The Asian trade revolution of the seventeenth century: the East India companies and the decline of the caravan trade 9780226771397, 9780226771458, 9780226771380

Table of contents :
Frontmatter
Preface (page 7)
Introduction (page 9)
Part I The Fall of Hormuz, a Comparative Study (page 12)
Chapter I The Peddling Trade (page 22)
Chapter II The Redistributive Enterprizes (page 60)
Chapter III The Companies (page 114)
Chapter IV The Fall of Hormuz (page 154)
Part II The Loss of Hormuz. People and Events (page 209)
Chapter V The Dream of a Great Alliance (page 211)
Chapter VI Hormuz is the Question (page 253)
Chapter VII The Loss of Hormuz (page 305)
Part III After Hormuz (page 344)
Chapter VIII The Losers (page 345)
Chapter IX The Attempt at Redirection of the Silk Trade (page 367)
Chapter X Instead of Hormuz (page 398)
Conclusion (page 412)
Appendix, Currency, and Weights (page 415)
Manuscript Sources (page 424)
Printed Sources and Modern Works (page 426)
Index (page 435)

Citation preview

Niels Steensgaard

The Asian Trade Revolution of the

Seventeenth Century The East India Companies and the Decline of the Caravan Trade

The University of Chicago Press Chicago and London

H F The Asian Trade Revolution of the Seventeenth Century was originally published as “yf 9 a Carracks, Caravans, and Companies, volume 17 in the Scandinavian Institute of Asian

SOR?

Studies Monograph Series, Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1973.

oOo, NIELS STEENSGAARD is a professor of history at the University of Copenhagen in of y / Denmark. He is the author of several articles in the fields of European and Asian

| * history. [1974]

The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637 The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London

© 1973 Studentlitteratur, Niels Steensgaard. All rights reserved Published 1973. The University of Chicago Press edition 1974 Printed in the United States of America 78 77 76 75 74 987654321

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Steensgaard, Niels, 1932-

The Asian Trade Revolution of the Seventeenth Century Originally presented as the author’s thesis, Copenhagen. Bibliography: p.

J. Commerce—History. 2. Europe—Commerce— | Asia—History. 3. Asia—Commerce—Europe——History.

I. Title. HF495.S83 1975 382’.094’05 74-16397 ISBN 0-226-77138-5 ISBN 0-226-77139-3 (pbk.) |

HQly HLS = 298

Contents Preface .. 0 1. 65 ee tee eee eee in 7 * Introduction 2.0 1.0 660 we ee ene ne wee eee en 9 Part I The Fall of Hormuz, a Comparative Study .. .. .. .. «.. «. 12

Chapter I The Peddling Trade .. .. .. «1 «1 we ee we ee we 2

The Pedlars .. 6. 0 1. 65 cee ee ee ne te we ee ee 2D

The Economy of the Peddling Trade .. .. .. .. .. «2 «. «81 The Peddling Market . .. .. 2. 6. we ee nee ee ee ee 4D Chapter II The Redistributive Enterprizes .. .. .. .. «.. «- «. 60 “Publicans and Thieves”... .. 1. we we we ee ee ee we ee «60

Persia 6. 6. oe eee ne ne ewe ee ee ne ee ee 68 The Ottoman Empire .. .. 0 6. we we we ne ee we ee ee eT

Estado da India .. .. 6. we cee ee ee we ee ee ee ee 8 The Redistributive Institutions and the Market .. .. .. .. .. .. 95 The Redistributive Enterprizes .. .. -. 0 6. ee ee ee ee ee ee TTD

Chapter III The Companies .. .. 2.0 2. 1. we ee we we ee ee

The East India Company and the English Crown. .. .. .. .. .. 114 The East India Company in the International System .. .. .. .. 120 The United East India Company and the Dutch Republic... .. .. .. 126 Power and Profit in the Policy of the United East India Company . .. 131

The Companies and the Market .. .. .. .. oe ee ee ee ee CTA

The Companies as Institutional Innovation .. .. .. .. «.. «. « IS] |

Chapter IV The Fall of Hormuz.. .. .. .. «2. 2. «1 ee ee we) 154 The Cape Route and the Caravan Routes around 1600 .. .. .. .. 155

The Triumph of the Companies .. .. .. «2. «5 ee ee ee we) «169 The Reversal on the Levant Markets .. .. .. «2 «2 «2 ee ee 175 The Fall of Hormuz .. .. 6. wk we we ee we we ee ee we | 198 Part II The Loss of Hormuz. People and Events... .. .. .. «. «2 «. 209 Chapter V The Dream of a Great Alliance .. .. .. «.. «. we we 211 The Persian Initiative and Anthony Sherley . .. .. .. «2 «ee ) 212 The Christian Princes’ Reply .. .. «2.0 2. ee ee ee ee ee we 225 The Replies come in, War begins .. .. 6. 6. ee ee ee ee ee | 280

Seven Persian Ambassadors .. .. .. 62) ee ee ee ee ee ee 287 The Course of the War and the Crisis of Confidence 1607-08 .. .. .. 244

Chapter VI Hormuz is the Question .. .. 2. 0 6. we ee ee ee ee | 258 The Carmelite Mission 1608 .. .. 2. 2. 21 ee ee oe ee ee) «6254

Robert Sherley .. 0 6. 6. eee ee ne ee ee we | 258 Anthony Sherley’s Projects .. 0 .. 6. we ee ee ee ee ee we = 262 The Augustinian Mission 1608 .. .. «1 0.1 we ee ee ee we ee = 266 Robert Sherley in Rome and Spain... .. .. .. 0 «2 ee ee we ee) 270 Janghiz Beg and Gouvea in Spain .. .. 6. we we ee we ee we = 288

In Persia 1608-13 . .. wk we ne ne ee ne ne ee ne ee ee 286 The Crisis of Confidence 1613-15, Gombroon’s Fall .. .. .. .. .. 291

Robert Sherley 1611-15 0 6. wk wk eee ee ee ee ee ee 297 Chapter VII The Loss of Hormuz .. .. «2. «eee ee ee ee ee 805 Sherley’s Second Spanish Embassy 1617-22... .. .. «2 we we we) 8305

Figueroa in Persia... .. 6. ee we ee ee ee we ee we 81D

British Beginnings .. .. 6. 66) ee ee wee we ee ee we | 828 The Loss of Hormuz .. .. 6. 15 ee we ee we ee ee ee BSI

3

Part II] After Hormuz .. .. 2.1. 62 ee ee oe ee we ee ee ee) (844 Chapter VIII The Losers .. .. «1 we ee ee ee ee ee ee we 84S The Demolishment of a Town .. ..0 «62 ee ee ee we ee ee B45 The Portuguese Attempt at Revenge .. .. .. «2 «2 «2 2s «- S47 The Portuguese without Hormuz .. .. .. «2. «2 oe oe ee ee (858 Sherley’s Last Journey .. «1 «ewe ee we we we we we ee 858 Chapter [IX The Attempt at Redirection of the Silk Trade .. .. .. .. 367

The Companies and the Persian Silk Trade .. .. .. .. «2 «2 «. 867

Silk Purchases in Persia .. 0 2. 0 5. eee we ee ee we ee 877

How Much? .. .. .. oe ee ee ee wee ne ee ee we = 894 Chapter X Instead of Hormuz .. .. .. «2. «6 1e ee oe we ee = 898 The Rise of Bandar Abbas .. .. .. 6. ee we we ee we we we | 898 The Companies and the “Early Asian Trade” .. .. .. «2. «. =. ~=—4085

Conclusion ..0 «1 60 ee ee ee ee ne ne ee ne ne ne ne ee ALD Appendix, Currency and Weights ... .. .. «6 0. ee ee ee te we ANS

Manuscript Sources. .. 0 .. 0 2. ee ee ee ee eee ene ee ne 424 Printed Sources and Modern Works... .. .. «. we ee we we we ee 426

Index 6. wee ewe ee ee ee nee ee ee we we ee 485 Tables

1. Monox’s estimate of the costs on the route Kazvin-Aleppo 1618... .. .. 33 2. Dutch invoices for silk exported from Persia 1634/35-1636/37 .. .. .. 35

3. Silk prices in Aleppo 1635-36 .. .. 1. we we ee ee ee ee ee BD 4. Pepper prices in Venice 1586-1590 .. 6... we we we we ee eS 5. Main items on the revenue budget of Estado da India 1584 and 1608-1607 88 6. Ports of origin of ships passing Bab-el Mandeb 1611, 1612 and 1616.. .. 90 7. Estimated and sales value of captaincies in Estado da India 1607 and 1615 94

8. Prices of pepper, indigo and cloves in Amsterdam 1624-26... .. .. .. 150 9. Estimates of European consumption of Asian goods circa 1620... .. .. 155

10. Known Portuguese return cargoes 1587-1609 .. .. .. «. «. we ee) 166 11. Estimate of tonnage returned to Portugal from Asia 1571-1610 .. .. .. 168 12. Estimate of European consumption of Asian goods around 1600 .. .. 168 13. Ships returned to European harbour from Asia 1581-1630 .. .. .. .. 170

14. English re-export of Asian goods 1626-1627 .. .. .. .. «. «se ee 174 15. Attendance at the meetings of the English nation in Aleppo 1616-1629 .. 188

16. Ships leaving Marseilles for Levantine ports 1614-18 .. .. .. .. «. 189

17. Visnich’s estimate of the annual arrivals to Hormuz before 1622 .. .. 197

18. Proceeds from sale of offices in Hormuz 1615 .. .. .. .. «.. .. 200 19. Company exports of silk from Persia 1618/19-1645/46, bales af approx.

100 kg wk ween ne ne ne ee we ne ne ee ee | 89S

20. Metric equivalents of the most current units of weight... .. .. .. .. 416 Maps

The Near East. .. 0 2.0 65 ee ee ee ee eee ee ne ee new 5

India and the Indian Ocean .. .. «1. 2. 61 ee eee ee 6

Diagram .

Pepper prices and ships returned from Asia 1581-1630 .. .. .. .. «.. 428

4

.

3 gg “4 &. RS is 28 3 8 3 sgez7=

YU ‘ 2% Xo Oo ~~ a © xco: a ) The

19. BrERENGO p. 78.

20. Ibid. p. 126. 21. Ibid. p. 77 cf. p. 355. 22. Rabino di Borgomale, Coins, Medals and Seals of the Shahs of Iran 1500-1941, pp. 30-34. 23. D. Morgan & C. H. Coote (ed.s) Early Voyages and Travels to Russia and Persta. Hakluyt Society, First Ser., vol. xx pp. 369, 401.

27" 419 24. Braupeu II p. 477. 25. Raxsino di BorGOMALE, op.cit. pp. 30-34 jf. p. 7.

existence of the two parallel series raises two problems: which of the two is referred to in the records of the Companies, and how could the two series of coins co-exist? From the beginning of Company trading to Persia we have ample information concerning the rates of exchange between piastres and shahi. Thus in 1620 the English contracted with the mint-master in Shiraz to deliver Per- _ sian coin at the rate of 13.3 shahi a piastre. When the Royal factor Lalabeg heard about this contract, he declared that it would cost the man his head, for Abbas had ordered that nobody should pay more than 13.1 shahi for a

piastre.2 We are not informed if the contract had fatal consequences for the mint-master, but probably the transaction caused him some trouble, for still in 1622 he had not settled his account with the Company.27 Anyhow, the rate of exchange he had contracted for was not only above the official rate of exchange, but also above the rate of exchange of the free market, which with minor fluctuations became 13.1 shahi a piastre.28 If the content of silver

was the same in the Persian shahi as in the piastre this rate of exchange would correspond to a gross weight of 2.09 grammes per shahi. As no doubt a seignorage was claimed, the coins encountered by the Companies were in

all probability the lighter of the two series, the one based upon a unit of weight of 5/s mizgal. There is no reference to the heavier coin in the Company records, but a stray reference seems to indicate that this series circulated in Khurasan.?9

The Persian coin was stable throughout most of the 17th century. Tavernier still calculates with 13 shahi per piastre, but in the last decades of the century a certain depreciation seems to have taken place.8° On the basis of

the calculations in the accounts of the Armenian merchant Hovhannes Kachikian has estimated the toman circa 1686 at 306.4 grammes of silver, corresponding to 1.53 grammes of silver per shahi.5!

The larin, the famous trade coin of peculiar shape and very pure alloy, originated in Lar and deviated from the Persian system of units of account. It weighed a little more than 5 grammes,? in 1619 it is stated that the usual

26. B.M., London, Egerton 2123 f. 36. 27. C. R. O., London, Factory Records, Persia I p. 17, pp. 160-161. 28. Consultations Lar 16/1 1619, C. R. O., London, O. C. 717; Barker et al., Isfahan, to E. I. Co. 19/5 1626, O. C. 1228; Gibson et al., Gombroon, to E. I. Co. 92/3 1632, O. C. 1425. 29. Heinrich von Poser, Lebens- und Todesgeschichte, Jena 1675. von Poser travelled in 1621 from Isfahan over Kandahar to Lahore. Under L5th of August 1621 he states, that the coin in Khurasan was different from what he had encountered in Isfahan “here the pay twelve kasbek for a shahi”. 80. Rabino di Borgomale, op. cit. pp. 38-39. 31. KHACHIKIAN p. 267.

82. MacGatHags-Gopinuo pp. 301-302.

420

rate of exchange in Persia is 41/2 larin per piastre, but that this is a disadvantageous rate involving a loss of 1.85 shahi per piastre.38

Conversions of Persian units into piatres. Between the possible devaluation of the shahi in 1555 and the depreciation in the last decades of the 17th century two periods may be distinguished: in the first period the shahi was one mizqal, in the second period 5/s of a mizqal. Assuming the fineness to be unchanged, this corresponded to a little less than 11 and a little more than 13 shahi per piastre respedtively. When the debasement took place cannot be established, but according to the numismatic evidence it cannot have been later than 1593/94. The rate of exchange of the larin may be put at 41/25 Jarin per piastre. The Turkish coinage presents the greatest problems. The economic difficulties of the Ottoman Empire were reflected in violent fluctuations in the rates of the ordinary coins. Apparently no coins of large denominations were

coined in the Ottoman Empire in this period, the demand for large coins being satisfied through the import of European gold and silver coins. The Turkish coins were of small denomination: aspres in Constantinople and maidins (3 aspres = 2 maidins) and shahis (1 shahi = 5 maidins) in Syria and Egypt. These units at the same time served as units of account, 60 aspres or 40 maidins until 1584 being equivalent to 1 ducat or veneziano. When in the last decades of the 16th century the silver content of the small coins was reduced, it gave rise to great confusion, the “black market” price of foreign coins in terms of aspres or maidins being above the official rate of exchange. At the same time the use of the terms “ducat’’ and “veneziano’’, both in the sense of money of account, linked to the debased aspre, and in the sense of real money makes it even more difficult to fix the correct rate of conversion.

The problem, however, in many cases solves itself through the fact that European coin was used af means of payment. Where Turkish coin or units of account linked to Turkish coin is used, however, it will always be necessary to establish the actual rate of exchange, preferably on the basis of the source __ of information concerned. In the merchants’ letter books from Aleppo, for example, we find that European silver coins were bought by weight by the

mint at varying prices in terms of maidins — the rate of exchange was so to speak kept floating -— and thus the actual rate of exchange may be determined by means of the mint price.34

From the last years of the sixteenth century the ducat as unit of account was fixed at 120 aspres or 80 maidins; at the same time merchants begin to use the piastre as unit of account, being fixed at 54 maidins or 80 33. Consultations, Isfahan, 14/6 1619, C. R. O., London, O. C. 717. 34. BeRENGO pp. 77, 95; HERMITE pp. 51, 60, 63, 72; B. M., London, Sloane 867 f. 30, 64.

421

aspres. While the relation between the real ducat and the ducat as money of account was unrealistic even at this rate, the correspondence between the real piastre and the piastre as unit of account appears to have been closer.® The rupee, the standard silver coin of the Mogul Empire, weighed approximately 111/s grammes. The conventional rate of conversion in the English Company records was 21/4, later 21/2 sh., while the Dutch Company fixed the | rupee at 24 st. i.e. a littele less than 11/4 fl. The Gujarat mahmudi (not to be

confused with the Persian coin of the same name) was still coined half a century after the Mogul conquest. The weight of the mahmudi was approxi-

mately 4.7 grammes, the usual rate of exchange being 5 mahmudis for 2 rupees.56 Slightly exaggerating its value, the piastre may thus be equalled to 2 rupees or 5 mahmudis.

35. Vuk Vinaver, ,Der Venezianische Goldzechin in der Republik Ragusa‘, Bolletino dell’Istituto de Storia della societa e dello stato Veneziano IV, 1962 pp. 140-144.

36. More.anp, Aurangzeb pp. 329-331.

422

: 50/3 40/3 Ships

returned 7000

6000ofrfr30/3

ii 4000 1 20/8 A) . ; \ Antw ny . : \ 3000 F Vienna : ” . ‘. ., _ " ‘ e ’ Jo of

i; ° @

5000 -_ AugsbiyA °: /foe oa °;

/ YAntw ° kn Arad . i Lpz “Lpz :

| wot Augsb 2000 Vienna 10/3 1000

1581 9} 1601 1) | 21 31 Ships returned from Asia 1581-1630. 3 Year moving averages. Pepper prices 1581-1630, grm.s of fine silver per 1,000 kg.s. Augsburg, Leipzig, Vienna and Antwerp. Sources: Evsass, PrisraM, van der WEE.

423

Manuscript Sources : London | C.R. O.; Commonwealth Relations Office

Original Correspondence | Factory Records, Persia Factory Records, Surat Court Books

Hague Transcripts B.M.: British Museum Sloane 867 Lansdowne 241 Egerton 2123

P.R.O.; Public Record Office S. P. 89/3, 105/110, 105/148, 110/10, 110/54 C. O. 77/1, 77/2, 77/3 E 190/29/4. 190/31/1

Venezia A. d.S.: Archivio di Stato Senato, Dispacci consoli Senato, Dispacci ambasciatori Senato, Rubricari Konstantinopoli Cinque Savi, Relazioni Cinque Savi, Nuova seria

Museo Civico-Correr Cicogna 2698, 3036/6-10 P. D. 988, 1480, 2339 xi

Paris B.N.: Bibliotheque Nationale Fonds Portugais 1, 36 Fonds Frangais 16161, 16167

Archive du Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres Correspondance Politique, Turquie 424

Marseilles Archive de la Chambre de Commerce J. 889, 890, 891, 921, 922, 969, 1565, 1729

Roma Archivio, Congregazione de Propaganda Fide Scritture Originale, Congregazioni Generali, vol 209

The Vatican Arch. Vaticano: Archivio Segreto Vaticano Principe 54 Fondo Borghese I: 965; II: 20, 24, 68, 152; III: 106 e; IV: 52. Fondo Gonfalonieri 22, 65 Nunziature Spagna 60 a, 333 Armarium 45 Bibl. Vaticano: Biblioteca A postolica V aticana Fondo Barberini 8273

Madrid B. N. Biblioteca Nacional Ms. 2352, 8180

Simancas Arch. Simancas: Archivo general de Simancas Estado, legajos 435, 436, 481, 494, 495, 493, 618, 707, 972, 1171, 1352, 1856, 2864.

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B. N. Biblioteca Nacional Fundo Geral 580

425

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434

Index of names and places

Abbas 68-74, 104-10, 158, 202, 213-19, 153, 157, 191, 396 299-24, 230-32, 234-39, 241-45, 247— Ancona 227 49, 251, 255-61, 265-68, 270-73, 278 f., Andrade, Ruy Freire de 83, 203, 309-12, 286-95, 297, 301-03, 310, 316-19, 321- 322, 336-41, 343, 349 f., 353, 355-57, 24, 326, 329-40, 345f., 356 f., 359-61, 399, 413

364f., 368-71, 374f., 377-81, 383, Antwerp 97

385-88, 391, 420 Aracan 16

Abbott, Morris 28, 173 Archangel 214, 226

Acapulco 158 Ardebil 318

Accra 161 Arup, Erik 47 n.

Achin 9, 90f., 163, 172, 407, 409 Ashraf 364

Ackerlee, H. W. 150 Astrakhan 222, 241 f., 291

Aden 16 Aurungabad 24

Afrasiyab 354 Agra 23 f., 157, 197, 300, 409

Ahmadabad 197, 407 Bab-el Mandeb 90

Ahmadnagar 89 Babinger, Franz 227 Ahmed I 318 Baghdad 10, 27, 29f., 37-39, 49, 51, 58, al Ahsa 62 61 f., 75, 104, 182f., 196, 213, 244,

Ajmer 324 256, 271, 295,355, 379-81

Albuquerque, Afonso de 193, 197, 353 Bahrein 193, 196, 206, 224, 231, 235,

Aldobrandini, cardinal 233 237, 242f., 249, 268, 307-11, 316f., Aleppo 10, 26f., 29 f., 33-35, 37-53, 61, 320, 322 75, 103, 105, 157, 160 f., 172, 174-85, Baku 241, 254, 260 187-92, 195, 213, 232, 244, 250, 254, Balbi, G. 22n., 38, 167 n., 198 257, 259, 262, 266f., 270f., 274, 290, Baluchistan 300

293 f., 302, 324, 328-30, 355f., 370, Banda Islands 133 f.

381, 386, 416, 419, 421 Bandar Abbas see Gombroon Alexandretta 47-52, 161 f., 177, 180, Barker, Engl. merchant 68, 327, 330, 333,

182, 184, 188, 190 335

Alexandria 10, 44-47, 51, 53, 99, 161, Barrett, William 38

171 f., 175, 183-85, 190, 416 Barsalore 90 f.

Alexandrowicz, C. H. 89 Basil de San Francisco 354

Alfons II 213 Basra 24-27, 30, 37-39, 44f., 62, 66,

Ali Quli Beg 236, 241 f. 178, 187, 193, 196, 199, 201-03, 206, Allah Verdi Beg 235-37, 242 277, 345, 351, 353-58, 399, 403, 406 Allah Verdi Khan 212, 224, 231, 245, Bastam Quli Beg 236, 238 f., 243

296, 387 Batavia 134-36, 138, 141, 149, 375, 382, Amasia, peace of 247 Bedick, 187

Alredin 105 392-94, 404, 407-09

Amboyna 117, 142 Belchior dos Anjos 71, 242f., 293f.,

Amsterdam 75, 102, 106, 132, 149-51, 301-03, 308, 320 f., 328, 333 435

Benevento, viceroy of Naples 265f.,269 Clement VIII 214, 234n., 235, 254-56

Benignus 61, 68 Cochin 88, 90, 92, 197, 203

Berengo, Andrea 43-46, 419 Coen, Jan Pieterszoon 95f., 130, 134,

Bijapur 89 138-40, 375, 406 f.

Birecik 34, 37 f. Cokayne, George 123

Bocarro, Antonio 292, 315 Coke, Sir John 360

Boothby, Richard 399 Colombo 94 Boris Godunov 241 the Comores 353

401 370 f.

Botelho, Nuno Alvares 349, 351-58, 356, | Connock, Edward 308, 327-33, 368,

Both, Pieter 130 Constantinople 65, 74, 79, 105, 161, 172,

Boxer, C. R. 84 176-80, 184, 186f., 189f., 195, 213, Boyes, Thomas 266 293, 239, 245f., 256, 267, 271, 317, Bragadin, Piero 74 319, 330, 358, 421 van Brakel, S. 127 Contarini Tomaso 177 Braudel, Fernand 9, 77, 83, 154f., Conway, secretary 360-62

a 167n., 172, 190, 192, 209, 419 Corte Real, Joao 349, 353 f. van der Broecke, Pieter 374 Coryat, Thomas 300 Brouwer, Hendrick 130 Costa, Francesco da 232, 234, 236, 238, -. . Buckingham, duke of 120, 360 f. 241 f., 254

Bugnon, Didier 63 Cottington, 275 f., 281 f.

Bukhara 224 Cotton, Sir Dodmore 115, 363-66, 383 Burhanpur 24 del Court, Dutch merchant 357 Bursa 31 f., 103 Coutinho, Luis Leita 200 Burt, William 365 f., 383, 388 Coutinho, Pedro 250

Couto, Diogo do 199 Coverte, Robert 61, 68

Cabral, Pedro Alvares 84 Cranganore 90 f.

Cairo 44 f., 65, 164, 185 Creswell, Engl. jesuit 263, 277, 280

Calcutta 23, 172 Crete 185

Caliari, G. 104 Crowther, Engl. merchant 324-26, 331, Califa see el Katif Cyprus 48, 274, 276 f., 287 Camber Beg 250 f. Cyrene, bishop of see Gouvea, Cannanore 90-92, 94, 172 Antonio de Caraffa, nuncio 277 Carré, abbé 63 Dabhol 90f., 124, 197, 199, 207, 404,

Calicut 90-92 367

Castel Rodrigo, viceroy in Portugal 409

218, 229 Damao 88, 94, 197, 314

Chaldiran, battle of 73 Damascus 178

Charles I 116 f., 120, 362 Dandolo, Paolo 53-57 Charles di Gonzaga, duke of Nevers 75, Dandolo, Vencenzo 53, 179f., 183

309 Dantzer, Simon 263

Chaudhuri, K. N. 141, 144, 149, 156 Davis, Ralph 9

Chaul 89-91, 94, 197, 200, 207 Depaz, Vencente Henrique 198

Chaunu, Pierre 158 Digby, lord 118 f.

Chew, Samuel C. 299 van Dillen J. G. 128

Cigala 245 Diogo di Santa Anna 248 f., 278 f.

Cipolla, Carlo M. 190 Diu 88, 90-92, 94, 197

Civran, Giuseppe 183 Diul Sind 300 Cizre 34, 61 Diyarbekir 34, 41, 50, 247, 257, 262, 318

Clark, Engl. merchant 46 f. Donado, Zuanneo 185 436

Downton, Nicholas 125 f. Gouvea, Antonio de 69, 201-02, 207, Drake, Sir Francis 54 230-32, 233 n., 235 f., 251, 266-70, 279, Duodo, Pietro 223, 225 281-86, 291-96, 312 f., 315 f.

oo Gouvea Francisco de 251

Echmiadzin 32, 256, 274, 290, 294 Gradenigo, Angelo 104

Efet Beg 108 f., 107, 233 Gritti, Pietro 309 Emo, Giorgio 160, 178 Grotius, Hugo 89, 117

Erivan 31 f., 35, 66, 245, 317 f. Gujarat 168, 407, 409, 422 Erzincan 3] f.

Erzurum 30-32, 34, 49, 51, 65f., 187,

317 Hakluyt, Richard 165

Essex, Robert Devereux, earl of 262f. Halil Pasha 318 f.

Ezbider 34 Hama 45

Hamadan 34, 41, 235

Fakhr al-Din 49, 163, 267 Hamburg 54, 102

Falcéo, Luis de Figueiredo 87, 93 f., Hamilton, Earl J., 14 n.

99 f., 198 Hari Vaisya 402

al Falluja 37 f. Hartung, F. 74

Fathi Beg 104 f., 107, 232 Hasan Beg 236, 238, 240 f.

F athulla see Michelangelo Coray Hase, Hans de 138

Federici, Cesare 22 n., 39, 194 Hassan Kela 34

Fez 195 Henry IV 225, 239

Figueroa, Garcia de Silva y 70, 82f., Henry, prince 300 194-96, 202-05, 301, 303-05, 308, Herbert, Thomas 364-66, 399

310-23, 333 f., 399, 413 Hermite, Gilles 45 f.

Finch, William 27 Hicks, John 18 n.

Florence 164, 172, 273, 274 Hogia Seffer 105, 107, 289 Foscarini, Gieronimo 181, 185 Hooghly 28

Freitas, Seraphim de 89 Hormuz 10f., 26f., 36-39, 63, 82f.,

Fugger, house of 99 f., 102 88-90, 92, 94, 96, 105, 109, 117, 134, Gama, Francisco da 350 n. 154, 167n., 178, 193-209, 213, 217, Gama, Luiz da 296, 301, 303 224, 2271., 230 f., 233, 235, 238, 247,

Gama, Vasco da 83 249-52, 256f., 264, 267-72, 277-79, Garraway, William 173 n. 284 f. 291-96, 301-03, 305-12, 315,

Gilan 65 f., 377f., 380, 386, 388, 392, 322, 325, 336-46, 349-56, 360, 367,

394 n. 369, 372, 375, 377 f., 398f, 410,

Glamann, Kristof 14n., 138, 141, 149, 413 f.

156, 396 Horst, W. A. 156

Goa 28, 38-41, 82f., 85, 88-91, 94, Hovhannes, Armenian merchant 23-28, 164, 172, 196f., 200, 203 f., 207, 212, 30, 40 f., 61, 64, 411, 420 214, 217, 229f., 235, 241-44, 250-52, Hurstfield, J. 19 264 f., 267, 272, 277, 285, 291f., 294, Husain Beg 107, 201, 214-23, 225-34, 296, 301, 303f., 307, 309f., 313-16, 236, 238-40, 243, 262 320, 339 f., 349-52, 400, 418

van Goens, Rijckloff 136 Imam Quli Khan 224, 296; 316, 387 f.

Goga 90 f. Isfahan 23-25, 27, 29, 32n., 34-36, 40 f., Golconda 30 67 f., 104, 107, 248 f., 255, 258, 260,

Gombroon 28, 27, 30, 36 f., 40, 53, 63 f., 266-71, 278, 289-91, 294-96, 300, 304, 66-68, 109f., 134, 206, 291, 295-97, 316, 320-22, 325, 328, 331, 334, 336— 301-04, 307-11, 314-17, 320, 322, 324, 39, 354, 379-81, 385-87, 390-92, 405 f.

839 f., 345f., 351-58, 357f., 388, Ismail I 73, 103

390 f., 394, 398-406, 408-10, 413 Ismail II 73

437

Jahangir 300 Lareka 352

Jahrum 39 Leate, Nicholas 28

James I 116-19, 131, 262, 332, 347, Leeuwenson, Joannes 68

359-61, 379 Leghorn 30, 54, 102, 167 n., 172 f. Janbulad Pasha 267 Lello, Henry 227

Janghiz Beg 71, 107, 158, 269f., 281- Leo XI 255

86, 291-95, 312 f., 315 Leonardo Abel, bishop of Sidonia 219

Japan 158, 407 Lerma, duke of 275, 277, 279, 283, 298, Jask 68, 208, 308, 325 f., 331, 333, 337- 317

41, 349, 352, 400 van Leur, J.C. 15 f., 22, 25n., 28, 85 n.,

, Jidda 163, 185 95 f., 135, 138, 406

Joao de S. Joseph 71 Lewis, Bernard 78 f., 81

, Joseph, Pére 75, 309 Lhasa 23-26 don Juan of Persia 216 f., 223 Limasol 181

Juan Tadeo 270, 290 f., 320-23, 334 van Linschoten, Jan Huygen 85, 200,

Julfa 104, 248, 271, 295 204

Lisbon 53-55, 82, 86, 92, 97-99, 156,

. Kandahar 27, 61, 66f., 103, 207, 325, 158, 163 f., 169, 172, 184, 212, 229,

340, 355, 378 941, 243 f., 263 f., 267, 281, 283, 285,

Kangavar 34 991, 296, 306f., 309f., 312f., 316,

Kars 35, 245, 317 336, 349

Kashan 31 f., 34 Lithgow, William 186 Kashmir 26 London 106, 143, 149, 151, 157, 325,

el Katif 203, 358 329, 359, 368

Katmandu 61 Ltibeck 102

Kazan 241]

Kazvin 33, 70, 213, 242, 260, 316, 318- Ma’ani 71

91, 333, 365, 378, 391 Macao 158, 204

Kerridge, Thomas 324, 347 Macassar 143

Khachikian, Lvon 23, 25, 64, 420 Madrid 212, 269, 283, 296, 299 Khan of Shiraz see also Allah Verdi Magalhaes-Godinho, Vitorino 84, 89,

Khan and Imam Quli Khan 249f., 154, 167 997, 336, 340-42, 346, 350, 355-57, Mahdi Quli Beg 236, 240 f.

364, 387 Mahmud Beg Tabresi 107

Khurasan 103, 213, 420 Malacca 88, 94, 197, 204, 250, 309

Khurja 24 the Maldives 91

van Klaveren, Jacob 20f., 60, 80, 112 Malindi 92, 197, 244

Klein, P. W. 13-16, 21 Malipiero, Alessandro 177 f.

Koja Beg 76-78, 80 Malvenda, house of 102 van der Kooy, T. P. 13-16 Manila 158 Kung 353, 357 f., 400 Manrique, Sebastian 27

Mansvelt, W. M. F. 127 f., 138

Lacerda, Port. ambassador 237, 242f., Marand 35

267 Marseilles 28, 46, 49, 51, 161 f., 182, Lahijan 386 184, 189-91, 239, 415

Lahore 27, 29, 67, 157, 195, 207, 300 Masqat 94, 200, 350, 352-54, 402

Lala Beg 330 f., 334, 377 Masson, Paul 64

Lambert, César 185 Masulipatam 143, 404 Lancaster, Sir James 144 Matelief, Cornelis 132

Lane, Frederic C. 17, 21, 60, 154 Maurice, prince of Orange 130 Lar 36, 39, 196, 205, 212, 224, 231, 249, Mazanderan 320, 388

420 Mecca 44 f., 58, 65, 90

438

Mechter Lubik Turchwana 236, 242 Naqd Ali Beg 362-66

Mehmed Pasha 317 f. Nasuf Pasha 297

Meilink-Reolofsz, M. A. P. 10, 84, 85n., Navagero, Andrea 176

93 n., 154, 208 n. Neale, Walter C. 13

234 the Niquilus 206

Melo, Nicolo de 216-218, 221 f., 232, Newbery, John 30-33, 37, 195, 398

Melo, Simao de 340 Noronha, Alvaro de 199 Mendonca, Andre Furtado de 202, 250 Nuchar 35, 62, 67 Meneses, Aleixo de 248-50

Merry, Thomas 390 Offley, Robert 28 Meshed 230 f. van Oldenbarnevelt, Johann 128, 130

Messina 240, 262 dall’Olmo 97 f.

Mexico 158 van Oostende 392 f. Michelangelo Coray 213, 218, 221, 232f., Onore 94 260, 267, 288 Orslan Beg 378

Michelbourne, Sir Edward 115, 122 Osman IT 318

Michele, Pietro 176 Overschie, Nicolaes Jacobsz: 34, 376,

Middelburg 102 391-93

Middleton, Henry 121 f., 126

Mildenhall, John 28 f. Pacifique de Provence 107

Milward, captain 106 Palermo 274

Minorsky, V. 259 n. Paquesa Eman Quli Beg 243 f.

254 Paul V 238

Miranda, Diogo de 232-34, 236, 238, Patna 23, 61

Mirza Taqi 388-90, 392 f. Paulo Simon 27, 202, 255-58, 261, 266 f., Mocha 16, 89f., 124f., 172, 185, 375, 270-72, 278 n., 286 f.

399, 403 n., 409 Pegu 408

Mohammed III 77, 237 Pelsaert, Francisco 157 the Moluccas 123f., 132-34, 143 Pesaro, Alvise 183

Monox, Edward 33, 330, 335, 338f., Philip II 212 f.

341 f., 346, 400 Philip III 69, 228, 265, 268, 275, 285 Moreland, W. H. 415 Philippus a Santissima Trinitate 358

Morocco 262 Pincgon, Abel 216

Morosini, Girolamo 181 Polanyi, Karl 12, 21

Moscow 214, 222, 290 Portsmouth 120

Mosul 34, 39 n., 62 Prague 104, 214, 222 f., 225 f., 230, 234,

Mousnier, R. 74 236, 239-41, 246, 262 f. Mozambique 200 Pulorun 118, 121

Muhammad Ali Beg 365 f., 387 Purchas, Samuel 258 f. Muhammad Khudabanda 73

Mullaim Beg 379-85, 387 OQishm 195, 205, 251 f., 297, 312, 339Mun, Thomas 155 n., 156 f., 159, 161 f., 41, 343, 349 f., 399

175 Quazim Beg 318

Murad IV 49, 76

Murad Pasha 266 f., 286, 289 Ragusa 227 f.

Mustafa I 318 Redempt 61, 68, 206, 220, 301-03, 30910, 323, 336

Nagena 197235 Reijnst, Gerard Nahavand Resht 386 130

Nakhichevan 35 Rodriguez, Domingo 321 Napollon, Sanson 187 28, 331-33, 371

Naples 172, 268, 265, 271, 282 f. Roe, Sir Thomas 28 f., 115, 304, 325439

Rome 214, 219, 222, 225f., 228, 233f., Smith, Sir Thomas 29, 123, 126, 361

936, 242, 249, 271, 274, 276, 288, Smyrna 23, 34f., 41, 161, 185-87, 190

290 f. 311, 358 Socotra 91, 276, 284 f., 302 Rott, Konrad 98 f., 102 Sofala 200

102 Spalato 105

Rovellasco, Milanese merchant 54, 99, Solis, Duarte Gomes 88 n.

Rudolph II, 214, 226, 238f., 241, 246, Staper, Richard 28

264 St. Clemente, Guillen de 225

Ruy Freire see Andrade, Ruy Freire de Steele, Richard 29, 207, 324, 326, 331, 360 f., 367

Sa, Constantin de 350 Stefan Bocskai 246

Safi I 385, 387 Stropene, Domenico 266, 269 Sagredo, Gio. Francesco 180 f., 290 Suez 16, 163, 173 Saldanha, Ayres de 90 Sukkur 61

Salmastre 61, 67 Sultaniyeh 318 f.

Sandys, George 172 Surat 23-25, 27, 30, 38, 41, 67, 90f.,

Sara Koja 321 124 f., 303, 314, 324-27, 331-33, 338,

Sarab, peace of 319, 368 350-53, 367, 369, 373f., 379, 389f.,

Saris, John 125 394, 400-404, 406-409

Sassetti, Filippo 28 Swally Road 314, 352

Satalia 190 Tabas 29

Sassuar 105 f., 335

Schumpeter, Joseph 14 Tabriz 31-35, 61 f., 67, 223, 239, 242,

Scovar, Antonio de 229 244 f., 318 Sebastian, king 98 Tahmasp I 73, 103, 317 Sella, Domenico 160 f., 190 Taiwan 407-409 Seville 158 Tavernier, Jean-Baptiste 22 n., 30, 34 f.,

Seydon 161, 190 41, 62, 65-68, 186 Shahrizor 62 Texeira, Pedro 22n., 63, 180, 206 Shamakhi 32 n. Thynne, Sir Henry 299 f. Shatt-al-Arab 356 Tibet 23, 25 Sherley, Anthony 29, 213-28, 230, 232- Tokat 31 f., 34

34, 236, 240f., 247, 253, 258-66, Tomasso di Angelis 219 269 f., 272, 274, 280, 282 f., 306, 308 f., Tor 44

333, 413 Trieste 264

Sherley, Robert 92, 104, 107, 159, 213 f.. Tripoli 161, 163, 176-78, 192n., 195

918, 221, 242, 247, 258-61, 265-67, Tsaritsin 241 : 270, 272-86, 297-312, 320, 322-24, Tucci, Ugo 44

326~—28, 334, 336, 345, 358-67, 373 Tuscany 273, 276, 311 Sherley, Teresa 280, 282n., 299f., 364

Sherley, Thomas 258 the Uzbegs 213, 223 f., 231

Shihr 16, 91

Shilling, Andrew 338 Valladolid 230

Shiraz 24, 36, 40, 196, 202, 235, 316, della Valle, Pietro 29, 70-72, 205, 285,

364, 420 317, 333, 337, 345 f., 399

Shirvan 65 f., 248 Van 34 f., 41, 51, 62, 66 f.

Sigismund III 236, 242 Vecchietti, G. B. 212 f.

Sining 25 Venice 30, 43f., 49, 53-55, 99, 102, Sironj 24 104-106, 162, 181, 185f., 191, 226—

Sitva Torok, peace of 235, 241, 246-49, 28, 232 f., 246, 262, 289f., 335, 415

252-54, 256, 266, 270, 286, 321 Vincent 288

Smidt, Jan 387, 402 Vingurla 408 440

Virji Vora 402 Wolstenholme, Sir John 159 Visnich, Huybert 134, 345, 375, 381-83, | Woodcock, captain 345 f. 392

Vosberghen, Josias de 120 Ximenes, house of 99, 102 Ward 263

Weber, Max 16 yemen 188, 403 n. Welser, house of 54, 99, 102 usul “Aga 32] Wheeler, John 96 f., 100

Wither, Anthony 369, 370 n. Zainal Khan 236, 239-41, 286

44]