better than an infusion . The soft soap is used in the pro portion of 1 lb , to every 20 sheep , and is dissolved thoroughly in a sufficient quantity of warm water. The sulphur vivum is pounded fine and mixed

with the soap in proportion of 1 lb. to 20 sheep, and it combines with the soap in some degree, but when both are mixed with the tobacco -liquor, thesulphur is apt to be thrown down in the original state of powder. I do n't know of what particular use the sulphur vivum is, for ihe greater proportion of it is certainly precipitated to the bottom before it is used ,

unless its sulphureous property may serve to prevent the ked breeding again for a time; but if this is its only use , the four of sulphur should be more efficacious. The tobacco -liquor is put into a tub, and the solution of soft soap

and sulphur vivum are intimately mixed with it. The bath

thus made is administered by means of a tin flask capable of easily hold ing 1 quart, and provided with a long spout, by which to pour it along the

shedded wool of the sheep. The spirit of tar ispoured into the flask ofliquor when about to be used, in the proportion of į a wine-glass to 1 quart, and stirred. Some people use stale urine over and above these materials, for

the professed purpose of making the bath stronger, but I cannot see how (878)

407

BATHING SHEEP.

it can strengthen any of these ingredients ; for, as to any caustic effect uponthe skin, a small addition of the spirit of tar will have a much great er effect than the urine. If the urine is employed with a view to its am moniacal vapor destroying the insects, that may be a good plea for its em

ployment in summer to prevent the extension of insect vermin ; but in autumn, when the keds are entirely destroyed by the spirit of tar, and will not again appear till spring in a new progeny, the urine seems useless in winter. (2285.) This is an effectual bath, and is not expensive ; the tobacco be ing 3s. 6d. per lb., a bottle of spirit of tar 1s. 6d., soft soap 6d ., and sulphur

vivum per lb., giveina regard cost of to5s.6d for 20, or though 3d. perinsheep. common But it should 1s. bementioned, this .bath, that, very use, it tinges the color of the wool, and is more expensive than some other baths to be adverted to hereafter.

(2286.) An useful implement in bathing sheep is the bathing-stool, fig. 427 , which is made of the best ash . It consists of a seat a, for the shep herd to sit on while bathing the Fig. 427 .

sheep, 1 foot square ; the sparred

part is 3 feet long, and 30 inches wide in front from b to its great est width being across at d. The

d

legs e, e, &c., are 18 inches high, attached by means of iron rods

passed through their upper part and the frame of the stool, and

d

secured with nut and screw.

(2287.) The bathing is conduct ed in this way : A sheep is caught and placed on the stool on its bel ly, with its 4 legs through the spars, and its head toward the

THE BATHING -STOOL FOR SHEEP .

seat a, on which the shepherd sits astride. The wool is shed by the shep herd, with the thumbs of both hands, from one end of the sheep to the other ; and, when he has reached the farthest end of the shed, an assistant,

a field -worker, pours the liquor from the flask equally along the shed, while kept open by the shepherdwith both hands. The sheds made are 1 along each side of the back -bone, 1 along the ribs on each side, 1 along each side of the belly, 1. along the nape of the neck, 1 along each side of the neck, and 1 along the counter. From these sheds the bath will cover the whole

body. The sheep is turned on the sides and back to obtain easy access to all theseseveral parts. Additional liquor is put on the tail, head, scrotum , inside of the thighs, brisket, root of the neck,and top of the shoulder, be

cause these are parts most likely to be affected byscab, and are chiefly the seats of the nidi of insects. The shepherd and his assistant will bathe 40

sheep in a day. Dry weather should be chosen for bathing, else the rain will wash away the newly applied bath ; and coarse clothes should be worn

by those who administerthe bath, as it is a very dirty process. When the

sheep are lying on their back on the stool, their legs are not tied, so the assistant should be aware of receiving a kick from the hind feet on the face or on the flask .

( 2288.) Shortly after bathing, the keds may be seen adhering to the points ofthe wool dead ; and, when sheep are much infested by this ver

min, the fleece may be seen speckled thick with their bodies. Sheep are differently affected with keds; and those which recover from a lean or stinted state to one in better condition, on a change of food, are most liable (879)

408

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -AUTUMN .

to be overrun with them , as cattle are with lice when improving in condi tion on turnips. This being the case, the ked may be expected to increase rapidly on sheep that have been some time on turnips, and hence the ne. cessity of bathing sheep before being put on turnips. Hoggs are most lia ble to their attack, because, perhaps, they get most rapidly into condition after being some time weaned. ( 2289.) The diseases incident to sheep in autumn are yellows and rot, both arising from a disor ness of the eye, the mucous membranes, and the urine. Bleeding, and purging with aloes and dered state of the same organ — the liver, and pining. The yellows is jaundice, exhibiting yellow

calomel, are the appropriate remedies. Fat draft ewes which have fed some time upon aftermath are most liable to the disease. Inflammation of the liver is the cause, in which the pain of the

affected part is very obscure, and the natural language of the sufferer not veryexpressive, nor is the symptomatic fever marked. Here a strikinganalogy is noted between thelower animals and man .inasmuch as thereis generally a sympatheticpain in the right shoulder, so strongly marked as often to be mistaken forthe principal disorder, and treated accordingly. Whenever you observe, therefore, a lameness ofthe right leg of any fat sheep on foggage, you may suspect the existenceof yellows, and examine the inside of the eyelid, and observe whether any yellowness exists there .

(2290.) .The rot is a far more serious disease, causingthe death of numbers of a flock in a very short period. Deficient food in summer, and a flush of rank wet grass in autumn, occasion ruin to the health and constitution of sheep. In the wet and cold season of 1817, when sheep could

not obtain a mouthful of good food in summer, and when the autumn arrived, accompanied with a flush of wet herbage,I knew a farmer in Cheviot who lost 300 Cheviot ewesin the course of 2 or

3 weeks. The early symptomsof rot are very obscure, a circumstance much to be lamented, as in the first stage alone does it often admit of cure. “ The animal is dull,” observes Mr. Youatt ; " lagging behind his companions, he does not feed so well as usual. If suspicion has been a lit

tle excited by this, the truth of the matter may easily be put to the test ; for if the wool is parted, and especially about the brisket, the skin willhave a pale yellow hue. The eye of thesheep be. ginning to sicken with the rot, can never be mistaken ; it is injected, but pale , the small veins at the corner of the eye are turgid, but they are filled with yellow serous fluid, and not with blood. The caruncle, or small glandularbody at the corner of the eye, is alsoyellow . Farmers, very

properly, pay great attention to this in their examination or purchase of sheep. If the caruncle is red, they have a proof, which never fails them , thatthe animal is healthy. If that body is white they havepo greatobjection or fear - it is generally so at grass ; but if it is of a yellow color, they immediately reject the sheep, although he may otherwise appear to be in the very best possible condition ; for it is a proof that the liver is diseased, and the bile beginning to mingle with the blood . There is no loss of condition, but quite the contrary ; for the sheep, in the early stage of rot, has agreat propensity to fatten . Mr. Bakewell was aware ofthis, for he used to overflow

certain ofhis pastures, and when the water was run off, turn those of his sheep upon them which he wanted to prepare for the market. Theyspeedily becamerotted, and in the early stage of the rot they accumulated flesh and fat with wonderful rapidity. By this maneuver he used to gain 5 or 6 weeks on his neighbors.".

(2291.) It is alleged, that when sheep have access to salt, they are never known to be affected with rot; and I have aslittle doubt that, were oil -cake pui freely within their power in such a season as I have alluded as having occured in 1817, they would escape the malady. Change

of pasture from a wet to a dry situation may be the meansof even curing the rot, when the change has been effected at an early stage of the disease. All land that has been irrigated in sum mer, and produces a rank growth of grass in autumn,should be avoided by sheep, as being the very pest-house of rot. Some land , in its natural state, will affect sheep with rot when

grazed upon it, such as soft, spongy soil, having a clayey tendency, and never free of moisture. In so far as this last cause of rot is concerned, draining has had the effect of rendering land sound which was known to have rotted sheep in a short time. In the prospect of such an evil, when inevitable, sheep cannot be long kept on the same farm , but must be sold in the course

of a few months; in short, tenants, intheir fear, are obliged to keep a flying-stock, especially of ewes, for these are the most easily affected portion ofthe flock. The application of lime hasren dered land sound which was subject to rot, even after it had been drained . Sudden frost and thaw , alternately, in spring, produce rot, according to the old proverb “ Mony a frost, and mony a thow , Betaken mony a rotten yow . "

(2292.) The liver of rotten sheep always contains the well-known animal the fuke, so named from its striking resemblance to a flounder. Its nature has not yet been satisfactorily examined. It was named Fasciola by Linnæus, and Distoma hepaticum by Rodolphi. Itsintestinal ducts contain great numbers of grains of a pale red color like sand, which are supposed to be its eggs ; and as no difference of sex has been observed, it is believed to be a hermaphrodite. It is sup

posed that its eggs find their way to the grass, from which sheep receive them into their stomach, and thus are supposed to find their way into the liver. The eggs are found in the biliary ducts, in the intestinal canals, and even in the dung of healthy sheep, and they swarm in the dung of

referyou toauthorities.* rottenones. Muchmore could be saidonthe subject of rot, butI must (2293.) “ Pining,” says the Ettrick Shepherd, " is a very descriptive Scotticism , from the verb ; for no creature can havea more languishing and miserable look than a sheep affected by this ma lignant distemper. Well may I describe it,for in the last9 years I have lost upward of 900 sheep by its ravages. It is quite a new disease on the Border ; for I was 20 years a shepherd and never * Youаtt on Sheep, Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. v . and vol. vi. Parkinson on Live Stock, vol. i.

(880)

LIFTING AND PITTING POTATOES.

409

saw an instance that I can remember of with certainty, nor did I ever hear itsname save from

Galloway, where it was called the vinquish, and where it has been prevalent for ages. It was likewise known long ago in some of the districts of the middle Highlands. It is a strange dis

temper. On the genuine pining farms, the sheep do not take it by ones or twos, but a whole It is easily distinguished by a practiced eye, the first symptoms being lassitude of

flock at once .

motion, and a heaviness about the pupil of the eye, indicating a species offever. I wish I had

science to describe it in a pathological manner, which I have not, and therefore shall not attempt it : but at the very first the blood is thick and dark of color, and cannot by any exertion be made

to spring : and when the animal dies of this distemper, there is apparently scarcely one drop of It lives till there does not seem to be a drop remaining : and even the ven. tricles of the heart become as dry and pale as the skin. This simple fact may, I hope, enable men of science to comprehend its nature. It is most fatal in a season of drouth ; and June and Sep tember are the most deadly months. If ever a farmer perceive a flock on such a farm having a more than ordinary flushed appearance by rapid thriving, he is gone. By that day 8 days, when blood in the carcass.

he goes out to look at them again, he will find them alllying, hanging their ears, running at the eyes, and looking at him like so many condemned criminals. As the disease proceeds, the hair

on the animal's face becomes dry, the wool assumesa bluish cast, and if the shepherd have not the means of changing pasture, all those affected will fall in the course of a month ." (2294.) The rationale and cure of this fatal disease are thus attempted to be given by a writer. “ The disease called pining, seems to arise from an enervated and costive habit of the animal, which may be produced by a want of proper exercise, in conjunction with feeding in pastures of

The principal districts in which this disease is found toprevail, are the green pastures of the Cheviotmountains,the chain of hills running through theS. W. parts of Rox. burghshire , the pastoral districts of Selkirk and Peebles shires, and some other districts of Scot land, as Galloway. Under the old practice of keeping the sheep inflocks, as they are termed, hir. sels, of weaning the lambs in the months of July or August, and afterward of milking the ewes for 8 or 10 weeks, the pining was unknown in most of these districts ; but under this mode of treatment, the sheep were frequently, subject to diarrhea — a disease diametrically opposed to pining. The farmers of those pastoral districts have generally improved upon the older methods of keeping their sheep. They find it to be more profitable to allow the whole flocks to pasture

an astringent nature.

together indiscriminately and undisturbed . The lambs remain unweaned, until they wean themselves, which generally does not take place till the month of December. By this mode of management, the ewes and lambs are found to be of a higher comparative value than all the sum realized by the sale of cheese made from the milk ofthe ewes ; besides, the ewes are not subject to various accidents arising from so frequently collecting them together for the purpose of milk .

ing. But under this undisturbed state of management, in all cases where dry astringent pastures are produced , such as on the sienitic porphyry of the Cheviot range, the pining made its appear. ance. That such pasture promotes this disease, is farther strengthened by the fact that it is more

common in dry than in wet seasons; and most so at that season of the year when, by the influence of the sun, the plants are less juicy; or early in autumn, when the grasses which have pushed to seed become less succulent. The disease is not known on the whole of the clay -slate range of the Lamnermoor Hills, where heath prevails, occasionally interspersed with green pastures, and

where the hirseling practice is pursued. Nor is it known to exist in general on green succulent pastures, or even heaths, growing on calcareous or sandstone grounds, where the nature of the food and the exertion ofthe animal in procuring it appear to counteract the progress of the dis ease, arising from the inactivity of the digestive function. If we suppose these to be the predis.

posing causes of this disease, the preventionor remedy will suggest itself either under the head of food or treatment. Should it be deemed inexpedient to adopt the mode of keeping the flocks in birrels, a change of place, and, consequently, of food , is necessary to accomplish this purpose. The salutary effects of a variety of food on the animal system are well known. When sheep

affected with this disease are put upon a beath, it has frequently the desired effect; butwhen the animal is much overcome with the disease, its state of languidness may prevent it from taking such a quantity of food as will produce a reäction upon the animal functions. The most effectualcure, therefore, in all cases, is achange to a more rich and succulent pasture ." *

37. LIFTING AND PITTING POTATOES. “If planted in fair rows They marshaled grew , the plow will best perform The reaping task : amid the tumbling soil The vegetable mine, exposed to view , The gatherer's basket fills ." GRAHAM .

(2295.) The harvest-work of a farm cannot be said to be completed un til the potato crop is taken out of the ground and securedagainst the win ter's frost. By October the potatoes may be expected to be ready for lift Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ii.

(881)

410

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN .

ing. The fitness of potatoes for lifting is indicated by the decay of the

haulms : for as long as these appear at all green , you may conclude the tubers have not yet arrived at maturity. In an early season potatoes will ripen before October; and though the weather should continue fine, the best plan is to let them remain in the ground till the com crops are entire

ly harvested. Immediately after the fields are cleared of corn, the pota toes should be taken upand secured, to allow the land to be plowed up for wheat ; indeed it will happen, under all circumstances of weather, that the corn will be ready to be cut down and carried in before the potatoes are fit to be taken up.

( 2296.) There are two modes of lifting potatoes, namely, with the plow

and with the potato-graip. The plow is the most expeditious, though I believe the ground is best cleared of tubers with the graip. With either

instrument a large number of people to gather the potatoes are required, each of whom should be provided with a small semi-spheroidal shaped basket, with a bow-handle, to gather the potatoes into, and then to put them into sacks or close-bodied carts.

When a farmer lifts potatoes on

his ownaccount, they are usually put into a cart and carried direct to the pits. When he lifts them on account of a purchaser, or a number of pur chasers, they are measured on the spot from the basket, and put into

sacks, in which they are easily delivered. When lifted for shipment to the London market, they are first riddled into sizes, then measured or weighed on the spot and put into carts, and taken to the ship's side. The

potato-riddle is made of wire, with meshes from 14 inches to 14 inches square, and, if rimmed with oak, costs 2s. 6d. each . The riddlings, or small potatoes, are used on the farm . Potatoes are usually sold by weight,

and a given weight represents the measure of a boll; which boll, again, differs in weight in different parts of the country, thereby renderingthe imperial weights and measures act, in this instance, nugatory. A boll is 20 stones of 14 lbs. to the stone, in some parts of Scotland, and it is 40

stones in others; and, to contradistinguish them, the small boll is called a single, and the large a double The produce a crop acre. of potatoes varies amazingly - from 30 to boll. 100 single bolls perofimperial It is singular that the price does not vary nearly so much — from 4s. 6s. the sin gle boll,being the limits between dear and cheap prices. Taking 60 bolls ( 16,800 lbs.] as the medium produce, and 5s.as a medium price, the gross

return from an imperial acre of potatoes will be £15 ($75). If the ex pense of lifting the crop is takenat 30s. per acre, the return will be £13

ios.; a large sum, certainly, but then it should be remembered that pota toes leave no straw for manure, and require, on the contrary , a large quan

tity of manure to raise even a tolerable crop. They incur considerable trouble in their delivery ; and, being a perishable commodity, cannot be kept beyond a given time. (2297.) In employing the plow to take up potatoes, the common one, with 2 horses, answers well , but as the potatoes run the hazard of being

split by the coulter when it comes in contact with them, it should be taken out, the sock being sufficient to enter the plow below the drill, and the The plow in going up splits one drill, and in returning splits the next, but no faster than a band of gatherers, or field -workers, if numerous enough, but if not, assisted by hired laborers,

mould -board to turn them out of it.

canclear the ground of them into the baskets. In free soil, potatoes are easily seen and picked up ; heavier soil is apt to adhere to them , in which case it is a good plan to make a stout field -worker shake those portions of

the earth turnedup by the plow, which still adhere in lumps,with a po tato -graip, and expose the tubers. Potato-gathering should not be con (882)

LIFTING AND PITTING POTATOES.

411

tinued so late in the evening as that the tubers cannot be easily seen ; nor should it be prosecuted in wet weather, which causes the earth to adhere to them, and renders them undistinguishable from the earth itself. Of

course every one, the smallest tuber, should be taken off the ground , not

only on the scoreof economy, to realize the whole crop, but to remove them as a weed from among the succeeding crop.

After the field has

been gone over in this manner, the harrows are passed a double tine to

bring concealed tubers tothe surface, when they aregathered by the peo ple, and to shake the haulms free of soil. These after-gathered potatoes are usually reserved for pigs and poultry. Whenever the field is cleared of the crop, the haulms are gathered by the field -workers and carried to the compost stance, to be converted into manure, and these are the only return which the potato crop makes to the soil. ( 2298.) A simple instrument, fig. 428, which may be substituted in the plow for the mould-board for turning Fig. 428 .

potatoes out of the drill was contrived

by Mr. John Lawson , of Elgin . It con

b

sists of 6 malleable iron bars, the outer

ones į of an inch square, the inner j :an inch in diameter, joined together in the form of a brander, 26 inches long from a to b ; 5 inches in breadth from b to c,

at the fore part, where is a plate of iron ; 27 inches in length from c to d ; and 18 inches in breadth from d to a.

This d

er is attached to the right side of THE POTATO -RAISER OR BRANDER.

the head and stilt of a plow, in lieu of

the mould -board, by the screws e, e, and the fore-end, 6 c, being placed close behind the sock, as seen at a, fig. 429, which shows the plow mount Fig. 429.

THE POTATO-RAISER ATTACHED TO THE PLOW.

ed with the brander, having its upper angle at a, fig. 428, 8 inches,and the plane of its face so bent down as to have the lower angle d only 4 inches above the sole of the plow . The openings between the rods will

thus be rather more than 21 inches at the widestend of the brander, be tween a and d. The mode of operation of the brander is, that while the earth partly passes through it, and is partly placed aside byit, the potatoes are wholly laid aside, so there are few of them but are left exposed on the surface of the ground.

(2299.) “ This plow ," says Mr. Lawson, " is drawn by one pair of horses, in the same manner as the common plow. In working it, the plowman inserts it into the potato-drill so as to have the whole of the potatoes on

his right-hand side. He then proceeds along the drill, splitting it up in the common way. The earth is then thrown to the right-hand side, and the potatoes lie scattered on the surface of the ground behind the plow. Women follow, provided with baskets, into which they gather the potatoes,

and throw the stems upon the drill which lies to the right hand of the one (885)

412

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

AUTUMN .

from which they are gathering the potatoes. The reason why the potato stems are thus removed is that as soon as the potatoes which lieon the surface are gathered, the plow returns, and again roceeds as before, through the part of the drill in which the potatoes lay, still turning the earth to the right-hand side. This second operation raises to the surface

any stray potatoes which the first may not have turned up, and the pota toes thus raised are gathered by the women who attend for that purpose. The second operatiou may be delayed till about 12 drills are turned over

by the first operation, and the potatoes gathered. The plow may then be put through these 12 drills the second time. By this there will be a saving of labor, as a smaller number of women will gather the potatoes by the

second operation, while the greater number of them may remain with another plow in its first movement. If the stems of the potatoes be very strong and luxuriant, a few of the women might be directed to go along the drill and pull them out of the ground, at the same time plucking off any potatoes that may adhere to and come along with the stems. If this

is done, the plow will turn up the greater part of the potatoes by going only once through the drill ; but, in going twice, it will do it in the most satisfactory manner. A man with 1 pair of horses will thus pass over the

grounditsaswork quickly as with the common plow. In light soils this plow per forms in a very efficient manner. It pulverizes the soilin an ex traordinary degree, and scarcely leaves a single potato in the soil. I have never before been able to clear my fields of potatoes so effectually as by " *

this implement, or at nearly so small an expense . (2300.) When potatoes are taken up by manual work, it is done with the potato -graip, fig. 430, the prongs of which are flattened. Being rather severework to use this graip, men are employed Fig. 430. for the purpose, 1 man taking 1 drill ,close beside that of his fellow -workmen, while 2 gatherers to every man are ready to pick up the potatoes he turns out into the baskets . In using the graip, it is inserted into the side of the drill, and below the potatoes , with a push of the foot, and the graipful of earth thus obtained is turned on its back into the hollow of the drill,

exposing the potatoes to view on the top of the inverted earth, whence they are gathered. The men then pass the

prongs of the graip here and there through the inverted graip ful and the soil on the drill, to detect and expose to view every tuber lurking beneath the soil . In this manner, 1 man and 2

women will take up, of a goodcrop of 80 bolls of 20 stones per

acre, 20 bolls a day, which will cost 3d. per boll at the follow ing wages : 1 man 2s., and 2 women at 1s. 6d. each per day, without food = 5s. per day, or 20s. per acre. Such graips cost 28. 3d., and when handled 38. each.

(2301.) In regard to the storing of potatoes, there is no dif THE POTATO ficulty in the early part of winter,when a low temperature pre GRAIP. vaid , and vegetation is lulled into a state of repose. Potatoes may therefore be kept in almost any situation in the early part of winter ; but then, if damp is allowed to surround them for a time, it will inevitably rot them, and if air finds easy access to them at all times, the germ of

vegetation will be awakened in them at the first call of spring. To place potatoes beyond the influence of those elements as long as convenience suits, they should be stored in a dry situation, and be covered up from the

air ; and no mode of storing affords more ready means for both those requisites than the ordinary forms of pits in dry soil. * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture,vol. viii. ( 886 )

413

LIFTING AND PITTING POTATOES .

(2302.) Fig. 431 shows the two different forms of the ordinary potato.pits, the one being conical, the other prismatic in shape. The conical form is

usually employed for pitting small quantities of potatoes, and is well suited for small farmers and cotters ; the prismatic is the form commonly adapted for storing large quantities. For both sorts, a situation sheltered from the north wind should be selected, and the ground should either be so dry of itself as to absorb the rain as it falls, or so inclined as to allow surface water to pass quickly from the site of the pits. The site should be conve

niently situated for opening the pits and admitting the carts to them, and 80 near the corner or side of a field as not to interfere with its being wrought in winter.

( 2303.) A conical pit of potatoes is formed in this manner : If the soil is

of ordinary texture, and not very dry, let a small spot of its surface be smoothened with the spade. Upon this spot let the potatoes, as they are

taken out of the cart, be built by hand in a conical heap, not exceeding 2 feet in hight ; and the breadth which a cone of that hight will occupy, so as not to impose much trouble in piling up the potatoes, will not be less than 4 feet, and is more likely to be 5 feet. The potatoes are then cover ed with a thick thatching of dry, clean straw . Earth is then dug with aspade from the ground in the form of a trench around the pit, the inner edge a, fig. 431 , of the trench being as far from the pile of potatoes as the thick

ness of the covering of earth to be put upon it, which is to be considered sufficient at 1 foot . The first spadeful is laid around the potatoes on the

ground, and the earth chopped fine and beaten down with the spade, in order to render the earth as impervious to cold as possible, and the drier the earth is, the less effect will frost have upon it, and the less distance

will it penetrate through it. Thus spadeful after spadeful of the earth is taken from the trench and heaped on the straw above the potatoes, until Fig. 431. 元

NAAM

WW

THE CONICAL AND PRISMATIC FORMS OF POTATO - PITS .

the entire cone a b c is formed, which is then beaten smooth and round

with the back of the spade. The top of the cone at b will then be about 3 feet 3 inches in hight, and the width of the cone from c to a about 71 feet. The trench round by a c should be cleared of earth, that no surface

water may lie near thepit ,, and an open cut should be formed from the lowest side of the trench to allow the water to go away most freely. (2304.) When the soil is naturally thoroughly dry, the site of the pit may be dug cut of the solid ground a spade depth, for storing the potatoes into what would then really be a pit, and then the apparent hight of the pit above the surface of the soil will be small; but unless the soil is as

thoroughly dry as sand or gravel can make it, the potatoes should be piled

upon the natural surface of the ground. (885)

414

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

(2305.) The prismatic, or long pit, d e f g,fig. 431 , is formed exactly in straight line along its sides d h, instead of round, as in the case of the coni

the same manner, with the exception that the potatoes in it are piled in a cal pit a b c. The hight of the pile of potatoes should not exceed 21 feet, andits breadth will spread out to about 7 feet, and allowing 15 inches for thickness of straw and earth, the hight of the finished pit will be 3 feet 9 inches, and breadth 9 feet 6 inches . The direction of a long pit should

always be N. and S., in order to place both its sides within reach of the sun' ra s

ys .

(2306.) It is considered that when fresh potatoes are heaped together in large quantities, a certain degree of fermentation ensues, which increases the temperature of the mass so much as to awaken vegetation in

the tubers, and the existence of long sprouts so frequently found covering the top of the heap of potatoes when a pit is opened in spring, is adduced as a proof of the effects of such an increase of temperature ; and the thick covering of dry straw usually placed above potatoes in pits is also consid ered a great means of retaining within the bounds of the pit the heat

evolved from the potatoes, and hence a plan has been suggested, of having openings left along the upper parts of pits through whichsuchheated air may escape. The openings are left by drawing small bundles of long straw, tied at one end with a piece of cord , and cut square like a rosette on the top of a corn-stack a, fig. 422, and which are placed upright, and

project upward at short intervals along the top of the pit, before the earth is thrown-upon the straw near its ridging, and the earth is put round, and

beaten down, and finished smoothly, beside theprojecting part of each bun dle. These vents may be seen at i and k, in fig. 431 ( 2307.) It is truly remarked by Sinclair , that“the varietiesof the potato are very numerous,and the confusion of their names inextricable.” Without attempting to particularize any one variety, I would say generally, that as an article of food, the potato is now universally cultivated, and this,

no doubt, chiefly from the facility with which it may be raised , the pleasantness of its taste, the simplicity of its cookery, and the nourishment which it affords. According to a statement of Sin clair, it appears that in severalvarieties of potato fit for human food, the nutritive matter varies from two hundred to two hundred and sixtygrains in64 drachms; that those quantities of nutritive

matter contained from 169 to 204 grains of starch , and from 31 to 61 grains of albumen, mucilage, and sugar.*

(2308.) As compared with grain , “ Cobbett's assertion, that wheat produces more nutritious

matter per acre than potatoes, is now completely disproved.

Later experiments have shown

that it is very near the truth to estimate the proportion of the nutritive power of wheat to that of potatoes as about 7 to 2 ; or, in other words, 2 lbs. of wheat afford as much sustenance as 7 lbs. of potatoes, though it may be doubtful whether they afford so much nourishment; for, by calculating the produce of the two crops, it has been determined that 1 acre of wheatwill produce sustenance

for 3 persons as long as 1 acre of potatoes affords it to 6 5-6 persons. This ison the supposition that the power of nutrition of a plant is only in proportion to the quantity of farinaceous and glutinous matter contained in it. But this is by no means certain. We have not been able to discover what it is that renders one substance more proper for food than another. • In estimating the amount of aliment afforded by potatoes and grain, we should rather calculate accoriling to the mass of vegetable matter capable of satisfying a full-grown person . I may add that potatoes, from some peculiarity in the mixture or degree of condensation in their nutritive matter, seem to pos sess an advantage over all grains as constant food . It is well known that potatoes and water alone, with common salt, can nourish men completely ; we have hundreds of instances, in many parts of Ireland , where the people have lived constantlyon this diet from necessity, and yet have been robust,healthy, and long-lived as persons fed plentifully on animal food. Now , I know of no meal derived from grain used as the general food of any nation, without being mixed with other kinds of alimentary matter, as oil, fruits, whey, or milk . ” + • Sinclair's Hortus Gramineus Woburnensis.

+ Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. v., a paper enumerating the various uses to which the Potato may be applied.

(886)

LIFTING AND

415

PITTING POTATOES .

( 2309.) The potato has been subjected to careful analysis by different chemists, and these are a few of the results : Vegeta -1

Starchy Starch . ble Albu. Gum .

KINDS .

Fibrin . men .

Red Potato .

germinated .

6.80

sprouts

2.80 8.80

15.00 15.20 0:40 9.10

7.00

Kidney

Large Red

1.40 1.30 0.40 0.80

6.00

12.90

0.70

Sweet

8.20

15.10

0.80

Peruvian ..

5.25 6.83 8.38 7.13

15.00 12.91

1.88 1.04 0.90 1.25

English Onion

Voigtland

18.75 15.41

Acids and Water. Salts .

4.1 | 5 : 1

3.7 33

75.0 73.0 93.0 81.3

Analyst. Einhoff.

7800 743 1.87 1.70 1.66 1.95

76:0 Lampadius. 77.5 70.3 74.3

ho

13.30 0.92 6.79 3:3 | 1:4 Paris 73:12 Henry, Jr. Of these constituents of the potato, it will be observed how large a proportion the water bears, and the remainder is chiefly composed of fibrin and starch . Hence, potato differs essentially from wheat and barley, by containing no gluten, and approaches in some measure to the nature of rye.* Of the dry constituents, starch is frequently used in the manufacture of wheaten bread, the potato flour giving to the loaf, when stale, a tendency to excessive crumbiness. Potato -flour does not

injure bread as an article of food ; but still it is an adulteration , and its use constitutes a fraud on the public, when the same price is demanded for the loaf partly made of this cheap material as for one of wheat alone.

( 2310.) Potato-starch may be converted into tapioca. The tapioca ofcommerceis derived from cassava, a preparation made in the West Indies. the tropical regions of America, and on the Afri can coast, from the root of the manioc ( Jatropha manihot ), an euphrobaceous plant. “ The cas sava cakes sent to Europe, which I have eaten with pleasure," says Dr. Ure, "are composed al most entirely of starch, along with a few fibres of the ligneous matter. It may be purified by

diffusion through warm water, passing the milky mixture through linen cloth, evaporating the as the water evaporates; but, on being stirred, it becomes granulated. and must be finally dried in a proper stove. Its specific gravity is 1.530—that of the other species of starch. The product obtained by this treatment is known in commerce under the name of tapioca ; and being starch very nearly pure, is often prescribed by physicians as an aliment of easy digestion. A tolerably

strained liquid over the fire with constant agitation. The starch dissolved by the heat thickens

good imitation of it is made by beating, stirring, and drying potato -starch in a similar way." An

acquaintance of mine, a farmer in Forfarshire ,Mr. James Scott, Beauchamp, instead of disposing of his potatoes, of which he nsed to raise large quantities every year,convertedthem into tapioca ;

thereby saving a great deal of carriage which the delivery of potatoes occasions, and retaining the refuse of the manufactured potato, upon which he fed a large number of pigs, and which, moreover, afforded a good mash to the horses. (2311.) " When potatoes are boiled , they lose from 1 to 1 } per cent of their weight. The juice

which may be separated from them is sweet tasted. The meal is insoluble even in boiling water, though potato -starch forms a transparent solution with hot water. Thus it appears that by boil.

ing, the albumen, fibrous matter, and starch combine together, and form an insoluble compound .” Simple as the matter appears, it is not every cook who can boil a potato well. (2312.) “When potatoes are exposed to the action of frost, it is well known that they become soft, and acquire a sweet taste. This taste is succeeded by a sour taste, owing to the rapid evo lution of acetic acid , and the root soon passes to putrefaction . From the experiments of Einhoff, we learn that the sugar is formed at the expense of the mucilage ; for the other ingredients were found in potatoessweetened by frost, in the usual proportion. He considers this sweetening pro cess as connected with the vegetative powers of the root.” “ Dr. Peschiez of Geneva has de . scribed the presence of mucous sugar and of gum in the potato. This explains why it is capable of undergoing the vinous fermentation .” The acids contained in potatoes in the natural state were ascertained by Einhoff to be a mixture of the tartaric and phosphoric acids. He also ob

tained from 1,820 parts of dried potatoes, 96 parts of a grayish-white ash. Of these, 64 parts were soluble in water, and 35 insoluble. A minute analysis of the ash of potatoes is given by Professor Johnston, including that of the haulms. In 10,000 lbs. there were found of In the roots.

Potash Soda .. Lime

Magnesia Alumina

40.28 lbs. ..23: 34 .. 3:31

.. , 3.24 0.50

Oxide of iron ..... 0:32

In the tops.

81.9 lbs. Silica ... 0.9

129.7 17.0 ..

In the roots . 0.84 lbs

Sulphuric acid .... 5.40 4.01 Phosphoric acid Chlorine

1.60

In thetops 89.4 lbs. 4.2 19.7 5.0

0.4

0.2 ..

Total........ ..82.83 lbs.

308.4 lbs.

It will be observed what a large proportion of potash, lime and silica the tops of the potato plant yield. “ These roots,” as observed by Professor Johnston, and the observation applies to turnips, carrots and parsnips, as well as to the potato ," contain very much water, so that, in a dry state, the proportion of inorganic matter present in them is very much greater than is represented by * Thomson's Organic Chemistry of Vegetables Ure's Dictionary of the Arts and Manufactures, art. Cassada. Thomson's Organic Chemistry of Vegetables. (887)

416

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

the above numbers. I have, however, given the quantities contained in the crop as it is carried fron the field, as alone likely to be of practical utility. The crops of these various sorts vary very much in different localities, being in some places twice, and even thrice as much as in others every 10 tons, however, which are carried offthe ground, contain about 9 times the weight of sa line and earthy matters, indicated by the numbers in the Table.' *

(2313.) Solanina was discovered by M.Desfosses in the fruit of the common potato, and M. Otto discovered it also inthe potato itself, afterit had been allowed to germinate, and this substance is an interesting fact, and should lead to the cautious use of that important vegetable after germina an acrid narcotic poison . " Its existence in the potato after germination ,” says Dr. Thomson, “ is

tion has commenced .”

(2314. ) “ It is well known that a spirit can be extracted from potatoes. From this spirit Messrs. Bertillon and Guietand extracted a volatile oil, being a colorlese, limpid liquid, having a strong emell, hot, acrid taste, and being very soluble in alcohol." + (2315.) The particles of potato-starch are irregular ellipsoids, varying in size from 1-300 to 1-3000 of an inch ; those of wheat being separate spheres of 1-1000 of an inch ; so that it would be an easy matter to detect potato -flour among wheaten flour with the microscope.

38. SOWING AUTUMN WHEAT, AND THE CONSTRUCTION AND PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL WHEEL -CARRIAGES . “ How ceaseless is the round Of rural labor ! Soon as on the field

The withered haulms and suckers crackling blaze, And with their far-extending volumes load The wings of Autumn's latest lingering breeze, The WHEATEN SEED - TIME all your care demands." GRAHAM .

(2316.) How ceaseless, indeed, is the round of rural labor ! No sooner does the farmer secure his crop, the progress of which toward maturity

has excited his most lively solicitude during the course of a whole year, than he begins to sow the succeeding one, and strives to prepare as much land for it before winter sets in as he possibly can secure. The crop

usually sown in autumn is wheat, that plant being able to bear the vicissi tudes of winter in our latitude , though barley and tares are also sown at

the same time in someand parts ofEngland, where they stand the winter well , but neither can withst

a Scottish winter .

(2317.) You have just seen (2312) that the constituent parts of the haulm of potatoes consist of large proportions ofpotash, lime,and silica - ingre dients useful to many of the crops which follow in rotation after a summer

fallow ; and though incineration is the means by which the chemist discov ered those substances in potato -haulms, yet I would advise you to make a compost of them , as I did before ( 1613 ), rather than convert them into a

“ crackling blaze," as described in the motto,inasmuch as their inorganic constituents can be secured equally well by fermentation as by incinera tion, while their organic constituents are not dissipated, but thereby pre served for use.

(2318.). You will recollect that we left off the working of summer-fallow after the land was dunged (2155), and when the land was to receive no lime . It is now our business to finish the summer-fallow , by the sowing

of autumn wheat, the crop for which the land was specially prepared by fallow . The first process is the leveling of the drills which cover the dung, by harrowing them across a double tine ; and, unless the land is of very strong clay, 1 double tine will be sufficient for the purpose. After

the land has been harrowed level, any root w- eeds that have been brought * Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology. 1 Thomson's Organic Chemistry of Vegetables. (888)

SOWING AUTUMN WHEAT .

417

to the surface should be removed, but the surface -weeds will soon wither

in the sun and air. The land should now be feered, to be gathered up (650), fig. 133, into ridges, and if it has been thorough-drained , or is other

wise sufficiently dry, i gathering-up will make a good seed-bed ; but should it be too wet for once gathered -up ridges to lie safe all winter, the ridges should be twice gathered-up (665), fig. 139. The second gathering up ,however, should notbe done immediately after the first, but after such an interval of time has elapsed between them as to allow the land to sub side, and the subsidence will be much hastened by a fall of rain.

Should

the fallow -land have been dunged in the usual way, that is, the dung spread upon the surface, and plowed in, with feeredridges, the feerings should have been so made as to leave a } ridge at the side of the field , that now , when the land is about to be plowed for the seed -furrow, the } ridge is converted into a whole one, and the field thereby made fit to be continued in that form .

(2319.) But a practice has come into use since the introduction of the

grubber, Plates XXIX. and XXX., which possesses some advantages, on strong land, in certain circumstances, whichis to cover in the sown wheat with the grubber, instead of first plowing the land for a seed -furrow , and to finish the work with a slightharrowing. When the grubber is contem

plated to be thus used, the land, in summer-fallowing, should be feered in ridges, as if for the seed -furrow , when covering in the dung, as the subse quent grubbing will not alter the form of the ridges farther than to reduce their crowns, and fill the open -furrows a little. When a tough,

waxy clod is expected to arise on plowing strong land, rather wet below , for a seed -furrow , or when there is appearance of unsettled weather, the grubberwill be found useful in keeping dry the meliorated soil on the surface, and also in getting quickly through with the wheat-seed. (2320.) Land that has grown beans is usually gathered-up for the seed furrow at once, and sown immediately, as the season is far advanced by

the time the bean-crop is carried in and stacked ; but the seed -bed would certainly be in a better state for wheat were the land allowed to subside for a few days before the seed is sown. Where the land is strong, and

the ridges are sufficiently rounded , the grubber may be used on bean

stubble, as on fallow -land, for covering inthe wheat sown broadcast on it, but for this purpose a 4-inch grubber is required , the surface being fin ished with a slight harrowing. The grubber will succeed in this very well,

in as far as the wheat is concerned,and it has a great advantage in a late autumn in getting through the work expeditiously ; but on strong land,

not thorough-drained, and in a comparatively flat state, grubbing will not succeed on bean -stubble ; at least, the wheat-seed would incur consider able risk of being rotted in that state of the soil all winter, and the

land itself of becoming soured ; and the land would not escape the effects of such an injury, even though it should be fallowed the succeed ing year: (2321.) The land which has grown potatoes should be plowed for a seed furrow , because, having been laid flat for the culture of this summer crop, the grubber cannot be employed with advantage in the case, as that im plement leaves the land as flat as it found it. The land only receives 1 furrow after potatoes; and it should have time to subside a little, though the usual practice is to sow the wheat upon it as soon as plowed. The reason why I have frequently recommended the subsidence of the land be

fore being sown with seed is, that wheat thrives better in soil having a lit tle firmness in it than in the loose state the plow leaves it. (2322.) When the land is naturally strong enough to grow wheat, but is (889) ...... 27

418

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

somewhat soft, and so wet below as to make it apt to throw out the wheat

plant in spring, the best plan is to make a seed-bed by ribbing with the small plow , fig. 320, and ( 1748). The wheat is sown broadcast over the

ribs, and harrowed in with a double-tine along ( 1769). The ribbing gives the wheat a deeper bed in the soil than mere harrowing , and a deeper

hold of the soil in spring, and it has also the advantage of stirring only thedry surface -soil for the seed -bed. It can only be practiced, however, on land that has been ridged up for a seed -bed for a considerable time, as the small plow does not make good work on new-plowed land, it,

small as it is, going too deep, and making the drills too wide ; and it is never employed on land that has not been ridged, being unfit to turn up hardened land in a

state.

(2323.) Another mode of preventing the throwing out ofthewheat plant in spring on soft land, otherwise well adapted for wheat, is, first, to feer the land into ridges, sow the wheat broadcast between the feerings, and

cover it in with a light seed -furrow , leaving the land unharrowed and rough all winter.

(2324.) Whether harrowed or not, it is of great importance to leave wheat land rough all winter, that is, with a round large clod upon the sur face. These clods afford shelter from wind and frost to the young plants, and when gradually mouldered by frost, serve to increase the depth of the loose soil, and protect the roots of the plants from frost. Indeed, when ever the land is harrowed as fine as meal with autumn wheat, the rain

never fails to batter its surface into a crust, and the frost heaves it up in spring like fermented dough ; and this action raising the plants along with

the soil, they are exposed onthe surface after the frozen earth hassubsi ded, on being thawed by sunshine ( 1772). Such an effect, however, can only occur where a considerable quantity of moisture exists under the sur face of the soil, ready to be acted on by frost. Draining, then, is the only safeguard against the young wheat plant being thrown out of the earth in

spring. As the ground is desired to be left in a rough state in autumn, no use is, of course, then made of the roller.

(2325.) Autumn wheat is almost always sown broadcast in Scotland, ex cept, perhaps, in theneighborhood oflarge towns, where it is sown with

the drill, Plate XXVII., figs. 325 and 326 ; and the reason why the drill is used in that particular locality is the facility afforded by the drilled rows to hoe the land free of surface weeds,which invariably make their appear ance where the street manure is used. In England wheat very gener ally drilled, for the reason just given, and surface weeds seem more gener ally numerous and troublesome throughout England than Scotland. Sow

ing broadcast is represented by fig. 322, and is fully described from ( 1756) to ( 1766 ). The machines for sowing grain in drills will be found fully de scribed by Mr. Slight from ( 1824) to ( 1829). ( 2326. ) Wheat is pickled at this season, as well as in spring, before it is sown, and the reasons for treating it thus, as far as they are known, as

well as the best method of doing so, will be found described in ( 1754) and ( 1755). (2327.) Almost every year some new variety of wheat, of great reputa tion , is offered to public notice, and no doubt a good variety may thus oc casionally be obtained. But the safe plan for you to follow is to adhere to that variety, or those varieties, which have succeeded in the district in which you farm ; because one variety may succeed well in that locality, and not another. It is right to try experiments in growing new varieties which are well recommended , and you should give such experiments ev ery justice ; but until the fact is proved by yourself or your neighbors, that (890)

SOWING AUTUMN WHEAT.

419

the recommended wheat is a good one for your locality, it should not be extensively cultivated. The good properties of wheat are : heavy weight, fine sample, prolific per acre, and plenty of clean straw. A good weight is from 62 lbs. to 66 lbs. per bushel; it is now, however, as easy to obtain

65 lbs. as it was a few years ago to get 63 lbs. a bushel. Years ago, 24 bushels per acre were considered a fair crop on ordinary wheat land ; it is now as easy on the same soil to raise 32 hushels. The greatest differ ence in these results has been realized in the course of years, from the in

ferior, not the superior classes of soil. (2328.) There are other modes than those I have mentioned of sowing wheat on fallow ground . One of these is dibbling, and there are various ways of dibbling wheat. One is to make a hole not exceeding 24 inches deep, with a dibble not so thick as that used for planting potatoes in gar dens, to drop 1 seed or 2 into it, and to cover them with earth with the foot; the holes being made 4 inches apart, and 7 inches wide between the rows. But this is a very slow process . A more

expeditious plan is to use an implement of a cylinder of wood 6 feet long, 4 inches in diam eter, and divided lengthways by the middle , to make into 2 dibbles.

Pins of wood of a conical

form , 3 inches long, are driven perpendicularly at 4 inches apart into the apex of the curved side of the split cylinder. This implement forms a number of dibbles, by being laid along the ground

with the pins downward, which are pushed into the ground with the pressure of the foot, to make as many holes as there are pins. The implement being removed by means of a handle attached to its flat side, boys or girls drop 2 seedsinto each hole, and cover them with earth. Another and more certain plan of dibbling is this : a flat. thin board of wood is provided with holes 4 inches apart in the row, and the rows 7 inches asunder. This is laid flat on the ground, when small dib. bles are pushed through the holes to the requisite depth of 2į inches into the soil, the depth being determined by a shoulder on the dibble ; 2 seeds are then dropped into the hole as eachi" dibble is withdrawn ; and when the board is lifted up from the space it occupies to another space in ad vance, the earth is brought over the holes and seed by the foot. It is asserted by those who have sown wheat by dibbling, that about one bushel is sufficient seed for one acre, and that the produce will be 53 quarters per acre ; that is, the produce bears a proportion of 44 to 1 of the seed sown .*

(2329.) Another mode of sowing wheat has a similar effect in the appearance of the growing crop as ribbing with a small plow, and this is accomplished by using the common plow with a single horse, and depositing the seed, and along with it, if necessary, any species of manure dust, such as rape-dust, in the furrow . The seed is dropped out of a hopper placed in the bosom of the plow, and the quantity is regulated by a grooved axle, made to revolve by a small wheel, which receives its motion by being carried along the ground with the plow. The immediate effect of this operation is to cover the seed -wheat with the plow -furrow , to prevent its being thrown out by the frost in spring in soft and spongy land, and to cause the crop to grow in rows 9 inches asunder. The pulverized manure is sown at the same time and in the same manner as the seed , out of the same hopper in which a division is formed to separatethe seed from the manure , and both fall through spouts, one placed behind the other. Such a drill has already been described by Mr. Slight in ( 1770) and (1771). The advantages resulting from this mode of sowing wheat on spongy clay soil are, that the horse does not tread on the seed, and the seed requires no covering

in by the harrow . It is necessary , however, to caution you in the use of rape-dust and guano in contact with seed, as both are apt to affect the vitality of seeds, without the intervention of a little soil, or the previous mixture of a little earth.t

(2330.) Another mode recommended for cultivating wheat is transplanting. It is proposed to sow a small portion of ground withseed early in the season, andtake up the plants as they grow , divide them into single plants, and transplant them . By thus dividing the plants as they tiſler into single plants at 4 periods of the season, a very small quantity of seed will supply as many plants as would cover a large extent of ground. Though wheat no doubt bears transplanting very well,

yet as the scheme implies the use ofmuch manual labor, it is questionable if it will repay the ex pense. The proposed method has been tested by experiment, and the question of comparative ex pense stands thus : Suppose 440 grains of wheat are sown on the 1st of July, by the beginning of August each seed will afford 4 plants, or in all ... At the end of August these will produce... In September these again .... And in November these last will produce

1,760 plants. 5,280

..14,080

..

..21,120

The time occupied in sowing the 440 grains, and dividing and transplanting the produce of them , stands thus :

Hours. Minutes.

* July, sowing

440 grains

August (beginning ), taking up dividing into planting

August (end) September .....

taking up dividinginto. planting. .taking up dividing into planting..

* See Mark Lane Express for February, 1843. (891 )

0

440 plants 1,760 1,760 1,760

5,280 5,280 5.280 ... 14,080

... 14,080

1 3 1 3 10 4 9 28

20 20 10 30 28 30 33 24

23 9

† See Mark -Lane Express for November 24, 1842 .

420

THE BOOK OF THE FARM -

November..

taking up.. dividing into .. planting ..

AUTUMN . Hours. Minutes. 44 11

.14,080 plants

14

..21,120 ..21,120

4 14

42

49.'

130

Nearly 13 days. Of these 131 days,44 days may be reckoned for women and boys occupied in taking ap and divid.

ing the plants, which, at10d. per day, will cost 3s. 9d . The remaining 9 days are for men trang planting at 10s. per week, 1s. 8d. a day, which will cost 158. more ; in all 188. 9d. per acre. As the saving of seed was estimated at 18s. 6d. per acre, the expense of transplanting would thus be greater than the saving effected. It appears, besides, from Mr. Palmer's small but well-con ducted experiments, that10 plants out of 48 died, which is a large proportion, leaving more than 1-5 of the ground blank, while the return of the produce does not warrant the supposition that the

remainder would make up the deficiency ; the 24 lbs. of grain from the space ofground experi. to this for the destruction of seeds occasioned by birds, the whole amount, only 25 bushels, would notbe a full crop. Taking mented on is not more than 20 bushels per acre, and still. after adding

2d . an hour as the fair cost of a man's labor, the cost of transplanting would be £ 1 12s. 9d ., to set

against the 18s. 6d. of seed saved ; and supposing the plants to be set as far apart as 1 } feet, the cost would still be £1 4s. 8d . per acre . “ In my opinion," says the experimenter, - the only way of executing this plan is to dibble in the seed , 2 grains in a hole, about 4 inches from each other, the plants to be taken up when they are in a proper state , and divided into 5, which would be as many on an average at that time as could skillfully be made, and then planted out at once, where they are to remain, thus getting rid of all the intermediate dividings. The number of

grains of wheat required for 1 rood would be 42,240, which would not exceed 1 pint at farthest, as I have ascertained by actually counting that quantity ; and, consequently, 1 pint ofwheatwill plant 21,120 holes. If each hole gives 5 plants on anaverage, which may be reasonably expect ed , there would be at the disposal of the farmer 105,600 plants, a quantity sufficient to plant 5 acres, at 17} inches apart . It farmers were to adopt a system of this kind, there is little doubtbut it would soon gain ground in the country. Seed for 5 acres, sown in the usual way, would cost about £ 4 128. 6d., whereas 1 pint of wheat would only cost about 1 penny. The plants may be

taken up, separated, and planted again by 50 people in one day ; 25 taking up, dividing, and sup plying 25 planters, allowing each to plant 4,224 per day, and this might be wholly done by boys and girls at 6d. per day ; consequently, the farmer's saving, exclusive of the original cost of dib bling 1 rood, would be £3 7s. 5d. per every 5 acres, as thus : 66

£4 12 6

Cost of seed -wheat for 5 acres...

Cost of 1 pint of seed-wheat. Dibbling it in 4 of an acrė .... Taking up and planting ..

£0 0 1 000 1 5 0

1

5 1

£3 7 5 " *

(2331.) Theobject of these variousmodes ofsowingwheatis the saving of seedma great object

certainly, when it is borne in mind that 1-14 of the whole grain grown in the country is consigned

to the earth in seed. From the statement just given in regard to the transplanting of wheat, it

appears that 4 English pints of wheat are capable of supplying a sufficient number of plants for i acre. By ordinary drilling, 3 pecks are enough seed for i acre, according to a statement of Mr. Hewitt Davis, whose wheat crops average 41 quarters per acre on poor soil, which is manured when the green crops are sown, and by sheep eating green crops off the land . His profits from farming seem to arise solely from the economical system of management he pursues. “ The soils I cultivate ,” he says, " are naturally very poor. Two of my farms are principally gravel, and most of one is a moorish, boggy gravel, extremely spongy in winter, and very apt toburn in sum . mer, and formerly in the state of, and similar to, the heaths at Bagshot and Blackbeath . The

farm , with but few inches of soil, on chalk. These farms have been greatly is a very other improved by thehilly use of the subsoil and trenching plows ; but they are only kept in profitable tiu . age by the general economy of the system .” +

( 2332.). But practice has always tended against the useof a small quantity of seed ; and the practice is sanctioned by the fact that, though large quantities of seed are usually sown, in many seasons the young plants come up rather scanty. There is a circumstance attending the germin . ation of seed which may account for much of theseed being destroyed by the insect tribe, espe. cially if the weather be such as to cause its germination to be tardy. The circumstance I allude to is the nutritive matter of the seed, which constitutes its largest proportion, speedily becoming

fluid after being sown, by absorption of moisture, then milky in its aspect and sweetish in its taste . In fact, a good deal of saccharine matter is always evolved in the process of germination. Now, as allcreatures are known to be fond of sugar, the germinating seeds become a ready prey to hosts of insects constantly existing in the soil ; and should the progress of germination be re .

tarded, by any cause external to the seed, we can easily conceive that injury derived from insects may soon render the seed useless for the purposes of vegetation ; for, if the nutritive matter be extracted, there is nothing to nourish the rudimentary plant, as it is not then sufficiently devel. oped to draw nourishment from the soil.

(2333.) Fig.432 represents a gram of wheatmagnified, and so dissected as to show its compo nent parts. It consists of 2 skins, an outer and an inner - a a the outer, and b the inner, skin ; 6 is where the nutritive matter, called the albumen , is situate, and it constitutes the whole seed, and * The Gardener's Chronicle for October, 1843.

t Bell's WeeklyMessenger for Sept. 1843 ; and see also Mr. Davis's pamphlot on the same subject. (892)

421

SOWING AUTUMN WHEAT.

is mostly hid beneath the skins ; c is the little scale or cotyledon through which the nutritive mat.

ter passes in the sweetishstate,when the grain is germinating, and by which it is rendered most fit for the nourishment of the little plat ; d is the rudimentary plant, at the base of which 3 tubers may be seen, from which as many or stenis, or both, will afterward proceed ; and e is the point where roots all the

Fig. 432.

3 — the nutritive matter, the little scale, and the rudimentary plant - are united. All these parts are essential to the growth of the seed ; for, when any one of them is absent by accident or design , the seed fails to spring .

( 2334.) The seeds of almost every species of plant naturally possess and more particularly in the cereal grasses — that is, those which

such a structure that only 1 stem can proceed from them ; but in the grasses,

yield corn — there is observed a remarkable departure from this form of parts. In them the embryo plant is usually thickened toward its base, and so organized that, instead of 1 stem , 3 or 4 usually spring from 1 grain ; and, in other cases, a number of stems so great has issued as al

most to exceed belief.

The peculiarity mentioned may be observed at

d, fig. 432, which is the rudimentary plant, having 3 projections in the lower part, while in another seed there would have only been 1 ; and from each of these a rootlet or a stem , or both , will proceed when the grain is placed in the soil. Fig. 433 represents the grain in a state of THE COMPONENT PARTS germination, 1 shoot a having left the sheath, another b is just evolved. OF A GRAIN OF WHEAT. and a third c remains unevolved ; and d d are the rootlets. It is this

peculiarity of structure which compensates, in somedegree, for the loss arising from the destruc.

tion of seed . The germination of autumn wheat takes place in about 17 or 19 days. The force of the vegetation of a single seed is so great as to be able to raise a weight of 200 lbs., as has been proved by the process being made to split hollow balls, in the same manner as the Florentine academicians measured the expansive force of freezing water. (2335.) There is a valuable propertyin the growth of wheat which I'must not omit to mention ,which is, that the wheat plant pushes out 2 sets of roots, the one from the seed, and the other from the crown of the plant, from which the leaves originate.

Fig. 433 .

The seminal roots as d,fig . 433, push out from the seed wherever it may have been sown, provided the depth does not exceed 7 inches; but the coronal roots always push out as at a, fig. 433,

very nearthe surface of the soil, not much exceeding 1 inch be low it. The existence of those 2 sorts of roots clearly indicates the nature of the plant to bear sowing both in winter and spring ;

and the relative position of the roots indicates the differencesof culture which should be given to the plant in winter and spring.

In winter, wheat-seed should bepretty well covered with soil, say 4 inches, in order to be placed beyond the influence of frost, but in spring it should be sown nearer the surface. “ The first or seminal root," says a writer in the Georgical Essays, quoted by Colonel Le Couteur, “ is pushed out at the same time with the germ - which , together with the farina, nourishes the plant until it has formed its crown." “ In the spring, when the crown has become sufficiently large, it detaches a number of strong fibres, which push themselves obliquely downward. These are the coronal roots. A small pipe preserves the communication be.

tween them and the seminal roots, and it makes an essential part of the plant; and is observed to be longer or shorter, according to the depth that the seed has been buried . It is remarkable, however, that the crown is always formed just within the sur. A PLANT OF WHEAT IN THE face ; its place is the same, whether the grain has been sown STATE OF GERMINATION . deep or superficial. I believe I do not err when I call this vege table instinct. As the increase and fructification of the plant depend upon the vigorous absorp

tion of the coronal roots, it is no wonder that they should fix themselves so near the surface, where the soil is always the richest. From an attention to this circumstance, we are led to explain the operation of top -dressings." “ Wheat sown superficially," continuesthe same writer,

" must be exposed to the severity of the frost, from the shortness of the pipe of communication. The plantin that situation has no benefit from its double root. On the contrary, when the grain has been perfectly covered, the seminal and coronal roots are kept at a reasonable distance. The crown, being well nourished during the winter, sends up numerous stalks in the spring. On the tillering of the corn, the goodness of the crop principally depends." Spring -sown wheat, having no time to tiller, may therefore be sown nearer the surface, and also thicker than autumn -sown. Viewed in this light,drilled wheat in spring should grow more equally than seed covered inwith

the harrow ; for, as this writer justly observes, “ a field of wheat,dibbled, or sown in equidistant rowson by the drill-plow , always makes a better appearance than onesown with the barrow . In the e ,the pipe of communication is regularly of the same length , but in the other it is erregu . lar, being either too long or too short." I would say, with Colonel Le Conteur, that the exact

depth at which wheat should be sown is a question of local experience, bearing relation to the aature of the soil and climate .

(2336.) As to the natural tillering of wheat, some varieties evince extraordinary powers in that respect. Colonel Le Couteur mentions that “one plant from a single grain of a downy variety , in

1833, threw out 32 tillers ; all produced ears, with an average of 50 grainsto each, or i 600 grains (893)

422

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

from 1 - an enormous produce," as the Colonel regards it, but judiciously adds, “which no field cultivation could be fairly expected to attain, as it is not the extraordinary quantities which art

may produce, either by extreme care, subdivision, and transplantation, that should be brought under the consideration of farmers ; but the fair and legitimate modeofhusbandry, attainableto

all who will devoteto its pursuit that industryand inquiry without whảch their art is a mere me. chanical operation, throwing in a little seed into the ground, and leaving Nature to do the rest. (2337.) Early gownwheat, when growing luxuriantly in autumn, issometimes affected by slugs

in damp weather. Mr. Wentworth , of Harlow , gives this recipe for destroying them : “ Provide, fresh from the kiln , as much lime as will allow 5 bushels to the acre . Slake it 2 days before sow

ing; choose a calm and mild morning ; commence sowing early enough to finish before daylight; and 1 man can sow 1 acre per hour, sowing 2 yards at a cast.” . Turnip -leaves have been recom

mended to be laid upon wheat, and, as slugs readily take shelter under them, they can thus be collected and destroyed. Of the 2 modes of destruction, I should conceive the quicklime to be the more efficacious, especially in moist weather.

39. EGGS. “ Mine honest friend,

Will you take eggs for money ?" WINTER'S TALE .

(2338.) The treatment which every kind of poultry should receive in autumn is that recommended in spring ( 1939), to be followed in summer.

Geese, ducksand turkeysshould onlyhatch in spring and the early part of summer ; for late hatchings of these never produce birds worth rearing, as they cannot attain in the same season a tolerable size and degree of fatness. But common fowls may be hatched throughout the summer, and

even to a late period in autumn,and the chicks be reared to a useful state. What can constitute a more delicate dish than a chicken, boiled, roasted or

broiled, at any season, but especially when the productions of the garden

are in the highest state of perfection, in summer and autumn ? (2339.) Hens are fond of making their own nests and bringing out broods in corn -fields, and at the roots of hedges and shrubs ; and when hens have their liberty during the day, it is impossible to prevent their following this

inclination, which is common to all, under the best regulated system ; and so high a value do I set upon liberty to these creatures, on the score of health and strength of body, and flavor in flesh, that I would rather run

the risk of losing a few broods in the year, by the fox and polecat making free with a self-set hen or two upon nests of their own seeking in corn

fields, than see them cribbed in summer within a court of the largest di mensions.

(2340.) One of the daily cares of the hen -wife in summer and autumn

is the gathering of eggs. Whenever a hen is observed to show a desire to lay, a nest should be provided for her in a quiet and convenient place, and if she isdirected to it at the commencement of her laying, she will continue to frequent it ever after, if undisturbed ; but a nest is not re

quired for every laying hen, as several will lay in succession in the same nest, some he

laying earlier in the day than others; and so tenacious are

they of their right to particular nests, that two hens will not unfrequently occupy the same nest at the same time.

(2341.) Every place is not equally suitable for a hen’s nest. In other places than the hen -house, hens are not fond of laying their eggs on a level with the ground, though a quiet corner in a shed under some shelter is not unfrequently selected by themselves for the purpose ; but they *. Le Couteur on Wheat ; and it is but justice to Mr. Lawson, of Elgin , to state that he detected thispe .

culiarityin the germination of wheat, whentoodeep gown, so long ago as1827 - asmay be seen by refer ring to No. VI. of the Old Series of the British Farmers' Magazine . (894)

423

EGGS .

usually prefer to be elevated above the ground, such as in the mangers of stables, or in a trough of a shed or hammel, or upon the top of the wall of a stable, byre, or outhouse, immediately below the roof. When nests are madein such places as hens would themselves prefer, they are much

more likely to be frequented than when an opposite determination is taken. Onereason, perhaps, fortheir preference to themanger of the work -horse stable is that in daily picking up, morsels of food dropped there by the horses, while the latterare at work in the field, the manger presents a

convenient place on the spot when the pressure for laying overcomes them . (2342.) Ducks are very careless layers, dropping their eggs wherever they seek for food , and these, when discovered by the pigs, are champed up as the most delicate morsels that fall in their way. Common rooks watch for such stray eggs, and carry them off even out of the courts of

the steading. To secure the eggs of ducks, the birds should be examined before being let out in the morning, and those indicating hard with egg should be confined in the hen -house till they have laid, and afterward let at large.

(2343.) It should be the hen -wife's duty to visit every nest and collect the eggs from them every day, and the period of creating the least dis turbance to the poultry in this duty is the afternoon , say between 2uld and 3 o'clock, before the birds begin to retire to roost. А nest-egg sho

be

left in every nest ; because it is an old established fact, that all domestic birds , at least , prefer to lay in nests containing eggs to those which are empty. Eggs are most conveniently collected in small hand -baskets ; and a short, light ladder will give easy access to all nests elevated above reach from the ground.

(2344.) Whether eggs are retained for use at home, or disposed of to the egg -merchant, it is of importance to keep them in a fresh state for some time. This end may be attained by preventing the air penetrating the pores of the shell, and the yolk coming in contact with its inside. A simple and effectual way of preventing the air penetrating the shell is to rub the egg over with butter when taken warm from the nest; and as simple a way of preventing the yolk adhering to the inside of the shell is

to roll theegg from one side to the other every day. This treatment eggs should daily receive, whether kept for your own use or sold to the dealer,

and it will preserve them in quite a fresh state for several weeks. But I need hardlý inform you that this is not the general mode of treating eggs in farm -houses, whether intended for use at home or for sale, they being commonly kept in promiscuous heaps, and used in the state when taken from the nest ; and if they are habitually used on the day they are laid, no unnecessary trouble is required to be taken with them . When trouble is desired to be avoided with eggs, they are sold to the dealers every week

in spring and early summer, when most abundant; but the price is then very low, not above perhaps 4d. per dozen - a price unremunerative for the least degree of care bestowed on fowls. If it is desired to render eggs a remunerative item of farm economy, they should be preserved in a fresh state until the season of scarcityarrives, when, of course, they

would realize a fairer price. It is easy to preserve eggs to that season by simply smearing themwith butter immediately from the nest, and setting them on their small ends among salt in barrels in a dry room . They may be kept in this manner for 7 months, at least I have found them quite

fresh atthe end of that period , so much so, that they contained the very milk which constitutes the criterion of an egg being fresh when boiled ; and how much longer they would have remained in that state I cannot

say, asI never tried the experiment farther. I have heard of an instance (895 )

424

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

of eggs packed in salt becoming so salted as to be useless ; but in this

case thesalt might have been damp, and the eggs might not have been greased at all. Both circumstances are material, for without grease air cannot be excluded, and I know that new-laid eggs will soon become salt when floated in brine. Eggs will also keep fresh in a barrel of lime water ; but the dry salt, in adry chamber, is a much more agreeable ma terial to put the hand among every day. In short, they may be kept in any way that will exclude the air entering the shell ; but whatever other additional expedient is adopted, that of greasing them with butter imme diately from the nest should never be neglected. (2345.) Hens begin to lay about the beginning of March , and continue

to the beginning of October. They do not lay every day, that is, every 24 hours, somelaying every other day, and some missing one day in three. They lay about 2 dozen of eggs at one period, then cease for 2 or 3 weeks. and again layother 2 dozen, and so on for the number of months men tioned. Of all these months, however, they lay most constantly in March and April. After each period of laying they are inclined to sit on the

eggs, and when it is not desirable for them to incubate, it is difficult, in most cases, to drive them from their propensity to clucking, as it is com monly called.

(2346.) Many cruel expedients are practiced by country people to pre vent hens clucking, such as ducking them in water, dipping them in water for a few seconds, pulling feathers in a particular manner out of particular of their body, andsuch like barbarities - all of which I believe tobe parts ineffectual, at least I never saw a single instance of their success. The

only effectual plan I know, without giving bodily pain to the animal - for if it is desired to have hens to lay eggs in preference to hatching chickens, it is requisite to remove from them the desire to sit — is to place them in darkness, and there deprive them of food and water for 2 days and 2 nights, and, in difficult cases, for the third day. The simplest means of accom

plishing this is to procure a number of light-made tubs,each just large enough to hold one hen within it when standing on her feet, and to have its top and sides pierced with holes to afford air,but so small as to exclude

light, and to give them such an inclination as the hen may not see through them . Such a tub is placed mouth downward over a hen, in a quiet place, such as an out-house, and not in the hen - house. In this position, the de sire to sit will be removed from herin 2 days, and in obstinate cases in 3 days. It is not an uncommon practice to whelm an ordinary tub over a number of hens, with one side of its mouth raised a little from ths ground,

the effects of which contrivance are to allow as much light to enter the tub as to let the hens see to fight each other, and in many such cases they are removed with their scalps bared to the bone, and even pecked and trampled to death. (2347.) Neither dogs nor children should be allowed to run after laying

hens, assuch treatment obliges them to lay their eggs before they are pro vided with the shell.

Guinea fowls are incessant chasers of hens.

(2348.) Ducks are great layers, laying an egg almost every day. They

commence at the beginning of April, and cease at the season the bean usually comes in bloom — in July.

(2349.) Autumn is the time to select hens for laying the eggs in the en suing winter. They should all be young, but of different ages, that a suc cession of layers may be maintained during the season, as I have men tioned before in (1473), and the food they should receive I have also

mentioned in ( 1939). Like the eggs collected in summer, those dropped in winter should also be smeared with butter when taken from the nest. (896)

EGGS .

425

Hens readily taken to the nests made for them at this season , evincing little desire to make them in the fields for themselves. Autumn is the

season of moulting with fowls. The only care requisite under this peri

odic visitation, is to keep the creatures warm at night, for chillness of air may be looked for at nights in October. (2350.) Pigeons will produce a young brood in every month in autumn, and in this season of heat and abundance of food, both old and young become full -sized and in fine condition.

They should be fed in common

with other poultry ; but though this be regularly practiced , they are fond

of going to the fields in search of variety of food. Fields of new -sown peas, oats, barley, and wheat, are eagerly visited by them in quest of grain that has escaped burial by the harrow . Even the turnip -seed is eagerly sought for in a new -sown field ; and where the wheat crop is laid by the weather, there they will congregate in flocks, and pick out every kernel. within their reach . For wheat and pease they will fly miles to obtain. It is, no doubt, provoking to see corn nearly ready for the sickle destroyed

in the field by any kind ofanimal ; but a farmer regards the depredations of his own pigeons in a pardoning mood .

(2351.) Turkeys and geese commit sad havoc in corn - fields situate near the steading, for a week or two before harvest — a sight intolerable to the farmer, not so much on account of the quantity of grain actually consumed, as for that scattered about and trampled down. When cornhappens to

be growing near the steading, all the poultry should be confined within court-yards for a time, and supported entirely by hand. A few sheep nets stretched over the court-walls of hammels, afford an easy means of

confining a large assortment of poultry, and of subdividing them into classes.

( 2352.) The egg, being a remarkable object, and produced in such abundance, and so univer sally esteemed as an article of foud, a few particulars obtained by men of science of its nature and constitution may prove interesting to you .

(2353.) “ The eggs of all birds, " says Dr. Thomson, “ so far as they have been examined , bear

a striking resemblance to each other. They consist of 4 parts, first, the shell, which is white in the eggs of the common fowl, and of many other kinds ; but it is often colored or spotted of vari. ous colors, so as to give it a beautiful appearance ; second, the membrana putaminis, a thin , trans parent pellicle, immediately within the shell ; at the great end of the egg this membrane is de

tached from the shell, leaving a certain distance between them , which is filled with air ; third, the white or albumen, a glairy liquid, consisting of albumen dissolved in water, and contained, like the vitreoushumor of the eye, in an extremely thin membrane, divided into cells : fourth, the

yolk, a thick and almost solid yellow matter, inclosed in a peculiar membrane ; this membrane, by 2 ligaments, called chalazæ, is tied to the membrane of the albumen, and thus the yolk is kept in the center of the egg.”

(2354.) In regard to the constitution of these various parts, itappears from an analysis of Dr. Prout, which was later than that of Vauquelin, that the shell of the common fowl consists of Carbonate of lime, with a little carbonate of magnesia . .97 parts. 1 Phosphate of lime and magnesia ..

Animal matter . Total.....

2

..

100 parts.

The membrana, according to Hatchett, consists of coagulated albumen. The white, or albumen ,

coagulates into a firm white solid, when heated to 1590 Fahr.; and when evaporated to dryness, leaves about 14 per cent. of albumen. Dr. Bostock has shown that it contains also a little mucus. The constitutionof the white, according to him, is Water..

.80 ..1505 4.5

Albumen Mucus ... Total....

100

Dr. Prout obtained, by combustion, the following fixed constituents in 1,000 grains of the white of egg, from 3 different eggs : 0.29 0.15 0:18 grains. Sulphuric acid Phosphoric acid

1.0.45

Chlorine

0.94

Potash , soda, and carbonates of potash and soda Lime, magnesia, and the carbonates of lime and magnesia ..

2.92 0.30

Total...... (897)

4.90

0.46 0.93 2.93

0.48 0.87 2.72

0.25

0:32

4.72

4:57 grains

426

THE BOOK OF THE FARM-AUTUMN.

M. Mulder has proved that the sulphur and phosphorus are in the state of sulphur and phosphorus, and not in that of acid ; and this was to bave been expected, from the well known alkaline reäc

tion of the wbite of an egg. Dr. Prout's analysis of the yolk of an egg which was hard boiled in distilled water, and weighed 316-5 grains, gave these results : Water 170-2 grains or 53.78 in 100 parts. Albumen . Yellow oil.

91.0

17.47 28.75

Total..

316.5

100.00

55-3

According to Planche, 1,000 parts of yolk of egg furnish, at an average, 180 parts of oil. This oil consists of stearin 10, andofelain 90 parts ; the stearin is white and solid, anddoesnot stain

paper like oil. He found this stearin and the fat of fowls to agree very nearly. The elain pos and the other yellow . Lecanu, besides the stearin and elain, extracted from the yolk a crystaline matter, which melted at 2934 Fahr., and which he considered as of the same nature with choles terin from the brain. Dr. Prout determined the quantity of fixed constituents in 100 grains of the yolk, by incineration, in 3 different eggs, thus :

sesses the character of a fixed oil. Chevreul found 2 coloring matters in the yolk , the one red,

Sulphuric acid .. Phosphoric acid .. Chlorine ....

.0.21

0.06

0.19 grains.

3:56 0.39 0.50

3:50 0.28 0.27

4.00 0.44 0:51

Potash, soda, and the carbonates of potash and soda.... Lime, magnesia . and the carbonates of lime and magnesia , 0:68

0.61 4.72

0.67

5.81 grains. Whether the sulphur and phosphorus exist in the yolk in the state of acids, or as sulphur and phosphorus, is unknown. When we compare the fixed constituents of the white and yolk , we

Total ....

5:34

cannot avoid being struck with the difference. The white contains a much greater quantity of fixed alkalies than of any other fixed constituent; while in the yolk the most abundant constituent is phosphoric acid, which amounts to from 3.5 to 4 grains ; or if wesuppose it to exist as phospho. rus, it varies in different yolks from 1.55 to 1.77 grains. (2355.) The specific gravity of a new-laid egg varies from 1.080 to 1.090 ; an egg, therefore, is beavier than sea-water, the specific gravity of which is 1.030. When kept, eggs rapidly lose weight, and become specifically lighter than water. This is owing to the diminution of bulk in the contents of the egg ; the consequence of which is, that a portion of the inside of the egg comes

to be filled with air.Dr. Prout kept an egg 2 years, and found that it lost weight daily, at an average rate of 0.744 grains. The original weight was 907.5 grains, and after 2 years' exposure

to the atmosphere, itweighed only 363.2 grains. The total loss amounted to 544-3 grains, or con siderably more than half the original weight. The loss in summer was somewhat greater than in winter, owing, no doubt, to the difference of temperature. When an egg is, therefore, employed as a test of the strength of brine, the newer it is, the stronger is the brine that floats it. The rela

tive weights of shell and membrane,albumen and yolk, arevery different. Supposing the original weight of the egg to be 1,000 grains, Dr. Prout found the relative proportions,in 10 different eggs, to be as follows : Shell and membrane 106-9 , albumen 604.2, and yolk 288.9 grains. When an egg is boiled in water, it loses weight, particularly if it be removed from the water when boiling, and be permitted to cool in theopen air. The water will be found to contain a portionof the saline

constituents of the egg.

The loss of weight from boiling is not constant, varying from 20 to 30

grains, supposing the originalweight to have been 1,000 grains. The quantity of saline matter

obtained b , evaporating the distilledwater in which an eggwas boiled,amounts, atanaverage, to 0.32 grains. It is strongly alkaline, and yields traces of all the fixed principles found to exist in the egg ; but the carbonate of lime is most abundant, and is obtained by evaporation in the form of white powder.

( 2356.) The source whence are derived the bones of the chick while in the egg, is still an object of research. At the full term of incubation , important changes in the constitution of the egg are completed. “ The albumen ," as Dr. Thomson observes, “has disappeared, or is reduced to a few dry membranes, together with earthy matter. The yolk is considerably reduced in size , and is taken into the abdomen of the chick, while the animal has attained a weight nearly equal to the

original weight of the albumen, together with that lost by the yolk , minustheloss ofweight sos tained by the egg during incubation. The alkaline matters and chlorine have diminished in quan . During the last week of in tity, while the earthy matters have considerably increased.

cubation , the yolk has lost most of its phosphorus, which is found in the animal converted into phosphoric acid, and, combined with lime, constituting its bony skeleton. This lime does not ex ist in the recent egg, but is derived from some unknown source during the process of incubation. Mr. Hatchett made the curious remark, that in the ovaof those tribes of animals the embryos of which have bones, there is a portion of oily matter, and in those ova whose embryos consist en tirely of soft parts, there is none. In what way the oily matter contributes to the formation of

bone it is impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to conjecture. Nor can any source of the lime of the bones be pointed out, except the shell , and it would be difficult to determine whether the shell loses lime during the process of incubation ."* I * ( 2357. ) M. Raspail, in investigating thenature of animal albumen by the microscope, as exem plified in the white of the egg, observes that “ the albumen of the pullet's egg is composed of an insoluble and regularly organized texture, which contains in its cells a soluble substance much more susceptible of alteration than the texture is. Chemists had previously acknowledged the ex jstence of an albumen soluble in water, and of another which was insoluble ; but they had not re .

marked that these 2 sorts of albumen existed together in the white of eggs, and they had consider. * Thomson's Chemistry of Animal Bodies.

(898)

THE POINTS OF LIVE -STOCK. ed this substance as a variety of the insoluble albumen . ...

427

But the insolable substance of the

white of an egg is rendered apparentonly by degrees, and accordingly there is a period when it can scarcely be distinguished inthis respect from the soluble substance, and this is when the

egg

is fresh, that is, recently laid . Hence, as I have already pointed out regarding the vegetable tex. tures, the textures are formed by the aggregation of the particles of the soluble substance, or, in other words, the soluble substance is converted by solidification into the parietes of cells. All

these circumstances establish a complete analogy between gluten in vegetables and albumen in (2358.) Of the nature of egg and seed , the origin of animal and vegetable individuality, and of

animals . " *

the natural analogy between them, M. Raspail thus expresses himself: “ The egg and the seed are cells detached from the texture of the mother, in consequence of an influence of an opposite kind. This influence may proceed from an external body which we call the male, or from an in. ternal cause which we altogether neglectto notice. The egg and the seed may more particularly

attract our attention , in consequenceof their forms and dimensions ; but theslice of a polypus, which becomes an entire animal, and the fragment of a potato , which produces a complete plant, are sufficient to teach us that the generative faculty is preserved by thewhole organic system , and that the whole organized being is complete in any one of its cells.” +

(2359.) The duty on the importation of foreign eggs is fixed by the new Tariff at 10d . per 120, and 2 d . from British Possessions . The trade in eggs is carried on to a very great extent in this

country. The importation from France is large, and the supply obtained in the west coast of England and Scotland from Ireland is also great. About 20 years ago and upward, £ 30,000 worth

of eggs used to be sent from Berwick -on -Tweed to the London market in the course of the year, but since the interference of large importations from France and Ireland, that trade, I believe, has almost dwindled away. The price of eggs is never high in the country, but in towns it is almost always so. In the most abundant season , eggs, that can be relied on as fresh, are never below 70.

per dozen in Edinburgh, and in winter, especially at Christmas, when the confectioners use large quantities, they are as high as from 14d . to 18d. per dozen .

40. THE POINTS POSSESSED BY THE DOMESTICATED ANIMALS MOST DESIRABLE FOR THE FARMER TO CULTIVATE . " From fairest creatures we desire increase , That thereby Beauty's rose may never die ; But as the riper should by time decrease, His tender heir might bear his memory." SONNETS, BY SHAKSPEARE .

The most difficult branch and the highest aim of farming is the breeding

and rearing of live-stock, so as to produce the most perfect animal that shall yield the highest profit. It is very easy to maintain a flock or a herd that will propagate its kind ; as the actual condition of many flocks and

herds in the country abundantly testifies. It is even easier to do this than to cultivate arable land for thepurpose of raising corn ; for the latter de mands and must receive more trouble, at all events, if not attention, than a flock or herd of neglected animals, who will keep themselves alive if food be within their reach, and who will propagate their kind even in due season, if the sexes are not kept asunder. I am not aware that the principles upon which the proper breeding of animals should be based are understood by our farmers ; for I hold that

our stock have been brought to their present state of perfection, merely from each farmer exercising his individual taste and judgment - by grati fying his eye and satisfyinghis mind - and not in pursuance of any fixed principle he is acquainted with on the subject. There can be nodoubt,

however, that the symmetry, disposition togrow and fatten, and the rela tive proportions of the different parts of animals, are entirely dependent on lawswhich govern animal life; and could these be understood, so as

to render their application easy, the breeder of stock would no longer in trust his success to uncertainty. The botanical physiologist and the chem Raspail's Organic Chemistry .

(899)

# Ibid .

428

THE BOOK OF THE FARM.

ist have been very dilatory in proposing suggestions to the farmer,but the animal physiologist has hitherto almost entirely neglected him . The phy sician andsurgeon, on the other hand, have not; forthe veterinarian, nowa

man of science, administers his prescriptions and performshis operations with the confidence and ease of a proficient. Pity the physiologist should have almost neglected so extensive and fine 'a field as a breeding and rear ing farm presents for his peculiar pursuits, and where the functions of the living and growing structure might so easily be observed, and their ef fects afterward as easily demonstrated by post -mortem examinations. The results obtained from such investigations would afford invaluable data with which to compare the functions of the human structure ; and, forti

fied by the investigations of the comparative physiologist, the human phy sician would treat diseases with increased skiſl.

The anatomist acknowl.

edges the great importance of Comparative Anatomy to his profession ;

and thesurgeon owns to have received mauy useful hints from the veteri narian, in the treatment of wounds and the conducting ofoperations of magnitude and difficulty ; and so , in like manner, no doubt, would the

physiologist also acknowledge the importance of the observations he might make on a breeding -farm , were he disposed to turn his attention to the subject. Meantime the breeder of stock must go on, as he has hitherto

done, by the light of his own genius.* From what I have said of what is known of the principles of breeding stock, you will not expect from me so concise an explanation of them as I

have given of the methods of conducting the operations of the field ; and were it even possible, I could not find space here for the discussion of so extensive a subject. Suffice it to give you a few of the rules which guide the breeder in the treatment of his stock with a view to its improvement ; and for your better ability to follow me in a subject which is yet confess edly in a state of confusion, I have selected a numerous group of illustra tions, in whose good points you should have confidence,because they were

all faithfully taken from thelife, from individuals considered excellent by competent judges. The great aim of breeders is that their stock shall possess fine symme

try - shape, as it is commonly called — robust constitution -- and a disposi tion to attain early maturity, which insures good quality of flesh, as well as of wool in the case of sheep. Let us consider what each of those properties means, and also the points by which the existence of each is indicated in the animal.

Symmetry or Shape .-- The shape is the first object to be attained ; for

without fine symmetry no animal looks well, however passable it may be in other respects; but, in fact, when symmetry is wanting, so are the other

good particulars. In fine symmetry, the outline of the figure viewed, whether on the side or at either end, or from above,shouldbe rectangu lar. Fig. 273 represents theside view of a fat Short-Horn ox ; and it will be observed that the body nearly fills up the rectangle a b d c inscribed

aboutit. A fat ox will fillup the rectangle more fully than a lean one ; but still a lean ox should have the rectangular outline. But it is not

enough for an ox to present the rectangular outline in the side profile only ; it should have it in other positions, such as when viewed from be hind, as in fig. 274,where the same sort of outline may be observed within the rectangle a b dc. True, this is a different rectangle from the other, * The only physiologistsI am aware of who have made observations on breeding stock , were the late Mr. Knight, and his valuable suggestions will be found in the Philosophical Transactions ; and Mr. Walker,

whose original views on Physiology have been made public in several works ; for as to the value of the experiments of Sir John Sebright, his scientific acquirements were not of so high an order as to inspire practical men , at least, in the accuracy of his observations, and correctness of his conclusions. ( 900 )

SYMMETRY OF LIVE STOCK .

429

approaching near the square, while the other is oblong. I do not know

whether the rectangles of the side and the ends should bear a given pro portion to each other, as the outlines of the ox have never, I believe, been

subjected to proportional measurement, though these could easily be as certained by employing an adjusting -frame ; but, judging from measure ments taken with the view of ascertaining the weight of beef in oxen

( 1988), it is probable that a fine symmetry gives, on the side profile, a rect angle of double the length of that of the end profile. The end profile, viewed from behind, gives a rectangle equal, of course , to the depth of

thatof the side profile. Another point of a well-proportioned ox isthat the breadth across the hooks froma to b, fig. 274, should beequal to the depth from the hook a to the hook c ; that is, the hind profile should be inscribed in a square. Now, an ox may be rectangular in its side, and

across its rump, and yet be of different shape across its shoulders, when viewed from the front of the animal - it may, for example, be

narrow at the top of the shoulder, and wide below at the brisket. In such a case the ribs will be flat, that is, fall quickly downward, and not project square from the back-bone, as they always do in fine sym

metry. Fig. 275 shows the front end of a fat round -ribbed ox filling up the rectangle ; but though the top of the shoulder fills up the rect angle as well as the lower part of the body across the shoulder-points e f,

yet therectangle may not be a square ; that is, the ox may be narrower in front than behind ; and this is no uncommon case in many breeds of cattle in this country, and many breeders maintain that this form

constitutes perfect symmetry, at least for certain purposes, as for milk. This mode of reasoning, however, is not satisfactory ; for the idea con veyed by perfect symmetry is an equilibrium of parts. Now, we cannot conceive an equilibrium of parts to exist in an ox whose fore -end is nar

rower than its hind ; and where this disparity is found there is evidently something wrong in the symmetry. For observe fig. 276, which gives the

top view of the body of an ox-aview which is never seen unless sought for on purpose. Here, again, is the long rectangle as of the side ; but when an ox is narrower before than behind, this figure would not be a

rectangle, but a trapezium -- a figure no way associated with symmetry , so that, for fine symmetry, it is not enough to have the front outline filling

up a rectangle, for that rectangle should be equal to that of the hooks,as may be seen in comparing figs. 274 and 275 ; and as we have seen , in fig. 274, that the breadth of the hooks is equal to the depth of the hock, and

its rectangle is therefore a square, so we see, by fig. 276, that the breadth and length of an ox, when seen from above, forms a rectangle equal to that of its side, as seen in fig. 273. Perfect symmetry in the ox , there fore, implies that all the horizontal, as well as vertical linesinscribing its 1

outlines, are respectively parallel to each other ; and that these two sets of parallel lines are at right angles to one another. On dividing the entire

area of the side view of an ox into 5 parallel and horizontal parts,

will

besfound to be occupied by the body, and below the body. This is the abstract view of symmetry, as applied to the ox ; but it is not to be supposed that every ox fulfills these conditions ; for, even in the

of fig. figures referred toabove, it will be observed that in the side view The brisket

273 the brisket falls below b, and the flank rises a little at e. h may

be observed to drop below the horizontal line c d in the front view

of fig. 275 ; and in the hind-view of fig. 274, it frequently happens that the hocks, c and d , do not descend so far as to constitute a square figure with the hook a b. Still the aim of the breeder should be to attain all the points of the abstract model, and he should never rest satisfied until he attainthem . (901)

430

THE BOOK OF THE FARM.

Nevertheless, it must not be imagined that the configuration of any ox in any view should fill up the angles of the rectangles, inasmuch as the invari able roundness assumed by the animal frame forbids such a form , which

would, in fact, destroy the beautiful blending of curved lines abounding in the body, and deprive us of the highest enjoyment in looking at a sym metrical animal.

Of the states of cattle on a farm , that of the full-grown ox approaches nearer than any other to perfect symmetry of form . If you compare the picture of the ox in Plate VI., though that animal was then only 1 year 11 months old, with that of the bull or the cow, by imagining a rectangle in scribed around each figure, you will find his symmetry more correct than that of the others. The bull in Plate XXXII.has the brisket drooping even lower down than the ox, while his neck rises in a crest behind the

head. In Plate XV., though the side view of the cow is pretty similar to

that of the ox, the hind view is proportionally broader across the hooks, while the front view is somewhat narrower across the shoulders.

If the

broad hook -bones, with the narrow chest, are not entirely occasioned in

cows by calf-bearing, the disproportion between them is, at all events, greatly increased by it. So far in regard to the symmetry of the outline of the ox ; and as to the

filling up of the outlines, the remarks offered in ( 1309) will apply to cattle

in all states, though there especially referring tothe points of a fat ox. There should be a straight back, round ribs, and full muscles in every state of cattle, and the objectionable deviations from these points, mentioned in (1311), are as much to be deprecated in the bull, the cow , the heifer, and the calf, as in the ox.

Apply the rectangle to the figure of the sheep, and it will fit the more closely the nearer the animal approaches to perfection. In fig. 462, the

rectangle g h i k is applied to the new-clipped body of a Leicester tup, and though an old tup, anddeviations fromcorrect form may beexpected in old age, still the figure fills up the rectangle very well . Apply it over the wool to the picture of the Leicester tup in Plate XXXIII., and it will fit still better ; and carry it to the picture of the South Down in Plato XIV., and it will still apply ; though in this particular animal the wool grew more than usually rank upon the top of the rump. Even the figure of the lamb in the fig. 444, will bear the application of the rectangle. In regard to the end and top views of the figure of the sheep , the ribs of the Leicester breed are so very much rounded that they form curved lines

down the sides of the rectangle, inscribing the hind and fore profiles ; and along the sides of the rectangle, inscribing the view of the backfrom above ;

still the flatness across the back, and the straightness across below the chest, fill up the lines

of the rectangle. In other breeds, such as the Black -faced

and Cheviot,

the rectangle may still be

applied. To the figure of the horse the rectangle may also be applied, as the pic ture of the draught-gelding in Plate VII. maybe imagined to be inscribed, and of this class of stock the gelding is the best state for comparison ,as

the ox is that of cattle. The picture of the draught-stallion in Plate VII. , will bear the same application ;* though in this, as in all cases of stallions, the neck rises to a high crest.

But the end views, in the case of

the horse, bear different proportions to those of cattle, the hind view being always broader, and broadest in the mare, approaching more to the square, or like that of the ox , than the front view , which is always narrow.

The

hind view is very well seen in the left -hand dark figure of a square-like (902)

ROBUSTNESS OF CONSTITUTION IN LIVE - STOCK.

431

mare, in Plate XVII., and the narrow front view is as well observed in

the right-hand dark figure of a draught-horse, Plate VII. The compara tive breadths of the hind and front views approach nearer each other in the draught-horse than in any other breed ; his drawing powers lying in the shoulders, the muscles there become developed to a great degree, while, in the saddle-horse, the propelling power is in the hind-quarter, where the muscles become developed ; as the fore -quarter is only required to support the fore-band of the animal in action, the muscles there are all

light. For these reasons, it is obvious that the view of a horse from above

will not form a rectangle but a trapezium . In perfect symmetry the void below the body is of the same depth as the bodyto the top of the rump ; the length of the body from the shoulder -point through the center of gravity of the horse to the hams is two times the depth of the body ; the length of the neck to the withers is equal to the depth of the body from the withers; and the distance from the fore -fetlock to the elbow -joint is the same as from the latter point to the withers.

There are peculiarities in some of the points of the horse which deserve to be mentioned. A horse with ears set high on the crown of the head is

of lively temperament, but is hasty of temper, and easily made afraid ; while a horsewith ears set wide apart is dull in action, but sagacious, and easily taught.

Following the same rule, the rectangle will be found to apply to the

shape of the pig as to the other domesticated quadrupeds, as may be seen by a b d c, in fig. 434.

The end views of the best formed pigs are quite Fig. 434 .

a

THE RECTANGLE TO ILLUSTRATE THE SYMMETRY OF THE PIG .

rectangular, though the generality of those met with in the country have a tendency to a larger rectangle in the fore than in the hind view. The view from above is also rectangular, except in the case of the pigs having thick shoulders.

Robustness of Constitution . - Having obtained a good shape, the next ob

ject of the farmer with his stock, is to impart to them a strong constitution, that is, to impart to them physical powers to do their work with ease, to eat their food with good appetite, to digest it within a reasonable time, to feel no fatigue with necessary daily exercise, and to withstand the weather, whether hot or cold ;in short, always to enjoy good health, and be in a growing condition . The following are indications of robust health which cannot be mistaken : The skin loose upon the body, feeling soft and mel

low, and covered thickly with long soft hair. The eyes full and clear, and in the case of cattle, sheep, and pigs, the skin of thenose always bedewed with moisture. The bones of the leg strong, broad, and flat, with the (903)

432

THE BOOK OF THE FARM.

sinews thick, strong, and distinctly developod ; the whole being closely covered with the skin.

This condition constitutes what is termed clean

limbs. The horn of the feet and horns smoothand shining, and indicating healthy growth at its junction with the hair. The hair of the tail in cattle, and of the mane and tail in horses, long, shining, and with a tendency to

crisp ; the wool of sheep waved, greasy, interlaced, and of fine quality. Along with these physical properties, the animal spirits are alive to every passing event, the senses acute, and the instinct sagacious. All these indications of a sound constitution are obtainable by selecting parents which possess them ; and they are sustained by kind treatment, comfortable lodging, and abundance of good food. Neglect of a proper selection of parents will produce, perhaps, the very opposite results. The skin will become thin and covered with scanty hair and open wool.

With

such a covering, the animal will easily be affected by the least change of weather, be overcome with the heat of summer, feel uneasy in the cold of winter, and be chilled by every shower that falls. A very small bone, how

ever clean, is always accompanied with reduced size of carcass, though in dicative of great disposition to fatten . Should the bone become thick and round, it gives a clumsy form to the limbs and head, and is invariably ac companied with dullness of spirit, and in the horse, in particular, with want of action.

Those conditions of the skin and bone are not so much

objectionable in themselves, as hurtful in their consequences. A thin skinned and a thick-boned animal is ill to maintain in condition.

Thin .

skinned animals are easily affected by the weather ; a fit of indigestion in consequence frequently overtakes them, and their condition alternates be tween worse and better ; they are, in fact, tender in constitution. Thick boned animals never seem to relish their food, and show carelessness about everything that concerns them.

Disposition to attain early maturity . But the farmer's aim is not con fined to a good shape and robust constitution ; there must be a fineness given to every point - every part must be finished off, as it were, with

a polish. This fineness can only be superimposed by parents derived from a race which have long possessed all the fine properties - indi

viduals whose pedigrees can be traced — whose breeding is accounted pure. No matter whether the breeding beof the plebeian caste of the draught horse , or of the aristocratic family of the racer, -- nor whether the animals be horses, cattle, or sheep ; the breeding of all should be pure of its kind.

The immediate effect in employing parents of pure breeding, is not so

obvious upon the carcass as upon the extremities. The head and limbs first become finer; the fat disappears from them ; the muscles expand into a thin , broad form ; the tendons increase in strength ; the bone becomes harder and of finer quality ; the blood-vessels large and full of blood ; the skin thinner, and drawn more tightly over the bone, so as to exhibit its

irregularities, and the tracings of the blood -vessels distinctly ; the hair is smoother and closer ; the nostrils more expanded ; the eyes more promi nent and clear ; the ears thinner, more capacious, set higher upon the head, and more quickly moved about; the action of the limbs quickened ; and the animal spirits raised. All these changes may take place without materially affecting the shape of the body or the strength of the constitu tion ; but the improvement of the extremities is rapidly followed by that of the body ; the skin , though not thinner of itself, floats upon a thicker mass of cellular tissue, which imparts to it the agreeable sensation of the

touch. The hair multiplies in numbers, becomes finer in quality, more fixed in color, longer, and softer. The proportion of flesh to bone increases. (904)

SELECTION OF PARENTS IN BREEDING LIVE-STOCK.

433

The fat is more generally and equally diffused over the body. The texture of the muscles is finer and firmerin the fibre, and the tissue between them

becomes loaded with fat. In a word, such a total change is effected upon the entire animal, that from being coarse , dull, clumsy, and sluggish, it be

comes fine -spirited, handsome, and active ; and as it improves in personal appearance,so it increases in its tendency to grow, and to come sooner to maturity in stature and condition. Selection of Parents.-- You must not imagine, from this uninterrupted

description of the improvement of parts in animals, that all those changes the lifetime of one individual pa are, or can possibly be, effected during rent. The entire of those changes can only be effected in the course of generations ; but as all domesticated animals produce rapidly, that is,

within the course of every year, it is possible to effect great improvement in the offspring during the lifetime of a female parent, by employing a better male every year. To hasten the improvement more rapidly, better parents of both sexes may be chosen as soon asthe points of the progeny show themselves, and which are appreciable in 2 years. Of the two sexes, the properties of the male are more obviously im printed on the offspring than those of the female ; and it is on this account that males are in most request among breeders for the improvement of their stocks. High prices have been given, and high premiumsare an nually offered, for superior males, whether stallions, bulls, or tups ; and it is fortunate for the more rapid extension of the improvement of stock, that the influence of the male thus bears sway in the propagation of his kind, as by permission of polygamy one male may serve many females, and of course extend his influence in the exact proportion to the number of the

latter ; whereas a female produces usually i in the course of a year. A stallion serves from 60 to 80 mares, a bull 60 cows, and a tup 60 ewes in a season , not once or twice only, but as often until the female prove young.

with

Generally the female conceives at the first service of the male,

and at all events at the second ; but should her desire continue beyond that time, it is better to withdraw her from breeding altogether, than run

the risk of having a late progeny, or none at all ; for a late calf,lamb, or foal, loses 1 year of its progress, compared with its earlier born compan ions. But the part which the male and female respectively undertake, in

the improvement of the progeny, differs widely, and is entirely dependent on their state of breeding -- the head and extremities being improved by

the highest, and the carcass and procreating powers by the lowest bred. The highest bred imparts the small head, prominent eyes, thin ears, wide nostrils, clean limbs, full blood vessels, action, spirit, and intelligence ; in

short, all the parts which go to develop the mental qualities ; while the lowest bred improves the shape of the carcass, by straightening the back and rounding the ribs, extending the muscles, laying onthe fat, enlarging the capacity of the pulmonaryorgans, and decreasing the size of the ab dominal. On distinguishing the parts more immediately imprinted by

each parent, it is obvious that the effects of the highest bred are more striking than those of the other. Hence, a fine head, well set upon the neck , a lustrous eye, a gay look, an engaging manner, and free action, are

more readily appreciated than a fine mould ,sound constitution, touch, and disposition to grow .

Few farmers commit a mistake in the choice of the male for improving Breeders themselves pay particular attention to the produc tion of the male, and farmers who purchase or hire males never grudge paying a high price for them ; and hence the male-breeding market is al. ways at a premium . But many mistakes are made by breeders in the their stock.

(905 )...... 3

434

THE BOOK OF THE FARM.

choice of the females to breed from . In the case of horses particularly, any sort of mare is considered good enough to produce a foal, and if she

happen to be unfit for work, or has met with an accident, such as having swung her back , or has a bad leg, she is the one selected for breeding the future labor-stock of the farm . The best stallion , it is true, will be put to her, most probably the prize-stallion of the local agricultural show ; but as to the mare herself, it is considered a great sacrifice of physical power to breed from young fresh mares. Now , in acting thus, the farmer

commits a fatal blunder ; he is depriving himself of the use of superior farm -horses, which would not only work with ease to themselves and sat

isfaction to him, and at the same cost of keep, but would do him credit wherever they went. Instead of pursuing this system , he should select

1 or 2 of the best mares in his possession to breed from , and if he has none possessing youth and beauty of mould, let him buy 1 or 2 at any price, if sluch are to be purchased. Let them not be under 5 years of age when the horse is first put to them ;for they will not have acquired their full

stature until that age. From that period let them bear a foal every year till they attain 12 or 13 years, when they should cease to breed ; for old

mares , any more than old females of other classes of animals, cannot pro duce a vigorous progeny. For those 7 years the fresh young mares, stinted to the best stallion that can be secured, will each produce, and bring up, a foal every year, and perform , at the same time, their part of ' the work with ease. Such foals will be strong in bone and constitution, and

be always in high condition, because they are the offspring of young mares themselves, high in condition, and overflowing with milk ; and having been brought up together will work better together. I speak not in this tone

for the purpose merely of condemning the practice usually followed by farmers in breeding farm -horses, but having myself tried the system I recommend , I can do it with confidence. I purchased from a dealer a very excellent Clydesdale mare in St. John's Market at Perth, for £42 , a large price for the time. She was 5 years old off, and was altogether such a mare, for mould and strength, as is seldom to be found in a market.

Next year she was put to a prize stallion, also of the Clydesdale breed , and bore a foal every year till she reached 10 years of age, when, much

to my disappointment, she ceased to breed . Her first 2 foals were fillies, and, when 4 and 5 years old, were sold at the sale,when I declined farm ing, for £ 108, to convert into brood-mares.

Her other 2 foals, colts, at 4

years old, realized £38 and £44. I had other 2 mares which began to bear foal at 7 years of age, 1 of which bred draught-horses, which real

ized from £ 35 to £40, and the other was put to a coaching-stallion, and produced excellent harness-horses ; 1 of them, a mare, was purchased by a friend in Ireland , and proved one of the fastest goers in harness I ever

I am perfectly certain the same results will be realized everywhere by breeding from excellent young mares ; and though 3 mares out of 10

saw.

horses, which wrought my farm , bore foals every year, the work never fell behind its season ; and they had as rough and heavy work to do for

several years, while improvements were in hand, as could be encountered on any farm . The system pursued in regard to the breeding of cattle and sheep is generally much better than that for horses, though I think that

cows arenot generally so well selected as they should be ; and one reason is this: whenever a cow happens to be a good milker, she is kept to breed as long as she is worth keeping for that purpose, without regard to any other point of excellence ; and her calves may be good or bad, in pro portion as the points of the bull which begot them are so. Those who

keep a906)stock of cows for breeding bulls, of course, do not follow this haz (

SELECTION OF PARENTS IN BREEDING LIVE -STOCK.

435

ardous plan of producing valuable calves; but I believe by far the great est number of cattle bred in this country are produced in this careless

manner ; and the simple recital of the system is quite sufficient to account for the great number of inferior cattle to be met with in all our public markets.

The system of breeding I have recommended is applicable to every kind of stock ; but modifications are allowable in it, and in fact expedient, according to the particular object the breeder has in view. If his object is simply to breed cattle and sheep for ordinary markets of fat and lean stock, a useful lot of cows or ewes, with a good tup or bull, are all that are requisite ; and once having obtained a desirable stock of either, and not wishing them of finer quality, his solicitude will be confined to sus

taining their character by preventing the least tendency to deterioration. In such a case the females are commonly bred by the farmer himself, and the male is purchased from a breed of superior class to his own. So far the practice is good ; but when a good cow , or a lot of good ewes, of the

same or superior character as the stock itself can be picked up nowand then, the opportunity should not be lost of infusing a fresh strain of blood into the stock . A frequent change of the male is advisable in such a sys tem , as the stock will soon become too near akin to him .

On the other

hand, those whose professed object is to breed animals to propagate their kind, must bestow great care and skill to sustain their breeding -stock in the highest state of perfection. The least defect in the female, whether arising from accident or inherent weakness, should be the instant signal for her removal from the stock, and as to the male, the very best that can

be found should be purchased at any price.

The best male in reference

to the particular case may not be the best animal of the stock from which

it is desired to purchase, because it should preëminently possess points which will either improve or sustain those of the females which he is des

tined to serve. The properties, therefore, which a male should possess are entirely relative and not absolute ; for absolutely good points ought to

he possessed by the females before the breeder should attempt to produce breeding-stock from them . To manage this part of his business well is a very difficult task for the breeder; and a single mistake committed in this respect, for a single season , may cause him more trouble to rectify, and in cur greater loss than if he had been content with his own stock in the state it was .

It must be owned, however, that whenever a breeder discovers

a defect in any point in his stock, his desire to remedy it is natural; and whenever he finds an animal superior to his own, it is as natural he should endeavor to possess it. If, for example, he thinks his own stock somewhat slacker behind the shoulder than they should be, the remedy, he conceives,

is to use a male which is free of that deficiency . The usual practice is to select a male for this purpose which is rather full behind the shoulder ; because, what more natural than to fill up a deficiency with a redundancy ?

Such an expectation, though natural enough, may lead to unexpected re sults ; for the use of the redundant point may give such an impetus in the stock to rectify their deficiency, that its tendency to fill up may proceed

too far, even in one generation, and cause redundancy where there was deficiency before ; but this is just the result which ought to have been an ticipated , if there is any truth in the breeders' maxim that “ like begets like.” The employment, therefore, of a symmetrical shoulder to rectify a deficient one is the practice most consonant to reason and principle ; for

what more is wanted than to fill up the deficiency behind the shoulder ; and how should that be best attained but by using a model which is exactly in the state which you wish the deficiency to assume ? The (907)

THE BOOK OF THE FARM .

436

want of forethought to consequences of this sort has been the cause of

deterioration to many a good stock. Too many farmers attempt to pro duce breeding -stock , and they are tempted to proceed with the system

as long as they observe the progeny improve upon their parents; and as long as they are observed to improve, purchasers will be found to

pay good prices — for they like to purchase from a thriving stock-till a point is reached beyond which improvement does not succeed ; and this is considered the point of perfection, though it may be very far The breeder's skill may be unable to carry him farther ;

short of it.

and, on

account of his want of skill, will be induced to present his

breeding-stock to the attention of other breeders with the greater earnest ness .

Herein is concealed another source of error ; for it is clear, that as

long as a stock is itself far short of perfection, its offshoots cannot afford a certain means of improving other stock. Trial may be made of it ; but the result may be disappointment to the purchasers, and disgust to the self -sufficient breeder himself. One circumstance alone, I conceive, would

justify a breeder in offering imperfect stock for breeding, which is, being situate in a country where crossing with other breeds might be carried on with advantage. The conclusion of the whole matter, then , is that a stock producing offshoots fit to breed from should have arrived at perfection, at

Jeast to such a degree of perfection as the best stocks known ; and the ob ject of the owner of such a stock should not be so much to improve its best animals — for that seems impossible - as to improve the inferior, and sustain the quality of the best ; and before a stock can be brought to that state of perfection, the pedigree of its best animals — for no stock contains

all its animals equally good - might be traced back for many generations. Doubtless this is a severe criterion by which to judge the character of a

breeding -stock ; but when it is considered that its members are preferred with a view to improve, or at least sustain, the breeding of members of another stock equally well bred as itself, it is necessary to fix a high stand ard of comparison, and nothing short of this will afford satisfaction. There

are many stocks of Short-Horn cattle and Leicester sheep whose character will bear the strictest scrutiny by such a criterion. Breeding in -and - in . - No wonder high-breeding produces such an im provement in stock as to render the head small, fine and beautiful, the

extremities elegant, the form handsome, and the disposition so accommo dating as that the animals grow and fatten without feeling disturbed at

whatpasses around ; in short, become so prepossessing as to make their owners mistrust the stocks of others, and employ only their own to in crease its own numbers. It was this feeling which actuated Bakewell to breed only from his own stock, after he had brought the Leicester sheep and Long-Horn cattle to perfection. For a time Mr. Mason, of Chilton, pursued the same course ; and there are breeders in England at the pres ent time who maintain that it is the best system, and will follow no other.

Perhaps a stock brought to the highest state of perfection, and at the same time possessed of sound constitution, may besupported free of de terioration for many years by the peculiar skill of its owner ; and I can conceive a high -bred stock, full of young blood, such as Bakewell's was

during his whole lifetime, to be increased and supported by its own mem bers though bred in-and-in, that is, supported by near kindred or consan guinity. There was one valid reaſon for Mr. Bakewell employing only his own stock, which was, that there was no other so good as his own to

select from ; and it would have seemed extraordinary in him , of all men , to have employed any animal of acknowledged inferiority to his own ; but I suspect no such liberty may be taken , with impunity , with a stock as (908)

CROSSING LIVE - STOCK .

437

highly bred, but not so youthful in blood. At all events, many instances have occurred in which many fine stocks have been ruined in character,

and have entailed irreparable loss on their owners simply by being bred in -and -in. The immediate effects of employing parents nearly allied by blood to propagate their kind are remarkable. The bone becomes very small, of condensed texture , and fine quality. The skin is so thin as to receive the appellation ofpapery, and so open of texture asto be sensible

to the least change of temperature ; and hence animals bred in-and-in are very susceptible of catarrhal affections, and on which account they are lia ble to consumption and clyers. The carcass is much reduced in size, and the disposition to fatten increases to such a degree that the ani mal may be said to be always in a condition to be slaughtered ; and it is, perhaps, this tendency to fatten , which has proved the great inducement with many breeders to tolerate the in-and-in system . The hair is short, smooth, and thin -set, and the wool short, thin -set, and watery ; and both

hide and fleece lose a large proportion of weight. The body assumes a change of form , the barrel being beautifully rounded , but seems stuffed , as it were, within the skin .

The extremities are very fine, the head and

hoofs small, the ears thin and broad, and the head of the sheep is almost bare of hair, of a blue color, very liable to be scalded by the heat of the sun, and attacked by the fly. The necks of both cattle and sheep arethin, and droop with a downward curve from the head to the top of the shoul der. The points just enumerated show the unprofitable state into which a stock may be brought by being bred in-and-in. Mr. Mason's fine Short

Horn stock latterly showed symptoms of the bad effects of this system ; and Mr. Robertson's stock atLadykirk, which contained at onetime by far the finest Short-Horns in Scotland, suffered after his demise from the

same cause, as was apparent on the animals presented at the sale which dispersed them. Only cattle and sheep have been subjected by farmers to be bred in -and -in, for their draught-mares are usually covered by stallions obtained from a distance ; and of cattle and sheep , the injurious

effects of the system have only been observed in Short -Horn cattle and Leicester sheep . The injurious effects of the system have been felt,

it is true, in the racing -stud, and are evinced by the racers of the present day being unable to carry heavy weights, and run the long distances of the horses of old. At present nothing but speed is regarded. Now, that high-bred stocks exist in every district ofthe kingdom , there

is no excuse for pursuing thein-and-in system of breeding; and the attempt is the more inexcusable from the remarkable fact, brought to light only since the distribution of high -bred stock, that its progeny, after being distributed

for a time, may be brought together to propagate their kind,and their off spring willexhibit no symptoms of in-and-in breeding. Such aresult would seem to indicate that change of soil and situation renovates the animal as well as the vegetable constitution. It may be

proper to mention what relations are considered allied in

blood, in breeding in-and-in. Connection of the sire with his grand -dam , dam, and sister, is improper. So it is even with his aunt, niece, and cousin germain. One shuuld imagine that abreeder would feel repugnance at con necting so near a consanguinity as the former ; yet the union is too often permitted to take place in the latter cases. Crossing . – The union of different breeds of the same sort of animal is a favorite scheme with many breeders, and, under certain conditions, pro duces good results. Those conditions are, that the male employed in the crossing shall have the superior breeding of the 2 parents, and that the sit uation in which the cross-progeny shall be brought up shall be suitable to (909)

438

THE BOOK OF THE FARM .

it. The first condition is usually complied with, but the second is as com monly disregarded ; and the consequence is, that the crosses attempted to

be brought up in situations quite unsuited to their nature have proved a failure .

In the crosses commonly attempted in this country, among cattle the Short- Horn bull, and among sheep the Leicester tup, have been employed to serve the ordinary breeds of cattle and sheep. The effects have proved

satisfactory ; for though the progeny could not but be expected tobe in ferior to the sire, they are superior to the dam . The effects are : an en largement of the carcass, a finer skin, longer hair and wool, cleaner bone and finer head, and the disposition to fatten greatly accelerated — all of which are superior to the ordinary points of the breed ; but, of course, the better the dam is, the more decidedly improved will those points be. In effecting such a cross, it has been found that the higher bred the male is

the finer is the cross ; that is, the nearer will it approach his properties ; and even an over-bred male, that is, one showing symptoms of havingbeen Wher e a supe

bred in-and-in, may be used with advantage in crossing.

rior cross-male happens thus to be produced, a strong desire is evinced by the breeders to keep him entire for service, and to use him as a sire, in

stead of expending money in the purchase of a high -bred male. A more short-sighted step than this cannot be taken by a breeder, because from

such a male he has no assurance that the progeny will be superior to the dam. Indeed, he has no guaranty of what the state of the progeny will be at all, for it may be worse than either sire or dam ; and if such a disap

pointment overtakes him , he has himself to blame, having left the whole matter to chance. The employment of a high-bred sire, on the other hand,

will never lead to disappointment, as the progeny will assuredly be supe rior to the dam.

It is this assurance which affords much satisfaction to

the breeder of high-bred stock, by which he can anticipate the quality of his forthcoming young stock; and it is with high -bred stock alone that the maxim of“ like producing like ” is realized. Nevertheless, there are sit uations in which high-bred stock cannot be maintained as a breeding stock, and in which nothing but crossing can be practiced when improvement is desired ; but the desire for improvement has been carried by some breed ers beyond the bounds of prudence; they have crossed the Black - faced ewe with Leicester tups, in situations where the enlarged lamb has been unable to subsist in winter ; and on this account the policy of changing the Black -faced breed of sheep in high localities seems doubtful.

In lower situations, the Cheviot ewe, which inhabits the middle range of green pasture, may be crossed with the Leicester tup with advantage. Èverycrossing, however, should be prosecuted with caution, because the result may overstep the intentions of the breeder. It is clear that if the crossed stock is retained as females, which, in their turn , are served by

high - bred males, the time will arrive when the character of the original stock will be entirely changed, and become unsuited to their native climate and pasture,and will, in fact, have become the same breed as their high bred sires. It is quite possible to originate a race of Short-Horns and Leicester sheep anywhere suited to their nature, by constantly employing a high -bred bull and tup to serve cross-bred heifers and gimmers, genera tion after generation ; and were this practice generally adoptel, the time wouldarrive when the original breeds which were crossed would disap pear altogether. Such a result would prove injurious to the breeder him self, inasmuch as the pasture would be unsuited for the stock he had caused to be produced ; so that his best plan is to preserve the original breeds in the higher parts of the country, and take the crosses to the low (910)

THE POINTS

OF

439

HORSES .

country to be fed off. The temptation of larger profits has already

causedthe Cheviotto drive the Black -faced breed fromthe lowerpastures to the highest, while the cross-bred Cheviot, with the Leicester, have de scended, on the other hand, to the low country, and there have met the true

bred Leicester. This result, upon the whole, has done good,as it has in creased the quantity of mutton in the market ; and the skillful pasturage which the hills have received since a regular system of breeding has been introduced , has caused them to yield a larger quantity of finer grasses.

The crossing of the Black-faced sheep has undergone a change ; the Lei cester tup is too heavy to serve Black -faced ewes on the hills, and to bring those ewes to the tup in the low country is attended with trouble and ex pense. Instead, therefore, of the Leicester tup being so employed, the Cheviot tup has been substituted ; and though the cross is inferior - for nothing can exceed the beauty of the lamb produced between the Black

faced ewe and Leicester tup — it is a good one, and has enlarged the Black faced mutton. So long as crossing is conducted with the breeds in their natural state, it will go on without confusion, but the moment cross-bred tups are employed as improvers of stock, their interference will produce confusion in the crosses, and throw discredit upon crossing altogether. I purpose giving a short description of the animals whose portraits are given in the Plates illustrative of this work, and shall make such remarks on the form of the animals as to give you an idea of their leading points, whether good or bad. In order to render reference to the figures in the

Plates more easy, wood -cuts of their points have been provided, that they may be more distinctly indicated.

Horses. - Among horses I shall take the draught-horse, fig. 435, and Plate VII., as the standard of comparison. This gelding is ofgray color, was bred by Mr. Curry at Brandon, in Fig. 435. the county of Northumberland, and is the ty ey per srs pro of Mes . How and Co., the great carriers from Edinburgh into Eng land. He is not a thorough -bred Clydes dale, having a dash of the coaching blood in him, a species of farm -horse very much in use on the Borders, and admired for their action and spirit. This gelding ex hibits such a form as to constitute, in my

estimation , the very perfection of what a

i

farm -horse should be. His head a is small, bone clean , eyes prominent, muz zle fine, and ears set on the crown of the head . His neck rises with a fine crest

THE DRAUGHT-HORSE.

alongthe mane from the trunk b h to a, and tapers to the head, which is beautifully set on , and seems to be borne by the neck with ease. His limbs taper gradually from the body, and are broad and flat; the knee k is straight, broad , and strong, and the fore-arm i broad and flat - all excel lent points in the leg of a draught-horse, giving it strength and action. The back of the fore-leg, from the fetlock -joint l to the body o, is straight, indi cating no weakness in the limb - a failing here causing the knees to knuckle, and rendering the horse unsafe in going down hill. The hind legs m, as well as the fore ones k and l, stand directly under the body, forming firm supports to it. The body is beautifully symmetrical. The shoulder slopes backward from h to b, the withersat 6 being high and thin. The sloped position of the shoulder affords a proper seat for the collar, and provides the muscles of the shoulder-blade g so long a lever as (911)

440

THE BOOK OF THE FARM.

to cause them to throw the fore-legs forward in a walk or trot ; and with such a shoulder a horse cannot stumble. The back, from bto c, is short, no

longer than to give room to the saddle. The chest, from b to o, is deep , giving it capacity for the lungs to play in, and room for the muscles re quired in draught. The top of the quarter from c to d is rounded, the

flank, from c to n, deep,and thehind - quarter, from f to e, long. Onoflook ing on the side profile of the entire animal, the body seemsmade up two large quarters, joined together by a short thick middle , suggesting the idea of strength ; and the limbs, neck and head , are so attached to the body as to appear light and useful.

In a well formed horse, I may remark, the

line from the fetlock 1 to the elbow -joint, at o, is equal to that from the joint o to the top of the withers b. In a low-shouldered leggy -horse, the line l o is much longer than the line o b ; but in the case of this horse , the body b o is rather deeper than the legi o is long, realizing the desideratum in a farm -horse of a thick middle and short legs.

The line across the ribs

from g to f is, like the back , short , and the ribs are round . He is 16 hands

high, measures from a to b 35 inches , from b to c 33 inches ,from c to d 19 inches , being in extreme length 7 feet 3 inches. Length of the face 25 in ches, breadth of face across the eyes 10 inches , length of ears 6 ] inches , breadth across the hook -bones 22 inches , girth behind the shoulder 80 in

ches , girth of fore-arm 23 inches, girth of bone below the fore-knee 9] in ches ; the breadth of this bone shows the strength of the fore -leg of every horse ; girth of neck at the onset of thehead 32 inches, girth of muzzle 21

inches , width of counter 19 inches, and hight of top of quarter from the ground 63 inches . In a draught-horse the collar causes the muscles to en This horse's name

large upon the shoulder, and the neck to become thin.

is Farmer, his walk is stately, andhe can draw 3 tons on level ground, in cluding the weightof the wagon. He is a well known animal in Edinburgh, and is generally admired. Fig. 436 as here shewn is the portrait of the black draught-stallion Champion, bred by Mr. James Steedman,

Boghall, in the county of Mid -Lothian. He isof the true Clydesdale breed. He

Fig. 436 .

gained the first prize at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at Glas

gow in October, 1837, and obtained pre miums elsewhere.

getter.

He is a sure foal

He is fully 17 hands high , and

though otherwise a large animal, being 8 feet 7 inches in length , his action is high and uncommonly light. On com

paring him generally with the gelding

wwht na

just described, though his body is longer, THE DRAUGHT-STALLION . both hind and fore quarters arelong and deep, and exhibit a large display of muscle. His middle is somewhat small, as is almost always the case with stallions which have served many

mares. Like all stallions, his neck rises beautifully from his body be, in a full crest from b to a, evincing that castration has the effect of reducing the size of the muscles of the neck of all geldings. The shoulder slopes well back from e to b, giving freedom of action to the fore -legs, while the

muscle at m being fully developed, assists in imparting power to that ac tion. The hind - quarter, from g to h, is long and deep . The fore-leg is straight, and short from knee to fetlock, p to in , the bone under the knee strong, and the fore-arm l flat and broad. The hind -legs o are remarkably handsome. The sweep of line from the crown of the head along the back (912 )

44 ]

THE POINTS OF HORSES .

to the tail-head is truly elegant, giving a very fine top to the quarter, and

the plenitude of hair in the tail d kindicates great strength of back. His against his cast of countenance ; and having the 2 hind-legs white is also

eye is gond, though somewhat small, the ratch of white down his face is

against his general appearance. His disposition is remarkably docile, ang his whole demeanor harmless. His constitution is good, and he is an ex cellent traveler.

These are a few of his dimensions : from a to b 5 )

inches, from b to c 30 inches, from c to d 22 inches ; in all 8 feet 7 inches

Length of face 264 inches, breadth of face across the eyes 11 inches, lengtb of ears 6] inches, breadth across the hook-bones 30 inches, girth behind the shoulder 90 inches, girth of fore-arm 28 inches, girth of bone below the fore-knee 12 inches, hight of top of quarter from the ground 67 inches girth of neck at the onset of the head 39 inches, girth of muzzle 24 inches and width of counter 22 inches.

Fig. 437 as here shewn is the portrait of a brown mare belonging to Mr. George Bagrie, Monkton, near Dal Fig. 437. keith, Mid -Lothian. She gained the first premium at every show of stock she was ever exhibited . The white ratch down

leges, her face, and so much white on heranc

detract from her general appear ; but notwithstanding these drawbacks , she

is an exceedingly handsome mare .

You

have only to look at the Plate to observe

the beautiful flowing lines of her whole contour, and also the great substance of

m

both fore and hind quarter . The rise and crest of her neck from b to a, and from e

to a, are remarkably fine. The back from b to c is somewhat hollow , and there is a

THE DRAUGHT-MARE .

corresponding depression of the belly at i, both the consequences of foal bearing , as well as a slackness of the flank in front of g ,the usual defi

ciency there of brood-mares. The top of the rump from c to d is also themuscles are well developed on the fore-quarter from e to f, indicating power in draught; and the ribs are round , and long from f to g, a favora ble configuration in the brood -mare for giving room for the growth of the fætus. The hind -quarter from g to his long. The legs are placed directly under the body , the fore-knee l being broad and strong , the back of the very fine. The shoulder slopes well from e to b, indicating good action ;

fore -leg from the fetlock m to the body straight , and the fore -arm k broad and flat. I have no measurement of the dimensions of this mare , which I regret, as losing a means of comparison with the gelding and stallion. Be side roundness and length of rib, a brood -mare should be wide across the

hook -bones and the pelvis, to afford room for the growth and subsequent egress of the foal. I have chosen a black stallion, brown mare, and gray gelding, as illus trative of the three colors most comm monly seen among farm -horses. A

black stallion seems the generally favorite color, and a brown mare is not uncommon, but the gray color is less in vogue than it was 20 years ago ; but why I cannot say. It is said that the feet of gray horses are more ten der than of horses of other colors ; and , for the same reason, whatever that may

be, it is alleged that white feet are more tender than any other color. I once corresponded on this subject with the veterinary surgeon of one of the regiments of Life Guards, the horses of which are black, and (969)

442

THE BOOK OF THE FARM .

his statement was that he had not observed any remarkable defect in those horses which happened to have white feet ; but that his attention had not before been particularly drawn to the subject. It might be worth while to ascertain whether or not it is found that the horses of the Scots Grays are more liable to tender feet than those of other corps of a different color. Cattle. I have already said so much on the points of cattle, that noth ing more remains to be advanced on that subject ; so I shall merely allude

tothe particular points exhibited by the animals represented in the Plates. And, first, I shall take, as a standard of comparison, the Short-Horn ox, fig. 438 given below .

This was an ox from the herd of Mr. Wilson, of

Cumledge, in Berwickshire, who has long been known as a successful breederof Short-Horn steers.

His stock comes to maturity and is fat

tened off at 2 years of age,

when they commonly attain 70 stones impe

rial. Theox in fig. 438 was 1 year 11 months old when his portrait was taken ; and he was afterward shown at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at Berwick -upon - Tweed, in October, 1841. He was of a roan color, with a good deal of white. His head was remarkably fine, with a

Fig. 438 . 5

pleasant countenance, full eyes, and small, slouching, sharp -pointed horns. Besides a fine head, he had a straight back, round rib, deep flank, and full His principal measure neck-vein.

ne ili

ments were, frome to a 27 inches,

from a to 6 321, from b toc 214 inches, in all 6 feet 9 inches ; and the girth of

the body behind the shoulder at f 7 feet 3 inches.

His measurement for

THE SHORT-HORN OX .

beef was 4 feet 6 inches in length by 7

feet 3 inches in girth , equal to 56 stones imperial; so I should say

from

these figures, that this ox was rather too short for a perfectly symmetrical figure. Fig. 439 given on page 443, is a portrait of a red and white Short-Horn bull. This animal was bred by the late Mr. George Brown at Whitsome Hill, in Berwickshire. He was got by a red and white bull belonging to Mr. Robertson , of Ladykirk , named Valentine .

At that period , Mr.

Robertson's stock of Short-Horns was in its glory. The dam of this bull was got by a red bull, never named , bred by Mr. Thomas Smith , now at

Buckden, then at Grindon, in Northumberland, and was a son of his old roan bull Duke ;and at that period few farmers had so high a bred stock

as Mr. Smith. The grand -dam was one of twin quey -calves produced by a heifer, purchased in calf by Mr. Brown from Mr. Mason , of Chilton.

One of the twin calves, when a 2 -year-old quey , Mr. Brown sold to the late Duke of Buccleuch for 50 guineas, and the other he retained for him self. I purchased this bull when 1 year old from Mr. Brown for 20

guineas, and kept him at Balmadies, in Forfarshire, for 8 years, during

which time he proved himself a sure and excellent calf-getter,and evinced a gentleness of disposition to every person who approached him , in a re markable degree for a bull. He had many good points - small head, lively eye, small, fine, white horn. He was well filled up behind the shoulder, at f, fig.439, a point in which many bulls are deficient. He had a long quarter from g , a difficult point to attain in a bull, carrying the flesh of the

hocks d ; a thick flank e ; ribs round, forming a straight line from the * For Valentine's pedigree, see Coates's Herd Book, vol. i. ( 970)

BOOK OF THE FARM .

SHORT HORN COWO .

A.

a

TRS.GILBERT

Enten

/// Me

Plate XV .

! !

THE

443

POINTS OF CATTLE .

shoulder-point in front of f, past g, to the margin of the round above d. His fore-arın h was very strong ; neck -vein full ; and the crest of his neck a fine and not lumpy, as is Fig. 439. too often the case in bulls ; his

hooks and back were remarkably

straight and broad , measuring across the hook -bones at 6 36 in

ches ; the rump between b and c was full and round , and the tail head c was remarkably level and

fine, showing no undue develop ment of muscle , as is often the wwwww

case here — a deformity too gen

ME

erally admired , and in so far

shows a prevalence ofbad taste.

THE SHORT-HORN BULL .

His neck and shoulders were

strewed over with curled locks of long hair, the entire body being thickly covered with long soft hair ; the face was garnished with curled hair in a line down in front of each eye ; and the roots of the horns were hidden

with long hair falling over the forehead. His hide was thick and mellow, and the touch fine. He had a most robust constitution , never having had a day's illness in his life of nine years. Unfortunately I had nomeasure ment taking of him before he was killed fat, when the butcher, Mr. John ston of Arbroath, informed me he weighed 139 stones imperial, sinking the offals. His flesh was fine, much more like ox than bull beef.

Fig. 440, given below , are the portraits of three Short-Horn cows be longing to the Duke of Buccleuch, at Dalkeith Park, in Mid -Lothian .

They are all of pure blood ,being descended from Mr. Robertson of Lady kirk's stock, whenMr.John Rennie had a part of them in his possession at Phantassie in East-Lothian.

The cow , a roan, whose side view is Fig. 440. Xc

THE SHORT-HORN COWS .

given, was in a lean state when the portraitwas taken ; but the likeness is the more valuable on that account, in giving an idea of the skeleton, which in her case is very fine. She is the beautifulKilmeny, got by Match 'em.

The hook-bone b is finely prominent, and at the same time

level ; the ribs e round ; the shoulder-blade d sloping ; the top of the

shoulder a broad : the neck-vein at g fine ; the muscle at f well develop ed ; the tail-head c level with the hooks; and the udder å hemispherical, the teats being pendant at equal distances. The uncommon half-slouching, half-projecting form of her horns, and a staring of the eyes, give her coun tenance, though her head is otherwise fine, a somewhat more austere aspect than cows generally have.

The front view of the red cow in the

middle is intended to show the breadth ofthe fore-quarter from p tor, the roundness of the ribs at P, the depth of brisket at s, and the width of space upon which the fore-legs stand. The hind view of the white cow , (97L)

444

THE BOOK OF THE FARM .

on the right, shows the broad space between the hooks from I to k, and the same across the pelvis from m to n , 2 points essential in the cow, as a safe breeder of full-grown calves. The form of the udder behind at o shows the proper position of the 2 hind teats, and exhibits the loose, soft skin above the udder, which is characteristic of good milkers.

The 3 colors, roan, red, and white, were purposely chosen to show the common colors which the Short-Horns bear. Though thus divided into 3, only 2 colors are, in truth , sported by Short-Horns, namely, red and white, the roan being a mixture of the other 2. The roan is a handsome color, and is, I believe, the general favorite now ; thefancy for color having gone from the red to the white, and is now settled on the roan. Dark -red usually indicates hardiness of constitution , richness of milk, and disposition to fat ten ; light-red indicates great quantity of thin milk, and little disposition to fatten ; but the red in either case is seldom entire, being generally relieved with white on thesides, and the belly, as in the case also of the bull de scribed above. White was considered indicative of delicacy ofconstitution ; and to get quit of it, and at the same time avoid the dullness of red, the roan was encouraged, and now prevails. I think I have observed that white animals show the symptoms sooner than any other color of being bred in and-in.

A single black hair on the body, and particularly on the nose ; or the slightest dark spot on the flesh -colored skin upon the nose, or around the

eyes, or the horns tipped with black, at once proclaim that a Short-Horn sporting either of these is not pure bred - all attestation to the contrary be ing of no avail . To show that careful breeding improves the head of every breed of

cattle, specimens of the heads of 3 celebrated breeds are given, one being the Long- Horns, a breed not confined to England, as it extends over Ireland, though it is only in England that fine specimens of the breed are to be seen.

This is the breed which the famous Bakewell improved in

Leicestershire, a few years before the Collings improved the Short-Horns,

by which they established to themselves a fame which eclipsed that of Bakewell as a breeder of cattle ; not because they understood the princi ples of breeding cattle better than he did, but, fortunatelyfor them, they selected a better subject to deal with — the Short-Horns. Their fame, how

ever, was not established at the cost of that of Bakewell, for he had already acquired an imperishable name as a breeder, in the improvement of the old Leicestershire breed of sheep ; but it must be owned that when the Col lings advanced beyond Bakewell as breeders of cattle, the advancement was the more meritorious inbeing made in competition with so very for midable a rival. The Long-Horns were originally called Leicesters ; but having long horns, they were so named in contradistinction to the Durham breed , whose horns were short ; and, besides , Bakewell's improved sheep were as often called Leicesters as the Dishley breed .

Fig. 441 .

The Long-Horn bull, a likeness of whose head is here given in fig. 441, belonged to Mr. R. Horton, in Warwickshire, and

was shown, and obtained the firstprize of his class at the Show of the Royal

Agricultural Society of England at Ox ford, in July, 1839, when he was 4 years 2 months old.

E

It will be observed that THE HEAD OF A LONG -HORN BULL.

the muzzle is fine, the eye large and ex (972)

THE POINTS OF

445

CATTLE .

pressive, the horns fine, tapering, and sharp -pointed, and the entire counte

nance agreeable. His color was light-brown, brindled with black stripes. The skin of the nose and around the eyes dark -flesh calor. The slouch ing position of the horns is very common in the Long -Horn breed ; they

are brown, with a few reddish streaks, and tipped with brownish black.

Another breed to which much attention has been paid, is the Hereford ,

which has long been famed for its excellent steers. Fig.442is the portrait of the head of a Hereford ox which belonged to Mr. S.Druce of Ensham , in Oxfordshire, and was shown at Ox

ford , at the Show of the Royal Agricul tural Society of England , in July , 1839, when 4 years 4 months old.

Fig . 442.

It will at

once be observed that the muzzle is fine,

the eye large and full, and the horns small, tapering, and sharp -pointed . A white face is quite common in the Hereford breed , with white horns , and brownish -red points .

The body is either dark or light-red and white, a common color, or å dark rich

chestnut-brown, which is becoming fash ionable . The skin on the nose and around

the eyes is fine flesh - color .

The West- Highland has long been famed in Scotland as a superior breed of cattle.

THE HEAD OF A HEREFORD OX.

They have most of the points of

the Short-Horns in the body, which is covered with shaggyhair, that bids defiance to the keenest blasts and the most drenchingrains. Fig. 443 gives an idea of the head of an ox belonging to Mr. Campbell

Fig. 443.

of Jura , which was shown with

another, as apair, atthe High land and Agricultural Society's Show at Inverness, in October , 1839 .

It will be observed that

the muzzle is fine, eye large and full, and the horns small ,

tapering, sharp -pointed, white, and tipped with black . The color of the body is usually black , sometimes red, and not

unfrequently dun. The black colored, in my opinion , makes

the most profitable animal to the feeder . The skin on the

nose , and around the eyes , is always black . There is a breed of cattle THE HEAD OF A WEST -HIGHLAND OX .

extensively cultivated in Scot land, the importance of which consists in affording milk for the purposes of the dairy. It is a remarkable circumstance in the history of the breed ing of this race for the dairy, that the very oppositepoints have been cul

tivated by its breeders, which I have described as being essential in the opinion of the best breeders of every other race. The breed I allude to is the Ayrshire. The points considered good in an Ayrshire bull, by the (973)

446

THE BOOK OF THE FARM.

breeders of that species of stock , are a broad, short head, the horns

spreading from the side of the head a little in front, and turning upward. The top of the shoulder sharp, back narrow, ribs, of course , flat, hooks confined, hams thin, tail-head somewhat drooping, belly enlarged, and legs very short. These are all points contrary to those of a good Short Horn ; and the points in which they agree are a straight back, loose mel low skin, large eye and small horn. The cows are best liked for a very

sharp shoulder and widehooks and pelvis, inwhich case the ribs are flat and the belly large. The udder is desired to be hemispherical, well forward, and provided with loose, soft skin behind.

I am satisfied that the points thus desiderated by Ayrshire breeders are not necessarily promotive of the principal object they have in view , namely, a large quantity of milk ; for though it cannot be denied that Ayrshire cows are generally good milkers, it is attributable, in my opinion , more to the great length of time they have been devoted to that particular purpose, and which property has now become inherent in the breed, than to the form which the breeders promote ; and my reason for thinking so is this : it is well understood, in large dairies in large towns, that the Short-Horns prove

the most steady milkers, that is, they continue to yield

milk in large quantities for a longer period than any other breed. When they are not allowed to bear calves, they will continue to yield milk un til they are fat enough for the butcher ; and when allowed to bear calves, they will give milk to within 5 or 6 weeks of the time of calving. Now it is averred by Ayrshire breeders, that the points cultivated in Short Horns are for the purpose of yielding flesh ; and the averment is quite

true ; but if the points which yield flesh are also favorable to yielding milk, as the experience of dairymen in towns has proved, and their pref erence of Short-Horns to others testify, it is clear that it is not in conse quence of cultivating points in the Ayrshire breed of entirely an opposite character to those of the Short-Horns, that the Ayrshire yields so large a

quantity of milk ;but that it must depend upon some other quality, oth erwise the Short-Horns should yield little or no milk, but entirely flesh

I had a light-red Short-Horn cow , which gave 17 Scots pints of milk at the hight of the grass season , and

which is found not to be the case.

would scarcely go dry before calving ; and have seen another roan cow , which gave 30 pints a day for 3 months, and had to be milked for relief 5 times a day.

Horns of Cattle. There is much to be observed in the set and form of the horns of cattle. Small, short, slouching horns on a 2 or 3 year old steer give a grave and majestic cast to the countenance. Horns rising outward from the side of the head, and looking up, and bending backward, never fail to impress one with the conviction that their bearer is an ill tempered brute, and ready to use them offensively on all occasions. Horns curving laterally and horizontally forward, give a finished appearance to the top of the head, when viewed in front, as exemplified in the figure of the lesser Short-Horn cow in Plate XV. When horns are long, and rise outward, forward, and elevate their points, they impart a very majestic mien to the ox, as shown in fig. 443 of the West-Highland ox.

Some

horns are set looking backward behind the head, and give an idea of mal formation. A horn thick at the root never looks well, neither does one

that is blunted at the point; and both kinds are associated with dull feed ers ; nor do those which spring outward and then turn downward, look

well, as shown in the left-hand Short-Horn cowin Plate XV. A good horn is small where it emerges from the head, and tapers gradually to a fine point. A white horn is better than a dark -colored , and a finishing of (974)

BOOK OF THE FARM .

PLATE XXXII.

SHORT HORN BULL .

BOOK OF THE FARM

SHORT HORN OX .

PLATE VI .

im w

Bob Dylusbreton

THE POINTS OF SHEEP.

447

brown or black at the tip, according to the breed, is a good outset, though many Short-Horns, especially of white color, have their horns all white, and being short, do not seem obtrusive - indeed, in most Short -Horns the

horns serve more for ornament than purposes of defence. Oxen with spreading horns are better feeders than those which contract toward the front. Horns indicate the age of cattle. At 3 years of age the horn has

attained its state of uniform growth ; that is to say, it is uniformly smooth from the root to the tip. Every year after the horn is protruded from the head, with a notch on it, so that by counting the number of notches,

and adding 3 to the number, the age of the animal may be ascertained. Tricks arepracticed by fraudulent dealers, by filing down the notches, to make the animal appear younger than it is ; but a slight inspection of the

horn will easily detect the fraud ; and the period of the year, whether late or early, in which the animal was born, will have some effect on the notches of the horn . *

Sheep. Of the numerous varieties of sheep cultivated in Great Britain, I have only selected 3 for illustration here, as these include all the breeds brought up in Scotland, though another has been partially introduced. The three varieties alluded to are the Leicester, the Cheviot, and the Black -faced, and the supplementary variety, as it may be called, is the South-Down.

The three varieties are well suited, not only for the climate

of Scotland, but also for the peculiar zones, as they may be termed, into which the pasturage of that country is subdivided . The Leicesters are adapted toheavy pastures and sheltered fields in low lands. The Cheviot is equally well fitted for the middle range of green pastures to be found in the pastoral districts of the South and North of Scotland. While the

Black -faced derive their chief support from the heathy pastures of the mountains; at least that range of country forms the nurseries of this hardy race .

Plate XXXIII. contains the portrait of a Leicester tup belonging to Mr. This animal exhibits the peculiar properties of the breed to which he belongs ; the principal of which are, a white face and Torr of Riby. *

legs covered with hair, hornless head , and body enveloped in long wool. The individual characteristics of this tup are, rectangular carcass, round

rib, small bone, fine head, small muzzle, large, full eye, and expressive countenance ; but his ears are much shorter than usual.

The head of

the tup is broader across the eyes than that of the ewe or wether, and

the skin becomes wrinkled upon the nose when he gets aged. The wool is thick -set, long, of good quality, and the fleece covers the entire body above and below - a mark of sound constitution , and a great

means of preserving the animal from the bad effects of the weather above, and of the dampness of the ground below. A level broad back from neck to rump, and across the ribs, is characteristic of the Leicester,

and on being turned up,a broad chest and fullness on the inside of the hams. The touch should be equally mellow along the back, a hardness

in any part indicating a defect. In ordinary condition, the flesh above the tail-head is nicked, which may be easily felt with the points of

the fingers; but when in high condition, which they should be at tupping time in autumn, the nicking should extend all the way from the shoulder top to the tail. The rib should also be well covered with flesh and fat, and, indeed, a round rib is almost always so. Fig. 444, given on page 448 , contain the portraits of a Leicester ewe and limb belonging to Mr. Brodie, Abbey Mains, in the county of Had

dington.

The Leicester ewe's head is generally long, narrow , and clean,

* See a paper on this subject in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iii. 1975)

448

THE BOOK OF THE FARM .

with fine muzle, prominent eyes, and long, broad, thin ears . The bone is small and fine. In this particular instance the body is well-wooled and formed . The counter g is full; the shoulder well filled up behind at a ; the rib at f round and full , and the loin at e not hollow, as is sometimes

the case, particularly after ewes have borne a number of lambs. In re

gard to the wool it is full behind the ears on the top of the neck at k, thus Fig . 444.

LEICESTER EWE AND LAMBS .

keeping these organs protected ; it is also full toward the cheeks at h, which keeps the throat warm ; the belly is well covered with wool below at b ; and so is the fank c ; the rump'd has rather a redundancy, and it affects even the shape ; but gimmers,that is, ewes of their first lamb,often produce a large quantity of wool on this point, which afterward reduces it self to an equality of the rest of the body ; but it is a good property in a

ewe to have plenty of wool on the ramp, to protect the anal and vaginal passages below the tail , and it is also an indication that the tail-head is

placed nearly on a level with the back. It is no uncommon occurrence in a Leicester ewe to bear twin-lambs, nor is it uncommon to wean twins to

the extent of 50 per cent. of the whole flock , some of the ewes bearing

twins every year, while others only occasionally, The Leicester breed of sheep has been cultivated with very great care in Great Britain, since the days of Bakewell, who broughtthem in his own lifetime to a very high degree of perfection. Many of the flocks in the kingdom can trace their pedigree to that of Bakewell, with as much truth as the purest stud of the race-horse, or the purest herd of Short-Horns, though no Flock-Book has been kept to record the names of the most re

nowned sheep ; a circumstance which excites in me much surprise. The breed is deserving of theutmost attention thatcan be bestowed upon it, as it possesses manyvaluable properties. Theindividuals are in themselves handsome, displaying a beautiful contour, with a pleasant aspect. Their disposition is so amiable that they have no desire to overleap a fence; and this disposition, no doubt, is fostered by their aptitude to fatten. The re

sult of their condition is a large proportion of flesh to bone, and of useful parts to the offal. Many people affect to dislike the mutton , as being too

fat and flavorless. The muscle is certainly larger-grained than that of the other 2 breeds, and the fibres are intermixed with fat ; but though the

mutton may be disliked, for these reasons, by the higher orders, the breed being generally of robust constitution the meat is always wholesome, and

acceptable to work -people. Colliers, who eat a large quantity of meat, will have none other. For these reasons, Leicesters are more profitable to the farmer, where they can be reared, than any other breed. The wool is of

the most valuable description, not on account of the fineness of its quality, (976;

449

THE POINTS OF SHEEP.

for many short-wooled sheep have much finer wool; but its great length, as well as its tolerably fine quality, renders it useful in the manufacture of all fabrics which require combing wool, and in which worsted is employ ed. This wool seems peculiar to the British climate ; for in no other coun

try have sheep-breeders 'succeeded in raising it of the same quality ; the

pile becoming shorter or coarser in warm countries. So long, therefore, as peculiar fabrics are made from Leicester wool, the breeders of Leicesters need not fear the want of a steady, if not a high market for their wool; and it must always be in demand, since no other country can compete in raising it to the same degree of perfection.

Fig. 445 represents the head of a Cheviot tup which gained the first prize of his class at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at Aberdeen in 1840, and was shown Fig. 445.

by Messrs. Craig , Bighouse ,Suther landshire .

It will be observed that

the its face is longer than that Leicester, muzzle not so fine, eye not so full, ears set not so high and

handsomely upon the top of the head, and there is a rugosity of the skin across the bridge of the nose . In the white face , and want of horns, the Cheviot resembles the Leicester . The wool is short, thick set, and of fine quality , fit for the manufacture of inferior qualities of broadcloths.

The carcass is usual THE HEAD OF A CHEVIOT

TUP .

ly unequal, the fore -quarter being r , and a lighter than the hind - narrow in front, with thefore-legs set neaed want of depth and breadth in the counter. The flesh is fine -grain , often well intermixed with fat, and is generally esteemed for the table. The dis

position of the Cheviot is somewhat suspicious, with an inclination to rove ; which disposition renders the breed rather unkindly to feed , at least at an early age. The Cheviots, as their name implies, had their origin in the Cheviot Hills,

in Northumberland. They occupy almost all the pastoral hills of the south of Scotland, especially from the center of the country to the east ward. They are localized in some of the bestparts of the Grampian moun tains , and are to be found as far north as the hills of Caithness and Suther

land. They may, therefore, be regarded as a hardy race, and are well suit ed, on that account, for the middle green pastures of the mountainous parts of our country .

The South - Downs are little known in Scotland ; but what is known of them is favorable to their character.

Like the Cheviot, they are covered

with short, thick -set, fine wool, which is of a dusky brown color, and it also affects the hair which covers the face and legs. They are a hornless breed. In symmetry of body they are much superior to the Cheviot, bringing their

quarters, like the Leicester, to an equality. Their flesh is fine- grained, and, as high-flavored mutton, is preferred to thatof the Cheviot in the Lon don market. They have also a gentler disposition, and are in consequence better feeders.

The only doubt with the South -Downs, on their introduc

tion into Scotland, was their ability to withstand the damp climate of our sub-alpine pastures. The experience of several years has proved that they

are capable of enduring any climate with the Cheviot and this being the 1977) ...... 29

459

THE BOOK OF THE FARM .

case, with their other superior qualities, they bid fair to rival and per haps ultimately to displace that breed. Hitherto, however, they have only been tried in a few places. Mr. Hugh Watson has had them at Keillor, in Forfarshire, for more than 20 years, andthey have thriven with him upon the

pastures of the Sidlaw Hills.

The Duke of Richmond

has them in Morayshire . Our small flocks are scattered through the country.

Figs. 446 and 447 represent the heads of a Black-faced ram and ewe The ram , fig. 446, was shown by Mr. Robert M'Turk , Hastings's-Hall, in Dumfriesshire, at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at Ber wick-upon-Tweed in 1841, Fig. 446 . where it obtained the first

prize of its class. As indica tive of the long period and care with which the breed

has been cultivated , we have only to look at the tapering face, small muzzle, and full

eye, exhibited by the speci mens in the figures. The Black -faced ram has always an arched nose, expressive of

boldness and courage. The face and legs are covered witb black or mottled hair,

mostly the latter. The head is horned ; and the horns are

F

considered as picturesque an object as is exhibited by any animal of this country . The wool is long and coarse,which render it of small value as an article of manufacture , and

THE HEAD OF A BLACK-FACED RAM .

being thin -set exposes the body to the inclemency of the weather

It is

to assist the animal for this latter defect in the fleece that the filthy opera tion of smearing is resorted to. The carcass is well formed, carrying its

depth forward to the brisket better than the Cheviot ; but still the entire

body is narrow , owing to the flatness of the ribs, which gives too much lightness to the whole carcass ; or want of substance, as it is commonly called. The flesh is fine-grained, high flavored, greatly esteemed, and can be fed sufficiently faton the turnips andpastures of the low country. The breed is very hardy, frequenting the highest parts of our heath-clad moun tains, and in summer require little care from the shepherd .

As withcattle,the horns of sheep affordfacilities for ascertaining the age of the animal. In fig. 446, the age of the tup is distinctly marked, the 1st year's growth being evidently the space from the point of the horn to the letter a ; the 2d year is from a to b , the growth of the dinmont being

stronger than that of the hogg ; the 3d year's growth is marked from b to c ; the 4th, from c to d , which great growth shows the vigorous state which

the animal had attained at that age; aud this is no doubt the most vigor ous period of the life of a sheep ; and the 5th year's growth is shown from d to e.

The respective ages of the ewe, fig. 447, and of the wether, may

be traced in like manner, but the horns not attaining the full develop ment in them as in the ram, the yearly marks cannot be discerned (978)

THE POINTS OF SWINE .

without minute examinatian .

451

As to this figure of the ewe it is eri

dently that of a young one, probably a maiden ewe or gimmer, or at most with the first lamb.

Plate XXVIII. exhibits a group of fat wethers of the 3 native breeds

Fig. 447.

we have been considering and illus trating ; but all the animals com posing the group are by no means

alike favorable specimens of their respective breeds . The Black -faced

wether is a good specimen , and many such are brought fat to the

Edinburgh market overy winter. They are fed in Forfar, Fife, and Perth shires , on turnips in winter, but the finest fat are those fed on

turnips in East -Lothian — that coun ty affording by far the best feeding land for stock in Scotland .

The

Cheviot is evidently not a wether ,

THE HEAD OF A BLACK - FACED EWE .

being only a dinmont, and not purebred ; and on both these accounts isnot a ripe specimen . The letter P is left on the rump to show the tar-mark of the farm on which , or the name of the farmer by whom it had been bred.

The lightness of the fore -quarter, characteristic of this breed is, however, now -a-days, the dinmonts attaining a sufficient degree of fatness for all use fulpurposes . The figure in the Plate is a dinmont, and not a favorable speci very well shown in the figure. It is rare to meet with Leicester wethers men, not being pure bred, and loo small for the breed. The characteristic

distinctions of the three breeds are, however , sufficiently marked in the heads of the figures given in the Plate. A desire seemstobe spreading in this country for the naturalization of the Alpaca from South America . It is the opinion of those who have seen

the Alpaca in its native country, that it would thrive well on our highest mountains, upon the coarsest fare that can be obtained - upon what, in

fact, is refused by even Black -faced sheep - and at the same timeyield a coat of fine wool, far finer and longer than any grown in this kingdom. Could this opinion be established by experiment,the cultivation of the ani mal would be worth attempting on a large scale ; and no doubt sufficient

supplies would be obtained of it in a few years. As yet, the subject is only under discussion.*

Swine. — There are many breeds of swine existing in the country ; and whatever denomination they may pass under, if they do not possess the points exhibited in the adjoining fig. 448, and in the Plate , they may be pro nounced defective. Herethe same rules apply, notonly of symmetry, aswe

have seen in fig. 431, but points of breeding. The head a is small, the face tapering to the muzzle or snout i, which isshort and fine, the ears set on the crown of the head, being broad, thin, long, and so mobile as to indi cate quickness of perception. The value of the head, as an article of food,

is indicated by the enlargement of the muscle upon the cheek h. The neck from a to b is full ; the back from b to c, broad ; the

rump from c to

* A little work ,named The Alpaca, by Mr. William Walton of Liverpool,published by Blackwood in 1844, gives an interesting account of this animal, both historical and natural. The author seems to know the

habits of the animal ; considers that it would thrive to a profitable extent in this country ; and details the particularsof a practicable plan by which a regular and sufficient supply of it, at a remunerative rate , might be obtained .

(979)

452

THE BOOK OF THE FARM .

d full and round, and the roundness descends to the hams ; the ribs f are round ; the space behind the shoulder at g filled up , and so is the flank e ; the shanks k are small and short, and

Fig. 448.

finely tapered. A pig with these pro perties is always in a condition for use from the state of a pig sucking milk, through its progress of porkling and

8

Willa

shott till it attain the full size for bacon

and hams. Such a breed never requires

feeding, and as it is always in condition, it must only have time to grow to the

size wanted, when a little firming ofthe flesh by corn is all that is required to prepare it for slaughter. The slouch -eared breed

that

pre

THE BROOD -SOW .

vailed in the country is fast being supplanted by the one I have been de scribing ; because , wherever such a character of ear is seen, it is universally accompanied with length of leg, length of nose, narrowness of back, and dilatoriness in feeding. I believe the prick -ears, short snouts, and full cheeks, may be traced to an improvement derived from the Chinese breed, which possess those points even to a deformity. The cross with our old bony breeds has been the means of disseminating through the country a race of beautiful, profitable, delicate -fleshed pigs. Fig. 449. Fig. 449 represents the head of a boar belonging to the Duke of Buccleuch , and

the brood-sow represented in the Plate, is also from His Grace's stock .

The

boar, though evidently full-grown and large, bears the same character of

pricked ear, tapering face, short nose, ME

and full cheeks, and the flesh of the

N

neck is seen to be fully able to support the fullness of the head ; these pigs are,

moreover, strong-constitutioned , and cov ered with plenty of white hair and valua ble bristle. Their temper is generally docile, and the animals seldom wander far

from the steading, or engage in mis chievous pursuits.

THE HEAD OF A BOAR.

Teeth . — The teeth are far more imperfect organs to the domesticated animals than the horns.

The horns are the instruments of defence and of

attack ; and, in the situation in which those animals are placed, are seldom put in requisition, and the more seldom the better ; but the teeth are the instruments by means of which their food is broken and masticated in

winter, and cropped and masticated in summer ; and this being the case , the condition of the animal mainly depends upon the state of soundness in which the teeth may be preserved.

There is one similar property be

tween the horns and teeth of animals ; both furnish data by which the age

of the animal may be ascertained. You have already seen how the horns are indicative of the age ; we shall now advert to the manner in which the

teeth may be examined for the same purpose.

Fig. 450 represents the left half of the head of an adult horse, viewed internally, and so figured as to show the origin of thefifth pair of nerves , and the nervous branches which go to the teeth ; and for this reason the

figure may be consulted with equal advantage for a knowledge of the dis (980)

THE TEETH OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS .

453

tribution of the nervous system and of the teeth. The milk -teeth of the horse consist of 12 incisors, 6 in each side of the head ; and of molars 16 in number, 8 on either side of the head - in all 28 teeth .

The teeth

Fig . 450.

til

E

THE VERTICAL SECTION OF THE HEAD OF THE ADULT HORSE, SHUWING THE TEETH AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN CONNECTION WITH THEM.

ofthe seconddentition are 40 in number, of which 28 have replaced the milk -teeth . Those between the incisors and molars, called the canine or tusks, do not appear along with the teeth at an early age. Others complete the arch by occupying the room made by the growth of the jaws ; these are new molars which come out of both jaws. The full set consists of12 incisors, 4 canines, and 24 molars — in all 40 in number. In fig. 450, a are the incisors, 6 the canine or tusks, and c the molars.

" This is the order of coming out of the second or permanent dentition of the horse," observes M. Rousseau .

“ The first permanent molar, which

is situate behind the last milk-molar, presents itselfbefore any of the milk

teethhave fallen , and makes its appearance upon the maxillary arch from the 11th to the 13th month after birth ; it will be, by numerical number,

the 4th persistent molar, when all the milk -molars have fallen . The 5th permanent molar, which is situate behind the preceding tooth, breaks the edge of the socket from the 14th to the 20th month . During this time

the decaying teeth die from their roots, and wear down their crowns to such a degree that the hollow which characterizes the surface of the in cisors at certain periods cannot be observed, so that the veterinarians call them lost -mark . " The central incisor or pincer is ordinarily of the 9th or 11th month ; the lesser incisor from the 11th to 13th month ; and the lat eral incisor or corner-tooth , from the 14th to the 20th month. Once these

teeth cease to have mark, they bear upon their surface a smooth trace. brown and indelible, which diminishes the more that the teeth approach their fall. The first permanent molar replaces the first and second milk molars from 2 years to 21 years. The Central incisor appears upon the edge of the socket after the coming out of the 5th permanent molar, from 21 to 3 years. The 2d permanent molar replaces the 3d milk -molar a little after the same term , or 1 or 2 months ofdifference. The 3d perma

nent molar replaces the 4th decaying molar at 3 years ; at this time also appears the 6th and last molar. The lesser incisor from 31 to 4 years. The canine or tusks appearfrom

4 to 4 years. At last the second denti

tion isordinarily terminated by the lateralincisor or corner -tooth. It must (981)

454

THE BOOK OF THE FARM .

not be thought, however, that thecoming out, as I have endeavored to in dicate as the most ordinary, is without variation ; this would be to give to

Nature too regular a march. All teeth in general are the more devel oped that they belong to a large and robust subject.” Fig. 451 gives a similar representation of the dental system of the adult Fig. 451.

THE VERTICAL SECTION OF THE HEAD OF THE ADULT OX , SHOWING THE TEETH AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN CONNECTION WITH THEM .

ox , and of the nervous system connected with it, that the preceding figure gives of those of the horse. The milk -teeth of the ox are, 8 incisors on the lower jaw, and none on the upper, and 12 molars, 3 on each jaw. In the adult ox are 8 incisors on the lower jaw , and none on the upper ; and and there are 24 molars, 6 on each jaw. In the figure, a are the incisors, b the molars, and the same configuration exists in the sheep ." 6. In the second dentition, these teeth show themselvesupon the edgeof the socket in the following order,” says M. Rousseau : “ The 4th permanent molar comes out from the 4th to the 6th month after birth, and commences the

second dentition. The 1st or central replacing incisor from the 15th to the 22d month. The 5th or penult molar, from the 18th to the 22d month The second replacing molar, as also the 2d incisor of this order, appear from the 28th to the 32d month. The 3d replacing molar, as also the 3d incisor, come out very near at the same time, that is, from the 38th to the 48th month. The 6th , or last molar, from the 44th to the 52d month. At iength the 4th permanent incisor tooth terminates the 2d dentition, which

is ordinarily completed when the animal has not yet attained its 5th year.” Fig. 452 givesa section of the head of a wild boar, in which the denta) and nervous systemsare distinctly delineated ; a are the superior incisors;

b the superior lateral incisor ; *c the inferior incisors ; d the upper canine or defence tusk ; e the inferior canine or defence tusk, the origin and form of which may be easily traced ; and f are the molars. I haveselected the head of the wild boar for illustration, because the character of all the

teeth, and particularly that of the tusks, is more strongly developed than The tusks of the sow are comparatively short of the ordinary pig are 32 in number, namely ,

in the domesticated boar. and weak The milk -teeth

12 incisors, 4 canines or tusks, and 16 molars half of which numbers are (982)

THE TEETH OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS .

455

on each side of the head. The second dentition is only completed as soon as as all the milk-teeth have fallen ; and these are not only replaced, but 3 other molars on each jaw

rise

up, one after the other, until the whole dental arch Fig. 410.

THE VERTICAL SECTION OF THE HEAD OF THE WILD BOAR, SHOWING THE TEETH AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN CONNECTION WITH THEM,

is completed, when the entire complement is 44 teeth, of which 22 are on the upper, and 22 on the lower jaws, and they are divided thus : 12 in cisors, 4 tusks, and 28 molars. These teeth are composed of 2 substances, the one bony, the other enameled.

“ The tusks are each inclosed in a

socket, filled with a substance analogous to the marrow of the long bones ; it is most remarkable and most abundant in the inferior tusks. These

teeth are only, provided with enamel upon the external face of the per

manent tusks.” *

In regard to the indications of age by means of the teeth, in the horse the marks on the crowns of the front teeth on the lower jaw are almost always obliterated, or at least cannot be depended on after 9 years of age .

After that period, the only means of judging is by the quantity of matter ground off the top of the teeth, and by the distance between the teeth ; the older the horse gets, the wider the space between them becomes. In re gard to the grinding down of the teeth, however, you should know that pasturage on sharp land, and support on hard meat, such as unbruised corn and beans, will wear down teeth much faster than pasturage on soft

land and prepared food. The same remark applies to cows which have been pastured on sharp or soft land, and been fed on straw and turnips, or on boiled food, and it is only applicable to them ; for as to steers, their age cannot be mistaken, from the growth and condition of the body. The teeth of cows also stand wider as they advance in years.

A horse's mouth is easily opened for the purpose of examination, by in troducing a finger by the side of the mouth into the space betweenthe in cisor and molar teeth, where, in short, the bit of the bridle lies, upon the tongue, when the horse will play with his mouth , to get quit of the finger,

and show as much of the lower teeth as to satisfy your curiosity. Some sulky horses require to have their lips held asunder ; and vicious ones will even strike out with the fore -feet when their mouth is meddled with .

I had a cart-mare, the moment her mouth was attempted to be held for examination, she would wheel round quickly, and kick with the hind -feet at the person attempting it. A cow's mouth cannot be examined without * Rousseau's Anatomie Comparée du Systême Dentaire, p . 205-230 - a very complete and elegant work . (983 )

456

THE BOOK OF THE FARM .

first taking hold of her nose, elevating her mouth, and drawing down her under-lip. Some cows will not allow themselves to be taken by the nose, and the thing can only be done in such a case by stratagem . Some, again , have such a power in the nose by curling up the nostrils when held , that its squeeze against the holder's fingers renders them soon poweriess ; but a steady pinch of the thumb-nail against the septum of the nose will make

any cow give way, provided the person has strength to hold her firmly at the first burst.

I am strongly tempted to give you an account of the physiological re marks of Mr. Walker on the breeding and crossing of the domesticated animals, but find that even an epitome of his observations would occupy a considerable space. I must, therefore, content myself by referring to his very curious, instructive, and not less entertaining work .

41. CARTS AND CARTING.*

In the ordinary progress of the harvest, having gathered the corn togetherby the horse-rake, the next step is to carry it to the barn or the stack -yard. This leads us to the question of carts and wagons. The asserted saving in animal

power, by the employment of one-horse carts in exchange for the ordinary har vest-wagon , has now , for some years, been the subject of occasional discussion among the farmers of England ; the common result of which has been to con

vince pretty generally the English farmer, that on most soils and in many situa tions, for the general purposes of Agriculture, there is a very material saving to be accomplished in horse labor, by their employment inpreference to wagons. “ I early felt convinced," said Mr. Mechi , in the course of some observations he

made in 1847, at a monthly meeting of the London Farmers' Club, “ that it was much easier to carry a load upon animplement which weighed 7 cwts., running

upon one pair of wheels, than upon one which weighed 22 to 24 cwts. running on two pairs of wheels ; my powers of calculation were sufficient to convince me at once thatwe had been committing a perfect barbarism in the matter of wag

ons.” And he alluded with advantage to a valuable paper by Mr. Hannam, on the use of one-horse carts,which some years since appeared in an early volume of the Journal of the Royal English Agricultural Society. In this very excellent paper, Mr. Hannam truly states that the farmers of the counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland have universally, and from time immemorial, used the one horse cart ; they have no other carriage for any kind of agricultural produce, and never is the addition of another horse on any occasion seen. The practice, ap

parently originating in economy, has long since spread into the neighboring Scotch county of Dumfries, and we have the authority of Mr. Wilkie, the well [* For a chapter of 50 pages on the philosophy and the application of Wheel Carriages, which

Mr. Stephens says he had himself at one time deemed uncalled-for, we venture to substitute this one on Carts and Carting, by Cuthbert W.Johnson, F. R. S , as being more modern and better adapted to common use. We find it in “ Modern Agricultural Improvements, intended also as a Supplement to the Farmer's Series of the Library of Useful Knowledge."

By adopting this course we not only present a paper of more general utility on a subject of very general interest, but it enables us to draw the whole work to a conclusion this volume and thus present in two volumes, at a cost of $5, what would cost $25 if imported. In reference to this subject of farm transportation, we have no doubt that great waste is com mitted in the United States in two ways : first, by want of a sufficient number of these and other implements, and next, by the use of heavy, unwieldy wagons in the place of carts, in which the

horse may be said to carry a portion of the weight on his back, which in the wagon he mus. draw , altogether. But we will not presume to go farther, lest we might seem to be anticipating Ed . Farm . Lib.) or otherwise taking the subject out of abler hands. (984)

457

CARTS AND CARTING .

known implement-maker of Addington, near Glasgow , for saying that it is al: but universal at the present moment throughout the West of Scotland.”

As re

lates to the economy of the cart, it is evident that a considerable saving in the

expense for animal labor on a farm may be often accomplished by substituting one- horse carts for wagons. “ I had no other object in entering into this prac tice,” adds Mr. Hannam, “ than lessening my expenses by reducing the number of my horses, and in this I have succeeded beyond my expectations. My farm (at Burcott, in Oxfordshire) of 370 acres, consisting chiefly of gravelly and fer ruginous sandy loams, was some years ago under very able management, with

own a strength of 12 horses and 6 oxen ; and just previous to taking it into my have cultivation , 16 horses had been employed by a very spirited cultivator. I

gradually, by the joint operation of two-horse plows and single-horse carts, re My system , notwithstanding, is such as some what increases my aggregate amount of horse labor beyond that of the surround ing district ; certainly doing a great deal more carting work , although in a few

duced my number to 8 horses.

points of tillage it is transferred to the manual labor. For instance , I grow an nually about 35 acres of mangel and 20 of potatoes, which necessarily cause much carriage, and, together with the other ridged crops, also a good deal of horse-hoeing." The general saving of animal power has been thus stated in a

tabular form by Mr. Hannam , and I am always glad when I can avail myself of such condensed statements, since it is general results which are commonly the most practically valuable. Mr. Hannam calculates that the team labor per cent. expended, with four horses, on a farm of 100 acres, is commonly thus appor tioned :

In plowing.: In horse-hoeing . In dragging

about 50 per cent.

In Suffolk drill, &c

In harrowing

about 12 per cent.

In rolling..

about 38 per cent.

In carting

And that the saving capable of being effected is By two, and occasionally one-horse plows, and double-ridging plows ..... By forking couch grass.. 27 per cent. By pair -horse cat's-claw drag .... By one-horse six -feet heavy rollers, being 33 per cent. in the implement, and 10 or 1 per cent (12 per cent on the general labor where heavy rolling is performed .. .19 per cent. By single-horse -carts ... .47 per cent. Being equal to a total saving of .....

“ Let me now answer the question,” continues Mr. Hannam ,“ which will be asked. In what manner is the saving by single carts of about one-fifth of the usual proportion of horses effected ? By considering that to move a bulk from one spot to another, in the way that field operations are carried on by a continu

ous chain of loading at one end and discharging at the other, seldom less than three carts are employed, and that in the usual practice of the Southern Coun ties one horse occupies the stand-cart or wagon, and three horses each of the other two that are in motion ; the work thus going forward with seven horses. If two horses in a cart are used, five will be the number engaged ; and if four, the number will be nine.

Now, I am prepared to show, not by any series of ex

periments, but by the routine of my farm for the last ten years, that the same amount of work, when at a moderate distance, may be performed by three horses in separate carts ; and that it is only at the greatest distance in which three three -horse carts are able to keep up the chain, that four may be required.

And these willkeepthe same number of (and from low -filling, somewhat fewer) loaders

engaged, and consequently accomplish the moving of an equal bulk . As this may seem a little paradoxical, I will enter into the reasons which combine harnessed 1st. A horse

to effect it.

thus

draws more in proportion with equai

ease ; ?d . The misapplication of his strength in the constant draught of a heavy carriage is prevented ; 3d. He moves more briskly and freely, and turns, & c ., with less loss of time, and when any check occurs, the loss is saved that takes place by the hindrance of a large number ; and lastly, there is a certain con venience and ready manageableness which can be better felt than calculated or described .

(985)

458

THE BOOK OF THE FARM.

“ Practice and general opinion are agreed in assigning a greater power of draught to a horse working singly than to any number harnessed together ; but the amount of difference I have never proved hy actual experiment. Mr. Cul ley, in his Report of the three English Border counties, gives an instance in which the advantage is as three to four ; and another, in which, with a horse of 16 hands, 24 cwts. was the load, on the hilly * road from Hexham to New

castle. I am in the regular practice of sending out to any distance, on a turn pike however hilly, 5 qrs. of wheat, which, with the cart, 8 cwts., seldom It is also considered, universally, that the nearer a horse is to his load the easier will be the draught, but to what extent I have amounts to less than 30 cwts.

never proved .

“ The misapplication of power caused by a heavy carriage is often enormous, there being sometimes, especially by wagons in harvest, double the weight of timber moved, in going backward and forward, to that of produce brought home ; for instance, a common harvest,except at a great distance from the homestead , sel dom exceeds one ton , and one ton more or less is the weight of a wagon : at any

rate, 1 to 1 is the common proportion of the carriage to the harvest load.

It is ad

mitted that there is no perceptible difference between the size of my neighbors' loads and my own ; the weight of my harvest-cart I have stated is about 6 } cwls. ;

therefore my proportion is 1 to 3 ; and under less favorable circumstances than mine, it need never, with a similar carriage, be less than 1 to 2 ; and this goes

a very considerable way to explain why I am able to perform the same work with half the strength , and without straining the powers of my horses. In the dung-carts the case is not quite so strong in my favor, as there is not so large a disproportion in their weight.

“ It is certain that a horse can exert his powers with greater ease and effect

by himself than when incommoded by the diverse pulling of companions, and also that a sluggish animal must draw his own share. In turning, one horse is much more handy than a string ; and no comparison can be made between the turning of a two and four-wheel carriage. I have never practiced trotting.

“ The question ,” concludes Mr. Hannam , “ is not, as is.frequently supposed, whether one horse single can draw more in proportion than any number har. nessed together, which I believe is generally admitted ; it is not altogether which will move the greatest weight ; but the question is, which will transport in the most ready and economical manner the materials required to be passed between the field and the homestead, or between one field and another. For in

the carrying operations of a farm , with the exception of drawing corn to market, a

certain bulk has to be transferred from one point to another, not by one effort, but by a continuous succession of them. Practically speaking, the loading and unloading have to be kept in constant activity by a chain of carriages passing between them.

What, then , is the best and most economical intermediate con

veyance is not an easy matter for consideration. The best implement and best moving power have to be ascertained ; and, among known methods, the selec

tion ranges widely between :he barrow or pack -saddle and the eight-horse Our present consideration , however, is whether one-horse carts are more ready and economical for the purpose than the methods now generally in wagon . use. "

The outlay of capital is certainly in favor of the substitution of carts for wag

ons. Mr. Bowly, of Siddington, has given the following comparative calcula tion of the outlay required by the two systems, on 50 acres of arable land : 1 wagon

£ 25 2 4 -inch wheel one- horse carts ..

1 dung-cart

152horses..

3 horses .. Extra barness

6C

2

Total

Balance in favor of carts

3 Proportionate cost of light cart to 50 acres Total .... £ 105

£ 24 40

£64 41

£105

I had occasion to sendmy skeleton cart with 15cwts.of hay up the steepest hill (Cuddesden ) in this part of the country, and directed a very intelligent laborer to go with it and report : his statement was, that besides observing at a steep descent that the breeching was tightened more than the back -chain, on stopping on the sharpest ascent he found the breast-band tolerably slack ,andthat thehorse drewtheload up this steep point (i in 7) without difficulty ; and he thought he might have managed a ton . " The horse,however, had a knack of thwarting the road," a method of easing the ascent nurses are very ready at in theNorth ; in a wagon they cannot doit. His opinion also was thatfourhorses, with two tons on a wagon, would have very tight work at this part of the hill. (986)

CARTS AND CARTING .

459

“ In conclusion,” says Mr. Bowly, “ I may remark that the principle of one horse carts is quickness of motion ; therefore they must be loaded according to the land to be passed over, so as not to reduce the pace of traveling ; and I can assure those who are timid about them that they are much less liable to acci

dents of every kind than wagons, and that however prejudiced the workman may be against their first introduction , when he becomes acquainted with the system he will prefer it.

The descriptions of carts I make use of are, five common Scotch carts and one skeleton cart; those of the former, with narrow wheels, cost me 10 guineas each ; and with the 4 -inch wheels (which I recommend) £12, with harvest. frame, &c. , complete. The skeleton with narrow wheels cost me £10 ; it will

carry more hay or straw than the others, its loads being in proportion of four and one on a farm may be useful, but it will not answer in dung -carting, and its

carts to three wagons ; it is more convenient for conveying poles, hurdles, &c.;

advantages in harvesting are not sufficient to remunerate for the additional out lay of a double set.”

The one-horse carts, then , we perceive, have been successfully tried , and pre

ferred to wagons in the Northern Counties and in Oxfordshire. We have equally satisfactory evidence of their employment on the stiff claysof Glouces My tershireand the Weald of Kent, and the deep soils of Huntingdonshire. 63

land , " observes Mr. T. Baker, of Hardwicke Court, near Gloucester, “ is a stiff

clay ; my carts are on six-inch wheels, and made to hold half the quantity that my neighbors carry in theirs. My land is hilly ; my carts generally go with one horse ; but up hill, when loaded, another is put on before, which comes down

the hill with the next returning cart. Thus, on level ground, with two carts and two, or perhaps three horses, I take out the same quantity of dung that my neighbors carry in their large carts with never less than three horses,and often

with four. All my carts have reins ; a boy walks and drives them when loaded, but when returning empty he gets into the cart and trots back at the rate of

about five miles an hour, which of course saves about half the time in returning, Here, again, I have a manifest advantage in using lighter and more activehorses. “ Some time ago I made the following trial. Two heaps of stone, of 32 tons

each, were landed froma barge : they were to be taken to the same place , about a mile and a quarter off. A farmerbegan the first with two large carts and three horses ; one cart was being loaded while the other was moving ; and the horses

were taken off and put on at every load. Finding that he could not do it in the day, he gave over at the end of about six hours, and set to again the next morn

ing; this rest, of course , giving him an advantage, as you will see ; but, anxious for their own credit, both he and his man made the very best use of their time.

Their work was completed at eleven loads, (which of course is nearly three tons to each load, or one ton to each horse,) in nine hours and fifty minutes. I be gan the other heap with three small one-horse carts, and completed it in one

day, at twenty-one loads, (being nearly a ton and a half to each horse,) in six hours and one minute ; which was a saving of about three hours and a quarter on nine hours and fifty minutes, or rather more than one-third. In this I had

three decided advantages — first, the saving of time by trotting back ; secondly, the rest that each of my horses got in his turn while his cart was being loaded ; and thirdly, the ease with which my carts were loaded in consequence of being lower. "

“ Having,” remarks Mr. Jesse French , of Rolvenden , " pursued this plan of carrying corn and hay for two years , and one of my neighbors having followed my example last year, I drawthe following conclusion from the observations I have made : that in carrying bound corn , the one-horse cart system has several

advantages over that of 'wagons; and in carrying loose corn or hay, though the loader and he who throws it off may complain, and strong prejudices, theeffect of habit, may possess the minds of all the hands employed, there is, upon the whole, no advantage. Three carts will generally be sufficient where the dis

tance does not exceed half a mile, for one cart to be always loading ; and for every additional half mile, one additional cart will be about sufficient; but this

will depend in a great measure upon the road ." . It is true, as he very justly

adds, that “ there certainly are various things which a farmer may have to carry, for which one- horse carts are not adapted, as timber and hop-poles, which in (987)

460

THE BOOK OF THE FARM .

Kent and Sussex are often carried a long distance. In the same district many

farmers bring their hay from the marshes, a distance of from three to eight miles. For this purpose small carts are not so convenient; and for carrying hay, and particularly where it has to be carried a considerable distance, a small

cart may be enlarged by this expedient. The draught-staples being generally about a foot from the ends of the shafts, by attaching rings to their extreme ends

for the horse to draw by, the wheels will be thrown a foot farther behind the horse ; consequently the fore -ladder may be fixed a foot forwarder on the shafts . This will allow for the tail-ladder to lean farther back, so as the load may bal

ance . By thus lengthening the load, and keeping it a good width, as much hay may be loaded as a horse will be well able to draw . " « And it will be seen , ” remarks Mr. E. Loomes, of Whittlesea, near Peter

borough , “ from the following Table, (which I have laid down from a careful ob servation of the capabilities of one-horse carts and wagons, ) that one horse in a

cart is capable of conveying much more than half what can be carried on a wagon with two horses " : One-horse Carts.

Wheat-sheaves .. Corn - cake, & c .

...cwts .

Two-horse Wagons. .172 Wheat- sheaves... 25 Corn , cake, &c ....

..bush.

Bones

60

Bones

..207 ..cwts .

45

.bush. 100

.......

In dung-carting, under ordinary circumstances, one-horse carts appear to have, in ordinary circumstances, a decided advantage. Mr. Love has given the follow ing comparative Table of the economy of both one and two-horse carts, in the dif ferent distances supposed to be traveled ; and each boy driving is counted as the fourth of a man tipping ; a man's wages is reckoned as 2s. per day, and the ex pense of each horse 3s. per day of nine hours : One-horse

carts.

Distance in furlongs ... Time of traveling a revolution ..

15 3 3 2 10

Number ofhorses ..

Number of carts... Men filling the carts . Time of filling ....

Men tipping and driving Time of tipping .. Total time to each revolution . Number of loads drawn ..

Number of yards drawn Expense of horses.

Expense of men Total day's expenses

Expense of carting thirty yards... Saving by one -horse carts per acre..

11

3 15 3 2 2 15 1

29

54 s. d . 9 0 6

6

8 7 1 71

43 8.

One-horse carts .

Two -horse carts .

3 15 5 5 4 5

3 15 5 3 4

d.

90 6 15

0 0

10

24

5 25 108

108 s . d. 15 11 26

0 6 6

7 44 2 08

One-horse Two - horse carts . carts.

7 35 9 9 4 5

7 11 7

18

71 37

3 30 54

6 15

Two-horse carts.

71

23 5 45 108 108

54 81

8. d. 15 10 25 9

7 35 9 5 4

73

8. d . 27 13 40 11 3

5

0 6 6 3

50 54 81 8. d . 27 0 11 6 38 6 14 3

0

Mr. John Dryden has described a plan for an improvement in single-horse carts, by which the evils of a fixed balance of the load in a cart are avoided ;

and it is probable that the use of the Welsh drag in hilly countries would ma terially facilitate the general employment of one-horse carts. “ That the state of the road has a very material influence upon the animal

power required to draw a given weight over it every person is well aware, but few persons regard the difference between the labor of drawing a carriage over a road in good condition and the same road when out of order. This has been, however, experimentally determined, and we commend to every farmer and every overseer the careful and steady consideration of the results ihus obtained. In these trials it was found that a light carriage with four wheels, weighing

with its load 1,000 lbs., required a force of traction as follows" : On a turnpike-road , when hard and dry .. On the same road when dirty . On a hard, compact loam On an ordinary by -road On a turnpike -road newly graveled . On a loose, sandy road .

30} lbs. 39 53 106

..

.... 143 204

The care with which all drivers avoid the newly graveled portions of a road is (988)

CARTS AND CARTING .

461

well known, yet few of even the best whips, I think, are aware of the enormous difference of pressure upon the collar shown by the previous Table to exist, when the load is passing over a hard and dry turnpike-road, and the same road when newly graveled, composed of loose , sandy materials. The Farmers' Club, then , we cannot but feel , arrived at a tolerably correct conclusion when they thus gave the preference to one-horse carts for the general purposes of the farm . The farmer, however,who resolves to make trial of these advantages, must be firm and resolute, for,like every other alteration, it will hardly fail otherwise of be ing met by a strong opposition from his servants. To this end a hint or two of Mr. Hannam's will be useful ; he observes, “ I market my corn, according to the Northern practice, in the dung-cart ; it is not so convenient to unload sacks from as a wagon, but the load it carries, viz., 5 qrs. [40 bushels at 60 lbs. per bushel, 2,400 lbs.] of wheat, 6 qrs. of barley, and other grain in proportion , and in back carriage half a wagon -load of ashes compensates for small inconveniences. The

only objection that I haveheard the carters make to the system in thus carrying out the corn is that they find themselves singular, and making but a bad figure

by the side of a wagon and team of horses. They should therefore be indulged with a reserve of the best carts, kept well painted, and washed after being used for manures, and with harness a little ornamented."

Of the many excellent carts prepared by variousmakers, we will only lude to two, those of Mr. Crosskill, of Beverlev, and of Messrs. Stratton , of Bri: zl.

THE ONE-HORSE CART OF CROSSKILL OF BEVERLEY.

“ Mr. Crosskill's ," said the Judges of the Shrewsbury meeting, “ is a thor

oughly well made and cheap one-horse cart, having a particularly simple and safe tipping contrivance. The especial reason for awarding to it a premium of £2 was the introduction of a self-acting tail-board, which opens and shuts as the body is tipped, or brought home, so that no time is lost by having to unship and ship a tail-board, whether the contents of the cart have to be discharged at once or at intervals. At the Newcastle meeting it obtained the prize of £ 5. Of the cart of Messrs. Stratton , and of their other excellent implements of a

similar kind, the Judges of the Bristol meeting thus reported : “ The show -yard was rich in an assortment of carts and wagons. To Mr. Richard Stratton, of Bristol, a premium of £10 was assigned for the extraordinary variety and good workmanship of his immense collection ; more particularly for the ingenuity dis played in the construction of a cross-lock wagon, which facilitates its turning in a very small space, and permits the use of four large wheels of equal diameter. A tipping -wagon also possessed much mechanical merit, but it is to be recom mended as better adapted to commercial than to agricultural use. Mr. Stratton

produced an excellent specimen of the low -chested cart, obtained by cranking down the axles, now in such general use by mercantile men and shippers. This disposition, modified to suit farming purposes, well merits the attention of ag riculturists, as it would greatly ease the toil of the laborer. Of Mr. Hannam's (of Burcot) unequaled one-horse harvest-cart, more need not be said than that (989)

462

THE BOOK OF THE FARM .

it cannot be exhibited too often, and that it ought to be found on every farm . To Mr. Robert Law, of Shettleston , near Glasgow , a prize of £3 was awarded

for his Scotch one-horse tipping-cart with a spring-catch to retain it on the

THE CART OF MESSRS . STRATTON & Co. , OF BRISTOL .

shafts. This simple little contrivance is much preferable to pins and cotters; which are apt to shake out, or to be neglected in the fastening, by which tne prizes wer load is not unfrequently let fall.” At the Bristol meeting, two awarded to Mr. Stratton for his carts and wagons, and three at Southampton.

END OF THE BOOK OF THE FARM.

BOOK OF THE FARM

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MANURES, AMELIORATORS AND STIMULANTS : MODES OF MANUFACTURE AND APPLICATION

BY JEAN BAPTISTE DUMAS .

TRANSLATED BY CAMPBELL MORFIT, PRACTICAL AND ANALYTIC CHEMIST.

THE NUTRITION OF PLANTS. BY JEAN BAPTISTE DUMAS. TRANSLATED

BY CAMPBELL MORFIT AND BARNET PHILLIPS.

THE

ACTION OF SALT UPON VEGETATION ; AND

ITS

USE

IN

AGRICULTURE .

BY

M. BECQUEREL AND J. B. LAWES.

NEW-YORK :

GREELEY & McELRATH, TRIBUNE BUILDINGS. 1848.

PREFACE . HAVING finished, in the last number of The FARMERS' LIBRARY

Stephens's " Book of the Farm , ” we dedicate with pleasure the few

remaining pages of this volume of The Library to the following Tract on “ MANURES, AMELIORATORS AND STIMULANTS, ” and on the Action of Salt as a Manure, translated expressly for this work . The authors are all men of distinguished character as scientific investi

gators, and have fortunately given their attention, in this case, to subjects of great moment to Agriculture. The Essay by Dumas will be seen to relate chiefly to the preparation of certain Manures, of which cities supply the materials, and most particu larly to nightsoil.

Perhaps nothing could be referred to that would more forcibly illus trate the carelessness of agriculturists in matters that very nearly concern them , than the neglect, in this country, of this, the most wasted of all fer

tilizers, and the most concentrated and powerful, except the excrement of birds and fowls, which contains more nitrogen . Such are the fertilizing effects of this manure, says an English author of many Prize Essays, that it has been assumed that the excrements of a man , when properly applied,

can be made to produce sufficient corn and roots for his own support. Though this may be an exaggeration, a thousand experiments have proved it to be exceedingly nourishing to vegetation, and, it is said, most particularly to potatoes ! And yet, what immense quantities of it are carried off and lost, especially from our large towns ! What a resource

would the privies of the public buildings at Washington afford, if arrange

ments for preparing their contents were provided according to the direc tions in this Treatise !

It has been said that nightsoil communicates an unpleasant flavor to plants ; but this objection may be easily obviated by mixing it properly

with ashes , or lime, before being applied. In China, where Agriculture is carried to the highest point of productiveness -- from the denseness of the population, and the labor being principally manual- nightsoil is the only manure in use, both for the gardens and the fields.

The nightsoil of Paris is exported to Flanders and the low countries, where, after being converted into liquid manure , it is extensively used being considered particularly convenient and valuable as a top - dressing for grass-lands. We know of but few chances that offer so promisingly of great profil

to the manufacturer and to neighboring cultivators, as establishments for ( 1067)

PREFACE .

IV

the preparation of poudrette, in many large cities where none such havo been provided. It would seem to be superfluous to dwell on the care with which every provident farmer will husband a resource so efficient and valuable. One might as well, it ought to be supposed, exhort a sensible man not to take silver out of his pocket and throw it away ! In appending to the observations of Dumas the remarks of eminent writers and practical agriculturists, on the use of Salt, we had in view to fill with a kindred topic the little space which remained to us and at the same time to show that a Farm is in truth but a Manufactory, and that

when so considered it ought to go far in dissipating that prejudice and mistaken apprehension of antagonism , which pervade the agricultural community, toward their best friends and customers, to wit : those who

(nearest to their ownfarms) are the manufacturers of their raw materials and the consumers of their produce.

2008

MANURES, AMELIORATORS AND STIMULANTS-MODES OF MANUFACTURE, & 0. BY JEAN BAPTISTE DUMAS . Translated from the French for The Library, by CAMPBELL MORFIT, Practical and Analytic Chemist.

The term Manure, in its widest sense, extends to all substances, solid, liquid or

gaseous, which are applicable to the nutrition of plants or to the promotion of their growth. Thus generally considered , manures are very diverse. In fact, every sub slance containing one or more elements of plants, wholly or partially susceptible of assimilation, in the act of vegetation, may be ranked as a manure. Sooner or later, the plants in contact with such substances will assimilate some of its ele ments—that is, either hydrogen, oxygen, carbon or nitrogen, or the water of combi. nation, or even different calcareous, earthy or metallic salls which enter into the composition of nearly all plants.

An ameliorator ( amendment ) , on the other hand, is a substance designed for the improvement of the physical constitution of the soil ; that is, to render it

permeable if too compact, and to impart body and consistence when too light and sandy : indeed, to partially change or to modify its nature, if its constitution

is either deficient in nutritive power or prejudicial to vegetation. A combination of these valued qualifications of both a manure and an ameliorator is met with in a variety of matters. Finally, the title of stimulant applies to those substances, solid or liquid ,

which give an impulse to vegetation, either by imparting a more active energy to the manure, or by stimulating the organs of the plant and thus promoting the assimilation of the elements which constitute it.

Sometimes, the stimulants

are of a nature totally or partially assimilative by the plant, but their more spe

cial object is to augment the activity of manure,particularly those whose which are nitrogenous. In a soil completely deprived of the latter, stimulants are in effective, and they impoverish the soil if care is not taken to recruit its strength by fresh additions of azotized matters. Gypsum , lime, and common salt, in

proper proportions, are powerful stimulants. Although the term Manure properly refers to every substance capable of furnishing one or more of the elements of a plant, yet custom limits the applica tion of the name to those which furnish the nitrogen , alkaline and earthy phos. phates, and other salts requisite for vegetation . The carbon, hydrogen and oxygen exist abundantly in Nature, and a supreme intelligence dispenses them, in suitable proportions, in the forms of air and water.

That which is most wanting and expensive to the agriculturist, as being the most fruitful source of abundant crops, is nitrogenous matter. Since the recogni 41069

6

DUMAS ON MANURES .

tion of this great truth, and since modern Chemistry has demonstrated the im. portant agency of nitrogen , real manufactories of manures spring up and prosper, and the offal, detritus and filth which were formerly unavailable, and were even the causes of the insalubrity of cities, are now rendered subservient to Agricul ture.

We divide the nitrogenous manures into twoclasses : the first comprises those

which are employed in their natural state, and the second embraces such as should undergo preliminary preparation.

Every nitrogenous substance, liquid or solid , whether from the animal, vegeta ble or mineral kingdom, when employed in its original state and without previ ous preparation, constitutes a natural manure. Among the animal manures are blood , muscular flesh , and the offal of the carcass .

All the substances, in their rough state, should be used immediately,

otherwise their rapid putrefaction will develop an infectious odor, and conse quently render their use impossible in the environs of large cities where they are most abundant. We will see, however, in studying the prepared or man ufactured manures, in what manner they can be indefinitely preserved and re duced to a bulk convenient for transportation to a distance, and thus made more uniform and constant in their action.

The herbaceous plants, turned under the soil in a green state, form a natural

manure much used, especially in warm countries — for while furnishing nitrogen, they maintain a humidity very favorable to vegetation. Without recommending this practice, we will merely remark that in the south ofFrance and in Italy, certain plants, (such as the lupines, beans, and even maize)

are specially cultivated for this purpose. For moist and cold soils they should be applied in a dry state ; and of great advantage in this respect is the employ ment of rye-stalks and damaged hay. Leaves of trees are also applicable, for analysis has proved them to contain more nitrogen than other portions of the tree ; and, moreover, they are not costly, being furnished in abundance and gratuitously by neighboring forests. The seeds and fruits of plants and trees , are likewise often employed as ma

In Italy, the lupin seeds are successfully used to manure the orange and olive trees ; but care is always taken to previously destroy their germinative

nure .

impulse by torrefaction in a furnace : as the lupin seeds contain 4 per cent. of nitrogen , their activity is readily comprehensible--as is, for like reasons, the case

with clover which is applicable under similar circumstances. So also, the residual matter of malt, of pressed fruits, oleaginous seeds, or of olives, will produce corresponding and frequently even more energetic effects, since, not withstanding their loss in weight by expression, they still retain nearly the whole of their nitrogenous and albuminous matter, which constitutes their value and richness as a manure.

In fact, the marc of flax -seed, colza, Arachis

hypogea, Madia sativa, & c., contain the enormous quantity of 5 to 8 per cent. of nitrogen, nearly equaling the proportion in dry animal matter. Finally, among the natural manures of the vegetable kingdom must be classed aquatic plants, growing either in fresh or salt water. The plants which are gathered green from the marshes may be used in that state for the fertilization

of the soil, as it suffices to merely turn them into the ground by plowing. Sometimes, however, they are previously subjected to incipient fermentation

under water, but the resultant peat cannot be used without certain precautions, for its acid reaction renders it hurtful to vegetation. (1070)

To remedy this, and to

NATURAL FERTILIZERS ,

7

render it suitable for agricultural purposes, the free acid must be saturated with lime--or as well by promoting putrefaction, which destroys these acids, or rather saturates them , by the formation of ammonia.

In some localities they are merely burned, and the ashes spread upon the sur . face of the fields ; but it must be remarked that this process destroys their most fertilizing portion, viz. , the ammonia or nitrogenous matters ; still, how ever, the residuum, by reason of its constituent salts, forms a stimulant of much energy.

The marine plants, such as the fucus, sea- wreck, hair-weed, &c., where they

can be procured abundantly and cheaply, make a very advantageous manure, as they contain, in addition to some nitrogen, a certain portion of salt which stimu lates their fertilizing power. In Normandy and Brittany they have been used from time immemorial.

Sometimes they are applied to the soil in their natural

state, and again sometimes in the form of litter. But another practice is to make a compost of them, either by stratification with alternate layers of earth, so as to produce a mould, or by admixture with other mucks. In this last pro cess there is evidently a partial loss of their properties, for the fermentation pro duced in the mass always eliminates nitrogen, which consequently escapes. As the marine plants decompose with sufficient rapidity in the earth, this previous

disintegration, in most instances, is unnecessary. In France, the use of the varech and fucus creates so extensive a cultivation on the sea-board that a royal ordinance has restricted their time of harvest to

a limited period-between the full moon of March and that of April, during which they have expanded their reproducing granules, and are not covered by the spawn of fish .

The mineral kingdom also furnishes some substances suitable to agricultural purposes. They, too, may be considered as natural manures, and though gener ally constituted of a certain portion of nitrogen , are, by reason of other proper.

ties, powerful stimulants and ameliorators. For example, the black or red pyri. tous ashes from Picardy, much used in the Northern Departments, may be con . sidered as an energetic stimulant manure. These ashes, which also are the raw material from which copperas and alum

are manufactured, exist in numerous other localities as a black powder, frequent ly containing shells, vegetable debris, and bituminous wood, more or less decom posed. When heated slightly in a crucible, it inflames and undergoes a slow combustion, which, after twoweeks' continuance, partially changes its nature and

color, which latter, from the per-oxidation of the iron, becomes red. According to Girardin and Bidard, they are to be found at the surface of the soil, in the neighborhood of Forges-les- Eaux. These pyritous earths, after having been leached, are generally mixed with

one-fourth of their weight of calcined turf, and applied as a stimulant. They are exactly similar to those from Picardy. According to the analyses of Girardin and Bidard, their composition is as follows : Organic matter or 100 parts of lixiviated ashes contain 24 parts of water.. matterssoluble in water dry

100

100 ..

insoluble in water

soluble humus 4.53

( Fine sand Insoluble humus

( 1071)

38.92 49.83

95.47

Sulphuret of iron Peroxide of iron

Total......

2.74

Sulphate of protoxide and peroxides of iron 1.79

100.00

6.72

100.00

8

DUMAS ON MANURES.

The nitrogen of these ashes equals the considerable amount of 2.72 per cent,

The proportion found by Boussingault and Payen in the Picardy ashes, did not exceed 0:65 per cent. hence, probably it is the humus which they contain that gives them the property of a manure, while the stimulative influence is doubt. less due to the presence of salts, especially those of iron. The warmth genera . ted during the slow combustion of the sulphuret may also, and probably does, have some influence promotive and accelerative of vegetation.

The mixed manures which are employed without previous preparation consist of the offal of streets and excrements of animals.

Fecal matters and urine, either pure or diluted with water, are frequently ap plied in their natural states, merely by distribution on the surface of the soil.

This mode enables all parts of such manure to be used, but it is not without in

convenience, for its great bulk renders the expense of transport heavy, and con sequently limits its use to the immediate vicinity of its production . As the cities and towns produce more than is requisite for their vicinities, there is a con siderable loss when it is not used in its natural state.

There are these objections, however, to fresh fecal matter : they commu nicate their disagreeable odor to the plants, and emit a pestilential effluvia in the

act of being carried to and spread upon the field . A proper treatment previous to their application to the soil , obviates all these disadvantages.

Human excrements constitute one of the best manures. They are employed in a fresh state under the form and name of gadoue, or in a dry state as pou drette.

in China, Tuscany, Holland, Belgium , and many other countries, they are used in a fresh state, being diluted with water and then dispensed throughout the sur face of the soil. In China they are kneaded with clay, and the dried mixture is

then pulverized or crushed . In Flanders, where they use them for the culture of flax -seed, colza, poppy and tobacco, the farmers have reservoirs expressly for the reception of fecal matters. In these vats they remain for several months, or

until transformed by fermentation into a viscid liquid matter. In this state they constitute the Flemish manure. To improve it, the pulverized marc of pressed

seeds is frequently added, for the nitrogenous matter therein contained becoming rapidly decomposed, contributes materially to the efficacy of the manure.

The

addition has other advantages also in decreasing the fluidity of the excrements, and by becoming thoroughly impregnated with it, in facilitating its application

and prolonging its beneficial effect. However, this effect is never beyond a year's duration. 26) gallons of Flemish manure equal about 550 lbs. of horse-dung. This

mode, prevalent in Belgium and Flanders, where Agriculture is brought to a full development, and where great care is observed in the preservation and applica tion of all matters promotive of the fertility of the soil, is the one most to be recommended .

The excrements being inclosed and free from exposure, are less subject to sud

den changes of temperature and to fermentation , and consequently can be retained unaltered and unimpaired in quality for a long time. When the liquid manure is to be used, it is drawn portionwise from the reser voir, and then diluted with five or six times its weight ofwater, in order to modify

its energy and prevent injury to the plant. Thus prepared, it is spread upon the fields when they are being sowed, and upon the meadows after having been recently mowed. Sometimes it is dropped, undiluted, by ladles -full at the foot of each plant, when its nature permits the application without too much manuat (1072)

THE EMPLOYMENT OF FÆCES .

9

labor ; but in such instances care must be taken not to touch the stalks, lest they might be injured . In the environs of Lille, a cask of thirty -five and a half gallons of Flemish manure, costs twenty-four cents, that is, six cents purchase money, six cents for transportation, and twelve for labor in spreading it. The excrements of birds or fowls form a manure much richer in nitrogen, and consequently much more active than the Flemish manure . They contain, in fact,

8 and even 9 per cent. of nitrogen. They undoubtedly are the richest of mixed ma nures, and , moreover, are among the warmest and most alterable.

In the North

ern Departments of France, where they are much appreciated, one of them that most used—is pigeon's dung. $20 value of which will fertilize or manure 9,500 square yards of ground. This rich manure is especially used in the culture

of flax, tobacco, &c. It is only necessary to examine the analyses of guano, to see and be convinced of the richness of the excrements of birds and their utility

in promoting vegetation. They contain , in fact, independent of accidental por. tions of feathers and other debris, uric acid, ammonia, coagulated albumen and phosphate of lime. In Flanders and elsewhere, where pigeon -fanciers are numerous, they collect the dung and engage it to farmers at stipulated rates. At the usual price of $20, for the product of 6 or 700 pigeons it will cost $25 to $40 to manure about three acres .

The excrements of other birds are less valuable than those of the pigeon. Usually, these latter are employed in their natural state, and without any admix. ture, being in this form specially fitted to assist the growth of the cereals in

humid and compact soils. They are, however, of nearly equal service in the culture of clover ; but for this purpose they should be mixed with ashes. In Flanders, 4,500 lbs. per three acres is the proportion for a good yield. As has already been remarked, these manures owe their efficacy , in part, to the urine with which they are impregnated ; and furthermore, it is well known that this liquid, by the decomposition of urea, one of its principal constituents, can furnish a notable quantity of carbonate of ammonia, the utility, of which to vege tation has been well proved.

Independent of the urine absorbed by the litter, a

portion which by a little management might be retained, runs off, and is lost. In Switzerland, it is the custom to collect the urines in cisterns and therein re serve them for some time before spreading them. In Belgium, they are imbibed

by straw and then mixed with ordinary manure, and sometimes even with loam, clay, sand or plaster. That manure known in commerce under the name of “ Urate,” is a mixture in equal proportions of urine and plaster. It is dried and powdered, and kept free from moisture. Whether it is more useful to employ fresh or slightly putrid urines as a ma nure, is a question which answers the prevalent custom in favor of the latter ; but the practice in this, as in many other instances, may lead to error for, for it is not based upon correct principles.

It is known, in fact, that carbonate of ammonia generated during the fermenta tion of urine is a very volatile salt, and that thus the more active and useful principle is liable to be dissipated when the urine is too long kept. To form an idea of the advantages which may be thus lost, remember that every 24 lbs. of ammonia which evaporates is equivalent to a loss of 150 lbs. of grain , and that 24 lbs. of urine will produce 21 lbs. of wheat. In all these cases, in order to fix the ammonia, the urine must be mixed with (1073)

10

MONTHLY JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE .

plaster, sulphate of iron. or mould. Sulphate of ammonia, a more fixed, but not less efficacious salt than the carbonate, is thus formed. The advice of some agriculturists to use the fresh urine, properly diluted with water, we rather hesitate to recommend.

There are many other substances besides bird's dung, which can without pre vious preparation be advantageously used in Agriculture. The excrements from sheep -folds, &c., are of this number, and this mode of manuring is simple and economical, for there is a saving of both the waste and expense of transporta tion .

Dung or muck itself, as obtained in most places, may be considered as a mixed

unprepared manure, since all its preparation consists in receiving the excre ments upon straw and stacking it as fast as it becomes impregnated with fecal matter .

The name of dung specially applies to the straw litter impregnated with the urine and fæces of domestic animals. When a mixture of this kind is exposed

to air, and moistened occasionally with water, a very active fermentation ensues : carbonic acid and ammonia, among other gaseous products, are disengaged, and the straw itself becomes rotted and disintegrated. It is in this state that the dung is used to manure the land. As to the juices, which serve for irrigation,

they hold in solution all the soluble matters of the manures, and owe their deep brown color to the presence of ulmate of ammonia. Being advantageously ser viceable, they should be carefully collected and preserved. One circumstance worthy of note is, that the dung during fermentation can lead to the formation of ammonia from the nitrogen of the air and hydrogen of the water.

The efficacy and value of manures, then, depend not only upon the

nature and relative proportions of the excrements and straw, their bases, but also upon the processes of their manufacture and modes of preservation and em . ployment.

The dungs obtained from the excrements of herbivorous animals are not equal ly efficacious. Hog dung is much less valuable as a manure than that of the cow and ox, which latter, in their turn, are surpassed in richness by those of the horse and sheep.

Below are Girardin's comparative analyses of the excrements of the cow , horse, and sheep : Water .

Organic matters soluble in water in alcohol

Woody fibre

Coro .

Horse.

Sheep.

79.72

78.36 4:34 2-60

68.34

12:16

16.26

5.340 2.00 8.70

4.10 2.80

Saline matters, viz., phosphates of lime and magnesia , carbonate of lime, chloride of sodium , silicate of potassa, silica Total

4.23

2.34

8.15

..100-00

100.00

100-00

Sheep manure is considered the most preferable of all other species. Being hard

and of a shape which prevents a ready admixture with the litter, it is slower to be impregnated with the stable liquor, and consequently is less liable to rapid fer . mentation . To favor the decomposition of the straw, therefore, it is necessary to arrange it in layers, and to wet it frequently before using it. It has been calculated that the excrements of a sheep produced in one night,

suffice to manure 11 square yards of surface, or, according to Boussingault, even one and a third.

In comparing, for different species of animals, the weight of their fæces with that of their food, we find, after Black's experiments, the following relations : (1074)

11

CLASSIFICATION OF THE STRAWS. From the ox

From the horse .

.0.42

.0-42 .0.40

From the sheep

Experience has, moreover , shown that an ordinary beef of 900 pounds produces, annually , from fifty to sixty metrical quintals of manure. The same quantity is

obtained from a horse and a half, and from ten to fifteen sheer. The nature of the litter used necessarily exercises a marked influence upon the qualities of the manure. In fact, the different kinds of straw vary, those of the

leguminous from those of the cereals, not only in the proportions of their saline contents, but also in their richness in nitrogen.

Sprengel makes the following classification of the straws, ranking each accord ing to its practical value. Annexed , also, is a Table of their relative proportions of organic matters and saline substances : Organic Substances .

1. Colza

96.127 94 899

straw ,

2. Vetch

Solid Substances . 3 675 5.101 3.121

7. Pea

10. Rye, 11. Corn , 12. Oats,

3. Buckwheat,

96-879

4. Beans,

96.797

5. Lentil,

96.101

3.203 3.899

6. Millet

95.145

4 855

Organic Substances .

95-029

straw ,

94.759

8. Barley, 9. Wheat,

96.482

97.207 96.015 94.266

Solid Substances . 4 971 5.244

3-518 2.793 3.985 5.734

The following analyses of Boussingault and Payen show the proportion of azote in several straws. Nitrogen per cent.

Pea Lentil

straw ,

Millet

Wheat, (old )

1.79 1.01 0.78 0.49

Dung pet

Equivalent. 22:34 39.60

51.28 81.60

Nitrogen per cent.

2 %acr- s. 6.702 11.880 15-384 24.990

Oat

straw

Wheat (new ) Barley Rye

0-28

0-24 0.23 0.17

Equivalent. 142.85 166-66 173.90

235.29

Dung pet 23 acres. 42.855 49.998 52.170 70-587

The straw of the leguminous plants is, therefore , richer in nitrogen than that of the cereals , and, moreover , contains larger proportions of potassa salts, and by putrefaction gives more ulmic acid and disengages more ammonia . The latter are preferable in the manufacture of manures. Cereal straws, poor

in nitrogen and alkaline salts, contain a large portion of silica and phosphate of lime. Oat straw is richer in potassa than other cereal straws, and the soil con

taining this alkali produces good oats. Magnesian earths are particularly ap plicable to the culture of buckwheat, the straw of which contains a remarkable quantity of magnesia.

The mode of preserving the manure, during the interval between its removal from the stable and application to the soil, has a decided influence upon its fer tilizing power. Its action depends upon a carefully managed fermentation , so

as to generate ammoniacal salts and other stimulant principles, and at the same time prevent a partial volatilization of the ammonia by a too active evapora . tion. To this end , therefore, it is requisite to stack the manure in broad heaps,

so that a too great hight of the pile may not cause a too high elevation of tem perature in the interior of the mass.

To prevent the escape of a part of the ammonia, the manure must be fre quently wetted with the juice which runs from the stables, which should be col lected and saved for the purpose. It can be pumped up from the reservoir, and thus applied uniformly and regularly. It is also necessary to protect the manure from the unequal washings by rains. Some farmers prevent a too active fermentation of manure by stratefying it with earth . It may also be mixed with peat or turf, as experience has shown that a uniform compost of this kind makes an excellent manure.

Manures can be immediately used, fresh from the stable, and without being previously fermented. Under this form they are called long or straw manure. (1075)

1

12

DUMAS ON MANURES .

Those which have been for some time stacked have the name of short or fo Both the weight and volume of manures are decreased by fermentu

manure .

tion.

It has been ascertained that 100 volumes of fresh manure are reduced In 81 days to 73•3 of its original bulk , with a loss of 36.7 254

.. 384

.

D.

395

35.7 375 34.8

64.3 62.5 47.2

Schattenman, the skillful director of the factories at Bouxwiller, has proposed a simple and economical mode of effecting the fermentation of manures. It consists in adding to saturated waters, or spreading upon the dung, either sul

phate of iron or gypsum , the sulphuric acid of which, by forming a fixed salt with ammonia, prevents the volatilization of the latter. With due precaution, a rich manure of great power may after this manner be prepared in two or three months.

As has already been remarked, the different manures vary in properties and

fertilizing power. The remarkable difference between the weight of an equal volume of cow and horse dungs, for example, is shown as follows : A cubic foot of fat manure of the ox weighs 57 1-5 lbs. fresh fat fresh

horse

47 1-4 37 1-2

.

29 1-2

The better dung, and that which may be considered as normal, is from horned beasts, and approximates in composition to the following analysis: Water Albumen Mucus .... Urea ..

Soluble Substances

Resinous and fatty matter ..

75 Insoluble Substances.

Starch .....

Salts of lime and magnesia . Vegetable fibre

20

Bile ......

Mucilage or gum . Extractive and sweet matters

Salts potassa, soda, ammonia .

5

-80 100

Boussingault gives the composition of a farm manure aged six months, and which he calls normal, as follows: 79-30

Water ..

Organic substances Salts and earths Total.

..14.03 20.70 6.67

.100-00

Under the name of street dung is comprised the incongruous mixture of mire and filth which is collected in cities by sweeping the streets. Its composition is complex, and before being used it should undergo fermentation. During this process large quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen gas are disengaged. Lime,

which is sometimes added to accelerate decomposition, is apt to cause a partial loss of ammonia.

The mass should be left undisturbed for some time, so that the decomposition may be thorough. If applied while fresh , it will ferment in the soil ; and thus, by a too energetic action, will blast the roots of the plants.

The name of compost is given to a mixture more or less similar to street dung. It is formed of alternate strata of manures of different compositions. In this way,

a pile of organic debris, the detritus of plants, residual animal matters, and waste juices of dwellings and manufactories, may be manufactured into a profitable manure ; but it too often happens that, in large cities, where these matters are

most abundant, the prost they would yield the farmer is lost by the neglect in collecting and preserving them,

Jauffret, a Provincial farmer, has proposed the manufacture of manure by a (1076)

13

COMPOSTS-THE NITROGEN OF MANURES .

rapid and active fermentation of fern , broom-reeds, and organic residues. To this end , the materials must be finely divided,—heaped up and moistened with lye holding in solution some mineral substances, and putrefied organic matters.

The place of manufacture should be convenient to a pool, the water in which can be made foul by additions of fecal matter, urine and sewer filth . Ashes, plaster and nitre, are necessary and advantageous additions.

By wetting the vegetable debris with this lye, a very active fermentation is produced ; the confined air of the mass facilitates the reaction , and the tem perature of the interior rises as high as 167° Fahrenheit. But this manure is too expensive, for while 4,500 lbs. will cost $4 80, that amount of stable manure can be bought for $2 to $3. Nevertheless , by

following the method of Jauffret, a sufficiently economical manure can be made says Lucy, with the following ingredients. The cost of the compost and its ap plication per 11,960 square yards, will be as follows: 500 bundles of colza twigs. 500

fern ..

Small straw , damaged .. 220 lbs. of plaster . 105 gallons offecal matter ..

$ 4 75 2 47 3 42 3 42

1 14

22 hogsheads of salt and crude saltpetre 1 14 2 28 524 gallons of ashes.. 524

of charcoal dust .

Labor . Total ..

1 14 3 04

$ 22 80

While leaving to agricultural experience the resolution of the problem in a

practical and economical point of view, we, on the other hand, cannot too strongly reccommend this system of fabrication, which evidently reposes upon an excel. lent basis.

When the importance of nitrogenous manures in the nutrition of plants becomes fully known and recognized , all matters containing more or less of this element will be turned to account, and everywhere will be erected real manufactories for

their proper preparation. Indeed, even now the preparation ofmanures commences to form a true chemical art—the object of which is to furnish to the land, under the best possible form , the supplement to that nourishment which the farmer cannot supply to soil otherwise well cultivated, and from which it is desired to draw the most advantageous results.

All parts of animals, being rich in nitrogen, form an excellent manure which can be used on the spot in a fresh and unprepared state ; but to transport them to a distance, or to preserve them, or to render their effect more constant and uniform , it is requisite to subject them to a certain treatment that will, at the

same time, render them less communicative of a bad taste to plants. The slaughter-houses, where sick horses are killed for their fat, possess advantages for the preparation of manures from offal otherwise wasted .

To preserve the blood, indefinitely, it must be coagulated at a temperature of 212° Fahrenheit, either by a direct application of heat to a caldron containing it, or, more preferably, by the intervention of steam. In the latter case, the blood can

be placed in a wooden vat. The coagulated portion is removed by a large skimmer, then pressed until it ceases to yield any more liquid ; afterward it is dried either Thus dried and pulverized, it can be pack ed into casks for transportation and agricultural purposes ; and being much re. duced in bulk forms a very rich manure, containing the large amount of 13 to 14 per cent. of nitrogen. In the horse butcheries, after having boiled the carcasses in wooden vats or

in the open air or in a heated room.

steam tanks, they detach the flesh from the bones and dry it, first in the sun and finally in a dry room, until it becomes friable and pulverulent. When coarse ly ground in a mill, this dried flesh makes an excellent manure which decom (1077)

14

DUMAS ON MANURES.

poses much slower than fresh meat, and at the same time is of more durable fer tilizing power. Unfortunately, however, the use of this material in the manu facture of prussiate of potassa and nourishment of animals makes it too expen sive except for the most productive vegetables ; thus, for instance, it is exported to the Colonies for the culture of the Cane-- for its richness in nitrogen renders it more economical for transportation than other kinds of manure. Bones properly prepared constitute an excellent manure which is much used

in England. In France, where they are not so plenty, and command a high price for the manufacture of bone-black, they also are used to a limited extent.

Before being applied to the soil they must be freed of their grease by a long boiling in water.

The fat thus obtained pays the expense of its separation and

a small profit additional. The bone, after being boiled and dried, must be ground to a coarse powder between channeled iron rollers propelled by steam or horse

power.' They are first passed through rolls with wide and coarse channels, and finished between a pair with finer grooves and more closely set.

This manure (bone-dust) is so well appreciated in England that it commands $3 to $3 50 per 185 lbs. ; and 1,850 to 7,400 lbs. are used per 25 acres.

Its slow

decomposition is a peculiar merit of this manure, as its effects are perceptible for many consecutive years. While manures much richer in nitrogen during their rapid decomposition generate fertilizing gaseous matter much faster than it can be assimilated, the bone-dust furnishes them gradually and produces in the end more profitable results.

When the gelatine and glue have been extracted, or when the bones have for a length of time been exposed to the irregularities of the atmosphere, their fertili zing power becomes impaired , and is less than that of new bones proportionably as the organic matter has decreased.

There are mills in various parts of the world for grinding boiled bones and the refuse of the comb and button factories ; and the powder thus obtained, when dried, consists, per 220 lbs. , of Combustible animal matter . Phosphate and carbonate of lime ..

43.86

..56 · 14-100.00

This analysis approximates very nearly to the normal constitution of bone. The animal matter of bones, doubtless, plays an important part in their applica tion to Agriculture ; but it would be se not to recognize the importance, and even absolute necessity, of the phosphate of lime in the bones. The exportation of meat or grain from a farm is equivalent to the exportation of earthy phosphates, because

the bony structure of animals is formed of it, and grain contains.it in large quan tities. In order to revive lands, therefore, these phosphates must be restored to it, for light soils naturally have but very little. Consequently, the most simple method is to impregnate the soil with the urine or fecal matters of man, which

the consumption of the grain has produced, or with the bones of the animals whose flesh has been exported or otherwise consumed. The natural phosphate of lime would also make an excellent ameliorator, and its application will doubtless be well worth the expense.

Among the economical means of restoring to the soil all the essential ingre. dients that have been abstracted from it by vegetation, Chemistry enumerates am monia and the earthy phosphates, as of chief importance. Boussingault, who has also tried the ammonia -magnesian phosphate, recommends its use, as espe cially advantageous in the culture of a variety of maize known as Mais quaran tain.

( 1078)

MANUFACTURE OF POUDRETTE .

15

The most common and well- known manufactured manure is doubtless the

Poudrette, which is prepared from the contents of privies, and contains the

earthy phosphates in connection with fecundant animal matters. An extensive factory, established at the very gates of Paris, gives great value to fecal matters by reducing them to a suitable condition for transportation to a distance. Thus a large amount of material, which in other large cities is useless, becomes transformed, by some skill, into a source of profitable revenue.

But it must be remarked, that the mode of preparing the poudrette pursued at Montfaucon is very imperfect, as it not only incommodes the vicinity, but occa sions a loss of a great part of the gases most useful to vegetation. As the method is still in prevalent use, we deem it necessary to give a more correct process. It is briefly as follows:

The operation is conducted in six or seven perfectly tight large reservoirs, placed in an elevated position and above the neighboring dwellings. These cis terns are arranged with coupling connections so that they may be united together or disconnected at will .

One of them , much more elevated than the rest, is also

ofa proportionally greater capacity. This is the recipient for all the collected fæces

of the City of Paris, which is emptied in from casks specially appropriated for its first reception. The reservoir is of irregular shape, being of 330 feet long, 150 to 175 wide, and 30 deep ; and it is in this vessel that the liquid is separated, merely by decantation from the solid portion . It is drawn off through a conduit,

and, passing through a wicker sieve, falls into one of the vessels beneath. There should be five or six of these receiving vessels, and each of 50 to 80 square me tres capacity ; but having to contain less solid matter, they are not necessarily so deep as the upper eistern. As has been remarked, these vats communicate with

each other, so that there may be a systematic deposition of the matters suspended in the liquid running from the upper cistern. The thin juices then pass consecu tively through all the vats, and are again filtered through a fine wicker which catches the solid particles, and allows the free egress of the liquid into a conduit which connects with a sewer emptying into the Seine. From this it will be readily seen that the lower cisteros are a long time being filled with solid matter ; a year or more frequently elapses before one is full When it is so, after several days' repose it is freed of its liquid with a pump syphon, or by drawing off. Each vat is emptied in its turn , and again set for the

reception of thin juices which are constantly flowing from the large upper cistern. This latter, when sufficiently full of solid matter, must, after the ex cess of liquid has been drawn off, be worked in the same manner as the lower vessels.

The vats' of Montfaucon are so badly arranged as to render it necessary, while working the upper vat, to continue adding the nightsoil. Care, however, is

taken to immediately separate the more liquid portion and run it into the lower vessel. The process will be more readily and uniformly conducted if there are two reception reservoirs, so that while one is being worked the other can be filled. The mode of operating and of managing the vats is very simple. When the

matters have been sufficiently drained, open the gangways leading to the bot. tom of the reservoirs, and then gradually lift out all the matter. The dung carts emply their contents upon a contiguous field, where it is dried in manner

as follows. The fecal matter is first spread uniformly over the whole extent of the lot, and , after some hours, must be harrowed so as to present new surfaces

for evaporation, and thus hasten its desiccation. (1079)

The harrowing is repeated

1

16

DUMAS ON MANURES.

several times, and until the drying is complete ; then the matter must be thrown

into piles, and after a proper repose, again spread out into thin layers and crushed to powder. The gravel and other coarse impurities with which it may be con taminated are separated by a riddle or sieve. Thus prepared, the poudrette is ready for use or exportation. In the mean time it is stacked in piles of two or three cubic metres* bulk .

At Montfaucon they receive daily nearly 600 cubic metres of solid and liquid

matters, from which are prepared about 100 cubic metres of poudrette. Of late years, a new art, based upon Jacquemart's experiments, has enabled the useful transformation of the liquid portions previously wasted. A part of the thin juices is thus made into sulphate of ammonia and other ammoniacal salts. There is a factory constructed near this locality, but it consumes at most only

90 to 100 cubic metres of urine ; the remainder being thrown into the Seine. A greater perfection of this art will doubtless enable the utilization of all the ammonia and other salts which are contained in the refuse urine.

There is no doubt that, after having withdrawn the ammonia by lime, as is done, the muddy residue will make an excellent manure for the irrigation of ar

tificial meadows, as it contains all the requisite phosphates, much alkaline salt, and even organic matters. The poudrette prepared as we have directed sells at 80 cents per 262 gallons. Of late years the manufacture has been carried on at the Forest of Bondy, M. Mary having constructed a conduit of great diameter for the conveyance thereto of the liquid previously separated from the poudrette vats. The transportation

and disinfecting of the solid matters, thus reduced to a fifth, offers comparatively much greater facilities. The arrangement of the vats at Bondy is superior to that at Montfaucon , in having two complete systems ; but the difference in levels

being less, much more manual labor is demanded . Another conduit conveys the excess of thin juices into a town sewer emptying into the Seine. Thus, as at Montfaucon, the urines will be lost, though they contain nitrogen enough to make them three times as valuable to Agriculture as the poudrette. Future skill will doubtless take advantage of this source of wealth, which is now thrown into the river. They might already use two methods for the purpose. One is indicated by the elevation of the vats at Bondy above the plain of St. Denis, where the thin liquors could be well employed for irrigating and greatly

fertilizing the surrounding plains. If it is necessary to dilute the urine with water in order to modify its energy, the proximity of the canal whose level is above that of the cisterns, renders this operation comparatively easy. The quantity of urine thus disposable is, however, much greater than is needed for a field even five times as large as that of St. Denis. The other method of rendering the urines useful is to convert them into sul phate of ammonia. Since Chemistry has shown the feasibility of using this salt for the fertilization of the earth, a number of experiments have been performed on a large scale in many parts of Europe. In England its use has produced most

profitable effects, and in France, where the subject has been investigated, equally favorable results were obtained .

We will cite one essay of many, viz. , that on

a large scale by Kuhlmann (of Lille) and Schattenmann. Its large amount of nitrogen (21 per cent.) renders the sulphate of ammonia one of the richest of azotized manures ; and hence there will be great economy

in transforming the urines of Bondy, Montfaucon and elsewhere into sulphate * A metre is equal to 39-37100 English inches. (1080)

AMMONIACAL SALTANIMALIZED BLACK .

17

of ammonia by sulphuric acid. We will prove by figúres that under present cir cumstances, and notwithstanding the interposition of sulphuric acid and the ex. penses of preparation, that the sulphate of ammonia can be furnished at a cheaper rate than most manures, with which it can successfully compete even at its present prices.

For example, let us compare the sulphate of ammonia with the poudrette of Montfaucon. The pure salt now sells at $11 40 per 220 lbs , and it contains 21

per cent. of nitrogen. The poudrette sells for about 85 cents per 220 lbs., and contains, according to Payen and Boussingault, but 1.6 per cent. of nitrogen. Supposing, then, that the value of a manure is exactly proportional to the

quantity of nitrogen which it contains, it follows that 220 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia will produce the same effect as 2,900 lbs. of poudrette, which amounts to the same as saying that $11 40 of the first is equal to $11 40 of the latter. It is true that the action of the poudrette is not limited to its nitrogen , for it con tains salts which are excellent ameliorators of moist soils.

Moreover, its or

ganic matters have the effect of modifying the properties of water or of the air

absorbed by the roots. But as the expense of transporting the sulphate is ten times less , and as the substances which furnish the elements other than nitro

gen may be had at a price much lower than that of poudrette, we may hope economical and profitable results from the use of the sulphate of ammonia combined with dung, turf and bone-dust. The price of the sulphate afore mentioned is that of the commercial article .

If it were extensively used

for agricultural purposes, the price would be brought down to $7 60, and lower.

Without dwelling upon the manufacture of sulphate of ammonia, we will only remark that the urines received at Montfaucon would suffice to produce 4,400,000 lbs. of that salt, representing in nitrogen 57,200,000 lbs. of poudrette, or even 220,000,000 lbs. of ordinary manure. It can be inferred from these fig . ures, of what great import to Agriculture is the thorough solution of the ques

tion of the availability of the sulphate of ammonia as a fertilizing agent, and how invaluable would be the result, if long experience shall verify the success that some have already attained in its use.

In what manner should the sulphate of ammonia be applied to the soil ? This is a question yet unsolved.

Some advise its use in solution of one or two

thousandths at least, but under this form it is not applicable in all localities ; moreover it requires the expense of additional labor.

It is probable that as good results, with less expense, will follow by sowing it either in a free state or mixed with earth or chalk, provided the time of its ap

plication is favorable, so that the too active effect of the manure may not injure vegetation. However, the experiments under this form have, so far, proved less favorable and effective.

The great value of refuse bone-black ( from sugar refineries) as a manure, and

its advantageous effects, are fully known and appreciated. Unfortunately, how ever, commerce furnishes a too limited quantity for agricultural purposes, and consequently it has been proposed to form a substitute of similar properties by commingling disinfected fecal matters with a cheap charcoal. This new manure, called animalized black, is made with carbonized vegetable mould and nightsoil, and thus a substance is produced which, in fact, possesses

most of the properties of the animal-black from the refineries. Moreover, this compost, by its absorbent power, retains the ammoniacal compounds as they are ( 1081) ...... 31

18

DUMAS ON MANURES .

generated, and yields them gradually and in uniform proportions to the growing plant. It is this slow and regular production of ammonia which gives also to the bone- black a fertilizing value so much greater than that indicated by the Table of equivalents.

This effect of retarding decomposition is especially advantageous in the afore mentioned instance, for almost the sole inconvenience in the use of fecal mat

ters as manure, in the usual manner, consists in their too sudden and rapid action .

For this manufacture, a mould, as rich as possible in organic debris, should be selected, so that by charring it may furnish a sufficient quantity of coal. It should also be pulverulent, easily divisible, and not liable to become clotted

during charring, as will happen when it is too argillaceous. It must be confessed , however, that even under the most favorable circum

stances, the charred mould is far from comparable in absorbent properties to animal charcoal, and perhaps in this respect the processes employed might ad - mit of modification . Still, these plans yield a charred mould sufficiently cheap for an extensive and profitable application. This plan seems to be the best sub

stitute for the manufacture of poudrette. Indeed , by the use of charred mould, we obtain manure, rich in nitrogen, which retains and renders useful all the animal parts of fecal matters, and, moreover, presents itself in a form convenient for application .

This manure, which is sufficiently rich to be exported, can be made rapidly, that is, in a month during summer, and in two months when the temperature is

low. Moreover, in its manufacture there is no disengagement of disagreeable odors, as is the case with poudrette, which in its preparation requires a much longer time, and loses a portion of its ammoniacal components. As regards the value of the products of these two systems of fabrication , there is but little difference, though the animalized black is generally the richer ; in fact, we might impart to it 3 per cent. of nitrogen, an amount rarely contained in com

mercial poudrette. It is true that Payen and Boussingault found in the pou drette of Belloni 4.4 per cent. of nitrogen, but that of Montfaucon contains at most but 2.67 per cent. The medium dry poudrettes have but 2 and some only 1.6 per cent. of nitrogen. It is true that by this mode of preparation and reduction of bulk, the pou drette contains the salts and the phosphates of a large quantity of fecal matter, concentrated in a small bulk , with equal richness in nitrogen , and value greater

than that of animalized black, which also contains phosphates, but in a much less proportion .

Nevertheless, I do not consider this a great disadvantage in the black, for by

a comparison of the analyses, it is seen that the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus is almost the same in fecal matters and in a great number of plants ; whence it follows that the quantity of animalized black sufficient to furnish the nitrogen

requisite for a crop would also yield the amount of phosphorus which the crop should contain. It is true also that the animalized black is not, in this respect, a complete manure, for as its richness in nitrogen is greater than that of other constituents useful to vegetation , it requires, like some other manures, to be as sisted by a complemental manure.

To facilitate such calculations, it would be useful to make Tables of equiva lents for the principal mineral substances which enter into the composition of plants, similar to that which has been made for the most useful element, nitrogen. (1082)

MODE OF OPERATION WITH FECAL MATTERS .

19

The definite quality of a manure should depend upon the rank that it would have in each of these Tables.

Barronet & Co. make the animalized black by a process consisting of two steps :

first, the extraction of the fecal matters of privies, and then their transformation into manure . Before the removal of the fecal matters from the wells, they are

disinfected, and for this purpose two equally good substances are employed : the first is the residue from the manufacture of the proto -sulphate of iron, and may

generally be purchased at a low rate. Where there is a choice of residues, those should be preferred which are the least acid and mostrich in peroxide of iron, and even sometimes in zinc. The mode of action of these salts is readily com prehensible .

Another substance used for this purpose is a solution of the preceding matter united with an equal quantity of solution of common soap, which is thrown into the trench. A metallic oleate is thus formed, and being of easier decomposition

by sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphydrate of ammonia than are the sulphates, the soap and greasy matters are useful in this operation, for protecting the surface of liquids with an oleaginous layer which opposes the diffusion of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphydrate of ammonia. The fecal matters are drawn from the privies by dredging buckets attached to an apparatus called a Machine Frédéric. It occupies but little space, and can be conveniently used in any of the houses, as it only requires an opening into the cess-pool of about 11 by 1 foot for its entrance. For the convenience of

perfectly emptying, the privy wells should be concave at the bottom ; it hence follows that the consistency of these matters is not very great. Without these

precautions it is necessary to finish their removal in the usual manner.

The

matter drawn up in the dredges is immediately, and without an instant's ex

posure, turned into casks, for the whole apparatus being inclosed with sheet metal, the disengaged gas will be driven into the air through a small apart ment containing chloride of lime. By this arrangement, even when operating during the day, there is scarcely any perceptible unpleasant odor, though the material may not have been disinfected previous to its removal from the privies.

These fecal matters transported to the factory, are there converted into ma

nure and mixed with charred soil ; for the disinfection produced by the sulphate of iron will not be permanent. They are consequently turned into vats and therein treated by the shovelfull with nearly their volume of charred soil. After thorough

incorporation of the whole, by stirring, the matter is left to deposit, and after having collected about the center of the vat, where the bottom is most elevated, the liquid which remains is run off through gates. The bottom of the vat has a slope of about two-hundredths of a metre. This compost is spread out, under cover, upon an impermeable soil, and left to dry in the air. To hasten the desiccation, new surfaces should be presented by occasional stirring. When the drying is complete, add to the first mixture, a

second time, its volume of fecal matters, and operate as at first. Repeat this process until the soil forms nearly a fourth of the resultanı product ; this hap pens about the third mixing, generally, when the operation has been properly conducted, and especially when the fecal matters employed contain a large pro portion of solid products.

This plan of working, during which there is but little disagreeable odor emitted, requires about one month in summer and two in winter. The season (1083)

20

DUMAS ON MANURES .

most favorable to the manufacture is spring, and it is then that the greatest pos sible number of emptyings should be made. The charred soil was formerly prepared in pots, but Barronet has substituted an economical furnace.

The soil as it comes from the furnace falls into a sheet-iron extinguisher, wherein it cools, free from exposure to air. It is used as soon as cold in order to

obtain the full effect of its absorbent qualities, and should be powdered and sieved as fine as possible. It is better if a little argillaceous, because the coal which it contains is then more divided and absorbent. But if the proportion of clay is too great, the mould becomes cloited.

The addition of a small quantity of carbonate of lime increases its durability and makes it flow more readily. There must be but very little, for if much lime

is formed during heating, ammonia will be disengaged at the moment of mixing the soil and fecal matters. It is well also to slightly moisten the soil before

carbonization , for the aqueous vapor generated by the heat carries off the air ex isting in the interstices of the soil of the upper apartment. In this way the car bonization is effected almost entirely apart from air, while, if the soil is too dry, it nearly always happens that instead of carbonizing, it burns, although it has only been at a dull red heat.

175 to 200 cubic feet of soil can be carbonized during 24 hours, in a furnace of 20 feet hight, and under these circumstances the whole expense of 353 cubic 2

feet of charred soil will be about 95 cents.

An establishment for a medium sized city, say of 20,000 inhabitants, will cost $3,800 to $4,750, that is, for utensils, furnaces and every other requisite. Such

a factory will yield per annum 600 cubic metres of salable manure, which at 95 cents per 3} cubic feet, the usual price for manure of 3 per cent. nitrogen, equals $5,700.

At the rate of 76 to 95 cents , the animalized black has the advantage over the dung ; for while the 11,960 square yards of land require of the former but 70 to 80 cubic feet at the gross expense of $19 to $23 75, it needs 22,000 lbs. of ma

nure , which cost $34 20, and are of more difficult transportation. If the animalized black is not yet as perfect a manure as could be desired, it is nevertheless one of the best means of wholly using the products of the privies,

and offers great advantages with respect to health and Agriculture. It would be both politic and desirable for the different Municipalities to com pel the proprietors to construct their privy-wells perfectly water-tight, and of cement within, so as to avoid infiltration and to protect them from rains, When this measure shall have been generally employed , the vegetable richness of the

soil will be completely regenerated , for the immense quantity of manure which it might receive would soon revive its fecundity. Agriculture and hygeine are then equally interested in the success of this new manufacture.

The value of a manure can only be determined by agricultural experience ; but the chemist can furnish useful data for the proper management of the experi ments. In fact, it is by chemical analysis that we ascertain the precise nature and properties of materials, either organic or mineral, which a given harvest re moves from the soil that produces it, and if this determines the absence of

earthy phosphates, alkaline salts, potassa and sulphur, these must be restored again before the land can recover its fertility.

Chemical researches have also

proved that which is now an established fact, the active efficiency of ammonia in manures, and that of nitrogenous matters generally. (1084)

AMMONIACAL SALTS .

21

Manures should always contain ammonia or nitrogenous matters capable of yielding it ; but as to the collected vegetable or animal offal which contain the requisite nitrogenous matter, as well also in their ashes, the salts necessary for vegetation , a question arises whether it is useful or dangerous to subject them

to a prolonged fermentation ? Is muck better than the litter which produces it ? I have no hesitation, and I believe no farmer would have any, in declaring that dung is much more efficacious than the materials which furnish it would be in their natural state.

There are two causes contributing to this special efficacy.

The first is the formation of ammonia generated during the fermentation of the muck and resulting from the reciprocal action of the hydrogen of the water and the oxygen of the air. Consequently, the muck may be richer in nitrogen than

its components, if the fermentation has been properly managed. The second circumstance influencing the special activity of the muck is the presence of brown

acids, which evidently have a great affinity for the oxygen of the air contained in the water, converting it into carbonic acid. If the water of the muck contains

ammoniacal salts formed by such acids, the action of the oxygen of the air will create the presence of the carbonate of ammonia in the solution. Now every one knows that it would be very different for a plant to absorb, by

its roots, aërated water containing carbonate of ammonia in solution , or water deprived of air containing carbonic acid and carbonate ‘ of ammonia.

Such seems to me to be the part of the muck which gradually supplies the water with very combustible materials, capable of attracting oxygen from the air, and of transforming it into carbonic acid : and which contains, moreover, ammo nia, logether with alkaline and earthy salts. If neither meat nor grain is ex ported , then it becomes the medium through which the ingredients of the soil,

abstracted during vegetation , are restored to it. Bone-dust, urines and the like, however, are the most prolific sources of the earthy and alkaline salts and phos phates, and are the best manures for reviving land, exhausted by the removal of grain and live -stock .

But the ulmate of ammonia, as a source of carbonate, which has latterly been too much neglected, is also a manure worthy the particular attention of farrners.

Its constant presence in muck is a matter for consideration, and indicates plainly the utility of those previous fermentations of the components of muck, to which Jauffret has directed the attention of agriculturists. Jacquemart, quoted above, has communicated to me the following remarks upon ammoniacal salts as manure :

“ In 1832 and 1833, I tried various plans of extracting ammoniacal salts from substances which would furnish liberal proportions, with the view of ascertain. ing whether salts, rich in nitrogen, if cheap and abundant, whould not be of beneficial and profitable application to Agriculture." “ ] found that 150 lbs. of poudrette are equivalent in nitrogen to 10 lbs. of crys.

talized sulphate of ammonia, and 53 per cent of the nitrogen exists as ready ormed carbonate of ammonia, and 47 per cent. is comprised in organic matters.!! 66

This result, and the promptness of the action of poudrette upon vegetation, lead to the idea that the carbonate of ammonia might be very favorable to its de velopment, and that to this salt should be attributed the energetic influence of the poudrette and Flemish manure. In fact, when this manure is employed, all the urea of the urines is transformed into carbonate of ammonia, and this salt is in greater proportion than all others.” “ Circumstances did not permit me to continue these researches, and I only pro (1085)

22

DUMAS ON MANURES .

gressed far enough to prove that the sub-carbonate of ammonia has a very bene ficial influence upon vegetation. My essays upon the applicability of ammonia cal salts to Agriculture, were limited to April, 1843. They had for their object,

1st. To determine the value of sub-carbonate of ammonia as a manure or stimu lant, in comparison with the poudrette as the standard . 2d . The use of these matters in small bulk and in convenient form .

The poudrette was applied in the proportion of 25 bushels per acre. As has been said, 150 lbs. represent, in nitrogen, 10 lbs of crystalized sulphate of am monia ; 3,000 lbs., therefore, are equivalent to 200 lbs. of sulphate. "

“ The quantities of ammoniacal salts were proportioned so as to contain as much nitrogen as the poudrette, and were, per 2 acres. 180 gallons sub-carbonate in solution, formed of 1 equivalent of acid. 2 of ammonia representing 200 lbs.of sulphate. Carbonate in solution, formed of 2 equivs. ofacidand2 equivs.ofammonia 200 lbs, 200 lbs. sulphate in solution 200 lbs. ..

“ In order to the ready and easy transportation and distribution of the solutions of ammoniacal carbonate, they should be heated with charcoal, or other porous matters, in quantity sufficient to form a thoroughly impregnated mass. It will be seen in the essays of October, 1843, that the solution of the carbonate can be employed in a reduced volume of one-half, merely doubling the quantity of salt

then the bulk of the manure is reduced to that of poudrette.” “ The sulphate of ammonia was used in two states : 1st. As solution in six times its weight of water, imbibed by dry calcareous matter in powder.

2d. In the form of powder, and sown similarly as fine seed. To prevent the formation of carbonate of ammonia, the calcareous matter must not be wetted with the solution of sulphate. In fact, a mixture of chalk or marl, and sulphate

of ammonia, when placed in a flask, emits an ammoniacal vapor, strong enough to blue a reddened litmus paper. As this reäction, however, is very slow, good

effects may be expected from the use of a mixture in which the carbonate of am monia disengages gradually enough for its assimilation, by the plant, in a nascent state. The first crop derived no benefit, scarcely, but upon the second its good

effects were decidedly evident. Unfortunately, I was unable to repeat the experi ments in the third year.

“ Finally, to approximate as nearly as possible the composition of poudrette, the ammonia of which is partially carbonated and partially free, I made a mixed solution of sulphate and carbonate of ammonia in the proportion of 88 lbs. of the

first, and 132 pounds of the latter per 2 acres. This solution was caused to be imbibed by peat dust, and all the matters employed in this essay were sown on

the same day, April 29, 1843, siinultaneously with the oats, and plowed in with the grain .” “ The land was newly cleared, limed and marled ground from which two crops had been taken. Each essay occupied 274 yards of surface, and was separated from the other by intervals of ten feet. The limits were enclosed by cords, the

harvest gathered with great care, and the products weighed .”

( 1086)

9. Sulphate in powder

3,725 2,410

3. Carbonate and peat .. 4. Sub-carbonate and peat ..

5. Carbonate, sulphate and peat 6. Poudrette

7. Sub-carbonate, salphate and peat 10. Nothing ...

Ratio of grain to

Per cl. Per ct. 75 96.3 69 77 69 69 65

8. Sulphate and calcareous matter

..

100= being

11,960 square

4,300 3,200

3,120 94 3,160 95 3,120 94 2,750 38 3,324 100 2,790 84 4,060 2,634 79 2

2. Sub - carbonate

23 latter the, straw

Valuation grain of: with compared given that pou by

Oats per 11,950 yards. -quare

yards

No. 1. Carbonate of ammonia and carbon (charcoal)

Threshed straw lper

RESULTS OBTAINED WITH THE FOLLOWING SUBSTANCES .

drette.z100.

THE CARBONATES AND SUB -CARBONATES.

4,640 4,120 4,520 3,960 5,129 4,354

72:5

3,992 ) 2,465 | 74

64 66 64 62

“ From these experiments it follows: 1st. That the carbonate and sub-carbonate, combined with

rcoal or peat,

give 94 per cent. of the product of poudrette , containing an equal quantity of ni trogen corresponding to 202 lbs. of crystalized sulphate of ammonia per hectare : 2d. That the degree of saturation of ammonia by carbonic acid has no influence :

3d. That the sulphate by itself, and as a salt, furnishes no results :

4th . That the mixture of carbonate and sulphate of ammonia gives 84 per cent. of poudrette. This number is deduced almost exactly, à priori, from the salts composing the mixture. 5th. That the calcareous matter imbued with sulphate of ammonia gives 79 per cent., that is to say, 8 per cent. more than nothing. This result, so different from what might have been hoped for, ought probably to be attributed to the

mild composition of the sulphate, and to the short time (about four months) that the plant was in the ground. The following experiments seem to show the pro priety of farther testing the matter.

These trials were made in October, 1843, upon a crop of wheat, and on the same spot as the before -mentioned experiments. Having already ascertained that the carbonate and sub -carbonate of ammo nia give similar results, the latter only was used in these experiments ; but in order to reduce the volume of the mixture, the solution was made of double strength .

The standard of comparison was, poudrette employed in the proportion ofabout 79 cubic feet, nearly 3 cubic yards, per 11,960 square yards, and representing, in nitrogen, 227 lbs. of crystalized sulphate of ammonia. The ammoniacal salts were used in the proportion of 238 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia ; that is to say, they contain 5 per cent. of nitrogen more than the poudrette.

“ These essays were made in the same spots as the preceding , and the same

numbers correspond with the same places : time (October) and other circum stances were likewise corresponding.

11087)

Proportion of

Value !

Threshe strawd per 11,960 square yards.

to, grain straw the latter being 100.= ::: 88

by poudrettr that

MANURES.

corner wit

DUMAS ON

Whent 11,90 per square yrds.

24

RESULTS OBTAINED WITH THE FOLLOWING SUBSTANCES . xrill! Per

2,837

No. 1. Sub -carbonate and peat.. 2. Poudrette .

3. Sub-carbonate (concentrated) and peat 4. 5-10 sub-carbonate, 5-10 poudrette and peat. 5. Nothing .. 6. Poudrette

7. į sub-carbonate ( concentrated) poudrette and peat . 8. Sulphate and calcareous matter.. 9. Sulphate in salt.... 10. Nothing..

ct

Per ct .

1,875 94.5

3,350 2.000 100 3,150 1,875 94.5 3,350 1,987 ( 100 2,393 1,485 73

65 60 60 60 62 60

3,275 1,970 100 2,975 1,750 88 ( ?) 57 3,112 | 1,787

90

2,675 1,412

71

2,700 1,400

70

57 53 52

" It follows from these trials as from the preceding :

1st. That the sub-carbonate of ammonia gives 94 per cent. of the product of the poudrette, as proved by trials Nos. 1 , 2, 3, and 6. The 5 per cent. ex .

cess of nitrogen that was used produced no effect ; probably , because it only served, from the length of the experiment (nine mon !hs) to compensate for the difference of fixity between the principles of the two substances.

2d. That No. 3 indicates that the concentrated carbonate (14% cubic feet per 11,960 square yards ) acts in the same manner as that which is weaker.

3d. That No. 4 apparently proves that a mixture of poudrette and peat in equal proportions, imbued with sub-carbonate, has the same value as poudrette. No. 7 does not confirm this, but it allows the inference that there was some error in +

the last experiments, for in those of April, Nos. 4 and 7 presented no anomaly.

4th. It is shown by No. 8 that calcareous matter moistened by sulphate of ammonia yields 90 per cent. of the poudrette, while in the spring it only gave 79 per cent. This difference is doubtless attributable to the difference in time between 9 and 4 months.

It is difficult to say whether the calcareous matter

moistened with sulphate and sown in the spring united its action with that sown in autumn ; for it was buried by the plowing which followed the crop of oats.

" It would have been interesting to have made an examination of the products of a third crop, but circumstances did not permit.

5th. The sulphate in salt, as in the preceding case, gave no result. 6th. Finally, if we compare No, 4, in which turf imbued with sub - carbonate ,

was sown in the spring, and no other manure used in autumn, with No. 10, which received no manure, in either season we find the product is nearly the same ; hence either the conclusion that the effect of the sub-carbonate of ammo

nia was not perceptible after the first crop, or that this substance, being on the surface, was plowed in too deeply.

“ To conclude, therefore, it seems demonstrated by the experiments ofthe spring and fall, that the carbonates of ammonia have evidently a very happy influence upon the growth of cereals ; that the sulphate of ammonia, in a state of salt, is without influence upon these plants, at least under the aforementioned circum stances. Perhaps better results might be obtained by sowing it in spring upon the cereals, when they cover the soil ; that the sulphate of ammonia in solution

and absorbed by calcareous matter, produces very favorable effects, especially when the growth of the plant is of some duration. Its action should be studied during many consecutive crops.

“ These facts, as is readily observed, are of great importance to Agriculture ;

for they prove the advantageous applicability of ammoniacal salts. In fact, it results from the experiments that a quantity of sub-carbonate of ammonia equiva. (1088)

SALINE MATTERS.

25

lent to 198 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia , gave per 11,960 square yards an excess af product as follows : OAT8—680 kilogrammes of grain, say 15 •8 hectolitres, of 43 kils. at 6 francs ......95 400 8

of straw , say 80 bundles, at 10f. per 100, net

Total

.103 franca

“ That a quantity of the sub-carbonate of ammonia equal to 108 kilogrammes of sulphate of ammonia , gives in excess of products per hectare, as follows: WHEAT -435 kils. of wheat, say 6 hects. of 73 kils. at 18 francs 430 kils. of straw, say 86 bundles at 10f. per 100, net

. 108 8.60

Total ....

.116.60f.

Or, in English : OATS-1,496 lbs. of grain .... 880 lbs. straw , say 80 bundles, at $2 per 100 Total ...

WHEAT — 957 lbs. grain 946 lbs. straw , say 36 bundles at $2 per 100 Total...

$ 19 00 1 60

$ 20 60 $ 21 60 1 72 $ 23 32

“ In the provision market of Paris, where straw is generally of very high pr: the revenue would be increased $1 52 to $1 90 per 100 of straw, thus giving its gross overplus $26 60 to $27 74 per 11,960 square yards. “ From these sums must be deducted the expense of the sub - carbonate of

monia. But the ammoniacal salts are now so low in price, the sub - carbe: wte

being abundantly extracted from the refuse liquor of gas-works, that it . net benefits, the straw being valued as above, may be guarantied at $9 50 to $ : 5 20 for the crop of oats, and $10 45 to $16 15 for the crop of wheat. “ In 1843 I studied the action of ammoniacal salts upon meadows, ane of so

lutions of carbonate and sulphate, with which I cultivated definite por ins of a lawn. I also sowed the sulphate in powder, so that two equal surf yes wa tered with solution, or dusted with powder, should receive the same quatity of After thirty-six hours, the wetted surfaces acquired a dep -green tint, and exhibited a striking contrast with the rest of the sward. ' . his effect must be attributed to the salts, for the parts wetted with pure water did not ex . hibit any change. After the first rain the experiment with the sulp te in pow . der resulted as favorably as the other. ammonia.

“ This last result made me renounce the use of saline solutions which to the

farmer presents many difficulties. I propose the employment oi y of sulphate in powder to be sown like the seeds.

“ I will remark that when the lawn was reaped and the grass / id commenced to re -sprout, it was impossible to observe any difference between the dusted and

watered plots, for the action of the salts had been limited to one crop. “ In the latter part of March , 1844, I sowed the meadows with sulphate of ammonia in powder, at the rate of 90 to 100 kilogrammes per hectare, each ex

periment occupying about one-third of a hectare. After the first rain the parts thus treated were distinguishable from the remainder of the field by their deep green color ; and subsequently the grass grew luxuriantly, but circumstances did not permit me to accurately estimate the results. “ In 1845, these experiments were repeated , and the plots fenced in . When

planting, I also measured off, adjoining these plots, others of equal dimensions, that is, a third of a hectare each, and at the harvest compared the products of (1089)

26

DUMAS ON

MANURES.

the sulph -ammoniated parts with those which were cultivated without this treatment :

1st Experiment.-- 100 kilog .* of sulphate per hectaret

Excess of product with the sulphate.

Grass ...... 3,746 kils.

Good medium soil ..Hay

2,907 kils.

.... 839 kilogrammes, or 29 per cent.

2d Experiment.-- 100 kilog. of sulphate per hectare Hay

Very good soil .....Hay

.4,956 kils. 3,892 kils.

- .. 1,064 kilogrammes, or 30 per cent.

3d Experiment.— 100 kilog. of sulphate per hectare ..3,970 kils. Hay..

Strong soil......... Hay ..

.3,450 kils.

520 kilogrammes, or 15 per cent.

“ We will remark that the sulphate apparently has an action much greater pro portional to the quality of the soil, and its deficiency in strength and argillaceous

matter-provided, however, it is not too light. It remains to be determined whether, with a less quantity than 220 lbs. per 11,960 square yards, we would not obtain as good results — whether a stronger proportion would not produce even better effects — in fine, whether the influence of the salt extends beyond a year, especially in argillaceous soils. If the latter is not the case it is probable that the whole influence of the salt is exhausted by the first crop. ries, however, must be resolved by some future harvest.”

These que

The results of the above experiments, such as they are, are nevertheless not without interest to Agriculture.

According to experiment No. 2, sulphate of ammonia costing $10 26 per 220 Ibs., the receipt equals the expense when the price of hay is $5 89 per 100 bun dles ; and there is a gain of $3 42 to $5 70 per 11,960 square yards, when it brings $7 60 to $8 36 per 100 bundles. Again, according to experiment No. 2, where there is an equality between the outlay and return , the hay should be worth $6 65 to $7 60 or $8 36—an advantage of $1 43 to $2 47 per 11,960 sq. yds. Experiment No. 3 always gave a loss. But whether a soil annually treated with ammoniacal salts will yield liberal

crops for consecutive years, or whether, on the contrary, its fertility is limited to one season only, and requires renewal yearly by fresh additions, are questions for future determination . * 2 lbs. 3 oz. 4.428 drachms avoirdupois.

(1090)

† 2 acres, 1 r. 35 p . - 11,960-4604 square yards.

NUTRITION OF PLANTS. BY JEAN BAPTISTE DUMAS .

Translated from the French for The Library, by CAMPBELL MORFIT and BARNET PHILLIPS.

PLANTS nourish themselves upon animal excretions, that is to say , upon water,

carbonic acid, and ammonia : all of which they receive through the medium of the atmosphere. În a general sense, therefore, the study of the nutrition of

plants, is, in fact, the examination of their relations to the atmosphere. A plant, during a growth of some time, presents an evident accumulation of matter in all its tissues ; it also acquires carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, together with earthy and mineral matters ; but of this more hereafter.

By limiting the examination to the principal phenomena, ( discarding all the accidental circumstances which may intervene,) we can readily, by some simple but conclusive experiments, be convinced of the truth of the preceding results. These leave no doubt, either as to the fixation of carbon , hydrogen, and nitro

gen by the plants, or the mode in which it is effected during vegetation . Boussingault proposes to demonstrate this by means of a large bell-glass, with three tubulures. Adapted to the first is a washing apparatus filled with water, for the removal of the dust suspended in the atmospheric air. In the principal

tubulure is a funnel, opening and closing at pleasure, through which to introduce distilled water for the irrigation of the seeds and plants placed under the bell glass. These are contained in a capsule or saucer filled with calcined sand.

The bell-glass rests upon, and is hermetically cemented to, an earthen pan, so as to prevent the admission of air. The third tubulure communicates with a large flask , by means of two U tubes and a washing apparatus, which retain the water and carbonic acid .

The flask being filled with water, and the apparatus tightly closed, the dis placement of the air from the bell -glass is determined by opening the cock in the lower part of the washing-flask . This operation can be repeated as often as de. sired. By these precautions, it is seen that the plant or seeds under the bello glass receive definitely, as their whole nourishment, only water, air and carbonic acid .

Now if peas be sown in this calcined sand, taking care to water them and fre

quently renew their atmosphere, they germinate, develop their leaves, and what is remarkable, flower and fructify. Nothing is easier than to estimate the amount

of matter lost or gained by the seed in developing itself ; a simple comparative analysis of the seed and of the crop suffices. Boussingault has determined by analysis the nature of the elements and their proportions in both the seeds and the crop. The following are his results : (1091)

23

DUMAS ON THE NUTRITION OF PLANTS.

The peas contained : After Vegetation.

Before Vegetation . Carbon ...

Hydrogen .. Nitrogen . Oxygen Total ....

237.6 parts .

.51.5 parts. 5.9 4.6

44.0

28.1 10.1 168.0

.106.0

443.8

Showing the fixation, during the process of vegetation, of 186 • 1 parts of Carbon 5.5 Nitrogen

139.5 parts of Water 6.7 Hydrogen . ..

These results prove in the most evident manner that peas, as well as many other plants, can pass through all their phases of vegetation even when nourished only with water and air. The crop thus obtained is, however, very meager and incomparably less than that yielded by manured soil. The phenomenon which we are about to study is complex : in fact, a seed, a

plant, in certain periods of their growth, present modifications both in their vital functions and in their relations to the atmosphere.

To the amount of fixed

principles, already considerable, must be added another large portion, which is dissipated after having been momentarily fixed . But if the result, apparently simple, which I am about to give, is the final result of a complex theory, it does not the less fully confirm the fixation of carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen in the plants, besides that of a certain quantity of hydrogen and oxygen , which is fixed as water, or in the proportions which constitute water. It is not sufficient to have clearly proved that the fixation of the elements con .

stituting plants can be effected by the sole intermediation of the air ; we should investigate farther in order to clearly determine the principal sources of these elements.

When we reflect upon the enormous quantity of carbon in continual fixation by vegetation, the question naturally arises whether it really does not originate

wholly, or at least in part, from the decomposition of the carbonic acid in the air. We know that the atmosphere contains, usually, 4-10,000ths of its volume,

or as well, 6-10,000ths of its weight of carbonic acid ; an evident proof that this quantity is sufficient.

A very simple calculation will determine this matter. Let us suppose, in fact, that the atmosphere is compressed by a force which would give it the density of water ; the column of air at this density, has a hight of about ten metres : in this column of ten metres carbonic acid enters to the extent of four millimetres, and

by reducing the carbonic acid to carbon , it will be finally seen that the quantity of carbonic acid in the atmosphere, is sufficient to form a stratum of carbon cov

ering the surface of the whole earth to the thickness of nearly one-third of a millimetre.

The amount of carbonic acid in the air is increased by the torrents emitted from volcanoes, and the supply is constantly kept up by the large quantities emit

ted during combustion in our fireplaces, by the respiration of animals, and also their decomposition , and by the nocturnal respiration of plants. The quantity is being constantly diminished by the diurnal respiration of plants. We may then ask whether this actual state of the atmosphere has always existed, or if in re.

mote periods, it did not present an entirely different composition.

Ad. Brogniart, relying upon the precise information of Geology, has calcu lated the coin position of air before the formation of the coal fields. France, as a fair average of the coal lands of Europe, and erhaps of the whole world , was taken as the standard . It contains 1.200 of coal land, forming a stratum of ( 1092)

EXPERIMENTS OX CARBOXIC ACID .

29

twenty metres thickness, and is poorer in this respect than England and Belgi. um, but much richer than a large majority of the other countries of the earth.

Estimating by France, we then find that a pro rata apportionment will give to the whole surface of our globe a stratum of coal of a decimetre thickness ;

by changing the weights into carbonic acid, ( for it is incontestable that coal has its origin from vegetable debris whose carbonic acid must necessarily have been drawn from the atmosphere, ) we then have the inference that the air before the tormation of the coal-fields must have contained at the very least from 4 to 5

per cent., a medium, and by a little exaggeration, perhaps as much as 8 to 10 per cent. of carbonic acid. Air charged with a like quantity of carbonic acid is injurious to, if not destructive of the warm-blooded animals ; and, indeed, we learn from geological fossils that in that epoch there were no animals of that nature. Saussure's experiments have shown that vegetation thrives much bet

ter in an atmosphere containing some hundredths of carbonic acid, and we know also that the vegetation of remote periods was much more active than at present, as is well evident in the singular development of fossil debris.

But supposing there were no animals, or at most but a few of them, wher.ce comes this carbonic acid of the air, unless from numbepless volcanoes now extinct ?

What is the action of the carbonic acid, and what are the conditions requisite for the regular accomplishment of the phenomenon now under study ? We will answer by the aid of some historical details. Bonnet first observed that green

leaves, when placed in aërated water and exposed to the sun's light, disengage a gas which Priestly proved to be oxygen ; and Jennevier in his turn showed that this oxygen proceeds from the carbonic acid held in solution by the water,

and associates this fact with the nutrition of plants. To effect the decomposi tion of the carbonic acid, the green part of the plants must be exposed to the solar light. A plant which is not struck by the light does not decompose car bonic acid ; on the contrary, in the presence of aërated water or air, it generates it, as is unequivocally determined by the following two experiments :

Take a bell-glass containing an atmosphere of carbonic acid, in which plants are also inclosed , and place it under an opaque vessel, and keep it thus secluded from the light for several days.

After this time, an examination of the

transvased gas shows that it is still unaltered carbonic acid. Again , take a second bell-glass similar to the first, and inclose therein, as before, the green

parts of plants ; but this time expose it to the sun's light weakened by a gauze screen or sheet of transparent paper. This precaution is necessary, for though a plant thrives perfectly in the open air even under the direct action of the solar

rays, it is requisite, when operating under bell-glasses, to provide against the concentration of light by the lenticles which their surfaces present, else the parts of the plant opposite to the foci become torrefied and the plant perishes. With proper precautions oxygen is obtained nearly pure. Hence the necessity of light

in this phenomenon. Without it there would be no action — no durable vegeta-. tion upon the surface of the earth.

Let us now examine under what forms the carbonic acid reaches the plant. We can determine a current of air in a bulbed apparatus, with three tubulures,

by means of a flacon à ecoulement. A bulbed apparatus, adapted to the first tu bulure, serves to wash the air which enters. To the third tubulure is adjusted an U tube containing pumice-stone saturated with sulphuric acid, for the reten tion of the water. There must be also a second bulbed apparatus, containing a (1093) 1

30

DUMAS ON THE NUTRITION OF PLANTS.

concentrated solution of potassa, for the absorption of carbonic acid. Following this is an U tube again , filled with pumice-stone saturated with sulphuric acid, to retain the little water which may pass over from the potassa solution. The

two apparati are accurately weighed before the experiment, and in order to prevent the reëntrance of moist air there shouid be a third U tube filled, as be fore, with vitriolized pumice-stone.

All the air which passes through this apparatus during exposure to the sun's light is entirely deprived of carbonic acid, without any increase of weight ac cruing to the apparatus during the experiment. Thus we have evident proof that plants draw carbonic acid directly from the atmosphere. We do not admit,

however, that this is the sole source, for it can be conveyed into the plant through its roots, which imbibe it from the soil. The moisture of the soil which is imbibed by the roots is also charged with carbonic acid. Moreover, the slow

combustion of the dung deposited around plants is also a continual source of carbonic acid. The arrangement of the apparatus, before noted exemplifies on a small scale, this phenomenon, as also the rôle of the carbonic acid. The roots of the plant, inclosed in the balloon, being dipped into a vessel filled with

water charged with carbonic acid, absorption conveys this water to all parts of the plant, and the carbonic acid, as soon as it reaches the leaves or green parts,

is decomposed by contact with the light. When the apparatus is to be arranged for this experiment, the first bulbed tube must be filled with a concentrated so lution of caustic potassa, in order to arrest the carbonic acid proceeding from the air itself.

To sum up, plants have two sources of oxygen : 1st, the atmosphere, from which they abstract it directly ; and, 2dly, the soil, from which they receive it

through their roots. They receive it also from dew, but it is the carbonic acid of the air reaching them in an indirect way. Light is necessary to the decomposition of carbonic acid, as will be proved by a few words. If green twigs or branches are presented to the object- glass of a camera, the light reflected by the green portions of the plant acts very feebly

upon an iodinized silver plate, as if all the chemical rays of the light absorbed during the process of life in the plants, when reflected back by their green parts, no longer exercise any chemical action. Green leaves act nearly in the same manner as those black bodies which are

most capable of entirely absorbing the light. This is a matter worthy of deep study, for at the moment the light strikes the leaves, the most mysterious actions of Nature, and the most important to be revealed, are in some way accomplished , while we have no authority for supposing that these actions are produced by any

of the methods now known either in Physics or Chemistry. The decomposition of carbonic acid is effected by the influence of the sun's rays

and the green matter of plants ; but is this green matter endowed, in itself, with this property, or does it require the coöperation of vegetable organisms ? The thorough experiments of Morren afford a conclusive decision of these ques tions. The green matter, when in contact with the solar rays, acts always in the

same manner, whether it is or is not coupled with a vegetable organism . Water sometimes holds in suspension a green matter formed by green animal cules. If this water is analyzed, under different meteorological circumstances, it will be found that the ratio of oxygen in the gas given off during ebullition varies from 16 to 60 per cent., or in the ratio of 1 to 4. After being some time

insulated it shows an excess of oxygen , and the animalcules assume an active life. (1094)

-

THE ACTION OF CARBONIC ACID .

31

Under the influence of the sun's rays the green matter of the plants decom

poses carbonic acid, and sets the oxygen at liberty ; but if light is wanting, then the inverse phenomena occur. The fish of a pond rapidly absorb the oxygen of the air held in solution by the water, and if the green animalcules do not in turn replace this oxygen by the de composition of carbonic acid, the fish suffer, and gradually suffocate. If, on the contrary, the sun shines, the animalcules quickly restore the oxygen to the air,

and the fish become active. These alternatives occur ceaselessly, and are pe. culiarly remarkable for the strange rapidity with which the resuits become manifest.

This experiment, besides assigning a rôle to the green matter, gives an exact idea of the phenomena occurring in the atmosphere. In fact, in the atmosphere the equilibrium is due to the same causes, but the variations are much more lim

ited. The motion of the air is much more rapid, its mass enormous compared with the causes which tend to modify it ; while in the water of the fish -ponds, or preserves, the masses are small and the influential causes enormous.

Independently of the green animalcules which act in the same manner as green plants, Morren has shown that there are those of a red color which pro

duce the same effects. This discovery is of the greatest importance, for hereto fore this action has been, compulsorily, attributed to the green matter of plants, although the foliage of certain vegetables and trees have a purple or nearly red

tint, even in their normal state. According to Morren’s experiments, there are a number of coloring matters which are capable of decomposing carbonic acid .

Those plants which are not green , the fruits which lose their green color in acquiring the shades peculiar to their maturity, flowers, & c., do not decompose carbonic acid. As soon as the green matter appears in a plant exposed to light, the decomposition of carbonic acid commences. Is this green matter the instru * ment or the product of the decomposition ? If it is the product, will it be trans

formed by the successive repetitions which constantly renew themselves into the various products developed by vegetation ? We would be disposed to think that the green matter is an instrument, an agent ; that it is doubtless but little al ered , and that under its influence the other matters are produced and carried from cell to cell by endosmose, even to the vessels which convey them to the different organs of the plant. There are, however, colorless plants which run through all phases of their ex istence without being colored. Fungi are of this class, and there are certain kinds which grow in the darkest mines ; and hence, very naturally, their absence ofcolor, which, in preventing their action upon light, enables them to dispense with its influence.

We will remark , however, that the fungi of the mines are sunny

white, while those reared in the light are always diverse-tinted. But fungi are always parasitical ; they thrive upon living or dead animals or plants, and always by means of organic matters which they contain already made.

The life of a fungus is every way comparable with that of animals ; their nourishment is the same, and perhaps the analogy between these two beings, apparently so very different, might be much farther traced.

Thus, for our benefit, the vegetable kingdom is particularly characterized by those plants which possess the property of decomposing carbonic acid, and thus it is that it enjoys the full extent of its purpose, and accomplishes its errand The reproductive organs of plants are but a transition .

upon the earth.

Fungi are too little known, in this respect, to claim our attention longer. It is (1095)

32

DUMAS ON THE NUTRITION OF PLANTS.

therefore only in the green parts of plants that the great apparatus exists which may exercise a certain influence upon the constitution of the air, and which de

serves to be classed among the great instruments which the physics of the world should acknowledge .

Supposing that the plants had ceased the performance of their functions upon the surface of the earth, calculation proves that the amount of oxygen of the ato mosphere will suffice for the respiration of the present existent animals for

thousands of years. Our knowledge of the nutrition of animals teaches us that the disappearance of plants would on the contrary speedily produce their death by inanition .

Hence, from what has been said , the unavoidable conclusion that

the carbon of plants proceeds mainly from the decomposition of carbonic acid. A last consideration compels us to make an important restriction. In citing

the beautiful experiments of Boussingaul: upon the complete development in a close vessel of peas nourished by air , water, and carbonic acid, we remarked that the harvest was very poor in comparison with that produced by manured grounds.

By manuring the soil, the conditions of growth are augmented, for the dung con tains nitrogeneous matters ; it moreover surrounds the roots with an incessant

source of carbonic acid, which being carried up with the sap of the plant, is de composed by contact with the green matter of the leaves. The manure contains, also, the mineral salts which are indispensable to the complete development of

plants, besides the soluble organic matters which , according to Saussure, in cer tain cases are equally necessary for the nutrition of plants. As regards the decomposition of the water, we have to repeat all that has been said relative to the decomposition of carbonic acid by plants, for the hydrogen of plants is derived from water, and besides it fixes water in its natural state. We have now the certain proof that many fungi disengage hydrogen naturally .

Edwards and Colin have shown that the stem of the Polygonum tinctorium , when placed under water, disengages hydrogen. Payen has proved by the analy. "

sis of the ligneous parts of vegetables, that the amount of hydrogen is always slightly excessive of that of oxygen. Added to these, also are Boussingault's di rect experiments upon the growth of peas, clover, and wheat. Thus : WHEAT

Grains.

After three months vegetation .

46.6 5.8

88 10.0

3.5

3.7

Nitrogen . Oxygen..

..44 • 1

81.0

100.0 grains have fixed carbon 41.4 nitrogen 6.0 - (water)HC41 :8 • (hydrogen ) H 0.0

Total .

100.0

183.2

183.2

Carbon ... Hydrogen ..

CLOVER.

Carbon ....

Hydrogen . Nitrogen . Oxygen .. Total...

Graing. 50.8 6.0 7.2 36.0

100.0

After three months vegetation. 131.3 17 : 1 9.8

100.0 grains have fixed carbon 80-5

100.7

hydrogen 3.0

258.9

258.9

nitrogen 2-6 water 72: 8

In the wheat there was no fixation of hydrogen, but much of carbon and water ; while in the clover, carbon , hydrogen , nitrogen and water were all assimilated. If I have insisted upon the decomposition of water, as established by Boussin gault, it is because that incident in the life of plants — the fixation of the carbon by the decomposition of the carbonic acid-thus becomes the grand theorem of

the general physics of the globe, which forms an equivalent to that other phe nomenon so well demonstrated by Lavoisier, the combustion of carbon and nitro gen which characterizes the life of animals. (1096)

THE CARBON

OF

PLANTS .

33

Plants decompose water and assimilate its hydrogen ; they reduce carbonic

acid and appropriate its carbon—they decompose ammonia ; they are, in fact, the reducing apparatus. Animals, on the contrary, burn the carbon and hydrogen, and may be styled oxidizing apparatus. This property in plants of securing the carbon of carbonic acid, and setting tne

oxygen at liberty, has no parallel in any chemical force. Chemistry at presentis incapable of imitating this phenomenon in the life of plants : Physics must some day

afford an explanation. It should be tried whether a daguerreotype in regarding a plant behaves as in the presence of a black plate, if the reflected light is deprived of its chemical rays. Plants certainly absorb a portion of the intensity of the sun's

rays, and as all these phenomena are colleagued ; if the animal produces heat and electricity, the plants in their turn absorb heat and electricity. It remains to be inquired how the nitrogen is introduced into plants. It reaches them by two channels : 1st. Through the air. 2d. Through manures. It has already been shown in the experiment upon the growth of peas in a close vessel, that nitrogen is abstracted from the atmosphere. Clover as well as Jerusalem artichokes cultivated under similar circumstances present a similar action. If, however, the experiment is repeated upon the plants, this phenomenon is not evident ; for instance, the cereals do not abstract their nitrogen from the air, and hence plants, in this respect, are divisible into two distinct groups : 1st. Those which abstract their oxygen from the atmosphere, namely, peas, clover, and Jerusalem artichokes.

2d. Those which obtain it through manures, namely, the cereals, and the oleaginous plants. Though we know that the nitrogen of some plants is borrowed from the at

mosphere, we cannot tell the condition or state in which it is assimilated ; it may .

be supposed that it enters directly into their organs, some one of which have the natural property of abstracting it from air. It can be conveyed thither by the water, always aërated, which is imbibed by the roots. The leaves of the plant

may convert it into ammonia by means of the hydrogen of the water, which they

decompose. Finally, this fixed nitrogen, according to Saussure's experiments, proceeds, certainly in part, from the traces of ammonia contained in the air. If there are any doubts in this respect, doubts removable by experiment, there can be none as to plants which receive their nitrogen through the medium of ma. nures. Manures act by virtue of their urea, uric acid and animal matters, which,

by decomposition, are transformed into ammoniacal salts. A single experiment readily proves this fact : Schattenmann ( the director of the manufactory at Bour . willer) observed that by watering a field with the solution of sulphate of ammo nia , obtained by treating horse-dung with sulphate of iron, he could readily dis tinguish the irrigated spots from those which were not watered, by the vigor of their vegetation. Letters traced with the liquid manure were visible at a great distance during the whole term of vegetation. Hence, the evident im. portance of its application to Agriculture. In some countries the explanation of this theory has occasioned a profitable practice : for instance, in the Canton of Grisons the dung-liquor is treated with sulphate of iron ; the ammonia which is

generated decomposes the sulphate of iron , and forms sulphate of ammonia, which, in this state, is potential and not volatile. Elsewhere, the urine or dung-liquor is mixed with sulphate of lime, which is equally efficient in fixing the ammonia ;

but its application to the dried fæces is not effectual, owing to the generation of carbonate of ammonia, which is wholly volatile : consequently, the efforts to neu (1097) ...... 33

34

DUMAS ON THE NUTRITION OF PLANTS .

tralize the ammoniacal odor in the stables by means of sulphate of lime, have not been successful.

The researches of Payen and Boussingault have removed all doubt both as to the effects of ammoniacal salts as a manure, and the thorough utility of animal matter, or, more generally, nitrogeneous matter, in the dunging of the soils. They

have recently shown that all true manures act by virtue of their nitrogen, and are efficient proportional to what they contain of this element, and they have given the

following Table, where they are ranked according to their equivalent value. The Table shows that 100 parts of farm manure can be replaced by 3 parts of

dry blood or animal residues, and by 25 parts of grape-cake : Farm manure .. Sea weed ..

Residue of pressed oleaginous seeds Grape-cake.. Liquor from starch factories Dung liquor ...

100 Pigeon-dung 50 Liquid Flemish manure 8

Poudrette

5 200 .10 to 25

25 Dry blood or dry flesh, feathers, wool, 600

and horn .

70

Animal black .

3 40

We have too often alluded to the value of urine, in vegetation, to render it ne cessary again to enforce upon the farmer the policy of carefully collecting the dung juices of his barn yards.

We should, however, recollect that the preceding Table does not give a per fectly just idea, in this respect ; for we might be led to think that in the prepa

ration of Flemish manure or animal black, none of the products of the juices are

lost. Consequently, though the poudrette presents a greater value, pound to pound , it is not a thorough proof that this should be preferred in the great econo my of a country. In fact, during its preparation , a great portion of useful products

escape into and infect the atmosphere. The great advantages of liquid ma nure, with which we cannot be too familiar, may be summed up in a few words :

1st. Man furnishes the air with carbonic acid and water, that the farmer may always have a supply equal to the requirements of his crops. 2d. Man ejects urine and excrements, which constitute liquid manure, after a

previous fermentation, all the other products of his alimentation. 3d. Consequently, in the liquid manure and the atmosphere, the farmer has all the matters requisite for the culture of those plants suitable to the nutrition of man .

The excrements of animals, which constitute the nourishment of the most

useful plants -- such as the cereals—are as necessary to their sustenance as bread and meat is to that of Man ; and hence the culpable neglect in allowing the waste of sewer juices in large cities. Among the efforts to diminish the miseries of the poor classes, none can take precedence of that to lessen the cost of manures, and as tending to this, the collection and preservation of the contents of privies should be provided for by the authorities of all the cities and towns. One more remark in conclusion of this subject. It is well known with what facil. ity ammonia dissolves in water, which will take up about 430 times its volume, and it is also well known that hydrochloric acid is equally soluble. But let us

compare the operation of these two solutions. By heating hydrochloric acid ot a certain density, it boils at 244.4 ° Fahrenheit, without being altered ; and it is

impossible to separate it from its waters by physical means. At the temperature of 122 ° to 140 ° Fahrenheit, water no longer retains a trace of ammonia ; indeed,

in vacuo, it loses all its gas at ordinary temperatures and even evaporates sponta neously when exposed to air in open vessels. (1098)

.

.

AMMONIA AND VEGETATION .

35

This is a wise provision in the natural economy, for this property enables the condensation of the ammonia by the rains, which convey it to the plants, that it

may be volatilized anew , and carried to those points where it will be seized

upon and rendered available. It is doubtless the final cause of the properties of the aqueous solution of ammonia .

But, as these properties are necessary in the designs of Creation, so that vegeta

tion may not be deprived of that ammonia which it requires ; so much the more is it important, as a personal consideration , for they are noxious in the latter re spect. It is precisely, this volatility of the ammonia resulting from the decom position of the animal detritus of a city, which prevents its restoration to the

neighboring soil, as might otherwise so well be done ; for it is the whole sum of manure which the soil requires to reproduce the sum of organic matter requisite for its nourishment.

We should therefore direct our attention to the elucidation

of the mode in which the rejected nitrogenous products, which we regard as lost, can be rendered available.

0099

THE ACTION OF SALT ON VEGETATION ; AND ITS USE IN AGRICULTURE . BY M. BECQUEREL .

In the Memoir which I presented to the Royal Society of Agriculture in July, 1847, I treated of the state of vegetation in the saliferous soils under the influ ence of water, and laid it down as a principle, that salt and water, when added

gradually and in small portions to plants, promoted the growth and excellence of fodder crops, especially in those soils naturally dry. My experience in this respect is based upon observations and analyses made of the old royal salines of

the Levant and the surrounding countries. These experiments, it must be told, however, are only the beginning of a series which I intend to undertake upon the use of salt as an amendment [ameliorator ?] in Agriculture, commencing, however, with the study of its action in the different phases, of the growth of

thecereal and fodder plants. To proceed systematically, we must before passing to the application, determine the principal physiological phenomena induced by

the salt during the course of vegetation, so that we may avoid or follow them, accordingly as they are useful or prejudicial to its development. Those who deny the salutary influence of salt upon vegetation, under certain circumstances, are perhaps too much biased by the idea prevalent among the ancients, that sterility is the inevitable consequence of its application . This may be true in those countries which receive but little rain, and where the sun

is intensely hot ; but the exception is not applicable to humid soils. The hygroscopic state of the soil being an important element in determining the question, by abstracting it we render it extremely complicated. On the other

hand, in sowing salt simultaneously with the seed, it has never been determined how it acts or whether its mode of action is the same :

1st. In germination.

2d. During the development of vegetation, from the extremity of germination to budding, that is to say, while the plant sprouts. 3d. From the sprouting to the fructification . 4th. Finally, from the fructification to the entire cessation of vegetation , or the death of the plant. If this had been known sooner, the opinion of certain persons as to the action of salt in vegetation would certainly have been modified, but as the question is very complex, it was necessary to divide it, and study each proposition sepa rately.

From the experiments which I made as to the action of salt upon germination , the following conclusions are to be drawn :

1st. Common salt, in certain proportions, retards and even partially destroys the germination of rye grass and white mustard seeds. 2d. It completely destroys those of wheat and vetch. 3d. It impedes, in a measure, the germination and vegetation of many plants. (1100)

THE ACTION OF SALT ON VEGETATION.

37

Thus it is seen that though the salt may not destroy germination , it neverthe

less injuriously affects the young plants during vegetation, by inducing a change in their embryo in the initiatory development of life. Can we not interpret this injurious tendency of the salt in the very first act of vegetable life ? When a seed is subjected to the combined action of water and of heat, it swells, and the starchy matter of the cotyledon passes into gum and sugar, as

food for the nutrition of the plantlet. These substances act the same part to young plants that milk does in the nutrition of young animals. Now, as salt is, in general, an antiseptic, being often used to prevent the putrefaction of animal and organic matters, it naturally follows that if its presence will prevent those transformations of the starchy maiter of the seed only by which it can be ren

dered alimentary of the plantlet, the plantlet must necessarily perish. Though the destruction may not be complete, still the plant suffers during its vegetaticn from the ill effects produced by the salt during its germination. As regards the action of salt in the second phase of vegetation, it may be ad

mitted, à priori, that it should not influence the development of vegetation , from the completion of germination to the moment of blooming, in the same manner as during germination ; since, in this case, the salt seems to oppose the decom position of starchy matter, and its transformation into gum and sugar ; while in the other instance, as soon as germination is completed and respiration takes place in the leaves, the salt is carried by water into the different tissues and or gans, and should then act only proportional to the quantity introduced, to hasten or retard the phenomena and the different elaborations of the juices designed for

the nutrition and development of the plant. The salt, therefore, should not play the same part in both cases. Numerous experiments have effectually confirmed this deduction drawn from facts previously noted.

The facts stated in my Memoir authorize the following conclusions : 1st. That salt in solution is prejudicial to germination , being alterative or de structive of the embryo according to the quantity employed. When the change is very sensible, the development of the young plant is much less perfect than without the action of salt .

2d. That germination is accomplished without the aid of salt, and that when

the plant has shot above ground, the application of salt and water even in large doses, causes no alteration of the tissues, nor any disturbance of the vegetation, not even to the budding. As to what are its effects then and afterward, is yet to be determined by the result of some experiments now in progress. The plants usually acquire more vigor than those growing in the natural way, provided the proportions of salt are not excessive. The amount taken up by plants equals, sometimes, eight per cent. of their weight when dried . 3d . That the influence of salt upon germination , even in presence of water,

may serve, to a certain extent, to explain the conflicting results, as to the action of salt as an amendment (ameliorator ?] , of experimenters who kept no record of the time of salting. 4th. That when used as an amendment in soils destined for the culture of the

cereals, it should not be spread at the time of sowing, because it is hurtful to germination. The better plan would be to apply it about the month of March ,

when the earth is moist, and previous to the development of active vegetation.

In operating at this season , be careful that the winter rains do not carry the salt too deeply into the soil, else it will lose its power of promoting vegetation in the 11101 )

38

THE ACTION OF SALT ON VEGETATION .

spring. The quantity of salt to be used depends upon the nature of the plant under cultivation , as all plants are not equally benefited by its use. Kuhlmann's experiments have proved that salt, when mixed with nitrogenous manures, is a stimulant of vegetation. It will then be necessary to ascertain whether, as to certain plants which require a substantial nourishment, salt un combined with these manures would not, by inducing a too vigorous growth , en ervate such plants.

5th. That the large quantity of salt required by the stalk of the cereals, under the circumstances mentioned , may contribute to give them the qualities of fodder. 6th. That all these results determine nothing as to the product in grains, which will only be known when the experiments are completed in the coming year.

7th. That in moist meadows the salt should be sown at the time when vegeta tion develops. In dry meadows, rain must be waited for before applying the salt.

8th . That in soils with impermeable bottoms or clayey substrata, the applica tion of salt should not be often repeated, for the portion first added suffices for a long time, and sometimes may even injure later germinations. If, on the con trary, the substrata are permeable, it is necessary to renew the salting at each

culture. Before taking a definite part in this respect, we should appeal to ex periment , the only sure and safe guide. Salt remains in the soil a shorter or longer time, according as its substratum

is permeable or impermeable ; and as all plants do not accommodate themselves in the same degree to the salt regime-the vetch , as an example—it is neces sary, in the rolation of crops, to plant therein the leguminous and other plants whose growth would be retarded by the salt.

The end proposed in my Treatise is to point out the path to be followed in ex periments for the exacı determination of the part acted by the salt, as an amend ment, either with or without the concurrence of nitrogenous manures.

A FARM BUT A MANUFACTORY, THE USE OF SALT.

It was not because we apprehend that Salt is likely ever to be used in our country as a manure to an extent sufficient to make its value for that purpose

a question of general interest, that we have selected the following, but because of the philosophical principles which it contains as connected with Agriculture. But the reader can peruse and judge for himself, whether such dissertations are not much more useful, though they may be dryer, for young men wanting to provide for themselves a wider and more solid basis for improvement, in a better

knowledge of the principles of their profession , than is to be expected from a re lation of the mere details of practice followed in some case where an acre has been made to yield a heavy crop of corn, or a bullock to yield a heavy crop of tallow. Such , at least, is our view of the matter, and such our aims, without

any object or desire to deceive or be deceived. From the London Agricultural Gazette. THE VALUE OF SALT AS A MANURE .

In your Journal of April 8th I read that Professor Dumas, who in conjunction with Mr. Milne Edwards, was engaged by the French Government to examine into the value of common salt as (1102)

.

THE VALUE OF SALT AS A MANURE .

39

a manure, has recorded in the following terms the conclusions arrived at from their inquiries on the subject in England : • I quit England with the conviction that the problem of the employment of salt in Agriculture is chimerical We have been sent from connty to county without result Here they send us

into the neighborhood of the salt-mines; when we were there we were told that salt was not a prophet in its own country. I am convinced that the most desirable mode of preparing a good manure is by employing the phosphates and ammoniacal salts, rather than sea salt, however cheap the laiter." In my opinion the conclusion they have come to, viz., that salt is of very little value as a manure, is perfecily correct. Opinions unsupported by facts or reasons are, however, not worth much, and as I am aware tbat many practical agriculturists advocate the employment of salt, I will endeavor to explain the grounds upon which I dissentfrom them. I am quite willing to admit that numerous experiments have been recorded, wherein a beneficial effect of salt upon the crop was sufficiently evident The question with the French chemists, however, and that to which ihe remarks I am about to make refer, has not reference to the special, or occasional, but to the general applicabil ty of salt as a manure, and to its importance as such in a national point of view ; I shall not, therefore, quote any particular experiments of my own, but shall endeavor to show : 1. That no substance can be nationally or universally useful as a manure, which is not largely exported from the soil 2 That salt exists to a very small extent in the exported pro duce of a farm ; and that it can never be substituted for those constituents which are largely ex

ported, and in which most soils are more or less deficient. Considering a farm as a manufactory, of which the imported manures represent the purchased raw material, and from which the ex ported products are corn and meat it is evident that the nature of the imports which it will be necessary to provide must depend upon that of the exports. The amount of such ex ports must vary according to climate. : oil and cultivation ; but assuming the extreme case of an export of 50 bushels of corn from an acre of land one year, and 100 lbs. of live-weight of animal the next let us endeavor to estimate the loss to the land of several of its constituents by sach means, and especially that of salt. Fifty bushels of grain may be said to contain 50 to 60 lbs. of mineral inatter. In perfectly ripened grain it is doubtfulwhether either chlorine or sodium , the two constituents of common salt, exists ; but ihe point of perfection in this respect is seldom at

of this kind that the presence tained in our climate, and it is probable that it is owing to variations The average quantity in such asbes

and amount of salt in grain ashes are found to be uncertain

may, however, be said to be probably little more than 1 per cent if even so much as that; so that

50 bushels of grain would contain less than 1 lb. of salt. By direct experiment I find that a lean sheep of 100 lbs. live-weight, yields about 8 to 10 lbs. of bone, 12 lbs. skin , and 5 lbs. blood ; the

flesh, fat and entrails, & c.. comprising the emainder The bone contains no appreciable amount of salt , while the total mineral matter of the other parts of the sheep amounts only to a few ounces of which quantity a very small proportion must be estimated to be common salt. It is

then, that the amount of salt exported from a farm in corn and meat is exceedingly evident, small; but if we look at the loss of phosphoric acid and of nitrogen which the farm sustains under system of sales or export. the case will be found to be very different.

theOfsame the 50 or 60 lbs. of mineral matter contained in the 50 bushels of grain , about nine-tenths would be salts of phosphoric acid, and the sheep weighing 100 lbs. alive would carry off 3 to 4 ibs. of phosphate of lime in its bones, besides a few ounces of phosphoric acid salts in its other parts Again, the 50 bushels of grain may be said to contain 50 to 60 lbs. of nitrogen , and the 100 lbs live-weight of animal 4 lbs. of the same substance It is seen , ther , that while the soil would be exhausted in two years of 40 to 50 lbs. of salts of phosphoric acid, and of a still larger quantity of nitrogen, the amount of salt removed in the same period , and by the same course, would scarcely reach a pound. Sume writers have said that farmers do not know their own in terests when they purchase the expensive foreign guano rather than the cheap salt of home re.

source, and employ the bones of distant countries instead of the sulphaie of soda manufactured in our own towns; but no one who will carefully cousider the statements given above can be at a loss to understand why salt and sulphate of soila cannot be substituted for phosphates and ammo. nia. It is worth consideration, also, that in many parts of England thousands of acres have been brought from a barren waste into the bighest state of fertility, by the importation, in some forma or other, of phosphates and ammonia, withoui any direct supply whatever of common salt.

The employment of salt as manure cannot. then, I think, be advocated as providing an im . portaut constituent of the ordinary exports of a farm , but only to be of limited necessity, and applicable with economy 10 a small extent, or in special and occasional cases. It is considered that when corn is used for corn crops the straw is brighter and the grain of finer quality ; but

perhaps no one will maintain that it would increase the number of bushels upon a corn -exhausted soil; and if this be the case , but a low rank can be claimed for it by the side ofmanures which are known to enhance the produce of the land I fully admit some beneficial influence upon the elaborative actions in the juices of plants under the agency of common salt, but it is probable that such an effect will generally be observed only in highly manured soils, where, under certain con

ditions of season . vegetation would be 100 luxuriant; and it may be doubted, indeed, whether even in these cases an equivalent supply of soluble saline matters, more essential as constituents On the other hand, however, the ready solability of common salt itself, as well as that of com

of the fixed products of the plants, might not with advantage substitute the salt.

pounds which may result from its reactions on the contents of the soil, is a property which may render it of real service in cases of over luxuriance, arising from an otherwise too prominent sup.

ply of organic constituents to the plant. There are otherinstances than that afforded in salt, or mineral substances being of apparently great use in the juices of plants, without seeming to con stitute portionsof the fixed products of the plant; and we must be careful, therefore, not to deny the importance of the presence in the soil of any substance, merely because it does not exist in the exports of the farm ; but at thesametime it should be borne in mindthat anlegs a substance be either sold off the farm or diminished in quantity by drainage or actual waste , the renewal of a supply once provided can very seldom be needed. ( 110 :3)

40

THE VALUE OF SALT AS A MANURE .

The solubility of salt, already referred to. might be said to be a canse of its rapid exhaustion from a soil by drainage, but such loss will be frequently compensated for by the incidental import of salt for cattle, and by the small amount contained in artificial food. Again, it may be urged that a large proportion of farms export other articles beside corn and meat; but the same local circumstances which lead to such a cause. generally at the same time afford sources of manure not at the command of those circumstanced as our case supposes. Indeed, where towr manures are used, the amount of salt provided must always be considerable. The discrepancies in the

accounts that are published of the effects of salt as a manure need not lead us to doubt the cor. rectness but only the completeness ofthe statement; and if, as I have shown above, this substance true that when useful as an agent it is so only under particular circumstances of excess of some substances supplied to the plant over others. The differences in result are what we should expect. In illustration of this point I may observe thata few years ago some experiments were carried on upon agricultural plants at the gardens of the Horticultural Society, at Chiswick, under the direc is not required in any material quantity as a constituent of the exports of a farm , and if it be also

tion of Mr. Solly, and on comparing the results which be obtained by the application of various substances to a garden soil (probably already in a state of fertility far exceeding that which is

usual under a high condition of field -culture) with those obtained by the same substances upon exhansted land on my farm at Rothamsted, I found that in many important instances the effect seemed to be very beneficial in the one case , and not at all so in the other.

Such facts as these

plainly show us that upon soils where the essential elements of plants are wanting, no benefit can

derived from the use of salt or any other substance which does not become a constituent

of the produce. Where, however, in the growth of grain, all other essentials are provided, the use of salt may be advantageous by giving a healthy tone to the vital actions of the plant, and thereby improving the quality, and even to a small extent increasing the quantity of the produce also .

The effect ofsalt is, however, much moremarkeduponthegreen produce of afarm than upon corn crops, and the large quantity of it which is found in some plants of the former kind might well lead us to question whether it be notan essential element ofsuch produce, as well as a use. ful agent in the processes of vegetation in such cases. Mangel-wurzel, for instance, contains, comparatively speaking, a large amount of salt, and the effect of its application is perhaps more evident in the case of this plant than in that of any other. When, however, we bear in mind the small amount of selective action which is exercised by the roots of plants upon the soluble con

tents of the soil; that in the ash ofthe mangel-wurzel, as well as in that of allothergreenpro. duce, we have the saline matter of the juices mixed with those of the parts formed from those juices ; and, farther, that this plant, more particularly when fresh gathered, and before fermenta tion to some degree has taken place in itsfluid contents, is knownto act as a purgative to animals

fed upon it, we cannot fail to admit the presence of a large amount of as yet unorganized matter, and the probability also that some of it is extraneons and unnecessary to the growth of the plant ;

and in this latter supposition the existence of salt in the producewould showan ample resource of it in the soil, rather than prove its importance to the plant. Reasons of this kind must not, however, be taken as satisfactorily proving the non -essentialness of salt as a manure to those plants wherein we usually find it, but they should be considered more as pointing out the direc

tion and the necessity of farther experiment on the subject, and especially so when we find in the animal economy instances of a very analogous kind. Thus it isfound that although the blood

ofanimals,which may be comparedto the juice of vegetables, contains a large amount of common

salt, which cannot be supposed to be unessentialto the healthy actions ofthe body, yet its pres ence appears doubtful in any of the resultingproducts of the processes of the animal. The ques tion, then, of theuse and importance of salt to somefew plants, and under certain particular cir. cumstances, is still open to investigation, and should it be decided affirmatively, we should yet have to determine whether or not it was necessary in such cases to employ it in any large quan tities, or even directly as a manure at all. For the reasons I have adduced ,I cannot but fully concur in the general opinion expressed by Professor Dumas,more especially as applicable to the state of Agriculture in France at the present time, and I will venture to assume the following positions: 1. That salt can never be a substitute for the constituents ammonia and phosphoric acid.

2. That no soils exporting corn and meat can be restored to fertility without the application of these two substances. 3. That much of the money now expended in purchasing salt for agri.

cultural purposes would be more profitably employed in procuring ammonia and phosphates. 4. That salt, although apparently essential in the animal economy, and perhaps in that of plants also, is exported from afarm in such small quantities that many soils will, under an ordinary sys tem of cultivation, never require its direct application, and others will do so seldom , and to a J. B. LAWES, Rothamsted. small extent only.

A104

-

INDEX TO THE BOOK OF THE FARM .

A

Ayr, scholars at, from the U. S., i. 34.

Aberdeen, Lectureship on Agriculture in, i. 41. Ayrshire breed of cattle, ii. 446 . Abortion of the ewe, indications of, ii. 169. Absenteeism , causes and evils of, i. 53. Adulterations of Flour, ii. 30. detection of, ii. 30.

Agricultural Year, its divisions, i. 15. Readings, i. 421 .

Agriculture , difficulties of the first study of, i. 5. want of schools for teaching, i. 9. should be a part of education ,i. 10. - Books on, their requisite characteristics,i.7. errors of arrangement in existing ,i.11. their proper arrangement, i. 12. their incompetency, i. 13. Connection with the physical sciences, i. 19 its present position as a Science, i. 19, 20.

methods of acquiring a knowledge of, i. 28. love for, i. 34 . practical scientific institutions of, i. 35, 46.

Professorship of, at Edinburgh, 40.

B

Bache, Prof., and the Girard College, i 44. Bacon in the United States, ii. 8. Baikie, description of, i. 102.

Bailiff, duties of the, i. 159. Bailey, Mr., mould -board invented by, i. 254 . Bakinghousehold bread, ii. 31. Bare-fallowing, objects , &c. of, ii. 346. Barley, scientific classification, &c. of, ii. 34. Prof. Johnston on, ii. 34. return yielded by, ii. 34. crop in the United States, ii. 34.

quantity annually malted in Great Britain , ii. 34.

chemical composition, and that of barley. meal, ii. 35.

grinding and malting of, ii. 35. its straw , ii. 41 .

Sowing of, ii. 174. Seminary of, at Templemoyle , i. 41. comparative weight of Grain , Straw and in England, i. 201 . Roots, ii. 382. Agriculturists, American, their resources, i. 152. Barn , plan of, i. 105. Ague, effects of draining on, i. 375. Barometer, description and uses of, i. 166. Air, effect of, on germination ,ii. 177. Tables connected with , i. 167. Allowances of contractors in England, i. 213. Bathing sheep, time for, & c., ii. 406. Alpaca, the breeding of, ii. 451 . composition for, ii. 407. America, resources of her Farmers, i. 152. Climate of, i. 226.

stool for, ii. 407.

Hedges in, their advantages, i. 226-7. expensiveness of them , i . 228. Draining in , i. 303. Drafting Sheep in, i. 404.

how performed, ii. 407. Batts in horses,its causes and remedies, i. 566 . Beans, scientific classification of, ii. 38, 39.

uses, and chemical constitution, ii. 39 . their straw , ii. 43, 45. reaping of, ii. 379. in and stacking, ii. 400, 401. -carrying Farming Industry of, ii. 374. Bedfordshire plow, the, i. 404. Experiments in cultivation, ii. 379, 381. Bell's reaping -machine, described, ii. 384. see also United States. Anatomy, value of to the farmer, i. 61. Black, James, his thorough drainage, i. 375. Black -faced Sheep, ii. 430. Anemometer, the, i. 173. Animals, geographical distribution ,& c.,i. 77, 207 Bleeding Horses, i. 564. Horses of, i. 563. Swine in, and their use , ii. 5, 219.

domestic, treatment of, i. 540.

Blistering Horses, i. 564.

breaking them in, ii. 97. experiments in feeding, ii. 342. Ancrum , Mr., on feeding stock. ii. 342.

Body-frameof the East Lothian Plow, i. 258.

Annatto , coloring cheese with , ii. 316.

Bogs, drainage of, i. 320.- Example of, in Ire .

Ants, acid yielded by, i. 228. Arbroath pavement, i. 132.

Artificial hatching of fowls, ii. 236. Asphaltum pavement, advantages, i. 129. Atmosphere, action of electricity, i. 180. its usual electric state, i. 183 .

Atmospheric phenomena, i. 163. — Importance

of observing, i. 163.- Instruments for, i. 186. Aurora borealis, appearances of, i. 184. Autumn , season of, ii. 362. its characteristics, ii. 362-3. farm -work of, ii. 363-4.

wheat, sowing of, ii. 416.

of the Lanarkshire or Wilkie's, i. 262. of the Mid -Lothian or Currie, i. 267.

land, i. 320.

Boiling-house for food of live-stock, i. 104. Bondager, originofthe term , ii. 50. Bone-dust, use of, for raising turnips, ii.253. Sawing machine : its advantages, ii. 253-4.

how to secure from heating, ii. 256 . its chemical composition , ii. 256, 257. compared with farm -yard dung : their effi cacy , ii. 257. nature of its action in the soil, ii. 257-8.

BOOK OF THE FARM, construction of, i. 14. Its arrangement, i. 27. - Observations of the American Editor on, i. 54, 74, 82, 98, 147.

II

INDEX.

Books, advantages of tuition by, to the young Calving of cows,reckoning table for, ii. 104. farmer, i. 7. Canadian straw -cutter, description of, i. 549. Agricultural, requisite characteristics. i. 9. Caponizing fowls, ii. 239. information contained in existing ones, i.10 Carey's wood pavement, i. 130 . Carmichael, Mr. his drag log ,' ii. 147. their general arrangement, i. 10 . their incompetency, i. 11. Carpenter-work of the steading, specifications Boswell, Mr. , of Kingcausie, raw and pre& c. i. 121, 138, 148, 150. pared cattle-feed , i. 519. Carrick bog, drainage of, i. 320 . on hammels and byres. i. 521 .

Carrot, cultivation of, i. 442.

drawing and storing, i. 431. Botany and botanical physiology, connection of Carrying corn , ii. 391 . with Agriculture, i. 20. cart for it, ii. 391 . value of a knowledge of, to the farmer,i.61 Bothy system , the, condemned, ii. 48. Carse lands, mode of farming on , i. 66. Box -churn , ii. 324 .

Brake-harrow , description of, ii. 142. Branding -irons for Sheep , ii . 296. Braxy in sheep, kinds and treatment of, i. 477 . Breaking-in bridle bit,ii. 214 . domestic animals, ii. 97.

young draught horses, ii. 212. young saddle-horses, ii. 359. age for it, ii. 360.

Breeding live-stock, points of, ii. 427. in -and - in , ii . 436. Brick drains, how made, i. 382.

their durability, i. 382 . Bridle of the East Lothian Plow, i. 257.

of the Lanarkshire, i. 262, 265. of the Mid -Lothian , i . 267.

Bridle bit forbreaking -in draught colts, ii. 215.

“ British Husbandry,” arrangement of steading proposed in , i. 125. Broadcast sowing-machine, ii. 142. Brodie, Mr., on feeding cattle, i. 515. Bruising grain , various machines for, i. 559. by hand, i. 559. by power, i. 560. Brushwood drains, how made ; not good, i. 382. Buccleuch , the Duke of, his horses , i. 563.

Bucknell, Mr. on hatching Fowls, ii. 237. Building stone dykes, ii. 253. Buisting or marking iron for Sheep, il. 296.

Bull calves and young bulls,management,ii. 103 ringing them, ii. 272, 298. treatment of, while serving cows, ii. 273. Bullock ring and holder, ii. 298 . Bushel measure, capacity of, ii. 55. Bush -harrow , description of, ii. 142. Butter, making of, ii. 305. various forms of churns, ii. 307, 323 , 324 . making of, from sour cream , ii. 310. from sweet cream , ii. 312. from sweet milk , ii. 313.

preparation of for market, ii. 310-12. salting and caring of, ii. 311, 312. its chemical composition, 319 . Byre, its position in the steading, size, & c. i. 99.

farms, modified steading for,i. 124 . of Gowrie , mode of draining in , i. 311. Carts, liquid manure, ii. 67, 69 . less expensive, for America, ii. 69 .

- shed, form , size and position of,i. 114 the Corn, ropes, &c. for, ii. 392. construction and principles of, ii. 556. as applied to American Farming, ib. compared with wagons, ii. 557 . illustrations of different kinds, ii. 561-2. interesting experiments with , ii. 558-560 .

Cascbrom , of the ancients, i. 253 . a plow now used in Skye, i. 253. Castration of the calf, time, age, & c . for, ii. 102. of the lamb, ii. 165. of pigs, ii. 221 .

Cattle, thefirst in New England, i. 207. in England and America, ii. 105.

Cattle, accommodation of, on the steading, i. 99. sheds for them, i. 89.

binders for, in the byre, i. 101. court for, i. 104.

effect of spaying on, ii. 107. hammels for feeding them , i. 108. courts for the young, i. 109. arrangements for watering, i. 112. preparing the courts for, i . 495.

littering them , i. 495. arrangement of, on the steading, i. 496-7 . the milking and other treatment of, i. 498 . supplyingthem with food, i. 499, 500 Treatment of the Oxen, i . 500.

wisping and carrying them , i. 501 · fattening, in hammels, i. 501. slicing their Turnips,i. 501. treatment of the Calves, i. 502.

the servants' cows in England, i. 502. cleaning their food, i. 503 .

quantity of Turnips consumed by, i. 504. - carrying straw to them , i. 504. dress of their attendant, i. 504.

best floor for, i. 100.

regularity in attending to them , i. 505. arrangement oftime of attendant, i. 505,506 loss by irregularity in feeding, i. 508. modes of fattening for exhibition, i. 508.

various modes of fixing cattle in, i. 101 .

names given them at different ages, i. 509

window for, i. 105.

management of, for the Dairy, i. 510 . food given to Dairy Cows, i. 510.

cleaning of, i. 498. C Cabbage, drawing and storing, i. 421. best varieties for cultivation, i. 441 . the Cow, or Cesarean kale , i. 441.

the Turnip -stemmed , or Kohl-rabi, i. 441. the Drumhead, i. 441.

Caithness pavement, i. 132.

Calderwood peat-tile spade, i. 378. Calves, description ofhouse for, i. 103. treatment of, ii. 82.

extraction of from the mother, ii. 89.

first feeding, &c. after birth, ii. 91, 94, 100. mode of castrating, and time for it, ii. 102. diseases to which subject, ii. 104, 277. weaning of, ii. 266. - Proper time,ii. 270.

turnip - slicers for them , i. 511 . effectof different kinde of food on them ,i.515

Diseases to which subject, i. 522. animals infesting them , i. 523. Choking, and remedies for it, i. 523. the Hoven , i. 524 .

the Fardlebound, i . 525. other diseases of, i. 525.

Driving and Slaughtering them , i. 525, 531. · precautions on letting them loose, i. 526 .

requisites of their Drover, i. 526. stripping them , i. 527. rate of their traveling, i. 527. their best state for the market, i. 527.

mode of judging of them , i. 528. - preparations for siaughtering, i. 531-2.

INDEX .

111

Cattle, various modes of slaughtering, i. 532 . Churn, the oscillating. ii. 328. comparison of the various kinds, ii . 307. modes of cutting up, i. 533, 534. proportion of offal,& c. i. 537. Cirencester Agricultural Institute, i. 25, 141 . Joss sustained by modes of Cooking, i. 537. Cistern for rain-water, i. 134. salting their carcasses, i. 537 . uses of the hide , hoofs, horns, & c . i . 538.

Classification of corn -plants by the ear, grain

Feeding them on Turnips, i. 495.

Clay soil, the pure ; characteristics, i. 214.

times of, i. 502.

&c . ii. 25.

effect of sand on it, i. 215 .

on Potatoes,i.510. - On Oil-cake, i.511 Clay - loam , i. 215. on Linseed Oil, i. 516. Climates, great varieties of, i. 198. on Green Malt, i. 516.

on Linseed Meal and Barley, i. 516 . Experiments on the Cost of, i. 517 .

comparison of, hammels, &c. i. 520. treatment of in spring, ii. 266. - fattening of, ii. 267.

calculating their weight, ii. 268. fallacy of thesemodes ofcalculation ,ii. 269. their distribution over the pasture, ii. 269-70 grazing them during summer, ii . 274 .

general causes of these, i . 201 .

local causes which modify, i. 203. in Great Britain , i, 204.

as shown in the distribution of plants and animals, i. 206 .

recent change of, in Great Britain, i. 208. causes of this, i . 209. of the United States, i. 198. Dr. Forry on, i. 198, 201 . Jefferson on the differences of, i. 203.

geographical distribution of, i. 200. sheds for shelteringthem, ii. 276. Closed-boiler steaming apparatus, i. 566. watering- pool for them , ii. 275.6. advantages of Pasturage and Hay, ii. 283. Clouds, various formsof, i. 175. weather indicated by, i. 175. Points to be cultivated by the breeder,ii.427 examples of the different Breeds : prevalent forms of, in summer, ii. 246. the Short-Horn , ii. 442.

in autumn, ii . 362.

Coach -house, position, &c. on the steading, i. 98. the Long-Horn, ii. 444. the Hereford and West-Highland, ii. 445. fireplace in, i. 98. the Ayrshire, ii. 446 . Collar for the plow -horse, various forms, i.388. Teeth of; their development, ii. 454. Colman, Mr. observations of, in Europe, i. 25. indications of age, ii. 455. on Chemistry and its application, i. 25 . Colors of Soils, i. 219. Cattle -man , duties of, i. 504.6. suitable dress for, i. 504. Comparative Anatomy, valae ofto Farmers, i. 61 Composts, preparation of, ii. 66, 185. necessity of his regularity , i. 505. arrangementof his tine, i. 506.

various substances used for, ii. 66-7.

loss through irregularity, i. 506.

Concrete, for steading floors, i. 129. usual wages of, ii. 49. Conduits for drains, building of, i. 326. Chaff-house, position, &c. on the steading, i. 89. various forms of, in drains, i. 341. Charlbury subsoil-plow , description of, i. 412. Constitution, importance of attention to, ii. 431. Contracts for building steadings, i. 122. Cheese, making of, ii.314. Cooked food, advantages of, to thehorse, i. 546. preparation of the Rennet. ii. 314. breaking and straining the Curd, ii. 315. Corn, quantity consumed by farna-horses. ii. 278. machine for this purpose, ii. 315. advantages of, to young horses, ii. 279. vat, the, ii. 316. see Wheat, Oats, and the various Grains. pressing of, machines for, ii. 316. 329, 330. Corn-barn , position of, on the steading, i. 86. size, form , &c., i. 86. making of, from sweet milk, ii. 316. Cream , ii. 321. its floor, i. 87 , 88. its door, i. 87. drying and coloring, ii. 316-17. Corn-box for sheep, description of, i. 453. Insects infesting, ii. 321. another formof it, i. 476 . Cheese -press, the stone, ii. 329. Corn -bruiser for horses, i . 559. the Compound Lever, ii. 330. Cheese -rack or turner, ii. 332.

hand, i 559.

power , i. 560-1 . description of, ii. 315-16. Cheese.vat, Chemical Constitution of Soils : see Soils . Corn -chest, best form of, i . 90. Chemistry, connection of, with Agriculture, i. 22 Corn -fodder, ii. 40. Corn -markets, ii. 52 . its importance overrated, i. 23. stock and sample, ii. 52-53. value of an acquaintance with, to the Farmer, i . 62. - advantages and disadvantages,ii.53,54 Professor Law on, i. 25. - frauds perpetrated in, ii. 54. its true value. i. 25.

measure used in, ii. 55-56.

Cheviot breed of Sheep, ii. 449. Jaws relating to them, ii. 56. Cheyne, Captain, mixture of, for his horses, i.548 Coronæ round the Sun, i. 189. Chickens, management of, ii. 226. weather indicated by, i. 189. Childers, Mr., on feeding Sheep on Turnips,i.457 Corrosive sublimate, to prevent Dry Rot, i. 141. Chine-fellon, a disease in cattle ; causes and Cost of materials,i. 146-7. remedies, ii. 277. Coulter of the East Lothian plow , i. 256, 260. Choosing the kind of farming, i. 68.–And a of the Lanarkshire, i. 262. Tutor for it, i. 69 .

Churning of cream, ii. 309-10. of sweet milk , ii. 313.

Churn, various forms of, ii. 322. the barrel, ii. 322.

Wedgewood's table, ii. 323. the box -hand, ii . 324 . the Irish box , ii. 325.

the plunger, ii. 326.

the same, by power, ii. 327.

of the Mid -Lothian, i. 267. nature of its action on the soil, i. 271 .

Courts for Cattle, position of, i. 109. their size, & c ., i. 109. Coventry, Professor, i. 40 .

Cow -cabbage, culture of, i. 441. Cow -house, its position , size, &c., i. 99. its floor, i. 100 .

mode of fixing cattle in, i. 101. form and size ofwindow , i. 105.

INDEX.

IV

Cow -pox, the, ii. 277.

Dog, varieties of the, ii. 173.

Cows, treatment of in Winter, i. 496, 498.

Double mould-board Plow, ii. 332.-A form of,

feeding of, i. 499; ii. 84, 85 . treatment of, while with calf, ii. 82. to ascertain when in calf, ii. 83 , 104 .

altered into a Scuffler, ii. 333 .

treatment of, to prevent this, ii. 87.

Drafting sheep, &c., i. 404. Drag -log, the, ii. 147, 353 . Draining, winter the season for, i. 74. pastoral farms, importance of, i. 459 . of the steading, i. 323.

during parturition, ii. 89.

Drains and draining, definition of, i. 302.

diseases to which then subject, ii. 84. danger of slipping the calt, ii.86. the udder, ii. 99.

universal necessity for them, i. 306.

reckoningtable for calving time, ii. 104. diseasesafter calving, i. 105.

connection of Geology with i.308.

their remedies, ii. 105.

effects of spaying on them , ii. 107 . Serving them with the Bull, ii. 107. in Summer, diseases then , ii. 277.

indications where wanted, i. 306 .

importance of knowing principles, i. 309 Drains for the farm -buildings, i. 118. grating for them, i. 115 . for liquid manure, i. 120.

causes affecting their milk, ii. 317.

field , various kinds of, i. 310 .

Guénon's Treatise on, ii. 99, 100.

open ditches and gaw -cuts, i. 311.

Cradle-scythe, description of, ii. 386. Cream , churning of, ii. 310. its chemical composition, ii. 318. cheese, making of, ii . 321 .

Creaming of milk, the, ii. 309. Croall, Mr., his mode of feeding horses, i. 548.

old mode of, i. 311.

system introduced by Elkington, i. 312 subsequent modifications, i. 312. various sources of water, i. 313 .

plan of sheep -drains on a hill, i. 317 the open drain in grass, i. 317.

Crops: see Wheat,Beans, Pease, Oats, Rye.

the closed , i . 318.

Crossing live-stock, ii. 437. Crosskill's clod -crushing roller, ii. 352. Cross-plowing, objects , & c., ii. 111.

applicatior of Elkington's system to a pool, i. 318. and to bogs and marshes, i. 320. example of this, i. 320. mode practiced in Ireland, i. 320. bog -draining, i. 320. tools used in making, i. 321, 331. description of Elkington's system ,i.323,331 mode and cost of cutting; i. 324.

Cultivator : see Grubber.

Cunningham's plow : see Mid -Lothian Plow . Curd of milk , composition of, ii. 319-20. Curd-cutter, description of, ii. 316. breaker, ii. 328.

Curl in potatoes, causes and prevention, ii. 203. Currie Plow : see Mid - Lothian Plow .

Curtis, Mr., modes of feeding cattle, i. 516. Cylinder straw -cutter, i. 551 . turnip -slicer, i. 475.

D Dairy, general management of, i. 510. operations in mixed husbandry, ii. 305. Dairy -farm , general arrangements, i. 67. modified steading for, i. 124. grazing cattle on, ii.305. Dairy -maid , duties of, i, 162 ; ii. 308. Dale's hybrid turnip, culture of, i. 437.-Its ori. gin , i. 440.

Dalrymple, Mr. , on the profit of draining,i. 376. Damaged wheat, detecting, ii. 28. Davy,Sir Humphry, his agri. chemistry , i. 23. his theory of irrigation, ii.74. on fermentation of dung, ii. 191. Deanston subsoil -plow ; its action, i. 408, 419.

Deep plowing,advantages of, i. 402. Dew , theory of, and its influences, ii. 241.

De Rham on tanks, i. 153. Dibbling, sowing wheat by, ii. 419. Dick, Professor, i. 43.

Difficulties of the young farmer, i. 5. means of overcoming, i. 7.

guage for them , i. 326, building the conduits, i. 326.

filling -ap, and substances used , i. 327. section of one, with well and bore, i. 327. - principles on which founded, i. 331 . Thorough, i. 333. objects sought to be attained, i. 333. necessary depth, i. 333. necessity of ducts in, i. 337. tile -ducts, i. 338 . the main drains, i . 340. regulation of the fall, i. 340.

position of the small drains. i. 341 depth, i. 343, 352.- Ascertaining this, their i. 344 . distance between the, i. 345, 368.

evils of too great a distance, i. 346. position of, with the main drains, i. 347 proper direction of the run, i. 347. mode of cutting, and the tools, i. 351. filling in, i. 353.- Materials used for, i. 353.

stones for, i. 353.—Mode of preparing them , i. 354 . Implements for filling-in, i. 354. view of a stone-drain completed, i. 357. Its dimensions, i . 357.

Disk straw.cuiter, i. 554.

time required formaking a stone, i. 358. plan of a thorough -drained field , i. 372.

Diseases of Sheep, i. 476 ; ii. 408.

best period for executing draining, i. 373.

of Cattle , i. 522. of Horses, i . 568-69 . of Swine, ii. 12, 13 . of Calves, and their treatment, ii. 104 .

of Cows after calving, ii. 105. of Potatoes. ii. 203.

of Poultry, ii. 223. Distribution of labor, i. 5, 17. of plants, i. 206 . of animals over the earth , i. 200, 207 .

Docking draught-colts, how done, ii. 217. Doddering sheep, ii. 297. Dog, the drover's, i. 481 .

the shepherd's, training of, ii. 172.

amelioration of the land by draining, i.374.

its influence in improving health , i . 375. examples of the profit of, i. 376. Draining in America, i. 303. た の in the Eastern States, i. 305.

が、 letter on, from an Agricultural Inst., i. 306 . Drain , the flat stone, i . 377 . the peat tile, i . 377.

the clay land shoulder, i. 379, the plug or wedge, i. 379. the sod , i . 380.

by the mole-plow, i. 381 . with larch-tubes, i. 382 .

with brushwood, i. 382.

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INDEX.

Drain , brick , its durability, i. 382.

employment of the plow in cutting, i 383 various plows for this ; McEwan's, i. 383 . Green's, and Pearson's. i. 383 .

scientific principles in draining, i. 384. Drain -guage, i. 326. Drain-plows, various : see Drains. Drain -tiles for main drains, i. 359.

necessity for the sole, i. 359. size and form , i. 360 . number required per acre, i. 361 .

V

East-Lothian drill sowingmachine, ii. 153. Eccaleobion, description of ii 237 Edinburgh University, agri chair in, i. 40. - Veterinary College of,i. 43. Education, agricultural, i. 9, 59. Egg, changes while hatching, ii 237. Eggs, treatment of, &c ., ii. 422.

gathering them , ii. 422. modes of keeping them , ii. 423. composition, analyses of, &c , ii. 425.6. trade in them , ii. 427

-junction of small and main opes, i. 362. Egypt, artificial hatching of fowls in, ii. 236. laying them down , i . 363 .

Electricity, relations of to Agriculture, i. 20. plumb-level for, i. 365 value of a knowledge of, to farmers, i. 60 mode of fixing and covering, i. 365 influence of on the weather, i. 180. joining with the main drains. i. 366. its sources, i. 180, 181. the sub-main drain , position,& c.,i.367. Electrometer and Electroscope, i. 183. size of, for the small drains, i. 368.

the soles for, i. 368.- Putting them in, i. 368.

filling up. i 369. view of a tile and sole drain , i. 371. Drain -stone screen , or harp, i. 354 . rake, beater, & c ., i. 355-6.

Draught of the plow , i 285. Draught-Horses, breaking them in, ii. 212. shoeing. docking, &c., ii. 216. points desirable to cultivate, ii. 439. the Horse, ii. 439 . the Stallion, ii. 440. the Mare, ii. 441 .

Elkington, Mr., new system of Draining, i. 312 application of his system , i. 312, 318. to bogs and marshes, i. 320.

detailed description of the system , i. 323. principles on which unded, i. 332. its applicability to Scotland, i. 333. Engine-house, position of, i 89. England, artificial treatment of stock in, ii. 105. more disease thus induced, ii 105.

the Agriculture of, i. 201. Entomology, value of to the farmer, i 22.

Establishment of Scientific Institutions of Prac . tical Agriculture, i. 35, 46. Ethrioscope, the, i . 205.

Drawing turnips, carrots, & c ., i. 421.

Evans, Mr , plug-drains of, i. 380.

Drill sowing-machines, ii. 153.

Evaporation asa source of electricity, i. 181. Evils of not studying Agriculture, i. 49. Ewe house , Burnett's, ii 170. Ewes, Drafting of, in Autumn, ii. 403. - Tupping of, ii. 404. Bathing of, ii. 406-8.

Turnip, ii 258 .

Grubber, description of, ii. 334. Harrow , ii . 334 unsuited to America, ii. 258-9 .

Drilling, single, objects, &c., ii. 117. double , ii. 121

Drive work, or it will drive you, i 17,

Driving and slaughtering cattle, i. 525. - Sheep, i. 478. - Swine, ii 5,6

Dryness of American soil, i. 226 Dry -rot in timber, prevention of, i. 141 . Dry -stone dykes, buildingof, ii. 353 their varieties in hight. & c . ii 353-4 openings and stiles in, ii. 357. expedients to increase the hight,i.357. Duck-mire pool, drainage of, i 318. Ducks, management of, ii. 16, 233 gathering, &c., of their eggs, ii. 422, 424. Dudgeon, Mr., on feeding pigs, ii. 12. Dung, farm.yard, in the fields, ii 56. position of the heaps, ii. 57. removal from the cattle-courts, ii. 60. laying down the heaps, ii. 60.

spade, for cutting and lifting, ii. 61. preparation of for potatoes, ii 180. proportion needed for them, ii. 194. its distribution , ii. 195

Ewes, lambing of, ii. 155.

accommodation for, when lambing, ii. 157. their delivery, ii. 157, 158. their subsequent treatment, ii. 160. pasturing them , ii. 166. differences in the treatment ofbreeds, ii.167

Diseases at lambing : Remedies, ii. 170. after lambing, ii. 170. advantages of shearing them last, ii. 294. mode of milking them , ii. 295. Experience, advantages of, to the farmer. i. 6.

Experimental farms, their advantages, i. 55. F Factors, evils of ignorance of Agriculture, i. 52. Facts, observation of, and its importance, i. 210. kind of, to be recorded , i. 211. Failure of the Potato crop ; its causes, ii. 203. Fallowing, objects of, ii. 346. bare, and soils requiring it, ii. 347. nature of its action, ii. 351.

Fallow -land , weeding it, ii. 347.

manuring , ii. 348. turning the heaps, ii. 181 . liming , ii. 349. preparation of for turnips. ii. 183. ion und necessity of its fermentat , ii. 191. Fardlebo , a disease of cattle : remedies, i.525 . usual quantity on fallow land, ii. 349. Farm , employments on, in winter, i. 74. Dung-lawk or drag, ii. 193. duties of various persons employed, i. 158 Dunyhills and composts, management of, ii. 180, steward , duties of, i. 159 . Dutch clinkers, pavements of, i 132. - plowman, i. 160. plow , description of, i, 253 shepherd, i . 247. Dutchess Agricultural Institute, i. 306 ; ii. 69. field -worker, i. 162. Dykes, stone, building of, ii. 353 dairy-maid, i. 162. openings for sheep in , ii. 357. stiles in, ii 357.

means to increase the hight, ii. 357. E Earning for cheese-making, ii. 314. East Lothian or Small’s plow i. 255.

see also Farm Servants.

Farmer, the young , education suited to, i. 59. Farm -house , form of, i. 153 .

ground -plan of its kitchen , i. 154, the cheese -room , &c. i. 156 .

its position relative to steading, i. 157 Farming, different kinds of, i. 64 .

VI

INDEX.

Farming, store , i. 64.

Foresight, necessity of, i. 6.

carse , or grain , i . 66.

Forry, Dr. on Climate, ii. 209 .

in the neighborhood of towns, i. 66.

Fowls, arcommodation for, i. 115. treatment of them in winter, ii. 1 , 19

dairy , i . 67. mixed husbandry , i. 68 .

choosing the kind of, i. 68.

selecting a tutor for teaching, i. 69. · dealing with the details of, i. 71 . Farm -servants, wages of, ii. 46. the plowman's wages, ii. 46. in bothies, ii . 47. 48. the steward, ii. 49.

the shepherd and hedger, ii. 49.

Pigeons, ii. 16. Prices in different countries, ii. 10 modes of judging of them , ii. 17.

the cattle -man, ii. 49 . the field -worker, ii . 51 .

daily treatment. ii. 19.

comparison of their condition, ii. 51.

food for them , ii 20.

Farm -steading : see Steading. Farm -steward, duties of, i . 159. wages of, ii 49.

Farm -work, modes of describing, i. 15.

potatoes and turnips, Farm -yard dung, for Dung ii 180.

general neglect of, ii 13, 14. various kinds on a farm , ii. 14. Hens, treatment of. ii 14, 15. Turkeys, ii . 15. Geese , ii. 15. Ducks, ii 16.

See also

.

Farquharson, Dr. on hoar-frost, i 194. Farrowing of sows, ii 217 . Fattening of sheep, effect on the wool, ii. 302.

their houses, ii 17.

breeding of,in winter, ii. 21. cramming, ii. 22.

uses of their feathers, ii. 23. Hatching of them, ii. 223. season for it, ii 223.

by artificial heat, ii. 236-7 . development of the egg, ii. 237 Management of hens, ii. 224 . of turkeys, ii. 227.

Feathers of fowls, uses of, ii. 23 . how formed , ii 239 .

of geese, ii. 230.

Feering ridges, how done, i. 290. for cross-plowing, ii 113. for drilling, ii. 117. Fellenberg, M. de, agricultural institution, i. 44. Felting power of wool, ii 303.

of pea-fowl, ii. 234.

Fermentation of farm -yard dung, ii. 181 .

necessity for it, ii 190. opinions relative to, ii. 191.

Field -gates, construction of, ii 260. their posts, ii. 260, 261. modes of constructing, ii. 262. iron , ii. 264. wire, ii. 265

their pillars, and fastenings, ii. 265.

Field -work, advantages of forwarding, ii. 108. Field-workers, duties of, i. 162. their wages, ii 50 .

Finlayson’s grubber, description of, ii. 207. Fireplace in the coach -house, i. 98. Flail, descriptionof the, ii. 345. Flat stone drain, how made, i. 377

Flax, pulling of, &c. ii. 365 . weeding of, ii. 365. steeping and drying. ii. 366 ,

average value of the crop, ii 368. botanical classification . ii 371.

importation of the seed, ii. 372. Fleeces, rolling, packing. &c. ii. 298. average weight of,ii 304. Floor of the corn -barn , i 86, 88. materials for, i. 88 . of the stables, i 93.

of the riding -horse stable, i. 98. 9 of the byres, i . 100.

Flottebeck , Flanders, ag. institution at, i. 49 Flour, grinding wheat into, ii. 29. how to judge of its quality, ii. 29. various adulterations, ii. 30 .

of ducks, ii. 233. of pigeons, ii. 234.

in towns, their treatment, ii. 235. Diseases to which subject, ii. 235-6 . - castrating them , ii. 239.

Frenchlaw , drainage at, i. 320 Frost, definition of,i. 195. G Gabell's subsoil plow, i. 412. Gaits, setting up oats in, ii. 378. Galactometer, description and uses of, ii. 318 Garget in ewes, treatment of, ii. 169.

Gates of the steading, i. 120. field, construction of, ii. 260

their posts, ji. 261. various kinds of, ii. 262. iron , ii. 264. wire, ii. 285.

- pillars and fastenings, ii. 265. Gaw -cuts, draining by, i. 311. Geese, general treatment of, ii. 15.

management while hatching, ii. 230. Geographicaldistribution of climate, i. 200. of the Human Family, i. 200.

Geological relations of soils, i. 219. Geology connected with Agriculture, i. 20 value of a knowledge of, i. 61 . Germination of seeds, ii. 177. -effects of water and air, ii. 177.

effects of plowing and sowing on, ii. 178. of wheat, process of, ii. 421. Gimmers, lambing of, ii. 163. drafting, for sale, ii. 403. Glazing of the steading, i. 145, 151. Gluten , Prof. Johnston on, i. 31 .

Good and bad plowing and sowing, effects of, on germinating seeds : see Germination.

mode of detecting these , ii. 30.

Gore-furrow , mode of forming , i . 295.

analyzing it, ii.31.

Grain, steamingof, for horses, i. 558. apparatus for bruising it, i. 559.

its chemical composition, ii. 31 . fermentation of it, ii. 32.

mixing potatoes with it, ii. 32. Fly, the Hessian, i. 24. Fly.wheels misapplied, i. 553. true uses of, i. 554.

the theory of, i. 554. Foal, birth of, ii 279. Fogs, causes of, i 197.

Foot-rot, treatment of, i. 477.

chemical constitution , ii. 41. disposing of ; the markets, ii. 52.

its sale by bulk or sample, ii. 53. measures for it, ii 56. laws relating to its sale , ii. 56.

comparative statements, ii. 179. reaping of, ii. 373-388. carrying in, stacking, & c. ii.388-400. see alsoBarley, Wheat, Oats, foc.

INDEX.

Granary, proper position of, i. 80. plan and description of, i. 106.

VII .

Hay, cutting, for horses, ii. 278 .

from different grasses , ii. 336. making, by manual labor, ii. 337

form of window for, i . 107.

with horse labor. ii. 337.

securing it from vermin , i. 117. Grass for horses in summer, ii . 281.

thatching of the stacks, ii. 339. calculating their weight, ii. 340-1. average weight per acre, ii. 341.

land, or lea, plowing of, i. 74. clearing of from stones, ii. 259.

chemical constitution , ii. 341.

summer management of, ii. 274. see also Pastures.

value of the crop, ii. 342. Implements in making, ii. 342-4. Tedding machine, ii. 342. Rake, the hand , ii. 342-3.

Grass-parks, season for letting, ii. 82.

Grass-seeds, sowing with spring wheat, ii. 132. and by sowing-machine, ii. 134. the American horse, ii. 344. harrowing, ii.142. Grating for drains, i. 119. Hay and Straw Cutters, forms of, i. 549. Gravelly soils, definition of, i. 216. - loams, i. 216.

the Canadian , i. 550. the Cylinder, i. 551 . the Disk , i. 555.

Grazing cattle, ii. 274. Gray, Mr. on moor-band pan , i. 418. Gray slates, not good for roofing, i. 144.

Hay -house, position, size, &c., i. 90. Hay-knife, description of, ii. 278.

Green, Mr. , drain-plow invented by, i. 383.

Hay-racks, forms of, i. 91.

for the riding -horse, i. 96 .

Green malt, feeding cattle on, i. 516. Grieve, or steward , duties of, i. 159 . Grignon , agricultural institution at, i. 47.

Grinding wheat, processes of, ii. 29.

for sheep, i . 449.

Hay -rakes : see Hay. Hay -stacks, building, &c. ii. 338.

barley, ii. 35.

thatching , ii. 339.

oats , ii. 37.

beans, ii. 39.

Ground plan of an existing steading, i. 83. of a proposed steading, i. 85. Grub, the oat : its ravages: prevention, ii. 151. Grubber, Finlayson's, ii. 207. Kirkwood's, ii. 209. the common Drill, ii. 335. Wilkie's ii . 335. Guénon's Treatise on Milch Cows, ii. 99.

calculating their weight, ii. 341. Health, beneficial effect of Draining on , i. 375 . Hedges in America, i. 226-7.

Mr. Downing on, i. 227. the hawthorn for. i. 226.

the Osage Orange for, i. 228. expensiveness of, i. 228. Hedges, Thorn , planting,i. 226, 236. proper season for, i. 227 .

mode of making, i. 228 . Implements made use of, i. 230. choosing the plants, i. 231. marking out the line, i. 232.

highly esteemed , ii. 99, 100. H Hail, phenomena attending, ii. 245.

bed for , i. 233 .

Halos around the sun and moon, i. 185. indications of weather from , i. 185.

preparation for planting, i.234. ſaying the plants, i. 234. best weather for planting, i. 235.

Hammels for feeding live-stock, i. 108. their position, size, &c., i. 108, 125. their advantages over byres, i. 520-21.

dimensions of the ditch, i. 235 .

view of a finished hedge-bank, i. 237. obstacles to be encountered , i. 237. water lodging in, i. 238 .

Hams, curing of, ii. 11 . Hand draw -hoe for drains, i. 364. Hand stubble -rake, the, ii. 388. Hannam , Mr., on wheat, ii. 383.

bad effectofthe scarsement, i. 240 . planting in shrubberies, i. 242.

Harness, position of, in the steading, i. 93. of the plow -borse, i. 386. its weight and cost. i. 387.

cleaning of,i. 564. Harrow , various forms of, ii. 138. the wooden, ii. 139 . the iron , ii. 141 .

the grass-seed and iron -web, ii. 142. the brake, ii. 142. the drill or potato , ii. 210.

Harrowing sowed land, ii. 132, 135. advantages of in spring, ii. 112.

planting in curves, i. 242. turf fences to them , i. 242-3.

Hemp, steeping and drying, ii. 368. natural history of, ii. 372. classification of, ii. 372.

Henderson , Mr., on Swine, ii. 222. on preparing Flax, ii. 366. Hens, management of, ii. 11, 12. houses for them, ii. 17.

treatment while setting, ii. 17. Hepburn , Mr.,snow -harrow and plow of, ii.171.

Harvest-bug, the, ii. 239.

Hereford ox, the, ii. 445 . Hessian fly, the, i. 22.

Hatching of the various fowls, ïi. 223.

Highland and Agl. Soc.,proposed steadings of 125.

season for it, ii . 223. of Hens, ii. 225.

i.

of Turkeys, ii. 227.

Hill-shepherd , qualifications of, ii. 168. Hoar-frost, injurious effects of, i. 193.

of Geese , ii. 230. Ducks, ii. 233 . Pea-fowl, ii. 234. Pigeons, ii. 234. house for it, described , i. 115 . by artificial heat, ii. 236 .

Hogs : see Swine.

phenomena of itsstages, ii. 237. Hatherton, Lord, results of draining. i. 376 . Haulm, or straw . of the potato , ii. 66 . as manure, ii. 66.

Hawthorn for hedges, i. 231. Hay, for sheep in winter, i. 125.

Hoe, the hand , i. 364.

Hofwyl agricultural institution , i. 44. Hog's lard, properties of, ii. 12. Hohenheim agricultural institution, i. 48. Hop, cultivation of, ii. 369. picking of, ii. 370. dryingand packing, ii. 370. uncertainty ofthe crop, ii. 370 duty on the, ii. 371 . amount of, per acre, ii. 371. scientific classification, ii. 373.

VIII

INDEX.

Hop, natural history of, ii. 373. exports and imports of, ii. 373. Hopetoun oat, the, ii. 148. Horns of Cattle, ii . 446.

of Sheep, ii. 480. Horse, the, in New-England, i. 207. technicalities of, i. 546 .

-development ofthe teeth, ii. 453. indications of its age, ii. 452-3. Horses, Farm , accommodation of, i. 90.

treatment during winter, i. 539. the stables, i. 99. 539 .

day's feeding and work of, i. 539. cleaning them , i. 542. warm mash for them , i. 543. allowance of oats , i . 543. breeding them on the farm , i . 545. treatment of the mares, i. 545.

Hydrography , value of a knowledge of, i. 61. Hygrometer, description of, i. 171. I Ice, properties of, i. 196. evaporation from it, i. 196 . its cooling powers, i. 196.

Imperial bushel, standard capacity of, ii. 55. Implement-house, position , &c., of, i. 90.

Implements of thefarmer, i. 18. importance of, i. 18 . deficient varieties of, i. 12, 18.

Importations of cattle , i. 207. Industry in America, ii. 374. Insects infesting Horses, i. 566 ; ii. 284. Cheese, ii. 321 .

Institutions of Practical Agriculture, i. 25, 35, 46

the young, i. 545.

Ireland, Agricultural Schools in, i. 25, 42. Resources, 191.

names of different ages, i . 546.

Irish box-churn,ii. 325.

cooked food for, i. 546.

danger of too nutritive food, i. 546. various mixtures for, i. 547.

regular allowance of food, i. 548. superiority of prepared food, i. 548. hay and straw cutters , i. 549. steaming apparatus, i. 556.

- Dr. Kane on her,

Iron web -harrow , ii. 142. Irrigation, begun during winter, i. 75. theory of its effects, ii. 73. Isometrical views of steadings, i. 82, 83. Italian rye- grass, peculiarities of, i. 22.

corn -bruisers, i . 559. choice of names for, i. 561 .

Riding and Harness, i. 97. treatment in winter, i . 562.

before riding out, i. 563. cleaning their harness, i. 564.

i.

Iron , its use on farms, i. 97. Iron field -gates, examples of, ii. 263 .

J

Jacob, Mr., on the Moeglin Agl. Inst., i. 46. Jefferson on differences ofclimate , 203, 209. Joint- fellon , a disease in cattle, ii 277. causes and treatment, ii. 277.

Johnston, Prof., on Gluten , ii. 31. on Barley, ii. 34. Bleeding them, i. 564. Blistering. i. 565. K Physicking, i. 565. · Fomentations, other remedies, i. 566. Kane,·Dr., on the Resources of Ireland, i. 191. Diseases to which subject, i. 564.

Pulse of the horse, i . 566. animals infesting, i. 566 . the Batts, i . 566 . Inflammation of the Bowels, i. 567. Colds, i . 567. Grease , i . 567. the Staggere, i. 567. Thrush and Corns, i . 568. -Broken Wind , i . 568.

-Saddle- Galls and Crib-biting, i. 568. -Wind - sucking. i. 569. -Dust-ball and Worms, i. 569 .

-Specks in the eye, i. 569. uses of its Offals, i. 569. Grazing them in Summer, ii. 274.

Feeding them then, ii 281. Diseases, and Insects infesting, i. 566 ; ii. 283-4 .

Kelso , effect of Draining on its health , i. 375 . Kildrummie oat, the, ii. 148. Kirkwood's grubber, ii. 209.

Kyan’s process to prevent dry -rot, i. 142. L

Labor, variety of on a farm , i. 5. distribution of, i. 5.

Laboring population of the United States, ii. 45. Laing, Mr., on subsoil-plowing, i. 413. Lamb, extraction of, from the mother, ii. 158. treatment of, after birth , ii. 166. bringing up by hand , ii. 163 . castrating of, ii. 165.

diseases when young, ii. 169. weaning of, ii. 295. marking and buisting, ii. 296 . instruments for these, ii. 296.

Breaking in , ii. 212, 359.

Lambing ewes, ii. 155.

age for this, ii. 360. Points to be cultivated , ii . 430, 439.

Lambing-park, proposed, ii. 167.

Horse, Draught, points of, ii. 439. the Stallion , ii. 440. the Mare, ii. 441. Horse -cloths, the, i. 98.

Horse- chesnut, feeding sheep on the, ii. 297 Horse - bot, ii . 284.

Lanarkshire or Wilkie's plow, i. 255. detailed description of, i. 262. Land -owners, evils of their ignorance of Agri cultare, i. 49.

Land -rollers, various forms of, ii 146. Lantern for the stable, i. 544. Larch -tube drains, i. 382.

Horse -boe, Wilkie's, description of, ii. 335. Horse- louse, description of, i. 566.

Larne, Ireland, Agricultural School at, i. 25, 42. Law, Professor, on Chemistry, i. 25.

Horse-ponds, position and size of, i 136.

Law of the corn -market, ii. 56 .

Household bread, baking of, ii. 31. Hoven, a disease in cattle, cure of, i. 524.

Lawns, pasturing sheep on, ii. 266. Lawtown turnip , i. 437. its origin, i. 440.

Howden, Mr , on the profit of Draining, i. 376. experiments by, on feeding Cattle, i. 518. on the Potato , ii. 205. Hurdles for sheep on turnips, i. 466-7. implements for making, i. 467-8. - setting them up, i. 443, 469.

Husbandry, Mixed , in the United States. i. 68.

Lead -work of the steading , i. 143. 149, 151. Lea-ground, plowing of, i. 394. - Modes ofplow . ing, in different soils, i. 395.

Le Coutear, Colonel, on wheat, ii. 25 . Leicester breed of Sheep, ii. 447. Lever cheese- press, ii. 330.

IX

INDEX .

Mares, treatment after parturition, ii. 280. Lever turnip-slicer for sheep, i. 470. covering, by the stallion, ii. 280. Lifting potatoes, time for, ii. 409. points to be cultivated , ii. 441 . by the plow, ii. 410. Market, the Cattle, i. 527. - by Lawson's brander, ii. 411. the Sheep, i. 482. by the graip, ii. 412. the Corn , ii . 52 . Lime, preservation of, i. 137. preparation of, for the land, i 137 ; ii. 349. the Stock, ii. 52. Sample, ii. 53. quantity for varioussoils, ii. 350. nature of its action , ii. 351 .

Liming of land. ii. 349. Lind's anemometer, i . 173. Lindley, Professor, on the Potato , ii. 212. Linseed, feeding cattle on , i. 516 ; ii. 372. - imported into Great Britain, ii. 372. expressing the oil, ii. 372. drain, i. 120, 152. Liquid -manure tank, its position , &c. i. 120 ; ii. 63.

comparison of, ii. 53-4. frauds in , ii. 54.

laws relating to, ii. 56. Marketing, winter the season for, i. 76. Marking sheep, and the instruments, i. 479. Marshall, Mr.,on the influence of winds, ii. 247 Marshes, drainage of, i. 320.

Mashes for farm -horses,i. 543. Mason -work of the steading, i. 148, 150. farms where tanks are wanted, ii. 64. Mathematics, value of, to the farmer, i. 60. expense of the tanks, ii. 65. application of,ii 65. best cart for, ii. 68 .

cistern and pump for, ii. 69. 70. Littering cattle, i. 495. Littering of sows, ii. 217. Little, Mr., on the hill-shepherd, ii. 168. Live-stock , treatment of, i. 13 . importance of attention to , i. 75. accommodation for, i. 79. ,i.80. position their proper - providing winter food for, i. 421.

Measures for grain, ii. 55, 56 .

Mechanics, importance of a knowledge of, i. 60 application of, to Agriculture, i. 18 .

Melvin. Mr., on subsoil-plowing, i. 413. on trenching, i. 416. Merino sheep, history of, ii. 304. difficulty of fattening them , ii. 302.

Meteorology, value of a knowledge of, i. 61. Meteorological tables, use of, i. 152. Mice, prevention of the ravages of, i. 117.

Mid-Lothian or Currie plow, i. 255. - Detailed

Points of, to be cultivated, ii. 427.

description of, i. 267. Migrations of animals, i. 208.

symmetry or shape of, ii. 428.

Milk, churning of, ii. 307.

robustness of constitution, ii. 431 .

yield and quality of, ii. 317. its constituents, ii. 317-18. various kinds, composition of, ii. 318-19. coagulation of, for cheese-making,ii. 314. various preparations for the table, ii. 320. Milk -house, situation, &c. i. 155. its furnishings, ii. 306.

-early maturity, ii. 432. selection of parents, ii. 433. breeding in -and -in , ii. 436. Crossing, ii. 437 .

- examples of Horses, ii. 439. - Cattle, ii. 442 . Swine, ii . 451 .

see also Cattle, Horses, Sheep, &c. Loam, definition of the term , i. 213. clay, i. 215.

-sandy and gravelly, i. 216. London Veterinary College, i. 43. Long- Horn breed ofcattle, ii. 444. Loose -box in the stable, i. 96.

its importance, i. 96.

Loudon, Mr., steading arrangement of, i. 125. Low, Professor, i. 41 . his arrangement of steading,i. 125. - theory of irrigation , ii. 73. M M'Ewan , Mr., his drain - plow , i. 383 . Mackey breed of hogs, ii. 8. Machines, reaping, ii. 385.

the vessels, and materials, ii. 306 .

necessity of cleanliness in, ii. 307. Milking the cow, modes of, ii. 94. vessels for it, ii. 95, 96 . Milking-pail, best form of, ii. 308. Mists, phenomena attending, i. 197. Mixedfarming, i. 68. in the United States, i. 68. Moeglin Agricultural Institution, i. 45. Moisture in land considered, i. 303.

Mole-plow , description of, i 381. formation of drains by, i. 381 .

Moon, effects of its changes, i. 191 . Moor-band pan, destroying, i. 418. chemical composition of, i. 420. cause of its injurious effects, i. 420 . Mortar-cart, the Swedish, i. 137. Mould -board of the plow, i. 254. of the East-Lothian plow , i. 256. Madden, Dr., on the germination of seeds,ii.177. Lanarkshire or Wilkie's, i . 262 . on the nitrate of soda as manure, ii. 189. -Mid-Lothian or Currie , i. 267. on the fermentation of dung, ii. 191. nature of its action, i. 274. - comparison of manuresby,ii. 206. scientific principles of, i. 278. Magnetism, value of a knowledge of, i. 60. formation of, i. 278. Malting of barley, ii. 34. mode of analyzing it, i. 278. Man, his susceptibility to social pleasures, i. 77. characters of the various, i. 280. Mangel-wurzel, drawing and storing of, i. 431. mode of constructing, i. 282. Mangers for cows, form , &c., i. 100 . Slight's new, i 281 . supplying with food, i. 100. Manures, farm -yard , ii . 180.

compost, ii. 184. artificial and compound, ii. 186-7. list of these, prices, &c., ii. 190.

comparison of various, ii. 206. bone-dust, ii. 353. liquid, i. 152-3. Mann's reaping-machine. ii. 384. Mares, treatment of, i. 545. management while in foal, ii. 279.

pattern for it, i 284.

building the block for, i 284. Mountain snow.plow , ii. 171 Movable sheds for sheep, i. 456. Mucilage of linseed , ii. 372. Mud-hoe, ii . 63.

Mudie, Mr. Characteristics of Winter by, i. 77. on Spring, ii. 76. on Summer, ii 240.

Mutton, modes of cutting up, i. 487.

INDEX .

X

N

Napier, Lord, on the lambing of ewes, ii. 167. Net for confining sheep, i 444. tools used in setting up, i. 444. New Jersey scholars at Ayr, i. 34. New -England, first cattle in, i. 207.

Physicking horses, i. 565.

Physiology of plants, value ofknowledge of, i. 26 Picking hops , ii. 370. Pickling seed -wheat, objects of, ii 126. Pigeons, management of, ii, 16, 234. houses for them, i. 117 ; ii. 18 .

New -York , thermometrical observationsat, for Pigs,managementof, ii. 219, 221. Pig.sties, dimensions, &c. i. 114. 25 years, i . 209-10. wheat in, ii. 25.

Nitrate of soda as manure, ii. 189.

O Oats, sowing and culture of, ii. 148. varieties of, ii 36 , 148 .

sowing broadcast, ii. 150. drill-sowing, ii. 150. diseases to which subject, ii. 151. average crop of : its value, ii. 37. weight of straw , grain, &c ii. 42, 382. daily allowance to farm -horses, i. 543-4 .

quantity consumed , ii 278. advantage of, to young horses, ii. 279. grinding,into meal, ii. 37. natural history of, ii 36. classification of, ii . 36. chemical constitution, ii. 37 . Crop of, in the United States, ii. 38 .

Observing and recording facts, i. 210. method to be pursued, i. 211. Ohio, wheat in, i. 25.

ii. 372. Oil-cake, manufacturing, · feeding cattle on , i. 511 ; ii. 372. machine for breaking, i 514. -advantages, for calving.cows, ii. 85. for sheep on turnips, i 452. box for, i. 453 .

Open ditches, draining by, i. 311.. Osage Orange for ledges, i. 226. Oxen : see Cattle, fc.

Ox -louse, description of, i. 522. P Packing wool , ii. 300.

Painting the steading, i. 146, 151. Parasitic animals infesting cattle, i. 522.

Paring-plow , description of, ii. 124. Parsnips, drawing, &c . i. 421. best varieties, i 441. Pastoral farming, i. 65. Pastoral districts of the U. S. i. 65.

Pastoral farms, steading for, i.123 . importance of shelter, i. 459. breeds of sheep for, i. 458-9. drainage of, i . 459.

management of sheep on, i. 459-60. stells for, forms of, i . 461-3. erection of sheep -cots, i. 463. Hill , i . 464. - Stells for, i. 465, 466. Pasturage fur cattle, ii . 274 .

Pasturing and soiling, comparison o ii. 283. Pea -fowl, treatment of, ii . 23, 234 .

Pearson, Mr , drain.plow by, i. 383. Pea crop in the United States, ii. 41 .

Pease, botanical classification of, ii. 40. average crop, ii . 40 .

chemical composition, ii. 40. uses to which applied , ii. 41 . their straw, or haulm , ii . 42.

- reaping and stooking of , ii. 379. carrying in and stacking, ii. 400-1. Peat tile drain , how made, i. 377 .

Pennock's improvement on the English sowingmachine, i . 31 .

Pitting Potatoes, ii 413. forms of pit, ii . 413-14. the conical, ii. 413.

the prismatic, or long, ii. 413. ventilation of these, ii. 414.

Planting Potatoes, ii. 192 . Plants, geographical distribution of, i. 206 . their respiration, i. 180. Plaster -work of the steading, i. 145.

specifications, i. 149, 151. Plow, the : its uses. i 245. expense of, i . 249 . advantages of iron and wooden, i. 249. defects of its working, i 249. remedies for this, i 250.

proper tempering of the iron, i. 251. its early history, i. 253. the caschrom , a primitive form of, i. 253. rude kind still in use, i 253.

its gradual improvement, i. 253. first introduction of Small's, i. 253. view of its land -side, i . 254.

general description of,i. 255. its general characteristics, i. 256.

the East-Lothian , i. 255-6 . the Lanarkshire, i. 255, 262. its peculiarities, i. 262. the Mid -Lothian. i . 255.

detailed description of this, i. 267. its general action, i. 271. action of the coulter, i. 271. the share, i . 273. the mould -board , i 274.

principles and formation of this, i. 279. its degrees of draught, i. 285. Ransome's Bedfordshire, i. 404. the Two-furrow , i. 405. the Mole, for cutting drains, i. 381.

various others for drain -cutting. i. 382. the Double Mould-board, ii. 332.

the scuffling or cleaning, ii. 333. Smith's subsoil, i . 408, 418. other subsoil , i. 412.

Yoking the horses to, i. 386. harness for it, i. 386-7.

ordinary weight and cost, i. 387. working with two horses, i. 388. guidance of the horses, i. 389.

-swing-trees for two horses, i. 390.

calculating their strength , & c. i. 390-1. making the swing-trees of iron, i. 391.

swing -trees for three horses,i .391. four, i. and for

393, 394.

slownese of its improvement, i. 402. - disadvantages of wheeled , i. 402-403. various makers of, in England ,i. 405. application to lifting potatoes. ii 410-11. Plowing, winter the season when done, i. 74. contrasted effects of good and bad, ii. 178. Ridges, modes of, i. 289, 396 various breadths of, i. 289.

feering, or striking them, i. 290. gathering up from the flat, i. 292. casting, yoking or coupling, i. 294. the gore-furrow , i. 295.

revolving rake ,ii. 344. Pennsylvania , wheat in, ii. 25. Pet lambs, rearing, ii. 163.

- twice gathering-up. i. 299.

Physical sciences, importance to Agriculture,i.19

-cleaving with and withoutgore -furrow ,i.300

two -out-and -two-in, i. 297. inbreake, i. 298.

INDEX.

Plowing, Cross, i. 301. Angle, how done, i. 301 . Rib, i. 301-2.

Stubble and lea ground, i. 394. order in which done, i . 395. ways of, and soil, i. 395.

head -ridges, i. 396. characteristics of correct, i. 397. examples of bad, i. 399. weight of earth turned over, i. 400. time occupied by, i. 400. Table of time lost in turning, i. 401.

XI

Potatoes, Analyses of, ii. 415 . changes of,by boiling, ii. 415. Starch and Tapioca,manufacture of, ii . 4 ! 4 average valueof the crop, ii. 410. Potato -brander , or raiser, ii. 411.

Potato -graip , ii. 412. Potato or drill harrow , the, ii . 210. Potato haulm, or straw , for manure , ii. 65.

Potato -oat, peculiarities, ii. 148. Potato - raiser, the, ii . 411 .

Potato -store, position, &c. i. 117. Poultry on the steading, i. 115.

advantage of long ridges, i. 401.

management of in winter, ij . 13 .

proper length on steep ground, i. 401 chemical changes forwarded by, i. 402.

kinds kepton the farm , ii. 14.

Deep, advantages of, i. 402.

Shallow, when admissible, i. 402.

Hens, ii. 14 . Turkeys and Geese, ii. 15.

Trench and Subsoil, i. 408. Mr. Smith's plow for, i. 408, 418.

Ducks and Pigeons, ii. 16. Prices of, ii . 16.

necessity of previous drainage, i. 410. other forms of plows, i. 411. advantage derivable from , i. 412 . general remarks, i. 419 .

Cross, its objects, &c. ii. 111. for barley -seed, ii. 174. for autumn wheat, ii. 416. Plowing matches, advantage of, i. 406. ordinary way of conducting, i. 406. errors in judging, i. 406. Plowman, duties of, i. 160 . best education for, i . 398.

wages and allowances of, ii. 46. Plug-drains, description of, i. 378. section of, i. 379.

Plumber-work of the steading, i. 143. - measurement and cost, i. 149, 151.

Plamb-level for the drain-cutter, i. 365. Plunger-churn, ii. 326. Pneumatics, value of, i. 60.

Poles for hops, ii. 369. Politics detrimental to the farmer, i. 9.

Pond , the horse, position. & c. i 136. for sheep -washing, ii. 287. Pork , pickling of, ii. 10. fattening, ii. 8. see also Swine.

general neglett of, ii. 14.

how to judge of, ii. 17. their Houses, ii. 17, 18 . daily treatment, ii . 19, 22. food for them, ii. 19 , 22.

breeding them in winter, ii. 21. remarks on cramming, ji. 22. uses of their feathers, ii. 23. Diseases of, ii. 24, 223, 235.

Indigestion, ii. 223-4. Shell-less Eggs, ii. 224. Egg -bound , ii. 224. Remedies, ii. 224 .

Caponizing, ii. 239. Hatching them , ii . 223, 236. of Hens, ii . 224-7 .

of Turkeys,ii. 227. of Geese, ii. 230. of Ducks, ii . 233.

of Pea -fowl and Pigeons, ii. 234. treatment in towns, ii. 236 .

Castrating of. ii. 239. Poults, management of, ii. 229. Practical Agriculture, teaching, i. 35, 46 . Practical Husbandry, learning, i. 28. necessity of attention, i. 29 , commence in youth, i. 34. Presser-roller, objects of, ii. 136.

Posts of field -gates, ii. 260. described , ii . 146. Produce, transporting, by steam , i. 67. Potato, the, mixing with wheat flour, ii. 32. as food for Cattle and Pigs,i, 510, 511 ; ii. 6. Profit from draining, i. 375. Potatoes, preparing dung for, ii. 180, 183. Palling flax and hemp, ii. 365. Pulse of the horse, i . 566. planting of, ii. 192. Pulse crops: see Beans, Pease, fc. plowing, harrowing, &c. for, ii. 192.

dunzing, planting, and plowing in, ii. 194. Punching-nippers, for marking lambs, ii. 296 width of the drills, ii. 199 .

best varieties of, ii. 199, 200 . effects of soil on, ii 199-200.

variousmodes of cultivating, ii. 201 harrowing after planting, ii. 202. Diseases to which subject, ii. 203. the curl, ii. 203. the taint, ii. 203.

mode of using, ii . 296 .

Pupilage, time for commencing, i. 70. first employments, i. 71.

Q Quadrangular steading.origin of, i . 125. Quarter -ill, a disease of cattle, ii. 277. treatment of, ii. 277 .

natural history of the plant, ii. 205. classification of, ii. 206 . introduction into Great Britain , ii. 206. damage done by rooks, ii . 206. Failure , Prof. Lindley on, ii. 312.

Liſting and Pitting them , ii. 409. by the Plow , ii 410.

by the graip, ii. 412. storing of, ii. 412 . forms of Pits for, ii. 413-14.

R Rain, appearances of, i. 186. causes of its fall, i. 186.

Tables of quantities, & c . i. 187. connection of, with winds, i . 190. effect of the phases of the Moon, i. 191.

foreign matters brought down by, i. 191. Rain -water, cistern for, i. 134 .

Rain - guage, description of, i 174. the conical pit, ii. 413. mode of using, i. 174. the prismatic or long, ii. 413. Rake, the hand hay, ii 343. American horse, ii. 344. the heating,ii.414 against necessary precautions comparison with Wheat, ii. 414. the stubble, ii 388. Cobbett’s assertion, ii. 414. Pennock's revolving horse, ii. 344. No. persons supported by an acre of, ii. 415. ' Rams, separate feeding of,i. 452.

INDEX .

XII

Rams, serving the ewes by, ii. 404. Ransome, Messrs., plow improvements, i. 403. their F F or Bedfordshire plow, i. 403. Rape, feeding sheepon , i. 455. Rats, prevention of their 'ravages, i. 117. Readings, agricultural, i. 421 .

Reaping of grain, importance, & c . ii. 373. proper ripeness of the crop , ii. 375. Mr. Hannam's experiments, ji. 382-3. superintendence of the reapers, ii. 376. mode of cutting with the scythe. ii. 376. arrangement with the workers, ii. 377. Gaits , formation of, ii 378 Rye, Beans, and Pease, ii. 379.

S

Saddle -horses, treatment of, i. 562 breaking-in , ii. 359. proper age, ii. 360 Salt. for the rot in sheep, i. 453 mode of purifying, ii. 312 Salting butter, ii 311. Sample grain -market, ii. 52. - Advantages and disadvantages, ii. 52-3. Sandy soils, definition of, i 215.

- loams, i 216 Scab in sheep, treatment of, i 457. Scarsement on hedge -bank , i. 240. Scarifier or grubber, ii 207. · Finlayson's ii. 207.

and Mowing contrasted, ii. 379. Kirkwood's, ii. 209. greater cheapness of Mowing, ii. 379. the common Drill, ii. 324. other advantages, ii. 380. proportion ofstraw , grain and roots, ii. 381 . Wilkie's, i. 335. Reapingmachines : ii. 384-6 . Schools, Agricultural,i. 25. 41, 42. Smith's, ii. 334. Sciences, the Physical, and Agriculture, i. 15. value of, to the farmer, i, 59. Scoop, the bog-drain . i. 322 .

Bell's, ii. 384. Mann's, ii. 384-5.

the earthdrain, i. 352 . compared with hand -reaping, ii. 385. Reaping -sickles, forms of, ii. 385.6. Scot, Mr., on larch -tube draining i. 382. Reaping-scythes, ii. 386. Scotland, Agricultural Society of, i. 25 Scott, Mr, on feeding horses, i. 548 Rennet forcheese-making, ii. 314. Rennie, Prof., on Irrigation, ii. 73. Theproper Scuffling -plow , ii 333. theory, ii. 74 . Scythe, the patent, for hay, ii. 282. -cutting grain with the, ii. 376. Repairing fences, ii. 259. Respiration of plants, effect on the air, i. 181. advantages over the sickle, ii. 379. various forms of, ii. 376, 386. Ribbing, plow for, i. 302. Seasons, fall of rain in the, i. 189. mode of executing, ii 125. the Agriculiural, i . 15 , 16. Ricks, hay, building of, ii. 338. Sea-ware for manure , ii. 66. Ridges, modes of plowing, i. 289. different breadths of, i. 289 . its composition , ii. 67. mode of feering, i. 290. way in which applied , ii. 67. gathering -up from the flat, i 292. Sea-water, freezing of. i. 196. casting, yoking or coupling, i. 294. Seed-wheat, preparationforsowing, ii. 126. the gore-furrow , i. 295. choosing, ii. 28. marks of good, ii. 28.

two-out-and -two- in, i . 297. inbreaks, i . 298 .

twice gathering-up, 299. cleaving with and without gore -furrow , i . 300.

preparation for autumn-sowing,ii.418 saving effected by dibbling,& c.,ii.419 process of germination in, ii. 421. Seed -basket, the English, ii. 128.

cross-plowing, i. 301. -angle-plowing, i. 301. rib -plowing, i. 302. Ring for the bull, ii 297. the fixing of it. ii. 298. River-water, peculiaritiesof. i . 135 .

Seeds, germination of, ii. 177. necessity of water and air, ii. 177-8. effects of good and bad plowing, ii. 178. effects of good and bad sowing, ii. 178 .

Selection of parents in breeding live-stock ii. 433.

on the Migration of Animals, Mr., preparing stones for drains, Selles,Marcelde, Roberton, i. 208. i . 354. plowing , when admissible, i. 402. on the relative expenses of drainage, 1.383. Shallow Share of the East Lothian plow , i. 256, 259.

Robustness of constitution : see Live Stock .

Roller corn -bruiser, i. 561 .

ii. 352. -crushing: Roller, Crosskill's clodand materials for, ii common , forms,

146

Rolling after sowing, ii. 132. grass -fields, ii 259.

Rolling, storing and packing fleeces, ii 298. Roosting -places for fowls, i. 115. Ropes, rein, ii 391. for the cart, ii 392. Roping for stacks, varieties of, ii. 396-399. Rot in sheep, i. 477; ii. 408. - alleged cure of, by salt, 453 Rotherhamplow , i. 253. Roville agricultural institution, i. 47. Rusky, or seed -basket, ii. 128 .

Rye, botanical classification of, ii. 38. chemical composition of, ii. 38. its straw , ii 42 .

manure for, ii 39 .

reaping of, ii 379. Rye crop ofthe United States, ii. 38. Rye-grass, cultivation for seed, ii 336. Italian, peculiarities of,i. 22.

of the Lanarkshire, i. 262, 264. of the Mid -Lothian , i. 267, 269. nature of its action, i. 273.

Shearing sheep, ii. 289. Shed for carts. form . &c i. 114.

Sheep, providing winter food for, i. 421. cost of feeding on turnips, i. 436. Turnip -slicers for, i. 470, 472, 475 . Diseases in Winter, i . 476.

in Summer, ii. 297. in Autumn, ii. 408.

Purging, i. 476. Parasites, i. 476. Scab, i. 477 . Foot-rot, i. 477. Wildfire, i. 477.

Braxy, i. 477. Scald -head, ii. 297. Rot, ii. 408.

Pining, ii. 409. Feeding. on turnips, i. 442 on rape, i 455. the ewes in lamb, i. 454.

INDEX.

Sheep , Hurdles for confining, i. 443. · Nets, and setting themup, i. 444. precaution to be observed, i. 446.

XIII

Shepherd's dog, varieties of, ii. 173. instruction of, ii . 174. Shirreff, Mr. on the Potato failure, ji. 204.

explanation of names given them , i. 448.

Shoeing draught-colts, ii. 216. Shoulder-drain, the, i. 378.

straw or hay rack for, i. 449.

Shovel, the ditcher's, i. 231 .

selection for putting on turnips, i. 447.

turnip -trough for, i. 450. mode of arranging ,& c. on turnip -field ,i.451.

separate feeding of the tups, i. 452. oil-cake or grain -box for, i, 453, 476. alleged benefit of salt, i. 453. shelter for, while on turnips, i. 455. movable sheds for. i. 456-7 .

fixed sheds at the steading, i. 457.

advantages of these modes, i. 457. breeds for different localities. i. 458.

on pastoral and hill farms, i. 460. various forms of Stells for, i. 461 , 463, 465.

the broad-mouthed, i. 321. the lime or frying-pan, i. 356. Sickle , forms of, ii . 385-6.

Sinclair, Sir John,breeding stock in his time,i.68 Skinner breed of hogs, the, ii. 9.

Slating of the steading, i. 143 . specifications of,cost, &c. i. 151. Slaughtering cattle, i. 486 . sheep, i. 532 . Slight, Mr., his new mould -board, i. 284. Slinking or slipping the calf, ii. 86. itscauses, ir. 86 .

prevention of it, ii. 87. Driving and Slaughtering, i. 478. best time for driving, i. 478. Small's, or East-Lothian plow, i. 253-256. Smith, Mr., his subsoil plow , i 408, 418. way of marking. i. 479. proper length of day's journey, &c. i. 480. his reaping -machine, ii. 384. qualifications of the drover,i. 481. Smith -work of the steading, i 149, 151 . Marketing them , i. 482. Smithy, advantage of, on the steading, i. 121. rules of the market, i. 482.

Snow, nature of, i. 192.

deposition of fat on, i. 483. - judging of their condition, i. 484. Slaughtering them , i. 486. modes of cutting up, i. 48 merits of the various parts, i. 488.

Snow -harrow and plow , ii. 171, Sock ofplows: see Share. Sod-draining ,i. 380.

characteristics of the flesh , i . 489.

tools used for, i , 380.

its various forms, i. 192. storms during spring, ii. 76.

best age for killing, i. 489-90. Soiling and pasturing cattle, ii. 283. kinds preferred at differentmarkets, i. 490. Soils and subsoils, i. 213. importance of an acquaintance with, 1. 213 . shipping them to cities, i. 490. Characters of the different, i. 214-216 . superiority of steam conveyance for, i. 491 . the pure clay, i. 214. Meat and Offal, quantity of, i. 492. the sandy clay, i. 215. loss sustained in cooking, 492. curing into Hams, i. 492 . the clay-loam , i. 215. preparation of the Saet, i. 493. the pure sand, i. 215. the gravelly, i 216. uses of its parts, i. 493. sandy and gravelly loams, i. 216. constitution of its skin , i. 494 Grazing of, ii. 274. Feeding them in Summer, ii. 285.

Washing them , ii. 287. pool for it , ii. 287-8. Shearing them , ii. 289-93. appearance of, when new -clipped , ii. 294. Weaning the Lamb. ii. 295. Marking and buisting them , ii. 296. Management of, in Autumn, ii . 403.

Definition of, i. 217.

effects of the subsoil on the soil, i. 217. Terms applied to them , i. 218. their colors, i. 219 .

geological relations, i. 220, 221. agencies by which produced , i. 220. causes preventing accumulation, i. 221. scientific definition of, i. 222.

Drafting ewes, &c. for sale , ii. 403-404.

mechanical analysis of, i. 223. Stones in, their purposes, i. 223.

Tupping of the ewes, ii. 404. Total number of, in Great Britain , ii. 304.

Chemical constituents, i. 224.

the Merino breed, ii. 304.

Points to be cultivated, ii. 447. examples of these , ii. 448. the Leicester, ii . 448. the Cheviot, ii. 449.

the South -Down, ii. 449 . the Black -faced , ii. 450.

Sheep -cots, disadvantages of ,i. 463. Sheep -farms: see Pastoral Farms.

Sheep -flakes, making of, i. 466. Sheep-hurdles, making, i. 443, 467. setting up. i. 468.

Sheep-nets, working of, i. 470. Shelter, importance of, i. 243, 458. advantage of, in grazing, ii. 276 . Shepherd, duties of the, i. 161. his general qualifications, ii. 168.

Liebig's analyses of, i. 225. Sole -shoe of Small's plow, i. 260. of the Lanarkshire, i. 265.

of the Mid-Lothian, i. 269 South -Down sheep, ii. 449.

Sow , farrowing, ii. 217. sty for her, ii. 218.

necessity of attending in parturition ,ii. 219 . it, ii. 220 . food forher after Diseases of ; treatment, ii. 221 .

number to be kept on the farm , ii. 222. Insects infesting, ii. 13.

Sowing spring wheatand grass -seeds, ii. 125. of oats, ii. 148.

of barley.seed, ii. 174. - by drill, i 150. by hand, how done, i. 130.

duties in the lambing-season , ii. 155.

effects of good and bad on seed, i. 179. of Turnips, mangel-wurzel, & c. ii. 252. Sowing -sheet and basket, ii. 129.

the skillful and the unskillful, ii. 155.

Sowing-machine for grass-seeds, ii. 134.

ordinary wages and allowances, ii. 49.

number of ewes he can attend, ii. 167. the Hill, qualifications of, ii. 168. Shepherd's crook, uses of, ii. 164. Shepherd's dog, training, & c. ii. 172.

for grain , ii. 142. in the United States, i. 31 . Pennock's improved , i. 31.

Sown and natural grasses compared, ii. 336 ,

INDEX .

XIV

Spade, the narrow drain, i. 352. the dung, ii. 1. Spaying, effect of, ii. 107 .

Stephens, Geo ., on irrigated meadows, Stephenson, Mr., on feeding cattle i. 519.

Spirit-level, uses of, i. 362.

Steward , duties of, i. 159. - wages of, ii. 49. Stock grain market, ii . 52

Spring and Winter: contrasted, ii. 76. the weather during, ii. 77-8.

Stone for the steading, i. 136.

Spottiswoode. improvement of by draining,i.375

farm operations of, ii. 79.

Spring wheat, selection of, ii. 137. sowing with grass-seeds, ii. 125. preparing the land for, ii. 126.

preparation of the seed , ii. 126. Spring-water,impurities of, i. 135. Springs, origin of, i. 313. on a uniform surface, i. 313 . on a varied ditto , i. 314.

appearances of soil, explained, i. 307 . Stable -forks, i 543. lantern, i . 544. Stables for work -horses, i . 90. proper flooring for, i 93.

roofing and ventilating, i. 95. for riding -horses, i . 96. the windows, i 105.

should be dry, i 98, Stacks, thatching of, ii. 393. roping, modes of, ii. 394. Covering in wetweather, ii. 399. Stack -yard, position, &c. i. 80. arrangement of, i. 116. Stacking grain ,ii. 389. stathels for, i 116. stools for, 390 .

- building the stacks, ii. 390. Stallion and the mare, ii. 280. points to be cultivated , ii . 440. Stalls for the work -horses, i. 94, 199. for cowe, i . 99. Starch , manufacture of, ii. 33. Stathel for stacks, ii. 116.

Steading, description of, i. 78 . best situation for, i . 78 .

should be complete, i. 79.

71-75 .

advantages and disadvantages of, ii. 53. Stone cheese -press, ii. 329. Stone -ducts in drains, i. 337 .

Stone-dykes, building of, ii. 353. openings in , ii 357. Stones, removing them from fields, ii. 259, Stools for stacks,making, i. 116 ; ii. 390 Store for turnips, i. 111 . for potatoes, i. 117. Store -farming : see Pastoral Farms. Storing potatoes, ii 412.

turnips, cabbage, &c. i. 421, 429. of wool, i . 299.

Stathaven, fattening calves in, ii. 105. Straw, composition of Wheat, ii. 41, Barley, ii. 42. Oat and Rye, ii. 42. Pease and Beans, ii. 42. composition of, ii . 43 .

inattention usually paid to, ii. 43-4. importance of its right management, ii. 44. its value, ii . 44 .

quantity of different crops, ii. 45. Straw -barn, position of. i. 80. Straw.cutter, forms of, i. 549. the Canadian , i. 550. the Cylinder, i. 551 . the Disk , i 555. Straw -racks, forms of, i. 110. iron, i . 111 .

for sheep, i. 449.

Straw -ropes, twisting, ii. 401-2. Implements for, ii. 402. Street-manure , ii. 207 .

and stable dung, ii. 207. Stubble ground, plowing, i. 394. different ways of, i. 395 .

causes of defects, i. 81.

Stubble -rake, the hand. ii. 388.

description of these, i. 82.

Student, hints to, i . 9 , 10, 17, 18, 22, 74, 77, 191. Sty for swine, i. 114 . for the brood - sow , ii. 218. Subsoil, definition of, i. 217. effect on the soil, i. 217. see also Şoils,

ground -plan of, i . 83. a proposed, i . 84 .

advantages compared, i. 85. importance of draining, i. 118. modifications of, i . 121. best mode of contrasting, i. 122.

for pastoral farms, i. 123. a carse farm , i. 124. a dairy farm , i. 124.

origin of the quadrangular,i. 125. specifications connected with, i. 126. digging its foundations, i. 128. the walls, i. 127.

the doors, corners, &c. i. 127. outside walls, and stairs, i. 129.

Subsoil-plowing, its objects. i. 408. Smith's plow for it, i. 408 , 418.

not always good, i. 410. when injurious, i. 410. other plows forit, i. 412. - proposed modification, 412. advantages from , i. 412.

compared with trenching, i. 416 . general remarks, i. 419. Summer, characteristics of. ii. 240

the floors, i. 129.

phenomena of, ii. 240-1.

supply of water, i. 134.

state of the weather , ii. 255-6 .

building -stone for, i. 136. its wood -work , i 138.

kinds of wood employed, i. 140.

the plumber-work, i. 143. slating, i. 143.

plastering, i. 145. glazing, i. 146. painting, i . 146. measurements and prices, i. 148-152.

Steam , facility of transportation by, i. 67. Steam -engine, position, &c. of, i. 89. Steaming apparatus for turnips, &c. i. 555. Steeping flax, ii. 366. Stells,various forms of, for sheep- farms, i.461,465 with hay -racks, i. 465.

farm -work during, ii. 248. Summer -fallowing, ii. 346 . soils requiring, ii. 347.

nature of its action, ii. 351. Surface-draining, i . 315. Suters for plug -draining, i. 379. Swedish mortar- cart, i. 137.

Swedish turnips, sowing , &c. ii. 251. Swine, driving and slaughtering, ü . 5 . treatment of the pigs, ji. 6-7 . cooked vs raw food for, ii. 6 . best food for, ii. 6. times to be fed, ii. 7.

names at different ages, ii. 7-8 judging of their condition, ii. 8 .

· XV

INDEX .

Swine, troughs for them, ii. 9, 10 .

Slaughtering, ii. 10. cutting up, ii. 11 .

loss of flesh in cooking, ii. 11 .

Thorough -draining, the tilesfor, i. 359. - Examples of profit of, i 375 . the flat stone drain , i. 377 . the peat-tile , i 377.

digesting their flesh, ii. 11. pickling, ii. 11.

the clay -land shoulder, i. 378. the plug or wedge, i. 379.

curing the hams, ii. 11 .

the sod drain , i 380 .

composition ofthe Fat, ii. 12. uses of do. , ii. 12 . the skin , bristles, &c . ii. 12 .

experiments in feeding, ii. 12. Diseases of, ii 12.

Insects infesting, ii 12, 13. points to be cultivated , ii. 431, 452 examples of this, ii. 452. in America, ii. 5, 8.

Mackey breed of, ii. 8. the Skinner breed, ii. 9 . American treatment of, ii . 219 . their usefulness ii. 219 .

food for, ii. 219. Swing-trees for the plow, i. 390. for two horses, i. 390. for three, i. 391 . for four, i. 393, 394.

Symmetry of live -stock , ii. 428. Sympiesometer, its uses, i. 168. T Taint in potatoes, ii. 203. Tank for liquid manure, i. 119. cost, & c. of, i. 119 , 152 ; ii. 65. farms where required, ii. 64.

manure, De Rham on, i. 153. Tar manufacture, i. 142.

--- importation of, i. 142. Tartarian oat, ii. 148 .

Tedding machinesdescribed, ii. 337. the English, ii. 342. Teeth of domesticated animals, ii. 452. indications of age from , ii. 453. of the Horse, ii. 453 .

in the Ox , ii . 454 . - in the Wild Boar, ii. 454.

Templemoyle, Agricul. Seminary at, i. 41. Ten-hour system of labor, i. 541. Thaër, Von, his School at Moeglin, i. 46. Thatching hay -stacks, ii. 339. corn -stacks, ii. 394-9. Thermometer, the, i. 168. history and uses of, i , 169 . the self-registering, i. 169.

Thermometrical observations, i. 209. · Thorn -bedges, planting of, i 226. season for, i. 227. how made , i . 228.

by the mole plow, i. 381. with larch-tubes, i. 382.

with brushwood, i. 382. durability of brick, i. 382,

-cutting,with the plow, i 383.

Principles on whichnecessary, 1.384 Threshing, by the hand flail, ii. 345. Threshing machine, i. 80. position, &c. of. i. 80. Throw -crook, ii. 395. - description of, ii. 402. Thunder-storms, ii. 242. their prevalence in Summer, ii. 252 Tile -draining, i. 359. the ducts, i. 338. the main drains, i. 339. the small drains, i 342, 352. the main-drain tiles, i. 359.

- necessity for the sole, i 359. size and form of tiles, i . 360. number on an acre, i. 361 . junction of the tiles, i. 362.

laying them down, i 363. fixing and covering i. 365. size of the tiles, i. 368. soles for small drains, i. 368. laying these down , i. 368.

filling the drains, i. 369. view of a tile drain completed , i. 371. see Draining, Thorough Drain ing. foc. i. 134. roofs, of Tiling Timber, preserving from dry -rot, i. 141 . proper season for felling, ii. 76 .

Training and working the shepherd dog, ii. 172 Transplanting, sowingwheat by, ii. 419. Transporting produce by steam , i. 67. Treatment of domestic animals, i. 540

Trees for hedges in America, i. 227. Trenching with the spade, i. 408. early use of the spade, i. 408 substitution of the plow, i. 408. Trenching, objects, & c. i. 414. with the spade, i . 414. expense of it , i. 415. with the plow, i. 415. effects on the soil, i. 416.

- compared with subsoil-plowing, i. 418. - advantage derived from , i. 419 .

implements used for, i. 228-30. Troughs for pigs, ii, 9, 10. turnip , for cattle, i. 110. choosing the plants, i. 230. water, i. 111 . planting in the shrubberies. &c. i.241. Trowel, for laying tile-soles, i. 364 turf-fences to, i . 242-3 .

see also Hedges. Thorough -draining, objects, &c. i. 322.

Tups, separate feeding of, i. 452. serving the ewesby, ii. 404.

Turkeys, management in winter, ii. 15. management while hatching, ii. 227. treatment of the young, ii. 227. the main drains, i. 339 . Turnips, preparing dung for, ii. 183. the small drains, i. 342, 343 , 352. sowing of. ii. 250-2 . distance between drains, i. 345, 367. preparation of the ground for, ii. 250. the run of the drains, i. 347 . ng, dunging , & c. ii. 250-1. plowi cutting them , i. 351 . best varieties of,ii. 251. tools used for, i. 351 . drill and broadcast sowing of, ii. 252. filling them in, i. 353. - raising them by bone -dust, ii. 253. materials used for, i. 353-4. store for, i . 111. preparation of stones for, i. 353. - position of the store, i. 111. a stone-drain, dimensions. &c. i. 357-8. ons to be eaten, i. 423. proporti the sub -main drains, i. 367. - stripping the ground of, i. 424 . a tile and sole drain, i. 371 . carting them , i. 427-8. plan of a thorough -drained field , i.372. depths of drains, i. 333. necessity of ducts, i . 337.

INDEX

XVI

Turnips, pulling topping and tailing, i. 425. best weather for removing, i. 428. the triangalar store, i. 430. filling and covering it, i. 430. other ways of storing. i. 430. Varieties of, i. 432.

the White Globe, i. 432. the Yellow, i. 433.

the Swedish, i. 434. remarkable Crops, i. 434 . superiority of the Swedish , i. 435. specific gravity of thedifferent kinds, i. 436 nutritive matter of, i. 436.

ordinary prices per acre, i. 436. · hybrid varieties,i. 437. protection of during snow , i. 437. illustrations ofbadly formed, i. 438. Number of roots per acre, i. 439.

examples ofheavy crops, i. 440. their History, i. 440. introduction and cultivation, i. 440.

feeding sheep on , in winter, i. 440. best form of picker, i. 442. Trough, for sheep -feeding, i. 450. Slicers, i. 470 , 473 , 475.

Feeding Cattle on , i . 495. wire -basket for, i. 499.

slicing and cleaning, i. 503. apparatus for steaming, i 556.

Turnip -drill, history of, ii. 258. Turnip -picker, i. 450. Turnip -slicers for sheep, i. 470, 473, 475. for Cattle, i.511.

Turnip -stemmed cabbage, i. 441. Turnip -troughs for Cattle, i. 110. for Sheep, i. 450. Tarn -wrest snow -plow , ii. 171 . Tutors, agricultural, i 40 : see Ag. Schools. Two-furrow plow, i. 405. Twisters of straw -ropes, ii. 402. U Udder of the cow , ii. 98. structure of, ii. 98-9.

Diseases of, in Summer, ii. 277. United States, mountain ranges of, i. 65.

grazing districts of, i. 65. mixedfarming in, i.68. iron on farms in , i. 97. climate of, i. 198-9 .

Grain produce of, ii. 25, 34, 38, 41. Laboring population of, ii. 45.

Applicability of the Book OF THE FARM to : see Book of the Farm , Observations of Am. Ed. Upper -barn, plan, &c. i. 106. V Vapor, quantities of, in the air, i. 187. Vegetation as a source of electricity, i. 180. Ventilators for the stable, i. 95. Vermin, preserving barn -floors from , i. 88.

, i. 43. VeterinarytheColleges London, i . 43. the Edinburgh , i. 43.

Von Thaër, M. agricultural institution of, i. 45. W Waddell,Mr. construction of floors by, i. 129. Wages of farm -servants, ii. 45. of the plowman, ii. 46.

when living in bothies, ii. 47-8 of the steward and shepherd, ii. 49. of the hedger, ii. 49. of the cattle -man , ii. 49. of the field -worker, ii . 50 .

Walton, Mr. on breeding the Alpaca, ii. 451.

Walker, Mr.experiments in feeding cattle, i.517 on feeding pigs, ii. 12. Warnes, Mr. mode of feeding cattle, i. 516. Washing sheep, ii. 286-7. Water, supply of, for the farm , i. 132. causes and cure of its hardness, i. 135. supplying cattle with , i. 112. great expansion, when freezing , i. 196.

agency of, in forming soils, i. 219. preventing its lodgment, i. 238. sources of superfluous, i. 313.

effect on germination, ii. 178. Water-furrowing, ii. 136 . Watering-pots for stock, ii. 275. mode of constructing , &c. ii. 275, 358. Water-meadows, management of in winter, i.” Weaning calves, ii. 266, 270.

Weather , instruments for indicating, i. 165-174 the Barometer, 166 . Sympiesometer, i. 168. Thermometer, i. 168.

Hygrometer, i. 171. Weathercock, i. 172. Anemometer, i . 173.

Rain -guage, i. 174. indications from the Clouds, i. 175-80. agency of electricity, i. 180. indications of from the Aurora Borealis, i. 185.

other atmospheric phenomena, i. 185. in Winter, general uncertainty of, i. 76. in Spring, ii. 76. in Summer, ii. 240. in Autumn, ii. 363.

Wedge or plug draining, i. 378. Wedgewood'stable -churn, ii. 323. Weighing wool. ii. 300.

Weight of fat oxen , rules, ii. 267. fallacy of these rules, ii. 269. Wells, Dr.his theory of dew, ii. 242. Wells, sinking of, on the farm , i. 132. West Highland ox, ii. 445.

Wheat, spring, sowing of, ii. 125. classification by the ear, ii. 26. by the grain , ii 27.

- judging of quality, color, & c. ii.28. kinds for various purposes, ii. 28-9. the best for seed, ii. 28 .

detection of damaged, ii. 28-30 . preserving in granaries, ii. 28. grinding of, ii. 29. flour and bran , ii . 29. chemical composition, ii. 31. - microscopic structure, ii. 32. nutritive matter in, ii. 33.

manufacture of Starch from , ü . 33 . Straw of, ii . 41 . Varieties of, ii. 137.

Cutting, i. 17 ; ii. 382. Prof. Johnston on the Gluten of, i. 31.

proper ripeness for cutting, ii. 382. Cutting of, ii. 373. Carrying in and Stacking, ii. 388. Weight of Grain, Straw , &c. ii. 382. Autumn, sowing of, ii. 416 . plowing, &c. the land, ii. 416-17. variousmodes of this, ii. 417. thorough -draining for it, ii. 418. preparation of the seed, ii. 418.

sowing by dibbling, &c. ii. 419. and by transplanting, ii. 419. expense, and saving of seed, ii. 420. the process of germination, ii. 421. Wheeled plow, the, i. 404. Wheeled iurnip -slicer, for sheep, i. 473. Wildfire, a disease in sheep, i. 477. treatment of, i. 477

INDEX .

Wills dri...grubber and barrow, ii. 335. porse -hoe, ii. 336. plow, i. 255, 262.

Wilson, Dr. on Drainage, i. 375. Windows for stables, i. 105.

for byres, i. 105.

for the granary, i. 107. Winds, relation of to rain , i. 190. influence on weather in Summer, ii. 246 .

XVI

Wood-work of the steading, i. 138. measurement and cost, i.138, 148,153

Wool, washing, ii. 298. clipping, ii. 298. storing ,weighing. &c. ii. 298. qualities of,ii. 301. effects of fattening on its quality, ii. 302. chemical analysis of, ii, 303.

microscopic examination, ii. 303.

Winsboro',Gov.,and the cattle of N.Eng'd.i.207 causes of its felting, ii. 303-4. Winter, farm operations in , i. 74. Wool-room , plan and description of, i. 106-7 Wool- shears, ii. 289. importance of these, i. 74. uncertainty of weather in, i. 76. Working the shepherd's dog , ii. 172. arrangement of field -work, i. 301. Y wheat, sowing, &c. ii 416. Year, agricultural, divisions of, i. 15. Wire field -gates, ii. 265. Yeast for baking, ii. 31. turnip -basket, i 499. Yoking horses to the plow , i. 386. Womb of the cow , the, ii. 84. theyoung draught-colt, ii. 215. Wood, Kyanizing. i. 141. to the cart, ii. 216 Wood -floor for the corn -barn, i. 87. Youatt, Mr., observations on wool, ii. 303 . - advantages of, i. 87. - preserving it fromvermin , i. 88. Z Wood -paving, advantages of,i. 130 . Zinc, employment for roofing, i. 143. various kinds, i. 130. Zones of the earth, the, i. 201. comparative expense, i. 131. Zoology, value of a study of, i. 61.

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