This is the third edition of the standard reference work on India's more common mammals. Based on the observations
555 63 96MB
English Pages 324 [317] Year 1997
The book of INDIAN ANIMALS
S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S. Former Curator, Bombay Natural History Society With 28 coloured plates by PAUL BARRUEL
and many other illustrations
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CALCUTTA CI-JENNAI DELHI MUMBAI
Illustrations COLOURED PLATES BY PAUL BARRUEL
10. Hoolock (Hylobates hoolock)
facing
Liontailed Macaque {MacacasUenus) Rhesus Macaque(Macacamulatta) Assamese Macaque (Macaca assamensis) Bonnet Macaque (Macaca radiata) 11. Nilgiri Langur (Presbytis johm) Slow Loris (Nycticebus coucang") Common Langur (Presbytis entelltts) Golden Langur (Presbytis geei) Capped hsaigai (Presbytispileatus)
.. 48
..49
12. Tiger (Panthera tigris) Lion (Panthera leo)
Leopard (Pantherapardus) Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia) 13. Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) Golden Cat (Felis temmincki)
..
.. 64
..
..
..
Cheetah (Acinonyxjtibatus) ..
,.
.. 96
Fishing Cat (Felis viverrind) Leopard Cat (Felis bengalaisis) Marbled Cat (Felis marmoratd) Jungle Cat (Felis chaus) 18. Lynx (Felis lynx)
65
E^rt Cat(Felis libyca)
Pallas's Cat (Felis numtd) Caracal (Felis caracal)
19. Large Indian Civet (Viverrazibetha)
Sm^ Indian Civet (Viverricula indiat)
Toddy Cat (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus)
Himalayan Palm Civet (Paguma larvata)
Binturong (Arctictis binturor^) .. ..97 24. Spotted Linsang (Prionodon pardicolor) Common Mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi) Small Indian Mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) Stripednecked Mongoose (Herpestes vitticollis) CrabeatingMongoose(/ferpas/er«rvfl) .. ..112 25. Wolf (Canis li^us) Jackal (Canis auretis) Red Fox (Vtdpes vulpes) Indian Fox (Vtdpes bengalensis) "Dhole (Citon alpinus) .. ..113
viii
ILLUSTRATIONS
30. iStriped Hyena {Hyaena hyaena)
facing
Himalayan Black B^ (Sle/ienorc/oir r/ufre/ORur) 31. Red Panda {AiiurusfuJgens) Common Otter {Lutra lutra)
.. 130
Slodi Bear{Meharsus ursinus) Brown Bear {Ursusarctos)
SmoothIndian Otter {Lutraperspicillata) Clawless Otter {Aonyx cinerea) Beech Marten {Mariesfoina) Himalayan YeUowthroated Marten {Mariesflavigula) 32. Himalayan Weasel {Musiela sibirica) Pale Weasel{Musielaaliaica) Stripedbacked Weasel {Musiela sirigidorsa) Yellowbellied Weasel {Musiela kaihiah) Ermine {Musiela erminea) .. ..
131
.. 142
33. Marbled Polecat {Vormela peregusna) Chinese Ferret-Badger{Melogale moschaia) Burmese Ferret-Badger {Melogale personaia) Hog-Badger {Arcionyx collaris)
'RA\e\{Mellivora capensis) .. 38. Malay Tree Shrew {Ttipaia glis)
..
.. 143
Indian Tree Shrew {Anaihma ellioii) Longeared Hedgehog {Hemiechinus auriius) Pale Hedgehog {Paraechinus micropus) Eastern Mole (Tb^pa micrura) Grey Musk Shrew {Suncus murinus) 39. Fulvous Fruit Bat {Rouseiius leschenaulii) Indian Flying Fox {Pieropusgiganieus) Shortnosed Fruit Bat {Cynopierussphinx) Great Eastern Horseshoe Bat {Rhinolophuslucius)
Great Himalayan Leafnosed Bat {Hipposideros armiger) Indian False Vampire{Megaderma lyra) 40. Painted Bat {Kerivoula picia)
.. 160
.. 161
Bearded Sheathtailed Bat {Taphozous melanopogon) Serotine{Epiesicus seroiinus)
Indian Pipistrelle {Pipisirellus coromandra) Tickell'sBat {Hesperopienus iickelli) Common Yellow Bat (Slco/opMos Aea/W) 41. Common Giant Flying Squirrel {Peiaurisia •peiaurisia) Malayan Giant Squirrel{Raiufa bicolor) Grizzled Giant Squirrel {Raiufa macroura) Indian Giant Squirrel{Raiufa indica)
Longtailed Mannot {Marmoia caudaia) ..
.. 176
..177
ILLUSTRATIONS
ix
44. Kashmir Flying Squirrel {Hylopetesfimbriatus) facing Particoloured Flying Squirrel{Hylopetes alboniger) Hoarybellied Himalayan Squirrel {Cailosciurus pygerythrus) Orangebellied Himalayan Squirrel {Dremomys iokriah)
Threcstriped Palm Squirrel{Funambulus palmarum) Fivestriped Palm Squirrel (F«nam6«/MS pennanti) .. 196 45.
Indian Desert Gerbille (Meriones hurrianae) Indian Gerbille {Tatera indica)
Spiny Field Mouse (Masplatythrlx) Indian Field Mouse (Afus booduga) Metad {Millardia nieltada) Indian Bush Rat {Golimda elliotl) Longtailed Tree Mouse {Vandeleuriaoleraced)
Royle's Vole {Alticola roylei) 46.
..
.. 197
..
.. 204
Indian Mole-Rat {Bandicota bengalensis) Bandicoot Rat (Bandicota indicd) Whitetailed Wood Rat (Rattus blanfordi)
Bay Bamboo Rat (Cannomys badius) 47. Indian Porcupine (Hystrix indica)
58.
Rufoustailed Hare (Lepus nigricoliis rificaudatus) Himalayan Mouse-Hare (Ochotona roylei) Blacknaped Hare (Lepus nigricoliis nigricoliis)
.. 205
Goat (Bos-gaurus) Banteng (Bos banteng) Yak (Bos grunniens) Wild Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)
.. 242
..
59. Shapu (Ovis orientalis) Marco Polo's Sheep (Ovis ammonpolii) Nayan (Ovis ammon hodgsoni) Bharal (Pseudois nayaur) .. .. 60. Ibex (Capra ibex) Wild Goat (Capra hircus) Markhor (Caprafalconeri) Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius) iimalsLya.n Tahr (HemitragusJemlahicus) 61. Goral (Nemorhaedus goral) Serow (Capricomis sumatraensis) Takin (Budorcas taxicolor) Tibetan Antelope (Pantholopshodgsoni) .. 62. Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) Fourhorned Antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis) Chinkara (Gazella gazella) Blackhuck (Antilope cervicapra) ..
.. 243
.. 254
.. 255
.. 272
ILLUSTRATIONS
63. Sambar (Cerva? tadcolor)
facing
Kashmir Stag {Cervus elaphus hanglu)
Thamin(Cervtis eldl) Swamp Deer (Cenna duvauceli) Qutal (Axis axis)
..
.. 273
68. Indian Chevrotain (Dragidus meminna) Hog-Deer (Axisporcima) Musk Deer(Moschus moschiferus) Mun^ac (Mmtiacusmuntjak)
Indian Wild Boar 50^) 69. Blue Whale (Balaawptera musculus)
..
288
SpermWhale(Physeter catodon) Common Dolphin (Delphinus delphis) Gangetic Dolphin (PlaUodsta gangeticd) .. .. Dugong (Dugongdugon)
.. 289
MAP
7. Map of India, showing Climatic Forest Types and distribution of Geographical Races of the Indian Giant Squirrel ..
..
between
24-25
MONOCHROME PLATES
ff:i!
'1
:| :
•il
:i
»• 23.
Diversity of structure in mammals
..
6
Teeth of mammals
..
7
Molar teeth for various diets
..
10
..
11
Himalayan scenery at the edge of the tree-line 5. Evergreen forest, Kerala 6. Tropical thorn forest 8. Bonnet Monkey (Macaca radiata) 9. Slender Loris (Loris tardlgradus) 14. Skull of Tiger (Panthera tigris) 15. Lion (Panthera leo) in Gir Forest 16. Leopard (Panthera pardus) on the prowl.. 17. Warning Colours; Facial Masks 20. Skull of Hyena(Hyaena hyaena) 21. Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena) 22. Foot and spoor of Wolf (Canis lupus)
..
16
* 17 . .
32
..
33
..
66
..
67
..
78
..
79
.. 102 ..
103
..
106
ILLUSTRATIONS
xi
facing 23. Skulls of Wolf (Canis lupus) and Leopard (Panthera pardus) .. .. .. ..107 26. Relative sizes of Wild Dog {Cuonalpinus) and Sambar (Cervus unicolor) .. ..114 27. Tracks of man and bear .. ..115 28. Feet of bears .. .. .. .. 126
29. Head and teeth of Common Otter (iMtra lutra) .. 127 34. 35. 36.
Tail, hindfoot, and forefoot of Common Otter {Lutra lutra) ..146 Weasel {Mustela) characters .. .. .. 147 Wings of Bats .. .. .. .. isg
37. Shortnosed Fruit Bat {Cynopterus sphinx) carrying away banana 42.
..
..
..
..159
Teeth and jaws of Rodents and Hares
.. 192
43. Gaur {Bos gaurus) in Mudumalai Sanctuary .. 193 48. Evolutionary changes of Proboscidea .. 208 49. Elephant {Elephas maximus) in Bandipur Sanctuary, Mysore .. .. .. .. 209 50.
Forefoot bones of the three * odd-toed' ungulates
51.
Asiatic Wild Ass {Equus hemionus) in the Rann of Clutch
52.
..
..
Great Indian Onehomed Rhinoceros
.•
.. 212 ..213
(Rhinoceros
unicomis) .. .. .. •• 220 53. Smaller Onehomed Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) 221 54. Smaller Onehomed Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) 224 55. Asiatic Twohomed Rhinoceros (Didermocerus suma-
trensis)
.•
••
56. Wild Buffalo in Kaziranga Sanctuary
••
*• ^25
..
. • 240
57. Goral (Nemorhaedusgoral) .. .. ..241 64. Swamp Deer (Cervus duvauceli) stags in Kanha Sanetuary
..
••
65. Sambar (Cervus unicolor) stag
>•
••
..
•• 279
66. Muntjac, or Barking Deer (Afiwltocuj OTiin/iofc)
•• ^82
67. Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) ...
•• 283
Acknowledgements of copyright below plates
Preface to the First Edition The title of this book may appear confusing to those who quite correctly use the term *animal * to designate all living oigamsms which cannot be described as plants. But in popidar usage the word' animal' has acquired a more restrictedmeaning.It is applied
to Mammals, to that single class within the Animal I^gdom com prising anim^ which nourish theiryoung bymilk. Ourthle as such
follows usage hallowed by custom. The book of htdian AninuiJs describes the commoner or more conspicuous terrestrial mammah of India.
For many years, the Bombay Natural History Society, throu^ the medium of its journal and other attractive publications, has endeavoured to create and stimulate in India an interest in the wild
life of the coimtry. The necessity for this interest, particularly among our educated
classes, is becoming more and more evident with &e passing of time. During the past, extensive undisturbed areas of primeval forest, jungle, and desert gave safe harbourage to wild creatures, and provided guarantee of their survival. But changing conditions in the country, the gradual conquest of forests and waste lands, and, above aU, the building of new roads and great improvements in
methods and rapidity of transport have left few areas in ^e penin
sula of India wMch are free from intrusion by Man. These factors have had and are continuing to have a disastrous effect on the life of the country. The danger to it has been accentuated in recent years by the enormous increase of firearms in use, and by the in ability of many of the Provincial Governments to enforce surii laws as exist for the protection of wild animals. In the past similar conditions existed in most Western countrira. Forests were cut down, streams polluted, and their livestock exter minated to meet the needs of the moment, with no thought of the morrow. Even in tropical lands, gradually permeated with the spirit of material progress, primitive Nature has had to give way little by little to invading towns and settlements. Ruthless destruction of wild life and a prodigal wastage of natural resources have invariably preceded the establishment of a material and prosperous civiliza tion. Thus the magnificent animal life of many tropical and sub tropical lands—and our country is no exception—^is being driven to
its ultimate retreat in fast diminishing forests, and is today threatened with extermination.
Even the great marine animals of the sea, the whal^ and furbearing seals, have not escaped this menace of extinction. The solitudes and vast spaces of the ocean have not been able to riielter them from the rapacity of man. Like terrestrial animola they have
av
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDmON
*
been subjected to ceasdess persecution, made more easy by the p^fection of means and methods employed in the destruction of life, both human and animal
But in recent years a gradual ehan^ has developed in man's oudook upon thedomain of Nature. T1& change has been brought aboiR pmdy by the spread of education and enlightenment It is engenderinga growing opposition to this wanton destruction of Ufe, however much it may profit the destroyer. It is creating the more
humane concq)tion that it is the d^ of man to see that the wdld
creatures of the world ate not annihilated. Butapartfrom humanity,
which initself should impel man to grantto lessercreatures theri^t of existence, there are other considerations which must influence him.
The spirit of this age, with its urge for discovery and research, with its marked tendency towards the popularization of science
among the massesand the dissemination ofits truths and discoveries, is fostering a widespread and intelligent recognition of the immense value to man of me myriads of species, vegetable and animal, which share this planet with him. Today there is no educate man who does not realisethat the realm of Nature provides science with a vast and productive field for research. There is none who is not impressed with the belief that such research has given, and con-
tinhe to give us, results of g^t practical and educaflonhl value.
There are numerous investigations, anatomical, physiolo^cal, ecological, geographical,and evolutionary, which can ordy be made
hy ^e study of animal life. While considerable data have been accunmlated by the study of dead specimens in museums, or of the
living creatures in tiie laborato:^, the *whence, how and where *of
his existencewhkh man is seeking to discover cannot be discovered Iqr these means alone. The study of the living creature under the natural conditions of its environment is equally important.
It is also true that there are material considerations apart from the scientific. Wehave beenaccustomed to look upon beasts ofprey as features to be ext^minated. But with a clearer understanding of the role th^ play in maintaining the balance of life we know now
that even predatory flnifnalu have a distinct value. They are a con
trolling iimuence a^dnst overpopulation by species whose uncheckM increase would adversely afiect the interest of man. On the other hand, there is the utilization for man's benefit of animal pro ducts such as furs, hides, and homs, which in themselves represent a valuable economic asset. Furs collected from all parts of the world and assembled in London for sale during a single year were assess
ed at theValue of £3,0(K),000. There is necessity for conserving the
spiuces of sufiply, which are not inexhaustible. Again, science has
reveakd, and is continuing to reveal, hitherto undreamed of possi-
Ifilities in the uses of animal products and their employment in the treatment of human debility and disease. Who can say what pro duce still remain to be discovered which win one day be of price-
PREFACE TO THE FIRSnr EDITION
xv
less value to man ? Fhtally tiie wild life ofa country is a Mnioe of sport and enjoyment to its people. It gives healthy reCTcation to w dasses, and is a constant attraction to visitors. It isalso a de^te
source of income to the State because of the revenues realised from
the sale of shooting licences and on imports of sporting arms and
ammunition. But obviously it is also an asset which may vanish
without reasonable efforts for its conservation. For these ando^r
reasons, it is now admitted generally, both inEurope and ^enca, thatthe natural beauties ofa country, its varied fauna and flora, are an asset to its people, anasset tobe protected and preserved tothm own advantage and to the advantage of future ^erations. In its
fauna and flora. Nature has endowed India with a ^nMcent asset, an asset which cannot fail to be generally appreciated by its people if they are led to know something of its wormand interest
All those reasons which have made the.people ofWc^m coun«
tries strive for the protection of Nature within their bordm apply with just as much if not more force to our country. Its wild life, in its interest its beauty, anditsmarvellous variety, compares fevourably with that of any coimtry ii^the world.
There are more than 500 different species of mammals found within the Indian Region. They include the Elephant assoda^ in India from time immemorial with the splendour of her ;mncely
pageantry, the Gaur or Indian Bison, thelargest ofexis^g bovines, the Great Indian Rhinoceros, the greatest of all the riiinos now in habiting the world, the gigantic wild sheep of the Himalayas,^ prob ably the largest of their race, the Swamp Deer, the Thamin, the Spotted Deer, one of the most beautiful of all deer, and the Nilgai, the Fourhomed Antelope, and the Indian Antelope or Blackbuck, the only representatives of these genera. The beasts ofprey include the Lion and the Tiger, the most magnificent of all the great cats, and such splendid creatures as the Oouded Leopmd, the Ounce, and the Marbled Cat. Other species, like our Himalayan foxes, martens, gorgeous flying squirrels, and silky-haired langurs, are remarkable for the beauty andthevalue oftheirfur. The Musk Drer and the civets provide toe musk of local commerce. C^er species are remarkable for toe beauty of theircolouring. Our little Painty Bat {Kerivoula pictd)with its brilliant vermilion and black wings is, witoout exception, toe most vividly coloured mammal in toe world. Peculiarity in form and structure is displayed by that strange creature, the flying lemur, which is neither lemur nor bat, but which beiars toe same relationship to the shrews as toe flying squirrel does to the squirrels, or by toe scaly anteater which, with its long scaly body, looks more like a reptile than any form of mammal. Apart from the interest in theirsymmetry ofform, largeness of sire, beauty of colouring, or strangeness of structure or habits, toere is ^ways that attraction and charm which toe presence of wild life gives to our forests and plains, so dear to toe many that live for toe out door life.
xvi
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
A Aufher interest attadies to oar wild fife from its association
tte folklore and the legendary beliefs of the country. It is an interest not confined to India alone, but has spread among men of cnltare everywhere because of die (»teem and admiration in which her sacred books and writings are held. Some 30 different nmtnmala are mentioned by name in the samMtas 0.e. the four prindpal Vedas).
Among them is the Elqihant, the favourite of Indra, whose sancti^ u enhanced by the belief that eight elqihants guard the eight
celes^ points of the compass. The I^gur or Hanuman monkey is held in veneration, as is commonly known, because of its asso-
dation with other warriormonkeys who help^ Rama in his cam
paign agahist Ravana. The Lion is one of the many incarnations of
Visrau. The Tiger finds mention in ^e later Vedic texts. The
Mongoose figures in the Mahabharata as a teacher of wisdom to ICmg Yudhisnia. The Deer is always associated with Brahma the Creator, and is the constant companion of the god Mahadeva. The Wild Boar is referred to as the * Boar of Heaven'. It is told how in
the primordial fioods Vishnu, taking the form of a boar, raised the submerged earth from the waters and supported it on his tusks. One could dte many more references from the sacred books con cerning the animal Iffe of the coimtry. But apart from this, it is of mudi interest for us to know that the earliest known record of
measures taken for the protection of animal life comes from India. The oldest record which we possess today is the Fifth raiar Edict of Asolm by whichgameand fidiery laws were introduced into northern India in fhe third century B.C. In this inscription the Emperor had carved on enduring stone a list of birds, beasts, fishes, and possibly even inlets, which were to be strictly preserved. The mammals named are 'bats, monk^s, rhinoceros, porcupines, tree squirrels,
barasingha stags, brahminy bulls, and alt four-footed animals which were not utilised or eaten'. The edict further ordains ' that forests
must notbeburned, ei^r formischiefor to destroy living creatures'.
Centuries later, the Moghul ]^perom, sportsmen, men of action, and bom obsemmis tiiat th^ were, displayed a deep interest in the animal fife of the country. Their writings are full of descriptions, some in great detail, of the animals, the plants, and the flowers of the country over which they ruled. While Babar, Humayun, the
great Akbar, and Aurangzebe display in their writings their love of Nature, Jehangir was a bom naturafist. It is said of him that, had he bem the head of a great Natural History Museum instead of beingthe Emperor ofhufia, he would have been a better and happier man. His profuse and engrossing memoirs are a real Natural History of the animal fife of India.
We have endeavoured to show how great an asset to our country is its wild fife and have given many reasons why we should do every
thing for its protection. But for the p^rotection given to the Lion in Junagadh State and to the Great Indian Rhinoceros in Nepal and
PREFACE TO THE RRST EDITIOH
Assam these
xv9
interesting animals would have been extenninated
j. is .® now almost or extinct huntingin leopard, in ^ntral India, the wild once state. common The Ti>«y»r
Unehorned Rhmoceros and the Asiatic Twohomed Rhinoceros.
^ in the grass jungles of Assam the aundarbans, havecommon t^n practically exterminated in theseand areas, n many districts wild animals have been totally wiped out In wlrere they were once common, they are now hopelessly epieted. One does not wish to overdraw the picture. There are Pws of India where the position of wild life is still satisfactory nough insecure. But equally, there are extensive areas where condi tions are so appalling that, if left unchecked, they must lead to the
comply destruction of all the larger wild creatures wMch live in
inem. There is yet another pointwhich must bestressed. Any scheme lor the protecPon of wild life would be incomplete without due provisions for the protection of our birds. Quite apart from a senpmental value, birds render incalculable service to ninn while certain species may damage crops, such harm as is done by birds is werwhelmingly offset by the benefits we derive from them. Without
tfieir protection, our crops, our orchards, our food supplies would
w devoured or destroyed by hordes of ravaging insects. Birds are tne principal agency that controls the bewildering multiplication of ii^ct life which, if unchecked, would overwhelm all life on this
planet. Birds by reason of their predominating insect food are an mdispensable balancing force in Nature. The abundant bird life of this country is one of its valuable possessions. Those who apore-
r® IS concerned, cannot but forexpect its conservation. As farin as our wild 1*life onestrive cannot its preservation urban land. Nevertheless, we believe that it is time that measures were
taken for the protection of birds in urban areas. Areas actually
under the control of Municipalities or Local Boards could with
ad\^ntage be made bird sanctuaries, where the killing of birds is familiar birds which takes place in the immediate vicinity oftowns.
forbidden. There is need to put an end to the wanton destruction of
The second category, land under cultivation, provides at once
the opportunity for a clash between the interests of man and animal
There are two main reasons for this. Firstly, the areas under culti vation in India are extending and willcontinueto extend to meet the
needs of a rapidly increasing population. The need ofincreasing the available sources of food supply can be met only by the
contiiiued absorption of waste lands or forest, the natural domain
of wild life. Secondly, there is the equally imperative need of protecting these cultivated areas from wild animnk. The depre dations of wild animals present one of the most serious handicaps the ryot has to face. In addition to loss of cattle, there isthe damage
done to crops and, not uncommonly, loss of human life. Therefore, whatever the views of the protectionist, this much is clear. Human progress must continue and in the clash of interests between man and
xv2i
fB^AGS 1® MB HKST
Iteffiffl eiSinrt muai noS
BisS Mi pbbB@m te tern
&CKi ^ other couatiies. Gsumot a leasoimhSb sffofft he nwarfia to Siseitinoor own? That anintensive ^dopmeat ofthe ^rioiltiuufail Ksomc^ ofa country may accompany a sane and adoqnate polllcy
§og conservation of its wild llfh is shown by the measures tetrfini to thisend all inrogressive nations. If our wild life is to find protection at all, it must find it 8omeecies of felines, hyenas, jackals, foxes, ratels, mongooses, and several forms of rodents exist in both countries. It is believed that a very large proportion of the animals which formerly existed in the Siwaliks and the allied species now inhabiting Africa and India were derived wholly or partly from the same ancestors, which may have originally migrated southward from Europe and central Asia. The remains of extinct animals dis coveredin Europe and central Asia show that elephants, rhinoceros
es, hippoi>otami, tapirs, antelof^s, lions, and tigers once inhabited
these regions. During that time, it is believed, the northern
countries enjoyed an almosttropical climate, but owing to a change in climate and other causes all those forms of life which were unable
to adapt themselves to changing conditions perished or migrated soulhwmds.
It is known that during the latter part of the Tertiary period the climate of Europe was becoming gradually cooler, and that this
refrigeration ended in a glacial epoch or Ice Age in which the
northern countries were subjected to an Arctic climate. The Ice
Age also produced ^dal conditions in the Himalayan region, but wl^er the^ conditions extended intothe peninsula of India is not
known. It isassumed that all forms oflife inhabiting ^e countries
soaffected were compelled to adapt themselves to
changing con
ditions, to migrate, or to perish. Some were able to react to the new conditions, many were exterminated, while others migrated south wards to colonize warmer tropical countries. Thus is explained the disappearance of numerous forms of life from the northern Hemis phere and the Himalayas, and the survival oftheir descendants both in India and Africa in our time.
Many forms of life, represented in the older fauna, disappeared from thu country. Their place appears to have been taken by others,
ahidi subsequently migratedinto India from the countries lying to die east of the Bay of Bengal. Many Indo-Chinese mammals, not represrated in the older Siwalik fauna, are believed to have mig rated mto India from the hill ranges of Assam and the countries further east. The majority ofthem settled in the eastern Himalayas, Miile odiers spread through or colonized parts of the jieninsula. About 70 per cent of the mammals living in the Himalayan forests between Kashmir and Bhutan are found equally in the hill forests of Assam, Burma, and south China, while some Malayan types, like the mouse-deer and the lorises, inhabit parts of the peninsula. A stream of migration has also come from the west. Such species as the fridian Lion, the Indian Gazelle, and the Urial of the Punjab
and KLashmir,Trom their westerly range or their affinity with species inhabiting regions lying to the west, are believed to have extended into India through her western frontiers.
Thus we see l^t the wQd life of India is derived not only from
species which were indigenous to it, which are found in no other countryin the world, but ako from forms which are descendants of
the distribution of mammals
15
ancestors that migrated into India from the regions which adjoin
its borders. It is composed of an admixture of Indian, Malayan, Ethiopian, and European elements. These foreign forms naturally predominate in parts of the country most suited to their habits. The Malayan forms abound in the damp, sheltered, forest-clad
valleys of the eastern Himalayas and occur again with frequency in
the rain-swept forests of the Malabar coast. The fauna of Kashmir
and the higherHimalayas ismarked bya predominance ofEuropean
tyi^s. The main peninsula is described as the home of the true Indian fauna. The desert tracts of Sind and the Punjab shelter an animal life somewhat uniform with that of the great Falaearctic desert which extends westwards from Sind to the shores of northern Africa.
With this brief review of some of the factors which influenced the character and composition of the Indian faima we may now con sider its present general distribution.
India, with south-eastern Asia, forms part of the Oriental Region,
one of the sixgreatZoological Realms intowhich the earth hasbeen
divided to study the distribution of its animal life. Each of these realms supports its characteristic animal life. That the animals and
plants of onecountry or group ofcountries may differ from those of
another must be apparent to most people. But India, while it forms
part of the Oriental Region, presents in itself such contrasts in physic^ chmacters, such variation in climate ^d vegetation, that
its animal life naturally varies with conditions in difierent parts of the cxiuntry.
This vast sub-continent has been divided int various zones or
sub-Re^ons each of which supportsits characteristic assemblage of wild animals. There is no sharp line of demarcation between these zones. It would be diflScult to plot them out exactly on a map. The
animal life of one zone merges imperceptibly into that of another and there are widespread species which livein one or more zones.
But on the whole it may be claimed that the animal life of a parti cular zone is sufficiently distinctive to be distinguishable from that of another. (Plates facing pp. H, 16,17) The Himalayan Sub-Region
The Himalaya Mountains, between the Indus in the west and the Brahmaputra in the east, support an animal life more or lessdistinct from the rest of India. But the great range of altitude of these mounmins has naturally resulted in marked peculiarities of distribution ki its plants and animals.
Three distinct sub-zones, each with its characteristic assemblage
of animals, are now recognised. The first, the Forest Zone, covers the whole of the forested slopes of the Himalayas from the eastern frontiers of Kashmir to Bhutan. The second includes the western
16
MAMMALS IN GENERAL
Himalayas from Kashmir and eastern Ladak to Chitral, the third the arid plateaux of eastern Ladak and Tibet. The bare towering peaks above the tree-line and a strip of tq)land gr^s country which lies between the main Himalayan range and the plateau of Tibet are regarded as a transition zone. Here the animal life of the
Himalayan forests mergesinto one which is characteristic of Europe and central Asia.
TheFmest Zone.The foothills and lower valleys or ' dhuns ' of the Forest Zone are covered with dense tropical vegetation. These lower forestsare inhabited mainly by animals which are found in the forests of the peninsula. Tiger, elephants, gaur, sambar, and muntjac are common. In the swamps and forests of the Terai, the strip
oflow-lying county which adjoins the foothills, gaur are replaced
by buffalo,and chital, hog-deer, and swamp deer are found.
When an altitude between 5000 to 6000 f(Mt (1525 to 1830 m.) is reached the character of the vegetation changes. The forests become dark and gloomy. Oaks, magnolias, laurels, and birches covered with moss and ferns replace the sal, silk-cotton trees, and ^nt bamboos of the foothills. At an elevation of about 9000 to
12,000 ft. (2745 to 3660 m.) one enters forests of pine and fir trees, of yew andjuniper, withan imdergrowth of scrubby rhododendrons
anddwarf bamboo. We enter a temperate zone with a temperate
vegetotion. But there is no sharp line of demarcation between the tropical and the temperate forests. The transition from one to the other is gradual, much depending on the height of the intermediate ranges and the depth of the inner valleys. In the eastern Himalayas,
ejqposedto thefuU blast of the monsoon, tropical trees reach hi^er
levels than in the colder and drier climate of the western Himalayas.
Theanimallife of the temperate zone is distinguished by the absence
of many species which inhabit the Indian peninsula, and by the
presence of many Indo-Chinese forms, which do not occur in the peninsula but are common in the hill forests of Assam, Burma, and southern China. Pandas, hog-badgers, ferret-badgers, crestless porcupines, and those curious goat-antelopes the goral and the seroware some of the typical inhabitants of these temperate forests. They are not found elsewhere in India but range widely in similar
foreks through Aissam and the countries further east. The Indo-
Chinese elementinthefiiuna isve^ marked intheeastern Himalayas
but, as one travels westward, it gradually disappears until, in
Kashmir and the countries further west, it ceases to be the principal constituent. The probable colonimtion ofthese forests by emigrants fromthe hill rangesof Assamhas already been commented upon.
TheWestern Zone. The secondgreat zone of the mountain system extends from Kashmir and western Ladak to Chitral. The Indo-
Chinese mammals of the central and eastern Himalayas are here
replaced largdy by Indian species, and by an infusion of forms allied
THE DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS
n
to European and northern Asiatic types. Many animals living in the plains of India are or were found in this zone, among them the muntjac, the blackbuck, and the chinkara. The sambar is absent,
ifhe most distinctive deer is the Kashmir stag, a relative of the red deer of Europe. Again, typically northern aniinals such as the ibex and markhor range through these western mountains but, like the Kashmir stag, do not extend into the eastern Himalayas. The urial or shapu is also not found far beyond Kashmir but extends its ter
ritory westward through the Punjab, Baluchistan, and Afghanistan to the Persian hill ranges. Kashmir appears then to have received its fauna from the Indian peninsula and the countries lying to the north and west.
Hie Tramsition Zone. The bare peaks above the tree-line and the strip of luscious grass country lying between the mountains and arid
plateaux of Tibet are describedas a tratisition zone, a meetingground
between the animal life of the Oriental and the northern or Palaearc-
tic regions. It is obvious that the huge mass of the Himalayas must be a ^eat barrier to the free migration of animals. This obstacle combined with the great difference in climate north and south ofthe range has resulted in a fairly sharp line of demarcation at about 28° lat. between two distinct faunas, the Oriental in the south and
the Palaearctic in the north. Evidence of this is particularlymarked in the eastern Himalayas. Here north of this line livesuch typically northern animals as moles, water shrews, mouse-hares, marmots, musk deer, and the bharal, while south of it the forests are inhabited
by typically Oriental animalslike flying foxes, fruit bats, tree shrews,
civets, mongooses, and Oriental squirrels.
Hie Tibetam Zone. The Tibetan plateau togetherwith easternLadak is regarded as a distinct faunal area. The zone docs not include the low-lying wooded portions of eastern Tibet, But covers the barren plateaux and uplands which lie beyond the Himalayas but within the northern frontiers of India from Kashmir to Bhutan. It is a
win^wept region of scantyrainfall, intense cold, and highelevation^
and is described as the only region of the globe where both desert and arctic conditions prevail. Hie wild ass, which is foimd in various
desert parts of Asia, lives in this zone,which alsoshelters theWoolly Hare. The great Tibetan sheep, the bharal, and the yak, are also
typical inhabitants of these col^ desolate, and barren mountains.
So much for the wild life of the Himalayan region. Its great range of altitude and variety of climate and temperature, its vegetation ranging from tropical to alpine, and its geological Wstory make it one of the most interesting zoological regions in the world. Assam and Burma. Assam and Burma are included in the same
zoological province as the forest region of the Hunalayas. Here is the same gradation from tropical to temperate vegetation though
18
MAMMALS IN GENERAL
the pu^ly alpine flora of the higher Himalayas is largely absent. The distribution and character of the animal life is similar, except in Tenasseiim where the fauna is distinctly Malayan in type. These Malayan types are traceable all through the province into the hill
ranges of Assam, with an intermingling of pec^ar forms. Of the
wild animals of Burma some, like .the gaur, are identical with those
of India; others, like the saihbar .or the thamin, are regarded as Burmese representatives ofIndian forms. The Indian Peninsular Sub-Region
India proper from the base of the Himalayas to Cape Comorin, with the exception ofthe Malabar coast, is regarded as a single sub-
region, the ds-Gangetic or Indian Peninsular sub-re^on. The northern part of this sub-region comprises the alluvial plains of the Ganges, tihe Indus, and the Brahmaputra rivers, and their tribu taries. It TOvers the greater part of the States of Assam, E. and W. Bengal, Bihar, U.P., E. and W. Punjab, and Sind. This immense
tract of levelland, from 90 to 300 miles (145 to 485 km.) wide and
str^hing for 1400 imiles (2255 km.) from sea to sea, separates the mam Indian i^ninsula from the Himalaya. South of the Gangetic
Plain, the peninsula takes the form of a triangular tableland, vary ing in altitude from 1000 to 3000 ft. (305 to' 915 m.), broken up at intervals by the valleys of its intersecting rivers. The northern side of the tableland rests on confused hill ranges known collectively as the Vindhya Mountains. Its two other sides are formed by the Eastern Ghats,- stretching in fragmentary spurs down the Madras coast, and the Western Ghats, which form the almost continuous
sea-wall of Mysore and Maharashtra. The face of the triangular plateau is scarred with scattered peaks and hill ranges, outliers of the Ghats. The most notable are the Nilgiris, the Anaimalais, and the Palni Hills of southern India.
The anim^ life of the Indian Peninsular region is characterised bythe absence of manyof those Indo-Chinese species which are so abundant in the hill forests of the Hiihalayas. It is the home of the true Indian fauna of which the spotted deer, the nilgai, the blackbuck, the fourhomed antelope, and the sloth bear are typical rep resentatives. They are found nowhere else. Other species like the gaur, the sambar, and the muntjac occur both in India and the Malay countries.
Hte Indian Des«rt Re^on. The trans-Indus districts of the Punjab, western Sind, and Baluchistan really form the eastern limits of a great desert region which extends through Persia, Mesopotamia and Arabia to the shores of north Africa. Naturally the character of the wild life of the Indian Desert region differs markedly from the rest of India. It consists mainly of species which have migrated into it from the desert lands lying beyond its borders, and of species
THE DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS
19
from the peninsula which are able to live under the conditions pre vailing in these arid and sandy wastes. The Gangetic Plain. The general distribution of animals in this
sub-region corresponds to a large extent to the character of the vegetation, which is again dependent on variations in climate and soil. In the great plain of the Ganges the rainfall is moderate and the winter temperature is correspondingly low. In the north-western
portions of the plain, in E. and W. Punjab and western Rajputana,
the vegetation gradually merges into that of the adjoining desert zone. In this area live many desert forms of animals such as the
desert cat, the desert fox, the desert hare, and various species of desert gerbilles, colonists from the Desert zone. The desert forms
disappear as one travels eastwards into the more humid part of the
Gangetic Plain. A feature of the dry zone of the Gangetic Plain formerly used to be large herds of antelope and gazelle. In the humid plain of E. and W. Bengal, the semi-desert vegetation of the
northern plain gives place to liKuriant groves of mangoes, figs, and palms, such as one finds in the moist coastal tracts of the peninsula. The wild life of this humid area differs little from
that of the moister and more cultivated parts of the peninsula. Further east, at the mouths of the Ganges, the great plain is trans formed into a wilderness of swamp and forest, the Sunderbans. It is a region of grassy savannahs and muddy islets covered with man
groves and dense evergreen forests. These forests shelter most of the larger animals found in the forests of the peninsula, with the
addition of swamp deer and such other animus as have a pre ference for this ainphibious terrain.
The Main Pemnsula. While the drainage areas of its intersecting rivers are covered with greenwoods and cultivation,the greater part of the tableland which forms the main peninsula of India presents a scene of wide undulating plains separated by ranges of flat-topped hills. A portion of the plateau, comprising the eastern parts of central India, Gujarat, and the Deccan, is sheltered from the monsoon
by the great wall of the WesternGhats. It is a dry regionof moderate rainfall. This dry zone extends to the lowlands of the Camatic and
stretches south to the plains of southern India. These are again cut off from the monsoon by the southern hill ranges. The dry zone of the tableland has its characteristic vegetation due to climate and to soil. From the Bombay coast to the nei^bourhood of
Nagpur, from below Belgaum to Goona in central India, over some 200,000 sq. miles (518,000 sq. km.) of coimtry, black cotton soil predominates. It is derived here from the underlying volcanic
rocks known as Deccan Trap which form the unbroken substratum throughout this area. Black soil produces its characteristic wild and cultivated vegetation. The wide grass-covered plains and the bases of the flat-topped hills in the Trap country are scattered with clumps
20
MAMMALS IN GENERAL
ofthoray aoaoas, species otZizyphus, small trees, and shrubs, which
we either leafless or bumt-up in the hot weather. Forests, where they exist, are mainly deciduous and composed of stunted teak, bamboos, andsundry small trees. In the open grasslands and scrub jungle, herds of gazelle and antelope were once common. Other
animals ofthe open country in the peninsula are the junke cat, theccmomon fox, thecommon mongoose, the Indianwolf, palm
squOTcIs, hares, and a variety offield rats and mice. Gaur, sambar, bear, and wild dogs are found in its open d^duom hillforest. As oneleaves the Trap country and penetrates humd region l^g north andeast ofNagpur, oneenters a zone Where the climate is somewhat similar to the plains of E. and W. J^ngal, and the character ofthesoil andofth& vegetation changes.
Te^ c^ses to be the dominant tree of the forests. It gives place gradually to Sal, while the familar crops of the Trap country millet, yield to watery rice and sugarcane fields. The vma meofmeforests ofthishmnid zone is enriched by the presence oi wild elephants, buffalo, and swamp deer,\v(hich occur in this area. Western Ghats, in sharp contrast to the
an'li heavy rainfall. The forests Deccan,covering present athe region ofgreat humidity and western slopes are at
times very dense^ and composed of lofty trees, festooned with numerom perennial creepers. Bamboos form a luxuriant under
growth. In parts of the range the forests are more open and the ^streams running.through them are covered with spice
and betel groves.
'Hie Nilgins, an offshoot ofthe Western Ghats, rise precipitously tablelands seamed with densely
^ They are compost oftallevergreen trees ncciir Sholas, to those the Nilgiris, rp. the Anaimalai, Palni Hills, similar and other south of Indian ranges. ^ niain shelter to wild elephants, gaur, and other iwf1 most interestingfeature ofthehigher Tit mu u'u ranges.^^0ns affinity to thehigher of the AS^ Many istheir of the trees found in theseforests high sholas, ^ some of the forms of animal life are common to both areas, ine lorests oftoe Western Ghats and toe south Indian hill ranges Mve a nchbr fauna than the remaining areas of the Peninsular egion. Among the species limited to these forests are the Nilgiri
thehontailed macaque, the Nilgiri brown mongoose andthe
mongMse, the Malabar civet, and the .spiny mouse,
levels oftheNilgiris and theAnaimalai are found such anirads aa the tahr, the pine-inarte...
CONCLUSIONS
21
CONCLUSIONS
From this general description of the composition and distribution of the manunals of India, and of the varied conditions under which
they live, it will be seen that they share with all other living tilings the strong natural tendency to increase their sphere of action, to extend their territory. We find animals which have originated in countries beyond our frontiers or in our northern moimtain ranges extending their range and colonizing the peninsida. When a species thus spreads into a new territory wherethe climate, the vegetation, and the enemies it has to face are different,from its original home, it must adapt itself to these changed conditions or it wiU fail to establish itself. These different conditions may produce differences in its appearance and-habits, in other words they may produce a variation from the typical parent form. If these colonists are sub sequently isolated from the pairent stock by impassable barriers,
produced as a result of geological and other changes, they will
tend in the course of centuries to differ more and more from the
parent stock. Glacial conditions which obtained in the Himalayas
during the Ice Age are believed to have driven the tahr with other animals to colonize the Indian peninsula, which is assumed to have enjoyed a more temperate climate during this epoch. The return of tropical conditions in India is believed to havef resulted in
the extermination of the tahr in the peninsular region. But those which were able to obtain a refuge in the temperate climate of the higher altitudes of the Nilgms and Anaimalai hill ranges survived. Isolation from the parent Himalayan stock and different conditions of life produced in the course of centuries those differences in coloming and texture of coat, shape of horns, and other characters
which now distinguish the Nilgiri from the Himalayan tahr. In other words, a new and distinct species was evolved. But if no im passable barriers are created, the new varieties evolved in different connected areas remain more or less alike. There is interbreeding and consequently an intergradation of characters between these varied geographical races linking them with the parent form. Thus, among many widespread species of animals we find more or less distinguishable geographical races, evolved as a result of the different conditions under which they live in different areas of their
range. In the case of our Giant Squirrel, which extends through the forested tracts of the peninsula, there are well-marked differences
iri colouring which enable us to distinguish various racesinhabiting different areas. (Map between pp. 24and 25) In the past naturalists were content to classify animals in accordance with the salient characters or marked differences between
species. In recent years it has been recognised that it is not only necessary to classify species, but it is equally important to systematically record such geographical variations where they exist in a species. These data, when sufficiently multiplied, will in future
22
MAMMALS IN GENERAL
furnishinformation for the investigation ofproblems connected with the variation and distribution of sproies. Therefore, in more recent publications dealing with Indian animal life, we find due attention paid to the description of geographical races wherever these occur. It will also be seen that a knowledge of animal life gives us a better knowledge of ancient geo^phy. It reveals changes which have taken place in the distribution of land and water, and shows how the present distribution ofland animals has been brought about.
We ^ve seen also some of the factors which have influenced this distribution or produced changes in or the extermination of numerous fomis. In our day, the agency which accelerates these changes is man. In India, irrigation by human agency in the desert tracts ofE. and W. Punjab and Sind has resulted in the conversion of
vasttracts of desertland into fertile county. This is bringing about
a change in the character of the animal life of these areas. Desert species are retreating from them. They are being replaced'by forms more adapted to the changed conditions. Again, man sweeps away forests, dams, rivers, and wipes out of existence races of animals which are the culmination of centuries of evolution. While man is
a destructive agent,he can also becomea preserver and protect wild creatures from the destructive effects of his own handiwork. The
need for savingthe wild creatures from annihilation is recognised in most countries of the world. Various factors, as a result of human
a^vity, are threatening the wild creatures ol India with extermina
tion. There is, as we have shown, great need in this country for adequate measures to preserve wild life from the destruction which threatens it.
2. Apes, Monkeys, Lemurs In his CLASsmcATiON of animals man gives pride ot place to him self and to the apes, monkeys, and lemurs. These animals have many of the same structural characters as man. Some of them
resemble him more in one feature, some in another.^ They are
grouped with man in a common Natural Order the Primate, the
first, the highest of animals. Now there is nothing in the ^dily
structure of a primate which makes it superior to other animals. Creatures much lower in the scale of life are as well, some perhaps
even better, fitted for their special ways of life. The asrendancy of the primate is purely mental. It is derived from a superior develop ment of the brain' and the higher intelligence which goes with it.
But such predominance is not equally shared by all the members of
the Order. In mental development some monkeys and lemurs are
not much better than the lower mammals. At the other end of the
scale is man, who in mental endowment stands alone and un approachable among all creatures. The immeasurable superiority of the human intellect marks the line of cleavage between man and animal.
If we look for obviously distinctive characters in the animals which we class as primates, we find them in the structure of their hands and feet which are designed to serve the express purpose"of grasping organs. As such they are admirably adapted to the parti
cular habits and mode of life of the animals.
STRUCTURE IN RELATION TO HABITS
Hands and feet. The hands of apes, monkeys, and lemurs are con
structed on the same plan as our own. The thumb is opi^sable to
the other fingers. Such a hand can pick up and hold objects. But primarily their hands remain organs of locomotion. Many apes and monkeys have poorly developed thumbs ; some monkeys have no thumbs at all, or thumbs so small that they are almost useless. A gibbon's thumb is set far down the side of its slender hand, and parallel with the other fingers. It appears weak and ineffective. The thumb of a langur is rudimentary. Yet the long narrow palm
of the gibbon and its long flexible fin^rs, when hooked over a branch, provide light and ideal suspension for its body. In rapid movement the hook can be fixed and released instantly, whereas a
protruding thumb might catch against a branch or be otherwise injured in swift progress. The thumbless hand of some monkeys
expresses a still moreperfect adaptation to rapid movement ^ough
the trees ; an embarrassment in such movement, the thumb is either
L
24
APES, MONKEYS, LEMURS
redu^ msize or lost. Unlike apes and monkeys, all lemurs have welhdevelop^ thumbs, but curiously enough in some of them it is
theindex or first finger which is poorly developed. To gve the hand perfect freedom of movement the double bones
ofthe forearm are quite free. Both bones are equally well developed and so articulated to the wrist thatthepalms can be turned upwards or downwards with ease, A similar provision gives the same facility of movement to the foot.
The feet ofprimates me built onmuch thesame plan as the hands. Tte toes are long flexible fingers. The big toe is converted into a
^rfect thumb and like the thumb is easily opposable to the other
di^ts. With such a foot objects can be seized and held. To fit these
Mimals for climbing, the feet have become powerful grasping organs.
The hmnan foot has lost this prehensile power, though some of the
primitive human types still retain it. But to live man has no need to climb, while apes, monkeys, and their lesser kin must. Their hands
and feet and bt^es me built for this special purpose. Such differ
ences as we see in their hands and feet and in their limbs and bodies
me but the result of d^erences in methods of climbing. Contrast the biuld of a langur with the bujld of a gibbon. A gibbon's exces sively long arms, its powerful chest and shoulders, its weak hindquartem me all designed to aid its special method of progress through the trees. When moving rapidly a gibbon swings on his arms from branch to branch. It is a way of getting about quickly used by all the apes. The langur on the other hand displays no
excessive lengthemng of the arms. His legs me in fact longer than
his mms, and his loins and thi^s are powerfully developed. His particulm build is associated with his particular method of swift progress. Like all monkeys, when moving fast a langur moves with leaps and bounds, springing from branch to branch, from tree to
tree. In these flying leaps his tail helps to balance his body. (Plate
iaciiigp.32)
Tails. The tail in primates is a vmiable feature. Apes have none. The tailless gibbon uses its outstretched arms to maintain its balance
when walking erect on branches or on the ground. As for monkeys, there me monkeys with long tails, others with mere stumps, and
yet others without a tail. When long, the tail helps to balance the body. Many American monkeys have prehensile tails and use them as a fifth hand. The end of the tail, hitched over a branch, gives additional support to the body in movement or in rest. None of the Old World apes or monkeys can use their tails in this way. For
comfort when sitting the lan^r is provided with patches or callo
sitiesof hmd tough skin on his buttocks. The provision is common
to our ^bbons and monkeys. It is absent in American species. As vwth climbing, so with walking or running on the ground, the langur and the gibbon eachhas its characteristic way of movement. When it comes to emth, or walks along a branch, the gibbon walks