The Arthur of the French: The Arthurian Legend in Medieval French and Occitan Literature

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Citation preview

9007,

SSE}Id SETY1!\ CO ÄJISUEAINN CCICIUYS

llBrd uaJBx puB ssaSrn8 's

u,(10

tq patrya

f,UNIYUSIIT NYIIf,SO (INY Hf,Nf,U.{ TYAflI(gW NI QNfl3gT NYIUNHIUY

gHI

Hf NIgUf, ETHI dO UTII{IUY EIHI

AI SECV ET(I(III^[ EHJ NI EUNIVUEJIT NVIUNHJUV

O The Vinaver Trust, 2006

Al1 rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without clearance from the University of Wales Press, l0 Columbus Walk, Brigantine Place, Cardiff, CFlO 4Up.

www. wale

s.

qc. uk Ipr e s s

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

rsBN-10 0-7083-1964-5 rsBN- 1 3 97 I -0-7 083 - 19 64-2

The right of the Contributors to be identified separately as authors of their work has been asserted by them in accordance with the copyright, Designs and patents Act I

988.

Printed in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Wiltshire

t:

snruquruo) puD ('pa) Qlay solSnog solJnlual qlueal4rll puB r{lJloarl aql q ocuBruou esre uBlrnq}rY

blslp2"u p.ffitplü puo tttouDpSog luuryl slxal polBlau puB pDrg np uoutoü elu8pn-1so4 oql :ocuBruog asord Eullgrmeg XI

ZVE

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(n7u1g qDßS {q parulsun.tt) nul"usltunug aRnuoruuflt SZE

uotslrl osord

sutoullll '7 'w

Da.ryuy puD

eql IIIA

uotd uanx

'sua4cr1 uadny lttullltzs alpplq '('pa) tpauuay qtadslEr elcr(3 alu8pn orll puB )D7 op ,op?uDT :l!Er9 aql lnoqllat puB rllpr lolocuuT

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asro^ qruart

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II

tu!,t9-uottuoT Dtad pury xnDS a7 asloSuntg salrruorqf aql Jo rnqlrY oql

(qooc lJlprl.-) (oooz '-ulpr.''J

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Dltnd pY XI

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SIT{[INIO3

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THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

vl11

XI

Manuscript Compilations of Verse Romances

461

Lori J. Walters

XII

Late Medieval Arthurian Literature Jane H. M. Taylor (ed.) , Peter F. Ainsworth, I{orris Edward Donald Kennedy and William W Kibler

48B J.

Lacy,

XIII

The Arthurian Tradition in Occitan Literature Simon Gaunt and Ruth Harvey

528

XIV

Arthur in Modern French Fiction and Film Joan Tasker Grimbert and lVorris J. Lacy

546

This book

:.liiedbr R S .-',i \rthriri.,-. .- ;-

General Bibliography Glyn S. Burgess

571

General Index

579

Index of Manuscripts

63r

scholarsirip -:.. \-ina\er Tr;,..: r;je\ eral r rrll.1'... ' : to Arthurr.it- -...:., :his rolllnrJ -:..- -. .lrtlntt' (tl ;i , F _

-rnd

Occitari., :'

I

period s. -: .. _

l.1te

,.--LlltLlres.

The series .S .r- -: scholars \\ ori: .. _ It ou,'eve r. ;,i I : c, . . . diflerent fleld s. in languages .: r. influenced tlie . liad control rrr, it . The master'r-.. _ able to see this ... :. book is dedicat; : : r

_.

:

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.(rorueru sq o1 poleclpep sI >loog srqJ 'uJoJ IeuU slr ur'qcuatg aqt lo .mqt.,tv aq1 '1uew1e1sut lselul slqt eos ol olqe Sureq lnoqlr,l\ perp oq,l.l 'uo.ueg AeU se^\ solJes sql puqoq pulurJelsuru eql 'sorunlo^ I€npt,rrpur Jrär{l Jo lue}uoc pue edeqs oq} re^o loJ}uoc peg o^eq srolrpe eq] sJeloruered eseql uFIillK '.,\,\ou>I op .(eql sernllnc eq1 pecuongul pue ?vrou1 lou ,(eur ,(eqt teqt soJnleJolll puu se8en8u?l uI se^rleJJeu esoql ^rog {oo} solr}eJJeu uerJngpv sruJoJ }eq.tr uJeel o} poou Jo }ue,/$. oq,&\ 'splog lueJeJJIp rrrou sJeloqcs pu€ sluepnls o] elqrssecc€ oq 01 uellrJ1v\ uoeg osle tezreltoq 'ezreq ,(eq1 'serunlol eril Jo qcee ,(q poreloc splelJ or{} uI 8ut1ro.Lr sreloqcs le pue sluepnls elenperSlsod pue elunpu;Srepun 1e porule ,(lureiu sI solJes oql 'seJnllnc

snoeueJlxe ruo{ s}xe} uo pue ,(q secuengul e^r}uruJoJ oq} Jo puu 'sporred ;e1e1 ur eJrIJelJs rreql 'slxeluoc lducsnueru pue [BJnllnc 'yecr.rolstq Jleql Jo lunocce

se{e} osle 1r q8noqt 'ue.re lecrqdet?oeß ept.tr e ssoJcu pesodruoc 'UEIIJJO puu qcuoJd ur slxel uerrnr{uv F^elperu o} poto^ep .{yueurrrd s q)uarf ary to "tnquv aqJ'leuoqeu ueql JeqleJ IuJnllnc sr serJes eq] ut sJossecopeJd s1r pue erunlo^ sql roJ srsuq eq1 'edo;ng le^orpou Jo sernllnc snorru^ eq1,(q ernleJelll uelrnqlrv o] eperu suorlnqrJluoc o^rlcurlslp eql ol ecrlsnl op o] peJlnber o;e.Lr sorunlon I€Je^es leql puu ',(e,t.rns elep-o1-dn pue qso4 e JoJ peeu eql pezruSoceJ lsn{ JoABUIA eq1 'serSolopoqleur pue se^rlcedsred Iecrlrrc ur se8ueqc ,(q pue dtqsreloqcs seq r1 tnq tlqerrupe oJnlBJolrl uerJnquv Jo ur secuB^pe ,tq uelelre,ro ueeq ^\ou srelogcs puu sluepnls Jo speou eq] pe^res (6961 'progxg) snuool 'S 'U ,(q pellpe {.to1stg alrunqolpJ y :sa?y alpplq ary L4 atnur.tauT uounquy eurnlo,L-e18urs eql 'eurl oruos JoC ,(1eue,r cuoue8 pu€ leJnllnJ Jror{} y1e ur s8urlu^{ uerJntluv Jo Äerr.rns elqer1eJ pue e^rsueqe;druoc e epnord o1sr sorJes erll Jo esodrnd sg1 'se8y elpplhtr er{} uI eJn}eJo}r-I uerJnqlJv sorros 0q1 ur otunlo^ i{lrnoJ eq} sr {ooq sqI

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829

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THE CONTRIBUTORS PEA

tEB

Peter F. Ainsworth (University

of Sheflield)

Emmanuöle Baumgartner (formerly Universitö de Paris III - Sorbonne nouvelle) F'B Fanni Bogdanow (formerly University of Manchester) GB Geoffrey Bromiley (University of Durham) GSB Glyn S. Burgess (University of Liverpool) KB Keith Busby (University of Wisconsin) LCB Leslie C. Brook (University of Birmingham) MTB Matilda Tomaryn Bruckner (Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA) AC Annie Combes (Universit6 de Nantes) FC Fabrizio Cigni (Universitä di Pisa) PDG Peter Damian-Grint (University of Oxford) PE Penny Eley (University of Shefäeld) JTG Joan Tasker Grimbert (Catholic University of America) SG Simon Gaunt (King's College London) RH Ruth Harvey (Royal Holloway, University of London) TH Tony Hunt (University of Oxford) DK Douglas Kelly (formerly University of Wisconsin) EDK Edward Donald Kennedy (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) tEK Elspeth Kennedy (formerly University of Oxford) WWK William W. Kibler (University of Texas) NJL Norris J. Lacy (Pennsylvania State University) FLS Frangoise Le Saux (University of Reading) RM Roger Middleton (University of Nottingham) TDDRO D. D. R. Owen (formerly University of St Andrews) KP Karen Pratt (King's College London) RTP Rupert T. Pickens (University of Kentuc§) PVR Paul V. Rockwell (Amherst College, MA) MS Michelle Szkilnik (Universit6 de Paris III - Sorbonne nouvelle) PS Penny Simons (University of Shefäeld) JHMT Jane H.M. Taylor (University of Durham) RT Richard Trachsler (Universitö de Paris IV - Sorbonne) CVCS Colette Van Coolput-Storms (Universit6 Catholique de Louvain-la* Neuve) AMLV/ Andrea M. L. Williams (University of Sydney) LJW Lori J. Walters (Florida State University, Tallahassee)

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DtuoLuoY LuoY saryruS f)^atpal[ Surpoay SWY y7y sauvtuoy sanBuDT sap an^ay saq)stlstuoutoü tü anoü JHY Lpnq,rllDf

saryal sap a,nolslH,p

ilUD,U 0l ap ailDt?lllT ailolstH,p an^aY

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SIf ZT{

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SNIOIIYIAIUflgY

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u*s*fiffi

THE ARTHTJR OF THE FRENCH

x11

TLL

Travaux de Linguistique et de Littörature

YFS

Tris

Tristania

zfdA

TrL

Travaux de Littörature (Jniversity of Texas Studies in English Vox Romanica

zfsL

Yale French Studies Zeits chrft fur deuts ches Al t erturn Z eits chr tft für franzö s is che Sp r ache

ZrP

Zeits

UTSE VR

und Literatur

chrft für romanische Philologie

The great para d,.

identified \\ irh

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B

French langlras; : is no doubt thar :._. above, was t-rrsi :.,:

Historia

Re.q ttii

Geoffrey's \\ oilJ;. was made a\ a.l1r:

.

Norman cleric '\'\ Significantlr. it .. that served as a :.

',

earliest work or _r Brut also has r1,: : Round Table. ;._ romance, chreti:: Chrötien's leg..'

to him that \\'e c,',,,= adultery of Lar-; second half of ti.= : into one or mor; . Swedish and \\ e1r.. for the Welsh rt-rirdid not merelr p:. stock of Arthun;:.

.

rOmanCe COmptrS... successors and ca,,:. : .

'(X pue 1n sreldeqc) s;olenutluoc pue sJosseccns sFI f,q lsure8e pelceeJ ro peldepe 'pelupure eq o1 'esren ur uollrsodruoc ocueuloJ Jo slepotu su pe^Jes oslu ,(eql isJtlotu pu? serueg] 'sJelcereqc uelJnquv Jo >lcols qcrJ e qlrt\ 'gcueJd-uou pue qcueJC qlog 'sJelu.u Jel€l epr.to.td ,(1e"reru lou pp sIro,/rr s,uorl?rq3 ;ffipaad pue maA4O 'u!q.tg qD tulo.taD secueluoJ tlslq!\ eql JoJ secJnos w pe^Jes p^ilDd pue mD^Ä ')atg leql sldecce euo JI 'tisle \ pue qslpo.e\S 'esro51'uerure1l 'qsqSug :se8en8uel ueedolng 3ut.tto11o3 eI{} Jo eJoru Jo ouo o}ul peldepe .(lluenbesqns oreA\ lsoru '(n1 reldeqc) ,fun1uec gUleltt eq] Jo JI€r{ puocos eql ur pesodruoc 'seouetuo.l e^U sq JO i'eJe^eumC pue lolecu€'I 3o ,fue11npe eql JoJ lssnb eq] Jo slunoccB uolllr1r\ lsJU er{} e,^do o^\ leq} Iuq 01 eg1 Jo pue per8 sr

lr osnuceq lseel lou'snoul:oue s3^\ uolllpeJl uBIJnqlJV o1,{ce8el

s6uoI1?JqJ

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uerJnqlrv Jo Jeql€J eql JoJ Ieuel€III Jo ecrnos ,te1 e s?A{ pu? 'elqeJ punou eql uolluorrr ol ]xe] Surnr,trns ]sol1ree eqt Suteq Jo uollcullslp eq] seq osle rutg ap uDruoü s6eced\ .'e8un8uel qsq8ug eq] uI oAI^Jns o1 rnquv uo {ro \ }sollree eql 'eycruorqc crlseuÄp ,itnluec-qlueeulql s.uorue,(e1 JoJ ecJnos e se pe^Jes 13111 '1xe1 ur1e1 s,,(ergosg uel{l JeqleJ 'uotleldepu qcueJd s(eceÄ\ sr 1r tlluecglu8ls ,'(11 ;eldeqc) qcuerg olur Dt.tolslg eq] polelsuerl eced\ clrelc ueluroN oqtr ueql\'SSII q ecuelpne el€Jelll-uou teplu qcnlu € 01 elqelle^€ epelu s?1( Jo lunocc€ IuclJolsq-opnesd'e,uleurEerur,(11n3:epuorrr s,,(e.lgoeg eJrT s6JnqUV

tezrelroll '8€II ,(q uollelncJlc uI se^t qclr{,ll 'aotuuo|rtg run7ay

Dl"tolstH

sII{ uI qlnoluuolN Jo,(e:goeg ,(q ur"roJ ue}}IJ,{{ ut relndod epelu lsJU se.L 'o,rogu sreJer Iepog gcHlt\ o1 '(urulug 3o relleur) au8o\a,tg ap a"t?qDru oql13I{} }qnop ou sI eJeql 'oreq ,(rerelq ueedorng -ued e se snl€}s sry paruruuoc leq] e3en3ue1 qcuorg eq] ut slxel sBA\ 'ern11nc pue Ärolstq (qst18uE ue,re) qstlt-tg I{}l1Y\ pegl}uepl 1r sq pue rnl{uv Eur; go xopured leer8 eq1 ,(1eso1c sr

eq q8noqlle 'leq1 sr pueEel

('{op ttad,a anu aQ ol uiloqs atD a)Ltu.t,{ .{o asoqt lasuas pooB sn q)ou pul astil atD aLuoy to asollt llutsnruD puD snoloat{ os atD utDlt,tg {o salu aqJ) (t t-O 'sausroE

sap uosuoq) 'lepog ueel) 'lue;ede ;nol uncel{o JIoA }uos ooueJC 0p IIJ

'luepue.lde sues ep }e e8es

'1uesre1d te UIE^ IS

]uos oruo5 op IIf luos eu8teleJfl ap eluoc I-I

uotd uaffix

NOlrfnoourt{I

aßop1rtlf, arlt; aqco.tdg otlt;;,

WruJallL- i.'i'

h",J

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

Almost contemporary with ChrÖtien's euvre were the French Tristan romances of Beroul and Thomas, but it was Thomas of England's courtly treatment of this Celtic legend that soon gave rise to translations in German, English and Norse

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(chapter III). Equally influential, yet even more popular than the verse narratives, were the great thirteenth-century prose romance cycles. In the Vulgate Cycle (chapter VII) French writers presented the rise and fall of the Arthurian kingdom and the history of the Holy Grail, culminating in its Quest by Galahad and other, less perfect Knights of the Round Table. Later in the same century the matter of Arthur was combined with that of Tristan, producing in the prose Tristan (chapter VIII) and also in the Post-Vulgate Roman du Graal and related texts (chapter IX) veritable cornucopiae of Arthurian adventures. Once again, European literature gained in richness as foreign adapters translated French prose-romance material into English (most notably Sir Thomas Malory), Dutch, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and Greek. As other volumes in the present series demonstrate, once Arthurian matter had been transplanted in foreign soil it flourished and diversified, fusing with native literary traditions. Yet all the major European literatures originally received their Arthurian rootstock from the Francophone world. In post-conquest England the nobles who were the patrons of most literary production spoke the dialect of Old French known as Anglo-Norman, afactthat in the twelfth century facilitated cultural exchange between the France of the Capetians and the Anglo-Norman realm of the Plantagenets. Whatever Geoffrey of Monmouth's political motives may have been for composing his Historia (chapter II), his Arthur became for the Anglo-Normans a symbol of a strong monarchy with imperial ambitions, one which their rulers hoped could unite warring factions and provide the peoples of Britain with a unified national identity. If Wace did indeed dedicate his Brut to Eleanor of Aquitaine, as Layamon states, he could have been implying that her husband Henry II's recent ascent to the throne of England was continuing a tradition which had originated with the foundation of Britain by the Trojan Brutus, and which had reached its apogee in the illustrious reign of King Arthur. Howeveq although later English writers and their patrons fully exploited Arthur's potential in their constructions of an Anglo-British national identity, French authors operating beyond the Anglo-Norman kingdom had a more ambivalent attitude towards the legendary king. Whilst Chrötien's Erec presents a relatively positive view of the royal figure, leading some critics to speculate that the work was composed for Henry II,6 his later romances present a deterioration in Arthur's status,T thereby problematizing his role as exemplary monarch. Chr6tien's desire to please his noble patrons, Marie de Champagne and Philippe d'Alsace, Count of Flanders, who at times in the twelfth century found themselves in conflict with the King of France, may account for his less idealized

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THE ARTHTJR OF THE FRENCH

after Chr6tien de Tioyes (chapter X) exhibits a greater interest in intertextual, literary games than in the socio-political issues of the real world, although there is evidence that manuscript compilations may have been produced with ethical agendas in mind (chapter XI). Yet prose romance in particular demonstrates a desire for never-ending textuality. Indeed, French Arthurian literature's greatest strength seems to have been its ability constantly to generate new and exciting stories through the techniques of continuation, compilation, adaptation, interpolation and the complex interlacing of mysterious adventures. The Arthur of the French is the fourth book to appear in this series commissioned by the Vinaver Trust to update R. S. Loomis's influential reference volume entitled Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages: A Collaborative History, which was published in 1959. As should be clear from the above remarks, the word 'French'in our title refers to texts written in the French language rather than to a nation enclosed by strict geographical boundaries. Hence the inclusion of literature composed in England as well as in France. Moreover, although medieval Occitan (formerly often known as Old Provengal) was a separate language, distinct from Old French, the similarity of these languages and the geographical proximity of their speakers meant that in the Middle Ages there were close cultural and political links between Occitania and France. This volume therefore contains a chapter on Arthurian material in the Occitan lyric and romance (XIII), which argues that, from a southern perspective, Arthur was a foreign, northern French phenomenon. Whilst the term'French'of our title is relatively unproblematic, the definition of what constitutes Arthurian literature has created more editorial problems. In the volume as a whole a fairly broad definition has been adopted, especially in chapter X, although the statistical survey of Arthurian manuscripts in chapter I takes a slightly narrower view, and the section on narrative lays in chapter V, whilst referring to non-Arthurian examples, concentrates on those that feature Arthur or related characters. Our inclusion of the Tristan material, already present in Loomis's collective study, hardly requires justification; Arthur is mentioned by both Beroul and Thomas, and he plays a significant role in the prose Tristan,where Tristan becomes inextricably linked with the Knights of the

In updarinq

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placing the c:.-,: priman' imp..r --:.-. tions for the r:.-: providing a b,:,- ., *

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Tlrc Artlrtu' t,'

postgraduate >. _. _ scholars in the>; research and st,. *: Arthurian ntill i r. guide Angk)ph,. : expressin_u a CC,.-:: .

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Round Table.

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The place of the British king in the historiographical tradition is treated in several contributions throughout this volumq especially in chapters II and XII, the latter including Jehan de Waurin's chronicle of the history of Britain and England and the pseudo-historical romance Perceforest. Yet other pseudo-historical texts in which Arthur plays a minor role have been excluded, and only a representative sample of works in genres other than romance has been treated in order to demonstrate how the matter of Britain was capable of crossing generic boundaries (see William KibleE chapter XII).

foster stimularli.: chapters VIII ar.: genesis of the pi,- :: In each chitp.; concerning indi,, -.- social and liter; I summztY, issues this informätit-ri-. "

.

.

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THE ARTHI]R OF THE FRENCH anonymous and no patrons are mentioned. The general assumption is that audiences were in the main aristocratic, including noblemen, ladies and clerics, and that works were read aloud (often in instalments) at large court gatherings or in small groups. However, private reading is not to be ruled out, and the larger, more ornate manuscripts containing the lengthy prose romances were clearly designed for visual as well as aural reception. The dates we offer for texts are often very approximate, and some works are at present undergoing redating, which may in

turn affect the relative dating of other works. The multiple authorship of this volume has also led to some variation in the amount of space devoted to these different aspects, and here again consistency has not necessarily been viewed as a virtue. Indeed, more detailed synopses and longer literary analyses have been provided for lesser-known texts, especially if there is a dearth of secondary literature on them. More famous works may be treated fairly summarily, but ample supplementary reading material is cited. The reference lists contain all editions and studies mentioned in the accompanying chapter, plus additional helpful items. The first edition listed is that from which all unattributed citations in the text of the relevant chapter are taken and to which all line or page numbers relate. The Harvard system of reference (author, date, page number) is employed throughout for brevity, editions and translations of texts being distinguished from studies by the use of the editor's name, followed by the abbreviation 'edn'or transl., then by a line or page reference. Within the text the date of publication of an edition is included only where the same scholar has edited more than one work. Items accompanied by an asterisk are not found in the reference list to each chapter, but in the General Bibliography, which is designed to provide a list of the most important, and especially the most recent studies on French Arthurian romance, including reference works and bibliographies. Short titles which have been used for texts within a given chapter appear in square brackets either before or after the edition in the corresponding reference list. Acknowledgements

The editors of this book owe many debts of gratitude - to its contributors (and especially those who submitted on time) for their forbearance; to Douglas Kelly, Elspeth Kennedy and Jane Taylor for organizing the material of multi-authored chapters into molt beles conjointures; to Simon Gaunt, Roger Middleton and above all to Elaine Polley for their advice, reference-checking and careful proofreading; to Linda Gowans for her expert indexing; to the University of Wales Press for its continued interest in our project; to the Vinaver Trust for muchneeded financial and moral support; and to the late Ray Barron, general editor of the series, who sadly did not live to see this volume brought to fruition. Finally, we should like to express our sorrow that three of our distinguished contributors,

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er{} Jo esEs etll

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(crsnur Jrarll r{tr i' l3r{} sldr"rcsnuELL: ; roJ ldecxe) sl\:t .,

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luau,talou.Ü'loJ

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-

pue a)ualts 'u ,., uerJnr{lJv sE sj (sndroc uelsrrl :,, u33 \\1:q '. r ' .,-* '

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JO eSeC Oql

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SJdIU]SNNVN EHI

l2

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

for the others are'. Erec 12 (7 more or less complete * 5 fragments); Cligös 12 (8 + 4); the Charrette 8 (7 + 1); Yvain 14 (9 + 5). This distinction between Chr6tien's romances and the others reappears in almost every aspect of manuscript production and survival that we shall examine, and it is unlikely to be coincidental. It is true that we are at the mercy of chance survivals, but there are two factors that distinguish Chr6tien from the rest. In the first place, the numerical differences are sufficiently large to be meaningful in themselves, for whereas it may be no more than luck whether one, two or three copies of a particular text happen to survive, the existence of seven or more suggests a qualitative difference. Secondly, there is the fact that the difference is consistent for all five romances.2 One consequence of this imbalance between copies of Chrötien's romances and those of other texts is that we are presented with quite different types of textual tradition. What we cannot know is whether the textual traditions were in reality that different (though one suspects that they were) or whether the difference is in the way that they present themselves to modern eyes. For the majority of non-Chr6tien verse texts, surviving in only one copy (plus the occasional fragment), the question of textual variants does not arise. The copy and the text are indistinguishable (apart from the 'correction of obvious scribal errors'practised by most editors). But not so for Chr6tien, where each text survives in at least seven copies, and where the number of variants runs into many thousands. It is true that most of these variants are entirely trivial, but not all of them, and even some of those that might be considered trivial in purely scribal terms can have important consequences for literary interpretations. Thus, the loss or addition of a couplet here or there is so commonplace in any process of copying verse texts that we should hardly pay it much attention - unless it happened to be the couplet in which Lancelot hesitates for two steps before getting into the cart (Hult 1989). Nor is this particularly well-known example an isolated case. Even the alteration of a few letters can give rise to a range of conclusions, some more reliable than others, such that (d)estregalesl(d)outregales as the name of Erec's homeland was the subject of an extended debate between Zimmer, Loth, Lot and G. Paris that was continued by Brugger (1904) and later by Loomis (1949,70-1) and Ritchie (1952,10-11). The point, however, is that discussions of this kind are necessarily confined to the works of Chr6tien de Tioyes and very few other texts. The survival of additional manuscripts places the scholar in an entirely different relationship to these particular texts, though this is often obscured by modern editions and the unwarranted reliance placed upon them. Apart from Chr6tien and the Perceval additions, and leaving aside the special case of Jaufre (the one Arthurian verse romance in occitan), only two romances (L'Atre pörilleux and Meraugis) survive in as many as three copies, and only three others (Fergus, La vengeance Raguidel and llle et Galeron) survive in as many as two. No fewer than twenty are known from single copies only, of which nearly

half are to st-,1.; , htcottnLt. Htiii;'( Chantilll. \ I i-.. = Verse ro1ll.:r--;. Bel htcotttttr rC .., (BNF, fr. 116r ,: t\\'o publisheC .r-: Library'. \lS --Biblioteca \.i z -' and the fra gr: - 172); Silerttt t \ L. M. 6): Ber,,-, ,.. .

-

plus fragmellt

s,

Carlisle Cathe;:-, acq. lat 23--1 ,. .: Also to be incl -..-:

Gogulor (ou ne; 'l (Lille, Bibliorii., .liee (BNF. llLrLl', .-. The textS p r- >; fr. 1433; B\F. ... .

et Galeron (B\ F . City, Bibliotec,.. r, l

:

Nationalbiblic': ., Staatsbibliot h:

.:

'

.

Yar); La tr,'ettt, -;, BNE nou\'. aü.-and the scatteri,j of what he cal1S . : BNE fr. 125-1:Gard, and e\c - :: Vaticaflz, MS 1-,. : Most shorte r t-.' are: Le Lai rtt C La Mule sans ti'; MS 354;with a i:.,.fol. 100); Le D, i . B2); the Folie Ti '. Guingamor, L,,| ,

rcq pr:;e :(fOt t 'r; 'bcu 'a,nou t11g) ryo{1 pue ptoptl '.toaqca7 '.totao?umg ouoog l(9 'p ecnoq 9141 Kre-rqr1 uelelpog 'ptolxg) p.toßO.p uDts!"tJ a11og et41i(7g rerupog 'poc 'e,tpueg-.(u3o1o3 ur) nnqoTl pve sruDwD sap Duuo1 a7 i(991 '1o3 '20€ S171 'urnesn141 rrrerTlr.nztrd 'e8puqure3 q allol ogt Jo lueu8er; B qtl^\ :tSg Syft l.ron ulBluoc osls sldr.rcsnueur e^rlcolloc oseql Jo o u lsrg eq1 '(uer.rnrluv sl leq,&\ Jo .ftepunoq eql Euqclerls er€ oser{} Jo o.t"} tsel eq1 qSnoqt) acuayg pue aofipg p ailJ '1ap1n3oy acuna?uarl 07 ser4 9 'IA[ ''I 'ureq8ut11o1q i7a1o{1pue ptop,(1 'naqcaT '"torun7u1ng'1ua1aotg'aurdsg'uoog'q.nsaq'1aruoyy np p7 a'I ßqpetuedruocce ere ecuuJd op orrelN Äq euru qcFl,lr ur's.(u1Jo uollcelloc e sI r0I1 '"rg'bce '.r.nou 'CNg:ruapa.tg pue )auoÄ'"mrua?mg'pnun7'xna11uqd atlv,7 seq 89IZ 'U fNg itawoBry 3o lueurSerg e plue uoqary 'st?notatry 's1o13yg setl t€ 1I 'T 9141 'upn1 iautag ap uots!.u alloi eqt pue pruow np p7 a'1 'u1a.tt suos aruIN n'7 'aqdv,1 p DqD^aq) a7 seqr§€ urog i(enbrun Sureg ureqt oeJrlt rqlrr*) ppmSoy acuna8uaTl Jo pg a7 'xna1pqd aqv,7 Surrreq

D7 pue nruo?ry 'rynqung 'snZ.tag 'nuuocul

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plno \ luql ernl€eJ B os[B ]ng 'f,Bp orl] Jo eEen8uel eqt Jo ruJoJ oq1 Jor{lro .re8uoy ou sr esre^ qcuorc plo uoq.^a J[3s1r ur luorre]op e ,(le.reur ]ou '(000'0€ Jo uorls reJ lou 01 seuq 000'§i urorg SurqtÄue 1B polerurlse.(1snoue,r) txe] er{} Jo t{}3ue1 eql ueeq e,req ,furu JolcBJ Jor{}ouv 'sorJoluo^ul roleru eq} ur elduexe Surcur,tuoc ou sr oJoq] 1nq'procer Joqlo eruos ro slueruEe.rg ?ur,teel lnoqlrl\ pe.reeddesrp e,req l€t{} s}ducsnu€ru peleJlsnlll Äue go e8peyzuoul ou e,/\er{ 'esJnoc ;o 'uec e 11 'ueeq e,req ,(eru uorluolut 1eu6uo är{} Jo^eleqzrr 'pe1e;ocepun Uel sB^\ }r leql 8ur,(1dur 'pelncexe ueeq lou seq I€rlrur peJnoloc e eJeqt\ de? e seq lueru8e4 olsrTJ€J peJe^ocsrp ,(1luece.r oq1 puB 'uorle.rocep o[11r[ puu soJnleurrr ou e^ur{ s1ueru8u"U ecnoq eq1 '(xrxx 'III '6-§€8I Ieqclhtr o1 Surp"rocce) ,(1qenb "rood go e"re.a,r ,(eq1 luql sruees ll lnq 'sereel JnoJ Jo eceds eq1 ur soJnlerurru e^U ,(q pele.rlsnllr oJo^\ slueu6er;8rnoqse"r15 ogl 1eq1 osle enJl pue '(se.tltrns eJnJeruru leurs euo) ]uelxe ur"Uoc e o] pelerlsnllr su,^a lueur8erg p,(eug aq] t€91 enJ] sr 11 dlqenb lseq8q lou eJea slueurSer3 o} pecnpeJ s}ducsnuuru eql }Bq} sr uorleueldxo snohqo er{} Jo

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SJdIUSSOITVhI EHJ

t6

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

It is in fact characteristic for manuscripts of verse romances to contain several different texts, not necessarily all Arthurian but usually all in verse. Manuscripts that contain prose texts amongst the verse are: BNF, fr.375; BNF, fr. 1553; Bern 113; and chantilly 472.However, in all these cases, the prose constitutes only a small percentage of the whole. In Chantilly 472 the contents are almost exclusively Arthurian verse romances, the exceptions being apartialcopy of Perlesvaus (Arthurian, but not in verse) and some branches of the Roman de Renart (in verse, but not Arthurian). Whether its present contents are those that were originally intended is diflicult to say, because the manuscript is the work of several different scribes (though not all the numerous changes in the appearance of the script necessarily indicate a change of personnel), and there are parts where the physical structure is extremely complex. In some cases the verse texts are all in octosyllabic rhyming couplets to the exclusion of texts in laisses. Whether this implies an awareness of a difference of genre (romance versus chanson de geste) or whether the distinction is purely formal is a more di{äcult question. Some notable exceptions are BNF, fr. 12603 and BNF, fr.24403 (with its companion volume in Berkeley, california, Bancroft Library, MS UCB 140). In these cases it is the octosyllabic texts that are in the minority. Some of the compilations show signs of deliberate planning, the most obvious example being BNF, fr. 1450. This begins with the'historical'sequence of Troie, Eneas and the first part of the Brut, but then interrupts wace's account of Arthur's reign to insert the five romances by Chr6tien de Troyes (though two are now defective through loss of gatherings). It then continues with the rest of the Brut. All this is clearly deliberate, and it is probably not coincidental that the versions of Chr6tien's romances in this manuscript are amongst the shortest preserved. On the other hand, the book ends with Dolopathos, which has no very obvious connection with the rest of the collection. Another, larger, compilation with several of the same texts is BNF, fr.375, but the rationale behind its organizationis less clear. The gatherings now bound at the beginning are not part of the original collection, but the rest was clearly a deliberate compilation, despite the somewhat disparate nature of its contents. It includes works by Chr6tien (Cligös and Erec occur consecutively, and there is also a copy of the doubtfully attributed Guillaume d'Angleterre), and there are various other chivalric romances, but none that is Arthurian unless we count llle et Galeron.In between, there are historical texts, fabliaux, religious works and lyrics. However, the defining feature of the collection is that it is introduced by a versified description that deals with each text in numerical order. This catalogue by Perrot de Nesle is now defective at the beginning through the loss of its opening leaf, but in its original form it must have been a substantial text in its own right (more than a thousand lines long). The first nine summaries are now missing and so is part of the tenth (Floire et

Blanchefln,'): the

the manuscripr

:..,

added the apprr

:

level, this co11ec:.

.

ciple governin s

:,

The Roruon ,i'.

-

sequence is tire :

.'

the Roman d'.1 . these were orr s. . -.

br P. tion began u h;:. for one of the r.,'. Summaries

Several

ni.1r

^

-.

.

.

.

:-

collected edit i., . . , de Guiot') Llnc ':

the other hanc.

,

begins with Io'.: considerable i-lt- * Second Conr. r. ,- .evidence to sL.:=.. 1952, 18 2-3 r \\ ' r

.

and finalll tir: 1. . colophon). In :.book would e: * volume was ; i:: '- the five romllr--:. contents addec . __ : Continuations. *. ' -,

out of 433 ) . \\, '. though it is p: :. ,

written by the romances (Er,

:.: -

r:

.

Amongst ct,..; together the \\ t r: . region (be it rl.: exemplars). As ..:

_. _

.

are no examples

-: -'

of works by 'lt e -,

,

seq(t6L 'r: gNg),lorn5r ep erdoc, eql leri] enJl sr ]I '(sroqlne 1eco1, ,(q s{ro1r\ Jo dn epeur eJe l€q1 osJe^ u€rJniluv Jo suorleydruoc eql ls8uoure selduruxe ou eJe ereql (snou,(uoue eJB slxel ,{ueur os teql uelr8) ,{,\ou{ ellr se JeJ sy '(s;eldurexe go Ä11pqupe,rc aldrurs eql q8norql ro uollcoles elureqllep q8no.lqt t1 eq) uo6er repcrged u ro eceld;epcrged s qlr.l pelelcosse sroqlne Jo sIJo.^A eq1 .req1e8o] Surrq leql leJo^os oJB eroql slxo] uelJnqlrv-uou Jo suollcolyoc ls8uoury '1x01Jeqlo ,(uu ruorJ Surqlou glrtyt'(1noc"rad pue uuctttr'sq8u3 'ca.tE) socueruoJ s(uerl?Jr{J Jo JnoJ uro.r;,(lea.rsnlcxe eJe ,(eq1teql pue 'eqlrcs olues egl Äq ue11un IIe eJo^\ slueru8urg Sutlr,rrns eql ler{} Ie}uoplculoc 1ou .(lgeqord sr 1t q8noql 'uorlelnceds ernd sr {ool lducsnueru ,(euouuy eq} urroJ }eq^\ '(gg7 go 1no se^eel 84) I?1o1 eql JIBII uuql ssel lueserder secueluor s.ueltqJr{J 'suorlenulluo3 erll qlr^{ ue,rg '(yg1 '6961 senbog) ,fun1uec qlueeulgt og} ut rotel pepp€ stuotuoc Jo elqe] or{} ,(q peelueren8 Eureq repro luese.ld eql leqteSo] secueluor e^IJ eq] dsel o1 luerue.rmbeJ ou su,ta ereql (spreluelJ€ uoos -to) pelquressu s€,t\ erunlo^ eql uor{1y\ leql sulelueJ }ceJ oq} }eÄ 'uoqdoloc s(JoInD gll^\ pue plno.ry\ {ooq eql pue oozr.rlncesuoc eq plnozlr slxel uerlgrq3 e^lJ eI{} ropro slqi uI '(uoqdoloc s6lornC qlr,l\ secueruoJ JnoJ s,uerlgrq3) uorlces Suruedo luese;d eql Ayleug pue sl ]€qrvr,(q pe,t.ollog 'uellum (suorlenurluo3 sll pue p^mad Surureluoc) lssl ^\ou sI lBt{r,v\ '(t-z\t'zs6t oq 01 lsrrJ erll ueeq e.rcq ,(utu uorlcos elppFu ogl ^\ou senbog) solcrcseJ e1e;edes eeJr{l ur operu se,^a >looq eq} leql 1so33ns ol ecuepllo tea.e,loq 'sr e.req; 'spue ldr;csnuuru eql qclq,tt q}I,lr suol}Bnul}uoC puoces pue lsJrC eql pu" plmad eJoJoq IulJeleru Suruea;elut Jo lunolus elquJeplsuoc e sr oJerll '(eqrrcs eql ,(g puo eql 1e peu8rs) secueruoJ ueIl?JqC JnoJ qll/y\ surEeq ldr;csnueur lolng eq1 qSnoqtle 'leql peroq{ueuer oq ppotls 1l 'pueq rel{}o eq} ug 'sluour8erg .(euouuv eql ,(g peluesardu lducsnueu lsol eql pu€ (,lotng ep ordoc, eql) n6L'U gNg ere elqelou lsolN 's{ro.r\ s,uel}grq3 Jo suor}rpe po}colloc eq o1 reedde leq.r.luese:d 6gy1 '4 gNB ueq] Joqlo sldrrcsnueru I€Je^oS Jer{}o oql roJ äleprpuec snohqo ou sr eJorll o,etl eq} Jo euo JoJ ssen8 elqeuoseer e eq tq8rur soau7 lsllqri\ pue 'e1e1duoc su, a 1l uoq,lt ueSeq uorl -JelloJ eql .4AorI ,l\ou>I louu€c eA\ lsol ueeq osle sel{ olsoN op loJJod Äq seuuununs eql Jo 3ee1 Suruedo eql eculs '@quotq ac.tag o1) (r{cuerg prlq} eq}, se ilnldxa slr ur poqrJcsop s saq?qJ esnuceq 'slxet JeIIlo o.,rn1 Äg pepace:d .(lyuur8r.ro oJeA\ osegl

]eql .&\orI)I 01 sn s^{olle ure1s,(s Surrsqurnu eq} lea.enoH'arpuqxalY,p uDu.toü aql oJoJeq Iepog ueef Jo sq?uo3 eql Jo uoruosu eql Äq peldnr.relur ueql sI ecuenbes eql lnq 'snt1tqdo,r4 p sll,llv pue arcu ,(q ps,,'tolyog s saqaql ap uowov eq;'qt1nb4un,p suDruot qll,l\ 'gsrl 'U gNg e1I 'sur8eq uorlcelloc eql 'eluls ]ueserd slr uI 'uorlsenb o1 uedo erour qcnu sr IerJeleu Jo ocror{o eq1 Suturelo8 eldtc -ur"rd Surr(1.repun,(ue sr eJeql Jorlleqa 1nq 'pezue8ro ,(1q8rq sr uorlcelloc srql 'yezrel

lecrlcerd sF{} lB 'oS 'lxel qceo Jo Trcgdxa oql o} reqrunu e}urrdordde eq} popp€ seqrJcs yeut8uo eql u€q] Jeqto euoeuros 'peleldruoc ueoq peq ldrrcsnueu eql relJv 'lcelur ere 'puoces-,(lue.Lrl eql 01 qlue^ele eql ruo4 'sreqlo erql i("rog[aqcunl{ LT

p

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s??ID) uertgl{-l ot{} elrdsep 'rI r-r : -:oql Jo uud toLI :*:-ueE;o sll pultl:.-. : uolleltduroc '-t:i- '' ,iren ou suq qrl:r , ]sepor{s oq} tsi -: 3I{} ßql IElu3F\:r. eql Jo ]ser eqtr .. -. ota ozlr] q8noil- , {: -

JO JUflOJJB

S.3--:-

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eql uI eJe IULIJ .-''.: UoJOueg 'eluJtr-i: .:-

t09zt'{ lNB ;-:' ,(1e"rnd sr uoll3i:. Jo scuereJJlp E j,: i eq] o1 slaldut-rr : -:

oql oJoq^\ sl.tur.J ;*: oql Jo OJUEJE:r.J;'' IBJoAoS JO {Jrrt : -urEr"ro eJo.!\ lu L; I :

ul) tffiuay

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sldrrcsnueIAI 'as*:'. IeJeAes urulrroJ c,-

SIdIäfS{-IITYW EHI

18

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

with Champagne, having been copied as it seems in Provins (Roques 1952, 189).It does contain all five romances by Champagne's most famous poet as well as the unique surviving copy of the Empereurs de Rome by Calendre, who also seems to have been from the county. However, this accounts for less than half its contents, and the other texts are such as might be found close connections

anywhere.

.\rthuri,-t n n ^_:.. _^. be an iirdic,,:. - :. .

t\\

O genfu'S,

Sorne

\rul.,-.

_,

In single ct-ri,.-r. .: and onlr slig:.:

"

lear-es nleasLr:-.._

Format and Appearance Some compilations are large, both in physical dimensions and in the number of texts they contain. Amongst manuscripts containing works by Chr6tien, the largest in format is BNF, fr.375, which measures 395 x 305mm, has 313 leaves and contains 23 texts (not counting the extra gatherings at the beginning that are from a different book); but this is exceptional, most Chr6tien manuscripts being between 260 and 300mm tall. Amongst the manuscripts without works by Chr6tien, the largest is Bern 113, measuring 350 x245mmwith29l leaves. At the other end of the scale, nearly all the examples of manuscripts with just one Arthurian verse text are copies of Perceval and its Continuations, the few exceptions being the very early copy of Cligös in Tours 942, the unique copies of Escanor, Floriant et Florete and Yder, and the copy of Meraugis in Vienna. The main factor in producing volumes with a single text is presumably length. Once the Continuations are added to Perceval there are at least 30,000 lines, and usually over 40,000, enough to fill a book of standard size (and the same is true of Escanor). Oddly enough, however, the longest version of Perceval (incorporating the Gerbert Continuation) is followed in BNF, fr. 12576 by the works of the Renclus de Moliens, though this may not have been the original intention since the Grail section at one time ended with several blank leaves (some now missing, others now filled with later additions). By contrast, any romance of more typical length (about 6,000 lines for Chrötien and Raoul de Houdenc) would make only a very slim volume. It is not possible to say whether such small volumes were very rarely produced, or whether they have just failed to survive (with the exception of the Cligös in Tours and the very different case of the Meraugis in Vienna, which is slim but not small). Larger books, particularly if illustrated, are more likely to be preserved even when their text is no longer read. An imposing volume carries a certain prestige, and an illustrated one may be kept for the sake of its paintings. On the other hand, the small, single-text manuscript was a common enough format for copies of chansons de geste, provoking the rather improbable notion that they were used by jongleurs to refresh their memories before undertaking an oral performance. For a critique of the term 'manuscrit de jongleur', a discussion of suitable criteria (200mm or less, single column, minimal decoration, single text, or closely connected texts) and a list of survivors (some as late as the fourteenth century), see Duggan (1982). Amongst

\,lunicipale .: I., Not much l;ti:.. uring 240 r li j:r

.

this consists ,,--,t Percet,al.bttt Ir-;. before Pert,L,''. .,' r. = be much close: : _.

columns. ^\nt t-,t. :. . two smallest ,1:New York Pub. - -of Yder in C.1n.: _ that is nou nlis>_.- . the smaller of i..; decoration. in;...: Also small allc '"' . cod. Bodmer ::

-

-

dimensions ris

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.

'mesu rant 13 5 :: : 15) with "13 p.r: .

_

the leaf that is r;I exact measurelt-;_ leaves are the S.:.-t- in two columnS .:. _

Significäntlr

:

_:

Municipale. \lS --: present state it._. , beginnirg (prob; l from quire 4 anc only text, this \\ ü _. _ extrapolate fronr : were often of this :.There is some sll:: __

.

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Surreqle8 e snld'se,ree1 ,)

9(,

S14l

'f,rutqr1,(1rs;elrun e8prrqrue3 w DpA Jo

1sql pue (uur89l x 977?unseeru se,{eel 6» Z(,1914 ,tue;qt1 cflqnd {roÄ &\eN ur ap,toll p tuql,toll So ,(doc enbrun oql :sulunloc o^u ur qloq ore ]sellBrus o^u oql 'uoll?rq3 ,(q s>Folr lnoqll,r\ sldrrcsnuuru 1xe1-e13urs eql tsSuoruv 'sulunloc oerreluc o.&r1ur pue e8rel ool leg.,lteruos ilrls q8noql }uBAeleJ oql o} Jesolc qcnlu eq plno.&\ pA»Dd egl eunlo^ e1e;edes e sy '3urreq1e8 zrrou e sur8eq p^n.tad eJoJeq saSog Tdag eql JelJe eJnl?u8rs s,reu,t.o ue qlvvr se^€ol {uelq eJB eJorll 1ng'pnac.ta1 pue 'eso;d ut aruoy ap saSog Tdag eql 'xno11qol Jo uorlce1oc e Jo slsrsuoc sql punoq rvrou sV'slerlrur pelerrolsq IIBrus oA\1seq osl€ qcg/vr'(ururggi x gp7?wm -seeru so^eol Eg() VgE uJeg sr (se,ree1 ,(ueur se ocrlvU rllr.n 1nq) :e3;e1 qcnru loN '(ruruszl x 917 Sur"rnseeru se^€olZgi 8rZ S141 'o.rrelrs.ro,rrunretul 1e eyedrcrunl4l enbpqlouqrg 'pueueg-luourrel3 pue (uurggl/tgI x 0y(,60T, Suunseour soleel gZü En6T, 9141 'euerpr€ccrg ecotorlqrg 'ecuerolg ere e8rel oo1 Ä11q8qs ,{1uo pue pLilJad ,(po Sururcluoc qcee 'uorle.rocep pel$rI ,fte,t qlrzvr 'suurnyoc e18urs u1 'sJerllo lou lnq ?rJelrJc s,ue88nq Jo eruos leeu sldr.rcsnuuru uerJnr{uv eruos 'serue8

olrl

eql uootuoq ecrlce.rd Jo ecueJeJJrp otuos lseol le s€^\ eJerll leq] uorlucrpur uu oq feur sq] pue 'euelrrc eseq] IIB loeru plno.tt Z16 sJnoJ ,(1uo sldr.rcsnueru u€unqilV

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sa

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,(q s>lJolvr ]11o r,{ : : ,' Eureq sldt;csrlrr i' :,: eJe

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SJdIäfSNNY'\I EHJ

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20

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

and small, but with small miniatures) and from copies of other types of vernacular literature (Nixon 1993a,18). The early copies of Perceval are also fairly small, but not excessively so, and the Annonay fragments of four of ChrÖtien's romances are from a manuscript that must have measured 280 x 210mm. This is very much within the range that is normal for the collective manuscripts of fifty years later. It used to be thought that the small-format manuscripts of chansons de geste were all early, but this is not so (Duggan 1982,38-9). The truth of the matter is that we have no way of knowing whether the small, single-text Cligös is typical of its time, one of several available formats that are all equally common, or a unique exception.

Apart from Turin, Biblioteca Nazionale, MS L. IV. 33, all manuscripts of Arthurian verse texts are on parchment. This is almost certainly no more than a reflection of their dates, paper being rare during the period when most of the manuscripts were copied, but common by the time the much later Türin book was

being made. Decoration is usually limited to coloured initials that alternate between red and blue, with pen-flourishing in the opposite colour. Sometimes there is a limited use of gold. These initials are mostly two lines high, with larger examples at the beginning of a text and only occasionally elsewhere. On the other hand, manuscripts without any decoration at all are very rare indeed, though ttLis may be a reflection of rates of survival rather than original production, and there is an obvious connection here with their size. Large manuscripts of any text are nearly always decorated; manuscripts without decoration are much more likely to be small. This is simple economics. It makes no sense for a manuscript that is already more costly because of its size to be made to look cheap by omitting all decoration, whereas a manuscript that is being made as cheaply as possible needs to be both small and plain. The earliest surviving illustration in the verse manuscripts that we are considering is the one small miniature (the width of a narrow column) in the Sneyd fragment of Tristan, which dates from the end of the twelfth century. There is then a gap of more than thirty years before the small historiated initial (ust over half the width of the column) at the beginning of the Charrette in BNR fr. 794, but this is the only example in the manuscript, and it is very much smaller than the miniatures in prose manuscripts of the same date (c.1230).It shows no more than a seated female figure, depicted in an entirely conventional manner, probably representing the Countess of Champagne explaining the story, either to an unseen author or perhaps directly to the reader. Not much later is the equally small historiated initial at the beginning of Perceval in Bern 354 (showing Perceval on horseback). More extensive illustration is to be found in the 82 miniatures found throughout Nottingham, MS Middleton, L. M. 6 (whose Arthurian material comprises Vengeance Raguidel,Ille et Galeron and the Roman de Silence), but these are still small (half the width of a column).

It

is not unril _,: those of the pr..s-

Arthurian \erse :_ Roman de lu irr famous pairs c,: Tristan and Yse,-: time ate the cc,r.;

-

.

Montpellier. B.: (Stones 1993

I

From then c,t . :: nearly alwar.s i.l--: l Bibliothöque d: _ BNE, fr. 1453 T:.: more than larg; r ;. elaborate illuSrr;..

_

in Princeton. L :.. Yvain). Much l:.. though other p.: r :

_

B\F. initial for Le C; . for the beginni: : for Fergus in

script

of

Esctui

,

i,

'

fr. 2L64) has St-r :... ' but this stands ;t _ '

itself is in

Occ:

the paintin_qs

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sl

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anomaly amor S:

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ichische Nation-: ^

containing onlr,-- t-. : than seventeen :: texts have an\ t i. . judge from rhe s -.: any significanr Sv -of the prose ron-.._. -

-

.

._

_

:

f)ates and Places ,-'f l The earliest mar-. : when the texts r1:; . we know, the t-rrs: -

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uollJnpoJd Jo saJBId puB salBC 'secueruoJ esord eql go uorleJlsnllr luole,rrnbe eql ueql re1e1 .(rnluec e JIeq lseol ]e sI olecs luecgtu8ts .{ue uo socueruoJ esJe^ uerJnr{gy Surlerlsnlll Jo octlce;d eq} sJo^I^Jns eql uro4 e8pnf o1 pue 'uorlerlsnp go eruure;8o;d eleyduoc e Sutqcuordde 8uqt,(ue eluq slxel IrsJC egl r(po 'gede ]egl 'leIlIuI pol€IJolsq euo pu? seJnlBIuIIu uoelue^es u?tll re,reJ ou rlly!\ pu? (urur6gZ x O6d ]eruroJ prupuels Jo ]nq '1xe1 euo ,(1uo Eututeluoc 'seleel gg ,(po go ldrrcsnueru B sr slr{J '66s2 9141 'leqlotlqlqleuolteN ellcsqcl -eJJelsO 'euuorn ur nBno.tayy oql sI slducsnuuru qcuoJd sql ls8uorue ,(leuroue IeoJ ouo eqJ 'eluoleleJ Jo ured5 ruo{ ecuongur elqeJeplsuoc,&\oqs s8urlurud eq} pue iqlnos eql ruo4 sr lducsnueru eql iqcuerg uer{} Jol{l€r ue}Icco uI sI JIoslI lxe] eqt :szfu,r. "reqlo Iere^es ur uorlrperl eql Jo lsor er{} ruorg t:ede spu€}s sqt }nq 'e8ed rod ouo u€ql erour e8e;ezre ,(oqt luq1 seJnluluru IIeIus ,{ueur os seq (Vqrc'u UNg) a{nry go sldrrcsnuuru eq} Jo euo teq} onrl sl 1I 'Sulss1u ^tou sI JBel eg} tng 'EuruurEeq eql lB ernlerurtu eEed-1lnJ e p€t{ ecuo (y7gp7 'r3 UNB) "touo)sg go lducs -nusur eql 1eq1 pelepceds ueeq seq \'1LEI'U dNg trr )arfl go EutuurEeq eqt roJ I€rlrtrr poterrolsq e pue :tOgZt'U UNg ut saVda xnap xnD DUD^aq) a7 roJ I?I1IuI pel€uolsrq e:LWl T'gNf, rrrst.tryI p s!.tDl) toJernlalurue i€§sI '.U'g519 wmSlagro1 Iep1ul pelelrolsq e :1xe1qcee go Suruur8eq eql1B uorlurlsnllr euo ueg] eroru ou e^eq sldr.rcsnueru snorre 'pelerlsnp IIo^\ eJe lducsnueur eql Jo sged reqlo q8noqt 'tOVbT, 'U f,Ng Jo )atg eql ur sernleluru eeJI{} eJe ontsso.rdur ssol qcnlN '(uqod,a pve auarfiLD aqt Surureluoc) gZI neJre1 gy41 ',fue;q11,(ltsre,rtun 'uolecutr6 ut pue'(xnalrtqd atry.'J pue utD^Ä Surureluoc) EEVI'rJ tNg ul sr uorlerlsnllr elurogele lsotrr eql sldrrcsnueur p^nnd eql luo.t3 gedy 'slelllur pe}erocep e8;el ueql e;our ou seq q3lq,v\ '6zrl 'tJ tNg Jo uotldecxe eql te,remoq 'st ereql '€§tI 'JJ gNB pueiggTl 'U UNg:gOZtttt SIAI'tn€ureH-suol I ep ?trsre^run,l openbpqlotqrg 'suo14i :eJe qcns 'seJnleruru Jo Jegrunu luecgtuSts B I{}I1!\ pel€Jlsnlll s,furvr1e ,(1.leou slducsnueru 'uo uoql uroJg eJ€ suorlenurluo3 slr pue pin.tad s(uerl?JqC 3o '(eOOt seuolg) oe:re1rs;ezrrunrelul enbpqtotlqrg ter11ed1uo141 6nT, H gy41 'eurcep?I tr uorlces pue gLg(,I'{ gNB ur suor}enur}uoJ s}r pue p^ilrad 3o serdoc eq} eJe eIuI} etrres eq] qcilu urord 'G,OZ pue 797 s?tl'06-68 '9961 sruroo1) tnesÄ pue uelsr{ ol reqloue pue 'ecrugg pue sg8ry3 o1 polo^ep sr euo srolol go s"rred snorueJ Surlcrdep suorlerlsnllr I€re^es ls8uoruy '(qgtZ '"r3 gNg) anod o1 ap uDu,toü u?rJnqilV-uou oql go ldr.rcsnueru oql ur ,(1qeqo;d sr ecueruor esre^ uelJnqlJv u€ ruo4 ouecs € uorleJlsngr .re8rey lserlJeo eqJ 'secuuruo; eso.rd eql Jo esoql Jo ezr.eq o^\ leql 08-OLU lnoqe plun lou sl lI Ie^rJ o1 oJnlerurru e go eldurexe ,(ue

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-

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SJdIU]SNNVhI EHI

22

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

surely preceded by some version of the Tristan story, possibly that by Thomas d'Angleterre, and perhaps also by the Lais of Marie de France.3 The earliest surviving manuscripts are those that some have assigned to the later years of the twelfth century. This is almost certainly a valid claim in the case of the Sneyd fragments of Tristan (Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS French d. 16), and possibly also for the defective copy of Cligös at Tours (Bibliothöque Municipale, MS 942), now dated c.1200. The Annonay fragments of four Chr6tien romances were at one time thought to be twelfth century or just after, but the current opinion is that they are more likely to be somewhatlater, perhaps no earlier than 1220, That manuscripts of Chr6tien's romances enjoyed a reasonably wide circulation as early as the 1190s is demonstrated by the fact that copies were available to Hartmann von Aue for him to make his adaptations into German. Somewhat less reliable evidence for the movement of French Arthurian manuscripts is provided by Ulrich von Zatzlkhoven, who claims to have derived his Lanzeler from a French book (presumably a manuscript of verse romances) brought to Germany by Hugh de Morville when he was one of the hostages for Richard the Lionheart. If true, this would have been in 1194, but none of it can be confirmed from other documents. Even if it is not entirely true, it is likely that by the time of writing both poet and audience took it to be plausible, but this may have been ten or more years later. In any event, by the first decade of the thirteenth century we have the evidence of Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival and the version of Thomas's Tristan produced by Gottfried von Straßburg. On the other hand, despite this evidence for the availability of French manuscripts at an early date, we must not forget that most surviving copies are significantly later, and that there is no surviving complete copy before about 1220-30. There are three copies of Perceval that have claims to be this early, some thirty to forty years after the date of composition, but the dates suggested by different scholars are so varied that it is extremely diflicult to be more precise. In Nixon (1993b) the suggested order of date (omitting smaller fragments) is: Tours, Bibliothöque Municipale, MS 942 (Cligös), with a suggested date of c.1200; Clermont-Ferrand, Bibliothöque Municipale et Interuniversitaire, MS 248 (Perceval); Annonay fragments (Erec, Cligös, Yvain and Perceval); London, British Library, Additional MS 36614 (Perceval plus Bliocadran and two Continuations); Florence, Biblioteca Riccardiana, MS 2943 (Perceual); and BNF, fr.794 (all five Chr6tien romances), with a suggested date of c.123040. Perhaps even more revealing is the fact that Chr6tien's Perceval is not only amongst the earliest of the survivors, but also amongst the latest. The survival of London, College of Arms, MS Arundel 14 (from the late fourteenth century) shows that this text continued to be copied for another 150 years (a total of some 200 years from the time of its composition). The latest manuscript to contain Arthurian verse texts is probably Turin, MS L. IV 33, which includes Meraugis,

Gliglois. l1c..; ;,' paper) is app.rr;.. \\'as badlr Cii::..,-:, _

ticable. and

',r.

-

nineteenth-c.r-:

\\-ithArundel

_.1

j.-

,

composed LrnI:. span a periorJ ,.'.

"

However. Ite .: r-' speaking frr-,nt . -. produced). There are na, r:',

contents, but

i..;:

later texts canIt,,_ : is that ther. dt :

from the four.;; romanCes of C .:.

It is also th; v._. of all. F:, ,

latest

one other bur :. wary of citing : that Froissarr s with possible I his romance. \, Meliador \\ rl s E survives in on l. both apparenri',

.,

-

_:

.'

.

though since r1 ; sure

of this.

Slightly earli;: too survives in

length as Är i -,

\ .

,

Blanchrflo,' (an Berte aus gt.ztt: :' much the sanle i . .: late thirteenth c.r.: . libraire Robert d- . number of matr-l ,.: Meliacin of Gir,,:. _

sapDruoal) s.leuepv qlr.la uI?IJo ue seJegs qcFllv\ 'suetury,p UUJIC Jo uDDlpW eql Jo roJ el leuepy ,(q s>Fozn JeI{lIe ule}uoc IIU }eq} s}dlrcsnueu Jo Jeqlunu B JoJ olgrsuodser e.rezvr slsruu pu€ seqlJos e{ues etlJ 'ruepv elsl.l ep ueqog a,no,tqq eqf ,(q pelceJrp .(lgeqord se^r leqt uelusu€Jc Jo ur3o1e Äq,fun1uec qlueelrlql o]€[ eq] tn srJed ur ep€ru su,ta lducsnueru stqa'(stto7 p s!.tol) se orurl erues eql qcnru 1e pesodurol sassml ut atsa? ap uosuoq) e) ro.r e1 leuepv ßq sqd zuot? sno altag ,(q pue (,fun1uec {1;ls4 eql ur pesoduroc ecu?uror crqegÄso1co ue) ng[aqcurtlg ta ailoll Jo uorsJo^ ,(1-ree eqt ,(q peruudruoccs sr sttll '.touDcsgr s3 {13ue1 errrus eql qcnru Sureq elrdseq '(tWt'4 tNg) fdoc euo ,(yuo ur se^I^rns ool st.tol) sI reITJee {tq8lg

sql pu€ 'ggT,I rJ! un8eq uoeq e^eq o1 lq8noqt

's1.ro'7

p

'slq] Jo orns

Ä1err1ue oq lou plnoo em Suruur8eq eql lB pe8eurep st lducsnuuw eql ocurs q8noql 'lxolreqlo,(uu peureluoc ro^eu vLtnz 'JJ dNg leql perunssB sI ll pue'uollulost ut e^r^Jns o1 q8noue 3uo1 sr touu)sg seurl 696'6E re^o 1V '1so[ A\ou ,(11ue;edde qtog 'slueur8erg Jer{}o oA\1 eurr} euo }B eJeA\ ereql q8noql ',(doc euo ,{po uI se^I^Jns ool srgJ '082I rnoqe suoruv.p ueJlc ,(q pesodtuoc o"touocsg se1(' "topltllaw eJoJeg ecu€ruoJ osJon uurJnggv lsolel etll 'ilo1 uec e./y\ s€ JeJ sY 'ecueruoJ sII{ go serdoc Äueru teet? e ur pellnser o^eq o] ruees lou op suo.lled elqrssod qlr.u slc€luoc poqs[qelso sq pue erue8 .reqloue ur JelrJA\ e sE eru€J s.]JessloJd letl] 6ur1ou qlrolv\ eq Äeur ][ 'pueq reqlo egt ug 'elduexo uB se 11 8ur]rc go frem eq lq?nu o^\ sreqlo eql IIe u€r{t Jol€l qcruu os sI lxe1 sII{} eculs 1nq leq1o euo ur sluetu8e4 qllt\ ldr;csnueur euo ur se^I^Jns '.topDlpry s.UBssIoJd 'lle Jo lselul eq; 'slducsnueur lsel\eJ oql ur lstxe socueruoJ Jelel eql legl esec eql osle sl lI 'suorlenurluoC sll pue p^nfid.{gercedse pue 'se.(or1 op uell?rqJ Jo socueluor eql 'slxel lserlJ€e eq] ureluoc o1 ,(1e11 lsoru eJe .(lnluec qluaelJnoJ eql ruo4 ,(leco,unbeun ore ler{l sldrrcsnuutr l 'rer{}re }se}el or{} ur rncco }ou op .(eql teqt st lurod EurlseJelur eJoru eql lng 'slducsnueru lsorlJee oql ur Jncco louuec slxol Jel€[ eql ,{lsnorlqg '8urcr1ou quoly\ eJe leq} seJn}€eJ uleuoc eJB eJeq} 1nq 'slue1uoc Jror{} pu? sldrrcsnueur or{l Jo sotep eq} uool\leq sdqsuotleleJ poxlJ ou oJe oJeql '(pecnpord Sureq.re8uol ou s€^\ ed,(1srqt Jo ornlurelrl uoql\,(lesrce;d) O(,EI ol08ZI sepecep rnoJ eqlurorg Sureq uorl.rodord luecgru8rs e q1r^r'(g(,tl ol OZ(,I ruo;g ?urleeds ,(1q8no;) legt JIBr{ ,(1uo 3o por.red u urq}L&\ II€J uroqt Jo IIe .(1reou Ie.Le,lrro11 '(OOtt relge 3uo1 tou o1 00Zi oroJeq .(llroqs) s.reoÄ gg7 .rezro 1sn[ go poued u ueds qJuerd ur esre^ uerrnquv 3o serdoc Sur.rrlrns eql 'snq1 '(gggt plun pesodruoc lou se^\ qclqt\) .topollary s.u€ssrord ;o slducsnu?ur oql qlr.^d pu€ ,I Iepunrv qll.t\ ,{re;odrueluoc ssel Jo eJoru eq lceJ ur ,(eru U 'suor}drrcsep Ärnluec-qlueolouru ur uezrrS suorurdo ;o e8uer aq1 uodn ,(1e"r o1 pecJoJ oJe orrt pue 'elq€rll -cu.rdurr s[ e]ep s]r Jo ]uowssesse neu,(uu ,06I Jo erg oq],(q pe8eurep.(ypeq sem 1l ecurs ,fun1uec qlueeug ,{Fee ro q}uoolrnoJ olel eq] uro"r3 ,{lluereddu sr (reded uo euo Äpo eql) lducsnueur svqa'.taruo8ry go 1ueru3€r3 B pue uoryary 's1o13119

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28

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENICH

in the Arthurian field is his prose version of Tristan (Muir 1958), but it looks as though he also made a verse adaptation of Erec, if we may judge from the few lines preserved by Du Verdier (Middleton 1993, 166-8). All this implies that manuscripts of the verse romances were still available in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, and that some people continued to show some interest. However, it is revealing that no Arthurian verse romance was put into print except by way of an adaptation into prose. The printers presumably had access to verse manuscripts, and also had an interest in their narrative content, but they judged that the verse form was no longer commercially viable. One printer who certainly knew such a manuscript was Geoffroy Tory. In his Champ fleury of 1529 he reports that he has recently seen various works of Old French literature in parchment manuscripts shown to him by Ren6 Mac6 of Vendöme (Tory 1529, Biii). The Arthurian items are the'Cheualier a lespee'(said to be by Chr6tien), 'Perseual'(also by Chr6tien) and the 'Mule sans frein'(by 'Paysant de Mesieres'). Since the only surviving copies of the Chevalier and the Mule are in Bern, Burgerbibliothek, MS 354, which also contains a copy of Perceval, this could well be one of the manuscripts that Tory saw. on the other hand, Tory's text presents some difficulties of interpretation, and the only corroborating evidence is the possibility that the attribution of the Chevalier to Chr6tien stems from the marginal note that is in the manuscript itself. Coincidentally, later in the sixteenth century Bern 354 was owned by another printer, Henri Estienne, whose signature and ex-libris are on the first folio. By the second half of the sixteenth century, Arthurian verse romances were of no more than antiquarian interest. Several are mentioned by Etienne Pasquier in his Recherches de la France, in a passage that was first published in 1596, but he admits that he is taking his information from Tory, and that he has not seen the texts for himself (Pasquier 1617,726). Only Claude Fauchet had the kind of firsthand knowledge that allowed him to write his Recueil de l'origine de la langue et poesie frangoise (1581), which remained authoritative for more than 150 years. Fundamental to Fauchet's unrivalled expertise was his own extensive collection of manuscripts (Espiner-Scott 1938a). His manuscript of the Charrette, Yvain and Meraugzs survives as Biblioteca ApostolicaYaticana, Reg. lat. 1725, andthe fragment of Meraugis in Berlin is in a manuscript that was once his. He must also have had access to copies of Yvain and Perceval that are now lost, because he transcribed extracts from them into a notebook that is now BNF, fr. 24726 (Espiner-Scott 1938b, 261-3). He also records how he found eight stray leaves of parchment in a printer's shop from which he transcribed some lines of Perceval into the Recueil (Fauchet 1581, 98). Both La croix du Maine and Du verdier in their respective Bibliothäquis frangoises of 1585 take their entries on Chr6tien from Fauchet (La croix du Maine briefly, but without acknowledgement; Du Verdier with extensive quotation, explicitly attributed). Despite his reliance on

Fatrchet. Di. \ ; prtsSession

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of

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Such copies ,-,: : obvious: tlie t;',.t. \arious earlr p:... have had 1-eu .r . . r

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Library of \\-..;. cult to find ;1r.eighteenth ce r-: -made of B\F. :: Arsenal N,IS ji

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Not verv ntlt.:which thei St-rir.; selves for use i:. :.

.

any romance b., {_ w,as F:; I

in 1838,

Charlotte rigl^:

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of sigla. Most c,-

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ical interest. br:: : Thus, after the T

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Müller for

\\-en -

-

(Livingston 19 j:. The survir.irg .r' been made for ti.. from about the c-:.

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30

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Nixon I993b,15-16 and Stones 1993). This quadrant includes Paris, Normandy, the north-east (Artois, Flanders, Hainault) and eastern France (Champagne, Burgundy). There are very few surviving manuscripts of Arthurian verse made anywhere in France outside this quadrant. From the west we have Tows 942 (containing Cligös) and perhaps the fragments in Institut de France, MS 6138 (also Cligös). From the south we have BNE, fr. 1374 (Cligös again); BNF, fr. 2164 (containing Jaufre, the one Arthurian romance in Occitan); and the two fragments of Jaufre in Nimes. Arthurian verse manuscripts were also produced outside France, and there are surviving examples from Italy, and even more from England. From Italy we have the complete copy of Jaufre in BNF, fr. 12571; the two chansonniers with excerpts from Jaufre; the passage from Cligös in Florence, Riccardian a 27 56; and perhaps the Rolandmanuscript with a few lines of Yvain (Lyon, Bibliothöque Municipale, MS 743). The scarcity of copies of Arthurian verse romances from Italy contrasts with the significant numbers of Italian manuscripts of chansons de geste and of Arthurian prose romances. Rather more numerous are the Arthurian verse manuscripts that were written in England. Most important is Cambridge University Library, MS Ee. 4.26,which contains the only surviving copy of Yder.Made in England in the second half of the thirteenth century, it eventually entered the library of Sir Thomas Knyvett of Ashwellthorpe in Norfolk, who died in 1618 (McKitterick 1978, 33 and 162). A second is London, College of Arms, MS Arundel 14, containing Chr6tien's Perceval (without Continuations) alongside Anglo-Norman lays and historical texts. Its first known owner is William Howard of Naworth Castle in Cumbria, who died in1640, but the book had presumably been in England from the time of its production in the late fourteenth century. Another possible candidate is the Perceval in Florence, Biblioteca Riccardiana, MS 2943, but the evidence is not decisive

(Nixon 1993b, 27).

Several other Anglo-Norman manuscripts are represented by surviving fragments. These include the fragments of Thomas's Tristan, the fragment of the Folie Tristan de Berne in Cambridge, the fragment of the First Continuation of Perceval in the Public Record Office, and perhaps the fragment of Meraugis in Berlin. There are also Anglo-Norman copies of some of the shorter texts. Most notable is the one manuscript to contain all twelve lays by Marie de France. This

is British Library, MS Harley 978, which comes from Reading Abbey in Berkshire. Marie's Lanval is also to be found in British Library, MS Cotton Vespasian B. xiv. Another important collection is to be found in Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Digby 86, but only the Lai du Cor falls within our area of interest, the rest being a variety of other works in both French and English. Finally, there is Cologny-Genöve, cod. Bodmer 82, containing Le Donnei des amants, Desirö and Nabarer. This manuscript was given to Sir Thomas Phillipps

'R. B.'

(rh,,.

su-,qgestion

th;:

b1'

Historv and Orn n, Little is knt,,r :- -: almost certair:.-,

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ex-libris ar t i.: Thirteenth-cel: -.l objects of an:.r .. century, and i: eenth centllr) ,._-'t Amongst nr;.. -. nine where alt'. :._

:

three where

ti,:::

we know the lt-:.

is the well-knt'''":, .' four lines at ti.; ; place of u.ork '. 1952, lgg). Ti ; Fergus in Ch-, : Madot), the n::.. controversial. :-_ early for this r.-: and the date 1:.' . known as the . , : features in or1:; : in the onll- kn.-, ,, -

-

if he were the : -:

(Middleton 1 y-: The earlies, .Perceval and: . relate to prop-: draw the tenl.i .. : prosperous bu:- - . named in the t. : family of Rais.- whose earlier i.. ,

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32

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

similar professional background was Jean Desplancques, receyeur d'Arras for the Duke of Burgundy in the 1460s, and owner of Mons, Bibliothöque de l'Universit6 de Mons-Hainaut, MS 331/206, which contains Perceval with Bliocadran and three Continuations. This seems to have been written and illustrated in or near Tournai in the 1280s (Stones 1993, 243-50), and was probably acquired by Jean Desplancques in the region. It was bound by A. Fierlin, probably in Lille, no later than the early sixteenth century (Colin 1992). A book with early aristocratic connections is BNF, ft. 12560 (containing Yvain, the Charrette and Cligös), which was amongst the property of Margaret of Flanders at the time of her death in 1405 (de Winter 1985, 250-1). Since the book was at Arras (Margaret's principal residence for the latter part of her life), rather than at Paris (the principal residence of her husband Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, at the time of his death a year earlier), it is likely that she had obtained it through inheritance from her father Louis de Mäle, Count of Flanders (d. 1384), or from her grandmother Margaret of France, Countess of Flanders and of Artois (d. 1382). Except for one debatable case, there are no romances of any kind in the inventory of the duke's books at Paris in 1404, and all references to Arthurian romances in Burgundian documents, whether for purchase or refurbishment, are to copies of prose texts (see below, p. 60). By 1400 this manuscript of verse romances was outdated in both form and appearance, being entirely without miniatures at a time when Philip the Bold was vying with his brother Jean de Berry to commission the very finest illustrated books of the day. The other manuscript of Arthurian verse that is known to have been in the Burgundian library in the Middle Ages is the copy of Meraugis that is now in Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, MS 2599. This does not appear in inventories of the library until that of 1467 (Barrois 1830, no. 1355), but we should not necessarily take this as evidence of a belated interest in this outmoded text. The book may have been in one of the duke's other residences when the earlier inventories were made, or it may have been acquired for the sake of its impressive appearance. An even later acquisition was BNF, fr. 12603, not obtained until 1511, when Margaret of Austria, Regent of the Netherlands for her nephew the Emperor Charles V bought a substantial number of manuscripts from Charles de Croy, Prince of Chimay (Debae 1995, XIID. The characteristic ex-libris at the end (see below, p. 72) shows that it was part of the Croy collection in 1486, but there is no way of knowing whether it had been in the family for generations or whether it was a more recent acquisition. It is not very likely that charles de croy (or even his father Philippe, or his grandfather Jean who had begun the collection) would have enjoyed the difficulties of reading verse romances written in Old French, but he (or they) may have wished to acquire old manuscripts simply to enhance the collection. If chosen deliberately, it may have

been so as to p:,_ were then fa s h I u Other verse r . ,--,

BNE fr.

1-15r-r.

.;,

century, and B \ Orlöans de Re:: the death of Jc. Amongst b,_-, : known e arlr i... Lrbrary, Mid,J";. Ille et GalerLlt: -:. Laval', for \\'ir,,, :-. _-

c...

The probable

the fifteenth .;:_ before 1500. ic r: is also still unc'.;

-

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manuscripts.

mentioned in ', -: l teenth centLlr', detailed to alt.Amongst t:.; . ' tion. The earr.;: when the libr-, France for hr> .- ;r have been i.lr-. -- . From the inr --- second folio. ,. copies of Ch:; " : Delisle no. 1 .:: lendemain' I E' now extant, (_, -, .

.

no. 1163: '. :. first words c,. 6568) and Ä,

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volume cont;. .. on 29 Au'pus: . i references th. be Arthuriar. 'Torrez cher.r-.:.

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SIdIUSSNNVIAI EHI

34

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

another that was removed from the library, this time by the queen herself on 11 November 1392, and the absence of the volume from later inventories means that we have no folio references. The text it contained may have been the French original of the Dutch Torec, and it may be the same text (perhaps even the same manuscript) as that described in successive inventories of the Burgundian library at Malines in 1523 and Turnhout in 1556: 'Le livre du Chevalier chercle d'or et de Parcheval le Galoy' (Michelant 1871,37) and 'Livre de Chevalier cercle d'or et de Percheval de Galoy'(Gachard 1845, item 89). Although the removal of Escanor in 1390 and of Torec in l392has deprived us of some additional information, it does reveal that the queen, Isabella of Bavaria, was interested in Arthurian verse romances at alater date than might have been expected. Not all entries in the royal inventories are quite what they seem, and some need to be interpreted with care. Thus, the 'Clig6s et Ypomecol, rym6'(Delisle no. 1101) has a second folio reference 'Calabre'that is not from Cligös, but would correspond to line 120 of lpomedon (perhaps implying that there were two columns per page of thirty lines each, with the first line used for a title or with the first verse spread over two lines because of a large initial). However, the reference for the last folio given by Delisle from the inventory of 1411 ('fet si ne sens plit') does not seem to be from either lpomedon or Cligös. However, this folio reference is given by Douöt d'Arcq as 'fet se ne s'emplit'(1867, item 108), though it must be noted that the difference is purely editorial. Despite his title (Inventaire de . . . 1423)Douöt d'Arcq takes the text of each entry from the inventory of 1411, there being no folio references in that of April 1424 (Delisle 1907 , I, 3121' 39. Nevertheless, the form adopted is extremely helpful, because it can be recognized as a corruption of 'fet centfvarianr: ces] nes emplir' (Cligös, Gregory and Luttrell edn, 6676, less thanl20lines from the end, as required by the presumed format). Thus, 'Cligös et Ypomecol' does represent Cligös and lpomedon, blut in the opposite order. Other problematic entries are 'Glorion de Bretagne, rym6' (Delisle no. lll2), whose folio references do not suit the unique, late manuscript of Galeran de Bretagne, and the 'Merengis rym6, trös vieil' (Delisle no. 1141), whose folio references do not slit Meraugis de Portlesguez. Other possible evidence for a different Meraugis (unless 'Sado' is a corruption of 'Lidoine') is the 'romaunz de Merangys et Sado'that was issued to Queen Isabella, wife of Edward II, in London in March 1327 (London, British Library, Additional MS 60584, fol.27v, lines 1l-L2;Yale 1982,50, with slightly different transcription). From a very different context is the inventory of Jean de Saffres, a dean of the chapter of Langres, who died in 1365. This includes a number of Arthurian entries in both prose and verse (Carnandet 1857, 471). Those presumed to be in verse are 'romancium dicti de Cligez','romancium dicti de Percevaux le Galoix' and 'romancium dicti de Beaudoux'(items 3,4 and 6). The occurrence of Perceval is no surprise;just as it has the greatest number of surviving manuscripts, so it is

also by far the ::. Beaudozl.§ does

there was one 1905, item lS

--

1:. 1

libre appellat Lj title should h.,'" ; standing in the the first line o i L Enide).In 1+-r amongst the 1.,.le Gal oiz, en r'. :r unless Durni ti j'

Ronde...enp.:rWe have ä ir; -,

Margaret of F--. Burgundian ,i: . examples of .\: tion until the ..v almost cert a ^: restricted to r-'1.unlikely that {- -.: looks as tho l: :. closing line 's for a volume .titles arc not s': : the inventor] book as 'preS- . : identification ,' same closin s - .. . the two inr e1r,,. r : of the ubiqlr : matter as a s-.: certainly an .. ,routes by uhi;:. in the inheri:-:.'Arras in No\ -. The distrib,.. than the histc' mostly in Fr.i.t - : homes after .. : I scripts and +t :; .

,

.

.,

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ol ,(leII or€ (slueru8ery ete I I qclrl \ Jo) 6I ,(po slueru8erg go slos 9, pue sldr.rcs -nueru esJo^ usrJnqlry Sur.trrrJns 8§ oril Jo 1ng 'se8y o1ppl141 oq] JeUe souoq lueserd Jreql poqceer 1u .(1.reeu eJeg.ttesle oJe }€rl} esoql pue 'ecue.rg ur .(llsour ,rou oJe sJo^r^Jns oql 'elucrput p1no.lt serdoc Sur.tu;ns or{} Jo Ä.ro1sq eql ueql Jeprl\ gcrur erurl euo 1e sel{ slxel osJel go slducsnueu eq} Jo uorlngrJ}slp eql '(€8t '988t seusreqeq) 80EI roquro^oN ur serrv te pn»"tad u lq8noq oq,tt 'sropy Jo sseluno3 'eplr]elN Jo äcuetrrer{ur eq} ur oreqs s p?q ercq plnoo srepuulg ao 1ere3"rey41 ro plofl eqt duq4 qclq,!\,(q selno: IeJe^es eJe eJerl] esneceg 'f"rerqu eql ut eq o1,(doc u ro3 flrun1roddo ue ,(ptegec se,r\ orer{J '(tZtpue [69 '988I seusreqeq) {roÄ Jo e{nc oq} rog tgp e se reltetu -1ce[qns sll Jo .(;]sedu] e pouorssnuruoc oq uau,rvt'lootrag snolrnbrgn er{} Jo ,(doc e peq ro^ou plog eqi dmqa 1€q1 o^erleq o1preq osl€ sI ]I 'solroluo^ul ozvu eql 3o Suqeu eql uoe^\1oq erunlol oq] o] popp€ sew wD^Ä lerll ro 'euq Sursoyc eures eq] pesn 1xo1 reqloue ßql rer{}ro esoddns o1 sn Surc.rog '4nttr q}r.l.r uol}eclJl}uepl eql uoddns o] slleJ qclq \ '(V8Vl'ou '0€8I sror.reg) ,9111roydxe senbse.rd, sB {ooq etrres eq] Jo olloJ tsel eqt Jo sprollr ?uruedo ogl spJocer LgVl Jo Ä"roluelur eq1 te,rerroll'(U1xx'9961 luoderlno(I i9971'ou '098I srorreg) peryceds lou ere sollll esor{1v\ @ttooq ,taqp paias) ,serrrq seJ}nu s.rnesrnld, q}L&\ pepuo }eq} orunlol e JoJ LBtl Jo,(rolue,rur eq] ur ue,rr8 ,.relsnorpe eEueosuoru luot,r ,(,u uo,s, euq Sursoyc eql uro4 e8pni,(eu en y'mnta go Ädoc puoces € e^Bq pp .{eqt qSnoql sB slool uerrnr{ilV reqto ssessod lou plp ,(pun?.rng Jo se{np leq1.(1e>y1un 1l 'peopq 'osre^ ,(1erue.r1xe

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Sureq (serJolue^ur egl

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SIdIUSSNNYhI EHI

§E

36

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

have been outside France before 1500, and this figure includes four that were in

1384-5., see Rr;.:,

territories that some definitions might count as part of France: three in the Burgundian Netherlands (as already indicated) and Turin, Biblioteca Nazionale, MS L. IV. 33, which was presumably in Savoy. Only those that were made in England and Italy were outside France in the broader sense. There is, howeveE evidence of various kinds that manuscripts now lost were to be found somewhat further afield. There were, for example, at least one or two copies of Perceval in Italy. The inventory of the Gonzaga library at Mantua in 1407 includes: 'Princivallis le galoys per versus. Incipit: Qui petit seme petit cheul. Et finit: se il chierent par chemin Continet cart. 315.'(Braghirolli 1880, item 39). The title has been distorted, but the incipit identifies the text as Chrötien's Perceval, and the explicit is that of Manessier's Continuation. The copy of Perceval owned by Valentina of Milan may have been brought from Italy on the occasion of her marriage to Louis d'Orl6ans in 1388, but it is not specifically recorded amongst her books atthat time. It was later inherited by her son Charles d'Orl6ans in 1408 (Champion 1910, lxix, lxxiii and 86). Somewhat surprisingly, given the survival of so much of the Orleans library, this book cannot be identi-

Green 19-t. Erec in Engla:Round Table (;. Harley 191 1. -: England in tlie :-: There is als,-' : Most notablr. L Thus Erec. ) r ,. Welsh, and th: . version of C,'..'. Lanzelet br L Charrette. bu: . .: Germzfl, Nors; of lays by I\,Iar.preserved, are ::. in afi indepenc;.' Clerc's Fergtr: . !

fied amongst extant copies. English bequests and catalogues include a good number of Arthurian titles, but most are likely to be in prose. A possible example of one in verse is in a book in the Benedictine abbey at Peterborough at the end of the fourteenth century. This contained 'Tristrem Gallice' and Amys et Amilion Gallice' (Blaess 1973, 343). Since the prose Tristan is too long to share a volume, it is likely that both texts were in verse, though whether the Tristan was the version by Thomas or Beroul, or some other that has not survived, would be pure speculation. The only document that provides sufficiently precise information to identify texts and manuscripts beyond doubt is the library catalogue of St Augustine's Abbey at Canterbury. Thus, 'Romautz de per le Galois, 2o fb. et oreisons'(James 1903,373, item 1530) is confirmed as a copy of Chr6tien's romance by the opening words of its second folio (Perceval,I57). Less certain in its identification is the 'Romance de Perciuall & Gawyn'owned by King Richard II, though this too is likely to have been Chr6tien's Perceval.It appears in a list of books in 1384-5, but it had previously been recorded in the Issue Rolls of the Exchequer as having been handed over to thevalet de chambre John Rose in1379.It could have been the 'romatJrtz Perceual coaperto de coreo albo' released by command of Queen Isabella to Thomas de Useflete in March 1327 (London, British Library, Additional MS 60584, fol. 27v,line 7; Yale 1982, 50, with slightly different transcription), and it is presumably the'Perceual & Gauwayn'bequeathed by Isabella to Edward III in 1358, and inherited by Richard II ln 1377. However, far from being a 'catalogue' of the royal library at the time, the list of 1384-5 records books that Richard had already discarded (for the text of the lists of 1358 and

see

,

-

2000 , 211- 1 -1 : versions of th::: These are i Pt;'.

.

with episodes :: Vengeance Äci:.-,

abridged vers^,- rvoet (related i,-- :

All these rr;..: originals. The,-- r: France and e].: French manlls-: their own col.:- . saga appear t c, I ; Willehalru.

-

-

Texts and }Iaru>t

In considering

::'

significant ditf.. . by comparison ,

Jo sles ,, snld '8S) osJe^ uerJnqpv Suureluoc sounlo^ eql qlt.&\ uosuudruoc,(q (OSf ;o uorSe.r eqt ur) sro^r^rns oql Jo reqrunu reorls eqt sr socuereJlrp tuecrpu8rs euo 'esord ut slxol uerJnrllJy go sldr.lcsnuuru oql Suueprsuoc u1 ]sour eql Jo s1dgcsnuz141 puu slxol

esord uulrnq1ry Jo sldlrrsnuutrN

puB 8§t I .lc :-i sprocsr §-fia. IUOJJ JEI '-i3 \t':'.

-

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^\oll" re{crqt reJ po}erelol se8y

olppl1zt1

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SIdI}IJSNNVI\I EHI

46

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Library, MS Douce 215. There is some evidence that this may have been a single volume at one stage, but it was certainly in only two volumes when it disappeared from the Abbey of Sainte-Geneviöve in Paris early in the eighteenth century (Kohler 1898, xciii, item 6). It is described as 'deux gros volumes'in the two catalogues of the library preserved in Paris, Sainte-GeneviÖve, MS 952 (fol. 16) and MS 965 (p.17), and the first of these also has a note by Mercier de Saint-L6ger recording its absence, and another giving its shelf-mark as T 7 (which is what appears on the opening folios of Amsterdam vol. I and Douce 215). On the other hand, we should not suppose that all prose manuscripts were particularly large, nor that they never contained unrelated texts. It is true that no survivor is as small as the smallest of the verse, but quite a few are no bigger than more typical verse manuscripts. For example, nine of the twenty-one surviving manuscripts containing texts from the Lancelot*Grail Cycle that were in England during the Middle Ages are no more than 300mm tall (Middleton 2003, n.43). This proportion of nearly half is not repeated outside England, but there were certainly some smaller manuscripts elsewhere. The sizes given by Micha (1960-3) for copies of the Lancelot are an easily accessible guide. His list includes eight of the nine smaller manuscripts that were in England, all now in the British Library: MSS Egerton25l5 (267mm); Lansdowne 757 (225mm);Royal 15. A. xi (185mm); Royal 19. B. vii (300mm); Royal 19. C. xiii (300mm); Royal 20. A. li (275mm); Royal 20. B. viii (266mm); Royal 20. C. vi (185mm). The ninth (containing the Estoire and Merlin) is British Library, Additional MS 32125 (250mm). Smaller manuscripts of the Lancelot that were in France during the Middle Ages are: BNF, fr. 1430 (289mm); BNF, fr.12573 (280mm); Aberystwyth, National Library of Wales, MSS 445-D (280mm) and 5018-D (297mm); Escorial, Monasterio Real de San Lorenzo,Ms P.1I.22(289mm); Fribourg, BibliothÖque Cantonale, MS L. 310 (292mm). The dimensions given by Micha for New York, Pierpont Morgan Library, MSS M. 805-06 are in error; the library describes these volumes as measuring 346mm. There are also some examples of Arthurian prose manuscripts with additional texts (not counting those compilations with interpolated texts that have already been mentioned). A notable case is Berkeley, Bancroft Library, MS UCB 106 (ex Phillipps 3643), which consists mainly of texts in verse, but also contains the Estoire and Merlin, though there is some room for doubt whether this was the original intention. It is now in two volumes, and although the present division does not fall between the verse and the prose, there are signs that the manuscript

was at one time bound in a different order. Equally significant is BNF, fr. 95, whose Estoire ard Merlin are followed by the Sept sages de Rome and the Pönitence Adam, despite the fact that it is believed to be a companion to New Haven, Yale University, Beinecke Library, MS 229, which contains Agravain,the Queste and the Mort Artu (Stones 1996). Other examples are: BNF, fr. 770, in

which an -E,I, , , Histoire cl ()t t i i'c -'"

-. in l2B4: Arsir-..: Biblioteca Ap,:. by Garin cle \l which the -11r ,, 93J , in which Ilast had been c.' and 7), but bt . Jörn Günther Most prose r-.-: Queste is

fol1Lr',',

;

"

,--

extensive proSr-.

lavish illustrLr.i. pictures, not . :." must not, holr ;' ; type. Even an.,- :. .

assumption t h .: their more e\i...

.

:

importance. \\ owned b1, mf it. I : volumes. This :., : side-effect

oi

:.

.

Malory. N'Ir-rr; . r' thought it 113-;-. substantial lr'a. -,. ception. A1l ti.. : volumes at nt,-- : particularlr ii. E scripts of tlie I-" are relatir.el) S:-. -: and the other i :'larger manllsc:-: : reason to belr;-, = much diffictrlt., : Thomas Malc,:(Meale 1985. t rto consider ht i,, .- .

.

really was a rri r.:

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SJdIUfSNNV'\I EHT

48

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

In France, however, the fifteenth century witnessed a new type of manuscript production, in which outward appearance was very much a prime consideration. The number and quality of the illustrations had always had a major influence upon the price, and those that could afford it might buy more than one copy of the same text if the volumes were sufficiently attractive. Older copies might be replaced by those that were newer, and plainer copies by those that were more prestigious. Kings and dukes might acquire multiple copies as a result of gifts or by inheritance, but except for the production of bibles and service books it is not until the fifteenth century that we encounter situations where the making of a particular book is more important than the copying of a particular text. This change of emphasis appears in commissions to produce a copy of a text that the patron already owns, in commissions to produce two or three matching copies of a particular text, and in repeated commissions to produce copies of the same text in different formats. The last of these categories is most obviously exemplified by the Duke of Berry and his many Books of Hours, but there are no documented cases amongst Arthurian manuscripts. For the production of matching copies we can turn to Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, who in 1403 paid his agent Jacques Raponde for three copies of the Fleur des histoires de la terre d'orienr (Cockshaw 1969,no.55). One of these was for his brother the Duke of Berry, the second for his nephew the Duke of Orleans and the third for Philip himself. As an Arthurian example, it is likely that a similar commission is at the origin of the two matching copies of the Lancelot-Grail that are now BNF, fr. 117-20 and Arsenal MSS 3479-80, the first owned by the Duke of Berry, the second by Philip's son, John the Fearless. If this double commission is not fully documented, it is probably because Philip the Bold had died (on 27 April 1404) before the books were ready. The copy owned by Jean de Berry was obtained by him from the Parisian bookseller Regnaut du Montet in January 1405 (Delisle 1907, Berry no.270), but it is hard to believe that the production of these expensive matching copies was a commercial speculation. It is usually assumed that the Arsenal volumes are the book for which John the Fearless paid his (and his father's) Parisian agent Jacques Raponde in 1406 ot 1407, and this is probably so, despite some discrepancies.a The classic example of a bibliophile making new books using texts that he

already owned is Jacques d'Armagnac, Duke of Nemours, who seems to have supplied the exemplars for manuscripts that he commissioned (see below, pp. 66-8). One characteristic of these productions is that they often combine existing texts in a new way. This is especially noticeable in the case of Jacques d'Armagnac's Arthurian compilation that is now BNF, fr. 112 (Pickford I959l6}*),but it also applies on a smaller scale to the Lancelot-Grail of the dukes of Berry and Burgundy, which is distinguished by the use of the prose adaptation of Chr6tien's Charrette (instead of the usual prose version of the same story) and

the

te\t.rr3:: I.

books. Tir: rlre conceir

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:;

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.

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plausible interr : produced tlirs : extremelr- ,J1l: . -decade 1l 1()-Gautier de \l:: even with a J-,.; remain. This ^. t. manUsCript tr.: J. most decaden. ,. . oretical terms. : -. .

.

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50

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development to be preserved exclusively by the oldest manuscript. Even if we allow that the later manuscripts all derive from even earlier exemplars, it still implies that there were more stages between the original and the Modena text than might have been expected for the supposed time available, or that the deterioration from one copy to the next was on a much greater scale than would have been anticipated. Only if the Modena manuscript were shown to be later than 1250 could we be comfortable with the conventional view of the prose Joseph and its manuscript tradition. Another difficult case is that of the Vulgate Estoire, whose recent editor suggests a date of composition 'post6rieur ä 1220-7225'whilst accepting the date of 'environ 1220' for the Rennes manuscript (Ponceau 1997 ,1, xiv). If there were no more to it than this, the apparent conflict of dates might be resolved by taking a liberal view of the approximations involved. However, the text of the Estoire in the Rennes manuscript is partly from the short version and partly from the long version (Ponceau 1997,I, xxvii-xxviii and xxxi-xxxiii). Thus, whichever version is the earlier, the combination of the two places the Rennes manuscript at two removes from the beginning of the tradition. Only in the highly improbable event of its own unique combination being the original form of the text can this manuscript be close to the date of composition. Consequently, if the manuscript really is as early as 1220, the time needed for the development of whichever version was secondary and the subsequent mixture of long and short forms implies a date of composition that is surely no later than 1215, and probably no later than 1210. Even the mechanical copying of the manuscripts would take several years, without allowing for any delay between successive copies or for the additional time required by such deliberate editorial intervention. However, since it is also normally supposed that the creation of the Lancelot-Grail Cycle began with the expansion of the Lancelot section and with the addition of the Queste and Mort Artubefore the incorporation of the Estoire, this would place the origins of the Cycle no later than 1200-10, and the non-cyclic Lancelot would have had to have been made either at the very beginning of that period or even earlier. Such a possibility would have profound consequences, not least of which would be the possible role of Walter Map. When the Cycle was supposed to be from later than 1230, the attribution of some of its parts to Walter Map, who died on 1 April 1209 or 1210, did not require serious consideration, but if the Cycle were earlier the least that we should have to allow is that the attribution was made while Walter Map was still alive. This does not make it true, of course, but it does alter its significance. Such a date would also cast a different light upon the reference to the story of the grail in Helinand's chronicle, itself of uncertain date, but presumed to have been written not long after 1204 and certainly before 1227 (Lot 1918, 136-7). Perhaps most significant of all would be the consequences that an early date for the Lancelot-Grail Cycle would have for the

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Universitätsbibliothek, MS 526, whose colophon gives both the date and the name of the scribe: 'Explicit. Arnulfus de Kayo scripsit istum librum qui est Ambianis. En l'an del Incarnation M. CC. IIII"'. VI el mois d'aoust le jour devant le S. Iehan decolasö'(Frappier 1936, xxv). Loomis (1938, 94) prints this colophon without 'devant' and inexplicably interprets the date as 27 August; Micha (1958, 86) includes odevant' but gives a self-contradictory date: 'le mercredi 26 aoürt1286'. As it happens, Wednesday is correct, for the beheading of John the Baptist is commemorated on 29 August, making the date of the colophon 28 August 1286, which was indeed a Wednesday (given correctly in Hutchings 1938, ix). The form'ambianis'presumably means either that the scribe was a native of Amiens or that he was living and working there at the time. In either case, by this date, 'de Kayo' might well be a family name, so it does not guarantee the scribe's own place of origin (though it was no doubt derived originally from one of the several localities within easy reach of Amiens that are named either Caix or Cayeux). This point is somewhat more than academic, because the manuscript of the Estoire (with embedded Joseph) in Le Mans, BibliothÖque Municipale, MS 354 has the colophon: 'Explicit. Walterus de Kayo scripsit istum librum'(without date). This manuscript has sometimes been assigned to the second quarter of the fourteenth century, but it is in fact one of a group made in the last three decades of the thirteenth century, and there is a manuscript of the Image du monde from 1282 with the colophon: 'Explicit. En l'an de l'incarnation M. CC. IIII*' et II. I'escrit Wautiers dou Kai, foi que jou doi a Deu' (BNR fr. 14962). The similarities between these colophons (the identical wording of the two in Latin, and even the fact that they are in Latin at all after vernacular texts; and the form of the date in the two that give it) prompt the speculation that there may be connections (of family or place of work) between these scribes. There does not appear to be any connection between Arnulfus ... ambianis' and the 'Ernouls damiens'whose name appears in a colophon to the Lancelot of Oxford, Bodleian Llbrary, MS Rawlinson Q. b. 6, fol. 187v, as having written 'la branche de Galeholt'[sic, not as transcribed in the Summary Catalogue]. This manuscript was probably made in Paris in the early decades of the fourteenth century, and the hand is not the same as that of Bonn 526.The elaborate style and layout of the colophon seem to eliminate the possibility of the name's having been copied from an exemplar. Other dated manuscripts earlier than the fifteenth century are: BNF, fr. 122 (a Lancelot-Grail dated'le lundi prochain devant le jour de paskes flories en mars l'an mille CCCXLIIII' i.e. Monday 14 March 1345 rather than Monday 22 March 1344); and BNF, fr. 335-6 (a Tristan'qui fut fait l'an mille III" IIII*" et XIX la veille de Pasques grans' i.e. 17 April 1400 rather than 29 March 1399). When converting these dates to modern forms it is normally safe to assume that French documents of the period will follow the practice of the royal chancery

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MS Ashburnham I2l' (I, 372, n. 84). This is said to have been illustrated by the Maubeuge Master, a claim later repeated under the reference 'Florence, Biblioteca Laurentiana Ashburnham l2l. Roman du Graat (II,176). The oflicial shelf-mark of this manuscript in the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana is MS Ashburnham 48 (though the Rouses are not alone in using the number 12l,for it was MS Libri 121 when owned by the Earl of Ashburnham). It contains a Queste

(rather than the Estoire that one might have supposed from the titles given), but it has a colophon stating that it was made in Avignon in 1319 (sometimes read as l3l4). Such claims are not always reliable when found on manuscripts that have passed through the hands of Libri (who had a habit of forging provenances), but in the present case the style of the miniatures themselves is confirmation enough (Stones 1996,213,215,2I9, etc., n. 59 and figs 8.5 and 8.9). For the first 100 years or so, the production of verse manuscripts continued alongside the prose, but by the middle of the fourteenth century the copying of Arthurian verse texts seems to have been almost entirely abandoned. The copying of the prose romances, however, continued unabated through the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries until print became the dominant medium. There are even

examples of manuscripts of Arthurian prose being produced in the early sixteenth century. The latest datable manuscripts seem to be the Lancelot in BNF, fr. 1427 (dated 1504) and the copy of Ysaye le Triste in Gotha, Herzogliche Bibliothek, MS 688, which has the arms of Louis de la Ti6moille (who died at Pavia in 1525) and of his second wife Louise Borgia (whom he married in 1517), implying a date of production in the period l5I7-25 (Giacchetti 1989). Other manuscripts assigned to the sixteenth century are the copies of Tristan in BNF, fr. 24400 and Ghent, University Library, MS 6; the copy of Guiron le Courtois in British Library, Additional MS 36673; and possibly the Merlin and Suite in St Petersburg, National Library of Russia, MS fr. F. pap. XV. 3. We should also remember that in the late 1520s Pierre Sala of Lyon produced a version of Tristan that survives in two manuscripts (Muir 1958). In considering how manuscripts of Arthurian romances gave way to the printed editions there is a difficulty of comparing like with like. The new printed editions were effective in producing a readable copy of the text, but despite the use of woodcuts and the provision for decoration to be added by hand, they were no match for the traditional product as works of art. In earlier centuries this deficiency might not have been so important, but the nature of book buying and of book collecting had been changing. The lavishly illustrated volumes of the fifteenth-century bibliophiles would have had nothing to fear from the new printed editions. The problem is in knowing how many plain copies of the texts were still being made, for it is these that would be in most direct competition with the new medium. The small number that survive are not of the most elaborate type, but not of the plainest either, and these may not be a true reflection of the

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56

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

probably be added to the list on the basis of its Anglo-Norman spellings, though the evidence from its script is less clear-cut. When considering the production of French Arthurian manuscripts in Italy we must first bear in mind that two of the prose lomances with which we are concerned were not merely copied but actually composed in Italy. 'fhe Prophecies de Merlin, attributed to 'Maistre Richart d'Irlande' and purportedly commissioned by the Emperor Frederick II, was in fact produced by a Venetian working between 1272 and 1279. Evenmore significant, especially for the development of Arthurian literature in Italian, was the Compilation by Rusticien de Pise. This was composed soon after 12724 by the Rustichello da Pisa who in 1298, whilst in prison in Genoa, wrote the French account of the travels of Marco Polo (Cigni 1992). We might also mention in this context the prose Yvain (part adaptation, part compilation), which is likely to have been put together in Italy, given that the unique manuscript in Aberystwyth, National Library of Wales, MS 444-D was made there (Muir 1964; Avrll, Gousset and Rabel 1984,25,n.25). The early copy of the Compilation by Rusticien de Pise in BNF, fr.1463 is one of a group of manuscripts associated with Genoa at the end of the thirteenth century (Cigni 1992, 522 and n. 25; 524 and n. 44, based upon Avril, Gousset and Rabel 1984, 25). The other manuscripts of this group are six copies of Tristan: Aberystwyth, National Library of Wales, MS 446-E; Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, MS Ashburnham 50 (sections of Tristan and Guiron); London, British Library, MS Harley 4389; Modena, Biblioteca Comunale Estense, MS E. 59; BNF, fr. 760; Venice, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, MS fr. XXIII; and four copies of various branches of the Lancelot-Grail: Berlin, Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, MS Hamilton 49; BNF, fr.354; BNF, fr. 16998; and Venice, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, MS fr. XI. To Cigni's list must be added two copies of Guiron: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, MS Reg. lat. 1501 and Venice, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, MS fr. IX; a unique Queste in Udine, Biblioteca Arcivescovile, MS 177; and the prose Yvain in Aberystwyth, National Library of Wales, MS 444-D (Avril, Gousset and Rabel 1984, 25, n. 25). Other manuscripts made in Italy include copies of all the principal prose romances. The copy of the Estoire, Merlin and Suite in Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Douce 178 has miniatures that were probably painted in Bologna c.1270-85. In addition to those connected with Genoa there are five other Italian copies of Lancelot (or of parts of it): Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Lauenziana, MS Plut. 89 inf., 61; London, British Library, MS Harley 4419 (ltaly or southern France); BNF, fr. 767 (Tuscany); BNR fr.773 (Bologna); and Venice, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, MS fr. XII; though probably not Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Douce 199, which is included as Italian by Delcorno Branca (1998, 20), but whose miniatures were almost certainly painted in France. The Mort Artu in Chantilly, Mus6e Cond6, MS 649 was written for Brexianus de Salis who was

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any owners. The earliest recorded commission appears to be Darmstadt, Hessische Landes- und Hochschulbibliothek, MS 2534 (containing the Estoire, Merlin and Suite), which is said to have been made for 'le bon Comte de bloys jadis signeur de byaumont'(fol. 210). This is presumed to be Louis de Chätillon, Count of Blois, who died atCrÖcy inl346 (Schmidt 1890). Another early mark of ownership is the note (in mirror writing) on the last folio of BNF, fr.770 stating that it was lent by 'Pierre des Essars' to the Duke of Normandy. It is usually supposed that the owner of the manuscript was the Pierre des Essars who died at Cr6cy (Delisle 1868-81, I, 15; Brunel1923, xxxv, n. 1), but his career has been confused with that of his father (also called Pierre). The father held a number of oflicial appointments, but was most important as the foremost banker and financier in France. He was Argentier du Roi and Receveur de la Reine from 1320, and became Maitre des Comptes in 1336, in succession to his brother Martin. Before moving to Paris, Martin had been mayor of Rouen, and both Martin and Pierre were burghers of Rouen as well as burghers of Paris. Towards the end of his career, in October 1346, Pierre was imprisoned for alleged financial irregularities, and condemned to pay a fine of 50,000 livres. Such an enormous cash sum would have been beyond many of the highest in the land, but Pierre paid it inMay 1347, and was duly released. He died in 1349 without being restored to the king's favouE but in 1350 the Duke of Normandy, to whom the manuscript had been lent, acceded to the throne as King John II, and by February 1352 Pierre had been pardoned, and the amount of the fine was reimbursed to his heirs in October 1353 (Cazelles 1958, 23942). As implied by his title, the Argentier did have responsibility for the king's silver, but his principal duty was the procurement of all the cloth required by the king's household (Douöt d'Arcq 1851). This would have resulted in frequent journeys to the centres of production in Flanders, and constant dealings with Flemish merchants in Paris. Possibly as a consequence of these connections, Pierre was employed on several diplomatic missions to Flanders and Hainault, and by 1338 he was in receipt of a pension from the Countess of Flanders (Margaret of France, later also Countess of Artois, d. 1382, a possible owner of Arthurian volumes that found their way to the Burgundian library). Pierre's most significant mission was to Binche in Hainault in 1345-6 to assist in the negotiation of the marriage of Louis de Mäle (son of Louis de Nevers, Count of Flanders, and Margaret of France) with Marie de Brabant (Cazelles 1958,210, in contrast to Anselme 1726-33, VIII, 555, who wrongly describes the prospective marriage as that of Louis de France, second son of the Duke of Normandy, and who attributes the mission to Pierre, the son, who died at Cröcy). This marriage was a matter of considerable political importance, because it was designed to frustrate the attempts of King Edward III to create an Anglo-Flemish alliance by offering Louis the hand of his daughter Isabella, and it paved the way for Louis de Mäle (Count of Flanders after the

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SIdIUSSNNVI^I EHJ

E9

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

64

1980, 98). The complete Lancelot-Grail Cycle in Arsenal MSS 3479-80 (already

(Barrois 1Eit"t. :.

mentioned as the twin of BNF, fr. 117-20) is probably the book that features in the payment of 1406-7, and it is certainly in the inventory of 1420 (Doutrepont 1906, item 68) and that of 1467 (Barrois 1830, no. 1235). The copy of Guiron le Courtois (Barrois 1830, nos l24l and 2184-5) is now Arsenal MSS 3477-8, and the copy of Ysalie le Triste (Barrois 1830, nos 1282 and 1834) is now Darmstadt, Hessische Landes- und Hochschulbibliothek, MS 2524. These last two entered the library in the time of Philip the Good, as did the six volumes of Perceforest (now bound as twelve) that are Arsenal MSS 3483-94 (Barrois 1830, nos 1253-8, in which no. 1253 is wrongly described as the sixth volume: the preceding nos 1248-52are five volumes of Perceforesl on parchment bound in yellow leather, all now missing; the scribe who copied the surviving text of this inventory was expecting a sixth volume to complete this set, but no. 1253 is not it; this is clearly the first volume of the following set on paper bound in black leather, in which nos I254-B have the correct second folio references for the volumes2to 6 that they are said to be; the matter would have been settled beyond doubt if the entry for no. 1253 had included a second folio reference, but it does not; this is probably because the volume was not physically present at the time of the inventory, there being a note in the margin saying that it had been borrowed by Monsieur de Saint-Pol). Given what has been lost as well as what has survived, it is easy to create the impression that Arthurian literature enjoyed considerable popularity at the Burgundian court, but this is not what the evidence really shows. It is true that at

de Croy, Cour.:

its height in the later fifteenth century the collection had more Arthurian volumes than any other in the kingdom, but we must remember to keep this in perspective. After the sale of the royal library in 1425, and its subsequent dispersal, the Burgundian library was much larger than any other in France, and when this is taken into account it emerges that the Arthurian volumes (even with

the broadest of definitions) formed only a small proportion of it. The nine Arthurian volumes recorded in1420 represent 5 per cent of a total of 181, and the thirty-three Arthurian volumes recorded in 1467 represent only 4'lo per cent of a total of 788. Despite the increase in numbers, the proportion has fallen, and there are larger holdings in almost every other sphere. As for whether the dukes themselves took an active interest in their Arthurian volumes, the evidence is remarkably ambiguous. Take, for example, the expensive Lancelot-Grail of Arsenal MSS 3479-80.If this was commissioned by Philip the Bold as one of a pair with BNF, fr. ll7-20 for himself and his brother Jean de Berry, it would imply a certain commitment, but the belated payment by John the Fearless does not necessarily show any interest in the matter beyond that of settling his father's debts. In any event, it was later allowed to leave the library in the time of Charles the Bold or Maximilian, for it is in the inventory of 1,467

L

ex-libris (no,,i ; (recorded rn . Bibliothöque \ I Burgundian 1.: de Croy b1 \ L: book's o\\'ners speculation. E', " art than of lii;: text that \\.oLllc : it was an obiec: all the other \ ,:. Another c.1s: have commit.= produced the ', ; Yet we sholrld s: on paper duri:.: lifetime. The) .l indicated abo,, ; being at Ghe:.: .

Brussels

in

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time in the ptrs>-

mottoes and s.J that they spenr .' the histor)'oi :.., \rolumes that s --: have paintings :

so there is no c.; made into a nt ment arc not t1"; nos l24B-51 t. ,,," Earlier in tii: fr. ll7-20 (De.., (Delisle 1907 . B: Nationalbiblici:. the inventories tiom Regnaur c -. -

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70

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

of the new royal library that was being created at Blois (Delisle 1868-81, I,140*6; Van Praet 1831). The Arthurian items are: the Lancelot in BNF, fr. 127; the Lancelot, Queste and Mort ArtuinBNF, fr. 122 (dated1345); the same three texts in BNR fr.l23 (which was probably made in England);the Estoire and Merlinin BNF, fr. 749 (which seems to have spent some time in England); the extended Guironcompilation in BNF, fr. 358-63; and the Perceforest in BNF, fr. 345-8. The manuscripts obtained from Louis de Bruges were added to the collection at Blois (many of the volumes still bear distinctive Blois shelf-marks), and they feature in the inventories of 1518 and 1544 (Omont 1908-21,I). In most cases some effort has been made to replace the arms and devices of Louis de Bruges with those of France, but this has rarely been done thoroughly enough to cause any difäculty in identifying the previous owner. The basis of the library at Blois was the collection made by previous dukes of Orleans, and inherited by Louis d'Orl6ans before he succeeded to the clown as Louis XII. This had been at Blois since the fourteenth century, and there are inventories of various kinds from 1417, 1427, 1436, 1440 and 1442, as well as many other documents relating to purchases, commissions, repairs and other matters (Champion 1910). Amongst the Arthurian items can be found a copy of Froissart's Meliador (Champion 1910,45-6), which is often identified with BNF fr. 12557 for no better feason than the presumed scarcity of copies of such a little-known text. In 1399 a copy of Guiron le Courtois was repaired for the duchess, Valentina of Milan, and it remained hers (rather than her husband's) until it was inherited by her son Charles d'Orl6ans, the poet, in 1408 (Champion l9l},48_9 and lxxiv). A more complex case is the 'grant livre en frangois faisant mencion du roy Arthus' (a large book in French mentioning King Arthur) that was bound in red leather for the duchess in 1402. This is presumably the volume in red leather recorded as 'Les histoires du roy Artus, du saint Graal' in 1417,1427 and 1442.The two later inventories also note that it is'moult viell' (very olS andthat it lacks its beginning (Champion 1910, 9-10;Le Roux de Lincy 18434, item 71). It is identified by Champion with lhe Lancelol in BNF, ft.1430, which certainly comes from the Orleans collection since it has the note 'de camera compotor. Bles.'(on which, see Champion 1910, lxvi). This could fairly be called very old in 1427 (given that it is thought to have been written 1215-25), and it is defective at the beginning as specified by the later inventories. On the other hand, it has no Grail text, and at 289 x200mm it is unlikely to have been called a large book, as it was in 1402. When the library was moved from Blois to Fontainebleau in 1544, the future BNR fr. 1430 was recorded in the inventory under the title that is written in a sixteenth-century hand on its first leaf: 'Histoire du roy Arthus et de la Table Ronde' (Omont 1908-21,I, 216, item 1257; Champion 1910, 10). However, the inventory describes this manuscript as 'couvert de cuir blanc tout rompu' (covered in white leather all broken). Since this binding was already in

poor conditit-,1was white rllls-> still bound irt :; inventories is B \ 1910, xv). anü .. ments: it has .-

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l2

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

manuscripts that have the ex-libris of Prigent de Coötivy. The Meliadus is probably the copy of the Compilation by Rusticien de Pise preserved in BNF, fr.340, with miniatures from the workshop of the Egerton Master, who worked for the Duke of Berry (Lathuillöre 1966, 60; Meiss 1967, l, 357). There is a copy of Tristan in London, British Llbrary, MS Royal 20.D. ii, but this was made too early (c.1300) to have been illuminated for Prigent himself, and it is therefore not the one mentioned in a payment to Hancelin for the illumination of a Tristan, a Lancelot and a Guiron. Possible candidates for the other two manuscripts included in this payment are the Guiron in BNF, fr. 356-7 and the Lancelot represented by groups of fragments sold at Sotheby's (14 July 1981, lot 30; 2 December 1997,lot 65; 6 July 2000, lots 23-6) and at Christie's (3 April 1984, lot 62). Both of these manuscripts have miniatures by the Dunois Master (the artist of the Coötivy Hours in Dublin, Chester Beatty, Western MS 82), but it is not certain that they were made quite early enough for Prigent's commissions in the 1440s (Avril and Reynaud 1995, 37-8). It is assumed that Prigent's library passed with his other property to his younger brother Olivier, and at least one of the books was later owned by Olivier's daughter Catherine de Coötivy, whose arms feature on a number of manuscripts at Chantilly (Picot 1897, 3 18-22), but none is Arthurian. Later in the century there was the larger and better-known library of Philippe de Croy, Count of Chimay (d. 1482), and of his son Charles (d. 1527). Their collection of some seventy or eighty manuscripts was systematically reviewed in 1486 (the year in which Charles was elevated from Count to Prince of Chimay by the Emperor Maximilian), and each manuscript was provided with an ex-libris at the end, giving a list of contents, the number of miniatures, Charles de Croy's title as Count (or occasionally Prince) of Chimay and finally an autograph signature. Other manuscripts that belonged to Charles de Croy that have an ex-libris of a different type at the beginning are not part of the same process (Middleton 1999, 58-61). Most of the manuscripts of 1486 were sold in 1511 to Margaret of Austria, Regent of the Netherlands for her nephew the Emperor Charles V (Debae 1995, XIII). These included: the verse manuscript BNF, fr. 12603; the Estoire in BNF, fr. 12582; the complele Lancelot-Grail Cycle in Arsenal MSS 3479-80; the Guiron (with Rusticien de Pise) in Arsenal MSS 3477-8; and the Perceforest in Arsenal MSS 3483-94. These last three items had previously belonged to the Duke of Burgundy (Doutrepont 1906, item 68 and Barrois 1830, no. 1238; Barrois 1830, nos l24l and2184-5; Barrois 1830, nos 1253-8). Some of the Croy mottoes and ex-libris have been erased, but they were recorded by Achille Godefroy in 1746 (Lille, Bibliothöque Municipale, MS Godefroy 93, fols 96, 7l and 44). Apparently not owned by Charles but with his father's motto ('moy seul Chimay') is the Tristan in Brussels, Bibliothöque Royale, MSS 9086-7. However, the principal owner of these volumes was Engelbert of Nassau (see

Renting et al "", jentil comte de \ A particular.'. de Graville. \\ ir,.

Graville, Adn:: eloping with irSeveral lawsui

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tions of some ,t,. between Anne -:l Library, MS ESonce belongetl : his books to t1:; l go to Oxford 'ur, .. appears front .i -. (Bodleian Libr.:I a sheet of pap.: and in the nt.t t': agreed in subSr-:. The manner of ..' II. 116. It also ., -

written in 1-+ - 5 which induceti :' duces the colr.f .' unique date: 'le ,\ LXXV'. This l;-,. manuscript th"ti Douce also i.., Graville is indic -, inherited fronr . the Estoir€, JI c ;

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78

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

In a Bible historiale that belonged in l34l to

Herv6 de L6on (Paris, Bibliothöque Sainte-Geneviöve, MS 22) a later hand has written a list of the thirty-seven books in the owner's collection. These include: 'Lancelot du Lac'; 'Giron le courtoys'; 'Le sainct Greal'; 'Merlin et ses prophecies'; 'un aultre petit livre du sang Greal'; and 'un petit livre de la table ronde, Greal'(Meyer 1883). The Bible historiale bears the name of the libraire Geoffroy de Saint-Ligier and is illustrated by the Fauvel Master, who contributed to several Arthurian volumes (see above, p. 53, and Rouse and Rouse 2000, I, 206-7). Since the Bible historiale itself is a manuscript it has been assumed that the books in the list are also all manuscripts, but the list is late enough for some to have been printed. There is another important document from the period when manuscripts were giving way to print, but it is not easy to interpret. It is an inventory, usually referred to as the 'Catalogue d'un libraire de Tours' (Catalogue of a Tours book-

seller), which is preserved, somewhat incongruously, amongst letters and documents mainly connected with Ymbert de Batarnay, seigneur du Bouchage (BNF, fr.2912, fols 78-83). The list (edited in Chöreau 1868) consists of 185 items described as 'livres en frangois escripts ä la main, ä Tours devant l'ostel Monseigneur de Dunois' (hand-written books in French, at Tours in front of the hotel of Monseigneur de Dunors), followed by thirty-four Aultres livres en mistaires' (other books: mystery plays), nineteen 'Moralit6s' (morality plays) and then twenty-nine items described as 'livres en frangois en impression' (trtrinted books in French). Amongst the manuscripts are eleven volumes of Arthurian prose romance ('Tiistan en trois volumes', 'Lancelot du Lac en trois volumes', 'Merlin', 'Les proph6cies Merlin', 'Josephes du Sainct Gr6al', 'La queste du Sainct Gr6al' and 'Le petit Tristan'). Surprisingly, there are no Arthurian items amongst the printed books. The document has been well known for many years, but there is no satisfactory explanation of what it represents. It is treated as if it were the stocklist of a bookseller, but if this is really so, the number of books involved is quite extraordinary. The amount of capital needed to hold a stock of this size would have been considerable, and this would not even take account of the fact that the list includes very few of the titles that might be expected to constitute a bookseller's most regular sales: law books (for merchants as well as lawyers), medical texts (for laymen as well as doctors) and above all church books (theology at various different levels and service books for both public and private use). The religious texts are almost entirely confined to the plays and to one Book of Hours, followed by the comment 'et plusieurs aultres en grand nombre' (and several others in great number).It seems inconceivable that there were enough readers in Tours to justify a stock of this size. After all, in other contexts scholars are quick to stress that extensive libraries are the prerogative of the very wealthy, but if the Tours document represents a real stock, this would have been one of the largest libraries in France (267 items, some in several volumes, plus all those

not listed indir :; matched it (a ce: by Delisle 19(-r-. as counted br L: see how a bot l,:. maintain his St,.'that he had ob, -, tions, preferaL.1., few years. Thr-rs afit private lib,:-, speculative tc -:. course, if the b c represent his st,--', that remained .. editions. Failin i : we might har e : Outside Fran.; of Arthurian p: texts of the Ltit .

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wife of Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester. The advantage of this suggestion is that there was a copy of Lancelol amongst the books and other property seized from his castle of Pleshey in Essex after his execution for treason in 1397 (Dillon and Hope 1897, 301). Since Pleshey was part of his wife's inheritance, the books may also have been from her family, and their seizure by the king presumably led to their incorporation into whatever royal library existed at the time.

In the second half of the fifteenth century the copy of Tristan that is now British Library, MS Harley 49 received the signature of Richard of York (later to be King Richard III), and the Tristan in British Library, MS Royal 20. D. ii (which belonged to Prigent de Coötivy) has the signature of 'Gorge Nessefeld' (presumably from Nessefeld in Yorkshire). Given that the Christian name George is very rarc atthis time, one suspects a connection of some kind with the 'Georges Hessefeld'(probably for'Nessefeld') who was Captain of Vire in Normandy for Henry VI in 1420 (Dupont-Ferrier 1942-66, I, no. 4834). Other signatures on the same manuscript ('G. Hermanuille' and'Elizabeth Kykeby') remain unidentified. Various other manuscripts have names in them that may or may not refer to their owners, but the people concerned remain unidentified (e.g. British Library, MSS Royal 19. C. xii and 20. D. iii; Bodleian Library, MS Rawlinson Q. b. 6). The Estoire on deposit in Nottingham University Library (MS Middleton L. M. 7) has notes that refer to a fourteenth-century bishop of Coventry and Lichfield, which probably means that it was in the diocese at the time, but not necessarily owned by the bishop himself (presumed to have been Roger de Northburgh, t322-s9). Humfrey, Duke of Gloucester, owned the Queste and Mort Artu in Brussels, Bibliothöque Royale, MSS 9627-8, though we do not know that he ever took the book to England, and the fact that it entered the Burgundian library at some time before 1467 (Barrois 1830, no. 1263) might suggest that it never left France. Humfrey's elder brother, John, Duke of Bedford, Regent of France for their nephew King Henry VI, acquired the French royal library in 1425, and it is supposed that many of these books were eventually taken to England. Information about particular volumes is almost entirely lacking, though it has been speculated that some were later acquired and returned to France by Louis de Bruges (Delisle 1868-81, L,145-6). Other evidence of medieval ownership in England comes mainly from inventories and testaments. To the list of Lancelot-Grail texts given in Middleton (2003, 220-l) may be added: the 'Tristram et Isolda'in the possession of Queen Isabella at the time of her death in 1358; the copies of Tristan left by Elizabeth \a Zotche in 1380, by Margaret Courtenay, Countess of Devon in 1391, by Sir John le Scrope in 1405, by Matilda Bowes, of Yorkshire, in 1420, by Thomas, Duke of Exeter, in 1426; and the Guiron le Courtois in two volumes left by Maud Clifford, Countess of Cambridge,

in

1446 (Meale ments is identit:-,

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suelr) sles erunlo^-plnru urorg Sureq evtos ounlst{ Jo serunlo^ Jeq}JnJ ueles usql Je^/r\eJ ou puei(yE pue IE sruell) esrd ep uercrlsnl{,(q uorlelduro) oq} 30 serdoc o.^A1 eq ol reeddu luq,l i(3E pue g€ surelr) srcuno) al uo4ng go serdoc orrtl !(gg wey) placuoT e i(q uey) u11.ta77y e :slducsnueur Suulr,rrns lsEuoure peg4uepr ueeq lou erruq Ä"ro1ue^ur e{ues eq} uI suolr u?rJnquv Joqlo eq} telemoH '(I I 'u '[s pue 'Lg 'rr'Ot'866I pcuurg ourocleq) 0t uetl eq ,fuur trI SW 'epa.ocse,trc.ry ecelorTqrfl 'eulpn ut arsanj oql pue ig9 uelr ,(1qeqo;d sr (Eurpurq e?ezuog e ut 11t1s) 6Z6tZ 91,1 leuolllppy tre;ql'I qsl4rg 'uopuol ut uotst.tJ eqt :Vg ruelr ,(yqeqord sr 111yy 'JJ SI tr 'euercrey4l eleuorzeN ecolorlqrg 'ecruen ril uDtst"U eq1 :(9391 111o;q3erg) 10il ul epeur ,fuergq e?ezuog eql Jo .(roluea,ur eql ur suelr eerql ro; pelseE8ns uooq o^Brl suorlucgrluepr pue 'seyde51;o Eur; 'o1uere1 Jo slnoT Jo srure eql ser{ BeeU SIN Ieuor}lppy 'Ä.re;qr1 qsr}rrg ur uoilng eq3'(SEg 'SS6t urrEe11e6) uorlecgrluepl Äue .^Aollu ot slretop qEnoue se,rl8 lerll (9ZiI 3o ]e{1) Äroluenur,(po eqt ur rue}r.(ue ot puodseuoc }ou seop }l tng '(69 'loJ) JBel tsrg slr uo rluocsr eql Jo sruru eqlseq (ecuerg ur ue11u.tt) g-Lggg 9141 'se1u16 go ,fte;qr1 IeuorleN 'ql,(1nls,fteqy ur uolstq ogl Jo ged puoces eqJ 'pegrluepr eq uec BI^€d 1e lJel osoql Jo ouou pue 'pe1sq ueeq ,(pee.r1e o^eq er^ed te uelll4tr Jo se{np oql Jo,fue.rgll oq] ruou ocuerd 01]q8noJq esoql 'sJo^r^rns eq] ]sSuoure pogrluopr eq uuc setunlol eJoru pue telue.lS eg ol rueos po^[o^ur sJequnu er{} 'pepelep oJoru eJ? sorJolue^ur eql q8noqt te1runs .(prug sr,(1e11ur uorlunlrs eql '(tOOt i9961 ue8rory-p,(olT) u?lDW gcuerC oqt uror3 e^rrep o} sruoes leq] rnquv Jo qlJlq or{} Jo uorsrel qslo \.fte1ueur8erg € osle sr ereql 'snD^sa4ad Jerer qcnru eql Jo uorlslsuBrl e ,{q pezrrollos'a\sanrt eq} Jo uorlelsuerl e :sged o,tr1 ur ,(11rcqdxe s patg rulas Ä'seuoql de u,(cdo11 Jo olcrrc oql ur,fun1uec qlueel -JnoJ relel eq1 q epeur.(lqeqord 'uorleurquoc Sursudrns e ut pue 'qsle \ ur sJsrxe osl€ IrerD eg] Jo ,fuo1s eq1 '(tgil peelstre5f slxol ressel Jo rogrunu e pue i.tnqttT auory a7 crezuels eqt i7m7 aryt lo rcp)uo7 rlsrtlocs eqt t11 't lC Shl t;erqr1 ,firsrerrun eSprrque3 Jo uurary esord snour.(uoue eql iqc11e,Lo1Ärue11 ßqptg {1og pue ulryary oq} :oJe eJerlJ 'ouole ruou JsJ ere srq 1nq tro1ery sutuorlJ rrs Jo s{ro.&\ eqt eJe luepodrur 1so141 'qs48ug olur ep?ru äJe./v\ }eq} suorluldepu pue suo4elsu?J1 erl] JoJ olqele,re sldrrcsnuuur snorJ€^ uoeq o^€q osl? lsnru eJoqI 'sJo^r^Jns eql ls8uouie elqurJrluepr sr slueru -ncop eseql ur peprocer sldr"rcsnueru or{t Jo euoN '(Of-Ogt (g66I el€oIAI) gWt ul

I8

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J3t1 -1.,

eqt :peppu

:

:..

--:

''

Jo ]sll 0tl1 l-'l_ \

q dHSJeu\\tr i-,''-: srnol Äq oJLIr.'*l seq ]I q8notif i -: 'pue18uE ot :::';: sr ]l puB '§;r . -: JIOI{} JOJ 3JLIl:*l 'ocueJc u3l i:'.: -: ,

eul|} eruos ]u .'::':: eql {oot Je \-- ::. ':'slessnrg uI tii..ti

'qErnqquo\

;:

:.

,(luessecou lt-rtt -t- -

'plelJqcl-I pltr.: ''- -

-

(t '141 'a uot3p; ; 3qJ,.o'q Ö L-,,-'{rurqrl s -.

SS14tr

-

'

.rre{} ol JoJsJ itr -'pelJlluoplutl ll t:-' eql uo seJnlt?tti:s roJ Äpueuuo \ :: se8roeg, oqt LIr:',' e3roeg ourtsu l:: .-.pleJossel{

ai:. rl.

[ 'C[ '02 1u (t'rg S ; ol rel€t) lto-\ J,:' ; ]Uql t/t^:' A\OU SI

_

l€ pelsrxo ,(JE.IC.,. eql Äq ernzles r.: -. -Jequ s6oJL\\ sll-i ."

uos?eJl JoJ tlol l:' -'

Jeqlo pUE S){trtr sF{t Jo eSututr \l''

SJdIUSSNNV}\I EHI

B2

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

the very brief descriptions: a Merlin (item 20); three copies of Lancelot (items 1, 8

and2I); two items described as Saint Graal (items 16 and 39); four copies of Tristan (items 5, 14, 18 and24); and three copies of Guiron (items 11, 19 and 28). There is also a Lancelot and Queste (item 23), and a Lancelot, Queste and Mort Artu (item 17). For details of entries in other inventories and of references in other documents, see Bertoni (1918-19) and Delcorno Branca (1998, 35-6,40-1, notes 68 and 69, and 87-8). None of these Arthurian items has been identified. In1240 the Emperor Frederick II, writing from Foligno, acknowledged receipt of a'liber Palamides', which is usually assumed to be some form of what we now call Guiron le Courtois (Lathuillöre 1973). Further evidence that manuscripts of the French prose romances were in Italy slightly later in the century is provided by what must have been available to Rusticien de Pise (writing soon after 12714) and to the Venetian author of the Prophecies de Merlin (writing between 1272 and 1279). Early in the next century we have Dante's famous description of how Paolo and Francesca had read about the kiss of Lancelot and Guinevere (Inferno, canto V), and in the course of the fourteenth century, translations, adaptations and independent compositions made the Arthurian stories available in Italian (Delcorno Branca 1998). However, the existence of these Italian versions did not put an end to the copying of the French originals, nor to the acquisition of manuscripts that had been made in France. Less well documented are Spain and Portugal, but here as elsewhere there were important translations and adaptations of all the texts of the Vulgate and PostVulgate Cycles (Entwistle 1925; Loomis ed. 1959*, 406-18). The first of these were made in the thirteenth century, and we can infer the presence of French manuscripts at an early date. More specific evidence for copies of the French prose romances comes from Catalonia in the fourteenth century. Not all the references collected by Entwistle (1925,904) are to books that are known to have been in French; the manuscripts being written for Pere III (Pedro IV of Aragon) in 1336, 1339, 1346 and 1349 (paid for in 1356) are more likely to have been in Catalan, as is the 'Langalot' sent for binding in 1.374, though the documents themselves do not specify a language (Rubio y Lluch 1908-21: II,57, doc. 59; I, 1 19, doc. 105; 1 35, doc. 127; 146, doc. 144; 172, doc. 172; II, I72, doc. 182). For those stated to be in French the earliest reference is for 6 August 13i9, when Jaume II bequeathed to his son Ramon Berenguer what is described as a 'liber de Lanqalot'(Rubio y Lluch 1908-21, 11,33, doc. 40). However, the incipit that is given as 'apres ce che maestres Gauters' identifies the text as the Mort Artu. The Meliadus in French paid for by Pere III on 27 March 1339 may or may not be the same book as the one described in more detail by the Infant Joan in a letter of 17 October 1383 (Rubio y Lluch 1908-21,1, ll7, doc. 101 and 314, doc.344). The Lancelor mentioned in a letter of 20 June 1379 as having been borrowed by the Infant Joan from the Viscount of Roda (on account of its great beauty) is

presumabll di::':

t-!

1908-2r,I. ystori at' (illt/

: ! i'-,

-

As well as ti.; verse, the

1ibr,.,:-"

Prophecies tlt, -\ ! .

what later diit: Aragon, had C,,-,1 Greal en ffranC;: 'un altre libre i:.. of Lancelol th-r: we do not knt',.', copy on parchn.; from the librar., nüm. 13'in the -_, Chr6tien's Clt,i,,, fifteenth-cent Ll r., the library of G.,,

In northenr E.. Scandinavia. e\ -.-. parts were bein= evidence for at i;..

into Dutch,

oi

.;

chatacteristic rr.' : turned into \erS; in Dutch proSe. .,. passed to Gernt -:

.

prose romance

S

:;

and somewhat l-..-

Evidence lbr : German-speakin. and the Mort .1, 1967) were allc, could well har e : few survivin,_e 11.:. been post-medie ' -,

.

MS 526, a cop.) Kayo in 1286, \: : V[ von Daun zlr r. Wirich gives a 1is: fol. 170). Given 11..:

r

selreqC 3ur» o1urelroqrueqc pu€ rollosunoc uoeq p€q qcrrrl11 1eq] ue^rC '(Ott 'tol uo 'uetu;eg ur) se.teel slr Jo Jequnu oql pue slueluoc slr Jo lsrT u se,rr8 qclJl \ g6rlu! uretsreqo te ue]lrr^\ olou e q'(I0sI-gM')) urotsreqo nz unBC uo^ IA qclrll$.3o,(rergll eql pere]ue 1r,(rnluec qtuee]Ju oql Jo puo eql lv 'ggzl ur o,(e;1 op snJlnurv Äq ue11r.r.tr epßa yo.tg-top)uo7 eleyduroc eq1 Jo ,(doc e '9Zg SI '6{oq}ollqlqs}?}lsro^run'uuog sr uorldecxe oql'suor}rsrnbce p,,rerperu-1sod ueeq e^eq ol u.ry\ou{ äJe serJeJgrl ueurJeg ut ,uou oJe leq} sldr.rcsnueur 8um,r,t.rns zueg eql Jo euo lnq ilv 'leql oroJoq erurl eruos ro3 ,(ueurrec uI ueeq e^eq IIe^\ pFoc pue 'E(,gI ur SreqlspreH ruo.r; eruog o} uo{e} s{ooq oq} }s8uoule ere.,r (1961 pue V96I'lel 'led SSW) eueclle1 ecqolsody ecelor1qrg or{} ur nuv uory eqt pue uDts!.U eqJ 'ecJecs Jeqler sr se8y elpplru eql Suunp ,fuo1ure1 Surleeds-uerureg ur secueruo.r esord oql Jo slducsnueru qcueJd go ecuese.ld oql JoJ ecueprlg '(Z9t'g-SSt '0002 uesrepuy) slep ur relel ]erl.^Aeruos pue 'ser:1unoc Jeqlo ut uuql pelcrJlsoJ eJoru qcntu uooq e^Bq o] srueos secueuro.r eso.rd eql q lseretut sqt Jleslr Äueu.leg uI'GOZ : poraries as a cc':-' There are a n ,-. the authoritati', himself was nt-,: canon active r:^ Archdeacon ci r_ Walter himseli ;, written in the B:.:. .

.

(

r

1

Flintshirein 11: bishops witness ..son of the Emp:=. dealing with a S;:

political conneu-t. , translated \\-a 1t:: would not har e r; tradition in the C.

'e8puqpoo.\\'_.j"

lI

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'peldeccu pue u.&\ou)I se.&\ se8en8u?l crllo3 or{} ur uor}rper} uellrJlr\ 3uo1 e Jo ecuelsxe eql s€ 'eygrsneldurr su pe^rocJed ueeq o^eq lou plno^\ Jleslr {ooq er{l Jo Ä;ezrocsrp eqJ 'ur}eT o}ur {ooq }uercuu s.Jelle 11 pe}elsueJ} oq leg} ur?lc srq o1 ,(1r1rqrpe"rc 1uel su6uo qslo (\ osoryy\ pue suorlceuuoc 1ucr1r1od pue Iucrlsurselcce Jo lrolqeu poo8 u pe,(oiue oq,l leloqcs eurnue8 e qlr^\ Surleep eroJereql ere e [ '§§I I q perp e^Bq o1 lqSnoqt sr eH 'Eplr]s141 sse.rdurg oql Jo uos t.ruell pue ueqdels 8u1;1 uee^\leq relsurqse a1 go ,$ee;1eql Sursseulun sdoqsrq er{} Jo euo se^\ €sI I q pue'ZSII ut pelercosuoc pue peurupro 'IgI I q erlqstulld ur qdesy ]S Jo lcolg doqsrg eperu s€zlt,(e.rgoeg .',e8en8uel qsrlrJg er{} ut uollrr.&\ {oog luercue ,(rel, e'ouo\stg er{} Jo ecJnos oql popr^oJd oq1| JlesIuII{ Jeue N seÄr 11 1eq1 ecugerd slq uI sur€lururu Äergoeg 'peepul 'pJoJxO Jo uoceepqcry te11e16 qlr^\ pelur€nbce pue'ISII pue 6ZII uee.rloq proJxo ut o^rlou uou€c ueruqsn8ny ue ,(lqeqord 'cue1c B sulrl eH 'sl€rluepeJc lnoqlr.u lou se1vr Jlosruq glnoluuol^l 3o ,(e"rgoec) '1srrg 'pelerqce ,(11crnb os 1r snlels e^rlslrroglnE egl peluer8 ser DUotstH eql qclq \ qlrrrr esee er{} JoJ suoseoJ Jo Jeqrunu € eJe eJeql 'e^r]?JJ?u I?crJolsrq e^rlelrJoglne pue Surculzr.uoc e se seuurod -ureluoc s.,(e.rgoeg Jo ]soru ,(g peldecce servr lr 1nq 'uorlclg e.rnd sr qlnoruuol l Jo ,(e;goeg,(q pyrozvt pelq8rfep pue Surlcedsnsun ue uo Sun"rds Ierroleru or{} Jo r{cntu l€ql esues eql ut trolsrq.leeJ, ]ou sr uorlrpeJl uerJnrluv eql Jo pu€Jls elcruoJgc eql 6spJupuels,(ep-1usserd,(g '$lJo^\ eseql ol JeJeJ o1pesn.(yuoururoc.selcruoJqc (-opnesd) uerrngilV ruJol oql ocuoq 'elrJuJJ€u eql elenlcund teqt scrJqnJ orurl eql o1 s>lueql lno,teg crlsrl€uue pe{Jeur e^eq osle ,{eq1 'uorssoccns crlseu,(p " snql 'uretr.rtr crUeC go ,fto1srq eql go urelled repr^\ e urqlr^\ rnr{uy Surceld go ,$errlue or{} Jo^oc serJo}sq-opnesd eql seeJer{^\ '1.rnoc s.JnqlJV qlr^\ pelceuuoc seoJer{ IeJe es Jo euo Jo seJnluelpe leuosred ori} uo sncoJ puu eJn}eu ur crposrde e.re,(11ecrd,{l socueruoJ eq} :secueJeJJrp e^rleJJeu pue leJnlonJls snonqo uo poseq sr uorlcurlsrp sHI ,'(ggt t'r) aDluuotttg u.rn8ay ,tt.totstH s6rllnoruuotrAl go ,(ergoeg glr,l Aurleur8rro 'uorlrpeJl IecrJolsrq-opnesd e pue 'se,(or1 ep uerlgJq3 Jo sIJo ! eql eJB rlclrlltr go seldruexe uaou{-}seq eq} 'uor1rpu.rl.ecu€uroJ, B uoe&\}eq qsrn8urlsrp

ol slxel uerrnglrv Ie^erpeu

Sulssncsrp

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IFII TO UNHIUY IHI

-

ii-:

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atw?p0JY' orlsrs

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qlnoruuo141 yo Äergoa3

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SITJTNOUHf

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II

pJSJAE 0lJers

,

94

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Moreover, the Historia is not pure fabrication. It draws from a range of sources, both oral and written, including all the historical sources available at the time, from the classics to the Historia Britonum and the works of Gildas and Bede. Even if we cannot accept the claim made by Geoffrey in his introduction that his putative source was 'attractively composed to form a consecutive and orderly narrative'(5), he certainly made extensive use of Welsh genealogies and king-lists (Piggott l94l). The stories relating to different kings and their parentage might well be due to Geoffrey's imagination, but the names at least were genuine, and their order of succession was roughly based on the authority of Welsh documents. In order to create the illusion of chronological coherence, Geoffrey punctuates his narrative with time rubrics which hint at the underlying indebtedness to an annalistic type of source and always refer to well-known events in world history. New and old material is interwoven; references to events and characters mentioned by recognized authorities indirectly validate the narrative of the lesser-known events happening at the same time in Britain. The material specific to Geoffrey, buttressed by this armature of respectability, is made more credible for a reader who finds the Historia to be in agreement, or at least not in contradiction with, established knowledge. By the time the truly dubious stories turn up - Vortigern's tower, Merlin's prophecies, the moving of the stones of Stonehenge from Ireland, and of course Arthur's conception, glorious conquests and mysterious end - the reader has already accepted the credentials of the Historia and is more likely to enjoy the stories than to question them.

Politically, the Historia conferred valuable prestige on the Plantagenet kings, who encouraged the acceptance and dissemination of the work; but this in itself cannot account for its extraordinary popular success. The key to an understanding of the enthusiastic reception of the Historia may be found in the opening lines of Geoffrey's prologue: Whenever I have chanced to think about the history of the kings of Britain, on those occasions when I have been turning over a great many such matters in my mind, it has seemed a remarkable thing to me that, apart from such mention of them as Gildas and Bede have each made in a brilliant book on the subject, I have not been able to discover anything at all on the kings who lived here before the Incarnation of Christ, or indeed about Arthur and all the others who followed on after the Incarnation. Yet the deeds of these men were such that they deserve to be praised for all time. What is more, these deeds were handed joyfully down in oral tradition, just as if they had been committed to writing, by many peoples who had only their memory to rely on. (5)

It

is clear t:-. -hopes to car c: . . .

.

circulating in E .. of Modena .'',:t a castle to i:;achievemellt ir acter of Arth "t: : king, presenr-. -l: active in re a ir s : maintains lar,, --... .

:

.

and ecclesiast i,

.:

Arthur, on -. :Historia. Afte: . dominion o\ e: E, ,-,

"

Saxons) and

of the lives

,i. '.

:

rri

'

once; the son , the ruling fan. are nO less ti;.: the Saxons re :-..: Britain by \ c:-:,:. his reign is r., Historia as ä 1,,, Arthur's rule is r;of the pontp .: stand out is tl ; f Essential t tr .: . Geoffrey firsr . the return to B:.:., he later proph-.. . = .

:

.

.

Arthur's birtir : access to the Ci.,::

.

surroundin,_q hts weakness, \\ i1, :. sense

in which

r,

specifically'ur:.. rGeoffrey is here signalling a gap in the scholarly market, the existence of which is obvious because of the alleged existence of a reliable oral tradition. This lacuna is an injustice to the memory of the great departed, especially of Arthur. Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford, then opportunely comes along with his 'ancient book'.

with the genre. . tion of the Hi, whole might h.,"".

.,

Jepun 'sleue8elueld eql JoJ olel,fueuorlnuc e se päpuolur ueeq erreq lq8rur elol{ \ e se {ro^\ eql teql lseSSns suorlurcosse yecrllod 8uo.r1s terTt iol.totsryI eq1 Jo uorl -elduroc eql eroJeq ,(e.rgoeg ,(q pelepcrrc pue uel]rJ^\ ueeq peq oe.ruo8 eql qlr.l^ pelercosse e1,(1s erncsqo pue crldrfuc eql uI'serceqdord esor{J 'Ot-OOt§§) Dt"totstH eql Jo IIA Ioog ur peprocor serceqdo.rd lecrlqod oql o1 p"re8e.r qtrm .(llecgrceds go .{1qrqer1e"r oq} ruJrJuoJ ,(lereur s}uouo^erqce s.Jnr{UV qcgr\\ uI osuos

',{ooq l[i: I -' :::' Buncsl

SItiI ' L:,-:r::;:

sI qcF{1!\ Jo

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e sr eJeql 1nq 'srepeeJ Jelel s,.(ergoeg JoJ ol€qep Jo Jelleru e eq IIII!\ 'sseu4ue,lrt Ierluosso ue olnlrlsuoc.ro 'sseuleer8 s,;nquy ecuegue uorldecuoc srq Sutpunorrns secu?lsruncJrc esoql Joqlorlly|Ilu.r,\uJoJ Jo ssolunoS 'eureSa elseqc eql o] ssecJe uru8 o1 re{}O 1rrolle qcrr{^\ s8nrp Sur8uuqc-ecuuruedde q8no;ql rlurq s6rnqlrv s.reeur8us pue snrTernv Jo gleep eq] ]e Jnquv Jo ssoul€e:8 eql serseqdo.rd Je]€l eq :oq-o1-roqleJ srq pue olcun s.rnqlry teqtfl pue snrToJnv Jo uIelIJg ol urnler etll u;eSrgon o] secunouuB orllr\ plrqc-Jspuo^\ oql s? rultl socnpoJlur lsrg ,(ergoec) ,'urTrotr l ;o ern8g erll sr uorlcos u€rrnquv oql Jo Surpuelsrepun ue o1lerluossA dro18 peurlsepe.rd Jo ernu s,3u»1 oql sr lno puels ll se{€Iu ,(p.r1 1eq.,r lng 's}ue^e e}e}s ?urpunoJJns ;nopuelds pue durod oq1 Jo suorldrrcsep rlsl^el qlut 'epour crde Äylueuruope.rd e ut polunoceJ sr elnJ s(JnqlJV 'sselJnoloc ]eq/v\euos uees s3ur1 Surpeeccns 'uosuedruoc ,(q ieloqm e se D!,to\slH orll JO glxrs ouo ;err.o dn 3ur4e1 'ql8uel leuorldscxe 1B polunoce.r sr uSrer srq 'ßql ].eJ eqt ,(q pegeu8rs st ecuelrodrul s.rnr{Uv te,rerrrog 'u;e8q;on ,(q utellrg uI oDles 01 pä1v\olle e:e ,(eq1 luoluolu oql ruou luelsuoc sureuroJ suoxBs eql lsure8e e133n;1s eql lslq.^a ',(reqceerl s(poJpJoIN ueql e^rlcnJtsop ssol ou ore slceJle slr pue 'sprerrruo snurJco'I ruo{ eJn}eoJ }uoJJnceJ e sr ,(ptue; Euqnr eql urqlr^\ eguls i;o.redrue usruog e se./v\ ueleH ssecuud qsrlrJg er{} Jo uos eq1 lecuo otuog pe.renbuoc r(pee;1e e^sg snruueJtr puu snur1eg 'sJelnJ Jor{}o Jo so^r1 eq} Jo slunocce og] ur ]ueserd ore - (sueruog eqt) lnoqim,(ureue eql Sur,tep pue (suoxeg ue?ed eql sB IIe,&\ se so^r1€leJ snoJorlcueJl) urqlrn .(ureuo eql SurlsrseJ - u8re.r slq Jo seJnlBeJ luorlBs egl te^oeJoNqs118ug eqt o] sessed urc]rJg Je^o uoruruop eJoJeq sJelnJ e^le \l rer{}oue ,(q pepeeccns sr eq 'Zfg ul Weep srr{ re}JV 'ot"totstH eql ut pouorluoru poJpunq e Jo^o Suoure 3ur1 euo lsni sr '1eley euo uo tnqlry 'secueueq I?crls€rsolcce puu spuel selnqrJlsrp pue r{crnqC eq} slce}o.rd 'uqee.r stq ur repJo pue sur?lursru

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THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

96

the guise of history. Arthur could then be read as a warning: even the greatest of kings will be unable to fulfil his destiny if he cannot count on the loyalty of his

kin. As a political fable, the Historia failed to have much impact, but it gained swift and almost universal acceptance as history.5 From the moment the Historiq was published, it became the definitive history of Celtic Britain. Moreover, it offered a fund of stories and anecdotes, fully crafted in elegant Latin and attractive to a wide audience. Above all, Geoffrey turned Arthur into a respectable historical personage, rather than a figment of the imagination of frivolous story-tellers. These elements combined to make the work an instant best-seller; over 200 manuscripts are still extant. IFLSI

Wace

In 1155, an outstanding French verse translation of Geoffrey's Historiawas completed by Wace, a Jersey-born cleric active in Caen, one of the most important intellectual and political centres of twelfth-century Normandy. Thought to have been born around 1100, Wace was already an experienced writer when he tackled Geoffrey's immensely popular work. He claims in his later Roman de Rou that he was the author of a wide range of poetic works, and from his earlier period we still have three hagiographical poems translated from the Latin.' La Vie de sainte Marguerite, La Vie de saint Nicolas and La Conception Nostre Dame; these early works chart the progress of a burgeoning career. Having completed his education, probably in Paris, but possibly in Chartres, the young Wace gained a reputation which won him the support, first of local religious establishments, then, for the Conception, of local secular patrons and, finally, for the Roman de Brut, of the greatest lord of Normandy, the King of England. The Brut was an immediate success, both as a scholarly endeavour - Wace's work was to become the French version of Geoffrey's Historia, eclipsing previous attempts at recasting the British material in French6 - and as literature, influencing amongst others Chr6tien de Tioyes. Henry II rewarded the poet with a prebend at the abbey of Bayeux, in Normandy, where Wace probably died some time after tt74.1 Some thirty-two manuscripts of Wace's

Brut are still extant, of which nineteen are complete or near-complete. In the two oldest manuscripts, both AngloNorman (the late twelfth-century Durham Cathedral, MS C. iv.27 and the early thirteenth-century Lincoln Cathedral, MS 104), the work is copied alongside Gaimar's Estoire des Engleis and Jordan Fantosme's Chronicle, providing the reader with an overview of the history of Britain from the earliest times; the poem was clearly read as history. Later manuscripts, however, and particularly

r L-

those protl

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of fiction rt, it;: The tert c': ..- Wace'sfun.l -. .-: .

l;

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SET]I}TO}{H3 ITHI CO UNH-LUV EHI

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98

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

narrator is actually enhanced. Where scholarly detail is provided, one notices a principle of pedagogical inclusiveness at work. For example, his frequent, lengthy discussions of linguistic change and its effect on place-names show off his knowledge, but they also create a link with the everyday experience of members of his audience, who would have been well aware of problems of language 'corruption' in an already multi-cultural country. Greater stress is also placed on events relating to religious history. For example, Wace introduces an entirely new story about Taliesin, who is mentioned only fleetingly in Geoffrey's Historia, though he is one of the main protagonists of Geoffrey's later Vita Merlini. Wace turns Taliesin into a British Isaiah, prophesying the birth of Christ and responsible for the British responsiveness to the good news of the Gospel. This added vignette is also good story-telling, designed to entertain under the guise of instruction. Wace's readiness to add details and anecdotes to make his work more accessible to the general reader or listener gains momentum in the poem, reaching a climax in the Arthurian section. Wace's most striking addition is the mention of the Round Table, borrowed directly from popular oral tales:

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stature \\-a c; ; : Geoffret' oi l', I followirg th; P virtues of pe -: - :

-

Pur les nobles baruns qu'il out, Dunt chescuns mieldre estre quidout, Chescuns se teneit al meillur, Ne nuls n'en saveit le peiuq

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47 -52)

(Because of his noble barons, each of whom thought himself superior to the others, each of whom considered himself the best, without anyone knowing who was the worst, Arthur made the Round Table, about which the Bretons tell many a tale.)

The point of this, says Wace, was that it put an end to quarrels arising from seating precedence, as the table had no high or low end. The creation of the Round Table is even given a date: it took place when Arthur returned to England after conquering Scotland and Scandinavia and settled down to a glorious peace that was to last twelve years (9730). The stories circulating about Arthur and his knights are presented as a record, albeit imperfect, of this protracted period of peace: En cele grant pais ke jo di, Ne sai si vus l'avez o\, Furent les merveilles pruvees E, les aventures truvees Ki d'Arthur sunt tant recuntees Ke a fable sunt aturnees: Ne tut mengunge, ne tut veir,

Ne tut folie ne tut saveir. Tant unt li cunteür cuntö E li fableür tant flablö Pur lur cuntes enbeleter, Que tut unt fait fable sembler. (9787-98)

(It is good able to irtri:, -'. perfontt k r: -'

This little Sp-;acts as a cor:arole of coun.'" -. * succumb to

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66

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100

THE ARTHT]R OF THE FRENCH

political dimension of their treason, motivating Mordred's usurpation of Arthur's bed and throne by a long-standing secret love harboured for the queen (11179-89), rather than by the lust for power implied by Geoffrey of Monmouth's account. More so than in the Historia, there is a distance between the narrator of the Brut and his material, which is seen most clearly in the aside relating to Arthur's death: Arthur,

si la geste ne ment Fud el cors nafrez mortelment; En Avalon se fist porter Pur ses plaies mediciner. Encore i est, Bretun l'atendent, Si cum il dient e entendent

De la vendra, encor puet vivre.

Maistre Wace, ki fist cest livre, Ne volt plus dire de sa fin Qu'en dist li prophetes Merlin; Merlin dist d'Artur, si ot dreit, Que sa mort dutuse serreit. Li prophetes dist veritö; Tirt tens en ad l'um puis dut6, E dutera, 9o crei, tut dis, Se il est morz u il est vis. (13275-90)

(If the story is true, Arthur received a mortal wound to hß body. He had himself carried to Avalon to have his wounds tended. He is still there, the British are waitingfor him; they say and believe that he will return from there, he may still be alive. Master Wace, who made this book, will not say any more about his end than did the prophet Merlin. Merlin said about Arthur, and he was right, that his death would be doubtful. The prophet spoke truly: it has been doubted ever since, and people, I believe, will be forever uncertain whether he is dead or alive.) There is little doubt that this passage is meant to be humorous, poking fun both oBretun'and at the foolish the opaqueness of Merlin's prophecies. This superior attitude gives way to open contempt for the Welsh descendants of the ancient British in the closing lines of the poem, where the narrator states: Tuit sunt mu6 e tuit changi6 Tirit sunt divers e forsligni6 De noblesce, d'onur, de murs E de la vie as anceisurs. (14851-54) (They have completely changed and altered, they are totally dffirent and have degeneratedfrom the nobility, the honour, the customs and the lde of their ancestors.)

(I went tltr,', findtltern.

:

,.

.

!..

The world c't' : untrustu.orri.'. : believe in thc l ;

condemnätirr - core of hiSt tr r. - .. fabulous asp--: -

.

Whilst nru.:.:. of the later .\:: respects: (i) .,.. -, * and the Rol::. * form; (ii) his ' -

.

and expansitrt.: writers. The E genre. [FLS]

In view of ti

;

-

composed be:,-: referred to es : many. The inr: ishes as time S . texts, inspireti ;.. : in a dry, ann.: -:: or even to the _i' fied by Wace .,: .

The Verse Brut T The verse Brt,: : -and early thirr.-:have been eCi r; * tr

Whereas Geoffrey was writing his Historia from the assumed perspective of an insider, wace clearly approaches his subject-matter from the outside, and with an

amused distance. This attitude is particularly evident in Wace's later Roman de Rou, a verse history of the dukes of Normandy, in which he mentions the disappointment he felt after avisit to the famed forest of Broc6liande in Brittany:

"

the survivirg r:, .. ßruts, the sur\ t', .r-

.

6sJoqlne or{} Jo eopr poo8 € 0^I3 o} q8noue e8Jel eJe suor}Jod Suu.r,trns eqt,srutg ,(e1;eg puu pÄo11 eql 'sosec oArl ls€el 1u ur ',{relueur8e.lg eJ" slxol Bur,rn;ns eq] ge qEnoqtyV ;(VAg lurrg-ueruuq) peqr"rcsu€rl tseel ]B ro polrpe ueeq eler{ qclq \ Jo e^u 'pea.llrns o^3rl ol u1(ou{ eJ€ slxe} xs 'serJn}uec qluooulr{1 ,(Fee pue qlJle ,u elel oql Jo s>lJo \ go dno-13 fieurs e Jo s]srsuoc uorlrpeJ] rutg osßL er11-

uorllpBlI

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orll

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t02

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

intentions. The tradition divides naturally into two branches according to prosodic form; the majority are in the standard narrative form of octosyllabic couplets, but two are in the less usual, though not unique, form of monorhymed Alexandrine laisses. The Royal Brut consists of 6,237 lines in octosyllabic couplets and translates approximately one third of the text of Geoffrey's Historia, from just after the beginning up to the conception of Arthur. In BL, MS Royal 13. A. xxi (late thirteenth-century) the Royal Brut, composed in the twelfth century, replaces the beginning of Wace's Brut (Damian-Grint 1996). Also written in octosyllabic couplets is the 254-line Harley Fragment, which has been considered as a fragment of the same version as the Royal Brut . But there is no overlap of material and the evidence is insufficient, although it is not impossible from a stylistic and linguistic point of view.10 The Royal Brut, naturally enough, does not refer to Arthur at all; references to Arthur within the Harley Fragment derive very closely from the Vulgate text of Geoffrey's Historia (Damian-Grint 1994,91). Also in octosyllabic couplets is the Munich Brut, which, unlike all the other verse Brut texts, is of continental origin:11 it appears to have been composed in or near Flanders in the early thirteenth century, and thus within the flourishing vernacular historiographical tradition which also produced several versions of the Pseudo-Turpin Chronicle (see Spiegel 1993). Some 4,180 lines of this text survive in a single manuscript, Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Codex Gallicus 29,but only the early part of Geoffrey's Historia is translated, and again

Arthur does not appear.lz A separate branch of the same tradition is represented by the Harley Brut, which consists of five fragments totalling 3,359 lines in Alexandrine monorhymed laisses. The five portions of the text cover just over a quarter of Geoffrey's Historia, translating with some gaps from the death of King Lucius up to Arthur's campaign against (coincidentally) the Emperor Lucius. One section of the text, the prophecies of Merlin, is also to be found in two other manuscripts, where it is interpolated into copies of Wace's Brut at the point at which Wace himself declares that he will not translate the prophecies from Geoffrey.l3 It has been suggested that the text was composed by Claraton, an English writer known to have translated Geoffrey into French verse, but there is no compelling evidence why it should be this text which should be attributed to him, rather than any of the others, or indeed some other text which has not survived (DamianGrint 1999a,634). The 136-line Bekker Fragment, which describes the moving of the Giants'Dance to Britain by Merlin, is also in Alexandrine laisses; it is very close stylistically to the Harley Brut, even to the extent of sharing a number of lines, but the precise nature of the relationship is unclear. The Harley poet's choice of prosodic form is intriguing. Although AngloNorman literature of the period is notable for its extremely wide variation in verse

form (ranuir.: : and fronr crr -..'

-

couplet is titt -: narrative t-o rt-, :

.

-

.

Alexandrine .rearly Sectirrn > generalll be-t

.: Arthurin:;:constraint s a,:

-

Brut version . Latin, consic;. ' and general .: .":rshows slight '. . ' .

_-

Aurelius anc L -cation in des.: .

*-. All the ter:: half of the l'.' ; .Franca, z lon:

hard to inräS.: appearance i,: moment of i.: :- - ambitious Ir:-, : -' Geoffrey's L.r .. sons), the ctr: . ; ',r', same len,_ut it -- ) regarded in .11,' : version of Ge,--. -The reastrlr:

Geoffrey's IJ however, the i --, -. '

wouldexpect:-'" general agreen.;. ards. In his ec.:

journeyman in - ' vigorous and c. - however, the t,, -

dictated the

1i:

".'

(uoes

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SET]Ii{OUH3 EHI dO U{-IHIUV EHJ

-:"qsi-

t04

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Alexandrine laisses were used in other works of historiography of the period, but it was not a common nor, apparently, a popular form (the Estoire d'Antioche is preserved in only two manuscripts and no medieval manuscripts of the Alexandrine sections of the Roman de Rou survive).ra No less important is the portrayal of characters, especially Arthur. Wace's Arthur is a courtly figure, while the Arthur of the Harley Brut and the Harley Fragment is essentially Geoffrey's Arthur, a very different king; little effort is made to produce an Arthur closer in character to the figure of Arthurian romance. While it can be argued that this is simply the result of a lack of imagination on the part of the Brut poets, it seems more likely that it was a matter of deliberate choice. All the authors of the verce Bruts present their texts as estoires, works of historiography and not fiction, making heavy use of historiographical terminology and consistently stating that their texts are trustworthy because they are translations of authoritative Latin sources. In keeping with their general strategy of translation, in which close, even literal, word-for-word translation is the norm (Damian-Grint 1999b), their presentation of Arthur as military leader, rather than courtly king, corresponds closely to that of Geoffrey's original, with only minor variations (Damian-Grint 1994, 3534). But this dry, 'historical' Arthur does not seem to have been what their audiences wanted. The Prose Brut Tradition The traditio n of Brut texts in prose is considerably more complex than that of the verse works. The very first version, produced around 1300, used a variety of sources, probably including both the verce Brut tradition and Geffrei Gaimar's Estoire des Engleis.lsImmensely popular, the Brut text was added to, abbreviated

and adapted, the different versions surviving in more than fifty manuscripts. A complete history of the prose Brut tradition, and even of the different versions and the relationships between them, remains to be written. Some of the prose Brut texts were commissioned by important patrons - the Petit Bruit is dedicated to Henry de Lacy, one of the most eminent barons of Edward I's reign - but they cannot be considered as 'courtly'works. Their style is often dry and annalistic, their construction schematic and their grasp of chronology sometimes unsure. They are presented as the history not of Britain but of England; some versions start with the division of England into five kingdoms and the reign of King Egbert, and attention is frequently concentrated on post-Conquest and even contempofary history. No longer the outstanding figure of British history, Arthur, when he appears at all, is not even the primus inter pares; he is overshadowed by such kings as Havelock, Edgar and Edward the Confessor. From here to the somewhat inadequate Arthur of Middle English tradition, the Arthur of The Avowing of King Arthur ot The Awntyrs off Arthur,is a short step.

Gaul, as dt-r;: .. : is still a loc.. . tantly, perh,-i1.. ' chevalerous J.; : genterie qi ei. -spoke oJ ltt' ' Some prose rB' . : by name. bu: . - : and chir alrr ." ' Arthur is 'tirr -.' thus takes h.s r .all the other :; - : " prose ßrut t: : ., portrait. tpnc

ical statemeit .

..'

the writing ü: : chronicles an.

" "

askeystoan -..-in that pasr. .- Monmouth's *:COnCernS abc-.

benefice.

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16

The politrc -, work were te:.>: : Prophe cies

r

,:

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:

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He had desiSl-: : -

his lifetime

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Stephen. So

tr.-

*

preted as a \\ .::t, l (Tolhurst 1 99: ) all of them caf -: ^ of giving supp,,-,

onGeoffre)s.:work it would :.

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106

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

throne of Elizabeth I, for whom these strong female rulers would have offered both models and precedents. On a different level, relations with France were problematic. As Duke of Normandy, the King of England was technically a vassal of the King of France. A history in which kings of Britain repeatedly defeat the French with insulting ease would have been useful propaganda. Wace's Roman de Rou attests to an ageold antagonism between Normandy and France, a situation exacerbated by the marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine of the future Henry II, who thus controlled more territories in France than the king himself. There is, therefore, an ideological divide in the way Geoffrey's image of the past would have been perceived, depending on whether the reader or adapter belonged to the Anglo-Norman or the ile-de-France spheres of influence. It was in the interests of Paris to view the Historia as an amusing collection of anecdotes from a distant past, devoid of any connection with the present day; hence the tendency in Continental manuscripts of the Brut to link the text with romances rather than histories. Conversely, one observes a keen interest in the material as history by English poets and historians of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The Anglo-Norman kings were also at a disadvantage compared to their French counterparts, in that they had no Charlemagne. Theirs was a relatively new dynasty and its coming to power was founded on William the Conqueror's forcible subduing of his future subjects. Geoffrey's new history provides Britain with a figurehead equal to Charlemagne, modelled indeed on Alexander the Great. Arthur is not a Norman, but neither, crucially, is he English, and through the putative Tiojan ancestry of the British he is made the equal of any hero of classical antiquity. Moreover, through Arthur's blood ties with the kings of Brittany, Geoffrey allows for an alignment of the Celtic, pre-Anglo-Saxon population of Britain with William the Conqueror's Breton allies, who by the late 1130s would have become good Anglo-Norman barons. For Continental writers this dimension would have been secondary to Arthur's entertainment value; but Geoffrey's Anglo-Norman audience was quick to perceive the new legitimacy offered by the character. Geoffrey's work had political overtones for another section of his readership: the Welsh. The Historia gives the Britons a long, successful and cultured past at odds with the image of the boorish Welshman current at the time and immortalized by Chrötien de Troyes's uncouth Perceval. Moreover, Geoffrey's underlying warnings against dissension would have taken on particular resonance within the context of the struggle of the Welsh princes against the Anglo-Norman kings in the early twelfth century. Outbreaks of revolt occurred in different parts of Wales, firstly in 1116, under the leadership of Gruffudd ap Rhys, then in the years following the death of Henry I. The figure of Arthur, under such circumstances, could be viewed as a threat to the Anglo-Norman rulers (Gillingham

I990).

Sr-,

ti.; . '

:

however. ana .:- : among the \\ * : '

The real ;

Arthur.

Ta

l;

. r:

--

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:

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'

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'

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SETSITTOUHS EHJ CO UNHIUV EHT

108

THE ARTHI]R OF THE FRENCH

neglected by readers

of all periods interested primarily in the figure of Arthur) results in the loss of some of Arthur's eminence in the Anglo-Norman prose

h;: '. condensed r c::

Bruts.

Lincoln Catl:;-

The change in the balance of cultures in England during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries eventually led to the abandonment of Anglo-Norman French as a medium of ideological expression, in favour of English. By the end of the Middle

Ages French had become a foreign language, overwhelmingly employed on the Continent and therefore reflecting a different world-view; there the material of the Historiawas perceived as scholarly, rather than political, as the history of the distant past of an alien people whose interest is subordinated to other narratives. The political Arthur must therefore be viewed as a British phenomenon, for in Britain there was a vested interest in exploiting the prestige and potential for precedent of this paragon of kingship, an interest which ensured that the 'chronicle' strand of Arthurian literature retained much of its political charge well into the Tudor period (see Bryan 1999, especially chapter 7). Fr,sl

Notes

12 13

Anot

The tu

,;, -r-

:

r'

-

-

.:.

- -.-

r.:

14

For nr,:: - -- : xxv-xxvi. Th; :: (BNn Duchei.-.: 16

On the

"

:

'Geoffre)' oi \1

Arthurian \1.:.

..""

Geoffrey of ]1,-,nrr.

1 For a discussion of the date

of the Historia, see Wright edn 1984, xi-xvi. dedication to the Historia (Thorpe transl., 51); all introductory from Geoffrey's Quoted English translations of the Historia are from Thorpe. 3 A photograph of the Modena archivolt is reproduced in Loomis ed. 1959*, between pages 60 2

and 61.

a Geoffrey's Vita Merlini, composed in Latin verse some twelve years after the Historia, atlests to an enduring interest in the character of Merlin, but also presents a very different vision of the prophet. The wonder-child is now a hermit, a wild man of the forest aspiring to salvation. See Geoffiey of Monmouth: Vita Merlini. ed. and transl. by B. Clarke (Cardiff,1973). 5 William of Newburgh (1196-7) was one of the few to see through Geoffrey's narrative strategies, but his violent rejection of the Historia could be the consequence of his personal anti-Celtic agenda.

6 Gaimar tells us in the prologue to his Estoire des Engleß that he had also composed (probably in the 1 140s) at Estoire des Bretuns, now lost. 7 llT4beingthe date of the latest Bayeux charter in which Wace's name appears. On Wace's life, see Holmes 1967, Blanchet 1959 and Burgess 2002 (Roman de Routratsl.), xv-xxl. 8 This, however, offered the cue for manuscript compilers to include Arthurian romances alongside the Brut, e.g. BNR fr. 1450, in which the five romances of ChrÖtien de Troyes are inserted into Wace's Brut, althe point when the twelve-year peace is mentioned; see Chapter XI. e There is some evidence for the existence of a number of olher Bruls that have not survived (see Arnold edn of Wace's Brut,l,xcviii). It is also possible that the book Gaimar claims to have used as a source for the earlier section (now lost) of his Estoire des Engleß may be Geoffrey's (Short 1994,

327-8,33740). 10 See Bell 1963, esp. 201. For Harley Brut,ftagment 5, see Blakey edn; fragments 1-4 are transcribed in Damian-Grint 1994. See also Damian-Grint in Short ed. 1993 (esp. 94-5). r1 Grout edn. See also Bell 1939; Grout 1985; 1988. On the language of the text, see Jenrich 1881.

(Cambridg< -' La

Geste du

R

.

Monntoutli-The Histor'.t'

,''

Gaimar L'Estoire des E. York, 197 I

-'

,

Wace Wace, Rontutt ,i-- -

La Partie artltt,, Wace's Rotnttt: edn,20021,

La

Geste du

Ä,

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-,:

,

-

Monmoutlt. T. -. ' Arthurian se ,.

'

-

Le Roman de Ä, WAce, The Rt,ti;.,, I{otes by Gl ,: > r .

The Brut Traditi,-,n Bekker Fragmen:

::

l'Historia Rt {.,,

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SET]II{OUH3 EHI CO UNHIUV EHI

60I

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

110

Brute d'Engleterre abregö. Ed. by E.

Zettl,h

Anonymous Short English Metrical Chronicle (London,

Short, I.

Short

193s).

Brutus, Li rei de Engleterre, Le Livere de Reis de Engleterre. Ed. by C. Foltys (Berlin,1962).

Harley Brut,ftagment 5. Ed. by B. Blakey,'The Harley Brut'. Att Early French Translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britannine' , Rom, 82 (1961), 4+-70. Harley Brut,fragments l-4. Transcribed in Damian-Grifi 1994, Appendix II. Harley Fragment. Ed. by Damian-Grint, in Short ed. 1993, 87-104. Munich Brut.Ed. by P. B. Grout, Ph.D. thesis, London, 1980. Rauf de Bout, Le Petit Bruit. Ed. by D. B. Tyson, ANTS, PTS 4 (London, 1987). lPetit Bruitl. Floyal Brut. An Anglo-Norman Brut (Royal 13, A.xxi). Ed. by A. Bell, ANTS 21-2 (Oxford, 1969).

l

ed.

99l

--j

'\

'

.

323_/3 Spiegel. G. Centttt'.t' Britcttttt

iF

:

.

i,,--

Tolhurst. F .--' British Ep.. .. Centuries' . ,'

Studies Bell, A. 1939. 'The Munich Brut andthe Estoire des Bretuns', MLR,34,321-54. Bell 1963. 'The Royal Brut Interpolation' , Med. Aev,32, 190-202. Blacker, J. 1994. The Faces of Time: Portayal of the Past in Old French and Latin Historical Narrative of the Anglo-Norman Regnum, Austin, TX. Blanchet, M.-Cl. 1959. 'Maistre Wace, trouvÖre normand', MRom,9, 149-58. Bryan, E. J. 1999. Collaborative Meaning in Medieval Scribal Culture: The Otho Lajamon, Arrrr

Arbor, MI. Burch North, S. ed. 1988. Studies in Medieval French Language and Literature Presented to Brian Woledge, Geneva.

Busby, K., and N. J. Lacy eds 1994. Conjunctures: Medieval Studies in Honor of Douglas Kelly, Amsterdam. Crisafulli, A. ed. 1964. Linguistic and Literary Studies in Honor of Helmut A. Hatzfeld, Washington

DC. Damian-Grint,P. 1994. 'Vernacular History in the Making: Anglo-Norman Verse Historiography in the Twelfth Century', Ph.D. thesis, London. Damian-Grint I 996.'Redating the Royal Brut Fragment', Med. Aev, 65, 280-5. Damian-Grint 1999a. The New Historians of the Twelfth-Century Renaissance: Inventing Ver

nacular Authority, Woodbridge.

Damian-Grint 1999b. 'Translation as enarratio and Hermeneutic Theory in Twelfth-Century Vernacular Learned Literature', Neophil, 83, 34947 . Dean, R. J. 1999.'Chronicles', in Anglo-Norman Literature:

A

Guide to Texts and Manuscripts,

London, l-51.

Flint, V. L J. 1979. '-lhe Historia Regum Britanniae of Geoffrey of Monmouth: Parody and its Purpose: A Suggestion', Spec, 54, 447 -68. Genet, J.-P. ed. 1997 . L'Histoire et les nouveaux publics dans I' Europe mödiövale (XIIP -XW siöcles) , Paris.

Gillingham, J. 1990. 'The Context and Purposes of Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain', ANS,13,99-1 18.

Grout, P. B. 1985. 'The Author of the Munich Brut, his Latin Sources and Wace', Med. Aev, 54, 274-82.

Grout 1988. 'The Manuscript of the Munich Brut (Codex Gallicus 29 of the

Bayerische

Staatsbibliothek, Munich)', in Burch North ed. 1988, 49-58. Holmes, U. T., Jr. 1964.'The Anglo-Norman Rhymed Chronicle', in Crisafulli ed. 1964,231-6. Holmes 1967. 'Norman Literature and Wace', in W. Matthews ed. Medieval Secular Literature: Four Essays, Berkeley and Los Angeles,46-67. Jenrich, K. 1881. 'Die Mundart des Münchener Brut' , Ph.D. thesis, London. Loomis, R. S. 1959. 'The Oral Diffusion of the Arthurian Legend', in Loomis ed. 1959*,52-63. Piggott, S. 1941 . 'The Sources of Geoffrey of Monmouth' , Antiquity, 15, 269-86.

Zatta, J. 199: Britanrlir -:.

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III THE TRISTAN LEGEND IN OLD FRENCH VERSE Tony Hunt and Geoffiey Bromiley

Although the Tristan legend is not always thought of as Arthurian, it belongs to the Celtic mati\re de Bretagne which provided important source material for French Arthurian romances. What were probably, in their original form, the longest versions of the legend in Old French verse, those by Beroul and Thomas, both allot a small role to King Arthur, whilst the thirteenth-century prose romance (see chapter VIII) represents a massive combination of the Tristan legend with that of Arthur. The early French Tristan material in verse has survived in the form of two fragmentary romances and some shorter, episodic texts. Whether these now diverging remnants derive directly from a once complete and fully developed Urtext (original version), or are evidence of an expanding and constantly diversifying body of stories, has been a matter for scholarly debate. Attempts to complete the surviving fragments, at least notionally, have to rely on the evidence of the more complete adaptations of the French romances into medieval German, English and Norse. Nowadays, critics prefer to concentrate on the aesthetic and ideological qualities of the extant works, rather than to speculate on their origins. It has been traditional, but by no means mandatory, for scholars since Bödier to divide the surviving Tiistan texts into two groups representing two versions of the story. The 'version commune', or popular version supposedly performed by jongleurs, is said to be exemplified by Beroul, Eilhart von Oberg and the Folie Tristan de Berne;the 'version courtoise'is primarily exemplified by Thomas's romance, the Folie Tristan d'Oxford and foreign adaptations of Thomas: Gottfried von Straßburg's German Tristan (c.l2l0), Brother Robert's Norse Tristramssaga (1226) and the fourteenthcentury English Sir Tristrem. More recently, however, the epithets'Öpique'and either'lyrique'or'cl6ricale'have been employed to describe the versions by Beroul and Thomas respectively, whilst the later prose romance has more accurately been called a'version chevaleresque'(Payen edn, vii). The following discussion will treat the influential longer verse romances by Beroul and Thomas, followed by the shorter episodic verse texts, all witnesses to the popularity of the Tiistan legend within French Arthurian literature.

The fra..unre:: 2171 . sup: .. edn, 126E. 1-the work. t c, : -. = ' attribution 1: : Patrice to .1 'ri : comes to itje:.:. ' ient label lbr : = its broad cL-,rr;:l 'commune' rFr.:r way of objec:.' lacks both a b-: 1965) the ti.r S : ..

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the king to catch the lovers inflagrante delicto, though Tristan escapes punishment by leaping from a chapel and then rescues Yseut, whom Mark had delivered up to the lust of a band of lepers as a fate even worse than burning at the stake. There then ensues a long period of outlawry in the forest of Morrois with only the aid of Governal (Tristan's mentor), Husdent (a dog who hunts without barking) and a bow rigged up to kill game. During a chance meeting, the hermit Ogrin fails to convince the lovers to repent and return to Mark. The latter, tipped off by a forester, finds them in the forest, but noting Tristan's sword lying between his nephew and wife, who are fully clothed, he shows mercy towards them, exchanging swords and rings and leaving his gloves to protect Yseut from the sun. Unfortunately, the lovers interpret his ambiguous signs as hostility, and flee. One day the love potion (which Beroul seems to imply was the cause of their love, yet it appears to last for only three years) wanes, and the lovers return to Ogrin to seek reconciliation with Mark. Tristan is banished, but Yseut returns to Mark until his barons convince him to procure further proof of her innocence. As a result of an elaborate ruse set up by Yseut and witnessed by King Arthur, the queen is able to swear that no man, apart from her husband and the leper who carried her across a ford at the Mal Pas, had been between her thighs. The leper, however, is Tristan in disguise. After Yseut's verbal defence, the barons continue to spy on the lovers, who meet secretly, and the Beroul fragment breaks off just as Tristan and Yseut have taken their revenge on two of the barons, the dwarf having met his death earlier after revealing that King Mark had horse's ears! Despite a sometimes extravagantly judgemental narratoE who seems to take moral issues as cut-and-dried (though not necessarily according to conventional values), the poem represents a carefully and sensitively articulated exploration of the conflict of appearances and reality, the problems of reading signs and the challenge of how to access moral truth, all three issues, of course, being linked. The fundamental structure of the work is based on a dialectical opposition which offers a moral paradox. On the one hand, notwithstanding their constant characterizationas 'felons', the barons appear to be loyal and acting in accordance with their feudal duty by 'advising' Mark of the adultery between his wife and nephew; conversely, the lovers seem to be totally disloyal in continuing, whilst at the same time denying, their adultery. On the other hand, the barons'true relationship with their lord is shown not to be one of loyalty: they threaten to withdraw from his service and make war on him, and their treatment of Frocin, the dwarf, is both dishonourable in itself and disloyal to Mark; instead the barons are motivated by self-interest, for they wish to rid themselves of Tristan, out of jealousy for his prowess (7734). They remain totally indifferent to their monarch's reconciliation with the lovers, mediated by Ogrin, who seems to recognize the moral justice of such an arrangement, and the barons continue to demand, by extortion, the exiling of Tristan. Against this, the lovers, who have

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116

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENICH

This mismatch of surface appearances and deeper moral reality leads us to the third theme of the poem: the problem of gaining access to that reality so that it may be recognized. Although to all appearances the lovers are guilty, Beroul implies that the moral reality is different. The crucial element here is the potion. The potion and the concomitant suffering and deprivation it inflicts on the lovers are a disaster: in Yseut's words, 'ce fu pechiez' (it was a terrible misfortune, l4l5), not only for the lovers, but potentially for Mark, since the straight fact of adultery, however induced, makes Mark's position precarious in the extreme. It follows that it must never be publicly revealed or confirmed. Accordingly, the hermit Ogrin agrees to tell a white lie ('par bel mentir', 2354). He has been forthright to the lovers and tried to insist on repentance, but such a step is of no avail when it comes to suppressing the 'honte' (shame) and 'mal' (harm) which would befall Mark, whom Ogrin has every right to protect. Yseut is intelligent and principled in rejecting the notion of repentance, since neither of the lovers bears the slightest responsibility for the potion. How or why, then, should Mark be expected to suffer? Given their limited free will, the lovers are blameless and hence recognize no moral imperative to confess to the king. Beroul's strategy is rendered more complicated by his remarkable innovation of limiting the potion's compulsive power to three years. The moral paradox, or opposition of the barons'disloyalty and the lovers'loyalty, risks being annulled. Beroul's decision, though paralleled by Eilhart, can only have been conceived as an attempt to subject the lovers'subsequent behaviour to moral evaluation. Once the effects of the potion have worn off, Yseut tells Ogrin that she and Tristan are no longer having sexual relations (2329-30). Is she telling the truth? Though Beroul provides us with many examples of beneficent deception, he does not depict lying. On the one occasion when there is an unambiguous case of lying, Brengain's pretence that she has fallen out with Tiistan, the narrator draws attention to it and indignantly brands her a liar (519ff.). Lying has never been a very productive literary device, whereas the exploitation of ambiguity can have fascinating moral and narrative ramifications, as in the case of Yseut's two ambiguous oaths. The cynical interpretation of the post-potion sequence in Beroul is that the lovers continue to enjoy sexual relations, thus reducing to a lie Yseut's protestation of chastity (2329-30). This interpretation is largely based on an inference, namely that since the lovers'continued meetings are clandestine, the lovers must be guilty. The counter-argument would be that the clandestine nature of the meetings results from the lovers'continuing persecution by the barons, who do not recognize the reconciliation with Mark and continue to seek the banishment of Tristan, come what may. The lovers simply cannot afford to be seen together by such obviously malicious royal advisers. Against this background the narrator's judgements, favourable to the lovers, hostile to the barons, critical of Mark, will thus bear more penetrating scrutiny

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

1985). In neither Beroul nor Thomas is there any depiction of ennobling love: Beroul depicts persecuted love and offers a robust defence, emotional and moral, in which even God is implicated. God and the saints are constantly invoked in the poem and Tristan's successful leap from the chapel is attributed to His intervention, an attribution accepted by Ogrin. The vitality of Beroul's account proscribes any association of love with death, and triumph seems always to be within the lovers'reach. Tiickery and transgression are assimilated to the idea of moral justice in what is seen as an unjust world, depicted in all its crudeness and violence. Thomas, on the other hand, whose account is much more static, depicts a self-destructive love in a psychological sphere from which God is largely absent; he depicts in fact a much bleaker universe than Beroul; the moral landscape is emptier and it is one in which the lovers renounce life. Neither poet can be said in any way to celebrate love or portray its joys. ITHI

Thomas

The Tristan of Thomas (the form 'Tristran'is frequently encountered in the manuscripts) is represented by ten fragments (three of which perished in 1870) drawn from six manuscripts, for the most part Anglo-Norman, totalling 3,298 lines.a It is estimated that this total constitutes about one quarter of the complete original. The earliest manuscript, Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS French d. 16, which contains the two 'Sneyd'fragments, dates from the end of the twelfth century. The Cambridge, Turin, Strasbourg (now lost), Douce and Carlisle fragments were produced in the thirteenth century. From the textual point of view the copies themselves are disappointingly mediocre, though for the most part beautifully written. They furnish, completely or imperfectly, six narrative episodes from the last third of the romance, the location of which is best indicated by the chapters of the Norse Tristramssaga (indicated here by the siglum S), which was based on Thomas and offers the only complete version of the story to survive. The text of Thomas covers the following episodes, four of which survive in single copies: (i) the lovers'exchanges after drinking the potion and the marriage night in which Brengain is substituted for Yseut (S chapter a6); (ii) the lovers'meeting and valediction in the orchard (S chapter 67); (iii) Tristan's reflections on the idea of marriage to Yseut of the White Hands and the wedding (S chapters 69-70); (iv) the Hall of Statues (S chapters 80-2); (v) the Queen's Procession (S chapter 87); (vi) the concluding sequence of events which contains the quarrel between Queen Yseut and Brengain and the latter's interview with Mark (S chapters 89-90); Tiistan's visit to the court in disguise and his refuge in the manner of St Alexis (S chapters 90)); Thomas's digression on his treatment of the story and his fidelity to a poet called 'Breri'; Tristan's and Kaherdin's revenge on their

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122

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

this tale, against 'change', 'tort', 'paine', 'dolur'and 'engins d'amur' (mutability, wrong, travail, suffering and the ruses of love). These are all key terms exploited in the body of the poem and suggest that Thomas wrote his version of the Tristan and Yseut legend as a negative exemplum, in something of the same spirit in which Heinrich von Freiberg completed Gottfried's poem at the court of Wenzel II a century later.5 Whether or not it is agreed that Thomas wrote his poem as a consolatio, recording those trials and tribulations inextricably linked with love which are best avoided, it cannot be doubted that he was a cleric, who had studied logic in the schools, and who wrote in the contemptus mundi (contempt for the world) tradition. His rhetorical virtuosity is remarkable and rivalled only by that of Chr6tien in his neo-7ristan, Cligös. In both, arduous logical reasoning is depicted as ironically unproductive. One critic justly observes of Thomas: The language of argument dominates the poem. Abstract terms, learned syntax, and syllogistic reasoning contribute to a general impression of detachment, of intellectual analysis. Multiple repetitions give almost pedantic emphasis to problems and conclusions. (Crane 1986,150)

In Thomas the use of antithesis is disjunctive and analytic, whereas in Gottfried it is conjunctive and synthetic, an instrument in the German author's transcendental, mystical conception of unity in love. In Thomas opposition tends to duality, towards an isolating style, rather than the unifying one aimed for by Gottfried. Technical devices of repetition and amplification in Thomas follow the example of Wace's Brut and the romans d'antiquitö, but in a more sustained form. The constructions Thomas exploits unremittingly are parallelism and antithesis: 'Fuir deport et querre eschil, / Guerpir joie, sievre peril' (flee enioyment and seek out suffering, leave joy and follow pain, Cambridge,2T-8); parallelism between different speeches: Tristan: 'Tel duel ai por la departie, I Ja n'avraihait jor de ma vie' (I am so upset at leaving that I shall never more be joyful, Cambridge,29ff.) and Yseut: 'Tel paine ai de la desevranche, I Ja n'avrai mais, amis, deport' (I suffer such pain at parting that I shall never, my beloved, experience pleasure again, Cambridge, 43). In Beroul the lovers appear most frequently together; in Thomas they are usually apart.In the opening debate on marriage there are three parallel rösumös (Sneyd 1,213ff.,297ff., 349ff.) representing the technique of interpretatio,frequentatio or expolitio. The various figures of repetition (annominatio, traductio, anaphora, anadiplosis, chiasmus) occur with a striking density and the use of contrast (contentio), especially in dialectically framed monologues, recalls the Roman d'Eneas. Thomas also makes use of logical markers, such as pur go, and the figure of conclusio. These techniques are common to both the characters'speeches and the narrator's commentary, which sometimes seem stylistically indistinguishable.

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t24

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

entirety in just one, early fourteenth-century manuscript, Bern, Burgerbibliothek, MS 354 (Rychner 1984), but a fragment of sixty-one lines found in Cambridge (Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum, MS 302), which describes the fool's arrival at Mark's court and the early allusions he makes, has also been published (Dean and Kennedy edn); editors now draw upon this fragment to fill lacunae and to correct certain errors in the Bern manuscript, which is universally acknowledged as far from perfect. Modern editors have also inevitably had to concern themselves with the relationship between the two poems. Bödier (1907, vi-vii, 82-3) deemed it possible either that one of the two poems had imitated the otheq or that both were independent derivatives of a lost poem, but he was firmly of the view that the Bern Folie reflected knowledge of the material in Beroul's poem (or, at least, a poem very similar to Beroul), whereas the Oxford Folie drew tpon Thomas. Hoepffner (edns 1934 and 1938), seeing no need to envisage the existence of a common archetype, suggested that the Bern Folie was directly inspired by Beroul and that it was then followed and imitated by the Oxford Folie, which incorporated material drawn from Thomas. Lecoy (edn 1994,10), however, while recognizing the similarity between the two texts and supporting the view that one was inspired by Beroul and the other by Thomas, was reluctant to commit himself further on the issue of a possible common source and on the question of composition. Demaules, on the other hand, emphasizes (edn, 1313) the closeness of the two poems to Beroul and Thomas, but revives the idea, on new but rather insubstantial grounds, that both poems are representatives of a lost original, recast independently by their authors. Whatever the exact relationship between the poems, it is nonetheless important that the two texts should be judged on their individual merits; they may share the same scenario, but there are appreciable differences between them. In the Bern Folie (Fb), the allusions to earlier events do seem to have been inspired by Beroul's poem (B), by a version close to Beroul, or, at the very least, by the version commttne, the 'non-courtly'Tristan texts. In support of this view, one can point specifically to incidents recalled by the 'fool'which are not found in the version courtoise: for example, when Tiistan finds himself alone with Yseut, he alludes, in quick succession, to the 'Saut Tristran' (Tristan's Leap), the handing over of Yseut to the lepers and her liberation from their clutches, and to the hermit Ogrin, a significant figure, but only in Beroul's version of the legend (Fä, 457-75). Other minor details might also be invoked: Dinas figures here (Fb,33), but not in Thomas's poem, and the reference to Saint Sanson (Fb,28) recalls the scene in Beroul when Yseut is restored to Mark and is received at the church dedicated to that saint (8, 2973). Moreover, the d6nouement of the poem, where the dog Husdent is joyfully reunited with his master (Fb, 496-528), is again strongly reminiscent of the scene in Beroul in which the dog, released from captivity, joins the lovers in the Forest of Morrois (8, 1541-8).

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pren8 lsnru eq IooJ e se esrn8srp slg ur leql lnJpulur Bururetuer lslgl\ tlrluepr srq Jo lnesÄ ecut,ruoc ol Suqees sr uelsr.r1 'puFu ur euroq eq ol seq osle aqol ußg eql Jo lxoluoc cgrceds oql uil{}rl\ secuoJeJeJ eq} Jo rure eq} 1nq 'pqu,l,(pelqnopun ere slurod eser{J 'suorsnfl? eql uo peceld srseqdure ?ur.leglp eql pue pe^lo^ur uor] -|leder go ee.r8ep eql 'pocnporlur ere ,(eqt qcrq,r. qlr,tr ssouenbsnrq eql 'suorsnlle esoql rlt ;epro lect8olouorqc ,{ue go {cul oqt o1 pelurod e^€q scr}rrC '(Ot'VE6t upe reugdeog) pe,(o1due ueoq ue^e s?q (qc1odqc1oq,fteurp.loe.l1xe ue) (oJreurp -ro€rlxo elgu-eygd un, eserqd eql :pelueserd ere txe1 eql ur suorsn[€ eq] qcqly\ ur ,(err eqt rog,(1qe1ou 'pezrcrlrtc Ägsreq ueeq ser{ aqol vroqeq} sregenb oruos uI SZI

ESUEA

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H]NEUC CITO t{I CINEDET tTYISruI EHI

r26

-.-

THE ARTHTJR OF THE FRENICH

the Oxford Folie,in the style of Thomas, repeats the same idea in successive couplets (Fo,3740), he moves between an observation on an individual character and an assessment of human behaviour in general (Fo,43-56), and he may repeat significant rhyme words: guarir and murir are twice juxtaposed (Fo, 5-6, 15-16). Such similarities have even led editors to suggest, not unreasonably, that Thomas himself was lesponsible for the Oxford Folie (Hoepffner edn 1938, 35-9: Demaules edn, 1315). Certainly, when compared with the Bern Folie,this text has a greater literary sophistication. The description of the castle of Tintagel (Fo, 95-140), strongly influenced by Wace's Brut and by other conventional descriptions of towns (Hoepffner edn 1938, 15-18: Demaules edn, 1330-1), and the extended metaphor in which Yseut's love is compared to a dried-up stream (Fo, 701-8) suggest a writer fully conversant with the artistic production and practice of his day. It is also important to point out that the relationship between the lovers is different from that in the Bern Folie. Tristan remains in control, especially in the latter stages, playing a cruel game with Yseut (Curtis 1976) as he accuses her of being disloyal and of feigning love (Fo, 351-6). Similar charges of deceit, pretence and disloyalty are laid against the queen after Husdent is brought upon the scene (Fo, 933-8), and it is only when Yseut is in complete disarray, believing that her lover is dead, that Tristan reverts to his normal voice and permits himself to be recognized.It is not recognition that is wrested from Yseut in the first instance, but a demonstration of her continuing loyalty to Tristan. Yseut has had to undergo a test, and it is only when she has passed that test and shown that she is loyal to her loveq even beyond the grave, that Tiistan reveals his identity and allows her to recognize him. The Folie Tristanstory can be described as having a happy outcome, but for the lovers this happiness is only fleeting. The same is true of the situation in Marie de France's lay of Chevrefoil,where the lovers'pleasure at meeting must be related to the essential tragedy of the story, as indicated at the beginning of the lay (8-10). Tristan has spent a year in exile in South Wales, his homeland according to this text. He decides to take the risk of returning to Cornwall and to attempt to see his beloved Yseut. During the day he hides in the forest, at night he takes refuge with local people, until he learns that the king and his court will be spending Whitsun at Tintagel. Knowing which road the members of the royal party must travel along to reach their destination, Tiistan plans a meeting with the queen. He takes a hazel branch, squares it off, writes upon it and then places it at a spot where Yseut will notice it as she passes. We are assured that a similar ploy has worked on a previous occasion, and it turns out to be successful again. Yseut separates from her escort and is reunited with Tristan in the forest. But soon, after Yseut has suggested how Tristan might rehabilitate himself and return to court, the lovers must sadly part again. At Yseut's behest, Tiistan composes a new lay to commemorate the occasion. If we wish to set this story at a particular

point in th: . :at an ear.t;: -r-.= mention r-,. .- . -remains .i .- - :- of the Ber,-- -- the actir i::, and Hetttr:r.:.

..

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SArrZ VLIS:' 1 ,r.

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of the r--r escrit aS rer';.. 'ence

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i. ;

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.

;

Jossoccns slr Jo .(€l sql uodn s^reJp ocueJd op orJetr l ls1g A 'uorleSllsul s,lnosÄ w Kele sesoduroc uor{l pue r{cu?Jq eq} uo se^Juc uelsr.l; :ureod oql ut peluese.ld slce e^rl€orc egl Jo euo 1sn[ sr sql 'ureuop cqqnd oq] o] ele,rud oq] uro{ ,(€l eq} en e8erm slql tJrqs ol pelr^u Sureq sr uelsrr1 '(A;*D) eylcns,(euoq eqt pue lozeq er{1 Jo e8eun I€J}uec eq} sur€}uoc qcrq.&\ e8essed eq} 'lnesÄ o1 e8esseru JerlJ€o stq rn uelsrrl fq pellnusuerl spro,^a orll oq ot ueqt (88't-9V6t "rezlrdg) Surleeur Jrorll Jo erurl eql ]e pool( eql ut lnes^.(q ue1sr.rl ol uelods spJo.'!\ eq] eq o1,(1e111 ssel eJu eseql '(111'sp,roru, aLlt p.toJil ot) ,:stquterue"l seyo"led sey .rnd, ',(e1 ,,yreu u sesodruoc uelsrr1 'seye16 o} uJnleJ srr{ JelJv 'enssr pe}ercosse teqgng e sr eJerll '(tt-ltl '986I uouro4) 8L-89 ur peureluoc e8esseru eql Jo uorlulnsdecue cqoqru.(s e'Vtansat e osle pue yuu8rs uorlruSocer e qloq set\ qcueJq Iezeq eql uo oureu s.uelslr1 teql lseSSns plno,u,}}Jcse,1 ep orutuns ?1, 'es€c eq} eJo^\ sFI} JI 'e8usseru snor,re.rd eql o] .rege; ,(eru 1! 'qcuerq eql uo Eull.rec eq] o] Suruege; se UDSa e{€} ueq} rer{lur ',(1e,rr1eu"re11v '(6-s9 '4961 sse8rng) e8esseru rerTree oql Jo ocue -lsxe eql uezr.r8'pepeeu erls uorlerrrJoJur oql lnosÄ e,re8 euole slq] leql pue rlcu?Jq egl uo ue1lrJ1r\ s€1v\ ouolB eru€u s.uBlslJJ leql e}ecrpur tqSnu ,}rJcse,l ep eluruns, eqJ ']nesÄ 01 uelsrJl,(q;eqree pe}lrusueJ} eSesseru e Jo ocuelslxe eql slseS8ns ,(13uor1s txel eqJ 'lq8rseÄe qlnesÄ o1 e8uelleqc elgeroprsuoc B pue >lsu1 llncrJlrp ,(.re,r e srql repuer IIIIs ppo,^a gcu€rq erlt Jo suorsuourp polFull oqt (016I uou8e3) rueEo ur o8esseru eql pe^Jec peq uelsr{ Jr ue^e puu 'qcuu.rq oql Jo soceJJns JnoJ eq] uodn peureluoc uoeq e^eq plnoc sql IIe leq] ]decce o] llncrJJrp sruees [trLq'(6LZ 'upe reuqc,{g) Sf-Eq ur e8esseur erl} Jo eloq^t eqt o} reJer ot uo{ut uooq s?r{ 1I 'poo}sJepun,tlsnouu.t ueeg seq o,}ucse,1op eruuns 3l ry oe], 'Ig eulT 'Q-tt

'not yoryyot aut,tou aru moLltut^ not nqtnu :sn quA s! t! os'ipo1 ,r1og) (isn^ zups roru ou ororu zues sn^ oN / :snu ep 1se rs 'erruu eleg, :Joqle8o1 ureruer lsnru'le.rlrrns Ienlnrrr ;og 'qcrq,t. e11cns,(euoq eql pu? pzeq eqt o1 pe;eduroJ ere lnos^ pue uelsrr1 'rueod eql Jo eEeut o^rlcur}srp eg} ecnpoJlur pue 'qcue-lq eq} uo uel}rJ1( sel\ ]€gA\ qlr^\ polercosse .(errr eruos ur 'e8esseul e opnlcur seuq snorlueluoc oqJ 'ur?luoc pFoqs uorlrpe e rl?lrJoqlne ue }eq,t\ o} sB serlureuecun,(q pepunoduoc er€ uorlelerdrelur ut sertlncrJJrp eroq^\ (Sf-tq) e8ussed luenbesqns e Äq pelec -l1druoc sr re11eru eq] ]nq 'lrcgdxe elrnb s;eedde '(arunu slq arc"tA4 alt aluy sru qry^r) 'qcueJq Iezpq oql uodn pea;ec uulsr{ leq.&\ 6unu uns lrJcse Ielnc uns eC, 'Vg oul-I ,(yesrce.rd eurruJolop o1 ueeq suq uJecuoc lunoru€Jed y ,(sre,roJluoc Jo lunotuu elqeJeprsuoc e peluJeue? seqpota.td,aqS gI eJeru e o1 SuruunJ {JoA\ e Jod 'seuq I 'Oßt Sunuruell puu sulepy) secuecsru[ueJ Jeq]o z(lsnornqo eJB eJoq] 1nq 's.re"repuels Jo ,(1r,rr1ce eq1 Jo esn€ceg ilnoc ruor; pe^orueJ ueoq s?q oJerl eq} eJer{.r,\ 'luourSerg InoJeB er{} Jo Sutuur8eq eql 1e Sururelqo lerll eIr1un lou sr uorlenlrs eq1 dlqrqrssod e surerue.r

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ES}{EA H3NEUC CITO NI CINEDET }TVISIUJ EHJ,

t28

..

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

and wdtes it down in rhyme, in accordance with the task she set herself in the prologue she produced for her whole collection. Quite exceptionally for her, Marie seemingly claims to have drawn not only upon an oral, but also a written, source for the /ci: 'Plusors le me unt cunt6 e dit / E jeo l'ai trov6 en escrit' (Several people have told me the story and I have found it written down,5-6). Or is Marie using trover with the sense of 'to compose' and stating more predictably that she has set down an oral work in written form? Notwithstanding the difficulties in interpretation posed by the lay of Chevrefoil, it clearly suggests within its narrow compass much of the spirit of the legend; it is a distillation, a synecdoche, a summe of the whole Tristan story. Although regularly associated with the other episodic Tristan poems and included with them in the major collections, the Tristan Rossignol story differs from the two Folies and from Chevrefoil in that it has no independent existence, but is found only as part of a larger poem, the Donnei des amants. The Donnei, surviving in a single manuscript and Anglo-Norman in provenance (Legge 1963, 128), tells how in the spring the poet enters an enclosed garden and there eavesdrops on the conversation (the donnei of the title) of two lovers. So impressed is the poet by the arguments and counter-arguments brought forward by the lady and the lover that he decides to pass on what he has heard for the general benefit of all. In lines 453-683 of the Donnei, in a bid to persuade his lady to risk all for love, the lover tells the Tristan Rossignol story, an illustration of what Queen Yseut was prepared to do for Tristan. He relates how the hero returns secretly from Brittany to visit Yseut, and, at night, in a garden, imitates the song of birds, including that of the nightingale. For Yseut, the birdsong is a signal with its own private significance, just like the bastunin Chevrefoil. Yseut reacts to the sound by leaving the marital bed and makes her way through the guards set to watch over her by King Mark, who are fortunately all asleep at this time. However, she makes a noise as she attempts to open the door and alerts the dwarf. The ensuing commotion awakens the household, but Mark insists that the very boldness of the queen's behaviour indicates she had nothing untoward in mind. Yseut is then free to join her lover in the garden. This incident is not recounted elsewhere in any of the extant Tristan material. The same is true of the particular modulation of the folie story then related by the lady, in which she describes the humiliation Tristan was prepared to endure for the sake of Yseut. This serves as a riposte to the lover's story and brings this section of the Donnei to a close. The Tristan Rossignol episode is unusual also in that, as Gaston Paris noted long ago (1896, 536), it is diflicult to know to what point in the legend it should be attached: the return from Brittany suggests arelatively late stage, but the involvement of the dwarf argues for an earlier position. At the same time, the material seems decidedly familiar, and one may well have a sense of coming upon a collection of commonplaces. Tristan stations himself at

night. in ; j-, -: episode rr: .-: i misjudgeS t.-; the truth B -€XCttl'Sll: a':..-: which bre-::.: *: material ,:: - :

-

; the Donnt ^' have the

-

S.: - .-.

:

to the mLlS-. -exploitine . *:r'

.-

Althous:. ':

SeparatetJ ,--.1

.. -

Menestrt',' I -- : where it en-: : :

of Gerber: J moment \\:--.1906; I\{arc. : ning. If th: the se eue 11; = --' Mordred. I'-

-

.

of Caerletr: .-with gildec ' :.combat ui:: , -.. Tiistan est.1t.'-: -': desire to sa: . :

Lancien.an..':

hold. In a r'-- -- * side is consi-: I.:' the arrival c',.. . This phase c,-- r : to each othe: ,: . As Busbr . -' little more rl--,:' there is cert i 1:. One might ir: .: behind the e ],...:.' Tiistan's frie n -: ship with Yse -. -. .

1xo] sql ur 'on.tJ 'surood aryol il1o ruo.tJ pe^oueJ JeJ oo} }ou pue lnos^ qlrm drqs -uorleleJ s.u€1sr{ g}L&r peuJecuoc puoces eq} iurerrneg q}!v\ drqspuerrg s.ue}sr{ qlr.r,r SuqeeP lsrg eql :(§z§ ',L6l ',9061relp9tr pu€ uolso \) lxel lue1xe eql puryeq eq Äeur serJols uelsr{ om1 ,(lqrssod "ro3 'sep1 uulsrr1 o,tr1 ,(us }ceJ ul }q8nu eug 'surood allotr etql Jo luocsrurueJ sr qcrg \ ouo 'eroq olel uelsr.t; e ,(yurepec sr eJeql lng 'ocueruoJ IreJC snorJos e uqlr,l\ uorsJo^rp Sururelroluo ue uerll oJour oll1ll sr erer{ punoJ Ierre}uru ue}sr.t1 eqt 'pelururlur ,(11q8rr seq (ZsI '€86I) ,(qsng sy 'Jelunocuo lueso.rd Jroql 01pol qcrqa socuelsruncJrc eql ureldxe pue Joqlo qceo 01 serlrluepr Jreql esolcsrp IelecJed pue ure^neg ueql( esolc € o1 seuoc eseqd sq1 'ecueleq eq] sseJpeJ uorlrsoddo or{1 JoJ }roddns stq pue Ie^ocrod Jo le^rrre er{1 1nq 'serrlesueq] e lo^ut ,(geurg .sleJJsurru, eql uerü!\ pelsooq flqereplsuoc sr eprs s({r"I I Jo osnec eq} srerl€^e{3 tue3 sep IoU eq} lsure8e }ueru?urno} u q 'ploq -esnoq sq pu€ {JeIAI ;elo Surqclel\ Jo {sB} eq} uelr8 sr dnor8 eq} puu 'uercuel ser{ceer eq 'suercrsnu se pesrnSs}p Ue 's1qEru1 o^letvr} rlllly\ 'lnosÄ oos o} oJrsop Sursso.rd ? sleeJ ellr{ \ e JeUe }nq 'urcrrneg q}ra\ drqspuer{ B serlsrTg€}se u€lsr{ 'uelsrr1 eq o} peleeloJ sr }{3ru1 snouelsÄru eql uerl \ 'urezrneg qlll\ }eqruoc ur peSeSue sr pue se;n8g Surpeel Jo rogrunu e sleoJop Ä.luodeen pepl6 qlvrr 1t1?tu1e 'gnoc s.rngilV lV flrsueSouroq,fue slcel Jleslr f.ro1s eq; 'uoelJe€J Jo 3ur11es uerJnqlrv crsselc oql ol soruoc '1ezrec.re6 ,(q teegep srq Sur.trogog 'pe.rp:oy41 pue lsen§ Irerg eql serunser Ie^ocrod ueqryr lurod e W 'B7ZE'1 le ecuenbes eql ur8eq o11ecr8o1 srueos U 'ue>lel sr uorlrpe prepuuls oql,(q ueurr8 lurq eq1 g1 '8uru -ul8eg eql Je^o snsuosuoc qcns ou sr ereql te,rerrroll '(upe erz51-o11eqcre6 i9661 relp?g pu€ uolse \) luzrecre4 ruo;3 e1e:edes sluedlcrlred ureru eql ueryrt ]uetuoru e ß'(ZZ6I oII 'upe suuqpl6) p^azad ap uoryDnultuo) s.ltnettuol l ep UeqreC Jo uolllpe pJepuels eql u1 Z$n l le osned e Surq;eru ur ee.r8e srolrpe :spue lr eJeglv\ reolc sr 1! '>porvr ;e3uo1 q3rurr u urqlr^\ poppequre ,fuo1s reqloue 'e1e1 p0sauaw uDtsUJ eql qlll11. 'olel luopuodepur u€ Jo ecuereeddu eql Eurrrnbce ggo pele;udes eq ,(1rses uec ]r ',Qr1ue re3;e1 e go ged sr ruood lou7tssoy uDts!.u eq1 qSnoqtly

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_*

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

130

the emotional impact of the story is very much lessened, because the material is scattered over a large number of lines, and there is no attempt to evoke the whole of the legend through the banter of the disguised hero (though a convenient minstrel near the beginning does rehearse Tristan's past experiences, 3614_/.4). But the action is triggered off, as in the Folie poems, by Tiistan's desire to see Yseut again,even though he then travels to see her, not as a solitary figure, but as part of alarge group. His first meeting with Yseut leads to the usual refusal on the part of the queen to recognize him: his voice may be Tristan's, she admits, but, unlike her lover, this figure apparently no longer has both his eyes. The second stage of the story, typically enough, finds Tristan in the main hall, where he plays the lay of Chevrefoil upon his small flute. After some brief soul-searching, Yseut acknowledges that it is her lover who stands before her, her 'loiax amis' @092); the playing of a composition describing a meeting between the lovers has inspired another meeting. There is a little more. Gerbert must break off from his account of the tournament to present the lovers'customary fleeting moments of pleasure (4199-4207), and, towards the end of the tale, King Mark is persuaded by Gauvain, Yvain and Perceval to cease his antagonism towards Tristan (4736-68). The reconciliation which is hoped for in Chevrefoil actually comes about in this text.lGBl

C\

Burgess.

'

supplc:-:

-

Texts and Tra n. Early Frr,:

Tristcutt:

. )

:

=

. .

ti I'.

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Beroul 1939. 1v-

Böroul, Tr:. de Lage.

-

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,

_

Thomas Les Frugtti,,'

Notes

I See Ze Purgatoire de saint Patrice por Berol, publiö pour la premiäre fois par Marianne Mörner (Lund. 1917). p. 63. 1. 884. 2 For the suggestion that Tlistan, as in the prose Tristan, perished at Mark's hand, see Adams and Hemming 1973. 3 Throughout this volume, the following name forms will be used for characters in all versions of the Tristan legend: Mark, Tristan, Yseut, Yseut aux Blanches Mains (Yseut of the White Hands). There is, of course, an element of arbitrariness in these choices from a selection of variant forms. a Some of the 154 lines of the Carlisle fragment are essentially editorial reconstructions; see Benskin, Hunt and Short 1992-5. s See Jackson and Ranawake eds 2000*, 130, 139. 6 References to the lay of Chevrefoil are to the Ewert edition. Unless otherwise stated, references to the other texts considered in this section are to the Marchello-Nizia edition.

7

See

Kelly 1992*,177.

Reference List

Le Rotnzti tic

-

Le Ron'tcut tic Le Rontzn Jc

.

Lec.'.,

by F.

-

.

;:

The Folies Tri'r La Folie edn,

cle T,

215-t

edn, 211_4:

i

.-

Les Deux P(,,,"

La Folie Tt'isr.., Les Deux Pt,ti','The

_

.

.

Anglo-\, ,';' .

:-

The Rontortt', For items accompanied by an asterisk,

see

the General Bibliography.

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(Harmonds,,'. ,. The Birth o./ R ;:

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,

Bibliographies Shirt, D. J. The Old French Tristan Poems: A Bibliographical Guide (London, 1980).

J. Weiss

(Lc:.-

Le Roman de

T,

Ed. by F. Lec.

:

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'(9667'sue$ UoqS 'I pue reugeSurnefl 'A,(q selou pue'lsuert .{oce1 g,(q'pg 'ptoßO,p uDtslu alpl Dl.ap p auog ap uolsltJ allotr Dl ap Mms soruoqJ .rud uorn.ta ap uDLuof, a7 ,uopuol) ssle OV-lZl 'dd ees'ptotxg,p uDisUJ aqol eqt rcA'«,661 AT Äq '1suer1 'sacuDtaoü uotutoll-o13uy ttntuaS-qtl1au1 .tnog 't8o1or1tuv uV :nuoutoü to W4g aLtJ

{clrpeC 'S 'V

fq

'(0/6 I'quoanspuoutreg)

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132

.:

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Dean, R. J., and E. J. Kennedy. 1973. ',lJr, fragment anglo-normand de la Folie Tristan" MA,79, 57-72.

Chevrefoil Marie de France, Lais.Ed. by A. Ewert (Oxford, 1944;repr. with introduction and bibliography by G. S. Burgess, Bristol, 1995). Marie de France, Le Lai du Chövrefeuille lwith French transl.l. Ed by M. Demaules in MarchelloNizia edn, 213-16 and 1287-1309 (text and notes). Les Lais de Marie de France. Ed. by J. Rychner, CFMA 93 (Paris, 1966). The Lais of Marie de France. Transl. by G. S. Burgess and K. Busby (Harmondsworth, 1986).

Tristti,;' . : Dannenb., -::'

I

Ferrante.

.

)'1

Gerttttti.

I --- j -:Frappier ---- \ --

Frappier.

255-Et.t.:-

P .--l--: Grimbert. I I Halvorsen. ..I Gaffnel.

Tristan Rossignol

Le Donnei des amants. Tristan Rossignol [with French transl.]. Ed by C. Marchello-Nizia in Marchello-Niziaedr,,96'l-73 and 1566-9 (text and notes). Paris, G. 1896.' Le D onnei de s amants', Rom, 25, 497 -541 -

1

Heinzel.R .'-Hunt, T.

Gerbert de Montreuil, La Continuation de Perceval, Tristan Mönestrel [with French transl.]. Ed by C. Marchello-Nizia in Marchello-Niziaedn,975-1010 and 1570-5 (text and notes). Gerbert de Montreuil, La Continuation de Perceval, vols I and II. Ed. by M. Williams, CFMA 28, 50 (Paris, 1922,1925);vol. I[. Ed. by M. Oswald, CFMA 101 (Paris, 1975).

Hunt l9-9 i '" Hunt 1981.'1.. Hunt 199S 'E;

Adams, A., and T. D. Hemming. 1973.'LaFir.d'u Tristan de B6roul', MA,79,449-68.

Adams and Hemming. 1916.'"Chövrefeuille" and the Evolution of the Tristan Legend', BBIAS,

27,204-13. Adams, T. 1999. "'Pur vostre cor su jo em paine": The Augustinian Subtext of Thomas's Tristan', Med. Aev,68,278-91. Baumgartneq E. 1987. Tristan et Iseut: de la lögende aux räcits en vers,Paris. Benskin, M., T. Hunt, and I. Short. 1992-5. 'IJn nouveau fragment du Tristan de Thomas', Roz, 113,289-319. Berkvam, D. D. 1989. 'La"Y6ri1ö" d6placÖe dans le Chevrefoil , Neophil,73,14-22. Bromiley, G. N. 1986. Thomas's Tristan and the Folie Tristan d'Oxford, London. Bruckner, M. T. 1981-2. "fhe Folie Tristan d'oxford: Speaking voice, written TexI" Tris,7,47-59. Bullock-Davies, C. 1966. Professional Interpreters and the Matter of Britain, Cardiff. Burgess, G. S. 1987. The Lais of Marie de France: Text and Context, Manchester. Busby, K. 1983. 'Der Tristan Menestrel des Gerbert de Montreuil und seine Stellung in der altfranzösischen Artustradi tion', V R, 42, 1 44-5 6. Busby 1989a. 'Le Tristan de B6roul en tant qu'intertexte', in N. J. Lacy and G. Torrini-Roblin eds Continuations; Essays on Medieval French Literature and Language in Honor of John L. Grigsby (Birmingham, AL, 1989), 19-37. Busby 1989b. 'The Donnei des amants arrd Courtly Tradition', MR, 14,181-95. Cagnon, M. 1970. 'Chievrefueil and the Ogamic Tiadition', Rom,91,238-55. Calin, W. 1994. The French Tradition and the Literature of Medieval England,Toronto. Cormier, R. J. 1980. 'B6dier, Brother Robert and the Roman de Tristan',in Etudes de philologie romane et d'histoire littöraire offertes d Jules Horrent,Liöge, 69-7 5. Crane, S. 1986. Insular Romance: Politics, Faith, and Culture in Anglo-Norman and Middle Englßh Literature, Berkeley.

-

'

Hanoset. \

Tristan Menestrel

Studies

:

Ront.

1v--

and K.

'--

P:-,

,

EmderttL-:-: Illingworth. R. '. Jodogne.

O --:

19,103-." Johnson. P.

influertc,

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,

Kjrer, J. 1991

---

'-

-:

Montreu-- l'"--Larmat. J. l--- fransuiir . Legge, IVt. D . -- i -

Noble, P. S. i -:

- :

du sytnbr,., ' ."

Pollmann.L

--:'

und szenl:-t47

t-98.

Punzi, A. 195: l'. Raynaud de L...-: and 70. i-.-: Reid, T. B. \\

Reid 1912. Tii, Ribard, J. i 9-> Rychner, J.

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Bibliothöque de la Bourgeoisie de Berne', in Memory of T. B. W Reid, London, 187-218.

I. Short

ed. Medieval French Textual Studies in

Sandqvist, S. 1984. Notes textuelles sur le Roman de Tristan de Böroul,Ltnd. Schaefer, J. T. 1993. 'Specularity in the Mediaeval Folie Tristan Poems or Madness as Metadiscourse', Neophil, 77, 355-68. Spitzer, L. 1946J,'La "Lettre sur la baguette de coudrier" dans le lai du Chievrefueil', Rom, 69, 80*90. Telfer, J. M. 1952-3. 'The Evolution of a Mediaval Theme', DUJ,45,25-34. Värvaro, A. 1972. Beroul's Romance of Tristran, transl. by J. C. Barnes, Manchester. Walter, P. 1990. Le Gant de verre: le mythe de Tristan et Iseut, La Gacilly. Weston, J. L., and J. B6dier. 1906. 'Tristan Mönestrel: extrait de la continuation de Perceval par Gerbert, Rom, 35, 497-530. Wind,B.H. 1960-1.'El6mentscourtoisdansBÖrouletdansThomas', RPh, 14,l-13.

Chrötien rt; "' and his i:r.l -. - . known t tr F:. ' channelst- ".'. the quest r i,, and the G:',,

of GeotTr:' domineeri:. : given disr.: Middle AS;, The knis Yseut's e\i the word

-.

.

-

-

;

fore t o

.

lt .,-

be one oi . -.European .. . . Althoug:r : 1950; Misr,: ' the tweltiir -:

.' ' Lancelot ti.., Lance lo l

the

rr

Cltet'rt,':

in Ovid's

-

-

1".'

d'Angleteri'. chansons t1^.,. -.

manner of 1..: that arc prt L the Metutltr ; "

"

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'81md pta)Dd ep

Lr.,

'J:1.

ssÄo

,':T;:r'n*rr AI

'69 'uuoü ' ,Uan{-ar,\,

se ssaupelN Jo

s

w satpnls loruxal

136

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

and a story entitled 'Dou roi Marc et d'Yseut la blonde' (Cligös,5) (about King Marc and Yseut the blonde).2

n.

1).

Some

The Author As Hunt has pointed out (1986, 9), nothing is known about Chr6tien, except that he was very well known! The full name 'Chr6tien de Troyes'(Chrestiens de Troies) appears only in the prologue to Erec (9); the other romances refer to him simply as 'Chr6tien'.3 He may not have been born in Tioyes itself, but his French does show some Champenois traits (Woledge 1986-8, l, 1749). The prologue to the Charrette states that he wrote the romance at the behest of Marie de Champagne and that she furnished him with its matiere arrd san (1,-3,21-7); these terms are generally taken to refer to the plot's source and its informing idea or context. The epilogue claims that Chrötien entrusted the task of completing the last thousand lines or so to an otherwise unknown, but apparently skilful versifier, Godefroy de Lagny (Charrette, 7102-10). Chr6tien did not complete his last romance, Perceval. According to its prologue, Philippe de Flandre gave Chr6tien the 'book' that he then rewrote in French verse (60-6). As Philippe died during the Third Crusade of 1189-92 (Diverres 1990,23-32), loss of patronage may explain its incomplete state. Or Chr6tien, as Gerbert de Montreuil claims in his Perceval Continuation, may have died before completing the romance. Several scholars have questioned these biographical statements. They argue, for example, that Godefroy de Lagny is a fictional continuator of a romance which Chr6tien himself completed, and also that the Perceval is in fact complete, in the sense that Chrötien either did not intend to effect closure, or that it is structurally or thematically complete as it stands, despite the absence of a conventional d6nouement (Dragonetti 1980; Hult 1989a; Zemel 1996). The validity of these interpretations depends on Chr6tien's biography, about which we know no more than what is claimed by authorial interventions in the romances. Marie de Champagne's patronage of the Charreue is the most credible of these biographical allusions. The apparent idealization of Lancelot's love for Guinevere is consistent with the justification of adultery ascribed to Marie de Champagne in Andreas Capellanus's De amore (but see the reservations in Benton 1961), where the patroness of Chr6tien's Charrette argves that there is no necessary conflict between adulterous love and conjugal affection. Chr6tien's connection to Philippe de Flandre is less clear. Beyond the perhaps coincidental link between the incomplete Perceval and Philippeb death in the Holy Land in 1191, their only other possible contact, itself dubious, occurred during failed negotiations in the 1180s for marriage between Philippe and Marie de Champagne, after the death of her husband. Philippe's patronage of the Perceval, it has been suggested, came

.'

about dun:.-: S.--. .

---

'

and Bern,.i:: :. Aquitaine , Fr .: and C/ig.". . :L90-200,,

i,*i :

1994; but ,-:' l, -

variouslr c.-. -: - minstrel \-tr: : \' nhme Ollc -:'' SuggesteC ':.

"-

-.

astical diSi.. .. of these c. -. *

:

His studi ,- t medie\-al gr-: ' '" of clericrrl -: -- '

in his \\ or:": * (arithrneti.. -: been -qenei-:

Chrötien>..-centur\. B t.: and art ol- \ -

All of Chrc:.- ' all except ::. ; to two mori IV:l, 25-59. l'1 first. T of the founi.:.

as the

scenes

-,

. '

at \: , .

-"

as importan: and last ltn;

:'-

ocu€ruor qcBE 'eposrdo luecuru8ls e utqlltn slleJ uego (OOEg'r) eug lsel pu€

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I{3lt{A\

}11t-r J

:.

eqroeil

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's

-

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'(t'u

'dse'g1y'III'€96I elozzegirgg'196l uolueg) suotletlo8eu LET

osoqt Sur"rnp lnoqe

Sury Tnoqo) (S

SEÄOUJ ECI NEIIEUHf

138

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

introduces a major figure whose identity and significance emerge as the plot progresses and whose name gives each romance its usual title or titles. Certain figures reappear from romance to romance; the most common are Arthur, Gauvain, Kay and Guinevere. Women are less often named; of noble birth, they inspire love and usually marry the titular knights. More importantly, they are the willing or unwilling source of the crises in the plots (Lefay-Toury 1972; Krueger 1993* , 35; Paupert 1995). In what follows, each romance is briefly summ arized in order to identify the major issues raised in its plot as well as any novel features in its narrative composition.

:

Count O:.-.-

-

Erecssp-;....Their ,i -.: : Erec parc,-- .. : she again r-Mabon&Sr.:.:-

another r...: torious. .\. :. " :. Brittanr.

":

Thecr:>.: Erec et Enide

The first part of Chrötien's first Arthurian romance interlaces two adventures: the Hunt for the White Stag and the Sparrow-hawk Contest. Each adventure serves to identify the most beautiful woman. Erec does not take part in the hunt. Instead, he acts as escort for Guinevere and encounters a discourteous knight, Yder, who insults the queen by allowing his dwarf to strike both her companion and Erec himself. Being unarmed, Erec follows Yder to a town, where he obtains armour from an impoverished knight and meets the latter's beautiful daughter. He challenges Yder in the Sparrow-hawk Contest and defeats him; the daughter receives the prize. Erec asks for her hand in marriage and goes with her to Arthur's court, where all agree that she should receive the Kiss of the White Stag. When Erec marries her, we learn her name: Enide. After a tournament, the couple departs for Carnant, the court of Erec's father King Lac. This ends the first part. The second part relates a crisis in the marriage. Because Erec neglects tournaments for his beloved wife, almost everyone accuses him of recreantise (failure to act as a knight should, 2462-63, 2551). Enide is deeply troubled by these complaints, fearing that she has caused him to lose his honour, and reveals her concern to her husband one morning in bed. The change in their marriage is dramatic. Although Erec admits that he must do something to rectify the situation (2572-73), he does not embark on a round of tournaments. Rather he sets out'en aventure' (2763) with Enide. Erec does not repudiate his wife. However, although he may treat his wife correctly by the standards of the time, he no longer seems to regard her as his beloved: she is still his feme, but no longer his amie (Sargent-Baur 1979-80). He orders her to remain silent unless he grants her permission to speak. During their quest, they meet and overcome violent threats to both husband and wife. While Erec is always victorious in combat, Enide does not obey her husband's injunction to remain silent when she sees danger. Finally exhausted, Erec collapses, to all appearances dead. A knight with the sirrister name of

Etrüfii;:

r

,.-

martial pi,,- ,' :' to that ca .t : in the Hi.: :

'

H. :.:in their r;

ments.

victories .:.' does not ,:f I :

worth.

S;".

-.

-

-

-

prowess.

Cligös

The first p... Constantr-

-

:

-

in Brittani. .-* =

to Englli r- -

--

Alixandre . -l (Nolting-H -. .give voice : mutual deC -; . * After tir; -: elder broth =:

Alixandre . .: marry, So ..- -. Fönice,

daL.:

-

-

she is uou .. Thess ala. i. - - .

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JO erusu Jelsrrr

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,{1uo

luq

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-

(euo p€ep oq},

-

sJotuIT ep elSurrg }unoC

eArJsJteu Äg11uep1

sll ul

ot

rep

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eql ere Äeq1 ',ilx Arqt 'qulq efQt'r tnqUy ete ur-r ureueJ 'sellr] r

lold eql se e8.r

SEÄOUI ECI NEIIEUHf

6El

T40

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

mid-point of the text) with a potion that causes him to fall asleep each night and merely dream that he makes love to his wife; in this way F6nice will not give Alis an heir. Whilst the Greeks are returning from Cologne, the Duke of Saxony tries to abduct F6nice, but Clig6s rescues her. Later, after triumphs in tournaments in England, Clig6s and Fönice confess their love. F6nice again enlists the help of Thessala, who prepares a potion that makes her appear to be dead; Clig6s will free her from the tomb and take her to a secret hideaway. However, sharp-eyed doctors from Salerno see through the deception and torture F6nice to make her confess. But a band of women defenestrate the doctors and F6nice is entombed. Clig6s rescues her at night and the lovers lead a life of solitary bliss until, unexpectedly discovered, they flee to Arthur's court. Alis dies of jealous rage after learning the truth about his unconsummated marriage. Cligös and F6nice marry and are crowned. Succeeding emperors, fearing Alis's fate, establish the harem. Deception and treachery are rife in Cligös; Angr6s betrays Arthur and, in order to capture it, Alixandre deceives the defenders of Windsor Castle. Alis breaks his oath never to marry, but F6nice, refusing to give her body to both her husband and her lover, retains her virginity through deception. When she does 'elope'with Clig6s, she still insists on secrecy. But they are betrayed, and she and Clig6s become exemplary of secret adulterers.

Durins :-.; :,Guine\ er- r-- : -: 1. 3660. t

::

-

her honLrll: B . -. -

Lancelot. .' . -' forgedleti=. - :.

chooseiri.>:--*" his jailer'= , -ment. tire i -... ' 5654). th;:-. . :maidens ',," -:.' return ttr l'r--

Meler1S.-'

it ;t r :

The Charrette

Court.

Prior to the Charrette, the relation between love and prowess in Chr6tien's romances has been problematic. To be sure, Erec fights better in the Sparrowhawk Contest because of Enide, and Cligös, inspired by F6nice, wins her partly by his prowess. Yet absorption by love to the exclusion of prowess causes problems. Erec is accused of being reueant, whereas Clig6s in effect abandons

Melea,*e&Ir,:

knighthood in order to love F6nice in seclusion. By contrast, love in the Charrette

is superior to knighthood, because, in this romance, love itself inspires exceptional chivalric achievements. An unknown knight, later identified as Meleagant, boasts that he holds many of Arthur's subjects prisoner in Gorre. To liberate them, a knight must defeat Meleagant in a combat for which Guinevere is the prize. The challenge is taken up by Kay, but he is defeated and the queen is abducted. Gauvain and an anonymous knight follow her. In order to learn of the queen's whereabouts, the anonymous knight rides in a cart", a shameful act usually reserved for criminals; as a result he receives the name Knight of the Cart. Gauvain chooses to proceed to Gorre by way of the Underwater Bridge, whilst the Knight of the Cart takes the more dangerous Sword Bridge. Numerous adventures mark the knight's progress (Gauvain's adventures are not narrrated), until he finally crosses the Sword Bridge before the castle where Guinevere and Kay are prisoners.

--

the queer. ."': Meleaglllr. : .. Court ana . .: mountinI . -: qUeen. L.: - -. lr = bed. N'Iel:-,:-- '

-

.

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qUest. L.,l'. - once and :-. The the : .:

What is r:r : extraordu-.,. episode ir. reasonabrl;

.

Lancelot

::t. - -

over Reas,:':-

only achie',.\ ' 'from dron ... ' accomplisl.:. ;Yvuin

At the begu.: Marvellor-rs F

-

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uloAA

eql sessorc Äll

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legmr s,3ur4 er{} qtr^\,fue11npe ,(;rlsnioslu }r seop tng '(09-rs97) slueurqs{durocce crJle^rqc sFI IIe serrdsur elol 'se1e1s Jlosrurq lolocue'I sy 's1celqns ea.rldec s(rnglrv [e seseeleJ eq tylueuodrur eroru 'pue e8prrg JeleA\Jopun eq] ]e ?ururrro;p ruo.lg ure^neg Sunes ur IeluorunJlsut oslu sr eq 'ueenb er{} JoJ lsenb eql se,rerqce ,(po lou eH 'selcelsqo eruocJelo o] ruFI sdleq s,{u,l1u e^ol s.}olecueT 'ppo ro qsllooJ sreedde serurleuos eq telol e se J1 '(tt-Sgt) os op 01 rurq ser{sr,lA 'uosueg reno Surqdrunr"rl 'e,ro1 osneceq 'uorlelrseq ]seJerJq eql JelJe 1l olur s8ur.rds lolecueT 6lJBc oql8ur1unou,(q glesurrq eueqs ueql JerlleJ 'esroq srq uo ,(e1s ol elqeuoseeJ 1l spuu ur€^neg q8noqlly 'ru.(uopnesd srq se:rnbce lolocue'I qc5l^\ ul eposlde lJec oql ul pels€Jluoc e.re 'eydruexe JoJ'ure.r.neg pue lolecu€T 'e^ol.fteulp;oerlxe ue Jo sse,uord ,(1tq3ru1 uo ecuongur lercueueq eql sr oreq pezrseqdure sr lerl I s'auarfiq) egl ur snssr.rofeur e ]ou sr s?8!tJ ur punoJ se ,fue11npe Jo erueql eqJ 'ece1d elqelrns e ur relel lolecu€-I preA\or o1 sueld ueenb ogI 'llu roJ puu ocuo s.reuosud eql Suroe4 fqereqt '1ue8ee1e141 speeqeq pue s]eeJep lolecue-I 'lsenb srq Euunp req pedleq eq esneceq ruq seo€ pue tolecuu.I spuu "relsrs s,1ue8?olol I lng 'eJJoC 01 uJnleJ lsnru eJeleurnC pue sreuosrrd eql iur{} sreedde 11 'ilnoc s(rnqilV o1eruoc louuec lolecueT ecur5 '(e.req sur8eq ged s,,(uEe1 ep,(orgepog) Je./v\o} 3 ur rurg suosudrur pue epedecso s.lolecusT Jo suJeel 1ue3ee1e141 'serJJeru suepreru eql Jo euou luosud o1 urnle"r 01 luorueuJnol erll Jo puo oql ]e ,(umu sdqs eq lng 'urrq .(;reu o] luu^\ suepreru erll [V '(O1SS '31eilJr ne,) lseq srq seop eq 'qsvrr req 8umro11og ure8e 'ueqt'(Vggg ',zneorJ ne,) luorvr srq soop oq ']seqeq Jerl ]V 'rurq sezuSocer ueenb eq] 'luoru -euJnol eql ur lrlErul lseq eql sr eq ecurs 'olruSocur eledrcrged ol oJI^\ qrepel srq ruo.t; uorssnured surc8 lolocueT 's1q3ru1 }seq eql ls8uoure ruo{ spusqsnq esooqc uec ,(eq1 1eg1 os luour€uJnol e rurelcoJd ser8o1 ut suepreru ei{1 'elqa\ueolN 'Unoc qrnqpv 1€ sl eq leqt surrulc 'lolerueT uro;g.(pe8elp te11e1pe8ro3 y'eEppg Jel€A\repun eq1]e Suru.no"lp ruo4 poncsor sr urelneg lsp{,r\'1o1ecue1 sernldec Ä1sno;eqceor11ue8ee1e141 'lequroc oq] slluq uru8e n8eurepneg Jnouoq rer{ spueJop lolecueT pue te; qlltr.ftelpp? Jo oreleurng sesnccu 1ueEee1e6peq rorl olut tutq se^recer eqs '(§0Zr) e;n1se8 pepeeqlq8rl srql Surlle;3er te1u1 'usenb oq] ruo4 ecr^Jos slq roJ JJnqer dreqs B selrecoJ tolecu€T (Ueo eql Surlunou eroJeq polelrseq eq esnecog 'pee4 .(luerodrue] er€ sreuosrrd eqt pue Unoc s.JnqUV le leqruoc er{} elnpeqosoJ o} seuelrelur 'n8uruepn€B toqleJ qlue8ee1etr41 lng 'lueuoddo srq slseJep tsoru1e eq tlneeq .leq .(q perrdsur 'ueq1 iueenb eq] 3o lqErs eql .(q pe[u.(1s sr ]olecus'I 'lsru ]v '(1xet eqt 3o lurod-prur o{1 '0ggt 'l ur eceld se4e1 Sururuu eql) lolocue.I :eureu enrl s,1q?ruI oq] sleo^er ere^oumg puu 1reC er{} Jo }{8ru;J oq} uoe^ueq teqruoc Surnsue oqt Suunq '1ue8ee1e141

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

142

had been directed to this marvel by a gigantic herdsman. Pouring water on to a stone next to the fountain, he unleashed a violent storm; after calm returned, the defender of the fountain, Esclados le Roux, took vengeance by defeating Calogrenant in combat. His cousin, Yvain, vowing to avenge him, hastens to the fountain. Mortally wounding Esclados, he pursues him into a castle but is trapped in a gateway. In return for courtesies he once showed her, Lunete, serving-maiden to the lady of the castle, gives him a ring that makes him invisible, and Yvain thus escapes discovery. He sees Laudine, Esclados's beautiful widow, and immediately falls in love with her. Lunete senses this and, unbeknownst to Yvain, succeeds in interesting her in him. After the marriage, the new husband defends the fountain against Kay. Gauvain advises Yvain to avoid uxoriousness by embarking on a round of tournaments. Laudine agrees to a separation, provided Yvain returns within ayear. Yvain fails to keep his word. His wife withdraws her love. Grief-stricken, Yvain goes mad and leads a savage life in the woods. Latel a maiden recognizes him and, using a magic ointment, restores him to his right mind. He rescues a lion from a dragon (mid-point). The lion becomes his companion and Yvain assumes the name Knight of the Lion (4285). In his many adventures he assists women who are in dire straits. On each occasion, the lion assures his victories, except in the final combat against Gauvain (the plot of Yvain is linked to that of the Charrette by Gauvain's role in both; see Yyain 3706-11,3914-23 and 4734-9). After fighting Arthur's nephew to a draw, Yvain returns to the Marvellous Fountain, where he unleashes storm after storm against Laudine's lands and castle. Lunete tricks her into reconciling'the Knight of the Lion'with his lady. Yvain turns on the ambiguous relationship between love and prowess. Yvain keeps tourneying beyond the year allotted to him and thus neglects love for the very tournaments Erec avoided in favour of marital bliss. Yet it is by destructive storms unleashed from the fountain, and by Lunete's deception, that he wins the right to return to his wife: Lunete does not tell Laudine that the knight she must reconcile with his lady is her own husband Yvain. This problematic ending (Chr6tien calls it a jeu de veritö'play on truth', 6624) is, in fact, a deceptive play on words. Perceval Because

The \ ox.ll: rYetasnrilir-J--he appeArs -i: \.

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:

.

.

.

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oi

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after fir e '. ; -- r . hermit \\ h,--' saved hinr . distress (6:.' :" SerVeS the i. . , Confessicn -: .

l9l0*,131 --it is incomplete,

Perceval poses unusual problems

of interpretation. The

first part begins in the Waste Forest where the Widow Lady has raised her son, 'Beau Fils'. She wanted to keep him ignorant of knighthood, since her husband and two other sons, all knights, perished because of violent conflict. But a chance encounter with knights awakens in the boy the desire to become a knight. As he rides off, his mother faints, but her son ignores her. We learn later that she died grief.

of

accused

of . .,

defend hin.:: manches äg-..:'

-

King of Es.-hospitalit\ C -.:

bybringingi : r

s.JnqUV Äo.r1sep ol pourlsop ecuel e 'uolurecsg ol ecueT Surpeelg eqt 8ur?ur;q fq Jnouoq srq Je^oceJ uec eH 'erreuder ree,(-suo e peluerS sr eq 'tuolsnc .{lqulrdsoq er{l Äq pelce}oJd 'rurq ezruSocoJ }ou soop or{A\ telq8nep s6uol€,/recsg go 3ur;1 oql qlt.&\ Jolunocue clloJe ue suq ueql pue Jelsrs o^rsnqe Jeq lsure8e segcuetu solrled xne e[ecnd eql suordru?qc ure^nug 'uolezrecs[ ]e Jlosurq puoJep o1 ,(eryr slq uo 'uols^ecsg 3o 3ur;1 eq1 polll)l ,(lsnoreqcue.ll Sur,req Jo pesncce sr ure^neC '1oyd ure,rneg ,Qfue1 B sureluoc osle plilDd;o ged puoces eqJ 'ecueruor er{} ut rulq Jo ororu ou rueq e 11 '(egZ'VrcyIEZ'^OL6I relq_oJ) urs s6l€^ecred ,(e,v\€ edrm (6-999g'(,IEg-9829) ecueued pue uorsseJuoC '(S-tfgq) elcun qlu^ecred osle sl oq \ toqleJ s,3uq1 rerlsrd er{} ot }sog eql se^res Irerg er{} :uorlsenb lrerg euo o} Jolrcue oq} suruel oslu eH '(gZ-Stgq) ssor}srp req 3ur1ce13su ur urs srq elrdsep 'OfAe») uosrrd pu€ qleep ruo.r3 rrrrq pe^es s.re,furd s.Jer{lou sq leql suJeol I€^ecJed 'olcun leuJolelu srq osl? sl orllv\ UurJerI e 01 rurq lcorrp sluelrued ,(ep5rg pooC 'poD uollo8rog seg eq 'srue,{ eAU relJe 'lnq Jlesurq uoepor ot tsenb e selegepun Iu^ecred '(St-tOqf) ep ru,v\ l{3ru1 e .(ueur ielelosuocsrp eperu sueqdro pu€ suepreur 'e1se,tr prel spuel 'peltopm eq zl\ou IIr.r se^L!\ isuorlsenb IreJC eql {sB 01 eJnlreJ s.lu^ecJed Jo slcoJJe snoJlsesrp eql secunouu? Iostuee snoeprH e uoqa sul8eq ged puoces er{J 'ocueruoJ er{l Jo gud lsrrg oq} spuo snqJ 'ilnoc s(rnglrv rl1r.^A pe}runeJ sI pue e.rnlder sq uro4 sJeloceJ I€^ecJed 's11eur a\ous eql uer1,!\ 'uepreru Surpurs eql Sur8uere Äqe;eql pue replnoqs pue ur.re s.,(e;tr Surleerq 'leqtuoc ur rueql sleoJep eq 'uorleldrueluoc srq 1dn.ue1ul ,(u) pue ;oure;8us ueq yuoxelduroc .(1elo1 s6Jnogeqcuulg Jo rug purruoJ sJnoloc eql :esoo8 pepunol\ e ruo4,r\ous erll ol uo uolluJ e^uq leql poolq;o sdorp eerr{l Jo uorleldureluoc o}ur slleJ or{ tnouoq s(uepletrAl luel eqt Euuolse; relJv'G66I preugl4l ees !91-1199) 1e,rec-re6'eruuu Ieer srq sounrp slrt neeg 'erurl orues oqt lV '(S-tgEE) Weep req Sursnec,(qe;eqt 'sserlsrp s.Jeqlou srq Euuou8r,(q pellrururoc eq urs erll Jo esnzceq suollsenb ye;g eql {su o} poll€J eq }3q} ruq sruroJul oqrv\ 'ursnoc sry s}eeiu eq 'ellsec oql Sul^eel re13y 'eceed 1€ ueeq o^eq plnorrr puel srg pue peleeq ueog eluq plno^\ 8ur;1 .reqsrg eql 'suorlsenb eseql pe{se peq oq JJ eelres lrerC eq] seop ruor{A\ üpeelq ocue[ eq] seop ,{qm :(L-ggI 6166I }unH ees 'uer1grq3 ur sodol ilsalp.trp eqt uo) suortsenb perrnbsr oq] {su 01 slleJ 1nq 'ecuey Burpeelq e puu lrerD e sopnlcut 1uq1 uorsseco"rd € se^resqo eq Suryl reqsrd porur€u er{} Jo ol}sec eql lV 'secerqruo;eq s,(olue pue e8errreru pecJoJ e pue e8ers urorg Jnegoqcuelg Äyeno1oql se^BS 'esue yeueuloueqd qlr^\ pooqlqSp{ sur€el eq teÄ 'oro^eurnc pue rnquv pe]Fsur s?q orl^\ ]t{3ru)1e sru{ eq ueql ';e8uu snoleel ur ror{ sosnqe oq,r. 'epue1 el ep xnellronS.r6 eq1 tenol JeI{ Jo seÄe eq1 ut uoprel4l lueJ eg} 3o uorlulndoJ or{1 surnJ oq 'ecr.rpe s.Jeq}oru srq 8ur,tro11og ,tyrsurnl3 'seJnlreJ pue sse;Eord s,spg neeg {JBru Jnorunq pue ecuelor1 'IcH € pue dels e q1ft\ urogl spJea\e"r,fu;1 'unoc s(rnguv

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SEÄOUJ ECI T{EIJEUHf

-9---

t44

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

kingdom of Logres (6092-7) (here Chr6tien inserts Perceval's Good Friday episode). However, Gauvain's subsequent adventures contain no reference to either the alleged murder or the Bleeding Lance; at the Castle of Ladies he survives the test of the Perilous Bed and discovers Arthur's mother, his own mother, and his sister Clarissant. He must, however, do battle with Clarissant's beloved, Guiromelant, who believes his own father and brother were murdered by Gauvain's father and by Gauvain himself. At this point the narrative breaks off abruptly.T

This complex, yet inconclusive, plot offers no clear choice among competing ideals. The principal characters are accused of serious wrongs, although their guilt is never absolute. Perceval causes his mother's death, yet this sin is unintentional. He progresses as knight. Indeed, Perceval relates a sort of learning process, an Entwicklungsroman in which Perceval matures as time passes and his experience grows (Kellermann1936,138;Frappier in Loomis ed. 1959*, 190;Köhler 1970*, 250)t1974, 286-8). Gauvain, for his part, encounters hatred almost everywhere. He is accused of murder (on Gauvain as murderer, see Le Rider 1978,226-7). The knight Greoreas seeks vengeance because, as punishment for rape, Gauvain forced him to eat with the dogs for a month with his hands tied behind his back. The sharp-tongued damsel, the Orgueilleuse de Logres, mocks him, hoping that he will kill her. These open-ended plots provide the impetus for later continuations, adaptations and interpolations (see Chapter VI). Problem Romances Because of the specific thesis each romance was thought to illustrate, earlier scholarship tended to treat Chr6tien's romances as Thesenromane (Foerster 1914, 43*45*); Chr6tien would thus be an author engaged in promoting specific social and moral ideals. But since the ground-breaking work of Vinaver there has been a tendency to move away from ascribing a firm social or moral thesis to the romances. Instead, scholars have begun to identify the problems they raise and to relate these issues to audience reception (Vinaver l97l*,30-1; cf. Nolting-Hauff 1959,17; Baumgartner 1992,19-20,73-9; Pickens 1977; Kay 2001). To be sure, there are statements enunciated by the narrator or by a character in the plot that evoke a definite moral. For example: Molt

est qui ainme oböissanz, Et molt fet tost et volentiers, La ou il est amis antiers, Ce qu'a s'amie doie plaire. (Charuette,3798-3801)

(He who loves is very obedient, and when he is wholly beholden to his love eagerly does whatever may please her.)

However, Gauvain argues, as if in rebuttal, that great devotion to a beloved wife can make a knight less worthy (Yvain,2484-90).

The cltr>i - - r. I t :, l' . ished as ..1. .'. .. virtua

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.

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(L-:r...

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Zaddl'195t

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monologui> -- -* 86-92. 1l-t-:- 'n positions s:-. -

ters u'h il s: ! ' earnestness. -The'casL..:.--

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audiences \ .. Chrötien's ,t .:

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r

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contrasting ideals become alternatives, even irreconcilable solutions to one debatable problem. 'Like so much of Yvain', this ending 'is designed to produce debatet' (Hunt 1986, 82; his italics). The views Chr6tien chooses to illustrate in a given romance set a context for interpreting the adventures that make up the plot, like the choice between prowess and love for Erec and Yvain, between leason and love for Lancelot, or between Yseut as model and F6nice's adaptation of the Tiistan model in Cligös. Individual episodes may also turn on dilemmas, such as Enide's debates as to whether to speak or not, or Laudine's on whether or not to marry the man who killed her husband. Combat can illustrate jeu parti. The martial game becomes unfair if several knights attack a lone knight, as when Yvain fights Laudine's seneschal and two others. Enide herself exclaims, in respect of a similar confrontation: 'N'est pas igaux partiz cist jeus / D'un chevalier encontre trois' (Erec,2832-3) (one knight against three is an unfair match). Might one not say the same of the choice offered to Laudine between destruction of her castle and reconciliation with Yvain? Scholars have read Chr6tien's 'problem romances'by looking for solutions to problems such as these. Solutions there have been, including some secondguessing of Chrötien's intentions, but there is hardly any real consensus. Bruckner (1986*7) confronts this issue head on, by asking why there afe so many interpretations of Chr6tien's Charrette.e Why, indeed, are there So many interpret-ations of all Chr6tien's romances? (Maddox 1973; Shirt 1978; MÖnage 1980; Maddox 1980-1; Williams 1983; BertolucciPizzorusso in Cigni 1992,9-20; Pensom 1993; Döffinger-Lange 1998). Bruckner's question focuses on the Charrette, where Lancelot's love for Guinevere makes him the best knight in the world. The narrative makes the case for this claim in exemplary fashion as Lancelot overcomes great obstacles, even if his love seems at times to shame him or make him appear ineffectual or ridiculous. For example, when absorbed by thoughts of his love, he may become oblivious to dangers that rise up before him. Yet Lancelot triumphs again and again, finally achieving his quest because of his extraordinary love (Chönerie 1986*, 379-8I; cf. 394-7 and 573-5 on Lancelot's voluntary and heroic recreantise). The shame of riding in the cart is seen as a fault, not only by some of the characters in the plot but even by the queen herself. Her rebuff perplexes even her unquestioning lover (433941), since, he reasons, nothing arising out of love can be called blameworthy (4354-60). The issue rebounds when the queen herself regrets her mistreatment (41974207); Chr6tien models her repentance, contrition and penance on standard religious topoi (Payen 1967 ,379-82). Lancelot later learns that Guinevere faulted him, not for mounting the cart but for hesitating to do so (4484-9). For her part, the queen atones for her earlier rebuff by receiving Lancelot into her bed. Clearly the love ideal and its illustration

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148

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romances is discussed, including ways in which medieval audiences might have heard or read them. Finally, the contexts are examined within which Chr6tien sets the norms and poses the problems of conduct illustrated by his romances. These

three factors mark his achievement and define his legacy for the tradition of Arthurian romance in French and other languages.

Chr6tien's Art of Writing Romance The investigation and reconstruction of presumed sources dominated Chr6tien scholarship until the mid-twentieth century.l0 Then came reaction leading to closer reading of his romances in order to appreciate their composition. In the 1970s, modern theoretical approaches reintroduced source study in new contexts, such as intertextuality (Bruckner in Lacy, Kelly and Busby eds 1987-8*, I, 223-65; Wolfzettel ed. 1990*, l-17 Watanabe 1990) and mythopoetic readings (Walter 1 98 8 ; Vincensini 1 996; Watanabe 2002). Intertextuality comprises a number of different models that explain relations among texts. It differs from most earlier source study by taking into account the process of adaptation in rewriting sources. The new author perceives a potential inherent, but not yet realized, in an antecedent work and rewrites it in his or her new version (cf. Marie de France's notion of adding the surplus of meaning to an earlierwork; Lais,Prologue, 16;cf. Köhler 1970*,52-311974,61-2). Antecedent' can also refer to motifs and themes already used by the same author in one or more of his or her own earlier works, as in the return in Yvain to the love versus prowess issue found in Erec. Such 'analogical composition' (Lacy 1980, 110) within this broad sense of intertextuality (which therefore includes intratextuality) may operate by virtual repetition, by greater or lesser resemblance or by contrast; for example, the tournament episode in the Charrette reuses features of the entire romance (Bruckner 1993*, chapter 3). Two aspects of intertextuality must be distinguished: (i) the relationships between texts perceived by the author, but of which the public is unaware (for example, aLatin model adapted for a vernacular public), and (ii) the relationships which audiences are expected to perceive, such as Chr6tien's reference in the prologue to Erec to other versions of the tale, or the allusions to the Charrette contained in Yvain. These relationships reflect the art of romance and the reception of romance by the reading and listening audiences. The prologue to Cligös locates Chr6tien's art and writings in a scholastic tradition going back to Greece and Rome, but surviving, he believes, in twelfthcentury France. In books whose age makes them authoritative and trustworthy he proclaims that we can learn the marvellous deeds of bygone peoples, deeds that reveal the significance of chevalerie and clergie; these two poles of a common

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(26-7).It is generally

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

to refer to his rewrites. No he retells or sources, an antecedent version or versions of the story source for any of Chr6tien's Arthurian romances is extant, but we do know that the source for the pre-Arthurian Philomena mentioned in the prologue to Cligös was a tale in Ovid's Metamorphoses (Marques de Rome, a thirteenth-century prose romance, contains an analogue to Cligäs).In Erec he alludes to a conte d'aventure (13), which he says story-tellers are wont to dismember and fragment (corrompre and depecier, 19-22; on these meanings, see Kelly 1992*, 125-9). agreed that Chr6tien uses the word matiere

This reference gives us a glimpse of itinerant jongleurs, who, more or less successfully, hawked about a well-known tale for the pleasure of the high-born. Chr6tien refers elsewhere to a'lai de joie' (Erec,6179-81) and to another lay about Landunet (Yvain, 2153-5; cf. Foulet and Uitti 1983-4). Accordingly, the expression conte d'aventure corresponds both to the written conte abott Clig6s, which Chr6tien claims to have found in a Beauvais manuscript (18-23), and the book which Chr6tien claims to have received from Philippe de Flandre (Perceval, 64-6). Furthermore, all Chr6tien's romances express a san through narratorial interventions, such as the explanation of Lancelot's obedience to Guinevere's wishes quoted above (Charuette, 3797*3801). Similar interpretative statements by characters in the narrative include diverse rules for knightly decorum in Perceval, structural contrasts such as that between the knighthood of Lancelot and Gauvain in the Charrette, the issue of love versus knighthood in Erec and Yvain, and the choice between consent and submission to marriage in Cligös and Yvain. Chr6tien's allusion to a conte d'aventure in Erec implies that adventure is the subject-matter of his romance plots. Adventure in this sense is whatever happens, whether it comes to a person or a place or whether a person goes out seeking it. It includes the play of chance, fortune and destiny in adventures encountered (M6nard 1991; Kelly 1999b). An adventure comes to court in the opening episode in the Charrette, when Meleagant challenges Arthur to seek the release of the prisoners in Gorre by making Guinevere hostage for their release. More commonly, however, a knight goes out in search of adventure. This activity takes two forms: wandering about (errances) and quest. Calogrenant illustrates the former in Yvain. As he puts it: Aloie querant aventures, / Armös de toutes armeüres' (I went in search of adventures, fully armed, 177-8). Later he tells the herdsman that he is seeking adventures to test his prowess and his courage (360-1). Adventures are, therefore, encounters that test a knight's mettle. On the one hand, the knight merely roams about exposing himself to challenges; on the other hand, a quest has a specific goal or purpose, such as the Knight of the Cart's search for Guinevere in the Charuette (on the common features of Chr6tien's quests, see Kelly 197L, 3343; on Erec's intentions, see also Zaddy I97 3, l-I4; Lacy 1980, 3945).

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importantly, they single out the extraordinary and unusual knight or maiden who confronts them. All these factors point to the second feature of marvels: their role in defining a context for the person who achieves marvellous adventures. painne and antancibn Chr§tien receives matiere and san in the sense of source matter and meaning, by what art does he conjoin them in a romance? In the Charrette Chr6tien discusses this aspect of his composition. Although he insists on the primacy of Marie de Champagne in the invention of the work (21-3), he says that he has rewritten her matiere and sanusing his 'thought', a notion that he clarifies as follows: Sans,

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Matiere et san li done et livre La contesse et il s'antremet De panser, que gueres n'i met Fors sa painne et s'antancion. (2G9) (The countess provides him with matter and meaning, whereas he undertakes to think, for he brings to the task nothing more than his effort and his intention.)

The termsp ainne and antancibn together describe the writer's concentrated effort, or penser, to achieve a predetermined goal (Köhler 1970*,90-111974,105). Marie de Champagne's 'command' ('comandemanz', 22) to write a romance (2) containing her matiere and san designates that goal. The artist contributes his 'sans'and 'painne' (23) and his 'painne'and 'antancion' (29), i.e. his skill as artist (on sans and antancilon as binomal synonyms, see Buridant 1980). What skill or skills does Chrötien use to write matiere and saninto his romances? When Erec reacts to Enide's criticism of his alleged reueantise, both his men and Enide herself wonder why he begins to arm himself: Li serjant

et li chevalier prenent tuit a mervoillier Por qoi il armer se fesoit (2649-51, my emphasis, cf. 2676-82) Se

(The men at arms and knights all beginto wonder why he had himself armed.)

Similarly, many wonder why Guinevere receives Lancelot so coldly, including Baudemagu, Kay and Lancelot himself (Charrette, 3947-9, 3982-5, 4074-5, 433741). When Lancelot later asks her why she did so (4472-5), the queen provides a surprising answer: because he hesitated before mounting the infamous cart. Her action is extraordinary, as is her explanation. Both are examples of the marvellous as source of extraordinary adventures that also reveal narrative meaning. As author and narrator, Chr6tien too interrogates marvellous matter. The marvellous in Chr6tien's matiere introduces a questioning mode consistent with the problem romance and conducive to oppositions such as those in jeux partis: the mind'wonders', as in 'I wonder why', an expression also current in Old French (see the example of se merveiller por quoiin lines 2650-1 quoted above).

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(Köhler 1960). Chr6tien underscores the importance of custom in his first romance, when Arthur proclaims that he intends to uphold the Custom of the White Stag because his ancestors did so (Erec, 1800-10). Similarly, Lancelot submits to the Custom of the Cart for the sake of Guinevere, no matter what the consequences may be. Maddox has proposed a threefold typology of custom (Maddox 1991 , 35) . There are customs 'that King Arthur must observe', such as the White Stag Custom in Erec, and there are also those 'whose abuse the hero

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are permanently abolished', like the custom of holding inhabitants of Logres in Gorre or the Joie de la cort episode in Erec. Although the odd and therefore marvellous features of customs may well derive from Chr6tien's sources, their definition as custom explains them in a twelfth-century legal context, as when Chr6tien compares the shame of riding in a cart to that attached to the pillory. Chrötien's transformation of Celtic marvels into medieval customs can be troubling. In Lancelot's case, we may ask whether love justifies, and indeed honours, a lover who willingly 'pillories'himself for its sake. Even more problematic is the custom of Logres, which allows the knight to take a maiden by force if he defeats her escort in combat (Charrette,1302*16).In Yvain the custom of the Marvellous Fountain provides a disturbing d6nouement when Yvain seeks reconciliation with his wife by force, unleashing violent storms on her realm, whilst relying on Lunete to trick Laudine into becoming reconciled with him. The disturbing, yet original, way in which Chr6tien treats these features of his matiere brings contrasting norms into opposition (cf. Haug 1979;Cheyette and Chickering 2005). Similarly, the incognito combat between Gauvain and Yvain shows the problematic union of matiere and san in composition. In this episode, the combatants' armour hides their identity as they duel. According to the narrator, Yvain and Gauvain appear to love and hate each other at one and the same time. Chr6tien explains the anomaly by describing a house in which Hate occupies the front room, whereas Love is in a back room, far removed from the action (6023-36). Informing images like the Love-Hate dwelling are present wherever Chrötien conflates matter with meaning. The conventional separation of heart and body in love provides the occasion for a 'scientific'digression on the impossibility of such separation in Cligös,2774-2808. This is, of course, as obvious as the digression on the cohabitation of love and hate in the Yvain-Gauvain combat. But, as a metaphor, it shows two hearts that share the same desire. Its very artificiality underscores the metaphorical character of the image, especially for Chr6tien's unschooled aristocratic audiences, more so perhaps than for Latin-educated audiences. He wants them to understand the sense of loss created by separation from a loved one. Having insisted on the impossibility of the heart's physically leaving the living body, he can affirm the metaphorical value of the image, and

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t56

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Such interpretations underscore the fact that neither option available in jeux partis may be desirable. Nor is there reason to suppose that they actually express the authors'personal views, or that they were any more sure of what they really thought than is Laudine in her debate with Lunete (on jeux partis between women, see Doss-Quinby 1999). Jeux partis recalling analogous situations in Chr6tien's romances make their ostensible san more problematic than authoritative.13 The principle of the leu parti implies judges in the audience, whose views on the conflict are not reported in the poem. In Andreas Capellanus's De amore arbiters resolve debates; among them are identifiable historical names such as Marie de Champagne. Similarly, in Chr6tien's romances, exemplary content illustrates meanings that, by emphatic restatement, provoke reaction, and ultimately audience or individual judgement. Such reception may well be a factor in romances relying on oral recitation, rather then on private reading, a situation that seems to have prevailed in Chr6tien's time. It is corroborated by a number of his interventions addressing audiences (Gallais 1964,483-93). Moreoveq audience response is not confined to occasional commentary or debate at the time a romance is read. It occurs when a writer rewrites Chr6tien. For example, Hartmann von Aue rewrites the reconciliation between Erec and Enide: whereas in Chr6tien Erec pardons his wife, in the German adaptation he asks for her pardon. Both authors articulate the same issue, but evaluate it differently. Correction by rewriting is a standard feature of topical invention and of the jeu parti itself. Subsequent chapters in this volume and the other volumes in the series show that Chr6tien was frequently rewritten, whether such rewriting focused on the narrative, on the meaning of a whole work or on specific motifs or themes. Bele Conjointure ts Roman Chr6tien states that he is drawing from a tale of adventure a very beautiful 'conjointure' (Erec, 13-14). The term conjointure has inspired diverse definitions and applications, as scholars seek to explain the word by identifying its sources in ancient and medieval poetic commentary, or by extrapolating its meaning from analysis of his romances (Kelly 1970; Hilty 1975). The combination of two or more entities is a conjointure, a fact easily understood, even by audiences unfamiliar with the scholastic tradition from which Chr6tien's term conjointure may well derive (Kelly 1992*, chapter 1), but entirely conversant with the word's usual meanings in twelfth-century French.la The Erec passage fits this meaning when Chr6tien says that he draws his conjointure from a tale, thus suggesting that he is lifting parts from the tale or from a number of different versions of a tale, and recombining them in a new version. Although the noun is a hapax in its artistic sense, analogous instances of conjointure, such as conjoindre orjoindre, are attested (Buckbee in Kelly ed. 1985, 51-4; Kelly 1992*, 15-21). These examples refer to

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the parting in her golden hair and the groove and feathers in the metaphorical arrow shot into Alixandre's astonished eyes. As Alixandre, in his mind's eye, follows her physical beauty down the arrow shaft, his gaze stops abruptly at her hemline, which leaves him wondering about the hidden part of the arrow shaft and the arrowhead. Elsewhere, Chr6tien contrasts physical beauty and ragged dress in his description of both Enide and the amie of the Orgueilleux de la Lande in Perceval; Laudine's conventional beauty, again from hair to hemline, incites Yvain's love at the very moment when, grief-stricken by the death of her husband, she lacerates that beauty by scratching her face and tearing her hair (1146-65,1466-94; Accarie 1979;1998, 14*15; Liborio 1982,773-5; Press 1987, 15-18; Ferroul 2000). A bele conjointure is also a medium for transmitting knowledge (Erec, 15-18), the credibility of which depends on the structural coherence of the plot (Haug 1992, l}l_311997, 101-3). Description provides that coherence. The art of description is topical invention, a skill acquired in the study of the trivium. This 'questioning mode' finds answers in 'its proper place in a sequence of coordinated occurrences'(Vinaver 19634,488; see also 490-5; Zumthor 1972,352-61; Burns 1987-8) such as a quest or the usual stages in courtship or seduction (gradus amoris); the writer's training in this skill formed 'a habit of mind' which, becoming ingrained, 'could easily become a habit of conception' (Vinaver 1963-4, 493). By topical invention, therefore, Chr6tien identifies 'places' (loci, topoi) inhis matiere where he can develop a coherent, albeit problematical interpretation of it(san). A brief discussion of scholastic topoi will clarify their use in Chrötien's descriptions.15 Topoi as used here are common places. Technically, such 'places' are'common'to persons, things or activities (Haidu 1972,14-15, uses'symbolism' and 'sign'in an analogous way). The scholastic tradition identifies the places which are common to persons as the following: name, nature (including native language, native land, age, family, sex), way of life, fortune, characteq goals, appetites, judgement, luck, exploits and speech. The author selects the places which are useful for describing a given person (Faral 1924,77-8). Take, for example, the chevalier errant'knight errant' (ChÖnerie 1986*, 103-6). A source may contain a tale about a man's adventures. Chr6tien, the author, invents or identifies this person as a young man (age) of noble birth (family; see M6nard 1984,61*3; Schmid 1986; Kullmann 1992; Bruckner in Kelly ed. 1996*), who has a fortunate encounter (luck) with other men identified as knights (way of life). Although he is Welsh (native land) and uncouth (way of life), the encounter awakens in the young man a desire to become a knight himself (appetite). One sees here a plausible, historically credible illustration of the invention of Perceval. Moreover, since the young man is not named until after his failure at the Grail Castle, we see the naming topos being brought into the invention of the person

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SEÄOUJ E(I TTEIIEUH]

160

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

or orchard, a spring, stream, tomb, cemetery or chapel (Ziltener 1972; Liborio t982, 175-7). Such places are beneficial (amoenus) or malevolent in the chivalric context of each romance. They also have a potential for restatement, not only in Chr6tien's own rewriting, as with the different descriptions of the fountain setting in Yvqin (Baumgartner in Dufournet ed. 1988, 31+6), but also for original or novel rewriting in the epigonal romances that rewrite Chrötien. The quest has common places besides time and place. For example, the adventures encountered may be an obstacle or aid to progress. In Chr6tien's romances we should not expect to find, says Ch0nerie (1986* 216-17), a pre-established code of chivalry, for such a code is created by the behaviour of the hero and the value of the code is made absolute by the repetition of this behaviour (cf. Lacy 1980, 27-33). Different matieres may, by topical invention, exemplify diverse norms. Hence, a Lancelot is not an Yvain, even though the quest of each knight includes defence of wronged women. Places are common to all these narratives, yet as topoi they are differently enunciated and evaluated in the divergent conduct of knights in the same romance or in succeeding romances. For instance, the decisions made by Gauvain and Lancelot in the cart episode, and the choice of the Underwater Bridge or the Sword Bridge, illustrate different conceptions of knighthood and articulate divergent norms. Chrötien's last three romances raise interesting questions regarding their conjointures. Sargent-Baur (1987) has proposed reading the Charrette and Yvain as two parts of one romance (cf. Bruckner 1993*, 90-41.te She bases her suggestion on two features of these works, both found in Yvain. First, it lacks a prologue; there are only digressive 'opening signals' (Uitti in Kelly ed. 1985, 199-204) praising the courtesy of Arthur's time, whilst condemning the villainy characteristic, the narrator argues, of his late twelfth-century world. Secondly, Gauvain is absent in Yvain because of his quest for Guinevere and because he accompanies her back to court, events that are narrated in the Charrette (Yvain, 3702-13,3914-23,4730-9). The potential conjointure of the two works includes a third component: the last 1,000 lines of the Charrette claimed to be written by Godefroy de Lagny. The incomplete Percevai is similarly problematic. Although there seems to be a relatively coherent progression in Perceval's development from ignorant youth to knight worthy of asking the Grail questions, a rationale for the extensive Gauvain narrative, itself incomplete and seemingly fluid as to its potential dönouement, has eluded consensus. Gauvain's goals shift, from his initial promise to relieve the siege of a maiden at Montesclaire (4636-50), to his defence against Guingambresil's accusation that he murdered his father (4705-26), to, finally, the quest for the Bleeding Lance (6122-7\ and his wanderings, after his departure from Escavalon, in quest of that lance, which is, however, not mentioned again. These features of the incomplete romance raise a number of important, but a clearing

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162

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

further references, see Kelly b|b. 1.97612002, section Fb). There is a relation between the plan of the work, identified by Chrötien as bele conjointure, and the articulation of that plan, not only in the conjunction of parts and topical description of persons and actions but also in the quality of the language employed that, sentence by sentence, line by line, and even rhyme by rhyme, articulates meaning. Rhetoric, an oral and written art, is fully realized in romance performance.

Performance: Orality, Writing and the Manuscript Zumthor's studies of orality in medieval works (1984;1987) fired interest in the ways Chr6tien's romances might have been read aloud or recited (see also Vitz 1999*); the narrator in the work, as distinguished from the author who wrote it, may connote the narrator as reader to an audience. Orality comprises a wider range of phenomena within the medieval context than that of jongleur; it is a factor in Latin education, in philosophical reflection on the word and in private reading (Zink 1981; Stuip and Vellekoop 1993). Llke jongleurs, clerics were active in the secular world; some clerics became minstrels arrd jongleurs, such as those criticized by Chrötien in Erec (Faral 1910). In all these cases they may have read to, or improvised for, diverse audiences. The casual story-teller also transmitted material, either as a latimer serving as conduit for tales from one language to another (Bullock-Davies 1966) or as someone with a good memory for a stock of stories that could be related informally in prose (Chönerie 1986*, 515; Gerritsen 1995; 158-61). The ability to tell stories was valued in the courtier (Roussel 1994, 234).In romance, knights relate their adventures at court, much as Calogrenant is obliged to do in Yvain. None of these possibilities resolves the question of how Chr6tien 'performed' his own works, although they do suggest how others might have performed them in specific instances. His prologues refer only to high courts, where one might hear professional story-tellers whose performances he castigates in Erec, as well as hearing his own romances whose bele conjointure he proclaims.rT We lack further documentary evidence about how his romances were actually presented to such audiences. At best, we know how specific works might have been received in the diverse circumstances outlined in the preceding paragraph.In Yvain, a young woman reads a romance to her parents (5360-8). In the Occitan romance Flamenca people listen to episodes of works whilst, as it were, strolling from one story-teller to the other (Duggan 1989). Chrötien's romances could themselves be divided into shorter pieces for recitation, especially for audiences already familiar with them. Yet in Erec Chrötien seems to favour the performance of the work as a whole, the bele conjointure he contrasts with the story-tellers' piecemeal versions. There is, nonetheless, evidence for both kinds of performance in the scholastic

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Social and Moral Issues: The Problematic Blend of ldeal and Reality

During the last twenty years or so, emphasis has moved from Chr6tien's art of fiction to the way in which his fictions may mirror contemporary moral and social issues. These issues define the contexts in which his romances locate problems. When aristocratic audiences listened to them in the Middle Ages, to what

extent did these narratives correspond to their world (M6nard 2000X How well may we modern readers recover and evaluate their experience? How do these medieval issues relate to modern or current controversies and values? Köhler defined the world-view in Chr6tien's romances in terms of ideal and reality, or, more specifically, a blend of the two. Chönerie (1986*, 3), echoing Marc Bloch, insists that any attempt at interpretation must give equal weight to the authentic and the imaginary. The problems Chr6tien raises suggest how a given social or moral reality might be corrected in a desirable way. The following problematic contexts have recently received attention for the interpretation of social and moral ideals and realities in his romances: the three orders, lineage and marriage, knighthood, chivalry, courtesy and love, and, finally, religion. They reflect the uncertain, often ambiguous relation of ideal to reality, both in the twelfth century and as we perceive them today. All impinge on gender issues. But, as will be apparent, Chr6tien treats gender itself principally for men and women of royalty or high nobility, and his depiction reflects opinions and prejudices of those social strata. The Three Orders Duby has demonstrated the importance of the three orders in the twelfth-century world-view (Duby 1978,325-70; cf. Batany 1978). This social hierarchy divided

society into three distinct orders, the ecclesiastical order, or those who pray (oratores), the nobility, or those who fight to conquer and defend (bellatores), and those who work so that the two higher orders can carry out their assigned tasks (laboratores). As Duby has noted, the hierarchy is adumbrated in Chr6tien's romances. Perhaps its most obvious, if incomplete, statement is found in the prologue to Cligös, where the first two orders are evoked in the translation of clergie and chevalerie ftom Greece through Rome to France. Chr6tien seems to adapt this social hierarchy by replacing Wace's conquering Arthur with a more domestic ruler (Köhler 197011974*, chapter 1) whose principal resource is the seemingly inexhaustible largesse with which he maintains his court. The Knights of the Round Table pursue honour there, rather than in their own lands. Arthur dominates a court, not a kingdom, and his prestige is enhanced by his knights'presence at court. The scattering of the court (Perceval, 812-16), or the absence of many knights (Perceval,3938-41), is unsettling. In Chr6tien's romances there is no significant feudal relation of vassal to lord. A seat

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166

latter romance. Servants supply the needs of knights on quest or at court. The same subservient role obtains for the clergy. In Chrötien's romances these orders and trades are evaluated as good or bad, in so far as they support or fail to support the guardians of chevalerie (Lepri 1991,63-9). Lineage and Marriage Lineage was another important topic for aristocratic audiences. However, unlike later prose romancers, especially those in the Grail tradition, Chr6tien develops

neither the vertical line

of

descent nor the horizontal line characteristic of

medieval genealogies (Bloch 1983*; Schmid 1986; Kullmann1992; Duggan 2001, chapter 2). Fathers are often named, like Erec's father Lac, Alixandre (the name of both Cligös's father and his grandfather), Yvain's father Urien and Laudine's father Landunet. The only mother named is Soredamors. Yet F6nice must have had at least one child, as her descendants establish the harem, but her motherhood is not a motif in the romance. We know Laudine principally as 'de Landuc, /

La dame' (Yvain 2153*4); her name is not found in all Yyain manuscripts (Woledge 1986, I, 135-8; Foulet and Uitti 1983+). Perceval's mother is only the 'Widow Lady'. Many have wondered why men are given proper names more often than women. Perhaps titles like dame or demoiselle mattered more to medieval ladies than personal names (see Duplat 1974, and in general Grisay, Lavis and Dubois-Stasse 1969; Lebsanft 1988). Lineage itself matters only when it is threatened, as in the strife between Alixandre and his brother Alis over Clig6s's accession to the throne, a concern that also weighs heavily in F6nice's decision not to consummate her marriage with Alis. However, marriage is a major source of difficulties. Erec is an obvious example. Laudine must remarry in order to protect her domain, not her succession. Abduction, rape and forced marriage are not uncommon threats. Because the Dame de Noroison refuses to marry Alier, this would-be husband lays waste her lands until Yvain defeats him. Similar threats to Enide in the Galoain and Limors episodes underscore the precarious position of the wife in Chrötien's romances. In all of them the threat of forced marriage, including abduction, looms when women turn down suitors. Forced marriage is a motif in Erec (Galoain and Limors), in Cligös (the Duke of Saxony), in Yvain (Alier) and in Perceval (Clamadeu); real or potential rape is a motif in the custom of Logres, the abduction of Guinevere in the Charrette, and in the punishment of Greoreas in Perceval (on the motif in current scholarship, see Gravdal1991, chapter Z;Yitz 1997; Sylvester 1998). The Harpin de la Montagne episodein Yvain also shows the threat to a knight's lineage, both by the capture and torture of sons and by a daughter who, if exchanged for them, would be surrendered to gang rape by Harpin's scullions. Scholars have long recognized marriage as a primary motif

'i,lffi"

in Chr6tien's

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168

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50-1/1998, 59-61). Knights sit at the Round Table, but never at Arthur's 'high table', which is not the same as, but superior to, the Round Table (SchmolkeHasselmann 1982*). Some scholars have linked Chr6tien's knights to the group of young, landless knights, or iuvenes, who serve a lord in the hope of winning land or a wife (Köhler in GRLMA*, IV: 1, 88-91). The case of Enide illustrates an inversion of the iuvenis model, since she rather than Erec raises her status and that of her family through marriage (Erec,525-36). Yet the major Knights of the Round Table are princes and high aristocrats (Mönard 1976; Chönerie 1986*, 3l-3, 37-9, 49-55). They prefer Arthur's court to the kingdom or the feudal lands they already possess or will inherit, a choice that medieval audiences might have found unrealistic. In these romances the Arthurian knight confronts the violence and injustice that surrounds and even penetrates Arthur's court. Meleagant proposes combat there, with Guinevere as hostage. Enide's father has been ruined by wars (Erec, 515-17) and Arthur himself has been at war at the beginning of Perceval (808-10). Perceval's father and brothers died through violence (40049; on violence it Perceyal, see Baumgartner 1999, 59-80, and Sargent-Baur 2000, 165*88). But war is a major motif only in Cligös,where Angr6s's rebellion against Arthur leads to a siege with some skirmishes. The conflict is actually brought to a conclusion by Alixandre's stratagem whereby he and twelve Greek knights capture Windsor Castle. This achievement is more like a quest adventure, where combat takes place between two knights or between small groups of knights, and the obstacles represent the rebellious conduct that the knight's achievements ideally correct. Another source of debate in the twelfth century was the tournament. In Chrötien's day tournaments were poorly regulated, violent confrontations that could degenerate into virtual gang warfare (Benson 1980; Parisse in Turnier 1985, t75-211; Chönerie 1986*, 32746; Neumeyer 1998; and, in the context of ideal and reality, Baldwin 1990). For this reason the Church condemned them as part of its policy of the Tiuce or Peace of God, and it did so more than once in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries by interdiction and excommunication, apparently with little success. Tournaments occur in all of Chrötien's romances, but they do not present such a starkly negative (and thus realistic) picture of the actual conflict. The contrast might well have coloured reception of his romances, and indeed the meaning of exemplary narrative about tournaments, in which knights such as Erec and Yvain choose between love and tourneying (SchmolkeHasselmann 1980*, 65-7211998, 72-88; Ferlampin-Acher 1995). Henry II forbade tournaments in England (Keen 1984, chapter 5; Barker and Keen in Turnier,214-19), a fact surely present in the minds of audiences when Clig6s goes there to test his mettle against knights of the Round Table. Yet, in all of his romances except Perceval, Chr6tien suppresses the mortal or even extremely

violent Percerul

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love'has become universal, there is little agreement on its meaning or significance, apart from an obviously widespread assumption that it can be defined and that it relies on a code of conduct or etiquette (cf. Kay in Krueger ed. 2000*, 81-96). The acceptance of such a definition and code based on the examples from the Charuette, the troubadours and the Tiistan poems has contributed to the equally widespread belief that'courtly love'is an adulterous love, a belief that has provoked surprise at the emphasis on conjugal love and its problems in

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Chr6tien's romances (cf. Chönerie 1986*, 451-72).Indeed, this view lent support to the once generally held, and still occasionally heard, conviction that Chr6tien himself found morally repugnant the adulterous, and therefore courtly, love idealized in the Charrette in order to promote prowess and chivalry, and that this explains his unwillingness to complete this romance. There is no code of love in Chr6tien's romances, or anywhere else in his time, if one means by code a set of rules tantamount to a formal etiquette for lovers (Schnell 1985, 137). On the other hand, the modern expression 'courtly love'can translate a number of expressions common in the twelfth century, including in Chr6tien's romances'.fin'amor, bone amor, amor par amors) and others, including amor standing alone (Frappier 1967; Fercante 1980). The finesse of such love depends not on prescribed rules of conduct but on the mind capable of analysing its own feelings and obligations, and then acting accordingly within given social

1961

and moral demands and constraints. Although in one of his lyrics Chr6tien contrasts the sense of free choice with the love of Tristan and Yseut, love in his romances is subject to wide emotional fluctuation, from madness (Yvain) to ecstasy (Lancelot), from love-hate (Laudine) to total absorption (Perceval before the drops of blood in the snow). This love seeks sexual gratification, but is also restrained by the concept of noble behaviour in the selection of the beloved and in the conduct appropriate to the relationship with him or her. Chrötien treats love in marriage in its relation to prowess and tournaments, to fidelity and constancy and to the notion of honour. In Gaston Paris's definition of courtly love, adultery touches on moral issues such as consent. If the Church and aristocratic custom differed on the issue of consent to marriage or participation in tournaments, they were united in their opposition to adultery. Biblical condemnation of adultery is consistent with biblical condemnation of lust, even in marriage. Yet adultery's assumed potential to 'pollute'the womb (Duby 1981,42) is not an issue in the Charrette, nor is it a factor in F6nice's decision to avoid consummation with Alis. Chrötien does not broach the subject of conception, even though both ecclesiastical and aristocratic traditions condoned sexual intercourse for purposes of reproduction. The role of continence does not concern Chr6tien's couples so much as the relation between martial prowess and love-making in Erec, Yvain andthe Charrene. Love-making occurs for love and pleasure, but not for lineage.22In Chrötien's romances 'courtly

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SEÄOUI ECI iTEIIEUH3

172

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

first, 'whom does the Grail serve?', is answered by Perceval's hermit uncle: it serves the hermit's father (and therefore Perceval's grandfather) with the host; this man leads a life so saintly that he survives on the host alone. The second question, 'why does the Lance bleed?', is not answered in the romance. We are told that the lance will some day destroy Logres, Arthur's kingdom, but not why it is important that Gauvain should find it and bring it to Escavalon to atone for allegedly killing Guingambresil's suzerain. Perceval's failure to ask the two questions and, consequently, to heal the maimed Fisher King results from his sin: he ignored his mother's fainting, followed by her death, after his departure for Arthur's court. Here sin intrudes for the first time into Chr6tien's romances as a significant factor in evaluating conduct (on caritas and Perceval's chivalry, see Sargent-Baur 2000). Erec, Lancelot and Yvain must deal with alleged faults as knights; in Perceval the accusation that Gauvain is a murderer is made in a knightly context in which sons and vassals of the victim seek vengeance.2a There is no suggestion that sin explains his alleged murders, as is the case later in the Vulgate Queste. Only Perceval's pechiö is a sin in the religious sense. He begins to comprehend this when the Hideous Damsel castigates his conduct. He sets out to right the wrong by seeking the Grail Castle in order to ask the unasked questions; for more than five years he wanders about. But whilst he defeats some sixty knights, he fails to

find the castle and, moreover, he forgets God. His encounter with the Good Friday penitents leads to confession at his uncle's hermitage. Redemption begins, perhaps redemption that might have allowed him to realize the smiling maiden's prediction that Perceval 'de chevalerie I Avra tote la seignorie' (will completely master knighthood,l0lT-18).2s Although Perceval sins by ignoring his mother's distress, her prayer before dying saves his life (6328-34), making atonement for sin and redemption possible (Payen 1967, 398-400). In Grail romances after Chrötien, the significance of the Grail and the knight's sin and redemption loom ever larger, raising moral doubts about issues like killing, love and adultery that Chr6tien's romances tend to ignore. This is not to say that scholars have ignored the moral or religious implications of the plots and characters in Chrdtien's romances. By reading them as allegories, some have discerned a second level of signification alongside their more literal meanings. For example, some see Lancelot as a Christ figure who actually realizes a messianic mission by freeing the prisoners in Gorre (Ribard 1972;Borsari 1983, chapter 4). Others read a moral allegory into the same romance; Lancelot's love is lust, and therefore medieval audiences, accustomed to moral allegory, will have readily interpreted the romance in this context. Similar approaches uncover allegories in his other romances (Robertson Jr 1951 ; 1962; 1972; Artin 197 4; Diverres 1990). Since Chr6tien does not explicitly enunciate these moral contexts, unlike, for example, the authors of later Grail romances, the validity of these interpreta-

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Even when later authors no longer articulate the problems in the way he does, the issues he treats and the ways audiences may confront them are not so foreign to Chr6tien's modern readers as their medieval surface may lead one to surmise.

Chr6tien's legacy is transmitted in manuscripts. This medium has enjoyed a revival of interest in their role in his legacy. Yet manuscripts inevitably raise the question of manuscript editing. A printed edition is not a handcrafted manuscript, but an edited version or versions of the text. Such editing involves interpretation, and interpretation is guided by the questions we ask of the manuscripts. Traditionally, the purpose of the edition has been to recover what the first author wrote. Various theories have been advanced as to how to recreate that first version (Foulet and Speer 1979, chapter 1). More recently, the charge of corruption levelled against manuscripts, corruption because they alter the author's original version, and other factors such as layout, the place of the manuscript in a collection and the significance of variants, have suggested that a manuscript can be altered and yet remain of interest, precisely because of the reasons why it was altered, and the effects of such alterations on audience reception (Hindman 1994). In her ground-breaking study of epigonal romances, Schmolke-Hasselmann (1980*, 116-1711998,142-3) demonstrated the detailed, often profound ways in which these works rewrite and reinterpret Chr6tien as model.27 The modern interpreter is confronted with a problem in evaluating such emulation. To what extent was such rewriting evident to medieval audiences? Since the horizon of expectation, or the way in which past readings prepare expectations for future readings, actually varies from person to person, we are obliged to adopt a prudent view of the possible scope of intertextual reception that we can know and evaluate. If the author of Durmart le Galois corrected Erec (Schmolke-Hasselmann 1980*, 146-81t998,I77-80), appreciation of the adaptation would be different for those ignorant of Erec from that of those who knew his romance (assuming that they did reflect on the differences). Scholars must be cautious in assigning intertextual links that may never have occurred to contemporary audiences. This applies especially to Latin allusions for audiences ignorant of Latin.28 Chr6tien's romances disappeared from view in the late Middle Ages, to be rediscovered in the eighteenth century (Busby 1998). Scholarly reception has today restored Chr6tien's writings to the prominence they once had. First seeking his sources, then assessing his artistic quality and achievements, scholars now draw on his romances to illustrate current theoretical or methodological controversies on matters of language and interpretation. There have emerged as well important sociological, psychoanalytical, mythopoetic, feminist and other readings, to cite the most prominent today. No doubt Chrötien and his audiences would have been baffled by some of these readings. Yet such readings assist us in understanding how rich his marvellous adventures are, as they acquire additional meanings in ways that neither he nor his immediate audiences could have imagined.

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V ARTHUR IN THE NARRATIVE LAY Matilda Tomaryn Bruckner and Glyn S. Burgess Often referred to as Breton lays, narrative lays (lais\ are predominantly short stories of love and adventure in verse. The existence of analogous genres such as the fabliau and the dit makes it diflicult to establish a definitive corpus of extant lays, but there is general agreement that the twelve poems found in London,

British Library, MS Harley 978, normally attributed to an author known as Marie de France, are not only lays but the very model of the genre. Marie's poems, known collectively as the Lais, occtr in the Harley manuscript in the following order: Guigemar, Equitan, Le Fresne, Bisclavret, Lanval, Les Deus Amanz, Yonec, Laüstic, Milun, Chaitivel, Chevrefoil and Eliduc.l In addition, there are eleven lays by unknown authors which are commonly designated as anonymous Breton lays. In alphabetical order they are: Desirö, Doon, Espine, Graelent, Guingamor, Lecheor, Melion, Nabaret, Trot, Tydorel and Tyolet. A, further dOzen or So poemq SOme anonymous, others with named authors, are also generally classed as lays: Amours, Aristote, Conseil, Cor, Espervier, Haveloc, Ignaure, Mantel, Narcisus, Oiselet, Ombre and Piramus et Thisbö.2 Whatever their category, the lays vary greatly in theme and tone, and they have been variously classified as realistic, supernatural, courtly, classical, didactic, parodic, etc. (Damon 1929; Williams 1964; Donovan 1969). It could also be said

that the lays in the first two categories are more specifically Breton, either because they themselves claim to be Breton in origin or inspiration or because their themes relate more to Celtic material than that of many of the poems in the third group.3 This chapter will begin by examining the Lais of Marie de France, with particular reference to Lanval and Chevrefoil, the two Arthurian lays in her collection, then proceed to a discussion of the anonymous lays, especially the specifically Arthurian lays, Melion, Tyolet and Trot, and those with links to the Lanval story, Graelent, Guingamor and Desirö. The Lai du Cor and the Lai du Cort Mantel, the only Arthurian lays amongst those remaining, will be discussed at the end of this chapter.

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ÄVT EAIIVUUVN EHI NII UNHI}{V

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THE ARTHI]R OF THE FRENCH

Longsword (illegitimate son of Henry II and Rosamund Clifford, Earl of Salisbury from 1196), and William of Gloucester (d. 1183, friend of Henry II, son of the scholar and literary patron Robert of Gloucester). Each one presents tantalizingpossibilities for making connections with candidates for the historical Marie and the patron of her Lais, who is usually recognized as Henry II (1154-89), but sometimes identified with Henry the Young King (crowned in 1 1 70 but predeceased his father in 1 1 83). The chronological ordering and dating of Marie's works by modern critics generally take these possible identifications into account: the Lais between 1160 and 1189 (as demonstrated by their manuscript transmission, some individual lays appear to have been composed and disseminated over a period of years before the collection was put together),6 the Fables between 1167 and 1189, or possibly later if dedicated to William Longsword or William Marshal (the latest editor dates them between 1189 and 1208, Brucker edn, 1-3), and the Espurgatoire after 1190. Including this last work in Marie's repertoire has raised further questions about her probable period of literary production. The Espurgatoire is a translation from the Tractatus de Purgatorio sancti Paticü, composed in England by Henry of Saltry and variously dated, depending on the identity of his patron, Hugh or Henry, abbot of Sartis. If the former, a date c.ll90 seems likely for Marie's Espurgatoire (Pontfarcy edn, 10); if the latter, Henry's Tractatus must have been written between 1208 and 1215, so Marie's translation would move well into the thirteenth century. But a more reasonable period of literary activity, which corresponds well to what is known about Marie as author, would be the period 1160 to 1190 (Burgess in Ewert edn 1995, ix). Based on this limited knowledge, we can piece together who she might have been. Some candidates proposed have been eliminated from current consideration (e.g. Marie de Champagne and Marie de Compiögne), but four women in particular continue to compete for the honour: (i) Marie, the abbess of Reading, suggested primarily because of her connection with the abbey where the Harley manuscript, containing both the Lais and the Fables, may have been copied; William Marshal and William of Mandeville were both closely associated with this abbey; (ii) Marie, abbess of Shaftesbury, the illegitimate daughter of Geoffrey Plantagenet, and thus Henry II's half-sister; she was born in France and lived in England between 1181 and l2l6-The abbey of Shaftesbury, patronized by Marie,s nephew william Longsword, was founded by King Alfred, and in the epilogue to her Fables, the author Marie claims that it was King Alfred who translated a Latin collection into English (although no such version has been found) and thus provided the text for her translation from English to French; (iii) Marie, Countess of Boulogne, the daughter of King Stephen of England and Marie de Boulogne. Abbess of Romsey in Hampshire, she was compelled by Henry II to marry Matthew of Flanders (which made her the sister-in-law of

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

of her most popular

lays.e

In this mediumJength tale, narrated in 648 lines,

she has refashioned the common matter of a story which can also be glimpsed through the anonymous lay of Graelent Her most striking innovations are linked to the surprising identities she gives to her characters through naming. Probably anonymous in her source, the king whose ingratitude opens the story has in Marie's version become Arthur, and his unnamed queen, now implicitly identified with Guinevere, operates in a scenario based on the well-known plot of Potiphar's wife. The hero of the tale, known elsewhere with a recognizably Breton name, has here been identified by a name with no known literary precedents (Koubichkine 1972; Rychner edn 1966, 254), while his lady remains anonymous, her potential identity as Arthur's sister Morgan unclaimed and her functional identity as fairy never acknowledged in Marie's text (O'Sharkey 1971). Lanval's plot develops dramatically, and in three movements. When Arthur distributes gifts to his deserving knights, Lanval is forgotten. He is a king's son, but serving in a distant court he has no one to save him from poverty and disfavour. Alone in a meadow one day, he is invited to a lady's tent; she has come from far away for love of him. If he agrees to keep their love a secret, he can enjoy her favours and wealth in abundance; if he fails to keep his word, he will never see her again. Their union formally engaged, the lady sends Lanval back to Arthur's court, where he continues to enjoy her secret visits and distributes gifts to all, unrestrainedly. He thus comes to the attention of the queen, who offers him her love. Rebuffed, she accuses him of homosexuality and he ripostes by telling her that he loves a woman who is above all others; her poorest servant is more beautiful and more worthy than the queen. Humiliated, she tells Arthur that Lanval has propositioned and insulted her. Lanval defends himself against the sexual charge, but he confirms the truth of his boast. The king orders a ttial, and, to buttress his claim, Lanval must produce evidence before the court. Disconsolate that, having revealed their love, he has now lost the power to summon his lady, Lanval awaits the day of judgement without hope. The Count of Cornwall summons the accused to produce his lady as guarantor of the truth, but Lanval replies that he cannot do so. As the king presses for a decision, two maidens approach the court; they are so beautiful that Gauvain is sure that one must be Lanval's beloved, but Lanval does not recognize them. This is repeated with two more maidens, until finally Lanval's lady herself appears, so ravishingly beautiful that the judges have no hesitation in granting the truthfulness of Lanval's boast. He is acquitted, and as the lady rides off to Avalon Lanval jumps on to the back of her horse and disappears with her. While some critics have speculated that Marie gratuitously named her king to capitalize on Arthur's popularity, others (e.g. Hoepffner 1930; 1935, 58-9; Walkley 1983) have looked for greater significance in that choice, given the economy of Marie's style and the subtlety of an art based on exploiting what the

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iitost scholars,,r,,-.\rthurian world s \\'hether or ltor :l same materials ,:l boldness.

In

Wace's

Rr ,;:'

,Jistributes giti s r,_-

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Iü UNHIUV

192

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

highlight their difference. In Marie's collection, the thematic of twinning has already come to the surface in Le Fresne, the third lay, where twins literally born and doubled among the characters are built figuratively into both the narrative architecture and the semantic discourse of the tale. As we shall see, there is in the Lais a tendency to pull stories into each other's orbit through varying degrees of twinning, which operates at all levels, within, between and beyond the twelve assembled lays.

The folklore of twins brings out two kinds of doubling: the duality of good and bad, as well as the complementarity of the two halves necessary to form a whole.12 Readers/listeners who first encountered Marie's Arthur may have been shocked to see him act so ungenerously, but they would recognize the tendency of Guinevere's fame to bifurcate: Wace's Brut sketched out her reputation for vice as well as virtue, setting up the adulterous triangle of king, queen and nephew which (re)appears in Tristan stories and is reprised with significant changes in Lanval. The textual traditions which develop as romances expand and elaborate these early stories continue to furnish positive and negative visions of the major Arthurian figures, including Arthur as hero, in counterpoint to Arthur as 'roi fainöant'. The kinds of contradiction which characterize Gauvain in the Perceval Continuations, or Lancelot and Guinevere in the Vulgate Cycle, reflect an essential part of the human character quite familiar to Marie and her public. Consider in this respect the accounts of Waleran of Meulan's ruthlessness, combined with his apparently genuine piety, his love of power and wealth and his deathbed transformation into a monk. Waleran may of may not have been Marie's father, but he and his brother Robert, the Beaumont twins, certainly function as exemplars of a set of players who cross the Anglo-Norman connection at the time of Henry I, Stephen and Henry II. Waleran, the first-born, inherited the father's patrimony and was the charismatic, impulsive one; Robert, the second son, was more thoughtful, a careful administrator, more cautious but devoted to his twin.13 They resemble the kind of people represented inthe Lais, as well as the public who received them, from the 'noble king'on down. If that king was Henry II, as seems likely, Lanval's characterization of Arthur provides an instructive commentary on his patronage of Arthurian literature as political propaganda, his bid to identify his reign with that of the autochthonous Britons. In the contrasting figures of Arthur and Lanval, a king and the son of a distant king, Marie offers an important lesson concerning largesse, the courtly virtue par excellence (Flori 1990). Arthur's presence in the collection thus calls attention to the theme of appropriate kingship as it reappears in negative and positive models across the selection of lays offered to the king (Jonin 1982): Equitan, Bisclavret, Les Deus Amanz, Yonec and Eliduc. If Lanval's story has floated into Arthur's orbit, it is no less true that the king's story has floated into Lanval's. Arthur notices Lanval too little; the queen notices

him too rxuch. :: rich ,*qift s. acLl L-. : : push LanraX :.-: Guinevere is i i:,: sense. both kii:t

he1' tr,l,ins

o

i

i ,- -

\rthurian ide.. h;:

qLleen offers

.

trr)' results. the ::. re\-eals the trll. t;

\rthur at the e:-\\ ounded

cured

-

Artit -.:

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ere told quite

.:..

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.\rthurian orbr: * Marie sa\ es :'

\. plai: --

Iaraway place. name that

mirror images b:

different orders , tlctional w,orld .--ro rate descrip r l ,-' l procedures l6 ). s.. ; and marvelloui. .., World and Artl. --: as they inscribe '.' drawn out fron. Connection. Kt, --l himself in ä \r tri..bility of Arthun.,. and courtliness , .

stresses the lar 's

.=

text : Lanval's llt - . certain paradi g:t. .

Whatever its s: complemented b., The constant rhe .:' good and bad. s,.. some populate

t..;

uncouple the t\\;..

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

T94

(Frey 1964). The fit between Lanval and his lady is warranted by their distant origins, but we may further notice how they exchange gender roles within the twosome. As Burns (2002*,170-6) points out, this lady who takes the initiative in love fulfils the role of feudal lord, enrobing Lanval in costly textiles rather than in armour, generously supplying all the wealth necessary for his largesse and speaking out in court, as would a knight, to defend him against the queen's charge. And, of course, at the end of this story it is not the queen who is kidnapped by a traitorous nephew, as in the catastrophic ending of Arthur's story, but Lanval himself taken off to Avalon: 'La fu ravi li dameiseaust' (There was the young man carried off,644). Marie connects both Lanval and Avalon to the Breton story-tellers: Lanval in the prologue (4), Avalon in the build-up to what passes ironically for an epilogue in the last two lines (642). We can gauge in this gesture both her subtlety and boldness as author. After all, she has not only taken an anonymous king's story and given it to Arthur, while moving elements of Arthur's own story to the eponymous hero, she has also simultaneously dispossessed a Breton hero of his story and given it to Lanval, whose name appears as if from nowhere to give her as great a margin of poetic licence as she is willing to claim (Rychner edn 1966, 254). Without engaging the issue of precedence or even contact, we must still wonder about the mystery of sounds and situations which connect the works of Marie and Chr6tien through the myriad echoes between Lanval and Lancelot, not quite twins certainly, but both of them lovers caught in triangles which occupy an Arthurian space. For subsequent readers, if not for the authors themselves, these two stories remain in orbit around each other, creating a provocative push and pull as common elements bring out all the more strongly their specific difference. Here, as elsewhere in her collection, the mobility of stories and the power of naming, characteristically intertwined in Marie's art, connect the fruits of her literary production to the seeds sown widely among her contemporaries, predecessors and followers. It will come as no surprise, then, to discover with Chevrefoil (treated in depth in chapter III) that she has once again taken material circulating among other storytellers and matched it with a new set of heroes (Rychner edn 1966, 276). Lovers

who can live only as long as they remain intertwined like the honeysuckle and the hazel areperfect twins for Tristan and Yseut, two beings who form a single sou1.17 Here we can begin to see how Marie explores the other face of twinning, the resonance between two parts necessary to make a harmonious whole. And we can see further into her art of composing lays as she reveals in the final product the very process of composition. In the shortest lay of her collection, whose brevity (118 lines) is emphasized when compared to the last and longest lay, Eliduc (l'184 lines), Marie has concentrated the story of Tristan and Yseut into a single episode and a single powerful image. Within that small compass she has reserved

L

a

fifth of the

SF.,

close each lar. t:--,

in order to gir e this tale of rel.r. summ ztY, Se e cl.; No explicit n lorest encoulli3:. Arthurian conn-.

Lunval: a coLln :.

tion. More .*qena: earlier in the c.. triangle of que-r.. .lntanz, whicli rl \.oung lovers \\ it,-herb grows fron

.

common theilte : ,. the orbit of the l_ Two unnamed : ". Llnworthy of 10\ i. tbr Tristan is fitr:. King Mark). \1,:I may Of may ilt-tt . the vagaries ol r',,,. In the conte\r other; no sin,_ule s: vegetable symbc. . twin sisters Le F:" against the planl: . around a particr-..., Guigemar. These wrappirg of mer.,: she recounts. Tl. form in these rh;: in a metaphoric.,. substitute, the S mafriage partnei> Hazel with the b;: both women are - Le Fresne onlr .:. after the tree r t. metonymy äppe.r:: ,,

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196

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Gurun is dissolved so that the lovers can unite in equal marriage, instead of in unequal concubinage.In Chevrefoil thehazel reappears to claim a primary role in the couple. The metaphors for Tristan and Yseut, their twins in the plant world, twist round each other metonymically: they stand side by side in a necessary relationship to each other, according to the definition of metonymy, which appears, at first blush, different from twinning. Juxtaposition does not necessarily require, or imply, identity or sameness, but in this case these are not simply parts standing for the whole, they are two parts of the same whole, two identities forming one, complementary sides of a single self; their juxtaposition is not accidental, but essential to their continued existence. Metaphor and metonymy entwine again, as each lay finds its own pattern, each set of lovers its difference (Sankovitch 1988). Once honeysuckle wraps round the hazel, the two can live together, but if separated, both die (68-76): 'Bele amie, si est de nus: / Ne vus sanz mei, ne mei sanz vus' (Fair beloved, so it is with us: neither you without me nor me without you, 77_-8). With these words in direct speech we clearly hear Tiistan speaking to the queen, but where and how we hear them is one of the great points of scholarly dispute that occupies much of the critical tradition devoted to this popular lay. To signal his presence to the queen, Tristan squales off a hazel branch and inscribes his name on it (54). The following twenty-four lines report in thirdperson narrative the complete message he conveys to the queen. Gradually the narrator's voice blends with that of the character, indirect speech becomes free and finally shifts into the two lines of direct quotation given above, Tristan's eloquent and powerful summary of their love. What remains unclear in the way Marie reports the message is whether Tristan carves all these words in the wood, implies them by the mere presence of his name inscribed on hazelwood, or has already sent them to the queen on a previous occasion (see chapter III). At this point, we are reminded of the passage in Marie's General Prologue where she raises the issue of glossing to bring out the surplus of meaning: is it hidden in the written word by the original author, to be discovered or invented by later generations of readers/writers? Each interpretation has had its defenders; we are caught up again and again in the very activity anticipated in Marie's written text, embroiled in figuring out the messages caught in writing when she transposes the oral tales of the Bretons.le The uncertainty of what is said, what is implied, what remains spoken and what is written, resurfaces in the epilogue, when Marie reports Tristan's decision to compose a musical commemoration, 'un nuvel lai' (a new lay,ll3), because of the joy he had in seeing the queen and 'to remember the words' (111). Tristan, as a composer of lays, is an obvious figure for Marie herself. Though she works in the written word, rather than in music, she implicitly twins her own and Tristan's artistic activities by connecting them in her epilogue. Placed after Chaitivel, the lay of Chevrefoil is the second consecutive lay to end with an account of the

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the arrangenlet :. multiples. fleei,:. in the shadori .-. and Cheyr€./tti,' .:, way Marie has : befits the narLrrliterature assr)C..: Tiistan and \-s; -. works at the r11r--,.1 to find intimllrl, : the Tristan lese:-. briefly in the pr l the lovers' stor.,. through the Lti outside the ct-r,,;putting the lar s collection arrar.l; short tales the .;.: General Prolt-,g.-= certainly kneri -..' Thöbe,s and the i as surely anticl: strongly unde r ,. . . Using ässoci.r . Marie has prep.::: romances in th; concentration. i. = the 'matter of B work in an epi.: anonymous Bre: her own name. ::. Her collection t1. -. Whatever the Lu . today the 'lad] )' .

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ÄYT EAIIVUUVT{ EHI NI UNHIUV

198

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

synonymous with pleasurable lays enjoyed by courtly publics in the twelfth century. In the prologue to Guigemar, which in Harley 978 functions as an extension of the General Prologue, Marie signs her work: Ki de bone mateire traite, Mult li peise si bien n'est faite. Oö2. seignurs. ke dit Marie. Ki en sun tens pas ne s'oblie. (1-4)

(Whoever has good material for a story is grieved if the tale is not well told. Hear, my lords, the words of Marie, who in her own time does not squander her talents')

Conscious of the moment to seize, and consciotls of her own worth in relation to the worthy stories she has to tell, Marie establishes in the letter of her text the art of not forgetting one's self ('pas ne s'oblie')'22 ptrnl

and Trot, a dii:-: Lecheor tells ht,.,'

at an annual c;: present identifl c.

this becomes rh; married to a lac'. even goes as iar

but she counte i: whiskers brairjcc.

both these lar s ::. Trol is, aloltg .' amongst the el;-, Round Table. b -.. Lorois's home . and the advent.^: encounters Se\ rr,: guished both b,, : one hand, ragg-.their horses. Th: beloveds and r:.; smoothly. Thes- ,' neglected lor e r. motion, hence : (Burgess 1998 r L to treat love u it^. : Arthur plar s Tyolet, the lirsr : at the beginnin q torest with his u:: way that wild ar.. some game, but ,-- :. of a large stag. I:.. a dangerous str-: roe deer, which ; stag he had bee:. \ Tyolet converse s concerning his ir. vou?'In his repi,, : but §olet is fire ; 155, 189, 205. e i. rnother, who u i1^ . >

The Anonymous Lays The poems considered in this section are principally the eleven anonymous 'Bretän'lays published by Tobin in 1976.23 None of these lays can be dated with precision, but the likely period of composition is from the later twelfth century to ihe early years of the thirteenth century. They are found in several manuscripts, the most important of which is § (Paris, BNF, nouv. acq. fr. 1104), which contains eight of the lays, the exceptions being Melion, Nabaret and Trot. There has been a good deal of discussion concerning the origin of these lays and their relationship io those of Marie de France. The most famous formulation of this relationship is that of Lucien Foulet (1905, 319): 'L'histoire des lais frangais commence et s'arrÖte ä Marie' (The history of French lays begins and ends with Marie). In Foulet's view, the authors of these lays used or consciously imitated Marie, and in some cases imitation went as far as plagiarism (19). But, although there are some clear borrowings from Marie, there is also material which must have come directly from other, perhaps older sources (Illingworth 1975). A more fruitful approach is to examine the poems as we have them, in order to see how their themes and storypatterns are combined to create appealing tales for an eager public.2a Eight of the lays in Tobin's collection possess a structure which is similar to that of a lay by Marie de France. A man, usually a knight, forms a relationship with a woman and their aventure is recounted in the poem, i.e. the story revolves around the difficulties they encounter in attempting to preserye their relationship, whilst coping with the obligations which bind them to society. In the anon)rynous lays it is not uncommon for a mortal to have a supernatural lover (Desirö, Graelent, Guingamor, Tydorel). In Doon, Melion and Tyolet both hero and heroine manifest elements of the supernatural, but to a great extent the characters in these lays are presented as human. In three of the lays, Lecheor, Nabaret

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'JnoruJB s.rer{leJ slq uIH e^r8 IIL^A oq,{,\ leqlour sII ot s8urql uruldxe puu euloq oB ol luq s[ot tq8ruI eql '('c]e 'gOZ'68l 'ggl 'a\saq nryotaqt) ,1seeq-1q8ru1, u etuoceg ol usersnqlue qlr.4t peJrJ sr 1e1o,(; 1nq eq1,(po seqrJcsop eqt srq u1,6no,t 'pooqlq8rul go s8urddu.r] 1{3ru1 Ieurelxe ^lder eJe lseeq Jo ilos lzrl71\, :sr uorlsenb euo 'JnoruJe srq pue uorlcunJ srq Sururecuoc suorlsenb e^reu Jo reqrunu e rulq sls? pu? 1r{3ru1 oq} q}r.^A sosJe^uoc 1e1o,(1 'Ic€gesJoq uo 1q8u1 e olut peruroJsu€r1 Äpeppns sr Surseqc uooq peq eq 3e1s eqt tr SuruuDIS sr oq tslFpA lnq'11 silpl oH 'urFI o1 puodser soop qcqt\ teep eo.r e slods 1e1o,(1]ueruoru ]eqt lV 'sossoJc ueq] 1l qclqla tele.ra. Jo rlclerts sno.re8uup e spre^rol tuq speol Ierurue oql 'ollsrrl \ srq ol Surpuodse.r go peelsul '3e1s e8rel e 3o ]q8rs seqclec,(lueppns eq plun InJsseccnsun sr eq uorsucco srgl uo 1ng 'eure8 eruos IIPI o] IuItI s{se Jeq}olu sry,fup euo 'Iuq o1 polcerl}e er€ slewrue pp1[ leql Äelr B qcns ur ellsrr!!\ o1,ftre3 e,(q lqSnel ueeq s?q eH 'ror{}oul pe^\opr.ry\ sFI qlp\ }soJoJ eql ur se^r1 og.&\ ueur SunoÄ e sr 1e1o.(1 'p^il.tad s,uel]?Jrl3 go Suruut3eq eql ]e s1q3ru1 go dno"r8 e q1r^\ Surlesru s(le^ecJed sllucer qclqdr 3o ged lsrrJ erll 'p1ot1 ur 'elor Ierluengur ,(1q8noroq1 ]ou I[ls ]ng ']uucrJruSrs arour e s,{e1d JnqUV 'uorsrJep pu€ uJocs rllr^\ e^ol lseJ] o1 lou serpel rer{}o o} Suru.re,l € se ilnoc 1e ,fuo1s sq} se}BleJ sroJoT '(gOOt sse8.rng) ocue^pe .(eq1 se ured 1ee;3 uroql sosnec 'ße1er{l Jo ellrl eql ecuoq ouorlotu 3ur11or1 osoqlv\ sesJor{ pelsnurlxe puu polercerue uo ouole eprJ ea.oy pelcey8eu o^eq or{1[r osog] lnq'1sm errol pe^Jes ezreq'su.ree1 sroJo.I oueuro.r\ eseqJ ,{1q}oorus pue Äluezre 3uo1e ureq] ,(l.lec qclq^\ sesroq Surlqure eprr .(eql pue speloleq polueluoc ,(lyenbe rreqt ,(q peruedurocce eJe sorpel pelueluoc eqJ 'sesJor{ Jrer{l go lre8 eql ,(q pue '("reqto eqt uo Suuegns luoprne pue sserp pe88er 'pueq euo oql uo secueuelunoc,(ddeq pue ssorp 1ue3e1e) ecue.leedde rreqi ,(q qtoq peqsmS -urlsrp e;e sdno;8 eqJ 'eleuroJ pue eletu qloq (sJeprJ go sdnor8 IBJeAes sJelunocuo eq 'Suru.rour euo Surpu lno 'lseJoJ ,(q;eeu e ul eceld se>lel eJnluo^pe erll puu (puullocs ur ,(er.rntr4i ro ,{eroy4i ,(lqeqotd) srorolN Jo olls€c eqt sr oruoq s.sroro.I sut3eq ,{ro1s eql ecuo ,(e1d o1 ped ou seq rnrl}rv Äe1 srql ur }nq 'elqel punog s.JnqlJV o] per{cell€ 1{3ru1 e^€Jq € sr sroJo.I oJeq eql sz'ue^elo eq} ls8uorue s,{e1 ueunqlry r(y1cr.r1s es.rq1 ,(po Jo ouo 'n1o{1 pve uouary q}lu 3uo1e '$ 7o.t1 ,(peuoc Jo lueurole luecgru8rs e sr erorlt s,(el eseql qtoq q '(0r-gg) (Jlesrurq e8uezr.e 01 u€tu snoleel e "rog ,{e.Lr eq} sr }Bq} lpeple-rq sJeISrq.&\ srq e^Bq pue 3uo1 .tro;8 p.reeq sq lel ppoqs e11, :drnb e q]l^\ sJolunoc eqs lnq 'eur1 ur req deel o] JopJo ur sluered Jer{ Jo dysq eql Sullsgue su JeJ se soo8 ue,re eH 'uotu.reglo eseeld o1 Sursse:p Jo req sesncce eSeeuq qBIr{ Jo ,(pey e ot perJJeru l{3ru>1y '(seu11 8?) Jelrq ^(.rol sr p.mqoN',(e1.,vrou er{} Jo 1celqns eql souoceq sFI] ispeep crJle^qc IIB JoJ uorle.rrdsul eq1 sB (tunc).uoc, s.uuruolrr B sorJrluepr luesud selpel ,(1}rnoc erll Jo euo pouJecuoc .reeÄ eql ur 1nq 'r(uoureJec Ienuue ue ]u pesodruoc ore sse,trr,o.rd pue olol Jo speep elqou SurlunocoJ s,(u1 .uoq sllel naq)a7 '(upe loorg puu sseS"rng ees) sreedde eJnlcnrls crl€rueql luoreJlrp e'7ot1 pue

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200

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

In spite of her misgivings, his mother duly gives Tyolet the armour and advises him to go to Arthur's court. On his arcival, Arthur invites him to dismount and eat with him, and Tyolet tells him who he is and why he has come. As he is about to eat, a beautiful girl, daughter of the King of Logres, suddenly entefs, followed by a white brachet with a bell round its neck. She announces that she will give her love to, and take as her husband, the man who can bring her the white foot of the stag which lives in the forest guarded by seven lions; the brachet will act as guide. A number of Arthur's knights attempt this feat, but none is successful; they are afuaidto cross a broad, deep river in which the water is black, hideous and raging (379-81). When Tyolet tries, he crosses the river, whistles to attract the stag and removes its foot. The animal'S cries attract the seven lions, but §olet manages to kill them all, before falling wounded and exhausted at their side. At this point a knight arrives on the scene, and, unwisely, Tyolet recounts the adventure to him and gives him the white foot. This knight departs, then returns, striking Tyolet and leaving him for dead. At Arthur's court he claims the maiden's hand. The king, however, notices that the brachet has not returned and orders a delay of eight days. When the dog retufns, Gauvain follows it and finds §olet. Gauvain asks a maiden to take §olet to a doctor and returns to court to relate what has happened. The knight denies everything, but §olet arrives and accuses him of attempting to kill him. The knight asks for mercy and Tyolet pardons him. Tyolet then marries the girl and goes to her country, where they reign as king and queen.26

In this lay Arthur and his court are amongst the elements which unite a bipartitetext.2T The knight whom Tyolet meets seems to be a member of the court, and whilst Tyolet is in conversation with him 200 other knights pass by, having carried out a mission on behalf of the king (197-205). The second part begins at the court of King Arthur; Tyolet is aware of the court's reputation, for he praises it for its afetement (good manners), cortoisie (courtliness) and ensaignement (learning) and claims that it is with Arthur that he will learn sens (wisdom), cortoisie and chevalerie and how to distribute largesse (303-10). Recognizing his potential, Arthur agrees to retain Tyolet at court (314). Later in the story, Arthur's prescience in delaying the award of the maiden's hand in marriage, and Gauvain's participation in the rescue of Tyolet, confirm Arthur's court as a place of justice. At the end of the narrative, he gives the maiden to §olet. Although the latter does not remain with Arthur, his departure does not imply the criticism of Arthur's court one detects in Lanval. It is in Melion that Arthur has a truly decisive role to play in the launching and conclusion of the narrative. Melion opens at Arthur's court, where Melion vows only to love a woman who has never loved, or even spoken of, another man. For this he is ostracized by the ladies at court, and he sinks into a state of gloom, until he is rescued by Arthur, who provides him with a rich castle by the sea.

Melion deli,_shts . expedition he er.; has two childrei. huge stag and ,.r>: again, if she tj u--'; transform hims=, ring (there is ;rls. catching the sr.1 i pursues her ail.the help pro\ id - gives the ring i. use the ring t tr : , spared this fate : In this tale \: by setting up thc wife. When rhir-:, helps to resolr: : Arthur in this i.',. the warrior Art:. -factions there ,j j assistance fronr :. mental to the t1,; Marie de Frallcto a length)/ apü :human qualirie: l transformatiolt. and red stones.I - i comes for him I 'L) "

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just as did Lan.,.,. venu[e] quere'. F yoLt, 111-I2). Sr:

linked by their c . . It is noticeab, ; tive. In Trot it ts :. distribute rich S ..: dona les riches . knights and th, '. terres conquerüt:' man of 'grant :t: knights, supe t itr t'

erurl eql ur olel B Aurlenlrs ,(g '(Zt-g),(up lueserd or{1Jo esoql ol rouedns 's1q8ru1 ecJerJ 'ploq tuFI rIlL{,\ peq orcq ot pue (uotrorndat ryaß),sud 1ue.r3, Jo uetu e ueeq e^eq ol pres sr atq n1o[1 u1 '(7 'spuo1 patanbuoc oqu aq),]rorenbuoc seJJe] sel DI Irc, se peqrJcsep JeqtJnJ sr Jnr{uv uouary uI '(r-€ 'suo,mq aqt puo sry?ryt1 aqt q stlr? qnt ano? oqm puV ',suoseq sB e sJerle^oqc sV / suop seqcrJ sol euop 1nb g,) uouary ut peuorluotu osle sr esseS.rel s,rnquv'(Zt-Ot) sly8 qcu elnqrrlsrp poo8 e rnouoq ol .laoq s.&ou>I rnqlrv ]egl polels sr lr to,u uI 'olr] o1 pue l!3ru1 -rsod.(1e.rr1ue sr sÄe1 eeJrll eseql ur JnrlUV 3o uorlcrdep eql leql elqeecrlou sl1I '(3u1s e go ged ssessod o1urecuoc rreqt,(q pe{ull reqgnJ e:u 1e1oÄ1 pu€ uorTel tr qloq Jo se^r^\ eql) ser8o1 go ssecuud eql toJ pue tq uosoqc pueqsnq eql flreelc sr oreq eql nlotl ur ',(yreprur5 '(Zt-ty1 'not laas q awo) a^Dq I tü tuo.rt lpuo1 tru ruott t4t,rot aruoc 1 not .tog 'oeJenb [e]nue,r rns sn^ zurnl eC 1 ienl Bru ep srog oel cuerl sn^ tn1) atu,nt s,[e^ue-I prp se 1sn[ '(691 'puo1at1ruo,ttno{ ol auo) alDq I',enueA so^ B rns epuelJ^.C,) rug rog seruoc eJr-& s.uorTetrAtr qcFlly\ ur,(eryr eql sr s,(el s.errel^I qll^\ {uq roglouv 6z'souo}s por pu? ellrllv\ r{}P\ Surr e fq uollayy ur pecelde"r § D.t^opstg ul 3urq1o1c 'uollururogsuerl go lue8e ue sV '3ur4 e Jo uorlue^Jelur eql o] pue sureleJ eq serlrlenb uerunq eql ol s{uerll pencser sr oq pue 'e1e1s lerlseq lueuuru.red Älqrssod pue ,(q13ue1 u o1 oJI^\ sH,(q peuurepuoc sr uorletr tr 'lerzrelcsrg eäI-l']2"t^Dps!g v ocusJc op orJ?I I ,(q pesn ,(pee:1e Sltour Jlo^\oro,r\ eqt s uouary Jo erntcnrls crl€rueql oq1 o1 1uluoru -epunJ osle lng '(Z-tVt) su€ruog eql lsure8e re^\ srq ut qsrrl or{t ruoq ecue}srsse roJ peeu ul\o srq ,(q pelen4oru JoqUnJ uortue^relul ue '(OV-L;€) oreql suorlceJ Sur.rru,r. Jo serlrrrrlce oq1 ol pue ue ]nd o1 pueloJl o1 slres oqn lnqUy JorJJen erll pue '1rnoc InJsseccns e Je^o seprsord oq,rr tnqUy,(p;noc eql :lxelsrql ur JnqilV go se8erur olrq ere eregl leq] elou osle uec o 11 ,(lpcrgrp eqt e^loseJ o1 sdleq qc1ll( uoque^Jelur s1et (ltEL:

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206

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

functions: it can expose both a wife's infidelity and her husband's jealousy. If either is the case, the husband becomes drenched with wine as he drinks. Arthur is the first to try to drink, and he is furious when he fails to do so successfully. Interpreting the failure as signifying adultery on his wife's part, he lunges at her with a knife and has to be restrained by his knights. However, he is cheered to discover that the other knights who make the attempt are equally unsuccessful. Finally, a knight named Garadue (Caradoc) passes the test and Arthur gives the horn to his wife and rewards him with the lordship of Cirencester. The author states that he received the story from an abbot, and that the horn, which could be seen on feast days at Cirencester, was later put on display at Caerleon. The Lai du Cor differs from most of the lays discussed above, because of the comic or burlesque elements it contains; it has therefore sometimes been classed as afabliau. But the poem is called a lay (583), and in spite of its humour it treats themes of importance to court society (e.g. honour, power, loyalty). Although failure to drink successfully can be triggered by either husband or wife, and the horn thus tests purity of thought and deed on both sides, there are clear links to the well-established tradition of chastity tests with a horn or a mantle (Erickson edn, 4-9). But the novelty is that the repeated failure of Arthur's knights creates a new form of courtly unity, a new form of community spirit based on shared dishonour. Garadue's success leads to the acquisition of land, which is any knight's ideal, but it condemns him and his wife to remain outside Arthurian society (Rider 1985). A similar tale is found in a text known by various names: the Lai du Mantel, Le Conte du Mantel, Le Mantel mautailliö or the Lai du Cort Mantel.Extant in five manuscripts (one of which is BNF, nouv. acq. fr. 1104), this text has often been regarded as a fabliau; it is probably of Norman provenance. Here a mantle replaces the horn as the testing device, and on this occasion the test concerns more specifically the chastity of women; it will shrink if worn by a woman who has been unfaithful, and only fit a woman who is perfectly chaste. Mantel is sometimes thought to be later than the Lai du Cor, and perhaps to have been influenced by it (Hoepffner 1959, 116), but the texts are probably more or less contemporary (Bennett edn, xxiii); they share the same Arthurian setting and the same hero, Caradoc, whose beloved wears the garment successfully.

The preceding discussions of Marie's lays, as well as the various categories of mostly anonymous lays which follow in her wake, bear ample testimony to the way this short narrative form operates in relation to a constellation of narrative 'genres' of varying length, from short röcits to short romance and beyond. As a medieval narrative type, which flourished primarily from the end of the twelfth to the end of the thirteenth century, the lay appears distinctive in characte4 yet at

the same tinre r,-,f materials and c:.' partakes of bt-r i :. needs to take ii-: centre, shiftin q ': by medieval aui:. critics to det-ine -: take among shc,:: interaction bet,,,. -, only feeds allt ii ,--,:. cated public ci-1r : play (Schmolke - I-i into the Lit'r't, .,t. _

res0urces

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on \ ticity of her ntar.: of gravity shii:. romance heroes f respectively,

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model of tranS,*.

overlays), she rr. ..

organizing her r'.,, individual tales :;, ual play. Her lir:,: lays, remind us ,--,.. rich reservoir r',. boundaries bet,,\;: and the anon\ r. emerge from a 1.:: King Arthur. Ir: \\ been told aboul \ folly from wisdrr:-

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uI suorsnllB z(re.re1q eql elercerdde pue ezruSocer ol pelcodxe eq uec crlqnd pelec -llsrqdos e ueg.&\ 'uoqdecor ecuerpne seprn8 osle lr iuo4uer.ur lerJor{}nu speeg,(po 1ou 'ecueulor r(q perego sBAuBc e rleJJ€u re8rel eql pue sÄe1 uee.uleq uorlceJolur eql e{ll'uorlcrp pue suor}€}ueuo 'sesuqdure luereg1p q}yy\ selel }Jor{s Suoue e>1e1 -pue-errr8 oql '(0g6I igg6l ueße6;) s,(e1 ;o sndroc eqt lrurrTop puu ouuop ot scrlrrc uJepou Jo suo,ue oql elelllceJ s,(uzrrle lou seop 'segr.rcs pue sJoqlne le,rerperu r(q pesn se 'ru1ante1eq1 '.(13ursrrd;ns 1o51 ,fueqdr"red eql 1e sorJepunoq Burgrqs ,erluec s.e.rue8 eq] }e ,$rcgrceds :crlsrJelceJeqc 8ur,uo11og eq] lunocce olul e{el o} speou Äu1 eq1 Jo relcereqc oql ougop o] ]druetle ,(uy .(,(e1 pue noqqolqloq Jo seleped 'eldruexe n1 'uo\mbg s,eue141) uorlelcedxe Jo suozrJoq luoroJrp pue slerJele{u ]ugl soxru Surzrpr-rq,(q ol uedo oluq ellles eql lueJe,Urp Jo suor]eurquoc uo .(e1d LOZ

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

208

de Brut, where H,--;;. vols, SATF. 193\-,j p. 166), thus nrak-.-. -

(The story-tellers haye told so many stories dnd the spinners of yarns have recounted so many pure invention, in their attempts to embellish fables, that they have made everything seem like their stories.)

Brittany durin_e rir;

This complaint recalls Denis Piramus's critique of Dame Marie, whose tales were not entirely true. Both Denis and Marie give testimony to the immense popularity of Breton tales, so intertwined and compelling that writels and storytellers, as well as readers medieval and modefn, continue to find themselves pulled into their intersecting orbits. IGSBI

t2 See, for erair-r :

I would like to th.::.... 13 D. Crouch . T . (London,

for example. R \ 'Qui cr,. .. -.

15 See Koub.,rc l^.. . :,

1 Titles of lays, which in some cases vary from edition to edition, are taken from the edition of the Laisby A. Ewert, as are quotations from the text. 2 For further informationioncerning these lays, see Baader 1966 and Donovan 1969. For bibliography, see Burgess bib.1995.

.rp..rrion 'narrative lays'has been preferred in this chapter to 'Breton lays',

because

of

the difliculty in deciding, in some cases, whether the terms breton atd Bretaigne refer to Britain or to Brittany (or to both). 4 The Harley manuscript (-tf contains the General Prologue followed by twelve lays. The Strengleikar, a Norse translation made for Häkon Häkonarson, King of Norway (Cook and Tpeitäne edn), contains twenty-one lays from Old French, including all of Marie's except Eliduc (Chaitivel a11d Lanval areincomplete). Four other French manuscripts give one or more of Marieh iays: BNF, nouv. acq. fr.l104 19 rras nine; BNF, fr.2168 (P) Guigemar, Lanval and the end of ionec;BL,MS Cotton Vespasian B xiv (Q just Zanval;BNF,fr.24432(Q) jtjsr Yonec. 5 Objections have been raised, however, regarding Marie de France's authorship of the Espurgitoire (see Burgess in Ewert edn 1995, vi-vii). But Mickel (1974, 1434) discusses a fourth *o.t ätso signed 'Marie',Ihe Vie seinte Audree,and McCash (2002) argues strongly in favour of its acceptance as a work by Marie de France. 6 On the dating and the order of composition of the lays, see Burgess 1981;1987, l-34. 1 La ltie seint Edmund le rei, poöme anglo-normand du XII siöcle, ed. by H. Kjellman (Göteborg, 1935; repr. Geneva, 197 4), ll. 3548. 8 In ihe Harley manuscript the two adjectives which modify the author in the General Prologue (55-56) are both masculine in form: they are emended to feminine forms by modern editors, but thelr piobtematic presence is a useful reminder that some scholars have called into question Marieb identity as authoiof allthe Lais (Baum 1968), or as a woman author (Huchet 1981). Nevertheless,

there have been multiple efforts to explore öcriture föminine or look for feminist points of view in her Lais (Freeman tg84; Arden 1992; Rosenn 1992; Kinoshita 19934). Grifän (1999) discusses the notion of fixed authorship for the lays.

s

Lanvalisfoundinfourmanuscripts:fI(fols154v-159v),S(lols6v-l0r),P(fols54r-58v)andC

(fols lr-8v). There are two translations (in Norse and Middle English) and imitations include Jean Renart's Guillaume de Dole and a German poem, Peter von Staufenberg (Hoepffner 1935, 70-l; Burgess 1gg5, 172-3). For the text of all four manuscripts, as well as of the Norse version, see Rychner edn 1958.

r.

V. Greene,

Notes

T.ir.

1986

t4 Laßr versic,-: r See,

- i

:

the story operates :' rr Cf. the higli.', .':

ro See the notes in Rychner edn 1966 and Burgess in Ewert edn 1995, xxiv-xxv, xxxi-xxxii. proper names are particularly powerful markers for aligning texts, as the titles of the lays given in prol,og.r.r and epiiogues continually remind us. There are two variants on the king's name given in Guigimar. MS flidentifies him as Hoilas (27), a name which Marie perhaps found in Wace's Roman

hero's name as J r-, medieval usage I.

t6 See Francis

j

--

Marie's legal \.oC;r _tively as posr 1 15r t7 On doubhni .:.

-

Death: Thomas' T 'Doubling and ./ir,, l8 Burgess (in E.' -. stories Marie miqi.: . le The number ,- . :

_,

Supplements). See ..:

l98l-2, Burch 19v: 20

In the

_,-

prece.l.r_-

ates the alternaii'.

=

whatever languaSi : .: her authorial pres-.._ Prologue, see Bruc ...-.: 21

Other collecr . :' " like Lanval, make ..: r:

the General Pro I rr S ,. ; 22 The word (r,4... returns to the irlpi,r--:' 23 See the intrt c*acq. fr. 1104: Tt'r,.:, Graelent and l,Ieli,

:

.

j

24 Smithers(1yj,:

;

falls in love with Li . --, gives the mother :-: together after an a lt -- * 2s Arthur is alsf ": 1925) . This lay be r:. , sea to Denmark r I -contains allusions r ,,

(12s). 26

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ÄVT EAIJVUUVIT EHI NI UNHIUV

602

illlrffi

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

210

(629-31):Lodoer, who is first to attempt the quest (perhaps for Bedoer), Kay, Yvain (said to be the son of Morgan the Fay) and Urien (presented as Yvain's father) (629-31)' 27 Some*writers, such as G. Paiis (edn), have stressed that the two parts are fundamentally the two parts. disparate, whereas others (e.g. Braet 1980) think that the author has effectively unified i8 In addition to Arthur f,imself, the other Arthurian knights mentioned in Melion are: Gauvain (353, etc.), Yder (355, etc.) and Yvain (354). ' ,i yoi'acomparison b.t*..r, Bßclavret and Melion, see M6nard 1984. See also L. Foulet 1905, 40-5. 30 See also Graelent,215-22, 593-5, Melion, 91-8, Equitan, 31-6 and Eliduc, 1012-16' For the presentation of female characters, see Gosman 1984, Kallaur 1988 and R6gnier-Bohler 1980. 3r For discussion of Celtic or Other-World themes in the lays, see Bromwich 1960-1, Tobin 1980, De Ca1uw6 1983 and Jodogne 1960-1.

2534) arguesfor retaining both Segre's analysis of Graelent as imitator of of a common model for both (1955)' view andHoepffner's Lanval 33 M. D. Legge states that the author is unlikely to have been Anglo-Norman, but that he'probrepr. ably worked in England' (Anglo-Norman Literature and its Background, Oxford, 1963; I33). 1978. CT, Westport. 32 Rychner (edn 1966,

Reference List For items accompanied by an asterisk,

see

the General Bibliography'

Saint Patrick'i P.,, r-. 1993).Incluties',,\

Anonymous Lar

s

(1879),29-t: Les Lais anon.t'ri,; P. M. O'H. Trr'r^..

Lais föeriques

r/r,

r .i

,-.-

Three Old Fren,i ', L. C. Brook. Lr'. =.:

LOSlinder.ltrri

,

Coy and Mantel The Anglo-lVonticii ; . Mantel et Cor; dtit'.

Bibliography

Strengleikar

No'1, 1986, Burgess, G.S. Marie de France: An Analytical Bibliography (London, 1977; Supplement Supplement No. 2, 1997). Burgess, G. S. The Old French l{aruative Lay: An Analytical Bibliography (Cambridge', 1995).

Strengleikar; Art O _ Uppsala De lu (:r. teTe).

Texts and Translations

Marie

de France

Lais Marie de France; Lais.Ed. by A. Ewert (Oxford, 1944; reissued with introduction and bibliography by G. S. Burgess, London, 1995). Les Lais de Marie de France.Ed.by J. Rychner, CFMA 93 (Paris, 1966)' Lais de Marie de France.Ed. by K. Warnke and transl. by L. Harf-Lancner (Paris, 1990)' Lais de Marie de France, prösentös, traduits et annotäs. Ed. and transl. by A' Micha (Paris, 1994). 1986; 2nd The Lais of Marie de Fmnce. Transl. by G. s. Burgess and K. Busby (Harmondsworth, edn 1999). Marie de Frlance, Le Lai de Lanval. Ed. by J. Rychner, TLF 71 (Geneva, 1958)'

Fqbles

Marie de France, Les Fables: ödition critique accompagnöe d'une inftoduction, d'une traduction, de notes et d'un glossaire.Ed. and transl. by C. Brucker (Louvain, l99l,2nd edn 1998). Espurgatoire Seint Patriz Marie de France, L'Espurgatoire Seint Patriz: nouvelle ödition critique accompagnöe du De purgatorio sancti Patricii (öd. de Warnke), d'une introduction, d'une ttaduction, de notes et d'un glossaire. Ed. by Y. de Pontfarcy (Louvain, 1995).

,

The Lays of Dt,:' . E. M. GrimeS ,\: Le Coeur lfianst:, ;'(Paris, 1979t.

',

Studies

Arden, H. 1992. 'T..=

_

Women', in Nliir;-.. Baadeq H. 1966 ['t .

Frankfurt. Baum, R. 1968. -Rr.

,

Baumgartner, E. 1q-: Bloch, R. H. 2001 T Braet, H. 1978.

.

'\l-,r.;

Braet 1980. 'Le Lai ;: . littöraire offerrt, ., Braet 1981. 'Tr'..^c: :,= 'Tyolet/Percer a I : Thorpe, Glasgo\,,. - -

Bromwich, R. 1961- . Bruckner, M. T, 199: Bruckner 1993 ". - : Burch, S. L. 1998. 'T. . , Burgess, G. S. 19E I i-

gl,

133-55.

'§§-t€t't6

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ÄVT EAIJYUUYTT EHI NI U{IHIUV

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l

THE ARTHI]R OF THE FRENCH

212

Athens, GA, and Manchester' Burgess 1987. The Lais of Marie de France: Text and contexf,

Formisano eds n,r.ä.r, 1992.'Chivardc Activity in the Anonymous Lays" in G' Angeli and L' 2'71-91' Naples, et sondouble, Llmaginaire courtois 14' Burgess iSSA.'f tt. Lay of Tr o t'. A Tale of Two Sittings', F S B, 66, et 29 avril 1979' D. ed. 1980. Le Röcit bref aumoyen dge: actes du colloque des 27,28 Busähinger, Universitö de Picardie,Amiens and Paris'

Damon,S.F.1929..MariedeFrance:PsychologistofCourtlyLove',PMLA,44,968_96. ei l'6l6ment chretien dans les lais anonymes' ' h The De Caluw6, J. 1983. 'UAutre Monde ".itiq.r. to A. H. Diverres by Colleagues, Legend if xns Arthur in the Middle iges: Studies Presented P up ils and

Friends, Cambridge, 56-65'

Dame' IN' Donovan, M. J. 1969. The Bretin Lay: A Guide to Varieties'Notre Tudor eds Les Lieux interdits: A. and Duffy in L. Law" the and France de Eccles, J. 1998. 'Marie Transgression and French Literature, Hull, I 5-30' J. 1990. Aristocratie et valeurs "chevaleresques" dans emple des Lais deMarie de France', MA,96,37-65'

Flori,

la seconde moitiÖ du XII"

siÖcle:

l'ex-

Foulet,A.,andK.D.Uitti.1981_82..TheProloguetotheLaisofMariedeFrance:A Reconsiderati on', RPh, 35, 242-9.

Foulet,L.1905.'MariedeFranceetleslaisbretons',ZrP,29,19-56'293-322' 257-89' Foulet 1908. 'Marie de France et la lÖgende de Tristan', 2rP,32,161-83'

.The Trial h Laival" it studies in French Language and Mediaeval Literature l l 5-24' P r e s ent e d t o P r ofe s s or M il dr e d K Po p e, Manchestet,

Francis, E. A. 1g3g.

Freeman,

M.

3-18.

.Marie de France's Poetics of Silence: The Implications for a Feminine

M LA, 99, 860-83' France', 'SP, 61, lg64.,Linguisiic and Psychological Couplings in the Lays of Marie de

Translatio', Frey, J. A.

19g4. P

fÖeriques" in 1984. 'Le statut descriptif de la dame aimÖe dans les lais dits actes du Äge" Moyen au transgressions et mariage Amour, eds. Cr6pin D. Buschinger and E. Mödiövales' d'Etudes Cenfte colloque des 24, 25, 26 et )7 *or, 1983, Universitö de Picardie, Göppingen, 203-13. Crffin, fr4:f S99. 'Gender and Authority in the Medieval French lai', FML5,35,42-56' of Meulan?', Med' Aev, Grillo, p. 1988. 'Was Marie de France tLe Daughter of Waleran II, Count

Gosman,

M.

57,269-74.

Guillet-Rydell,

M.

Rom' 96' 1975. 'Nature et röle du mariage dans les lais anonymes bretons"

91-104.

de France" Rom,56,l-32' Hoepffner, E. 1930. 'La Geographie et I'histoire dans les Lais de Marie 1-31' 4' n's' SM, lais anonyme§', les et France de 'Marie 1931. Hoepffner Hoepffner 1935. Les Lais de Marie de France, Paris; repr' 1911,1995' Clovis Brunel,2 vols, Paris, Hoepffner 1955. 'Graölent ou Lanval?" in Recueil de tiavaux offert d M.

Ir,

1-8.

Hoepffner 1959. 'The Breton Lais', in Loomis ed' 1959*, 112-21' Ä7r, 65, 38-48' Hofär, S. 1gs34.'Bemerkungen zur Beurteilun gdes Horn- und des Mantellai', 5' 469-8 7 3, 2r P, Hofer 1 957.'Untersuchungen zum M ant e llai', les Lais de Marie de Huchet, J.-C. l9gl..Nom ae femme et ecriture feminine au Moyen Age: 407 48, Poötique, France', -30. Hunt, T. 1974. 'Glossing Marie de France', Ä4 86, 396_-/'18' Aev,44,3l-50' Illingworth, R. N. 1975:'The Compositi oL of Graelent arld Guingamor' , Med. 1-18' 70' ÄR, France', de Marie of Jack-son, W. T.H. lg7g. 'The Arthuricity ,L'Autre Monde dans la litt6rature franqaise du XII' släcle', Acadömie Jodogng O. 1960-1. ".ttiq.r. Morales et Politiques, 5th Royale de Belgique, Bulletin de la Classe des Lettres et des Sciences series,46, 58+97.

Jonin, P. 1981. 'L; Early Frenc'lt L Kallaur, M. 19y' G.

-4. Pörou>;

Fl .

-:.' -

Kinoshita. S. iv--: Lanval' , Rt,tti-\'. ,'-

\1 - ---

Koubichkine.

Kusel, P. I9T. G., '

McCash,

Maddox,

-..

'', 'l D. r(tl,

J.

H.

France', in \

Maröchal. C.

1.,

-

:*

-\

=

*

Queenston ar:i L.-

Mardchal ed. :tt, -: Lewiston. Qu:; .. M6nard, P. 19E-+ 'L ='

Bar.';.

de Riquer,

Mickel, E.

J..

17 -2s . Payen, J.-C.

Louvain,

-

Jr. 1*--

19-: ' 3 1-6

:

-1

Payen 1980. 'Lai. . -.^ siöcles', in Busi:-. Poe, E. W. 1983. 'L. Pontfarcy, Y. de. I - -

Ribard, J. 1913. 'E.I, ture rnödiöt'uL

,

Rice, J. 1984. 'Crr..- : ' France', !i --. 'C.,,-: ^'J-[. Rider, J. 1985. Rosenn,

E. 199: l

22542. Sankovitch,T.

19!:

Writers and rli, E: Schmolke-Hasselr: - -: Espee) dans les :

-

\

"

Schofield, W. H \Literature.5. l-. -Segre,

C.

1959. 'L.

Modena, II. Sienaert, E. R.

-5r-19-' -

Paris.

Smithers, G. V. 1 9 i -: Spitzer, L. 19,1i--i 96-102. Suard, F. 1980a. 'L- : Suard 1980b. 'Le P: littörature frcuie -, -

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P. M. O'H. 1980. 'L'El6ment breton et les lais anonymes', ir Mölanges de langue et de littöra' turefrangaises du Moyen Äge offerts d Monsieur Charles Foulon, II. M. Rom.,30,277-86.

Tobin,

Walkley, M. J. 1983. 'The Critics and Lanval , NZJFS,4,5-23.

R. l97l-2. 'stylistic Analysis of an Anonymous Work: The Old Ftench lai Guingamor', M P, 69, l-9.

Weingartner,

Williams, H. F. 1964. 'The Anonymous Breton Lays' , Research Studies,32,76-84. Williman, J. P. 1972.'The Sources and Composition of Marie's Tristan Episode', in Studies in Honor of Tatiana Fotitch, Washington, 11527.

PERCE\

{L

ROE Ä //.',.

We do not kn,: .' (perhaps on ti,; before he \\'a s .r l

finish the

ro n.

-:

Continuations \\ to continue. cc,r:cycle, it also c.'.. unlike effirrcr'. : This chapter r,,,r known as the C,_ Estoire dou Gr,;-

"

Th

Among the epr:

Perceval are l\,, --, :'

Elucidatiort ed1 .; and Bliocutlrcu.. : 430-54). Botli s-:' more of its con..: The Elucitltt; version of Cirr;. Bliocadran u il ,. independentlr .:. interpolated ar ..been copied ( \\ century Gernrui : dialect arc inccr; (composed 133 1-Wolfram von E.Continuation s .: .. j

.

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216

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

their French source was a manuscript related to P. Finally, the Elucidatioru and a truncated version of Bliocadran introduce the 1530 prose Perceval (Hilka edn, 493ff.), printed anonymously in Paris by Bernard Aubry 1991); thus,

(Thompson edn,9). Bliocadran as a 'prologue' is not an exordium in the rhetorical or poetic sense, but a 'prequel'with a pre-history to ChrÖtien's poem that supplies patrilineal information, complementing, and responding to, the matrilineal emphasis in Perceval's genealogy given by his mother (Busby edn, 409-88) and in subsequent accounts by his cousin (3552-3612) and uncle (6392-6431).'lhe Elucidntion,which consistently precedes Bliocadran (except in I where the latter appears as an afterthought), functions, however, as an extended exordium whilst introducing prediegetic matter. For, like the 'rhymed table of contents'with which it is often compared (Thompson 1959,208 and n.), it also self-consciously anticipates a global Grail romance embracing Blio cadran, Chr6tien's Perceval, the First Continuation, certain aspects of the Second Continuation, and perhaps Manessier, which either includes or is augmented by multiple branches that also 'muevent del Graal' (spring from the Grail,382) . The Elucidation

The Elucidation begits with an exordium designed to introduce an extended Perceval such as that found in P, including narratives attributed to seven gardes 'guards' (17 ,345)4 constituting the story's seven branches, also called gardes (344, etc.) or souviestemens (34I, 343).s Maistre Blihis (12, cf. 'bon mestre', 449) is mentioned as an authority on the Grail's secrets and perhaps as a source. Thompson (edn,67-79) considers all passages having to do with the 'guards'and with Maistre Blihis, including the prologue (122,339-82,343-56), to be interpolations on the grounds that they refer to events outside the Perceval and the First and Second Continuations; lines 327-38 are likewise interpolated because they are redundant.6 Maistre Blihis has been identified with known real and fictional storytellers of Grail matter, including the knight Blihos Bliheris, a master story-teller in his own right ( I 70-82) who informs Arthur's court about King Amangon's atrocity ? and its aftermath (l 6l -212) (Weston 1920, 189 -209 ; Gallais 1 9 8 8-9). Confusion abounds throughout the textual tradition as to the meaning of a key word in the Elucidation, i.e. pui(s), which designates the dwelling-places of the maidens who offer hospitality to wayfarers and the water sources that dry up after King Amangon commits an atrocity that brings disaster to Logres and ultimately prompts the Grail Quest. Weston (1920,172andn.17), supported by Colin and Wissg who translate pui(s) as 'Berg' and 'Gebirge', insists that the maidens live in hllls (pui from Lat. podium), perhaps'hills'in the sense of fairy mounds, whilst Thompson describes the maidens as living in wells (puis fromLat. puteus) (Thompson edn, 37-50;1959,208; Wolfgang in Lacy ed. 1991*, 131). More recently, Meneghetti

dryd*nqi'

distances herse. 'aupräs des pui: in wells, br"rt hc: 'come out'of 1.., The author s :' ('hill[s]') inste.,,j bourgeois. tr.1:-> (Thompson etJ:.. the Middle Fre .:que l'ancienne I-1 entaillees par c,..-. sides. The late r consideration t-,-maidens lir-inq .t. >

;

.

derstandin,_s

oi

*

other worldlr c:France's Yont,r . :: (220-2, cf. lEt_r--mound (Toble:-l

Wales tells of ; : river's 'ripaS ct-rr.. -r 135), just the kir.:

lation of puis .i] Humans ma\ e:-watery pits. the -...

Thompson (specifically in ri as the entrance

,

I,_-,

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;r

.;

understand the 1..: but to take the r-\ .

Meneghetti ( 1 -: epilogue, into l-i::;, reference to nellr-'" general terms u l::Part l. (#1 ) \l-,. food and drink ( : -

.-.

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TIVUD EHJ CI}TV TVAESUEd

L

218

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

their golden cups, symbols of their hospitality (63-86). (#3) Thereafter, the maidens no longer appear to offer hospitality (32-3,87-8). (#a) The kingdom is struck by drought and famine (23-31,89-98). (#5) The court of the Rich Fisher, who used to spread wealth throughout the kingdom, is no longer to be found (99-115). (#6) While the kingdom is still rich, Arthur's knights hear about the adventure and set out to avenge the maidens; they kill offenders, but fail to find the maidens (116-44); (#7) In their search, they fight knights riding with maidens on their horses (145-51). (#8) Gauvain defeats Blihos Bliheris, who tells Arthur's court that the knights and maidens are offspring of the well-maidens and the men who raped them (152-93). (#9) In order to rescue the well-maidens, and restore prosperity, Arthur's knights must find the Rich Fisher's cowt (194212). (#10) Arthur's knights start out on their quest of the Rich Fisher (213-24). Paft 2. (#12) Eventually Gauvain finds the Rich Fisher in his court; the joy and increase he brings to the kingdom will be recounted later (225-30).8 (#11a) But before that, a very young Perceval visits there (230-5).e (#1lb) Perceval comes to the Round Table and surpasses all in knighthood; he is held in contempt at first, before setting out for knightly conquest (23H7\ (#1lc) He asks whom the Grail served, but not why the lance bleeds; he asks about a corpse there, but not about the broken sword, half of which lies on the bier (248-57). (#1 ld) Other

marvels include a silver cfoss, censels and food served by a floating Grail (258-314).10 (#11e) A great wonder occurs that Perceval himself will recount later in the text (315-22). Thus Perceval may be one of the 'guards'who will narrate one of the seven branches. (#110 At the point when the great knight (Perceval? Gauvain?) finds the Rich Fisher's court a third time, the narrator will explain the function of the wells and the Grail mysteries point by point (323-39), as happens during Perceval's third Grail visit in Manessier. (#119) In reverse order, the seven branches constituting the 'natural stories'springing from the Grail (381-2) are anticipated one by one.lr (#13) 'This adventure' (Gauvain's partial success, or Perceval's?) brings joy to the people and restores water and prosperity to the land (383-400). Part 3. (#14) Arrogant descendants sired by Amangon and his men construct castles (the Castle of Maidens, the Perilous Bridge, the Proud Castle) and pit themselves against the Round Table (401-28) (Meneghetti attaches #14 to the middle part). (#15a) They wage war against Arthur, who vanquishes them after four years (429-64). (#15b) Henceforth Arthur's court devotes itself to hunting and games of love (465-74). P continues with a transitional couplet, indicating that readers have only heard a sample of Chr6tien's work (475-6), and the last verses of Chr6tien's prologue (6i-8). Many difliculties remain. It is by no means clear, for example, whether it is Perceval or Gauvain who is finally to bring Logres back to life. The narrator emphasizes Gauvain by presenting his successful Grail quest first (#12), but

delays gir ing d;:.

six-line accounr . devoted to the ; Perceval's r.isit i:^ the First Contin-:. tlts. Which knigr. w'hich is to pro\ - ; seven guards')

Ii.c

main topic u itii '( the two alreadr :: tend to see Galtl. . 1987-8; but Th..:: Thompson r r '. Elucidatiort to 'i; interpolation. \ I: thinks that anr, Elucidation fiont : parent rewriting assez bien constr,:

,

,_

(a

fairly

w'elf -11tti

,

resolves the ambr. doms and retlec:> The vast territLrr,,

anew this narrilr:'. Perceval and a \\ :t .

Bliocadran Bliocadran fol1or,r, : after the whole c:

framework of eb -pates. Events in B Perceval, aged Ic -..

Elucidation's ch r,--, :' and closes sonlil,, : Elucidation passof the mervei|L,:, qualities, which i:. Scholars har e s: an alternati\;e to ::-, either that he \\ .: i without her spe -- i > ,

.

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-

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TIVUD EHI CIITV TYAEJUEd

220

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

lg59,2lO), or else that he found his source wanting in explaining the mother's motivations and sought to provide a counterpoise to it (Wolfgang edn, 9). Whatever the case, the paternal biography it invents, wherein the father receives a name while the mother remains anonymous, and its realism devoid of mystical or other worldly concerns, provides a clear variant to Perceval's genealogy as found in Chr§tien, which is grounded in British history, sacred history, Grail history and the merveilleux breton. Bliocadran's 800 straightforward lines far outweigh in bulk, if not poetic richness, the mother's forty-line speech in Chr6tien and the seventy-one lines of the cousin's and uncle's speeches combined. In juxtaposition with Chr6tien's Perceval, the two perspectives are not complementary, but

her son can ric.outside the \\-; s . . he may \\,ard cl. huntin_E in the w,hat has happ:t.. ^

Clearl1,"

the ..

foremost in nt - r. Arthur's knighl: the words he rit; knights. More r--,-";

absolutely opposed. Wolfgang (edn, 8-9) argues convincingly that such a dialectical confrontation is not a deterrent in medieval reading practices, even in the face of contradictory assertions. Indeed, her insight is consonant with Meneghetti's view of the Elucidation as an 'interpretive response'to problems raised in the text it introduces (1987-8, 56). Wolfgang (edn, 81-3) divides Bliocadran into seven episodes: (#1) Twelve brothers in Wales are the most honoured and most accomplished knights in the country. Eleven are killed in tournaments and battles. The twelfth, Bliocadran, inherits an important fief. He seeks to return to the tournaments, but his wife and

not the younges: leads their hous;..

him to stay with them (1-52). (#2) Two years lateq when Bliocadran's wife is pregnant with their first child, a messenger arrives. After

ärnigrös discor er

:

\\'orking domair: iike the Fisher K

:'

vassals persuade

enjoying his host's hospitality, he informs him about a tournament organized by the King of Wales against the Cornish. When Bliocadran responds that he and his men will fight, his wife and vassals again beg him to remain, but this time he leaves (53-160). (#3) At the tournament, Bliocadran and his knights join the front ranks of the Welsh. Bliocadran defeats his adversary in the first round, but is later wounded and dies. His knights bury him with great celemony (16l-243). (#4) His wife gives birth to her first son three days after he leaves. She sends a messenger to inform her husband, but he arrives too late. Bliocadran's knights instruct him not to tell their lady what has happened. They will all return a week later. Unable to face their lady, however, they engage an abbot to break the sad news. After a long period of mourning, she finds comfort in her son (244456). (#5) Seven months later, she determines to keep her son from any knowledge of knighthood. She will take him to the Waste Forest in secret. After having her men swear fealty to her son with the promise to acknowledge him when he returns, and against the people's wishes that she stay, she leaves with her son, on the pretence of making a pilgrimage to St Brendan in Scotland (457-655). (#6) Instead, she makes her way to Calfle on the Welsh coast, where she meets all who are to accompany her. They travel for several days, enter the forest and wander for two weeks before finding the ideal place to establish their community under the leadership of her steward and his sons (656-724). (#7) Fourteen years later,

parents, BlioL ti,i, .

important thent;. action, departLl:. Thompson | . Chrötien's Per, r ment, not \^'oL1ltC.;

tions that are ius:

of Wales, nor L Bliocadran is rlr., l coronation an{c > ( r'i) consequen t 1,. _

.

the foundin_u oi \ serving the Kin q response to Perc;'.

context with it. alone, as

.r:

-

-

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and one-dimensi,_-..

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slqEr»1 s6ueJptrt:' e spues eqs 's3 \i':. 'GVZ-I7I) ,(uorl.:]nq 'punoJ ]sJiI : aql ulof stqBIuI i eq elull sHl lnq ':: pue eq ]uql sput,* ,lq peztueS;o ]u:::: JoUV 'soAIJJE rei uer{A\ 'te1el sJ u: 'i pue eJI^\ srq ]nq '> 'uetpecollg 'rlUI:' orll ul slqEIrI p3 -:: o^[e^t1 (t+) .s:l]x31 er{} uI pssltrJ s s6r]loq8eue6 ri1| 'r'. 's:: ecEJ er{} ur u0.\3

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TIVUO EHJ CIT{V TVAE]UEd

222

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

The Continuations There have been a number of theories as to how Chrötien might have intended to complete his Perceval, some more fanciful than others, but the most likely is that there would have been some kind of encounter between Perceval and Gauvain, in which Perceval would have established his spiritual and physical superiority over Arthur's principal knight, before eventually returning to the Grail castle and passing the test he had previously failed.

Chr§tien's dual structure offered the continuators a ready-made vehicle for prolonging the text. Despite multiple authorship and considerable differences of style and intent, the four Continuations in existence by c.1225, or shortly thereafter, essentially maintain the alternation of Gauvain and Perceval as central figures, adding others, while never quite losing sight of the Grail Quest. The manuscript transmission of the Continuations is complex and for many years formed an obstacle to serious scholarship, but the modern state of critical editions is now, relatively speaking, satisfactory, thanks in large part to the work of Roach (Busby 1987-8). There are four basic Continuations, which appear in the following order in the manuscripts: the First Continuation (Continuation-Gauvain ot PseudoWauchier), the Second Continuation (Continuation-Perceval or Wauchier de Denain), the Continuation of Gerbert de Montreuil and the Continuation of Manessier. In the most complete manuscripts, the total number of lines taken up by Chr§tien's romance and its prequels and sequels is about 75,000lines. The First Continuation

Although four manuscripts do present ChrÖtien's Perceval without the Continuations, in the majority of copies the First Continuation follows without any evident demarcation between the two; one of these four (London, College of Arms, Arundel XIY or its model at some stage in the transmission) even shows evidence of having been copied from a manuscript which contained various of the Continuations, in an apparent attempt to re-establish the limits of the original, unfinished, romance (Busby 1993b). Most medieval readers or listeners, however, might even have remained unaware that Chr6tien's part was over until the mention of one or other of the continuators by name at some later point. Certainly, the modern scholarly parameters of each Continuation would not have been defined so strictly in the Middle Ages, or experienced so acutely, and the medieval view of Chr6tien's whole Perceval romance, together with the Continuations, is more likely to have been either that of a single Grail romance or of a collection of adventures related more or less loosely to the theme of the Grail Quest. The four manuscripts which appear to contain Chr6tien's text alone indicate that his part in the Perceval compilation ends after nine thousand lines (Perceval,9234),just as Gauvain's messengef arrives at Arthur's court to request

the king to jt'ri:. quently pursLli !

:

Of the tbur ;

most comple\ :: three discerni:.: redactions a 1s ,_-

episodes.

It

is

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(before 1200 r .:.. . to have been . other Contirli.:.. extraordinarii,, .." which makes : _

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Dominared preserve Ver\

,

.

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1.

of the mysteriut,

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sentation ol G -_ picks up the n,: r and Gauvain ,.irthe combat be : reconciled as ; r: among Guiront;.. ences are to s3,.. _

,

Brun's castle. b3J

to test his fit n - , , Gauvain's conr r

_:

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finally submit> : Nantes, who nt-:.rl by the enchani-: : section appear> appears. The lilt ; .

_,, .

of organic Lriti:' repository of \:

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CINV TVAiIf,UAd

224

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

From the Carados section at least two motifs occur elsewhere in Arthurian romance, and another achieves a measure of celebrity in the manuscripts in which it is preserved. During the ceremonies in which Carados is made a knight a stranger arrives at Arthur's court and challenges the company to exchange blows with him, thus setting the stage for the so-called beheading test, best known from Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and other late Middle English versions (III, 4-5, but see Perlesvaus below). The section concludes with another stranger bringing to court a drinking-horn, from which only a man whose wife is faithful to him can drink without spilling the contents (III, 16). This 'chastity test'is known in a number of variants, such as the Lai du Cor, or the Lai du Mantel (in which the horn is replaced by a magic mantle fitting only faithful women; see chapter V). The other episode in question is that in which EliavrÖs causes a serpent to attach itself to Carados's arm; the serpent is removed when Carados and his amie Guignier stand naked opposite each other in tubs of vinegar and milk respectively. The selpent leaps from Carados's arm to Guignier's breast, where it is killed. Guignier's nipple, cut off in the process, is later restored in gold (III, 11-14). This episode is the subject of miniatures in a number of the illuminated manuscripts (Rossi 1980; Busby 1993a; Doner 1996). The next major section of the First Continuation re-establishes the link with Chr§tienb Perceval when Arthur proposes rescuing Girflet, imprisoned for the last four years in the Chastel Orguellous (IY 1-2). On the way to the Chastel, Gauvain encounters Bran de Lis and is obliged to relate to Arthur and his companions the details of his encounter with the Pucelle (IY 3-5). This has the dual function of resuming an earlier narrative thread and summarizing it for those among the audience who might have missed or forgotten the episode in question; the audience of the text coalesces with Gauvain's audience within the text itself. This also suggests strongly that medieval listeners or readers experienced the text by episodes and not necessarily in sequence. The apparently fragmentary nature of the narrative in the First Continuation requires us to read it in a different way. It may well be that, despite periodic links to the main theme and reminders of Chr6tien's host romance, the First Continuation in particular represents earlier forms of medieval narrative, before Chr6tien had transformed this kind of matiöre by means of the precepts of Latin rhetoric and the arts of poetry. One of the most charming episodes from the whole corpus of Continuations occurs in this section, namely that in which the Pucelle de Lis holds her son up between his father and uncle as the pair resume their interrupted combat; the child innocently reaches out to touch the shining swords (IY 7).After the reconciliation between Gauvain and Bran de Lis, Arthur's party continues on to the Chastel Orguellous. With Bran's help, the Chastel is finally conquered; Gauvain defeats its master, the Riche Soudoier, although he is convinced to feign defeat briefly so as not to upset the latter's amie unduly (IY 8-15). Returning home by

way

of the C: ,,

kidnapped: a S-,: seem to consti: --: provision for :'--: Surely reappe itr -:

section of the i.-:I The author oi not something :r. be found, Sä\,-- rdealing with a :in the tales th;.: manifestations ,_ : clear elseu'her;. : spirituality'. gLu.:

,

court, Gaurair. -: mission, despir; true definition

.:

--'

befall him

Str rr

r-;

Gauvain's arri\ i. and extinguish;: down a cause\\;-. to all those pres.. derived from C.., broken sword. ,1 : ments, additioii: Longinus, the C Christ's blood. -:l sword, therebr J.l the next mornii: .. finds it again I: . with his son. \\ h,, : identities are re\ ;. court (Y 3-8 ). The next secr. Gauvain, of u h,--:: First Continllai-,, : a mysterious arr.' lenger, but here .: knight, a brok;: avenged with tit: :

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s

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TVAEf}{Ed

te*

226

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Supernaturan , f'-, affairs of the :..-, Ysave and C.tr-,: So On. Et'en tl-; , romance, $ hii: -: of an ackno\\ ^-restore to the . eflcrts to reatl t .: probably anac:.: be posited. \:.; corresponds tr-' .-.ation in the rt -: -texts. It is ntu.:-. :to favourite e i..: (especialll, u h;: tural inte-urit,, . independence , :

is enigmatically linked to the shame incurred by Guerrehet in the garden, an adventure related in the next section of text (VI, 2-6). While looking for Gauvain, Guerrehet is defeated by the Petit Chevalier, to whom he promises to return in a year's time to fight again, or else become the slave-labourer of the wounded master of the castle; insults and humiliations are heaped upon him before he returns to Arthur's court in the swan-boat. The dead knight is now revealed as Brangemuer, son of a mortal and a fairy, whose death was necessary before he could return to his mother's kingdom (VI, 7-8). There are certain thematic parallels here with Grail episodes from Chr6tien's text and earlier in the First Continuation, although it is diflicult to know to what extent these would have been apparent to a medieval audience. In fact, Chr6tien's Perceval and the First Continuation share so many motifs that it almost seems as if the Continuation was itself the soufce from which Chr6tien's romance was

.

constructed and remodelled.

The fundamental textual difference between the Short Redaction on the one hand, and the Mixed and Long Redactions on the other, is the presence in the latter of a number of episodes (I, 6-10 in Roach's division). These seem to constitute a retrospective attempt to strengthen the ties between the First Continuation and Chr6tien's text, and they certainly indicate an awareness of the desirability of doing so on the part of redactors and scribes.ls Episode I, 5, which in the Short Redaction described the marriage of Clarissant to Guiromelant and the reconciliation of the latter and Gauvain, ends somewhat differently in the Mixed and Long Redactions and enables the interpolation of the supplementary material. Here, Gauvain leaves court in anger after discovering that Clarissant has married his enemy even before the reprise of their combat. His aimless departure creates the narrative space in which he rescues the Damsel of Montescleire, wins the Espee as Estranges Renges and is reconciled with Guingambresil and the King of Escavalon; at this point, the Mixed and Long Redactions rejoin the Short. Equally noteworthy are the appearance of a maiden who had been wronged by Greoreas (I, 6) and a failed visit to the Grail Castle (I, 7). Gauvain's encounter with Dinasdar6s, who accuses him of having killed his father (I, 9), clearly reduplicates the Guiromelant and Guingambresil episodes from Chr6tien, the second of which it obstructs, but with which it finally merges in resolution (I, 10). If those responsible for the additional episodes had an eye to the unresolved details of Chr6tien's text, they also seem to have understood and implemented certain of his narrative methods, creating an extraordinary textual and narrative interplay, in which Percevalandthe Continuation appear as mutual sources and inspiration. If we are to look for elements linking the sections of the First Continuation, they are discernible, but may be no more than inherent in the matter of romance: family ties (Gauvain and Arthur; Gauvain and his son; Gauvain and his brother; Arthur and his niece Ysave; King Carados and his son Carados); the

.

.

The Second Conrn

If

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1

228

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

If

the traditional division between First and Second Continuations is maintained, however, the second continuator can be seen to secure his work to the Grail compilation simply by rejoining Perceval's wander-

largely secul.rr .:del Saint Gr,;., c.1200 rather ..-.,-

ings. In manuscripts containing the Mixed and Long Redaction of the First Continuation, Perceval's adventures are located temporally after his departure from his uncle's hermitage in Chr6tien, although in the manuscripts of the Short Redaction the link is made by a huntsman who reproaches Perceval with having failed to ask questions of the Fisher King. By returning to Perceval for the majority of his text, the second continuator re-establishes ChrÖtien's structure of alternating heroes and the basic comparison of Gauvain and Perceval,20 and the Second Continuation is linked to Chrötien quite clearly on several occasions: the introductory passage mentioned above (including a verbatim quotation from Perceval); the Mont Dolerous (##1,25,27; cf . Perceval, 4724); the appearance of a brother of the Chevalier Vermeil (#8); Perceval's return to Blanchefleur at Beaurepaire (#15), to his mother's home (#18), to his Hermit Uncle (#19) and to the Grail Castle (##34-5). The theme of the Grail Quest or the quest for the Bleeding Lance is a constant reminder of the subordination of worldly adventures to the spiritual: the Lance (#2), and especially reminders concerning Perceval's unsuccessful visit to the Fisher King are prominent (##3,6,8,19,22, 26,28,33-5). The traditional demarcation between the First and Second Continuations seems to be supported by a change in the nature of the merveilleux, beginning with Roach's episode 1. There is something more restrained and disciplined, more courtly, about the supernatural of the Second Continuation: the Ivory Horn (##l-2) evokes wonder, but is merely a splendid example of its kind; the Magic Chessboard (##4,26) is indeed supernatural, but its basic function is still that of a chessboard; the giant (#12) is a typical ogre of romance; the same can be said of the white stag hunted by Perceval (#5, etc.) and the lion in the castle of Abrioris (#9); the Castle of Maidens (#20) is a standard feature of the genre, as is the knight imprisoned in the tomb (#25); the Glass Bridge (##22-3) may have been inspired by well-known episodes from Chr6tien's Charrelle. These manifestations of the merveilleux may be compared with the Grail in both Chr6tien and the First Continuation, which remains largely mysterious (particularly Gauvain's Grail visit in the latter text and the episodes in the Chapel of the Black Hand), and also with the Carados sequence and the adventures of Guerrehet (Busby 1998). The Second Continuation, while by no means dull and certainly worthy of greater scholarly attention than it has received, is perhaps most remarkable for its conventional nature. It is in many ways a better reflection of romance and its evolution at the turn of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries than other parts of the compilation, being composed for a large part of numbers of stock themes, motifs and other narrative elements. Despite being part of a Grail romance, it is

verse Grail rtr it-- -: -"

approach to the Grail castle.

.

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TIVUD EHI (INV TVAESUEd

230

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

the custom of the Guö Amorous and sends him to surrender to Arthur (#13), and meets Gauvain's son, the Biau Desconeü and his amie (#14), who also give Perceval news of Gauvain. A1l of these episodes illustrate the function of the romance custom, both as a means of confirming the heroh prowess and of maintaining contact between its widely dispersed constituent members. This most recent accumulation of adventures (##9-14) deflects Perceval from previous tasks which continue to obstruct each other, in a self-perpetuating narrative that creates only an illusion of progress towards the ultimate goal of the Grail. Indeed, the next part of the Continuation (#15) sees Perceval return to Blanchefleur at Beaurepaire, in a rewriting of Chr6tien's own episode, but one in which prosperity and optimism have been restored to the country. If Perceval had earlier apparently forgotten his promise to Blanchefleur (cf. #4), it is now restated, but specifically dependent on his resolving the issue of the stag's head and brachet and learning the truth about the Grail and the Lance (2312140, beginning of #16); of the Mont Dolerous there is no mention at this point. Episodes 1 6 and 17 form yet another variation of the motif of the defeated opponent sent to Arthur's court. Perceval encounters the Biau Mauvais and his ugly amie,Rosete, vanquishing the former and sending the couple to report to Arthur, who is now at Caradigan. Kay mocks Rosete, who later regains her beauty and the Biau Mauvais becomes a member of the household. During Perceval's visit to his Hermit Uncle, made during his sojourn at his mother's home (##18-19), the narrative of Chr6tien's romance becomes further integrated into that of the Second Continuation, as Perceval recounts his acquisition of the red armour, his failed visit to the Fisher King, the events at the Chessboard Castle, the affair of the stag's head and the brachet, his killing the lion and his subsequent defeat of Abrioris. Convention and the narrative require that Perceval refuse his sister's invitation to stay and that he accomplish, before returning, 'iceste euvre que j'ai amprise' (the task which I have undertaken,24207). The Castle of Maidens (#20) appears to be a kind of secular equivalent of the Grail Castle, somewhat like the castle of the Magic Chessboard, although it also clearly has overtones of the Chäteau des Merveilles from Chr6tien's Perceval. Like the giant's tower and Abrioris's castle, to Perceval the Castle of Maidens also at first appears deserted. Near a brass table is a steel hammer attached to a silver chain. Perceval strikes the table with the hammer three times and is rewarded with food and hospitality by the lady of the castle and her 300 maidens. Had he not struck the table after the warning to desist, he would have received neither food nor entertainment. The function of the castle is clearly to test a knight's prowess; it is also supernatural and has disappeared when Perceval wakes up the next morning under an oak tree. The intertextual associations of this episode are multiple: in addition to the Chäteau des Merveilles, the table and hammer recall the water and the stone from Yvain, and the castle's disappearance strongly

resembles t it .: Continuatiolr The flärrlit^',; wauchier.s r_r\i .. This alternari,-- : deferral. pt-rS:: threads. Perci'. and Criseuz r =: tomb is erpl.: .: found this rin.: .. The recover\ ,--,.- . ,

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232

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

abeady failed to tie their horses to the pillar (#27). It now seems clear that Perceval is working his way through his objectives in reverse order: the return of the stag's head and brachet (ust accomplished), the Mont Dolerous (imminent) and the Grail (coming closer). After Bagomed6s's return to Arthur's peripatetic court, now at Caradigan, the knights resolve to go in search of Perceval. Lancelot, Yvain and Gauvain eventually come to a crossroads. There is obviously the potential here for the kind of development which characterizes the prose cycles and which is articulated by means of entrelacement,but the author says he will relate only the adventures of Gauvain. This choice is essentially determined by the acknowledgement of Chr6tien's dual structure and the subsequent alternation of Perceval and Gauvain as principal protagonists. While the transitional formulae (29190-208 and 31414-20) are not those of prose romance, they are of the kind used by Chr6tien to position the Hermit episode in Gauvain's adventures, and they antici pate the more familiar'Or dist li contes' (now the story relates) variety, which is to become the norm within a quarter of a century. The episode of the Petit Chevalier and his sister reflects perfectly the ambiguous nature of Gauvain in Arthurian romance. After having made love to the girl (who had been enamoured of him for some time), he and her brother proceed to a tournament in the Blanche Lande where only Gauvain, incognito among Arthur and his knights, is able to carry the shield destined for a peerless knight loved faithfully by his amie (##29-30). The Petit Chevalier and the Pansif Chevalier of episode 31 are two in a sequence of 'odd'characters defined by a paradox or apparent physical or mental deficiency of some kind. The Pansif Chevalier is reunited by Gauvain with his amie,who had been abducted by Brun de la Lande; Brun is sent to Arthur's court at Cavalon, where, as is customary, he becomes a member of the household. In the context of the Continuation as a whole, these last three episodes are not especially significant, but they serve to reintroduce Gauvain as an alternate protagonist and to underline the conventional nature of non-Grail romance. And the last two episodes (like episode 17) ensure that we do not forget the boastful and arrogant Kay. In a sense, the set of paradoxically defined characters, which also includes the Biau Desconeü and the Biau Mauvais (##14,16-17), act as so many personified component elements of Arthurian knighthood, whose very principles they question. Gauvain now encounters his son, Guinglain, the same Biau Desconeü whom Perceval has previously met (#14). This meeting is essentially the occasion for narrative recapitulation, as Gauvain relates to Guinglain several of his adventures from the First Continuation: the mysterious death of the knight he was escorting to Guinevere, the Chapel of the Black Hand and the events at the Grail Castle, the latter in some detail. He returns to the present by saying that he is looking for Perceval, of whom Guinglain is able to give him recent news. After

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.

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TIVUD EHI CINV TVAE3UEd

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234

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

appreciating the individual episodes. If discovering the secrets of the Grail is to be Perceval's final achievement, it has also become clear that this would preclude further story-telling and foreclose the romance. It is therefore not surprising that authors, including Wauchier de Denain, are reluctant to have Perceval succeed at the Fisher Kingt castle. Failure is here a narrative stratagem.

compilation ;: -dering, in the C . r:

Perceval en- . --: the rescue. he .. \: ation; his su tr r,j . :

for Manessie: Manessier's Continuation In most of the manuscripts of the Continuations, an author who names himself as Manessier (42657-61) claims to have completed the romance for Jeanne de Flandre (426434), and to have started his work'au soudement de l'espee' (at the joining of the sword\, which would clearly indicate Roach's episode 35 of the Second Continuation. Moreover, the London manuscript (Z) ends and the Bern copy (K, Burgerbibliothek 113) adds an independent conclusion at the same point ('Et Percevaux se reconforte',32594), while a new hand takes over in BNF, fr.1429 (Q), and the twin copies T and Z(BNF, fr.12576 and nouv. acq. fr. 6614) insert between the Second Continuation and that of Manessier the Continuation of Gerbert de Montreuil. All the indications are that Manessier's Continuation was written between l2l4 and 1227, most likely towards the end of that period (Ivy 1951; Salmeri 1984). The case for a later, rather than an earlier date can be made largely on the basis of visible influences of the Zancelot-Grail Cycle, particularly the Lancelot proper and the Queste del Saint Graal. Principal among these are the prominence of characters such as Dodinel le Sauvage and Sagremor li Desre6s (Lancelot), the fight between Perceval and Hector (Lancelot), the dispute between Lionel and Bohort (Queste) and the temptations of Perceval (Queste). The influence of the prose cycle on Manessier is confirmed in Corley 1986. Manessier's Continuation, however, is also anchored firmly in the verse Grail tradition of Chr6tien and the first two Continuations. The explanations given to Perceval by the Fisher King are quite specific: the Lance is that of Longinus; the Grail, the vessel in which Joseph of Arimathea caught the drops of Christ's blood and which sustained him during forty years in prison; Joseph himself built the Grail Castle. The Fisher King is descended from Joseph, and the maiden who

carried the Grail is the King's daughter; the maiden who bore the 'tailleor' (trencher, platter) is the daughter of the Fisher King's brother Goondesert. Perceval vows to avenge the latter, who had been killed by Partinal with the sword whose parts Perceval has just joined together, albeit imperfectly. Further explanations follow about the illuminated tree and the Chapel of the Black Hand, where Perceval must also do battle (#1 - references are to episode numbers in Roach edn). It is already clear at the beginning of Manessier's work that he is more concerned with clarifying than with mystifying, that his merveillerzx is explicable rather than impenetrable, as has been the case particularly with Chrötien and the First Continuation. There is thus a distinct progression in the course of the

:.. -

of Sagrentor r ==.

transitions b,e:.., -; similar and d....: ' the same pllil -. a first-person t.-:. Sagremor s .. robber knighr ,,. and rescues .t :- -: he receives tji.:. .. contrast u'ith .-: (#20), there rs exceptional Ft,-- ' period repei.rt S ..' ; and likeu,ise ct -: Gauvain's :l: First ContinL. -: stranger he h.' j ^: Hand and his . . Gauvain rec.: -.:

.

-

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.

Summaries u i-.:

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journey (#1 t

I

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236

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

background necessary for the understanding of the kind of accusation levelled against Gauvain (by Guingambresil, Greoreas and Guiromelant, for example) in Chr6tien's Perceval. Whether this is a conscious effort on Manessier's part or not, it at least suggests that medieval audiences might not have been as shocked as modern readers by the violent side of one of the Arthurian court's most distinguished members. Gauvain and Silimac's sister arrive at her castle to find it besieged by King Margon, whose son Cargrilo was in love with her and who had also captured and hanged another knight with whom she was in love. By way of revenge, the girl had hurled Cargrilo to his death from a catapult. It was while returning to help his sister against Margon that Silimac had been murdered in Gauvain's company by Kay. Gauvain defeats Margon and promises to arrange a duel with Kay. On his way to surrender at Arthur's court, Margon liberates his sister, the Dame de Malohaut, from Gorgari. Upon arrival at court, he is made a member of the Round Table and is henceforth known as the Roi des Cent Chevaliers (#8). Lineage is one of the cohesive elements of romance in general and it serves as such in Chr6tien's Perceval and most of the Continuations, as knights encounter their own sons, brothers, sisters, uncles and aunts, and as new acquaintances are revealed as being related to old ones (Salmeri 1984, 127-35). Examples are too numerous to cite, but the next damsel Gauvain encounters on his way to fight Kay is a niece of Silimac, who still blames Gauvain and Guinevere for the death of her uncle; she is disabused of the notion by her aunt, now said to be called the Sore Pucelle, and Silimac is revealed as the lord of the Chastel de la Roche (#9). Gauvain proceeds to Arthur's court, where he defeats Kay, staining with the latter's blood a banner previously given to him by the Sore Pucelle; Kay is spared only after Arthur pleads with the Sore Pucelle. Gauvain departs for further unspecified adventures (#10) and two months later encounters his brother Agravain, who reassures him that Kay has recovered from his wound. No one, including Agravain, was able to identify Kay's accuser and vanquisher. A week after defeating a band of five knights, Gauvain and Agravain return to Arthur's court. The narrator now turns again to Perceval (#11). Perceval survives an attack by the Devil in the Chapel of the Black Hand and learns from a hermit that Queen Branguemore, who had originally had the chapel built, is buried in the adjacent cemetery, where he and Perceval bury the now charred body that had lain on the altar. By ensuring that no one was killed by the Black Hand that day, Perceval had brought the 'avanture' to an end; the priest urges Perceval to do penance and save his soul (#12). This episode is in many ways representative of Manessier's work: while it relates to adventures from the First and Second Continuations, and bears the mark of their own merveilleux, its open revelation of the Devil, the priest's urgings and the general monastic setting lend it a more contemporary aspect, showing clearly the influence of texts such as

the Queste. \l:.. when Percer a^ .: sign of the cri,:: by the hilt of i..: \ .

nature of th: I .: continue his ;J- ;

apocalyptic Ltt:. . Perceval de.. -, " .

Dodinel le

S"i

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br .\: * ; rejoin Arthur s to have a nai" -',. who promises : who refuses i,.- ) himself up rt { court by Penrc. . harassed

--

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:

.

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Perceval's

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I.,,

the frame\\.ork .

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238

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

encyclopaedic tendency, a visible desire on the part of authors, manuscript planners, and presumably audiences, to have something resembling a summa arthuriana. While the Grail compilations do not go quite that far, the tenuous relationship of some parts of Manessier and Gerbert in particular to the Grail theme and the obvious 'newness'of some of the material (compared with, say, much of the First Continuation) do illustrate the process of accretion which characterizes much later Arthurian romance. The performance of Perceval and the Biau Mauvais at a tournament organized by King Baudemagus underlines Perceval's present status as a hero in the ascendant. The Biau Mauvais will henceforth be known as the Biau Hardi. He and Perceval separate, but will meet again at Arthur's court at Pentecost (#25). The encounter between Perceval and Hectoq in which the near-fatal wounds they inflict on each other in an incognito combat are cured only by a vision of the Holy Grail borne by an angel (#26), is likewise related in the prose Lancelot and once more shows the assimilation of later prose and verse romance. Any study of the Bohort-Lionel episodes and the Queste should consider these analogues also. Before arriving at the Fisher King's castle, Perceval defeats and kills the unre-

pentant Partinal, murderer of the Fisher King's brother, Goondesert (#27). Perceval takes Partinal's head to the Fisher King who, miraculously cured, has it impaled on a stake and displayed atop a tower. After the Grail, Lance and tailleor have passed before them three times during their meal, Perceval and the Fisher King discuss their family relationships: Perceval's mother was the king's sister and they are therefore uncle and nephew. Perceval refuses to accept the Fisher King's crown and lands while the king is alive and departs for Arthur's court (#28). This appears as a false climax, for, although Perceval seems to have achieved all his goals and quests, especially healing the Fisher King, the resolution of the romance is postponed briefly while he carries out the promise to be at Arthurt court at Pentecost. Essentially, this is little more than a tying up of loose ends, a farewell to the world before Perceval takes over at Corbenic. Perceval's impending arrival at Arthur's court at Pentecost is announced the preceding day by six defeated opponents, Salandre des Isles and his five sons. Wearing the Fisher King's black armour, Perceval finally arrives to great rejoicing and all the knights relate their recent adventures. The Bohort-Lionel conflict, the death of Calogrenant and various adventures of Perceval are described in some detail, constituting the last of the many narrative summaries found throughout the course of the Continuations. Arthur has the adventures written down and sealed in an 'aumaire' (library) in Salisbury. After eight days of celebrations, a damsel arrives with letters announcing the death of the Fisher King and summoning Perceval to be crowned his successor at Corbenic (#29).In Arthur's presence, Perceval is crowned on All Saints'Day, and all witness the procession of Grail, Lance and tailleor every day for a month and a day. Arthur and his

company then r-; which he \\irhc:-, Maronne. \\ hc, -- -and tailleor tc,. acolyte, subde.;

tailleor, none

,--,:

beside the Fis. -

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"

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-ue1d 1dr-lcsnuuLLi

TVAEfUEd

240

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRE}{CH

Like Wauchier de Denain, Gerbert de Montreuil is recognized as the author of other works, in his case primarily the Roman de la Violette, dedicated to Marie de Ponthieu (1199-1250, m. Simon II de Dammartin c.l2l2). Manessier, too, judging from his dedication to Jeanne de Flandre (d. 1244, r. l2l4-27 during the imprisonment of her husband, Ferrand of Portugal), was a professional poet working in the setting of a court. It is therefore clear that the cultural context of at least four parts of the compilation (Chr6tierr's Perceval, the Second Continuation and those of Manessier and Gerbert) is strictly central rather than peripheral in any sense. We know of no other work by Manessier, but if Wauchier's other known works are hagiographical in nature, Gerbert's Roman de la Violette is in the mainstream of courtly narrative, exhibiting also direct knowledge of the lyric tradition. Indeed, Gerbert's Continuation is probably more conventional than any of the others and shows an even stronger tendency than Manessier to incorporate material from outside the immediate context of the Grail Quest. It differs, however, in the strongly moralizing tone found in many of its episodes, which resembles that of, say, the Vulgate Queste. Gerbert's Continuation dates from c.1225-30, not much later than Manessier, and is more or less contemporary with the Roman de la Violette.2a Gerbert's Continuation is interpolated at Second Continuation32594 and the transition back to Manessier is effected by the repetition of the last fourteen lines of the Second Continuation (32581-94). As with the other Continuations, there are clear attempts to recall Chrötien and other parts of the compilation, as well as to incorporate apparently extraneous matter as a means of expanding the narrative.2s Stephens (1996) has also argued that Gerbert is responding to what he perceives as deficiencies or lacks in Manessier. Gerbert begins at the point when Perceval has just failed to rejoin perfectly the two parts of the broken sword, but has just been offered the lordship of his castle by the Fisher King (Second Continuation, #35). Perceval's failure is now attributed fairly and squarely to his sins (including that relating to his mother's death) and a heavenly voice instructs him to return to his maternal home; he wakes up the next morning far from the castle. Unable to enter a garden surrounded by a black and white wall, Perceval strikes the door with his sword, breaking the latter in two once more. An old man tells Perceval that he will never enter the earthly paradise (and through it the celestial one) or discover the truth about the Grail, until his sword is mended by the smith who made it. The old man gives Perceval a letter which restores the sanity of those upon whose head it is placed (l-286, #1); Perceval hangs it around his neck (Sturm-Maddox 1994). When he looks back, the garden has disappeared, just as the Grail Castle had done. Perceval is hailed as a saviour at Cotoatre, home of Tiibüet the Smith, where he nevertheless has to resist sexual temptation in the person of a damsel named Escolasse. After killing two serpents, he meets the smith who indeed restores the sword to its original condition

(287-909.

#l r F;

have both becr-'.r-.; pair to their Sir.:: where ther St.1'. ..- : A number rtr- -:cance genera11,. .:-.

need of conr^- -. : other Contirlt-.. the sword. and . and importan;; Fisher King's . _ -.: conclusion. In :.-.. ination of the I -. and transcendc-- -: repair and resi,-- r-: tive, towards t. -; : Larmat 1971 I :^,,. other Continli;:. ' letter, sug._qe t --. ;

:

l

S

humanity.

Perceval's el;successful atten-: from the pros- :

.

success also lib;:-, chair, and u-htr - - -, * for yet another . visits to the Fts: Kay's broken i.i::rperhaps remin.i.:. .. uuvre, &s it is i- ; -

.

Another

fi_uure

.

Ysmaine, no\\ r; -: l her false lover F.: r -, so before sendil.: cross reveals th.t: -be in love with P::-,

A

series

of e r.:

sister, his Hernt,

.

draw the flärräri-,

'Tiistan menestr..

-

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TIVUD EHI ANV TVAE]UEd

242

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

between his text and Chr6tien's, Gerbert provides a reminder of the latter's opening scenes essentially through Perceval's eyes, but Perceval resolves to remove his sister from the forest, despite its apparent prosperity (2587-731, #7). Together with his sister, Perceval visits his mother's grave and his Hermit Uncle, who delivers a sermon on the duties of a Christian knight (2732-95, #8). Next day, Perceval continues his quest for the Grail and the Lance, taking his sister with him. He defeats Mordred, who attempts to carry off his sister, and sends him back to Arthur's court. The description of the Castle of Maidens shows a detailed knowledge of episode 20 of the Second Continuation, and Perceval continues to relive his childhood by informing the lady of the castle how his mother used to call him 'biaus fieus'and he called her 'mere'. It is not clear when the Fisher King told Perceval that his father's name was Gales li Chaus (3072-73), but this episode is the occasion of further revelations about his lineage: the lady of the castle reveals that she is his mother's cousin, and that his mother was called Philosofine (3181). The two cousins had brought the Grail from over the sea, but it had been taken by angels for safe-keeping to the Fisher King; one of the maidens tells Perceval that their lady is 'dame sainte Ysabiaus' (3243).In a sense, Gerbert is here 'demystifying' Chrötien's text, although the revelations are almost as mysterious as the enigmas themselves. There follows the episode of 'Tiistan menestrel', which draws into the context of a Grail romance material that is fundamentally extraneous and originally nonArthurian, although contemporaneous; the integration of the Tiistan story into the Arthurian world is being realized elsewhere, notably in the Prose Tristan. Although 'Tristan menestrel'is usually referred to as an interpolation, it is in fact quite well integrated into the Continuation. During the festivities which follow Mordred's return to court, a knight arrives and challenges the company; he defeats Girflet, Lancelot and Yvain before being recognized as Tiistan during his joust with Gauvain. Together with a group of Arthur's knights, they visit Cornwall disguised as minstrels and Tiistan reveals himself to Yseut, with whom he is reunited. They help Mark in a tournament against the Roi des Cent Chevaliers, during which Perceval appears, exhausted but still able to defeat the mocking Kay, and then Agravain, Clig6s, Lancelot and Tristan. He helps Gauvain and Yvain to convince Mark to forgive Tristan, who remains in Cornwall. Gauvain leaves to rescue the damsel of Montescleire while Perceval continues on his Grail Quest (27964868, #9). 'Tiistan menestrel' is itself something of an intertextual performance and its integration into the Continuation extends the ramifications of its narrative beyond the traditional boundaries of the Tristan matter (Busby 1983; Kjer 1990; see chapter III). In an extraordinary metamorphosis, Gornemant de Goort, at whose castle Perceval now arrives, is transformed into an avatar of the Fisher King ('je n'ai pooir de mon cors', t have no power over my body,5054), and his country is

transformed in:, -. by hordes of c.'. . containin,*u a n -. r.- -

mortally

injllr-. :

accompan). Perc; described it. Pe:- = of the flesh. b''ri: :.-

supreme contl::. _ ##1 1-12). Ger r - r' that Chrdtien r. - * related the adr 3.. .

containedinab Perceval 1ei.1,, .. Rohais from th;

,

s

to Carduel. He -r-is lying wountl;*. casks of balnt: : . ; administer the r;.1-.: followers, and :; --.' coming to ä crC,>:. safety of Duree ;.. Perceval choos.s :i'

burns

(7 01 5-S

--

j

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Perceval witre S>;:

Roussel 1983l:

r.

-

Grail by remor::.: Tiue Cross) frt-rn- .: allegorical expl; ..

-:

forgets to ask ab _ .. from its fire-spii. besiegirg the Pu;.defeats him, ther-: Dras Envers. ä1s,--, : maiden abscollr Continuation th.r: : him a stern sern.'_-,r, deathbed cont-ess. . lengthy digressit',I : sin and repentäIl,.;" while frequent 1i::. >

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(1ggg't"tots anu aryt o7 Surp.toccn) ,errolse er€J^ ul cuoles, seJnlue^pe eql peleleJ o^eq o1 srurelc pue (L-rg6g) ecuuuror srq Surlelduroc eroJeq porp uerlgrrl3 ler{} sn slle1 '(1IOL'800, 'I00, 'g669 'gs€9) ereq Jlesulq serueu Uoqreg 'kt-tt*+ 'tIOL-gbT,g pue tizg-(,999) urulureru plnoqs ,(eqt qcrqn 'uollrpuoc eruo.ldns sql sr,(lrur8;h luql eer8e qloq se 'peleururnsuoc lou sr o^ol Jreql lnq 'qseu or{l Jo suorleldurel roqlJnJ pro^e ol JopJo ur rnogeqcuelg sorJJeru Ie^ocJed']l peqrrosep uerl?JgJ ueq^&\ ur s€1r\ 1r olels olqelueluel eql o1 lsuJluoc ur ,Surqsunou .&\ou sr qcrg.&\'e.rredo:nueg Jo ellsec s.Jneuoqcuul8 o1 lrsl^ srr{ uo I€^ocJed r(uedurocce suos sq pue luetueurog '(0I# 'IEO9-6991) s1ce11u eqt Suunp pernlur Ägegoru 'suos rnog s.]u€rueuJoC selelrcsnseJ eq qc1lrv\ qlrl\'ruleq snolnceJrru e Surureluoc $lsec o1rr1 surelqo 0H '?tlJ elsug el op IoU oql.{q lues s1q8lu1-lhop Jo seproq,(q s{ce}}e luelsrsred eql ruoq se}ereqrl Is^oiled qclq \ puel else.n e o]ur peruroJsuer] EVZ

sr ÄrlunoJ srr{ p::' ef,) 3rl) rar{s jJ ells?3 esol{ \\ li.' ' JO SelJ€punoq

uorlenurluoJ

.,--.

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IB^ecred Olrq \\ :* UI SUISUIOJ tl L{ 'r'. sdleq eH 'rrr?ls:-_ oql ]eeJep o] 31c.:' ]ueJ sep Iou :: ruorl^\ qu^\ '111:s lrsr^ ,(eqt 's 1q i-^ . .. sp{ Euunp uetsr*I oq ifiueduroJ ;r. qcrq.\\ s:r_:

^\olloJ pEJ ul sI 1l 'uortr'uols!,tJ 0soJd -.:. olul Ä"rols uutsuI

-uou Älluur8rro p -: ]xeluos eq] ollrr s or{} qEnoqtle

't\:

6snerq?s^ 3lrrrIts

;

reqsrC eq] ot 8Lr:; IIeJD er{} lqint-r-rSH ]€t{} pue 'tII:1', sF{ }noqe suor l'r'snsr{J II soltsD uer{A\ J3el3 }ou s i sF{ ,!\oq ellsEr ::, 'LI ISAeCJed puB i-' e sA\oqs susprE I \ spues puB 'Jotsis i Jelsrs sH Eurlu-i ' ]xeNl '(g+ '§6-.- a_ 6slcull uruJOH sl:i '(L# 'rE L- LB s; r i 01 se^IoseJ -

.

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TIYäO EHI CINV -IYAESUEd

244

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

foundation in the verse compilation. Other intertextual links may suggest that Gerbert also knew Perlesvaus (8906-10148, #15;see Saly 1998). In the chapel of an abbey, a priest celebrates Mass and offers the host to a wounded king. A monk tells Perceval the story of Evalac's conversion by Joseph of Arimathea and baptism as Mordrain. Joseph was guardian of the Grail, Philosofine (Perceval's mother) of the tailleor, and an unnamed lady of the Lance. The pagan King Crudel imprisoned all three until Mordrain liberated them, killing Crudel in the process. Mordrain, however, is too eager to approach the Grail and is punished for his temerity; he is the wounded knight in the chapel and has been there for 300 years. Perceval has to leave before he learns whether he has healed Mordrain (10149-613, #16). Gerbert is here probably rewriting material from L'Estoire del Saint Graal and the Queste, which both contain the Evalach-Mordrain story, although the knight in question there, of course, is Galahad; Mordrain is clearly a double of the Fisher King. Gerbert now takes up a long-forgotten thread from Chr6tien's Perceval. If one constituent of the poetics of continuation is the completion of interrupted adventures, another is the narrative capital to be made by the retrospective motivation of the unexplained. Chr6tien's art of mystification, or the poetics of early romance, does not require explanation of the Chevalier Vermeil's aggressive behaviour at Arthur's court, but that is precisely what Gerbert now provides. Perceval arrives unknowingly at the castle belonging to the Chevalier Vermeil's daughter and four sons (Leander, Evander, Enardus and Meliadas). An ivory coffin which has arrived drawn by a swan is opened by Perceval and contains the corpse of the Chevalier Vermeil and a letter claiming that only the murderer could have opened it. After a lengthy and interrupted combat with Leander, in which he uses their young nephew as a human shield, Perceval is assaulted by the four wicked knights who had originally urged the Chevalier Vermeil to claim Arthur's lands; Perceval defeats them with the help of a minstrel and they are thrown into prison and executed the next day. Recognizingthat Perceval was not entirely responsible for their father's death, the brothers forgive him and release their prisoners, including Gauvain. The latter will go to Montesclaire to liberate the damsel and Perceval will continue his quest for the Grail and the Lance. The tale now leaves Perceval and turns to an adventure of Gauvain (10614-12380, #r7). In addition to maintaining the alternation of heroes, this particular adventure provides a shocking contrast with the edifying nature of Perceval's ascent towards moral and spiritual perfection. Bloeisine, the daughter of Urpin, welcomes Gauvain with open arms, but intends to kill him with a knife concealed under her pillow because he had killed one of her brothers, Brun de l'Essart. Gauvain is attacked in turn by the girl's cousins and brothers, who refuse his offer to go into exile for three years to atone for the murder. Unwittingly, Gauvain

arrives at L rp,:-'.

truthfully his :--: takes him int.. -;used as a hunr::. : with Urpin. \\ ir :-

from the Puce,; -: ) and the next c;. who had conr; : Perceval(1135--After listenr: into freein-u a d:.. it returns atte: .-..#19). Percer ar :. had been kil1ec damsel, who ,i - s -,: damsel, up to i-.;. for claiming ti...: : the knight Br,r:-.dons her after s. : Underlining th; :,,

.

Felisse de la B.;. He receives hc s: .:

-

he departs. Pe:,.' whom he dett.,:, brother of a i. -: ,' (recalling the d--, news of Perce ., -.-, defeats Ka) Aitü tailleor and L;i -. ; effected by rl Li i r -: refers to 'li colli;: Perceval falis ,-. attached to ä cr,- :: him to his flnir, ;=, the night betbr; :' which came olr: still unclear to ... ' ,

.

Lance and a bra,:-.

King pronolrlrC;: and Perceval c;r:.

"

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TIVUD EHI

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euo JI'l0^a)rad

s.

sr 'esrnoo Jo '3i: eql uleluo3 tlltri Eutluzner ÄlquQ.-*,

::,

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ledeqc eq] ur trli: r{cuoJdde o}

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peleJeq{ urErpi.l

eql Jo Apel ptu.. 'ller5l eq] Jo rrTr: qdesof ,(q uorsr:

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TVAE]UEd

246

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

this point, manuscripts 7 and V repeat the last fourteen lines of the Second Continuation before proceeding with Manessier. The conclusion to Perceval's adventures and the romance is thus illusory, for it is deferred for over 10,000lines. Conclusion

In a sense, Chr6tien's Perceval and its four Continuations are so many articulations of the coexistence, the conflicts and the interrelationship between the secular and the spiritual, and between chivalry and theology, the former in the service of the latter, but ultimately and always subservient to it. This might be the basic theme of the compilation, if it is necessary to seek one, and the later texts, particularly Gerbert, and some episodes interpolated into the Mixed and Long Redactions of the First Continuation are relatively explicit doctrinally. The first two Continuations, however, seem to follow Chr6tien in retaining and even propagating a kind of curious ineffability, informed by both the merveilleux arthurien and the merveilleux chrötien. Structurally, although all of the continuators demonstrate a concern with anchoring their own contribution in the Grail romance as a whole, the kind of analysis that is possible for Chr6tien's earlier romances, and even to some degree for Perceval, is of doubtful value. Something similar may be true of the kind of ethical and moral concerns on which Chr6tien's romances are centred: although we may evaluate the protagonists' behaviour to some degree, the conflict between love, marriage and knighthood does not seem to be a basic concern of the continuators. Such issues may have been regarded as already explored by Chr6tien and superseded by the basic question of how Perceval is to prepare himself spiritually to succeed in his Grail quest. Manessier and Gerbert do, however, explore the nature of knighthood and its function in a Christian society. Although Gerbert especially takes pains to stress Perceval's frustrated preoccupation with the Grail quest, it is diflicult not to feel that the continuators are more often than not caught up in the joy of story-telling, paradoxically pressured by that same lack of closure which assures the furtherance of the text. To date, modern scholarship on the Continuations has concentrated largely on issues of character presentation, narrative structure, sources and relationships between the different parts of the compilation and other Arthurian romances. It has not been particularly prolific and is consequently an area offering a good deal of potential. It has been necessary to provide long narrative summaries of the texts here because they are still relatively neglected. If the rehabilitation or legitimacy of the Lancelot-Grail and the post-Chr6tien epigonal romances as objects of study has been established in recent decades, the same cannot be said of the Continuations. Now that we are beginning to understand better the mechanics of medieval narrative composition and the transmission of texts in manuscript, and to read them on their own terms rather than by the received norms of modern

scholarshi:. ., crr ...: :

Percet'l|

Robert de

B*-'r

Two works : Secondarr It,:rrEstoir"e cloti (-;' .

br \. .: . B\ F. ' : d'Arimatlti, ; : 1919).26 Rcb;: and to Britis: (edited (Paris,

.

genealo,*u1

t

.tc'-

accounts oi -. - l Uther Pen,Jr-.: 442-50, g-: --: effort to ctr: . r : romance re\\ r. . Merlin bl in.,::: Brut (Roach ; Didot-Pert(' ,.. transmissior, -,.- de Boron. ät .;.:: Robert de B land betu.eer. I: important c I -.: S

-

The mises

t',ti .

shortly after . verse antecec;.. Robert de B.': : Perceval. Tbis .

.

de Troyes s i.i:r-.:

Supper, in u 1.--,and because :: :

in a west\\ arü :t(Gowans 9": 1

Britanniue l\\ Furthermot'..

.. ..

\

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;eldeqc 'sua1t:C oq] spuadep LI.': aql uI punol 'Lr,-ees) e1cÄ3 arci-' 'suotlenurluoJ s; er{t l?an }Eqt uI qclq^\ '(II^\

s

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.

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TIVUO EHJ ONV TVAESUEd

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=

250

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

of Avalon. There he must await Alain's son to learn Moyse's fate. Robert

keeps co11-ip . -:-. :

names himself; his book abbreviates the story (3155-64). The light appears at the next Grail service and the letter is given to Petrus, who departs. Bron invests

fatherless b,--." him. Merlrr- .r ,:,

Alain with lordship over the elect and they migrate to foreign lands where Alain preaches. Joseph entrusts the vessel and teaches the Grail's secrets to Bron, who catches fish used in the Grail service, and therefore must be known as the Rich Fisher. He must await his grandson and give him the Grail. Petrus and Bron leave and Joseph dies in the land of his birth (#6: 2843-3460). Epilogue. Robert projects four narrative branches ('parts') that derive from the Estoire dou Graal, which he is the first to write about. They concern Alain, Petrus, Moyse and Bron,31 and he hopes to bring them together in one account if he can find the proper sources, but a fifth branch must be told first, upon which depends the meaning of the other four (#7:3461-3514). The Merlin follows in Ä without interruption.

dence

Vales

Meylin Merlin's conception and early childhood. Satan and his devils scheme to spawn a man in his image to counter Christ's redemption. A woman gives a devil control over all she and her husband possess. He kills their livestock and their son, and provokes her to hang herself; her husband dies of grief, leaving three daughters. The youngest is seduced at the devil's behest and buried alive for her sin. When a worthy priest (Blaise) comforts her sisters, the devil seeks to destroy them. The younger sister sinks into debauchery (the verse text in Ä ends here, line 504, due to the loss of the remaining gatherings), but the elder, whose piety is strengthened, is violated by an incubus as she sleeps. She confesses to the priest that she may have been deflowered by a devil (#1: 1-504, §4, 31-§7).32 She is brought to justice and is locked in a tower to await her child's birth and her punishment. When Merlin is born, he possesses a devil's natural knowledge of things past and present, but God also endows him with knowledge of the future (#2: §§8-11). Court is convened and the mother's sentence is pronounced, but the child Merlin proves her innocence and recounts the true story of his conception and the grace he enjoys. He has the judge and other witnesses tell their stories to Blaise, who will henceforth serve as Merlin's scribe. Merlin dictates the events of the Estoire and his own early life. He also foretells events connected with Vortigern's tower and the composition of Blaise's book (#3: §§12-16, see #5 below). Merlin's entry into pre-Arthurian history. King Constant is succeeded by his weak son, Moine, who is attacked and routed by pagan Saxons. Moine's men treat with his seneschal, Vortigern, who is declared king after they kill Moine, whose brothers, Pendragon and Uther, flee to the Continent. When the people revolt, Vortigern enlists Saxons to quell the uprising. He marries the sister of the Saxon leader Hengist (#a: §17{19, 19). Vortigern builds a defensive tower that

;

bl

,JeI:. - :

finish his

r.

',\. .

Joseph's deS;=. -

Taking lear : : forswear ils:: beneath it \\ :, predicts. the :.: sents Vortis:e::. -. are on their .,'* -, day foretLrlc -. '.i, declared kin = castle and P:. :: him that H::.l : while Pendr-: i 's certain ladi :: l he is overjtr'. ; shifting. He them fronr t ^.1- : with the Sar.,- .- : (#6: §§33--{, \ .

"i.

to be writter:. his words. T: .. speech and t:.; Merlin corr- one of the b: - . Uther is cr,-.',:, .- ; .

because a ,Jl.:

ally transptrr: .: burial grolilr. ' origins of hr> : ward migrul: . .

Later ident itl :

;

.

Uther's fifti '.'. :seat. The etre;: §47{49, 65: S;; and fulfil the C

.,

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TIVUO EHI CINV TVAE]UEd

2s2

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

vacant place; a knight takes the seat and immediately melts away. Uther refuses to let others undergo the test (#10: §49, 68-§51). King Arthur. As Merlin commanded, Uther begins holding obligatory court at Carduel at Christmas, Pentecost and All Saints. At an extraordinary court, he falls in love at first sight with Ygerne, wife of the Duke of Tintagel; she avoids him, but dares not refuse his gifts. At Pentecost, Uther lavishes gifts on her and her distress increases. At the next court, the duke makes her accept a golden goblet from Uther; that night Ygerne tells her husband of Uther's advances. Angry, but fearful, the duke and his party slip away. Uther challenges him. Abandoning the rest of his lands, the duke lodges his wife at Tintagel and himself in another invincible castle. Merlin promises that Uther will sleep with Ygerne. Through Merlin's magic, Uther takes on the likeness of the duke, and Ulfin and Merlin take on those of his companions, Jordan and Bretel. They ride into Tintagel, where Ygerne receives Uther in her bed (#11: §§52-65). When word arrives that the duke has been killed, Uther and his companions rush away. Merlin claims as his reward the male conceived that night. The duke has been killed and his castle taken. After Merlin departs to dictate to Blaise, Uther makes peace with Ygerne and her vassals. She weds Uther and her daughter marries King Lot of Orkney, while the duke's bastard daughter, Morgan the Fay, marries King Neutre of Garlot. Meanwhile, Ygerne confesses to Uther that the night the duke was killed she lay with another man in his form.35 To hide her shame, they agree to give the child to Antor to raise; Antor's wife will give her own son Kay to a peasant to nurse (hence his harsh behaviour) and will nurse the baby herself. When the child is born, Merlin delivers him to Antor, who must baptize him Arthur (#12: §§66-76). Much later, Ygerne grows old and dies, and Uther dies in Logres36 after putting down a rebellion. After prophesying that God will choose the new king at Christmas, Merlin goes to Blaise (#13: §77{81,14).37 Antor has raised Arthur as agreed. Kay was knighted at All Saints. At Christmas, Antor brings both to Logres, where all barons and prelates gather. On Christmas morning , a great stone is found bearing an anvil with a sword stuck through it. The one who withdraws the sword will be the king chosen by Christ. All who attempt the test fail, but Arthur easily takes the sword later when Kay has him fetch his sword and he cannot find it. Kay boasts to Antor that he has succeeded, but soon admits the truth. When all witness Arthur's success, the archbishop declares him king, but disgruntled barons force him to hold further trials at Candlemas and Easter. Finally, on Easter Eve, the archbishop admonishes all to accept God's will. On Sunday, Arthur succeeds again and all consent to crown him at Pentecost. He demonstrates his essential nobility in cheerful acts of generosity. On Whitsun Eve, Arthur is knighted and keeps vigil. He forgives his detractors and one last time removes the sword. The crowd take him to the altar to be crowned. Thereafter he holds the kingdom of Logres in peace for a long time (#14: §81, 14-§91,58).38

The Didot- Pe'rt

"

Percet'ul':' , : him. Alain. .

Percer,'al de i,:r

:

the first tir:tc .= j' 10-29). S.-. Jr: the four St-ri-.: court and L1:; r tutes the Ro -..- : .

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Perceval joil>.

.. r'

defeating S,,.::

-

of taking th; .- Arthur's prt't;: . stone bene .r . .ignorin-u \l;:..:.

be healed. ,.- r himself to 3; . whom the C. -, maiden \\ e.:.:- . giant, thel t,--, -. , Orguelleus c; tent himseli -: - forces him t. r . = queen (#3. B-F" magic chess: , -: -

not hear hi::. nearby. He :.

-..' -^

does Percer ,, - : She will retL.:l

into his tontb 1 . the stag's ite -: -

"

446-606:

E:r--"

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TIVUO EHJ CIITV TVAESUEd

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

254

He counsels Perceval to keep from sin and avoid killing knights. Perceval escorts his sister home (#5, B-R: F; D 606-776, E 632-810). Perceval meets a knight, the Handsome Coward, with a hideous lady, Blond Rosette. When Perceval laughs at her, the knight challenges him and is defeated. Perceval spares him and sends him with his lady to Arthur's court. She is mocked, but eventually grows beautiful (#6, B-R: G; D 776-902, E 810-965). Perceval is challenged at a ford by a knight, lJrbain, whose fairy lover, the Queen of the Black Thorn, lives in an invisible castle. Perceval defeats him and hears his story. A gloom descends and a voice curses Perceval, who is attacked by monstrous birds. When he kills one of them, its body turns into that of a woman. The birds were Urbain's lady and her attendants who were trying to help Urbain escape. The dead woman is his lady's sister, who is now happy in Avalon (#7, B-R: H; D 902-1007, 896G1114). At a crossroad, Perceval sees two children playing in a tree beside a cross. One tells Perceval to take the right-hand branch of the road, where something will help him in his quest for the Fisher King. Tree, children and cross disappear (#8, B-R: J; D 1007-26, E A voice from a shadow, speaking as Merlin on behalf of Perceval Christ, tells to do as the child instructed. If he proves worthy, he will fulfil God's prophecy to Joseph (#9, B-R: K; D 102740, E 1146-64). Perceval sees three men fishing in a boat on a river. One, his grandfather Bron, invites him to spend the night. At the castle, Bron is already waiting for him in the hall. During the first

lll545}

course of their meal, they see a maiden carrying two silver carving platters, followed by a youth holding a lance with three drops of blood coming from its tip. They disappear into another room. At the sight of another youth bringing in Joseph's vessel, the Grail,al all bow and strike their breasts in contrition. Later, the procession returns. Perceval yearns to ask about the Grail, but fears offending his host. If he had asked whom the Grail served, the Fisher King would have been healed. Next morning, the castle is deserted and the gate stands open for him to leave (#10, B-R: L; D 1040-1106, E 1165-1269). Perceval sees a maiden weeping disconsolately. She curses him for failing to heal his grandfather, to make himself the keeper of Christ's blood or to release Britain from all enchantments and evils (#11, B-R: M; D 1107-33, E 1270-1303). Perceval finds a maiden standing with her palfrey beside atree, where his stag's head hangs; he takes the head. While she protests, he sees his lady's hound chasing a deer. As he makes to seize the dog, he is challenged by a knight who was hunting with it. Perceval defeats him. The hag who took his stag's head is the sister of the lady of the Chessboard Castle and the fairylover of the Tomb Knight. Perceval takes the stag's head to his lady, who forgives his delay and offers him her castle. He leaves because he has vowed not to stay two nights in the same place before finding the Fisher King (#12, B-R: E2; D | | 33-1239, E I 303-t 447). Perceval's second Grail quest Perceval wanders seven years, sending many defeated knights to King Arthur, but, unable to find the Fisher King's castle

rbi.*.

'

again he S,-';: when he nr;;.: wearin._q ar:r. .

confession, T

--

;

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.

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--

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castle and

r:- t'

Grail (#1r E : King's cas..; .- .' passes.+l

an-

healed.

H: ;, :

,

Grail cont; .-.: of the i-i

voice

Christ in pr.:

That same c-,. -. great noise -: - and infonl: .- ' B-R: Q: D.j-: The '-l[r,i' :his kni,*shts >:- : Mordred. \ ' .. France uhe:. . : France and r.. Messen-qers

::

Britain: th:'.

-

§

declares his : '= An arm)- rei: - - -

entrustin

s B:.

,

Calais alrd -: - .attempts at -. ; . battle. He ,,,. 216\-251(l t E, ,. his cro\Ä'n. :,- -. .

before gettrr-: - .

Winchester. ; - : king in Irel.r. -

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TIVUO EHJ CI}TV TYAE3UEd

2s6

THE ARTHTJR OF THE FRENCH

struck by a lance in the chest. He is taken to Avalon, where Morgan tends his wounds. The Britons wait for him at Carduel for forty years before electing another king. He has been seen hunting in the forests thereabouts (#19, B-R: T; D t91,4-57, E 254r-2652). Conclusion. Merlin dictates to Blaise, then informs him and Perceval that God has commanded him to build a dwelling outside the castle. He will live there, in his esplumoir (E) or esplumeor (D) ('moulting cage'),43 unseen by anyone, until he dies at the end of time, after which he will enjoy life everlasting (Nitze 1943). He prays God to be merciful to all those who hear his book or have it copied (#20, B-R: U; D 1958-80, 82652-74).

We know a little less about Robert de Boron than we do about Chr6tien de Troyes himself (Giflin 1965; Gallais 1970;Pickens 1995; O'Gorman 1996). He was associated with Gautier de Montfaucon, Count of Montb6liard in Imperial Burgundy not far from Belfort, in whose court he wrote the Estoire around the year 1200. The village of Boron, from which he hailed, lies within twelve miles of Montb6liard. Robert's use of Wace and Chrötien de Troyes, and especially of a large number of Latin sacred and theological texts (O'Gorman1979), shows that he was a man of learning and culture. As Robert was in service to Gautier de Montfaucon when he finished the verse Estoire dou Graal, he certainly wrote prior to 1202,when Gautier left for the Fourth Crusade, never to return, dying in 1210. Confusion about Robert's social status arises because of the way his very name appears in the manuscript of the verce Estoire, where he names himself twice.

Once he appears as 'Messires Roberz de Beron' (O'Gorman edt,346l),aa and messire occurs in all subsequent references to him by other writers and in all texts attributed to him. The title implies that he was of the knightly class and that he might have held Boron as a fief; the military association is strengthened by the

fact that, in naming his patron, Robert stresses that he is with him in time of peace ('en peis', 3490), when a knight might well have the leisure to write (Micha edn, §23, 634; Merlin, #5). However, another title is found earlier in the Estoire manuscript: 'Meistres Roberz. . . de Bouron'(3155). The term meistres refers to a clerc who,like Maistre Wace,45 has had formal training in Latin and follows a career involving him with the written word. The two titles, messires and meistres, are contradictory: they imply mutually exclusive vocations, unless one were to imagine Robert as an incongruous clerc guerrier, although Micha (1968,467) accepts with baffling equanimity the implications of both designations together. But everything we know about the very tradition of writing in vernacular romance, and what we know or can surmise about the authors who name themselves, lend added weight to arguments in favour of Robert's clerkly status (Uitti teTs).

In the \ I rcc. :

throughout ::. have been ,1 r; .l survive aloni ',' only part oi ,: :: ment of anrr:^-.to him \\itit ;=:.., of the thirr.;: manuscripts . . andlor the -11. The tu'o n. -:. , -. ginal of the : mention Rt t;. Significäntir. :-. .

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TIVUD EHJ CIITV TVAESUEd

258

THE ARTHI]R OF THE FRENCH

of manuscript transmission and textual translatio. Nevertheless, although his skills in versification are certainly not those of a Chr6tien de Troyes, he has few of his poetic vision or, a prime concern in medieval poetics, in his inventive use of sources. Robert's verse romances and the second-generation prose adaptations had a tremendous influence on Arthurian literature to come, particularly on the Vulgate Cycle: the Vulgate Merlin, where Robert's contribution will be discussed in detail in chapter VII, the Vulgate Estoire del Saint Graal and the Queste del Saint GraaL From Robert's Joseph onwards, the Grail will always be referred to as saint and will always be identified with Christ's cup. Moreover, as we have seen, the Joseph connects Grail history with the history of human redemption and, via Joseph of Arimathea and his family, it makes Great Britain the preordained haven for the Grail-keepers. Robert's Estoire seeks to place Grail history, as Chr6tien de Troyes reveals it and Robert interprets it, within the context of sacred history, for it translates and incorporates several authoritative texts, including the peers in the scope

Bible and apocryphal works (James edn, de Santos Otero edn) such as the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, the Protevangelium of James and the Gospel of Nicodemus (or Acts of Pilate), as well as a Cura sanitatis Tiberü and Vindicta Salvatoris, which recount, in turn, the healing powers of Veronica's veil and the destruction of Jerusalem (see Micha 1968, O'Gorman 1979). Accordingly, the Estoire opens with references to the Old Testament Prophets and the confinement of all dead souls to hell, and continues the history of redemption with the Immaculate Conception and birth of Mary (Pseudo-Matthew, James),ae the Annunciation and the birth of Christ. It then moves to an account of Christ's trial before Pilate (Pilate, Nicodemus), the Crucifixion, the descent from the Cross, the Harrowing of Hell, the Resurrection (Nico demus as well as canonical accounts), the healing of Vespasian (Cura, Vindicta) and the imprisonment and liberation of Joseph of Arimathea thanks to the intervention of Titus and Vespasian(Vindicta). Similarly, the Merlin succeeds in conjoining Grail history with British history, also in harmony with Chr6tien's Perceyal. The sacred texts Robert employs to create a context for early Grail history, especially those pertaining to the Virgin Mary and the conception and birth of Christ, provide parallels that are developed in the Merlin, which Robert deliberately opens (§§1-16) with a series of episodes that mirror the beginning of the Estoire (11-614). In negative correlation with the Estoire, the Merlin begins with devils discussing the Harrowing of Hell;they complain about how Christ came to release the prophets who had been their prisoners (cf. Nicodemus). They plan revenge and hatch their plot to produce an Anti-Christ by having an incubus impregnate a young, pious virgin (cf. Protevangelium, canonical Gospels).50 She gives birth to a precocious boy she names Merlin. He is saved from the devils thanks to her prayers and the ministrations of her chaplain, who makes clear to her the nature of the being who raped

her. E,ventll.-r. '

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King:5l Arthr.: -they find the::. : adventures .1 ..:. :' court, in a cc i, r ,* ment to the C:", success is th.= ! -. only to Chre t.; Grail histor) tRT .

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1yn reldeqc ur yelop ur possncsrp sr uu.DW orll ur ecely\ Jo osn s.uegog 'plJo.&\ ueunqlrv erll olur urlrel4l s8uuq,(1e,rr1ue,rur osle geqoU lnfl'(II 'r9§) Ueqe{ ur su '(y113 'upe ploury) 1e1erg sr 1r oce^& ur ]nq '(tgt§ 'upe 1q3lr16) eu;e?a acnpes ol Jegln Surdleq ur soIel urTJeIN rrrJoJ esoq.&\ ueru oql erueu lou seop ,(ergoeg '(t t+ lc) eldurexe rcA'ulqary qlroqo5 ur rncor wql optotslH s,,(ergoeg ur punoJ lou slrelep se IIe&\ se Jol]eru uerJnqpv uo srseqdue slr Jo esneceq rurg eqt ,(yuregsc lsolu sr ecJnos s.lJogou 'ut1e1 ur lueleduoc ,{lsnor,rqo s€^\ eq q8noqlly 're{l1 pue uo8erpue4 'u.re8rpo1 o} pe}o^ep se8essed :rutg s.eceg\ pue aDruuolt,tg run8ay Dt"totstH s.r{}noruuol J go ,(e;g3oeg ur punoJ Ieuelsur Jo suorlces e8rel Surlu,l.er,(q uorlue^ul sFI spuelxe UoqoU tyluecgru8rs sB lsnf 'urulrJg ur ecr^Jes s,pog ut ruoql osn o1pue s.re,rod Iecrloqerp srg uruleJ o1 ecer8 eql peprocce pue peuoepeJ sr urlJol4i 'sesodrnd 1n;e8ue,r (slrlep eql 01 ,(re.r1uoc 'leq1 teneuvroq '11nse; Surpuodseuoc e qlrt\ -,fto1srq peJces e^rlelrJor{1ne Jo uorsJe^ur uelo u€ s€ Je}}el eql slue^ur ueqog 'sluepece.ld u.,tlolq-llnJ ,(ue ezreq o] u1y\oul lou eJu ulUaIN er{} ur slue^o Suruodo egt'a"4olsE erll ur seposrde snoSoleuu eq1 o>llu1 'lseud € qll.&\ rorlleJ srrl peplo -{cnc Jer{}oru u.^ao srq l€ql ruFI o} Euuro;d .(q e8pnl eql uo solqel eq} surnl ,(oq oql ueqa pellrnbce sl ]nq 'uorlecru.rog roJ Ierrl o1 lq8norq sl eqs ',(lenluo^E 'rerl 692

-IIYUO EHI

peder oq \\ 6ui:-erlsruFu 3LI1 p _:: eqs Aoq snonc, t urErrn snord 'S::

ol ]old

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:

ueeq peq oll \,' s _l go 8ur^\orreH : -e[oJJOo O,\rlrF::: .,' JO SerJeS e rltl -le^ep erE 1r?r{1 >

urErrl eq] oi i:. o] sÄoldrua 1r:.. .Ärolsrq qsl}lrg , '(ttlri'1":

Jo r{dosof

]o L:c

.

Eurleeq eq] '(s-:.' EurmoJJeH ar{t '

elElld eroJsq If :_ uorlercunurr\- : el€lnculuurJ :ripeep II€ Jo tLr:L:. suedo ailot§1 ::, uorlsnrlsop er{] 'stloqolps t) 1 .;,;' Snruapnll\ ./r, ,.. ,^

pdsog eql sts r{:: eq] Eurpnlrul 'S peJces Jo ]xalLIrr,l

se {"lo1srq IIrrt peurep"loe-ld

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pp aqsanfi er{t ; pässncslp 0q III

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CITTY TVAES}TEd

G

260

THE ARTHTJR OF THE FRENCH Perlesvaus

Li hauz livres du Graal (The Noble Book of the Grail) as it is named in the three complete surviving manuscripts,s2 is a prose Grail romance dating from the first half of the thirteenth century. Extensive research and critical debate have so far failed to fix anything approaching a precise date,53 and in particular it has yet to be determined whether Perlesvaus pre- or post-dates the other great prose Grail romance of its period, La Queste del Saint Graal. Perlesvaus,like the Queste, is a significant work partly because it is one of the Perlesvaus, or

earliest romances to recount the successful completion of the Grail adventures. It follows the tradition of Chr6tien de Tioyes and his continuators in making the knight Perceval, or in this case Perlesvaus QterdJes-vaus, so named because his father had been dispossessed of certain of his territories, 42 references are to page numbers in Nitze edn), the Grailwinner. The Quest for the Grail is set here in the context of those antecedent narratives, for at the start of Perlesvaus we are told that the eponymous hero has already visited the Grail Castle once and failed to ask the questions that would have resulted in the Grail adventures being

-

brought to a successful conclusion.5a There have been two modern printed editions of the text, by Potvin in 1866 and Nitze and Jenkins in 1937 .ss The latter edition, though extremely useful, is unfortunately once more out of print and diflicult to find. More readily available are Bryant's English translation and Marchello-Nizia's abridged version in French. Perlesvaus is quite a substantial text, divided by the author into eleven branches (all three extant manuscripts agree on this number), and it displays a highly complex internal structure, both in broad terms of narrative interlace (whereby the tale follows different strands, thus charting the progress of various characters on the Quest) and in terms of what have been described by critics (Nitze edn, II, 165-9; Lacy 1989, 169-78) as linking and analogy, forms of interlace which operate at the level of detail and involve groups of, or individual, figural and other elements, within and across episodes. It is unquestionably the case that repetitions and variations on a theme provide the building-blocks for this romance, as they do for others of the period (Burns 1985 , 13940; Williams 200 1 , 1 8 6). Perlesvaus is, however, an unusual Arthurian romance in that King Arthur himself plays a considerable role in the adventures, rather than merely providing a base, through the setting of the court, from which knights errant depart and to which they return (or not, as the case may be) at the conclusion of their individual quests. Indeed, the openin g of Perlesvaus is not quite what a reader familiar with Arthurian tradition might expect, departing as it does from the Arthurian romance topos of court celebrations being interrupted by the occurrence of an aventure; this departure is achieved in a very bold and arresting manner.

Branch i :.: : The queen 1s --: former tinle s .:' symbolic siS:..-. a lack of atl,,-:.. .

ters concern - St Augustine. .-r- . persuades \r..-. *. aventure. anc. ..-:

si-;: without hinr , crucial role .:. ': ure, Cahus

-.

recorded the >: angle' (tlte 1, . :

.

the trall 'qoes ! bier on \^,'hici: ... sticks of ._qrr]c .stowing it in -. giant who is ':. bladed knite T .

side, up

to t1-; :

Scream, the k. . - :

squire lying n.,: :-.

stick, still

Se

cr; .:

ledement a\ er--

This bloocii -: ' work. Man) r--,t very violent.: I those of GaL.'.,: .

completin,_s a

r. -

In branches After vario Li s -- * cousin) and ar:

-.:

9I-2), Gau\ rir:l Baptist,

poSSe

>

:.

Unfortunatel,,. Gauvain is Str .-. .

white tableclot:. : the Holy Vesse. -. ways A worthr ...

'ueJe8rng Surgezruoc uI pepeeccns seq oq ecuelsul rog) 1q3ru1 Äqlro.^,r e sr(e.u ,(ueru ur q8noqlyy'(tZ-gtI) rsenö eql w ernlreJ € snql sr pue losse1,(1og eq1 go esodrnd eql o1 se suorlsenb FrcnJc erll {se o1 s1e3ro3 eq }eq} rsglolcelqe} olq \ eqt ot uo 8uq1eg poolq go sdorp eerql Jo lq8rs sqt ,(q pelcu.llsrp os sr urc^n€C 'ecue1 eq] pue IrBJC ogl ;o ecueserd egl ur ecuo te.te^rrroq .,(leluungoJu1 '(St-Zt 1) uorssrurpe urc? ol url{ rog elrsrnbererd e sr qcrq,&\ Jo uorssessod '1sl1deg eql uqof Jo pro^\S oql uo.r\ Surrreq '9 qcuerq ur oJeql suJnleJ ure^nug '(Z-16 '69 'g qcuerq ut pel€ler qtoq) e11se3 Irerg er{l ol trstlr InJsseccnsun ue pue (ursnoc s.sne^selJed 'snesol q1r,r\ Jolunocue ue Surpnlcur) seJnlue^pe snorJ€^ JeUv 'ure^ne0 Jo seunlJoJ eql s^\olloJ e^rleJJBu egl 'e^rsnlcul 9 ol Z seqcueJq uI 'ellse3 IreJC or{1 o1 e8eurrrElrd e Surleldruoc JoIEI Jlesurrq JnqUV Eur;1 qlrm 'snelselre4 pu? lolocuel 'urua.nug Jo osoql :slsenb purg ledrcur-rd eerq] eqrrcsep saq)untq luenbesqns ogl e§'luelom. ,(rea. ,{puenbe.rg pue put8r.ro '3ur4r.r1s oJe po}unocer seJn}ue^pu eql go ,(ue141 'lJo1( eql Jo lsoJ erll roJ euol oql sles sposrde Suluedo Surlernbsrp pue ,(pooyq srql '(gg'tnu Tuosoa1dun lsoru o ut pazlloat) .zetete lueruopel lloru, ueoq s€q rueerp s,olrnbs sseldeq eql snr{J 'esoq srg ut pelorces illls '{cr}s -elpusc eql sBq osle 0H 'eprs srq ul oJIDI 3 r{}r^{ 'pepunorrr ,(1legour 3ur,(1 o-lrnbs eql pug pue Joqruuqcelu€ er{} Je}ue urelroqrueqc pue ueenb 'Eur1 eq} 'uleelcs eq1 8ur.ree11 'lno sorJc pue se{eA\ sngeJ lueruoru srq} lV 'llF{ er{l o1 dn 'eprs sq olur eJrDI egl Suqsnd 'e"rmbs eql squls luer8 eql uodnereqrvr 'op ol sesnJoJ eq qclq^\ '1cr1se1puuc og1 urnler snqe3 turll spueuep luer8 eql 'oJIu>I pepelq -elqnop euosJeoJ B qlrlv\ perur€ pue (62'QBn puo ryDn) 61el 1e rrou, sr oqrrr 1uet3 3 sJelunocue arl eJeq^\ '1se.roJ ogl olul JJo seprJ uoql 'slesno.rl sFI ul 1r Eur.ttols 's1cr1se1puec er{l Jo ouo s»le} snqeJ 'sJeuroc JnoJ slr Jo qcee 1e plo8 Jo s{crls -olpuec ur Sururng selpuec rnoJ r{}rl\ '}q8ru1 e go .(poq peop eq} serT qcrrllv\ uo Jerq B spurJ oq 1r ul pue 'srelue elnbs or{1 qcrr{ll\ 'ledeqc e eprslno ploc seo8 Irurt oql 1nq 'es;oq s.rnqlJv Jo s{cerl or{} s.,l.\olloJ snrlE3 '(g7'1a3uo uo to anott aqt) P13ue un(p zro^ eL ett urII 01 pelltrusueJl ueeq Surzreq 11 'Surllrrrr ur .(ro1s or{} pepJoceJ roleJJeu egl leq] en3o1or4 eql ut plol or? e.& peepur :lxel sql ur eloJ lercnrc e ße1d secro^ pue suorsrl 'sruee.rp lerll oJeq pelou eq plnoqs 1l) rulq lnoqlr^\ JJo les seq 3ur;1eql ieql sruuerp pue Joqru?qc s6Jnquv oprslno sdeels snqe3 'ern -pedep Jrer{} Jo e^o oq} vO'Qd snqeJ ureuoc ? sesooqc 8uq eq1 pue,atnluato stql uo urg qll^\ errnbs e e>1u1 o1 'luerue8pnf.re11eq srq lsure8u tnr{Uv sepens;ed erls Jloslr ur eJnlue^p? ua sr 1edeq3 eqt Surpug luql soS.lorue lr pue ,oullsn8ny 1g go 1edeq3 eql ot lno eprr plnoqs rnqlrv teql stseSSns ueenb eq1 '(peurecuoc srel -ceJerlo Jo JelceJerlc er{} Jo ssouquoa\un s}cegeJ,{lqeuenur seJnlue^pu Jo {cel e 'uorpe;red lenlurds o1 qled eql Suop seEels lueserder pu" ecu€c$ru8ls cqoqu,(s e^?q seJnlue^pe eql eJor{1!\ 'secueuroJ Ir€Jc or{} Jo }xo}uoc eql u0 solur} JeruJoJ o1 pe"reduroc Unoc lu sernluelpu oq1 Surlueruel ,,(ddequn sr ueenb eq1 Jo {cel 'uorsuecsv eql Jo lseeJ erll JoJ IenpJeC le rnrllJv Sury qlrarr surEeq qcuurg I I9Z

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oql Eur4eur ur

s-

1I 'seJnluo^pE Irf eql Jo euo sr 1r 'lt20t9 lulDS ,i ,-^! eql selep-]sod r, ur pue ss'elep t I€srlrJc puE L{]"r:

Eurlep ecuuluoi pelueu sl 1l sE {,,":

TIVUD EHI CIi{V TVAESUEd

262

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

from whom he won the Sword, to Christianity), Gauvain lacks the spiritual perfection required to achieve the Grail. The end of branch 6 takes up Lancelot's narrative thread briefly: he attempts (unsuccessfully at this stage) to find the Grail Castle and in the Waste City becomes involved in a Beheading Game (137-8) which is resolved later on in the tale (see p. 285). Lancelot's exploits are more fully recounted in the eighth branch (branch 7 being devoted to several of Perlesvaus's lesser adventures). Here he finally reaches the Grail Castle, but is not permitted even to see the Holy Vessel because

of his sinful love for Queen Guinevere (166-71). Thus, like Gauvain, but for

rather different reasons, Lancelot is unsuccessful in the Quest. In fact, the text clearly suggests that Lancelot has further to go on the path to spiritual perfection than does Gauvain, who did at least see the Lance and the Grail, even if he failed to ask the questions that would have brought the adventures to an end. The narrative thread now returns to Perlesvaus, who encounters his devilish uncle, the king of the Chastel Mortel (signifying evil incarnate), for the first time (178), and then, after several adventures in which he has the opportunity to prove his prowess and his spiritual worth, the hero learns from his sister Dandrane that the Fisher King (another uncle, keeper of the Grail Castle and a mirror image of his wicked brother), has died. His untimely death has given the king of the Chastel Mortel the opportunity to seize the Castle, and the Grail has vanished (225). Branch 9, however, describes the successful outcome of Perlesvaus's Quest: he defeats several enemies, retrieves the sacred relic of the Golden Circlet (which is the Crown of Thorns encased in a reliquary,254), and returns to the Grail Castle. On seeing his nephew triumphant, the king of the Chastel Mortel despairs and commits suicide by throwing himself from the battlements (267). Perlesvaus has thus regained control of the Grail Castle on behalf of the Church Militant, and in a sense the main goal of his quest has been achieved. There is no longer any necessity (nor, indeed, possibility, now that the Fisher King is dead) for the questions to be asked regarding the purpose of the Grail. At this point, then, the focus of the narrative returns to King Arthur. In branch 9 Arthur is told by a voice that he must go on a pilgrimage to the Grail Castle (270). As he is about to depart, he learns that his son Loholt has been treacherously killed by Kay. The latter flees to Brittany, there forming an alliance with Brian of the Isles (274) - the two men begin a plot against Arthur, the consequences of which are developed in the subsequent branches. This section of the text ends with the reporting of the passing of Guinevere, who has died of grief at the loss of her son Loholt (302). Branch 10 is principally concerned with Arthur's successful journey to the Grail Castle: he is rewarded with a vision in which the Grail appears under five different guises (304-5). In the latter part of the branch, Brian of the Isles, now Arthur's new seneschal, manages to turn Arthur against Lancelot (353-5).

The final

b:-,

,

and succeed s ... Lancelot anti { Four Horns r i: Grail Castle : His mystel ir-r ,-: * may recall tit;. in a ship). L-\1' .. character as .: Castle, but .i::; chapel, which , . Throu-uho,.: theme: that including lrrrt .' of the Churcr. .-l the case of Q) ..: : Law, sometin.; subsequent tt'r. -..

.-

few detailed s: .. * but it is also ,--,r-.: Perlesvaus h.i,, - .:

dating of the ..

other hand

I:.

,

-

antecedent ta' . -:

Foulet (1959 ,. E, a date later tir.. One of the :: study of Peri. manuscripts. i r. text itself clrr ,:r ' Sources. Thel'r .: of central ctr:-; rraffative. T. E \ cism to tackie . analysis of nl.'. t divided into t,,,. -

Perlesvaus's

ca,r. *

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Iolseqf er{} 1o i:. go eEerur

JoJJTLLT :

wql euurpuEc *; enord o1 ÄlrunJJ,-r

etull ]srlJ 0t{1 rcr qs{r^ep sF{ srst':: 'pu::-:

tli:

uorlceJ;ed IEll

\:

pelleJ 3q JI u3 1x31

eql 'l)eJ

rr

I

JoJ lnq 'uIE \nt-'r esneceq Iosse \ i. Ä11eurg er{ oraH

L qcuerq) qJlrl-'*

erueg Eurpeol{;I 3q] pulJ o] 1a.i,.': s6lolocua1dn s:v IenlrJlds oql srj--

TIVUO EHI (IITV TVAE]}{Ed

E9T,

264

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

the Black Hermit and Perlesvaus's withdrawal from the world (75). This bipartite structure, he claims, reflects the duality of the work's main themes: God and man, divine intervention and human response (181). More recently, E. Kennedy (1998) has written an illuminating examination of the place of interlace in the structure of Perlesvaus, comparing and contrasting it with narrative technique in the Lancelot, and there have been other useful studies on structural issues in connection with specific episodes, notably by Berthelot (1994). Much in this domain, however, is still uncharted territory, and as Lacy (1996, 157) states: 'The most productive studies remaining to be done surely involve not simply the selection of motifs, but also their uses and the effects achieved by their modification and recombination'. It will no doubt be difäcult to produce a definitive study of the myriad motifs in Perlesvaus and their function in the narrative in terms of structure. However,

such a study would help to elucidate the place of this text within the wider context of French Arthurian romance. Perlesvaus can be shown to have had direct influence on at least two later narratives. The character of Brian of the Isles plays a significant role in the thirteenth-century romance Meriaduc, and the Anglo-Norman prose romance Fouke le Fitz Warynse contains an entire episode from Perlesvaus. No doubt the dating of the text will continue to be of central concern to critics, as well as problems of categorization. Berthelot (1994,31) summarizes the enigma of Perlesvau,s thus: A priori,le Graal ne se distingue pas aussi clairement qu'on pourrait le souhaiter des autres merveilles du royaume de Logres; en mettant les choses au mieux il y a toujours un r6sidu de merveilleux paien qui contamine les 6pisodes les plus ais6ment röcup6rables par I'allögoröse du plus orthodoxe des ermites.

My own view is that the relationship between Perlesvaus and the other Grail romances, the Queste in particular, is analogous to that between the so-called 'version commune'and the 'version courtoise'of the Tristan, but further detailed study will be necessary to provide sound arguments in support of this theory. Irrespective of its precise date and position in the Arthurian tradition, Perlesvaus is unquestionably one of the most striking and multifaceted of the extant Grail romances. [AMLWI

extant part tr,' . -: and revision :- ;: 2 Mons. B :..

.

-

-

tion to the E'-, 3 I-sndrrn.

R;'

Chr6tien's

B

.

,

Marie l' Eg.t Jr : 4 The se\-: :--.-

*

'governentpir.

-

all the good :! . 5 An Old F:- --

ment'. 6 Thus. in T.. :- 7 Blihos B^...- Vengeanc€

Rtt :

-

8 Doubtles: -- : ##11 and 1l i:. e Meneqhe .:: :

r : AsintheF

-

explanations 10

: .

transferred to P; - 11 Each t-cr , : easy to identi:-,

(357-8); (5th H -(361*4); (3rC , -,

(3704);

(lstri.---

t2 Two otl.;: account: (i) Bl._

pany the

-

erile.

discourse is 'n,take its place. 13

-

:-

-

For alr ,-':l

Continuation.

S.

-

Larrative Sunlt-- -:. . 15

-

- " -' -_

-

Leupinr----

appearsin\lS,

-

and Doner 19v: 17

Notes

Frappier:-..--

'chapelet de 1a.. . 331). On the c: : the frequent 1i1... l8 The con:.:. -. "

I This information is given to us by Gerbert de Montreuil in his Continuatron, written c.7225 (6986). Gerbert's proximity to cultural circles in the north-east, where the roots of romance lie, suggests that his information was reliable (Baldwin 2000). It has also been claimed that Chr6tien wrote himself into a corner and was unable to find a satisfactory outcome to the romance. While the notion of the old poet's powers failing him is not inconceivable, the accomplished state of the

.

been termed b,.

.R

of Chrötien S ;.t: te Wauchie:".

". -

editions includ; -

-

-

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,{qs8ug 'suorlenurluo3 eqt ur scrloqlse s.uert?ll3 Jo soc€rl roJ osle eos '(OOOZ'OOO1 '9661 't661) (uortenurluor go scrleod or{1, reu{crug,(q peurer ueeq 3ur1ur1 pue Surpee; qll^\ urecuoc (sro}enurluoc orll 8r s€II Jeqlo qceo qlt.tt pue uerl?rrl3

qtlu dn

er{l Jo olels perls. * ollq1!\'ecuBLlirrj :- uerl?Jq3 tErll pr _-. ,' 'et1 ecueuloJ Jr- s-

9ZZI

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l

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qr96l srell€D äeS 'uorluolle

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'oJeq ol porräJeJ esoql ore qctq.la. tetsseuel pue uorJenurluo3 puocos 'uor1enur1uo3 l trsrld oql Jo suorlrpo srq ol suorlcnpoJlur eq1 pue 9s6I r{c?o5 ees ,rrrerareiro uB Jod rr

'ece1d s1r e1e1

IIe \ se lsnf plnoc uDtpDcollg os puu '.ecueuror quep?JrlJ Jo lsoJ erll roJ I?rluesse 1ou, sr osJnocsrp ,1uele ,(ue uI .selrxo eql ,(ued 1ecr8o1eaus8 slregtrolu oqt teql so^rosqo (0rc '1SAD uosduroql -ruoccB slue^res roqlo pu€ sq'pr€^\els eq1 (rr) isreqtorq uo^ole sBq uerpscortg (r) :lunocce s(uerl?Jq] 01 suorleJcce lnq "(pureJ 'suortrcrpeJluoc Jou ere uosduroql,(q pelou socueJeJlrp Jorllo 01r\J zr 'BL-L1'vpe uosduroql eos 'slr€tep rod '(09-§r€) plerqs oqt Jo orntue^pe erll (lsl) :@-On) qlSuerts Jo ssol qlolocue'I (puZ) :(O-Sgg) uos s.uoSueuv popuno,& leqt {.r\Eq € (pre) :b-tSt) u€1rrs € ,(q u.rerp leog 3 ur ]qEru{ psop e (wil:(os-osg) (13op s,ue1srr1) uepng (qrs) :(g-rss) e3u1s leer8 e (q19) :(S-gSg) snur8uol Jo ecu€l oql s€ ocueT Surpeelg or{1 (qtr) :,(Jr1uepr o1 ,(see IIe lou äre feqf'(t-OtS) punoJ sr ilnoc s.rerlsrd qcr11 eql (6) seulp ue^es eql Jo ouo roJ {c€fl rr '(6uorlenurluoO puoces eq1 uorledrcrlue ur) perreJsueJl ol 3o I€^ocJed srerl sr uorlenulluoc lsJrd oql uI sseccns lerlred s.ure,rn€c snqJ, 'uorlenurluo3 lsJrd eql ul sv or '(3t suorleueldxe t-et t) pue suorl€rreu ornlnJ eql pue (ett,qtt) s.le^ocred slrelop eql pleq8euell sopnlcxe trrstzr Jo u 'repro 'pelerreu 1ou 'lecrSolouoJrlc ur Zl pue U## slueserd 111eq3eue1atr 'uorlenurluoc lsJrd erll ur lrsr^ Ir€Jc s(ur?^nBc 01 ocuoteJoJ e ssollqnoc 8 'l-02' ,16961lse \ ees 'uorlenurtuo3 s(lrnerluol4tr op lroqreg pue ,ppm8oy acuoa?uarl sa1'nuuocul pg

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atulDs ap a4 o7 ÄqpeÄolloJ suorl€nurluo] puocos puu (uorsre,t lroqs) lsrrg oq|'pM)DJ s.uerlgrq3 'uotpo)ottg 01 uollrppe q'VI99E Str\l Ieuolllppy trerqrl qsrlrr8 ,uopuol ,

sulBluoc

7

pue (uorsre,r goqs) lsrrg eq1 sureluoc 4 '1otacn4 s,uort?rqJ prra uDtpz)otlg ,uoltDppryg eql ol uorl

.suol -pp€ uI '(9997,(peuroJ) gOZllEE ep ep enbpqlo[qrg tneureH-suol^l StrAtr ?]lsro^rul].1 Iz 'slueruielsur Jo seposrde,{g uorsraer pue uorlrsoduroc Jo Jno&J ut Ä13uor1s sen8re pue,r\er^ strltr goddns trou soop ecueruor erll Jo Ued lu€lxe

TIYUD EHJ

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uorleclJlporu rr:i -oeles eql {ldrurs

eql,:seluls (isl sF{} uI qcnl,\ '{ ; UI SOflSSI I€JI1111'r ur onbruqcsl 3 \ri: eql uI melJelur . Äpeuue) 'E 'i1lri pue poo :s3ur:1. e}Ipedlq slqJ_ '( i

TVAE]U!Id

-

E

! -, -rI

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

266

427 (Geneva, 1993) ard La Vie mon signeur seint Nicholas le beneoit confessor,ed. by J. J. Thompson, TLF 508 (Geneva, 1999). 20 If Corley is correct, the idea of returning the narrative to Perceval would be attributable to the First Continuator. It is curious that the last line of BNF, fr. 794 (A 10268lE 20530), 'Percevax molt s'an desconforte', anticipates (or echoes and contradicts?) the last line of the Second Continuation itself (E 32594),'Et Percevaux se reconforte.' 21 The story of the hound (brachet) has been examined by Luttrell (1989). 22 The 'child in the tree'motif with its variant of an illuminated tree also appears in Manessier's Continuation, the Didot-Perceval and Durmart le Galoß.It has been studied most recently by Saly

M. Szkilnik, TLF

(le8e). 23

It is possible, of course, that the interpolation was carried out by a scribe or planner of MSS

TV.

Gerbert de Montreuil, Le Roman de la Violette ou de Gerard de Nevers, ed. by D. L' Buffum, SATF (Paris, 1928). See also Baldwin 2000,7-11,59-60. The only monograph devoted to Gerbert's Continuation is Cocito 1964. Gerbert does not actually call himself 'de Montreuil' in the Continuation, but stylistic and other evidence renders the identification with the author of Ie Roman de la Violette quite secure. See Frangois 1932. 25 The Williams-Oswald edition of Gerbert has no convenient episode divisions such as those found in Roachh editions of the other Continuations; I have given line numbers from the edition, preceded by episode numbers taken from De Riquer and De Riquer 1989. 26 Gowans (2004) presents evidence, often compelling, suggesting that the loseph and Merlin were originally written in prose; the loseph by Robert, the Merlin by an anonymous continuator' She proposes that R represents the later work of an unknown versifier. 27 So called in honour of Ambroise Firmin Didot, once owner of the Paris manuscript, which is one of two bearing witness to the text: Paris, BNF, nouv. acq. fr. 4166, and Modena, Biblioteca Estense, E. 39. The Modena text, much fuller than that of the Didot manuscript, is also in 2a

Cerquiglini 1981a. 28 Roach, for one, was convinced that the Didot-Perceval'is a much-interpolated and rewritten version of a fairly faithful prose rendering of Robert's original "branches" dealing with Perceval and the last days of Arthur'(Roach edn, 16, also 113-25). Micha is also'strongly inclined'to ascribe the supposed original to Robert (Micha 1980, 10-29). Pickens (1984,49+5), argued that lhe Didot-Perceval could not be by Robert de Boron; more recently, after examining the trilogy in light of different assumptions about translatlo and rewriting, I have concluded that undeniably it is consistent with Robert's modes of rewriting his sources and with the spirit of the Estoire and Merlin (Pickens 1988, esp. 20). In O'Gorman 1996, Robert's authorship of the Didot-Perceval is a given. In any event, there is no evidence that the Didot-Perceval ever existed in verse form' 2e So called in honour of the bibliophile Henry Huth, who owned one of the two manuscripts to

transmit this Continuation (London, British Library, Add.38l17; the other is Cambridge, University Library, Add. 7071).

A lacuna occurs followitg2752 in the manuscript (R: Paris, BNF, fr.20047), due to the loss of a bifolium, which must have contained about 128 lines. Material in square brackets is taken from the edition of the prose Joseph d'Arimathie in O'Gorman edn,ll. 1115-62. 31 A reference tothe Didot-Perceval or a text like it. 32 After the fragmentary beginning, references are to paragraphs and line numbers in the prose text of Micha 1979. The opening episode and the one following are a vast amplification of three short passages in direct speech from the Brut (Arnold edn): the boy Merlin's defence against a 30

tormenter (Brut,7373-84) (cf. #5 below), the confession Merlin's mother makes to Vortigern (7414-34),and the explanation of incubi made by Yortigern's clerk Magant (7439-56). 33 ln Brut,7929-62, Merlin has nothing to do with the surrender and departure of the Saxons, who are not sent abroad by the king, but given unoccupied lands in Britain. 34

This reflects the three generations of Joseph's lineage inthe Estoire, which also represent the

Trinity. ChriS. -: . - (cf.893-91f , i.:-: the Round T,: r which does n.,. - ' is noteworth'. -.. Round Table -:: r- -

.

and, implicitli. 37

-

"

:i -.:'

Robert

38 There rr :-. -3e Episode>- --

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l

represented b'. --

Roach's editi;':.

Estense.E,iv :'-"A concludes ti--

40 These

.rr; r--- '

Round Table i .-, 41 In Chrö:.,:'. , labra (two \ tr -. ..- : above): Lance.

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43 PerhapS -:

44 'Messires

-

F.

volum,/Sanz- -

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(3461-5) (-1/r 45 In the t1... three king He :.. -

Brut (Arnoid e :. 46 R was cc''r. * -

Grail historr

:.

popular. enc\-. bifolium of tl. :

with

L24

to

1l:

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the book rece.'. : * average

of i

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instead of the -: : based on the i -. r' - - ' version, is son:. 47 But Gtr\,, , : -: 48

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passing refer::--

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49 o'Gor ir^-:-Matthew is :r,-:

(O'Gorman

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comparesalli,..' 50

In fact. :.. ;

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oql lueserda.t 'suoxeg eql

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRE}.{CH

268

sr The Didot-Perceval marks the end of enchantments and adventures in Britain (D: 1571-2; E: 19234) which begin, according to what the Fool tells Arthur in Chr6tien's Perceval (Busby edn,

Premiöre Cttni.i

1257-9),with Perceval's departure from Carduel: 'Ore aprochent vos aventures; / De felenesses et de dures / En verrez avenir sovent' (Now your adventures are about to begin. You will frequently see them happening, dreadful and arduous ones). s2 Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Hatton 82; Brussels, BibliothÖque Royale de Belgique, MS 11145; Chantilly, Mus6e Cond6, MS 626. There are also several extant fragments. 53 See Carmatlg36; Nitze edn (esp. II,73-39); Frappier 1954, 194; Foulet 1959; T. E.Kelly 197 4, 9-1 5; Lloyd-Morgan 1 984; E. Kennedy I 986, 8-9. 5a It must be said, however, that certain elements of the Perlesvaus fit lll with ChrÖtien de Tioyes's version and with the Continuations. For instance, in Perceval we are told that Perceval's mother is dead; irt the Perlesvars, she is very much alive and plays a significant role in the narrative. s5 References are to the Nitze and Jenkins edn; the text itself is contained in vol. 1. s6 It seems unfortunate that various critics, following Bruce (1928*,II, 18), have dismissed Perlesvaus as a highly derivative text. A detailed reading suggests that the opposite is true: witness for instance the episode recounting the death of Loholt, son of Arthur and Guinevere (pp.2l6ff.,

Robert de Boron

272tr.). 57

This is clearly a motif derived from ChrÖtien de Troyes's Perceval. 58 According to Berthelot, Perlesvaus is 'un roman absolument unique, qui constitue un des chef-d'euvre de la littörature romanesque mödiövale, et est 6crit dans une prose magnifique'(1989,

tt2).

s

Ed. by E. J. Hathaway, P. T. Ricketts, C. A. Robson and A. D. Wiltshire (Oxford, 1975). The extant text dates from the fourteenth century, but the passage concerned, relating to Arthur and Cahus's dream, is in verse and presumably retained from the original thirteenth-century verse romance.

.,.

Robert de 8,,, , i' R. O'Gonr,:.. Robert de 8,.-,r',,i'

The Didot- Pt, -

I ',

.', --

Merlin and tli,

t

Attributed r

.

^

Le Roman dtr Q, . Lancelot: t'onttii'

.

--

i

288, 306. 31 r- : Le Roman de, i E '

Merlin, fonlun t,' Huth. Ed. b,', (-i The Story o.l' \[ Arthuriart I :, -'. The Vulgare I: 1908-16) The Post-L'ul,{,; The

,

Deuth -

Arthuriart I ., -'

\. . -r

167-21 7.

Perlesvous

Le Haut Lit'rt

Reference List For items accompanied by an asterisk,

see

Perlesvaus: Lr, If . Lögende lti,' .,

the General Bibliography.

attt

by N. Brr

The Prologues

A Prologue to the

Conte del Graal.E;d. by

.

translatioit. The High 361tÄ: '

Texts and Translations

The Eluci.dation:

,;.

ri::

and 1937:

A. W. Thompson (New York,

See

1931)

lElucidationl. Bliocadran: A Prologue to the Perceval of Chrötien de Troyes, Edition and Critical Study. Ed. by L. D. Wolfgang. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie 150 (Tübingen, 1976) lBliocadranl. Chrötien de Troyes (ii) below (Other Editions).

See

r-

Chrötien de T

Other Editions The Apocrvpll,t. .', other I\ urru : Chrötien de Tr -- ', -"

C.Potvin.6' .

The Continuations

Der Per,,

1932) (Elut;,,:.,

'

The Continuations of the Old French Perceval of Chrötien de Troyes. Ed. by W. J. Roach (Philadelphia, 1949 S3).I: The First Continuation, Mixed Redaction of MSS. TV (1949); II (with R. H. Ivy, Jr.): The First Continuation, Long Redaction of MSS. EMQU (1950); III, i: First Continuation, Short Redaction of MSS. ALPRS (1952); III, ii: Glossary to the First Continuation by L. Foulet (1955); IV: The Second Continuation (1971); V: The Third Continuation by Manessier (1983). Gerbert de Montreuil, La Continuation de Perceval. (i) Ed. by M. Williams, 2 vols, CFMA 28, 50 (Paris,1922-5); (ii) ed. by M. Oswald, CFMA 101 (Paris, 1975) [Gerbert].

Le Conte clti (-,'

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ru

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

270

Gerbert de Montreuil, Le Roman de la Violette ou de Gerard de Nevers. Ed. by D. L. Buffum, SATF (Paris, 1928). Jehan Bodel, La Chanson des Saisnes. Ed. by A. Brasseur, TLF 369 (Geneva, 1989). Marie de France, Lais.Ed. by A. Ewert (Oxford, 1944). La Mort le roi Artu: roman du XIIF siöcle. Ed. by J. Frappier, TLF 58, 3rd edn (Geneva, 1964). La Queste del Saint Graal.Ed. by A. Pauphilet, CFMA 33 (Paris, 1923). La Vie mon signeur seint Nicholas le beneoit confessor. Ed. by J. J. Thompson, TLF 508 (Geneva, 1999). Wace: (i) Le Romande Brut de Wace.Ed. by I. Arnold,2 vols, SATF (Paris, 1938-40); (ii) Ze Roman de Rou de Wace. Ed. by A. J. Holden, 3 vols, SATF (Paris, 1970-3). Wauchier de Denain, L'Histoire des moines d'Egypte suivie de La Vie de Saint-Paul le Simple.Ed.by M. Szkilnik, TLF 427 (Geneva, 1993).

Studies

Busby 1998 "'E. r.-I-

Miscell0nt'ei

\.''.

Busby, K.. T.

-

. "

'

The Mzntt;,-,' ; Carman. J. \. - -:-

Kansas Hr.in-.-::.

Cerquiglini. B

-

*'

.

Cocito, L. 19-! ,,-, Corley, C. 19S: '3 :

Corley 1981. '\\ ,-. - Corley 1986 '\ i .: : 57 4-9r Corley l9Sl . T: : ' .

M. 1995. 'Introductior., The Post-Vulgate', in N. J. Lacy ed. Lancelot-Grail: The Old French Arthurian Vulgate and Post-Vulgate in Translation, New York and London, IY 163-6. Baldwin, J. W. 2000. Aristocratic Life in Medieval France: The Romances of Jean Renart and Gerbert de Montreuil, I190 1230, Baltimore. Baumgartner, E. 2001. Le Merlin en prose: fondations du röcit arthurien,Paris.

Asher,

Bazin-Tacchella, S. 2000. Le Merlin de Robert de Boron (with T. Revol and J.-R.Valette), Neuilly. Becker, P.-A. 1935. 'Von den Erzählern neben und nach Chrestien de Troyes', ZrE 55,257-92. Beer, J. M. A. 1992. Early Prose in France: Contexts of Bilingualism and Authority, Kalamazoo, MI. Berthelot, A. 1989. Histoire de la littörature frangaise du Moyen Äge,Patis. Berthelot 1994. 'L'Autre Monde incarnö: Chastel Mortel et Chastel des Armes dans le Perlesvaus', in Buschinger and Spiewok eds König Artus und der heilige Graal, Greifswald,2T-37 . Bogdanow, F. 1966. The Romance of the Grail: A Study of the Structure and Genesis of a Thirteenth' Century Arthurian Prose Romance, Manchester and New York. Bogdanow 1 984.'I[. Le Perle sv aus', it GRL M A*, IY :2, 43-67 . Bogdanow 1996. 'Post-Vulgate Cycle', in Lacy ed. 1996c*,364-6. Bozoky, 8.1974. 'La Böte Glatissante et le Graal: les transformations d'un thÖme allÖgorique dans quelques romans arthuriens', Revue de I'Histoire des Religions, 186, 12748. Bozoky 1980. 'Quötes entrelac6es et itin6raire rituel (regard sur la structure de 1a deuxiÖme continuation du Perceval', it Mölanges de langue et de littörature frangaises du Moyen Äge et de la Renaissance offerts d Monsieur Charles Foulon, 2 vols, I, Rennes, 49-57. Bruckner, M. T. 1993. 'The Poetics of Continuation in Medieval French Romance: From Chr6tien's Cont e du Graal to the Perceval Continuations', F F, 18, 13349. Bruckner 1996. 'Rewriting Chr6tien's Conte du Graal - Mothers and Sons: Questions, Contradictions, and Connections', in Kelly ed. 1996* ,21344. Bruckner 1999. 'Knightly Violence and Grail Quest Endings: Conflicting Views from the Vulgate Cycle to the Perc eval Continuations', M &H, rcw series, 26, l7 -32. Bruckner 2000. 'Looping the Loop Through a Tale of Beginnings, Middles, and Ends: From Chr(tien to Gerbert inthe Perceval Continuations',in'Por le soie amistö': Essays in Honor of Norris l. Lacy, Amsterdam and Atlanta, GA, 33-51. Bruggeq E. 1930. 'Der sog. Didot-Percevaf , ZISL,53, 389+59. Burns, E. J. 1985. Arthurian Fictions: Rereading the Vulgate Cycle,Columbus, OH.

Busby,

Busby 1993b. 'T..: -: I. Short ed. . --:

K.

1983. 'Der Tristan Menestrel des Gerbert de Montreuil und seine Stellung in der

altfranzösischen Artustradition', V R, 42, I 44-5 6. Busby 1987-8. 'William Roach's Continuations of Perceval', RPh,41,298-309.

Busby 1993a. 'Text, Miniature, and Rubric in the Continuations of Chr6tien's Perceval', in Busby,

Nixon, Stones and Walters eds 1993,I,365-76.

Study, Lond,-

\l

De Riquer.

.-.

. -:--

ciones" N,{ac:.: Doner, J. 199i 'L:,, Doner 1996. 'S - Continuut ir ,:- '

l9--

Dubost, F.

ll7 , 449-- : Fauchet, C. 1 i: Geneva.

--

i' . :-

Senefiance

--

19

.

Foulet, J. 1959 '> -.

lqi-

a

19ri 'L.

:

Frangois,, C.

Frappier. J.

Frappier 195S

.

Gallais. P. 1 9r-., Continulli, ,i.-,-Gallais 196-+b, e . mödiövl/€ r,.'-.

Gallais 1961 . 8.: Littörattu', ( Gallais 1910. 'R. de la Renui,

Gallais

I 98

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272

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Grigsby, J. L. 1987-8a. 'Heroes and their Destinies in the Continuations of Chrötien's Perceval', in Lacy, Kelly and Busby eds. 1987-8*, II, 4l-53. Grigsby 1987-8b.'Remnants of Chr6tien's,iEsthetics in the Early Perceval Continuations and the Incipient Triumph of Writing', RPh, 41, 31 9-93. Grimbert, J. T. 1990-1. 'Testimony and "Truth" in Joseph d'Arimathie', RPh, 44,379401. Hoepffner, E. 1951. 'L'Estoire dou üaal de Robert de Boron', in R. Nelli ed. Lumiöre du Graal:

541-5'.7.

Larmat 1979. 'Perceval et le Chevalier au Dragon,

1a

Croix et le Diable', in Le Diable au Moyen

Äge, Senefiance, 6, Aix-en-Provence, 293-305. Leupin, A,. 1979. 'Les Enfants de la mimösis: diff6rence et r6p6tition dans la premiöre continuation

dt Perceval , VR,38, 11026. Leupin 1982.'La Faille et 1'6criture dans les continuations du Perceval', MA,88,237-69. Lloyd-Morgan, C. 1984. 'The Relationship between the Perlesvaus and the Prose Lancelot', Med. Aev,53,239-53. Loomis, R. S. 1963. The Grail: From Celtic Myth to Christian Symbol, Cardiff and New York. Lot, F. 1918. Etude sur le Lancelot enprose,Paris. Luttrell, C. 1989. 'The Arthurian Hunt with a White Bratchet', AL,9,51-80. Lynde-Recchia, M. 2000. Prose, Verse, and Truth-Telling in the Thirteenth-Century,Lexington, KY. Meneghetti, M.-L. 1987-8. 'Signification et fonction r6ceptionnelle del'Elucidation dtt Perceval , rn Lacy, Kelly and Busby eds 1987-8*,

II,

55-69.

Micha, A. 1956-7.'L'Origine de la Table du Graal et de la Table Ronde chez Robert de Boron', RPh,9, t73-7. Micha 1958. 'Les Manuscritsd:u Merlin en prose de Robert de Boron', Rom,79,78-94,145*74. Micha 1960 and 1963 . 'Les Manuscrits dt Lancelot en prose' , Rom, 8l, 145-81;84, 28-60. Micha 1964 ar.d 1966.'La Tradition manuscrite du Lancelot en prose' , Rom, 85,293-318, 478-517; 81,194-233.

Micha1968."'Matiöre"et"sen"dansl'EstoiredouGraaldeRobertdeBoron', Rom,89,457-80. Micha 1978. 'L'Influence du Merlin de Robert de Boron', TLL,16,395409. Boron,PRF 151, Geneva. Nitze, W. A. 1943.'The Esplumoir Merlin', Spec,l8,69-79. Nitze 1953. 'Messire Robert de Boron: Enquiry and Summary', Spec,28,219-96. O'Gorman, R. 1971. 'La Tradition manuscrite du Joseph d'Arimathie en prose de Robert de Boron', RHT,1,145-81. O'Gorman 7979.'A Note on the Orthodoxy of Robert de Boron', NM,80,387-90. O'Gorman 1996. 'Robert de Boron', in Lacy ed. 1996c*, 385-6. de Robert de

-

*.-

Didot-Per,o,.,-

-l

Pickens 19ES 'HBoron et ie ..'. :. - :

'{

Pickens 199-1

-.

-

199: F" -

Pickens

ötudes et text e s, Paris, 1 39-50.

Hoepffner 1956. 'Robert de Boron et Chr6tien de Troyes', in Les Romans du Graal aux XIF et XIIF siäcles, Strasbourg,29 mars-3 avril 1954, Paris,93-106. Ivy, R. H., Jr. 1951. The Manuscript Relations of Manessier's Continuation of the Old French Per c ev al, Philadelphia. Kelly, T. 8.1974. Le Haut Livre du Graal: Perlesvaus, a Structural Study,Geneva. Kennedy, E. 1986. Lancelot and the Grail: A Study of the Prose Lancelot, Oxford. Kennedy 1 998. 'Structures d'entrelacement contrastantes dans le Lancelot et prose et le Perlesvaus' , in Miscellanea mediaevalia: mölanges offerts d Philippe Mönard,2 vols, Paris, 1I,745-51 . Kjaa J. 1990. 'L'Episode de "Tristan mönestrel" dans la "Continuation de Perceval" par Gerbert de Montreuil (XIII'siöcle): essai d'interprötation', Revue Romane,25,356-66. Lacy, N. J. 1989. 'Linking in the Perlesvaus', in G. Mermier ed. Contemporary Readings of Medieval Literature, Michigan Romance Studies, 8, I 69-78. Lacy 1996.'Motif Tiansfer in Arthurian Romance', in Kelly ed. 1996*,157-68. Larmat,J. 1974. 'Le P6chö de Perceval dans la Continuation de Gerbert', in Mölanges d'histoire littöraire, de linguistique et de philologie romanes offerts ii Charles Rostaing,2 vols, LiÖge, I,

Micha 1980. Etude sur le Merlin

Pickens, R. T.

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VII

:

LANCELOT WITH AND WITHOUT THE GRAIL: LANCELOT DO LAC AND THE VULGATE CYCLE

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tElspeth Kennedy (ed.), Michelle Szkilnik, Rupert T. Pickens, Karen Pratt and Andrea M. L. Williams

Lancelot with and without the Grail

the journer : first advenL.:;

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episodes.

The Lancelot-Grail Cycle, which, to judge from the number of surviving manuscripts, was, like the prose Tristan and the Roman de la Rose, a medieval 'bestseller', consisted in its final version (the Vulgate Cycle) of the following parts:

(i)

L'Estoire del Saint Graal

(ii) Merlin and its Suite (aprose version of the Merlin of Robert de Boron and a Continuation) Le Lancelot proper (a modern, not a medieval title) which begins 'En la marche de Gaule'with an account of the events that led to Lancelot being carried away by the Lady of the Lake and contains all the adventures of Lancelot and some of those of other Arthurian knights up to the beginning of the Grail Quest (iv) La Queste del Saint Graal or Les Aventures del Saint Graal (v) La Mort le roi Artu.l

(111)

However, it is generally agreed that the romance was not planned from the beginning in these terms. The contrasts and contradictions within a closely interlacing structure have fascinated scholars for years. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century Brugger (1906-10) argued that the Cycle was preceded by one combining a Lancelot romance with a Perceval quest; Bruce (1918-19) emphasized what he saw as the disunity of the work and ascribed a major role to interpolators and remanieurs. Lot (1918), whilst admitting that the Merlin (atd its Continuation) was a later addition, maintained that all the other branches of the Cycle were by a single author and stressed its unity. Frappier (1954-5;1961, appendix; 1978a) believed that the romance from 'En la marche de Gaule'to the end of the Mort Artu was planned by an 'architect' directing a team of writers. Micha (1961; 1973) too argues eloquently for the unity of the Cycle. Both scholars maintain that the Estoire and Merlin, which was provided with a Continuation to link up with the beginning of the Lancelot in many, but not all manuscripts containing this part of the Cycle, are later additions (see the section

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

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Lot

1918, 120,n.15; Micha 1964,297-8). As can be seen from a study

of the variants, the inconsistency with the Queste is perceived by a number of scribes, including that of London, British Library, Additional MS 10293 (the base manuscript for the editions of both Micha (LM,7,59) and Sommer for this part of the text), who names 'Galaat'as the knight who sat in the Perilous Seat and saw the Grail 'apertement' (openly) and identifies Pell6s as his grandfather (E. Kennedy 1993). The uncorrected allusions to the Grail in the part of the text common to all manuscripts before there is a division into pre-cyclic and cyclic versions would fit in, therefore, with the whole pattern of allusions outwards to the wider Arthurian context to be found in the tale of Lancelot up to his installation as a Knight of the Round Table. The version to be found in BNF, fr. 768 and its related manuscripts, which brings the story to an end with the death of Galehot, would indeed seem to represent the first stage in the development of the prose tale of Lancelot (cf. Micha 1987, 57_.83). The second stage incorporates a prose version of Chr6tien's Chanette,adding other adventures (including some preparing the way for a Grail Quest), a Queste with Galahad as the main Grailwinner and a Mort Attu.Inthe third stage, an early history of the Grail (the Estoire) is specially written to prepare the way for the Galahad Queste, but also looks forward to other events in the Cycle (compare the building of Solomon's boat in Estoire,283-90 and Queste,220-6; the history of the Croix Noire in Estoire, 479-84; LM,2,3204). At this stage too was added a Merlin based on the prose version of Robert de Boron's work, to be followed by a Continuation preparing the way for the Lancelot with episodes looking forward to the war that led to the death of Lancelot's father (for example ,S, II, 444-50, 465-6).In stage three, alongside correlation there is also contradiction: for example, that between the version of the birth of Merlin to be found in the account of Lancelot's childhood, where Merlin is an unredeemed child of a devil, useful only to give the Lady of the Lake lessons in magic and then imprisoned by her, and that given in the Merlin, where he is a prophet of the Holy Grail. This and other such contradictions do not pass unnoticed, so that even after the third and final stage in the structural development of the Cycle is reached, scribes often attempt to smooth away such contradictions, though frequently removing one form of inconsistency only to create another (E. Kennedy 1970,525-7;1986, 111-55, 309). An interesting feature of a manuscript such as BNF, fr. 113-16, is the attempt to bring some Tiistan adventures into the Lancelot story, as opposed to setting the Tiistan story in the context of the Lancelot-Grail Cycle, as happens in the prose Tristan (Baumgartner 1975, 11S-32). Those manuscripts that link up with the prose Tristan prepare the way for the Reader's Digest type of compendium of Arthurian romance to be found in a fifteenth-century manuscript such as BNR fr. Il2, which contains some chunks of the Lancelot-Grail in unshortened form

*l

pesn),8u[qureJ, pu€,snoqdJorrre, sruJe] eql ueql olunocce olut ue{€l ere (1xe1eq1 urglr^! peryeu,(Feelc suorlcurlsrp) lecl.roSelle-uou eql pue 1ecrro3e11e oql ueo.e{}eq epeur eJe ]eg1 suollcullslp oql JI pue 'pezr:esqo eJ€ 'spremlcuq pue spJu^\JoJ secueJoJoJ Jo '1se.r1uoc pue Suuted go su.re11ud relnctped s1l JI pus 'sur.rel urrro s1r o1 Surprocce peqceordde sr 1xe1Ie^olpeur e Jrwql ]soEEns plno,tt 1 terrezvroll '1xeleg} 3o Surluryrer ponurluoc e ur uorlrledeJ JO uJollsd eq1;o ecueuodun eql pezrseqdue ,(11qEr.r seq lnq'lueurdoye.tep o^IleJJeu ]ueJetloc ro euq-1o1d IsIlueJeJeJ snonulluoc e JoJ r{cr€os oql ruo:3 sleer}er eqg 'qcuordde lue.regrp 3 uo{e} seq (e9361) surng ' \olloJ o1 seA\ l€q1Y\ qllA\ s>lulT u.&\o rleql pelEeJc pue relel peppu eß1'l' ulLtaw eql otustctluc,fte"lelrl pue ailolsg egl leql trupe plno,ry\ €qclntr puu retdderg q8noqrle Jo srrrJo] Ie^orpeu-lsod leq.ueuros uI sorulleuos 'e1c,(3 er{} Jo ,(1tun eq1 pezls -uqdue IIe e^eq €qclhtr pue rerdderg '1o'I 'uor1e1ueur8"r3 e^I}€JJeu uo pue seyc,(c uo ocnJf, pue reEEn.rf, s€ qcns scIlIJc ,(q uolle;luecuocJe^o ue JoUY ,(pee

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TIVUD EHI INOHIIA\ CII{V HII1Y\ IOTE]NIVT

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278

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

by Burns) seem also to be a post-medieval imposition on a work that requires a different kind of reading. Because of the immense length of the Cycle in its 'final form'(a term to be wary of in relation to much medieval vernacular literature) scholars have tended to concentrate upon a particular part of the text without always placing it within a wider context; no one branch should ever be read in isolation from the whole. The references to what the tale has told and what the tale will tell or not tell are significant, as can be the recurrence of similar episodes that may serve to make links, to emphasize certain themes. It must be admitted that some parts of the Cycle are more successful at creating meaningful patterns than others, but this is a complex work in which different kinds of truth are explored. Lancelot remains the central figure for much of the Cycle, but there are subtle or more obvious shifts in the way he himself and his relationship with Arthur and Guinevere are presented as the narrative progresses. There is no single voice to be believed without question; earlier events are continually being reinterpreted. 'Li contes' can introduce new information that leads to a reinterpretation of the past, but it is not the sole voice of authority. Nor should the interpretation of earlier episodes given by men of religion and true for the time of the Grail adventures necessarily still be valid after the end of the Queste. As in that other great romance that developed in more than one stage and was widely read for centuries, the Roman de la Rose, there is a tension between various possibilities, no single answer is given, and we oversimplify at our peril (E. Kennedy 1996a). 1nrl

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L'Estoire del Saint Graal

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The anonymous prose text, the Estoire del Saint Graal, has always belonged to the Lancelot-Grail Cycle; conceived as part of a whole, it was never an independent romance. Occupying the first position in the internal chronology of the Cycle, it recounts the translatio of the Grail from the foot of the Holy Cross to the shores of Great Britain, which is subsequently christianized. Evidently inspired by Robert de Boron's verse Estoire dou Graal, otherwise known as Joseph, it considerably expands the story in order to account not only for the existence of the Grail, but also for many characters and places found in the Lancelot-Grail Cycle. In a long prologue (##1-30), the narrator, a hermit living in the year 717, explains how, on the night before Good Friday, Christ gave him a small book. Whilst reading it, the narrator was taken in spirit to heaven, where he was given access to the mystery of the Holy Trinity. Having returned to his senses, he locked the book in a box containing the host, but on Easter day, the book was missing.

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280

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

This strange text has long suffered from scholarly contempt. Lot (1918,278) described it as weak and boring; Frappier (1961, 56) commented on its literary mediocrity. These very severe judgements by two respected scholars explain why until very recently no one had chosen to edit or analyse the Estoire. Three editions of the text had been published: two in the nineteenth century (Furnivall and Hucher) and one at the beginning of the twentieth (Sommer). But all are hard to find and all are unsatisfactory. This is all the more surprising since the text was obviously very popular throughout the Middle Ages; two versions (a long and a short) exist, in forty-four extant manuscripts dating from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century. There are also a number of fragments dispersed in several manuscripts and two sixteeenth-century printed editions. Besides being the first part of the Lancelot-Grail Cycle, the Estoire was probably reused to form the first part of the Post-Vulgate Roman du Graal, see chapter IX). It was also translated and adapted into other languages, notably Portuguese and Spanish. In the last decade of the twentieth century, however, scholars rediscovered this very original work and began to re-evaluate its qualities. ln 1997, Ponceau published a new edition, based on two manuscripts: Amsterdam, Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica, MS 1 (fols 1a-63d) for the first half, and, for the second half, Rennes, Bibliothöque Municipale,255 (fols 43f-100e), a representative of the long version that Ponceau (edn, xxviii), Micha (LM,l, xiv) and most other scholars now deem to be the original one.5 An English translation has been provided by Chase (Lacy transl. I, 1993), but to date there is no translation into modern French of the long version, only of the short (see Le Livre du Graal, Poirion and Walter edn, vol. 1). Nothing is known about the author of the Estoire; some scholars have suggested that the author might be from Corbie (Picardy) or Meaux (near Paris), and Ponceau does not refute these hypotheses (edn, xi, nn. 3 and 4). As in many other parts of the Cycle, the name of Robert de Boron is given several times as the person who translated from Latin into the vernacular the book first transcribed by a hermit who acquired the story from Christ himself (Ponceau edn, §§613, 757). Ponceau (1998) clearly demonstrates what many scholars had stated earlier: the Estoire andthe Questewere not written by the same person (Szkilnik 1991b), and it is now generally accepted that the Estoirewas added to an existing Cycle. What has mainly fascinated scholars in this unusual text is the long and elaborate prologue in which the narrator, who presents himself as a hermit living in a remote place, explains how he happened to receive a book written by Christ, which contains the story we are going to read. Leupin (1979;1982) was the first scholar to produce an enlightening study of the prologue and to question the locus from which the discourse originates (Szkilnik l99la, esp. chapter 3; Kelly 1988). Other scholars, such as Burns (1985b) and Chase (1994), have examined narratorial interventions in this branch of the Cycle. The linguistic approach

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TIVUD EHI INOHII1Y\ CINIV HIIA\ J,OTEfTTVT

282

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

specifically Saracens, is central to the account of the history of the Croix Noire in

whether the

explored further in the Estoire. Yet this aspect has not received all the attention it deserves, despite the work of scholars such as Chase (1995). The Estoire's main protagonists afe, in some cases, Christians from the start, Joseph and his son Joseph6, for example, but most of them are new converts, examples being Evalach-Mordrain, Seraphe-Nascien and his son Chelidoine, and King Label and his daughter. Thus the atmosphere of the text is strikingly epic. The Saracens play a major role, whether they embrace en masse the new faith or die during great battles against Christ's heroic

case, the

LM,2,3204, a topic picked up and

knights.

Christian proselytization is the other remarkable theme of this branch. Some heroes specialize in preaching to the pagans: Joseph of Arimathea is the first one to lecture Evalach about the mysteries of the Christian faith, explaining to him both the Holy Tiinity, Christ's virginal Conception and Birth, the Redemption and other obscure points. But soon, he is replaced in that role by his son JosephÖ, whom Christ himself appoints as first bishop. JosephÖ then becomes the most vehement and gifted preacher, the one to whom everyone else defers when confronted with incredulous pagans, the one who relentlessly harangues his own followers, in turn scolding, comforting or explaining. Chelidoine is also invested with this evangelizing mission: although still a young boy, he converts Label, King of Persia, and later initiates Duke Ganor in the tenets of the Christian faith, thus preparing his subsequent conversion by Joseph6. These long sermons might seem boring or exasperating to modern readers, yet they deserve careful analysis. Whilst in some way they recall the lessons given by hermits in the Queste, especially when JosephÖ, for example, glosses a vision detail by detail, they are also very different in that they usually take place in front of a big audience, sometimes even in some sort of debate against 'clers de la loi sarrasine' (doctors of the pagan law). The moral is geared towards one individual, but also towards a whole group that is expected to convert, and it is often accompanied by a miraculous intervention; for example, the incredulous pagan doctor who dares to contradict the Christians is either stunned or dies on the spot, and an injured man is healed by touching Evalach's shield. The mass conversion that ensues is usually followed by the destruction of pagan idols and the purification of temples turned into churches. Seen in the thirteenth-century context of the Crusades, of the reconquest of the Holy Land, of renewed attempts at converting Muslims, the work takes on a much more combative tone. The recurring description of Joseph6 and his disciples entering pagafi cities or castles, barefoot and poorly attired, brings to mind the Franciscan friars and their missions to the Muslims, for example, St Francis's mission to the Egyptian Sultan al-Kamil, which took place in 1219. Scholars agree that the Queste del Saint Graal was written under Cistercian influence. It would be of great interest to examine

f

ditf::-:

individual

Si1.', ..

chatacter is re::

of whole pe tri.;

conquest mar;;: crosses. It is ", -t' Queste.

In tle:.

reference s a 1re

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by Joseph (L\!

Estoire to the C' The Estoiro .

merveilleur th;: by Dubost (1v-

by Christ is

'C

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Ponceau edn. r

boding. Most r audience is als, cially true in ::desert island. :, their faith. D -.: texts most m.i::.

islands). Since r: adopt the por:r face of supe r-; decipher the r.; in the Estctir', ) Seems to hesit.., realistic) and s -"

theQueste.au. example is

th;

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Peril. The pr-".

:

interesting in : :. . 100-5). The )r; diverses: the

1-

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tizing the

ilto::

insists that t h: them and thus

:

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284

THE ARTHI]R OF THE FRENCH

Far from being a negligible text, written by a mediocre author who was trying to compete with his more gifted predecessors, the Estoire deserves more critical attention. Conceived as a retelling of the enfances of the Grail, its goal was to perfect the symmetry of the Vulgate Cycle by providing a new beginning to balance the Mort Artu at the end. As a latecomeq it was able to fill in the gaps, supply extra explanations where needed, assure the cohesion of the whole and reflect on the entire project. The Estoire is indeed a key text in our understanding of how cycles were formed and evolved. [vtsl

Carmelide äS-: brothers rec,--, a:' Meanwhile.::.: Arthur, \\.hc ;:the former äpl; Saxott

tlrt.,

the kingdon

Meanwhile. C -. (identified as \i ,S: 124-8).

Merlin and its Suite The Vulgate Merlin (Sommer edn, II) consists of two major sections. The Merlin proper (II, 1-88, about one fifth of the total), the text of which resembles mofe or less that of the early thirteenth-century mise en prose of Robert de Boron's verse Merlin (see chapter VI), is followed by a Suite Merlin, or Merlin Continuation (II, 88466, four times longer), which is designed to link Robert's text to the prose Lancelot, the Grail material that accrues to it, much of which also derives from

Robert de Boron, and the concluding Mort Artu. Thus, although the Merlin proper, in its independent form, was undoubtedly the earliest of the components of the Vulgate Cycle to be composed, the Vulgate Merlin as a whole was perhaps the latest. As we shall see, the Merlin proper is not fully reworked stylistically to mesh flawlessly with the other branches, nor does it reflect the degree to which the Continuation is tailored to conform with them. The Merlin proper. Merlin is conceived by an incubus and successfully defends his mother in court (#1, S: 3-20).6 Merlin explains why Vortigern's tower will not stand (#2, S: 20-35). Merlin supports the reigns of Pendragon and Uther and establishes the Round Table (#3, ,S: 35-58). King Uther falls in love with Ygerne and Merlin uses magic to bring about Arthur's conception. Uther marries Ygerne after her husband, the Duke of Tintagel, is killed and he wins the loyalty of the duke's vassals (#4, S: 58-30). Arthur, raised without knowledge of his lineage, is crowned after he pulls the sword from the stone as a sign that he is a divinely ordained king (#5, S: 80-8). The Suite: Rebellion of (lther's barons. Led by the Six Kings (Aguisant of Scotland; his father Caradoc, a knight of the Round Table; Lot of Orkney and Lothian; Neutre of Garlot; Urien of Gorre;Yder [of Cornwall]), Uther's barons refuse to pay Arthur homage even after Merlin and the Duke of Tintagel's men swear that Arthur is Uther's son. The kings rebel, along with the knights of Uther's Round Table. Arthur, armed with Excalibur and aided by Merlin, routs them. Merlin has Arthur summon the brother kings, Ban of Benoyc and Bohort of Gaunes, from Brittany to fight alongside the rebellious King Leodagan of

H..

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sons by anoth;. ,S: 128-3 11. (Tr-.

lady was his

s.

strengthen t h:.

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an ally of tiie : Meanwhile. ti.; SonS leave

t tr

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atlack retreiit - t-. . (London) joir. join forces u i r:, The Knights r',:(#I4, ,S: 1-+ 1-: Arthur and h.. distinguishec :: same night Lts .. stands out in -:.. to Denmark I,t: .

l

Arthur un,i

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remains hidtJ::. Arthur as sup;: Continue

t/ .I.

informs the r i;: sons, GaleSC.1. .: Tiadelmant r-,.- \ Saxons at Ar,.: - . attack a SAr...:the enem)' res:Arthur's hali- s -

Bademagu

s

Star-.

claim the p1u:-; two Yvains u is:-

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286

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

forces the Saxons to withdraw aftet a hard battle (#19, S: 164-71)- Kings Caradoc, Belinant and Brandegofre force the Saxons to retreat from South the Wales. Meanwhile, Brandegorre's son, Dodinel the Wildman, hears about to vow Estral, Kay of son, Caradoc's exploits of Arthur's nephews, and he and King by ruled join them (#20, S: tit-+). Saxons invade Northumberland, At Clarion, who summons the aid of Duke Escant of Cambenic (#21, S: 174-8)' have the Saxons that kings Carhaix, Merlin informs Arthur and the brother in attacked Yder in Cornwall, Lot in Orkney and Loonois (Lothian) and Clarion Northumberland. Lot's sons and their companions need Merlin's help' Meanwhile, Sagremor and his friends arrive from Constantinople and prepare to face a Saxon contingent near Camelot, which Lot's sons have come to defend' Disguised u, u p.u*rrt, Merlin convinces Lot's sons to join Sagremor. After h.ury but indecisive fighting, they all withdraw to Camelot (##22-3, S: 178-86)' Clarion and Escant drive the Saxons out of Northumberland, while Gauvain raises an afmy and heads towards Arundel. The two Yvains and their compan(#24, ions join Ydei's forces to defend Cornwall, facing the enemy at a bridge

S: 187-91).

Moves toward reconciliation. Disguised as a runner, Merlin purports to deliver

to Gauvain a letter from Yvain asking for help. Gauvain and his companions

rush to Cornwall to join the fight with Agravain in the lead. The combined forces of decimate the Saxons. The young heroes move to Arundel, defended by Kay Estral, Kehedin, and others who seek to join Arthur. The combined troops drive the Saxons to their stronghold. Merlin, in the form of an old man, convinces the young companions to withdraw to Arundel and await Arthur' Meanwhile, as Lot fl... hi, devastated lands with his wife and the infant Mordred, the queen is taken prisoner during a Saxon skirmish. Near Arundel, as Gauvain and his

.o*puniors ride through the forest at Merlin's behest, Lot's squire, who

has

with Mordred, informs them of the kidnapping. From afar Gauvain sees his mother being manhandled by Saxons; he leads his companion into their ranks and crushes them. Merlin flies to Gaul to incite Leonce of Payerne and Pharian to prepare to defend Ban's and Bohort's lands against the Roman consul Pontius A"1no"y, King Claudas of the Land Laid Waste and King Frollo of Germany' Later,he sees and falls in love with Viviane, who will bring about his downfall. In exchange for her promise of love, he begins to teach her magic. The rebellious kings meet at Lancaster to plan a final campaign against the Saxons. üeanwhile, Merlin returns to Carhaix and promises success in Gaul and Britain. Leodagan begs Arthur to lead the defence against Rion and his giants, and, at Merlin's urging, offers him Guinevere in marriage. When Merlin reveals Arthur,s identity, Leodagan and the Knights of the Round Table swear fealty to him. Various knights shine in an extended battle. Arthur wounds Rion, whose sword (Marmiadoise) he wins and begins to use. The Saxons are routed, with escaped

Merlin's he1r. .: (##25-3 1. 5 Merlin inst r -..: brother. On 1. . . that await L.t:-. - . lious King \::.-,

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TIVUD EHI INOHJI1!\ CIT{V HJIA IOTEJI{YT

288

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

(#39, quests for the best knight in the world, who is predicted to find it prompts -S-gi. Ban and Lot recommend that Arthur seek reconciliation with the i: :f will remaining rebellious kings in order to drive out the Saxons' Lot and his sons in sefve as Arthur's ambassadors (#40, S: 335-9). As they head for Arestel, but Saxons, by attacked are they Scotland, where Lot means to assemble the rebels, King Pelles escape after inflicting great losses (#41, S: 339-46)' The son of (Eliezer), intent on Ueing Gauvain's squire, leaves for Arthur's court, where his attacked by cousir, (Perceval) is training to become a knight. He and his squire are Arestel and enters Saxons and kill them. He joins Lot and his sons on their way to encounter Gauvain's service (##424, S:346-64).Later, Lot and his companions rebellious The Saxons near Cambenic andjoin Duke Escant's forces to crush them. kings gather at Arestel and agree to band with Arthur to fight the Saxons on bids Salisbury Plain on All Saints; Day (#45, S:365_74).In Brittany, Merlin Arthur Leonce of Payerne, Pharian and others to join forces with them, while kings summons his barons throughout Logres (#46, S:374-53). The rebellious courand his charm with meet Arthur on salisbury Plain. Arthur wins them over tesy. Gauvain knights Eliezer. Merlin leads the combined forces to Clarence, sea, where half besieged by Saxons. After a great battle the Saxons are driven to the of the survivors are slain as the others escape by ship (##47-8, S: 383-401). Final victory oyer the Saxons. After leaving Camelot on their way to Brittany, Ban and Bohort happen upon the castle of the Fens, where Agravadain the Black offers hospitaiiiy. Bewitched by Merlin, Ban and Agravadain's daughter Meanwhile, sleep togeth., urd conceive a son (Hector de Maris) (#49, S: 401-7). King Rion, by as Arthur and his barons celebrate their victory, he is challenged who has again attacked Carmelide. Arthur leads his forces to Carhaix, where he kills Rion and ends the Saxon menace (##50-1, S: 407-19)' Victory oyer Rome and the coming adventures in Britain. Near Jerusalem, Merlin interprets the dream of a Saracen king, Flualis, which foretells his military defeat änd conversion to Christianity. Merlin visits Viviane, whom he continues to teach magic. When he returns to Arthur, messengers arrive from the Roman emperof Lucius, who lays claim to Britain and summons Arthur to Rome at Christrna s (#52, S: 420-7).e After landing in Gaul with a vast army, Arthur slays a devilish giant at Mont-Saint-Michel.10 Then he advances to the Aube, whlre he is joined by King Ban and King Bohort, to face the Romans, who are reinforced by Saracens. Gauvain leads an embassy to Lucius that goes awry when a skirmish develops into a great battle; the Romans and Saracens ale overwhelmed. On Merlin's advice, Arthur does not chase them into Italy, but leads his army to the Lake of Lausanne, where he kills a devil cat and defeats the army of rin! claudas (##53-5, S:427-45). At the castle of the Fens, Agravadain's daulhter gives birth to Hector. Meanwhile, Flualis's dream is fulfilled (#56, S: +7S-O;. efter Arthur's victories on the Continent, Merlin visits Blaise one last

time and r-: -.: Brocöliande i Queen's Knis-.:, a hideous d\,.r:.

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,

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Didot and

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the authentic . (2000*, 12-l-s SpeOular foln.: fatherless soll ,.,, l These indic-,: may have beer .

.

orll Jo ?utuedo eql1eq1 osle lnq 'slducsnueur egl Jo lsoru ul lsol ueeq ezreq,(eur ulLtary qpoqog ol Surpue yeul8uo er{l leqt,{po 1ou }se38ns suorlecrpu esoql 'sur8rro slq Jo rnqpv ol uo4?leler e qlr,tr uos sselreqleJ su JnqUV Jo Jrloru eql Jo uorleyduroc eq] serrnbeJ lceJ ur oeJueuror repceds e se'ru1ta14J s,Uegol{ go cr3o1 e^rl?JJeu eq} }€ql pe}erlsuoruop seq (g-nZt'*.0002) xoppenl 'e,nlcedsred Jeglou" anotl'uryDry s(Ueqoä ol uorsnlcuoc crluerllne erll slueserder .lor ]leJ le zrTso snuv nJ srsurg, Surmogog IerJeleru Buepotr I pue loprg er{l 13q1 ,(lEulculruoc senSru (1 reldeqc '0g6l :t6z'6161upe) eqclw '(I L '096I) :033ru9 pue (sI-II 'upe) qceoll 8ul.tro11og '(tOt-ßZ'upo qceog '7,08-E6Z '6161 upe eqclntr) ;eddng tsB"I ogt Jo elqet eql pue ecrlres Irerg oql qlra elq€J punog eqlel€rcosse to,roe.roru'pue qlrrq 1eÄor s.3ur1,!\eu eql Jo suoJeq eql pue Jnquv sruroJur urTJeI tr qclr{A\ ur eposrde u€ q}L!\ uluaw s(}reqou opnlcuoc (1n ;eldeqc ees '69 'g esualsg 'euepotr41 :g pue gfü 'tJ'bce nnou t51g 'sr:e4 :g) lotacta1-rcp?O oql uusu€J] 1eql sldrrcsnueru oltrl eql telemoll 'uorlenurluoC e1e31nn uoruruoc eql qlr^\ speeco.rd e1c,(3 e1e31nn er{J '(g-rs '16§'acoad ut ruop?urtl aqt puo puq aW ppq ary pun 'sat?o7 to u.rop7ultl ary lo 3utt1 apow pun uasoqc .mqt.ty sou srug),sred uo eruneroJ el lo eJJel el 1ul1 1e ser8o1 op erunsroJ nop roJ ueJ }e zrlse snlJv nJ srsura, :spue 13q1 uorlBuoJoc s(Jnqilv Jo lunocce JeIJq u qllx mUaW s(UeqoU epnlcuoc slducsnueur go ,{1uo[eur Sulurleq,tuelo eqI 'luept,re-Jles lou sr sul8eq uorlunurluo3 e1e81nn eql pue spue mUaW s.uorofl ep ueqod ereq \ eceld eql '(6L61upe sgcrIAI puu i11 'g ,(1qe1ou) suorlrpe elqele^e Jo srseq oql uO rr'se^rrep redord qryahl eql qcrq^\ ruo{ }xe} eqt Jo Surpue oq} puu uorl€nurluo3 e1e31nn er{} Jo Suruur8eq eq1 ueelqeq drqsuollele.l ärll Jo eJn}eu erll suJecuoc ,(reruurns 8uro8eroJ egl ur lueredde lou ulelqoJd 1en1xe1 eug '@-SgV:S '09#) esol uoos IIrlY\ 0q qc1q,&'eqer1 Jo ellsec eql 01 pocnpeJ e"re sEulploq s.uu[ s.relroddns ueruo11 sq pue sepnBIJ,(q peuleqlue^o pue pe{cet}u sr ueg toueereql fyUoqg 'uroq sr uos puoces srq relJe,(1uoqs serp iloqog 3ury1 'poqog o1 te1el meß,e 'pue 1euor1 ol gUIq selr8 ey.r s.Uoqog 8ur; '(1o1ecue.I peflec osyu) peqeleg ot qlrrq sezrr8

ourelg ueen§ '(S-SSI :S '6-gs##) sernluenpe rreqt elelcrp pue Unoc s.rnqlrv 01 uJnleJ 'uruepelg ?urpnlcur 's1q3ru1[V 'elels IeJn]uu sq ol poJo]soJ sr ool oq'urFI leer8 ,(eqt eroJeq ureql leer8 pue serpel dloq s,(ulr1e rur!\ eq ]Brll qleo ue sJeelrrs pue s1q8ru>l egl sleeJep eq relJv dpel e Surlpesse s1qEru1,(q pelunul sr oq uerl \ JJe^\p e oruoceq s€q eq 1eq1 sJe^ocsrp ureln€C 'sp.lezrrelgu uoos 'e^ol ut sseu -qsgooJ srq Eu4ueupl ocro^ perpoquesrp € se rurq spug eq uoql( urTJeI tr rog lsenb

eql uI speeccns ure^nec 'uIeql sesselq pue,(pe1 sII{ pue luFI ,(q sessed ure^nec ueq,r ,(1nueq pue ozrs Iurnleu sFI ol perolseJ sr eq te1e1 'Unoc o1 lqSnorq uepr€ru InJpneoq e tuor{,lr'elro8epuerg 8ul) Jo uos 'rueepea,g J"relrp snoeprg e s1q3ru>l rnqlrv '(;S-AW:S '1.§#) urlg roJ slsenb Ienpr^rpur eleru slqSru11 s,usen§ egl 6ecueJeeddesrp s6urlJel I .te,ro ;eu8 s6JnrlUV o1 esuodseJ uI 'epuerl?coJfl Jo ]seJoC eql ur cr8eur [q uH suosr.rdrur oqrvr 'euera.r^ o] suJn]eJ pue eur] 682

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TIVUO EHJ INOHIIz\\ ANIV HIIIY\ IOTE]NIVT

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290

THE ARTHTJR OF THE FRENCH

first episode in the Vulgate Merlin Continuation (corresponding roughly to S: 88-98) is an amplification of that ending in which, however, the matter

pertaining to the Grail has been dropped. There can be no mistake as to whether or not the early Vulgate compilers were confused about the transition from Robert's work to their own. In a strong textual tradition representing twenty-one of the manuscripts that transmit the Merlin pfoper with the Vulgate Continuation, the division is clearly signalled by a flourished initial, a blank space or a miniature following 'Einsis fu Artus esliz et fait roi .. '' In eleven of twelve otheq closely related manuscripts, however, the transition is seamless (Micha 1958, 154). Several conclusions may be drawn. To begin with, the amplification, which is at the same time highly recapitulative of matter in the Merlin proper (Merlin's biography, Arthur's conception and birth, etc.) and anticipatory of matter in the Vulgate Continuation (the rise of Arthur's nephews, Arthur's relations with the brother kings, etc.), as well as being narrational (particularly of the private and public reception of Merlin's accounts by Arthur and the barons), serves to link Robert's text to the Vulgate's story of the Six Kings'rebellion and its effects. The consequence of this amplification and the addition of the Vulgate Continuation is thal the ending of Robert's Merlin, as preserued in the Didot and Modena manuscripts, becomes redundant. Finally, in the Vulgate Cycle the separation between the Merlin proper and the Continuation becomes blurred as Robert's work is absorbed, albeit imperfectly, by the Lancelot-Grail, which officially regards Robert not as its authoritative source, but as a translator of a parallel text which the Vulgate compilers seek to suppress (Pickens 1994). Robert's Merlin underwent other kinds of transformation in its accommodation with the style and content of the Vulgate Cycle. When Merlin dictates Grail history to Blaise, the details in the group of twenty-one manuscripts are consistent with Robert's Joseph d'Arimathie, whilst details in the version of the Merlin proper found in the group of ten closely related manuscripts are made to conform with the rewritten matter (Micha 1958,1534), either by adding material, such as references to Nascien, an invention of the Vulgate Estoire (e.g. §16, 61-71, esp. to §16,67-70 variants), or by deleting material, such as anticipatory allusions not constitute Grail material previously recorded by Blaise, which may or may the Didot-Perceyal (e.g. §23, 58-65 variants). Furthermofe, as the Merlin Continuation includes Agravain among the number of King Lot's sons, he appears in the list in the vulgate Merlin plopef (,s: 73, §75, 5 variant).In Robert's Merlin Lot has three sons besides Mordred: Gauvain, Guerrehet and Gaheriet (§72, 4-5); Agravain does not appear in the Didot-Perceval (#2) either. In addition, the Vulgate Merlin proper is adorned with formulae characteristic of the Vulgate Cycle as a whole, formulae that serve to introduce textual divisions: 'En ceste partie dist li contes que . ..' (In this part the story says that . ..,,S: 3, 20),'Chi

i :

dist le contis remains incc,:.

the Vul..uate C.. parole i chr e:.-. about tltetn ,;; .

Elsewhere::

the formulae ,-- -. opening torn-. -.. the interrlrpt: interlacing. .r u that does flt-rt ... a whole. .

,-

Amon..u oti-; Continuation -- l Boron, äs in tl-when she allc Ibecome the n.

adds Agrar A 1:-. Garlot, u-ho S;: Wace doeS rC,:

:.

Uther after .\. mother of G.,... mentions a th.:: Continuation. .

Arthur of

his

daughters b1

-

.

r:.

married Lot. ;.. (Caradan). ia:. : still to be at s; sons by nant-. .: whilst a sqr.rii;. joining of Rtr r; l and the indir ic --. compilers' ellt:. : Neverthele S:. Boron's proie.. Geoffrey of \1. certainly his s. --, Merlin also pr-necessätY, lto: -.

\

.

orlt JoJ osle lnq lnr{Uv Sury 3uno,( er{l Jo slroldxe oql roJ ,(1uo 1ou ',iresseceu sr leql >lJo^\erue.t3 lecrJolsq B secJoJureJ pue Iepou s(UeqoU slcerlo;d osle ml.tary slu8ynn eqt tezroe;oru'uorlenurluoJ eg] uI '(I^ reldeqc ees) ecrnos srq.(prcgec lsorrr sr qcplly\ '\nlg s,ecep, ur,(1re1ncr1.red eroru pue glnouruolN Jo ,te"rgoeg ,(q peprocer se t;olsrq qs4rrg pue frolsrq perg Surpuelq Jo lcelo.ld s.uorog ep ueqo5 lcelur surelureur tedo.ld ulryary eql ut 'e1e31nn eq1 'sseleqlJoleN 'elueu stq eleJelrlqo o1 slJoJJe.s.tegduoc e1e31nn eql elrdsep ororu eql[? ]no spuels {ro^\ s(uoqog Jo ,{lqenpr,rrpur eq} pu€ 'pe1ce3.red uro4 rBJ snql sr uorlenurluo3 e1e31nn erll pue ulryary s.ueqo)I go Sururol -uoc 0gI 'uerJn Jo uos oure,rl pue 'er1ne51 Jo uos 'urelecseleg 'errnbs e lslFllrr poJetll€J JnqUV tuoq \ 'peJpJotrAl sB IIel\ se urerru;8y Surpnlcur 'eur€u ,(q suos EloT suoltuetu ullrohtr 'slueAo rolsl Jo uorledrcrlue uI '(96 :g) looqcs tu eq ot ruls q8noue 8uno,{ sl qtJg or{1 olrqA\ 'puu1}ocg go luesrn8y 3ur;1 go rorlleJ '(uepere3) copBJeC 'peseecep ztrou teqloue pue uorJn Jor{loue 'er1ne51Jeq}oue '1o1 peureru seq euo :pueqsnq lsru peluBuun req,(q onl pue le8e1ur1Jo o>lnc eqt,(q srelqSnep eerql pBrI eu.re311eq1 'rueql Surueu lnoqlr.e\'segrceds eq 'e8e1ueq slr{ Jo rnqlrv sruJoJur urTJeI J sV'eAU ol s,l.or8 srelq8nep Jo Jeqrunu oql tolel\oq'uor1enur1uo3 ulryary eql ul \teE'(tuolrott. L-g'T,L§'e L:g) Sulssed ur relq8nep prlqt u suorluoru eleElnn eqJ '(rI-§I0gI) ile^\ sB porprol4l3o tltrcrldul 'pue urelne9 Jo reqlou eqt sr eqs'(ZZ-6Igg 'upe ploury) 1o1 3ur;1 sorrrerrr oq,r. tnqlry roue rerlln pue eure31ol uroq '(euuy.lo) euug ldecxe s.relq8nep,(ue uorlueur lou seop ecu a1 'rutg eql q '(rI-I 'Zr§) Ilulep uI peqlrcsep 'uotlecnpe req o1 sees oqlrt'loyreg Jo erlneN 3ur;1 pe,rr gltr 'prulseq e teg eql ue8rotr41 teqto eq1 i(urercr8y sppe e1e3p4 er{t) perprol^tr puu lerreqeD '1eqe.rJeng 'uluzrneg Jo Jeq}oul eql euoceq

III^\ oq \ 'euo seq .(eu4"rg Jo lo-I 3ur;tr ,(.rreru uo8e.rpue4 -rell1 pus eqs ueqA\ perllorloq eJe oq,lr'srslq8nup IIBurs o^r1seq eure8l tedo"rd ull.tary eql ur se'uo.log ep lJeqou uI 'sJelsrs-Jleq s,rnqlJv 3o ,(1r1uepr pue roqrunu oql er? uorl€nurluoJ eq] pue rodo.rd ulryary eq] ueeaueq puels leql sercuolsrsuocur reqlo Suoury

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go 1ecrd,$ eeFruJoJ Sursolc Surrfuedurocce oql rog tor.ezloq ,eleldurocul surerueJ Je^o-e{"u erlJ'clo'(s[ :,S'"'tDUt stos [.tors aqt ang)..'. enb se]uoc el ]srp

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ol

TIVUD EHJ J{^IOHII1!\ CIITV HII1K IOTESNIV'I

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

292

in the light of remainder of the entire cycle. Robert's method of rewriting wace Grail history is evident in the Merlin proper: (i)'Merlin's Conception and Childhood Deeds'(#1) is in large part an amplifiMerlin's cation of two pu.rui., in the Brut's Vortigern history: the confession by incubi of description a mother makes to vlrtigern (Brut,7414-34) and is designed Vortigern,s clerk Maganl1Arui,7439-56).12The Merlin amplification to parallel the opening of Robert's Estoire' the Brut' (iD fne Vortigern section (#2) corresponds much more closely with Merlin's Diiferences include the concre tization of Wace's speculation about section; the conception in, and the transfer of Merlin's mother to, the opening invaders; the nature of Vortigern's treachery; the identity identiiy of the foreign -sons; the location of Vortigern's tower; and Robert's invenof King Constant's tion of Blaise. (iii) 'The Reigns of Uther and Pendragon' (#3) also follows the Brut' Diiferences include Merlin's role in the defeat of Hengist and the Saxons'eventual surrender and departure; Merlin's shape-shifting; the baron's three deaths; where it the role of Vortigerr'i ,or; the Round Table (essential in the Merlin, significance is reflects the tables of the Last Supper, and the Grail service and its Arthur founds it elaborately established; mentioneä in passing in the Brut,where himself).

(iv)'Üther and Ygerne'amplifies the Brut through Uther's marriage to Ygerne last days (Brut, @)ui, 8551_-822) and continues with the account of Uther's Tintagel, whilst aAZS-IOO+). In the Brut,Meflin disappears when Uther invades identity Robert does not dwell on Uthert last days. Other differences include the of Arthur's sisters (see above) and the time of Arthur's conception: Uther and wedding Ygerne's first night iogether (Robert), either then(hrut,8733-6) or their night(Brut, 8814-15). ;1.ne Sword and the Stone'rewrites and amplifies Wace's brief account of

lu;

Uther's death and Arthur's succession: Li

esvesque s'antremanderent Et li barun s'antr'assemblerent; Artur, le {tz U ther, manderent, A Cilcestre le corunerent.

Scotland ar.; ,demonstrat:> j. of foreign in', -,:, dispossesseJ: three of the :. ''

Finally. Ar:: 9641-59) \\,_: most imporl-:.-.

tir;

.-.

significantX:'.

:

poundin,_u

rendered al1 ..-: and extra-dre:. branches oi :. :

war against

(Jther's son' and bishops convened and the barons gathered. They summoned Arthur, his age.) strong and years, big for )rowned him at Silchester. He was a youth of fifteen

(The

Similarly, the Continuation takes up the main thrust of Wace's account of well as early days of Arthur's reign: his successful war against pagan Saxons, as and Cador Picts and Scots, with the support of his Breton and Cornish allies, Hoel (Brut" 9033-368). This war concludes with a successful campaign in the

.

tion; (ii) the who gra\-itl1lblood; (iii ) t:.; revolted, (ir r \

.

between Arti -. Roman ernpe:,--

brother kings orchestrat

t-r

E

r

:

Blaise's role s -, moment in G:., Multiple cr. ' strands stretci. dition to the C . ensuing recc:r -. final victor) c'-. . and his victtrr.. opment a,_uai: -r' Saxons,

f J:ä'.äIällz:;;x,:w,,,so's-t4)

..-.:

vassals, threI-Jrien and -\ g -.

Arth,.:

and Iceland, Arthuriana(9-j and Arthur s i: Arthur's secrr:. affiYal of rte S:; second, victrri-.

from the Brr,

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Arthur's defeat of Frollo and lays claim to Britain by right of Julius Caesar's conquest (#52,hrut,10639-710), and also adapts (11279-598) the singular adventure of Arthur's slaughter of the Giant of Mont-Saint-Michel, who imprisons, rapes and murders the daughter of his Breton ally, Hoel (#53). In the Merlin Continuation, Arthur's second campaign against the Romans in France, whilst indecisive, because Merlin thwarts the pursuit of Lucius into Italy, is nevertheless a rousing success, rather like the first in Wace. In the Brut, as in the Didot-Perceval,whichalso imitates Wace, the triumph turns out to be illusory, for in both texts the Continental campaign introduces 'Mort Artu' sequences, as Arthur's departure leads to Mordred's treason. Such, however, would be out of the question at this stage in the Merlin Continuation, which pointedly makes it clear in the kidnapping of King Lot's wife that Mordred is a babe in arms (#27). The innovation in the Continuation's rewriting of Wace comes fully into focus as the Vulgate Merlin transforms Wace's 'Mort Artu' (as well as that of the Didot Perceval, perhaps) into an unmitigated success: the Giant of Mont-Saint-Michel episode heralds, not destruction, but victory. As the Vulgate Merlinwas incorporated into the Cycle after the Queste and the Mort Artu had been completed, the transformations that have been observed were wrought in reaction to the factthat the Mort Artu itself preserves the essence of Wace's and Robert de Boron's conclusions. For it rewrites their version of the second campaign against the Romans as a postscript to Arthur's war against Lancelot, which sets Mordred's treason into motion (Frappier edn of the Mort Artu,§§134-75). Thus, between the moment of Arthur's victory in France in the Merlin Continuation and the moment of the Roman emperor's death in the Vulgate Mort Artu, the LancelotGrail Cycle opens tp a narcative space in British history as recounted by Wace, and in British and Grail history as recounted by Robert de Boron, into which to insert the Lancelot,the Queste and their aftermath. In this way the Vulgate Cycle imitates, or perhaps initiates, the procedure manifest in that important Brut manuscript (Paris, BNF, fr. 1450) in which the works of Chr6tien de Tioyes are inserted into the Brut (Huot 1987; see chapter XI). According to Wace (9787-98) it is during the period of twelve years'peace that the marvellous adventures associated with Arthur took place (see chapter II). This is precisely the time of Chr6tien's romances as well as that of the DidotPerceval.In adapting and adopting Wace, the Vulgate Cycle's'translator(s)', not unlike Robert de Boron before them, would make the same veracity claim for their own work as Wace did for his Brut. For at the deepest level of narrative invention in their translatio, they make explicit the truth hidden within Chr6tien's Charrette and Perceval as well as within Robert's de Boron's trilogy. As the Vulgate Merlin concludes, following the climactic moments during which the narrative strands identified above reach a pinnacle of Arthurian accomplishment, certain strands spiral even higher, while others fade into

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296

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

young man has to discover who he is and make his name through his exploits as a knight, or an older knight has to pfove his right to a reputation won in the past or recover a good name he has lost. In the prose romance, unlike some of the verse fomances, the hero's baptismal name Galahad and his pseudonym Lancelot are announced at the beginning, but the boy himself, taken as a baby by a fairy (the Lady of the Lake) into what appears to be a lake, does not know his name or his parentage.l3 He first learns his name when he raises the slab of a tomb at the Dolorous Garde, but continues to operate under a series of pseudonyms, such as the White, Red or Black Knight. It is only when Guinevere is able to call him by his own name, in the scene leading up to the first kiss, that the name Lancelot becomes regularly used in the narrative, and it is only after Lancelot has saved Arthur from the Saxons that he is welcomed at Arthur's court under his own name before he becomes a Knight of the Round Table. The theme of the making of a name, here in terms of a reputation, is continued in relation to the young knight Hector, who, while Lancelot remains withdrawn from the action, far away in the distant land of Galehot, represents the young man who has to prove his worth as knight and lover, in one case in an episode (LK, 442-65; LM,8,272-311) reminiscent of Perceval's visit to Beaurepaire in Chr§tien's romance (Roach edn, 1706-2937). The theme is explored in different terms in relation to Gauvain, who is chosen incognito as an unworthy substitute for himself by a dwarf whose lady, la dame de Roestoc, wants Gauvain as her champion in a judicial duel. On the way to the battle, the unrecognized Gauvain has to watch Hector go through a series of tests (here against an increasing number of knights) before he himself wins the judicial duel (LK,37l-90; LM,8, 154-85), much as Lancelot, as a youth just knighted, had to undergo tests on the way to his battle for the Lady of Nohaut (LK, 166_77; LM,1,287-304).14 The theme of Lancelot as the lover of Guinevere has elements in common with Chr6tien's Charrette. Lancelot's adoration of her manifests itself both actively, in splendid deeds inspired by love, and passively, in a series of lover's trances (E. Kennedy 1978). The lover's monologues found in Chr6tien are missing from the prose romance, but would be evoked for the early thirteenth-century reader by the constant interplay with ChfÖtien's romance (E. Kennedy 1995). Lancelot achieves eloquence only once in relation to his love during this stage in the development of his tale in prose, that is in the scene leading up to the first kiss, when in his first confession of love to her he tells the queen what effect her words 'biaus douz amis'had upon him on his first visit to Arthur's court (LK,345-6; LM,8,lll). This avowal of love will be recalled and transformed in the cyclic romance into a reluctant confession of the sinfulness of his love (Queste,66). The progress of this love in visual and physical terms is also represented on a divided shield, depicting a knight on one half and a lady on the other, which is brought to Arthur's cout after the first kiss. The top of the shield has come together and the lips of knight and

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TIVUO EHI INOHII1Y\ CNV HII1Y\ JOTE]ITVT

298

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

During these adventures, before Lancelot has been recognized at court, Arthur appears in two different ways, both of which have their counterpart in existing tradition: firstly, the active Arthur of chronicle tradition, who is under great pressure from external opponents in the early years of his reign; secondly, the passive Arthut reminiscent of Arthur's role in much of Chrötien, a king who tends to fall into broodings when he sees that events are beyond his control. The presentation of Arthur is carefully balanced, so that membership of the Round Table, over which he presides, can appear a worthy goal for Lancelot. He is compared favourably with Claudas, who had seized the land of Lancelot and his two cousins, but is not so perfect that he does not need Lancelot's help. Arthur is unable to protect his vassal Ban, as a rendu, a former knight now in a religious order, points out. He is also reproached for his inadequacies as a king by a preudomme who appears at court after Arthur's first battle with Galehot.rs During Lancelot's childhood the pattern of the interlace is mainly based on switches between three different locations: (i) the lands of Benoyc and Gorre, once the kingdoms of Lancelot's father Ban and of his brother Bohort, where the relationship between lord and vassal is an important theme; (ii) the abbey in which the widowed queens, mothers of Lancelot and of his two cousins, Lionel and Bohort, take refuge; (iii) the Lake in which Lancelot and eventually his two cousins are brought up and prepared for knighthood. The pattern of the interlace after Lancelot has come to court is different and prepares the way for that to be found in the following branches of the Cycle up to the beginning of the Mort Artu. The switches are between the narrative threads of the knights seeking adventure away from Arthur and his court, and the activities of Arthur, whether presiding at court in various locations or engaged in wars that require the return of his knights, for example the war against Gal ehot (L K, 27 6-82, 30 4-27 ; L M, 8, 2-l 2, 47 -8 5) or that against the Saxons (LK, 539-68; LM ,8, 431-82). What is noticeable is that the only character whose narrative thread has no gaps in it is Lancelot. Until he has been welcomed under his own name at Arthur's court (ZK, 566-9; LM,8,478-85), his characteristic narrative pattern shifts between the following: a series of individual adventures away from court interspersed with periods of withdrawal from the action through imprisonment or illness, and periods of involvement under several different names in events that bring Arthur and his knights together to perform feats of arms in tournaments or wars (against Galehot and against the Saxons). In contrast, Arthur's narrative thread is never followed continuously, and this is true throughout the Cycle. That of Gauvain is followed more consistently than that of any other knight except Lancelot, but only on those quests for the unknown knight (Lancelot using a series of names: White, Red or Black Knight) that turn out to be successful. On unsuccessful quests, Gauvain's adventures are not told (LK,299; passage missing from LAI). The adventures of Hector are followed without a gap once he enters the narrative; he fulfils the role of the young knight, both as a lover

and one \\ i: . -, ',

in the lanc seeking

,*-

.

-

L; .-;

ments or \\ .-r: Gauvain oi i-i;The adrer :.. afe reler

a r:

t

:

tale up to ir.. .

.

an Arthuri;:. .

,

is a series .' r' : Chr6tien de T Continuatic,:-., look fonr ar; story alreatl', sions to ^\r:.- -. up to his ii:. involved in ,:.conflicts L.'::,-become tenr; "

-

.

.

.

-

(for exampi- .; told are mlr.:- related late: Table (E. Ke :

' =

The interr .. episodes in i.-. structure oi :..: Arthuriart l r-.: * theme of tlir F..

Galehot. nt-,..,, : the land oi C -. . the text: the i:.integration :r : version (beg-:yet to conre. .:. by a ne\Ä' he r,--. of the Grai1. : -" .

.

The Pre-c1'clic \ Episode and thc The pre-c) c;,- .: (see

n. 3). Ii

.

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aql'spuul

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TIYUD EHJ INOHIIz!\ CINV HJIIY\ IOTE]}TVT

662

300

THE ARTHT]R OF THE FRENCH

Lancelot's life up to his installation as a Knight of the Round Table. The first of these is the love theme, evoked as soon as the two friends Lancelot and Galehot leave Arthur's court. Both have left ladies they love behind them, and Lancelot would have preferred to stay at court; Galehot is aware that Lancelot's love for Guinevere will override his friendship for himself, and that he will eventually lose him as a companion in spite of the great sacrifice he has made for Lancelot. His thoughts on this are so painful that he faints. When they continue their journey, he shows Lancelot a great castle in which he would have worn a crown were he to have conquered Arthur's kingdom. This castle then crumbles before their eyes, and many of his other castles collapse. Then Galehot has a strange dream and sends for Arthur's wise clerks to interpret it; they tell him that he will die within three years because of his love for Lancelot. The accusation against Guinevere that she is not the true queen brings the two companions back to Arthur's court. Lancelot's love for the queen keeps him there, Galehot has to return to his own lands, hears a false rumour of Lancelot's death and dies. Throughout this version there is no condemnation of Lancelot and Guinevere's love as sinful, and Guinevere comforts him for the death of his friend. The identity theme is also explored in relation to Guinevere. She is accused of being an impostor by a False Guinevere and a knight called Berthelai. Arthur, under the influence of magic, accepts the False Guinevere as the true queen, but Guinevere's right to her name is proved by Lancelot, and the king has to renounce the impostor immediately. Again Lancelot's love for Guinevere is presented in positive terms. The queen, when accused of imposture, asks herself if she is being punished for some sin she has committed (LK,595: LM 3,39), but the love for Lancelot is not mentioned with reference to this, and indeed it is that love that enables Lancelot to defeat the three knights, and it is the love of Guinevere that helps to console Lancelot for the death of his friend. The identity theme also recurs in relation to Lancelot's cousin Lionel in a very abbreviated version of the making of a name motif: Lionel kills a crowned lion, thus proving his right to his name (LK,610-12; LM,3,64-7).

COnspiratt i- .'-,. Arthur is tc:: - :

What rep r;: - .' COme, u-ith .: 'achieve this -,: clerks in th:.: castles (L\1. . cyclic versirrr . but here. tin r . :.: abduction or G-,

of adventlir->.

.

achieves the r;:

-

up in the äti'. ; ' which Lance. : withdra\\-al t .- -Here the be:t-t.hostile maqi. theme throl:S: death

(LY. i. i-

and pines hears

of

ä\I,-,'

hiS i r. - .'

The c)'clic

.:.

'.

to a Grail Qu.: oration of e .r:. , : providin.-E a lt; romance. \\ h; r; -. was achier ec I i

with earlier

:

,-

remakin_E a k--..

Caft, where

X- -

h..

The Cyclic Version of Events from the Journey to Sorelois up to the Quest

Meleagant

In the cyclic version of the departure of Lancelot and Galehot from Arthur's court, of the False Guinevere episode and of the events leading up to the death of Galehot, very important changes are made. The identity theme in the False

As in Chreti.: ration of his pattern of äti', ; -" at a differen t ,: well illuStrrrr; destined to f r;. Guinevere. c.ir r. of Arimatherr. ,: her discourse ,.- .-.

Guinevere episode is still pursued, but here for the first time there is an admission by Guinevere, when Arthur has renounced her in favour of the impostor, that her love for Lancelot is sinful and that she is now perhaps being punished for it (LM, l, I5l-2). Lancelot defends the queen's identity in a judicial battle against three knights, but Arthur, still influenced by magic, exiles her, and she leaves with

Galehot and Lancelot.

It

is only when the False Guinevere and her fellow

-l .

.

,

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puB 6lnJuls . : we find epiS tr C ; ' (27-34); the T, (266). The se.,- .' Maidens (-15-j Lady (237--+5 The tests Lrr.-;. narrative der r--,1 r * lenge to the s r t'; : attack by tu er .., is offered an i::-. ' Although the :. -, gift, and the tl::: that will pror ic; undoing ( 10+-. temptress u he:_ :' the crucifonlt : ', The trials r,\ .: .than those iac. : interest on an ,,.-; fundamental rc..; making an e.\ric.l being utterlr h.. his breeches ) r,another, he sei> .

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

whose intention is rape (L75-7). Bohort decides to make the maiden's rescue his first priority: this is later revealed, by a holy man, to have been the correct course of aciiorr, but not before a false cleric has almost succeeded in persuading Bohort that his choice has led to the death of his brother Lionel; this is not in fact the Bohort case: Lionel reappears in the narrative shortly afterwards (188-93), takes death, to the fight a of challenge a issues and to task for having left him for dead, Perceval, Like thus providing yet another test for the more virtuous brother. Bohort is tempted carnally (180-2), but this time there is an interesting twist to situation: the 'maiden'in question threatens suicide if Bohort refuses her

the

advances; furthermore, she claims that twelve of her retinue will likewise cast The themselves from the top of her tower should the knight turn her down' but jump ramparts, the from knight remains unmoved, and the ladies do indeed orr.L Bohort has crossed himsell both tower and ladies disappear in an infernal din, revealing all to have been a temptation of devilish origin' Although not entirely successful in the Grail adventures, the character of

Lancelot ii central in the Queste, both to the hierarchy and to the narrative. In terms of the hierarchy, he represents a state between that of the Grailwinners and that of the unredeemed sinners. Lancelot's adulterous love for the queen prevents him from being one of the chosen three,l8 but he does eventually confess, Iepent and, after a palnful struggle, in both the emotional and the physical sense, he is rewarded with a partial Grail vision (253-6).In narrative terms, it is arguable that, despite not fully achieving the Quest, Lancelot remains the central focus of this pari of the Cycle. He is undoubtedly the most complex and subtle of the charäcters who embark upon the Grail adventures, and more narrative time is devoted to his personal quest than to that of any other individual knight' A significani theme of the Queste is the way in which those characters who in earlier Arthurian tradition represented the flower of chivalry are, in the new spiritual context of the Grail Quest, brought low by their inability to cope with the different nature of the challenges offered by the aventures del Saint Graal. Three knights in particulaf are represented in this way: Gauvain, who was previously regarded as second only to Lancelot in greatness (see IK, 416-17, 539; LM, 8, Zn-g,432),Hector, Lancelot's brother, and Lionel, the brother of Bohort. All fail in the Quest through a lack of faith, and through an attachment to the worldly trappings of chivalry that is incompatible with a state of high spiritual le awareness, let alone perfection.

The Queste ends with the three chosen knights taking the Grail from Arthur's realm of Logres to the holy city of Sarras, located 'es parties de Babiloine' (in the region of Bibylon, p.279), and it is here that Galahad looks inside the unveiled Grail and sees 'les merveilles de totes autres merveilles' (the marvel of all marvels, p.278)just before he dies. The Grail is then definitively removed from the world

of mortals:

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and the like. Of these, the most cautious (and therefore the most useful) is the study by Frappier (1978b) on the possible pre-Christian origins of the Grail motif. As mentioned above, much more identifiable and established are links with earlier Arthurian texts. Central to any study of the Queste must be the issue of structure and how it is related to metaphor. The narrative has a complex structure, characterized by interlace and by the repetition of themes and symbolic elements from one episode to another, although linked scenes are frequently separated by many pages. Various critics have attempted to tackle this issue: Cornet (1969), in a study of three particular episodes, has much to say on the link between narrative structure and metaphor; Baumgartner (1980), in an article on the knights'adventures, demonstrates that the concept of aventure has a particular meaning in the context of the Grail Quest, and that each knight is granted a vision of the Grail commensurate with his particular level of spiritual understanding. Burns (1985a), in an extensive study of the Lancelot-Grail Cycle, also devotes considerable space to the problem of linking the structural and the symbolic, and Williams (2001) claims that structure and symbolism provide the keys to understanding the Queste's central theme and relates this notion to the didactic function of the narrative. One of the most striking features of the narrative technique used by the author of the Queste is the interplay between the metaphoric and homiletic modes: a pattern is established in the early part of the text whereby the knights experience adventures whose symbolic significance they (and, it must be said, the reader) do not always grasp. These adventures are at least partially explained (to characters and readers) within the narrative by explicit exegesis, sometimes in the form of inscriptions and the like, but more often by a figure of authority such as a cleric, with direct interventions on the part of the narrator being rare. As the Quest develops, we find that the homiletic passages become less frequent, and it is increasingly left to the reader to interpret the metaphorical dimension of the adventures. Thus the reader is placed in a position analogous to that of the characters engaged on the Quest, with each attaining a level of achievement appropriate to the extent of his understanding of spiritual matters; in this way, the essentially didactic nature of the text is revealed (Williams 2001). There still remains much to be done in terms of editorial and critical work on the Queste.It is high time that a new scholarly edition was produced: for various reasons Pauphilet consulted only about half the total number of manuscripts available to us today, and Bogdanow and Berrie's 2006 edition in the Lettres Gothiques series is a welcome addition. Furthermore, the vexed question of the relative dating of the Queste, the Perlesvaus and the Didot-Perceval still remains unresolved, as do issues concerning the possible textual links between these three works.

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312

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Mort Artu, is called 'l'Estoire de Lancelot' (§204). Drawing on the Tiistan legend (and especially on a version similar to that of Beroul) in his portrayal of the psychological distress and political conflict created by the gradual revelation of the queen's adultery, the prose romancer produces a complex work in which various reasons for Arthur's downfall are suggested. A victim, in Wace's Brut, of his nephew Mordred's treachery, in the form of alliances with Arthur's pagan foes and adultery with the willing Guinevere, Arthur now suffers not only from Mordred's attempts to usurp his throne and claim his wife, but also from the repercussions of Guinevere's adulterous passion for Lancelot, the king's greatest knight. Yet the Mort Artu also presents Arthur as contributing towards his own downfall, for Mordred turns out to be his illegitimate son by incest with his sister, Gauvain's mother (not named in this romance). Moreover, the king is at times unduly vengeful, allowing Gauvain's thirst for revenge over the deaths of his brothers to influence him, making him prefer personal and family honour over the well-being of his kingdom. Any attempt to interpret the Mort Artu must take into account its careful structure. The organizing principle of the first half of the romance is interlace: the interweaving and juxtaposition of events taking place simultaneously in different locations and narrated from the perspective of different characters. This technique (as well as the nature of many of the early episodes: quests for Lancelot incognito, Guinevere's jealousy and rejection of her lover, her need for a champion, tournaments and woundings) is reminiscent of the Lancelot and allows the reader to be privy to information not available to the protagonists, thereby creating inthe Mort Artu dramatic irony, with sometimes comic and sometimes tragic effect. However, although some interlace remains, in the second half of the work the plot becomes more linear and the pace more rapid as the Arthurian protagonists rush inexorably towards their demise. The final branch of the Vulgate Cycle begins on a note of censure. There being no authentic adventures left after the Grail Quest (during which Gauvain's sinful state resulted in the unwitting murder of many Knights of the Round Table, whilst Lancelot was hindered by his adultery, Mort Artu, §§3-4), Arthur resorts to promoting the dangerous pseudo-adventure of the tournament, an activity strongly criticized by thirteenth-century churchmen, though defended by other writers as useful for training knights. Although Lancelot, fighting incognito, wins the Winchester tournament, he is wounded by his cousin Bohort and this prevents him from returning to Arthur's court. Meanwhile, Guinevere, hearing that her champion has worn the sleeve of the demoiselle d'Escalot, who trapped Lancelot into this act of courtesy by asking him for a boon (§14), has become insanely jealous (not for the first time in the Vulgate Cycle), especially as Gauvain, who tried to woo the demoiselle himself, is spreading rumours that Lancelot is in love (§§31, 36, 44).

Fronr Il.; ^-reveal tirc -. --: - ' Morgan. .., This episi,,- imprison:.;.and lore :-,--: '.

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-

.

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.-

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however. ir: * that Arthu: .- *-

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316

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

concern for personal honour, both under the influence of Gauvain. Yet, two further criticisms of Arthur voiced by modern scholars are perhaps less justified. The first is the charge of royal weakness, a refusal to accept and punish what is obvious, namely the queen's adultery (MacRae 1982). However, in mitigation one must not forget that Arthur does not share the omniscience of the work's readers. The structure of the narrative emphasizes the fact that Arthur is the victim of dramatic irony. Struggling to interpret conflicting evidence, the king is, in my view, rightly slow to act on allegations which, although correct, are made by illintentioned courtiers reminiscent of the evil barons in Beroul's Tristran. Even Morgan's pictorial evidence of Lancelot's love is suspect, given the supernatural atmosphere surrounding her castle (§§a8-54). The author's emphasis on the malign motivations of those characters who tell the truth about the adultery, Agravain, Mordred and Morgan, not only makes us more sympathetic towards Arthur's personal and political dilemma (not easily resolvable by simply punishing Guinevere), but also problematizes and relativizes many of the values promoted by Arthurian romance: loyalty, truth, love and honour. The second charge against Arthur is his incest with his sister (Archibald 1989). Interestingly, this specific term is not used; instead Mordred is simply the king's illegitimate son and explicit moral condemnation of his father is thereby avoided. Moreover, the circumstances of the incest are not explained until later in Arthurian tradition, when the Suite Merlzrz is added to the Vulgate Cycle. Although there are references to Mordred's parentage in the Lancelot, the prophecies involving a serpent issuing from Arthur's belly and then attacking him may be scribal interpolations, inserted once the author of the Mort Artu had decided to enhance the pathos of Arthur's death by making him the victim of his own son. On the other hand, if the incest was integral to the conception of the whole Vulgate Cycle, its function is still open to interpretation: is it a sin punishable by God and thus provoking moral condemnation or an instrument of fate eliciting our sympathy for its hapless victim? The ambiguity concerning human responsibility for Arthur's demise is further complicated by the interlacing of allusions to character flaws with frequent mention, made by both the narrator and the protagonists, of mescheance or mesayenture;both terms imply that bad luck, misfortune and unfortunate timing cause or at least contribute to the abrupt end of Arthurian civilization (Lyons 1983; Pratt l99l;2004). Thus, the lovers might not have renewed their passion so violently had Lancelot not been trapped into wearing the demoiselle d'Escalot's sleeve, provoking Guinevere's uncontrollable jealousy and anger. The separation resulting from this and from Lancelot's series of unfortunate woundings leads to the lovers'abandonment of any courtly discretion, hence to discovery. The good fortune enjoyed by Lancelot in the Lancelot, enabling him to love Guinevere and serve Arthur and his kingdom, has certainly run out by the time he kills Gaheriet

.

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TIYUD EHI JNOHIIA\ CIITV HII1!\ IOTE]NIVT

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

318

time towards the contemptus mundi genre, the Mort Artu also commemorates, especially in the actions of Lancelot, but even in Gauvain, Arthur and many of the Knights of the Round Table, the more laudable aspects of Arthuriancivilization (Lyons 1933). So, unlike the Queste,whose didacticism encourages a strongly judgemental response, the Mort Artu encourages a mixture of wonder and admiration for Arthurian virtue, fear at the intransigence of some of its protagonists, and both fear and pity for the frailty and humanity which its heroes share with us. Indeed, as Greene (2002) argues, the Mort Artu is an Art of Courtly Death, whose protagonists provide us with mirrors in which to contemplate our own

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lar import.r:,:

demise.

This subtle and moving work, often studied in isolation, but only to be fully appreciated when read as the final branch of the whole Vulgate Cycle, has recently generated much scholarly interest. Critics reflecting modern preoccupations with death (Planche 1997; Greene 2002), ethics (Kay 1997), closure (Lacy 1994; Trachsler 1994; 1996), narrative structure (Lacy 1977; Zwrdeeg 1981; Delcourt 1998), reading and writing (Colliot 1973; Solterer 1985), textual criticism (Leonardi 2003) have found fertile material for analysis inthe Mort Artu,whilethe existence of a concordance (Kunstmann and Dub6 1982) has generated fascinating semantic studies on the themes of loyalty and treason (Szkilnik 1994), love (Santucci 1992; Andrieux-Reix 1994), truth and knowledge (Terry 1990; Delcourt 1 99 8) and the meaning of the ter m p r eudo me (Chönerie 197 7 ). From these analyses the author of the Mort Artu emerges as a gifted practitioner of Old French prose (Rychner 1970), a sensitive investigator of human psychology and a sympathetic observer of the human condition in all its complexity (Pratt 2004). Yet his attempt in the last branch of the Vulgate Cycle to impose closure on the whole of Arthurian history was short-lived. Despite his (somewhat traditional) claim at the very end of the Mort Artu that any continuator would be a liar (§204), the authors of the prose Tristan andthe Post-Vulgate Roman du Graal soon took up the challenge, expanding yet further Arthur's narrative universe. 611

Grailwinner. . 5 Basin l.: S

' .

centLi:'. Episoc:. '-

teenth

6

numbers in S. ...

7 Thr.-,1:

-

-

:-

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>

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-

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For

re

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tli:

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^

Middle Higl. (- romance. T1...

-

-

(Roquesedn.:r--

Notes

I

the Reference List to this chapter for editions

of the various

versions and branches mentioned here and for the sigla used to indicate these edited versions. The last part of the Lancelot proper (LM,4-6; §, 5) is sometimes known asthe Agravain because it opens with Agravain's departure from Gauvain and his companions on an adventure which rapidly leads to imprisonment. Howeveq the title is misleading (LM,4, introduction) and is therefore not used in this chapter. 2 From the beginning of LM,1 there are two versions of the cyclic romance: the long, on which Micha's edition is based, and the short, of which Micha gives extracts in LM,3 and in appendices to other volumes. Sommer's edition is based on a manuscript (London, BL, Additional MS 10293) giving the short cyclic version from § 4, 5 onwards. For the short version of the Estoire, see the introduction to Ponceau's edition. There is no marked difference between long and short versions in See

.

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

320

from its block of floating red marble by 'li mieldres chevaliers del monde' (the best knight in the

Httth. Ed : r--

world; Queste,p.5).

Note that, whilst we are told at the beginning of the Lancelot proper (LK, l; LM,7, 1) lhat Lancelot's baptismal name was Galahad (Galaaz), it is only in the cyclic version's account of the interpretation of Galehot's dreams that we learn that Lancelot was originally supposed to be the Grailwinner, but, because of his sinful love for Guinevere, was unable to fulfil that destiny (see LM, 18

1,52-6).

le Gauvain's failure and exit from the Quest is marked by the defeat and injury he suffers at the hands of Galahad (196-7); Hector is refused entry to Corbenic (pp.259-61) on the grounds that he is too proud, a vice symbolized by his approach made on horseback; and Lionel disappears from the narrative after God calls a halt to his unworthy combat against his brother Bohort (p. 193). 20 See Robert de Boron's Merlin (Micha edn, pp. 183-6, an account on which the author of the Queste appeüs to have drawn (74-8). 21 Only the first four paragraphs of the Mort share the ethos of the Queste, although the tone of religious didacticism returns at the end. There is some confusion amongst scribes over where one branch ends and the other begins. Yet of the forty-six extant MSS containingthe Mort, the latter follows lhe Queste in all but nine, which offer the Mort alorLe. 22 At least Girflet sees a tomb purportedly belonging to Arthur, and this is confirmed by a

hermit 23 For the distinction between 'Boethian' and Augustinian' approaches to history, see Pratt l99l;2004, chapter 3. (§194).

Reference List For items accompanied by an asterisk,

see

the General Bibliography.

The Lanceh)I Lancelot;

pr,-rp

t',,):'-

288. 30-. -- . : ', Lancelot tlt, L- . Lancelot ttt ,i -- -. Lancelot tltr L. . : -.. Lancelot cltr L. Lancelot tlit L- - "

1998) -

Lancelot cltt L.

' ,

La Queste del St:, La

'

Que-rle r/'t .!.

The Quesr ,,,

La Quöte La Quöte

th,

La Mort

le

cltt

,'('t

i

La Mort le i lMort .1i'::,-_ Mort Artu; .): du Lac. Ec : The Deatlt /,* i-

From Catttt Texts and Translations

.:,

Carman rL--

,

Complete Vulgate Cycle and Related Texts The Vulgate Version of the Arthurinn Romances, Editedfrom Manuscripts in the British Museum.Ed. by H. O. Sommer, 8 vols (Washington, 1908*16) [fl. Lancelot-Grail: The Old French Arthurian Vulgate and Post-Vulgate in Translation. Ed. by N. J. Lacy, 5 vols (New York and London, 1993^6). Le Livre du Graal. General editor P. Walter, I: Joseph d'Arimathie: Merlin, les premiers faits du roi Arthur. Ed. by D. Poirion et al. (Paris, 2001); II: Lancelot ( De 'la Marche de Gaule' d'la premiöre partie de la quöte de Lancelot'. Ed. by D. Poirion et al. (Paris, 2003).

The Didot Perceval, According

to the Manuscripts of Modena and Paris. Ed. by W. Roach

(Philadelphia,194l). Robert de Boron, Le Roman du Graal: manuscrit de Modöne. Ed. by B. Cerquiglini (Paris, 1981).

L'Estoire del Saint Graal L'Estoire del Saint Graal.Ed. by J.-P. Ponceau, 2 vols, CFMA 120-1 (Paris, 1997) fEstoirel. Seynt Graal or the Sank Ryal: The History of the Holy Graal.Ed. by F. J. Furnivall, 2 vols (London, 1 86 1-3). Le Saint Graal, ou Le Joseph d'Arimathie, premiöre branche des romans de la Table Ronde, publiö d'aprös des textes et des documents inödits. Ed. by E. Hucher, 3 vols (Le Mans, 1875-8).

Studies Adler,

A. 19:

65,930--+_:

Andrieut-R:

r

9-24. Baumgartner.

:-

et littet'(tiit. -- vols. Ren:.-, Baumgartne: . * Baumgartner ; -

Baumgartne:

E

Paris.

France'

. \l L:

Bloch 1917. 11. Bogdano\'.F. ---,

Merlin Robert de Boron, Merlin: roman du 1919)lMerlinl.

XIII

siöcle. Ed. by

A. Micha, TLF 281 (Geneva and Paris,

j

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322

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRE}{CH Huot. S. -v'- -: Plefl't. {.- -,--- '''

Bogdanow 199 1.'Post-Yulgate Cycle', in Lacy ed. l99I*, 364-6. Bogdanow 1996. 'Post-Vulgate Cycle', in Lacy ed. 1996c*,364-6.

Brandsma, F. 1996. 'The Eyewitness Narrator in Vernacular Prose Chronicles and Prose Romances', in Lacy ed. 1996*,57-69. Bruce, J. D. 1918-19. 'The Composition of the Old French Prose Lancelot , RR,9,241-68,353-95; 10,48-66, 97-t22. Brugger, E. 1906-10. 'L'Enserrement Merlin: Studien der Merlinsage', ZfSL,29, 56-140;30, |69 239 ; 31, 239-8| ; 33, | 45-9 4; 34, 99-1 50; 3 5, -55. Brugger 1930. 'Der sog. Didot-Perceval , ZfSL, 53,389459. Brugger 1943. 'Der "Schöne Feigling" in der arthurischen Literatur, IIIa',ZrP,63,275-328. Burns, E. J. 1985a. Arthurian Fictions: Rereading the Yulgate Cycle,Columbus, OH. Burns 1985b. 'The Teller in the Tale: The Anonymots Estoire del Saint Graal , Assays,3,73-84. Chase, C. J. 1983.'Sur la th6orie de l'entrelacement: ordre et d6sordre dans le Lancelot en prose', 1

Lettt,t''. F.-

Kellr.

D ;,)r .

C. \lar.-hc dtt L71.1'. r; ;.

,

-'',

lu Rettrii )'.,, Kennedr 19-i :l ,

-llälutt{1 r ,,: 301-1+.

Kennedi 19St

MP,80,2214t. Chase 1986. 'Multiple Quests and the

Kaeuper. R \\ Ka).S 19e- i-.

Art of Interlacing in the 13th-century Lancelot', RomQ,33,

Kennedi

19q--

:

Bihlir,tltt,;-,.

401-20. Chase 1994. "'Or dist li contes": Narrative Interventions and the Implied Audience inthe Estoire del Saint Graal , in Kibler ed. 1994* , 117 38. Chase 1995. 'La Conversion des parennes dansl'Estoire del Saint Graal ,rn Wolfzettel ed. 1995*, 251-44. Chönerie, M. -L. 1911 . 'Le Motif de la merci dans les romans arthuriens des XII' et XI[" siöcles',

MA,83,5-52. Chönerie 1994. 'Preudome dans La Mort Artu: ötvde s6mantique et stylistique', in Dufournet ed.

1994,67 83. Colliot, R. 1973. 'Les Epitaphes arthuriennes', BBIAS,25,

ntTrs, 199i. L _. " Kenned) 19e--: 3

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1-50.

Kennedr 1 9q-:

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1991*. -(r-'r

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148-62. Combes, A., and A. Bertin. 2001. Ecritures du Graat; XIP-XIIP siäcles,Paris. Cornet, L. 1969.'Trois 6pisodes de la Queste del Graal', in Mölanges offirts d Rita Lejeune,2 vols, Gembloux, II, 983-98. D'Arcy, A. M. 2000. Wisdom and the Grail: The Image of the Vessel in the Queste del Saint Graal and Malory's Tale of the Sankgraal, Dublin. Delcourt, D. 1998. 'LaYörttö dans La Mort le roi Artu'. couverture, dötours, et labyrinthe', MR,22,

1G60.

Kenned)' 1 99b -, ",-', Cycle'. tn K-. : Kennedl- 199b: "i, ., Gractl'

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Dufournet, J. ed. 1984. Approches du Lancelot enprose, Paris. Dufournet ed. 1994. La Mort du roi Arthun ou, le cröpuscule de la chevalerie,Paris. Frappier, J. 1949. "'L'Institution" de Lancelot dans le Lancelot en prose' , in Mölanges de philologie romane et de littörature mödiävale offerts d Ernest Hoepffner, Paris,269-78; repr. in id. Amour c our t o i s e t Tab l e Ro nd e (Genev a, 197 3), 1 69 -7 9. Frappier 1951. 'Le Cortöge du Graal', in R. Nelli ed. Lumiöre du Graal,Pais, 175-221. Frappier 1954-5.'Plaidoyer pour 1"'architecte", contre une opinion d'Albert Pauphilet sur le Lancelot en prose', RPh,8,27-33. Frappier 1961. Etude sur La Mort le roi Artu; roman du XIIP siöcle,2nd edn, Geneva. Frappier 1973. 'Le Personnage de Galehaut dans le Lancelot en prose', in Amour courtois et Table Ronde, Geneva, 1 8 l-208. Frappier 1978a.'Le Cycle de la Vulgate Lancelot en prose et Lancelot-Graal', in GfuLMA*, IV: I, 53G89. Frappier 1978b.'La L6gende du Graal: origine et 6volution', in GRMLA*,IY:1,292-331. Gilson, E. 1925. 'La Mystique de la gräce dans La Queste del Saint Graal', Rom, 51,32147. Greene, Y.2002. Le Sujet et la mort dans La Mort Artu, Saint-Genouph. Hamilton, V[ E. M. C. 1942. 'L Interprötation mystique de Ia Queste del Saint Graal , Neophil,

94-1t0.

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324

Maurice, J. 1995. La Mort le roi Artu,Pais. Mentr6, M. 1986. 'Remarques sur l'iconographie des romans arthuriens: ä propos de quelques exemples', CC M, 29, 23142.

Micha, A. 1958. 'Les Manuscrits dt Merlin en prose de Robert de Boron', Rom,79,78-94, 145-74. Micha 1961. 'Etudes stxle Lancelol en prose: II. L Esprit du Lancelot-Graal', Rom,82,357-78. Micha 1964. 'La Tradition manuscrite dt Lancelot enprose', Rom,85, 293-318. Micha 1973.'Sur la composition du Lancelot en prose', in itudes de langue et de littörature du Moyen Äge offertes d Fölix Lecoy par ses collögues, ses ölöves et ses amis,Paris,47725. Micha 1980. Emde sur le 'Merlin' de Robert de Boron: roman du XIIF siöcle, Geneva. Micha 1987. Essais sur le cycle Lancelot-Graal, Geneva. Pauphilet, A.. 1921. Etudes sur La Queste del Saint Graal attribuöe d Gautier Map,Geneva. Pauphilet 1950. Le Legs du Moyen Äge; ötudes de la littörature mödiövale,Melun. Perret, M. 1982. 'De l'espace romanesque ä la mat6rialitö du livre: l'espace 6nonciatif des premiers romans en prose', Poötique, 50, 173-82. Pickens, R. T. 1994. Autobiography and History in the Vulgate Estoire and in the Prose Merlin' , in

Kibler ed. 1994*, 98-116. A. 1997.'Les Mots de la mort et du malheur dars La Mort le roi Artu', in De I'Aventure öpique d l'aventure romanesque: hommage d Andrö de Mandach,Bert, etc.,269-80. Poirion, D. 1984. 'La Douloureuse Garde', in Dufournet ed. 1984, 25-48. Ponceau, J.-P. 1998. 'l-lAuteur del'Estoire del Saint Graal et celui de La Queste del Saint Graal sorr' vraisemblablement distincts', it Miscellanea Mediaevalia: mölanges offerts d Philippe Mänard, Planche,

2 vols, Paris, II, 1043-56. Pratt, K. 1991. Aristotle, Augustine or Boethius? Za Mort le roi Artu as Tragedy', Nf'S, 30, 8l-109. Pratt 1995. 'The Cistercians and the Queste del Saint Graal , RMS,2l,69-96. Prutt2004. La Mort le roi Artu, London. Rychneq J. 1970. L'Articulation des phrases narratives dans la Mort Artu (formes et structures de la prose mödiövale ), Geneva. Santucci, M. 1992. 'Propos sur la structure dela Mort Artu', Travaux de Littörature,5,7-17. Solterer, H. 1985. "'Conter le terme de cest brief ": l'inscription dars La Mort le roi Artu', in Foulon ed. 1985*, II,558-68.

Stirnemann, P. 1993. 'Some Champenois Vernacular Manuscripts and the Manerius Style of Illumination', in Busby, K., T. Nixon, A. Stones and L. Walters eds. 1993, Les Manusuits de Chrötien de TroyeslThe Manusoipts of Chrötien de Troyes, Amsterdam and Atlanta, GA, I,

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Suard, F. 1997. 'Hasard et n6cessite dans La Mort le roi Artu' , in De I'Aventure öpique d I'aventure romanesque: hommage d Andrö de Mandach, Bern, etc., 281-94. Szkilnik, M. l99la. L'Archipel du Graal: ötude de L'Estoire del Saint Graal, Geneva. Szkilnik l99lb,'L'Estoire del saint Graal: rlöcrirela Queste', in Van Hoecke, Tournoy and Verbeke eds 1991*, 294-305. Szkilnik 1994.'Loiautö et traison dans la Mort le roi Artu', Op. cit.,3,25-32. Terry P. 1990. 'Certainties of the Heart: The Poisoned Fruit Episode as a Unifying Exemplum in La Mort le roi Artu' , Romance Languages Annual, 7,328-31. Trachsler, R. 1994. Au-delä dela Mort le roi Artu: ce dont parle le conte quand le roi a disparu', Op.

cit.,3,3347. Williams, A. M. L. 2001. The Adventures of the Holy Grail: A Study of La Queste del Saint Graal, Oxford. Zrttxdeeg, A. D. 1981. Narrative kchniques and their Effects in La Mort le roi Artu, York, SC.

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M6nard (1987-97), this romance has now secured its rightful place within literary studies. The prose Tristan, or, as it was more aptly referred to in the Middle Ages, 'le livre (ou le roman) du bon chevalier Tristan de Leonois' (the book, or the romance, of the good knight Tristan of Leonois) clearly follows in the footsteps of the twelfth-century verse narratives treating the ill-fated passion of the lovers of Cornwall. Yet under the influence of the prose Lancelot, it places increasing emphasis on the heroic career of Tristan the knight. It is also a constantly expanding textual space, in which authors from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries experimented with romance composition in a variety of new ways, for the most part successfully. The main sources on which the prose Tristan drew indiscriminately were the twelfth-century verse romances, which provided the basic plot and the original cast of characters (Vinaver 1925, 5-20; Baumgartner 1975, 101-17). However, from the outset the prose author's explicitly new conception of his source material changes its original orientation. Whereas Beroul, Thomas and the Folies focus on the love relationship between Tristan and Yseut, and the physical and emotional obstacles they have to overcome to stay together, the prose author emphasizes his hero's prowess right from the beginning. He sets out to demonstrate that Tiistan rivals Lancelot and Galahad as one of the best three knights in the Arthurian world. Indeed, his aim is to tell his readers: li latins devise de l'estoire de Tristan, qui fu li plus soveriens chevaliers qui onques fust ou reaume de la Grant Bretaigne, et devant le roi Artus et apr6s, fors solement li tres bons chevaliers Lancelot dou Lac. Et li latins meismes de l'estroire del Saint Graal devise apertement que au tens le roi Artus ne furent que troi bon chevalier qui tres bien feissent a prisier de chevalerie: Galaaz,Lanceloz, Tristan. (Curtis edn, I, §39) ce que

(what the Latin says about the story of Tristan, who, before and after the reign of King Arthur was the most excellent knight who ever lived in the kingdom of Great Britain, apart from the very goodknight Lancelot du Lac. And the Latin of the story of the Holy Grail itself says clearly that at the time of King Arthur there were only three good knights who well deserved to be esteemed for their chivalry: Galahad, Lancelot and Tristan.)

Thus the narrator presents his project: to make Tristan the rival of the best knights in the world by including him in the heroic trinity which will henceforth dominate the Arthurian world, whilst at the same time raising the Tiistan material to the same level as the Arthurian material. His aim will be to unite the world of love and chivalric adventures, represented by Lancelot and Tristan, with the mystical world of Galahad and the Grail. He has no intention of providing a continuation to the Lancelot-Grail Cycle, but rather to add to it, or more precisely to introduce Tristan's story into the fictional world already established around Arthur, Lancelot, the Knights of the Round Table, the Grail and its quest. As in the verse narratives, Tristan's destiny is definitively linked to that of Yseut by the love potion, which will cause suffering and death, as the narrator explicitly declares:

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by Morgan the Fay), and after an emotional farewell to the Arthurian world and knight-errantry, Tiistan dies, suffocating Yseut in his arms (Harf-Lancner 1998). In his rewriting of the verse Tristar? poems there is a strong link between the pfose romancer's increasing emphasis on Tristan's chivalry in the Arthurian world, and the changes made to the character of King Mark. Tristan's uncle, unlike Arthur, becomes the bad king of a Cornwall populated by cowardly knights, who are the laughing-stock of the knights of Logres. The episode featuring the wife of S6guradÖs (Curtis edn, I, §§353-80), who prefers Tristan to Mark, signals the beginning of the enmity between Tristan and his uncle, who is now jealous both of his nephew's glory and exploits (namely his victory over the Morholt) and of his success with women. The tension between the two men is, of course, exacerbated when Mark can no longer ignore, or put an end to, the love between Tristan and Yseut, or prevent the couple from escaping to the forest of Morrois. The king promptly ends this idyllic interlude by recapturing his wife. Thus, throughout the romance, Mark plays the part of the traitor; he relentlessly tries to harm his nephew, whom he fears as much as he hates, and he repeatedly tries to kill him, imprison him and banish him from Cornwall. He even pursues him deep into the kingdom of Logres. Whereas in the verse romances Tristan is torn between his passion for the queen and his loyalty to his uncle and king, in the prose text he can possess Yseut without the slightest remorse. Hence his numerous attempts to steal her away from Mark, culminating in their escape from the sinister kingdom of Cornwall so that they can live together in Logres. Mark's killing of Tristan, in an ending markedly different from that found in the verse sources, not only puts an end to the adulterous relationship between the lovers, but also destroys the paragon of Arthurian chivalry which Tiistan has finally become; his death is long mourned by Arthur and his knights. The modern reader's preference for the twelfth-century French verse Tristan poems (including the German adaptations by Eilhart von Oberg and especially Gottfried von Straßburg) over the French prose Tristare is not surprising. Indeed, it took some time for critics and the occasional modern reader to recognize, let alone appreciate, the aesthetic choices made by the thirteenth-century authors of the first prose romances. Thanks to Vinaver's seminal study, A la recherche d'une poötique mödiövale (1970), critical interest was at last kindled in the carefully thought-out innovations made by the prose romancers, and only then did we begin to appreciate a new type of fictional writing, which drew essentially on the resources of literary prose. Yet, from the thirteenth century onwards, the prose Tristan outshone in popularity its verse rivals, and it is on this prose romance that the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, English versions and other narratives on the lovers of Cornwall are based (Delcorno Branca 1968; 1998; Heijkant 1989; Roubaud-B6nichou 2000). The sheer number of (sometimes very beautifully) illuminated manuscripts of the romance - the iconography of the Tristan

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

abbreviated form of the Tristan and also containing passages taken from the verse Tristan poems (including a version of the death of the lovers very close to that of Eilhart). Vienna, MS 2542 itself (,4), to which critics generally refer for the 'vulgate' version (V.ID, provides a good example of the art of variation practised by the copyists of the Tristan, as well as demonstrating the impossibility of classifying these different versions precisely. The scribe of this manuscript does not provide H6lie's epilogue and considerably shortens the prologue and the beginning of the narrative (Löseth 1890, §§1-41, Curtis edn I, §§1-468). He also systematically suppresses details found in other manuscripts of the same family, such as BNF, fr. 335-6. Last, but not least, from M6nard's sixth volume onwards the scribe includes extensive passages from the Lancelot, passages found in manuscripts of the later versions V.III and V.IV. Whatever its other merits, manuscript A appears to be a free adaptation of V.II; in it the reader can enjoy, apart from the long version of the Tristan, some exciting narrative taken from the Agravain' section of the Lancelot (see chapter VII, n. 1), as well as a sequel to the story of Bohort's illegitimate son, Helian le Blanc, a story which the prose Lancelot leaves incomplete (Baumgartner 1993). As a general rule, the Tristan strives to offer a complete, encyclopaedic version of the Arthurian legend, thus reflecting its conception (particularly obvious in the later manuscripts) of a Round Table which gradually accommodates all the knights of Arthurian literature, including those from the Tiistan tradition. The Lancelot-Grail had already begun the process of cyclification, but in that Cycle the component narratives retain their autonomy and specificity while being assembled into a more or less coherent whole. In contrast, those manuscripts containing the complete Tristan offer a more homogeneous text, in which the two worlds created around Tristan and the Lancelot-Grail sometimes coexist and sometimes overlap. The Tristan occupies a peculiar position in relation to the time-scale established by the Lancelot-Grail. The former begins with the story of Sadoc, the eleventh and recalcitrant son of Bron, who is himself the brother-in-law of Joseph of Arimathea (Baumgartner 1990a, 15-18). In this way Tristan is linked, along with Lancelot and Galahad, to the founding narrative of the discovery of the Grail by Joseph of Arimathea. Similarly, whereas the Mort Artu imposes clear closure on the Lancelot-Grail Cycle, the fictional chronology of the Tristan is almost indefinitely prolonged by the addition of various endings provided by the different manuscripts. BNF, fr. 757 ends with the death of the lovers, the mourning of Arthur's court and H6lie's epilogue, whereas the 'vulgate'concludes with the return of Bohort to court, after the completion of the 'aventures du Saint Graal' (TLF edn, IX, §143), and just before the beginning of the 'Mort Artu'. BNF, fr. 24400, a very late manuscript, recounts Dinadan's failed attempt to take

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all of uhon -induced br .'

performers.

,.,,t-

.

;;;

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ol /fircrlueqlne Jo re ue spuel [Jols oql urqlrl\ ecueseJd (l€eJ, osorl^& 'srerurogred uosred-1s.rg Jo uorsnJoJd e elrler.reu eqt olur secnporlur stql 'o^ol ,(q pecnpur s8urreg3ns eql s,(e1 :o senSolouour 3uo1 ur lueru€l Jo oleJqeloc ruoq.u Jo IIe '(1e:orue1 pue lue8egl?ru) ,tpq 1ee"r3.req1o euros Jo .ro (.rounrg 'sÄl?H 'sepeuele6 'utp;equ;1) ueenb eql Jo peJnorueue 's;ea,ol eleru Jo serJes € seleoJc ungntl esotd eq1 tyezrrle.touur eJotr l 'seruoql ur uooq fpeerp peg oqs su '(.lnopeqno:1e1uureg) zttilDqoq e souoceq lnesÄ 'slsnol [€qJe^ 01 peel serurlotuos slsnol 1ecrs,(qd qcHrv\ ur'ereqdsourls Iecrsnu puu crleod e qlr^{ ponqur seuoceq ecueuro.r esold erll Jo plJoly\ eq]'scuÄ13o;esoduroc eql (uBlsrJI punoJe 8ur,l,1oleu 'pola.td,aq) p ,(€l eql Sursoduroc;o'Sur8uls pue d-req srq 8ur,(eyd,(q tnesl SunoÄ eql pue ilnoc srq '4;e141 Surlueqcue 'soÄrleueu es.re,r r(rnluec-r{Ule.&\} eq} ur uercrsnru pue leod e .(pee"rp servr eH Jlesurq uelsr.t1 'esJnoc go 'sr Suos e^ol oq} Jo Je}seur eqJ ,(rop pue o^ol uo1$,lsel 1B s?q eq 1€ql lcBJ eql Jo uorlerqelec u (991§ 'II^ 'upe g11) lueu€urnol dreze,rnol or{l re};e ue}srr1 ,(q pesoduroc,rel, oq] ue^e pu€ :(t-OgO§§ ''plql) reJ os sre^ol eql Jo ,fto1s snoroure pue sroJeq eql sezuels B ur sezrJBruruns qcrqA\ pue oprcrns lruruos o1 ^\eJ 3ur1drue11e oJoJeq s8uls pue sesodruoc eqs qcrrl \ ',1e1loul rel, s6lnesÄ :(tf-fqgs§ 'III 'upe srgn3) ssoupeu go ported 3uo1 e Sulrelue eroJeg 1sn[ ',(snolee[ go ecuengut orll Jepun sesoduroc uelsrr1 qc1lrv\.lelJoru tel eq} :eJe srql go selduexg 'slxeluoc e^rleJJsu Jregl pue a^ol Jo slueruJo] pue s,{oi oq} SursseJdxe slsJnq}no 1ecr.l.(1 ,(1ernd oq] ueezlrleg drqsuorleler oql 1q8${3H suoruesur eq} '1ce[qns urBru eql surerueJ ezroy q8noqllv 'suoruesur cu.(y eseql Jo ,(1ls-re,rrp crlelueql eql esr(1eue o1 uorlrsod e ur eJB e1r\ 'ocueruoJ eq] Jo uorlrpe elelduroc € e^eq o.,!\ 1eq1 .{i\oN 'o^ol Jo esJnocsrp rvreu e 3ur1e3l1sur snql 'pelueurel pue }noqe ?uns,(1t"utd naf orTl Jo Iepou eqt uo) peleqop sr e^ol uopprqroJ rlclqlv\ ur s,(ey oesold ro osre^ ur sJellel 's1uerue1 'senEolouour 'oso;d crleod Jo esJe^ ur se8essed 1ecr.r.(1 Jo uop -Jesu eql iuDtspq esord eql Jo oJnlBeJ Jer{}oue 01 osrJ ezrr8 suorle;edes pe8uolord uego pue pecJoJ eseqJ 'rueq] uoerrrleg se8ueqcxe Jo Joqrunu eql secnpoJ ,sporred .re8uol ro; peluredes er€ sre^ol eql terll pue ',fup,lrqc Jo plJo^\ oql ot a^ol Jo plro^\ er{} ruoJJ perreJsuer} ueeq sBrI }nes^ puB ue}srJl 3o ,fto1s eql leq} }c€J eqJ 'slepotu JeIIJee ruo{ pe}rJerlut }snJrl} e rleJJeu ursru eq1 azqrqelsep ,(lerrrs -se"rEo.rd 'sg11oru Surlsxe Surluzvrer pue sJelcuJeqc ,(repuoces uo Sursnco; ouorlce eql Sulrluecep ,(q 'r{cg,l 'sea.r1e.ueu-oJcrru eseql ,(1eso1c eJoru eurruexe ol InJosn eq lgnop ou ppo,^a 11'1atng ap aruoe q ap D lrno) ap mDpsDq) np uoutoü oql uro{ seposrde to [tuatnnq) ap rcutnoJ er{l se qcns s}xel Jo }uecsrurrueJ eJB qJrql!\ 'seposrde snoruouoln?-Ilues olul s]ueueuJno] oseq] uJnl o] pue] ,(lueru -eurnol sroleJos er{lJo eposrde 3uo1,fue,r eql sepnlcul qc1qrv\) AI^ 01,e1e31n,r, eq} ruo{ socuenbes lepou eseql Jo uorlecgrldrue penur}uoc eql pue suorldrrcsep eql Jo uorslcerd lecruqcel orIJ 'slueuleuJnol uots!.u eq] Jo rt13ue1 pue ,(cuenbe"r3 oql leÄ Jllour ,fuospduroc 'lecruouec e ouoceq seq pud so{e} Je^oy1qEru1 eqt gclqlv\ rn ]uerueuJnol eql 'a17at.mq3 s(uerlgJqC ocurs 0r.se^ltaileu goqs Bulpnlcur ETE

Jo esrlcerd slql JeJrtupe pu€ uul eql Jo esrnE eqt JO ueAO pu€ url A"ro1s pes e Jo c Jo ueen§ eqt Ji -eJ sorurleruos : Jnor^€qeq crJIr Ä11sotu 'suorsJa',

-u,(Eospr ueuo pt{ eql Äq parrdi el JounJg, Jo 3t. eql n aqdV,l t,) .r'

eql sourquoJ ' pue leqcseuos :L polusr{cuo eql . -Äro1s ureru eqt

'

pe"rrdsur Ä1ee{ s

elqels^e [€ llt pn.tg-lop)uD?..:

.

.

pue u0tslrJ 3r.ll u0ts!,u eql Jo : UOIAI, eq] Jo 3lt-':

plnoqs 1I 'esld ;

slueuuosudul seop u?lsrJl qr; ' x0916§6 I proJl eArleJJuu sql I.

e'urleqdJo,l e.r; uele uorlupdurc, Ä11ce;rp sJe]JEr

T

luenbo4 er{} iü, pue urprerle) ' -oJcltu Jo uolsl], pue sorlrJedsrp ue ) uots!,tJ aLIl peperEep l€r{ \\; er{t Jo }eq} slrlp eq] o] UoIIB ortl

.=

ITVJSIYJ ESOUd EHI

.-

,-

. ,qffi

334

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

the general expression of emotion. Links between the main narrative and singing are created by the use of very ornate, rhythmical prose, enriched by comparisons and rhetorical effects; prose monologues by amorous knights often precede an explosion of lyrical expression. This ornate prose is also found in most of the letters, and in the exchanges and debates which constitute throughout the text a

semi-theoretical discussion on passion and its effects (Baumgartner 1990a; M6nard 1999). Whether it takes the form of verse or plose, the language of love in the Tristan introduces a new rhythm and a different tone into the 'normal' prose, providing the narrative with a multifaceted poetic discourse. By turning Tristan into a character who can write, speak and sing about his destiny, Luce, who presents himself as an English knight who is'amoreus, gais et envoisiez' (amorous, hoppy and ioyful), and H61ie, who in the epilogue expresses his return to writing as a form of regeneration, invent a hero who combines two characteristics in an original way: the knightJover is now capable of recreating, through his poetry, his own experience of love, an experience whose authenticity is guaranteed by the narrative itself. Unlike the emperor Conrad in Jean Renart's Guillaume de Dole, or the hero of the Chastelaine de Vergy, Tristan and his doubles do not sing the songs of other trouyöres. They perform the lay, the lament or the farewell poem which they themselves have just composed whilst riding or sitting by the numerous fountains at which they seek refreshment. Moreover, prose monologues mark the birth of lyrical expression in the heart of the lovers and testify to its necessity. This device is reminiscent of the play between cansos, vidas and razos in the songbooks of certain troubadours' We know that this innovation on the part of the Tristan was particularly well received; from then on there are not many romances, Arthurian or otherwise, that do not practise the art of lyric insertion as another way of expressing, within the narrative, the joys and torments of love. The introductions to the different volumes of the M6nard edition provide a useful complement to the numerous articles devoted fairly recently to the prose Tristan. The former feature detailed analyses of the motifs and characters that make up the 'systÖme arthurien du monde' (Arthurian world system), which, as the romance progresses, both evolves and is challenged, notably by the likes of Kaherdin, and later, Dinadan, or by the anti-chivalric behaviour of Brehus sans Piti6 or even Gauvain (Trachsler 1994). Here, I shall concentrate on the Tristan's principal features. A common, but somewhat restrictive, practice in Arthurian texts is the reuse of characters and of the same temporal and spatial background as a context for the narrative, a technique introduced by Chr6tien de Tioyes in Erec. Again,the Tristan employs this device in a very complex manner. There is a doubling of textual locations: Mark's Cornwall is the chivalric and courtly antithesis of Arthur's Logres. In addition to characters who have already been modified and reorientated from the verse Tristans, the prose romance integrates

into the ',', . i

::-

consists 1:

-

ginal te\:. -. . the ror it, § who loses :--.-' note h..i'. .-responSe :

tion.

-.

-.

Sor:..

which it.,' . Lanc€lt,i I '

Tristurt -.; lishing cc.r' : Follo\.,. . .r SeqUeIlC;:

multip1r.. CaSeS

:

"

.-

-

ol- :r-. -

ated; rlrl-.; at one s r'.,,

another: :" .-

in both

lc -

who are.t. -queen ol' ( '--

for prolrri-. The las: that noth. being lor ; * ciently \\ c,: Tristart e\^; admirers. F. is often nrt r: : love potic: (before Tr,>.almost the ;,' madly in 1c,' : .

]zrll sezr1eoJ er{ ecuo rl}eop }oe^\s srq }noqe 3u6urs serp '1nes1q}lA\ e^ol ur ,(1peul sr oq.&\ 'urp;eqe; '(E*Ogt pue gI t§§ 'Xt 'upe C-II) ecueruor eqt Jo pue eql lsoru1e [lun rurq en8uld lp,rr uorssed srq pue (yrr8 eqt Jo ecr]ou,{ue se44 ue}sr{ erogeq) pueleJl ur lnesÄ Euno,( eql rllrln e^ol ur qyeg (esec sFI ul popeeu sr uorlod elol ou),(lsnoeueluods 'e,ro1puz ,fu1u,rrqc ut gloq Ie^rJ srr{ ueql snoJeue8 erotu uelJo sr orfy\ pue s6uelsr{ slunbe ssom,ord esoq,ry\ }{3ru1 uoceJBS eql 6sepelu€lud .sJoJrrup€ ,(pq8rul s6lnesÄ 8ur,(1dr1pul ,(q s1e,tr-r ,(qlron go ,(lqrqrssod eql se.roldxe uryfl.U or{} 'oJe^eurng JoJ e^ol sq 3o lcedser ur }olocueT o} IeArJ B s3 }c€ o1 ,{ql.rorrr r(11uelc -rlJns sr 1q3u1 ou qcrq.,!\ uy'rc1atuo7 er{} e{[un rr'uetuo,l\ o.,r1 ,{g pea.o1 Sureq ruou u€ru e Jo ueur olg ,(q pe,ro1 Sureq ruo{ uer[o.iv\ 3 slue^eJd Surqlou 1eq1 selels a.tottto aO srq ur snuellede) spoJpuv,(q pepunodxe e^ol Jo elnr lsel eql 'esodrnd Iecrqle uB s€q osl" lr !err.l1e.r.reu eql Eur8uoyord;o3 InJesn.{1uo 1ou sr enbruqce} sHI'urleqdrg.l oJpuexrTv uo^e Jo'eruec.rg go ueenb eql Jo Jo^o[ eql '1etoute1e1q 'e8erur s(u€]sr{ ur ssol Jo eJoru eperu eJe oq.u ro 'seperue1e4,{lprcedse pue urpJeqe) su qcns 'sse,lord crrlerrrqc pue o^ol q}oq ur sl?^rJ ]ceJrp eJe oqlv\ s1q3ru1 'uelsrrl punoJ€ peleeJc e,{eq sJor{}ne eq} selqnop eq} ur serT tea.elroq 'un7s1t1 erll Jo ,$rTeur8r"ro enJ] er{J 's8ur.rds 01 lxeu Jo lsoJoJ eq} 3o sqldep eql q suoqesJe^uoc pue 's:elunocue esue] Jo,(lpuerr; eJB eJeql lreqloue ol lq8rul euo ruo4 pessed oJe ,uocso Jepun, slesruep lpred pue {srJ ul\o s(ouo }e peldecce sr,(lrplrdsoq oUqA\ 'pelecrpe.re eq o1 poou sluolsnc IrAe snorerunu lpele -|lo8eu eq ol speoJssorc pue se8prrq 'sprog snopred go tlrluepr uo>lelsru Jo sosec (Sursnure ssol Jo eroru) Jo uorsnJoJd e snql sr ereqJ 'sernluolpe eqt Bur,(ydr11mu ,(lsseluoge Jo e^rleJJeu eq1 Sur8uolord rog enbruqcel InJesn ,(rezr e osecuenbes e^rleJJsu Jelrlurs Jo Jrlolu olues eql ;o 'uorleue^ q1r.4A 'uor1r1ede.r erll Jo esn crleurelsr(s se{ulu osle uqlslu eq\'rcpJuD7 erl} Jo sde1s1ooJ or{1 ur Sur,l.olog 'GAA e^og-puellr141) srepeer rreql qlr^\,(lrcrlduoc Burqsq -qelse ,(qereql 'lerreleru polrJorlur rroql 01 opnlrlle pcrlrrc e Surldope uLtslu eI{} Jo sJor{}ne 0q} eos o} tou }lncrJJrp sr 1r Suruorlsenb luelsuoc sql uI.rclacuoT eso"rd eql Jo arurl eqt ,{q sscelduoruuroc ocu?ruoJ eruocoq ,(pee:1e e^Eq qcrr{1v\ pue uer]gJq3 ,{q pelue^ur sJrlou o^rrcJJ€u eql ut peurJqsue ,se.r8o1 ;o uropSurl eql eleln8er qclq \ sruolsnc pue s,fu,t. eq] 1ce[e"r puu elncrpu ,ssncsrp ,uepeurq,tq pel 'sJorllo ',(13ur4uqtun selnJ or{1ldecc? ,ue1su1,(llercedse ,uleq} Jo eruos .uorl

-surcseJ IIB e^oq? 1nq tlqrlsorl pu? rusrcrlrJc 'uorlernupe Jo eJnlxllu e sr esuodse.r esor{.tt' 'seperuele4 pue uep€urq sJoruoJmeu eq} ,(q ro ,ulpreqe;1 pue {JeI I '1nes1 'uu1su1 se qcns .suerle, ,(q perrrecred sr pFo.Lr uerJnr{Uv orl} A\oq o}ou o1 Surlserelut sr ]l osuuel 1e;eue8 eJoru uI 'BJn€ lucrls,(ul sg Jo qcntu sesol oql\ 'peqeleg Jo pue 'upl sH pue ]olecuel go ,ere,reurnDpnqpy eldnoc p,(o.l eql go e8erur Sut8ueqc eql ocuelsur ro3 8ur1ou '1xe1 1e8re1 eql ut uorlcunJ '1xe1 1eut3 -rJo egl ur rftepuoces ro,fueruud reqleqlr'srelcereqc eseql rrtorl Sureos ur slsrsuoc snr{l Jepeer InJeJec e Jo 0lor oql'fo,tg-top)uo7 orl} ruo4 pelrodun ete \ted lsolu eql ro3 'oqrrr 'srelcereqc uerrnrllrv ,(llucgrceds uelsrJJ Jo plro^\ oq} olur §EE

saleJEelq ecueu ueeq ,(peerle eAE Ä1]rnoc pue clrl 3 sl eJer{I 'J3uuu ur seÄor1 ep uor punorS>1ceq I€rlr

uerrnr{uv ur

oJ

scuolst,tJ eql uo suES snr{eJfl Jo

Jo se{11 eq] Äq i se 'r{cF{rn '(wat; ]€q] srelcersqr eso;d eql o1 ,{pu E epra.ord uorlrp or{} un{}I^\ '8uts.

]eq1 'est/Ytleqlo i Ilezlr Ä1.re1ncrur',

0^(\ 'srnopeqno*

,(e1d

eql Jo 1u:

Jo u€eq aql ur

']ueluqseuer

L.

I:

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l.

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'l:

6leurJou' eql o-: eAol

;o

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AIVJSIYJ ESOUd EHI

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336

THE ARTHI]R OF THE FRENCH

Yseut will never love him (Rabeyroux and Roland 1990; Toury 1990). At least he achieves poetic creation, as does the young H6lys, who recites to Tristan the virtues of love, however impossible (TLF edn, VI, §§133-40). The prose authors certainly invented these Tristan doubles, the knights in love with Yseut, in order to multiply the narrative opportunities for adventure and conflict between Tiistan and his rivals. Tristan's prolonged madness is induced by the jealousy he feels when he believes that Yseut prefers Kaherdin to him. Many adventures come from the continuous rivalry between Tristan and Palamedes, whether in love or in arms. Yet this is also a way of reflecting on the idealized interdependence of love and prowess, which is the foundation of the Arthurian world and its courtly ethos, and a way too of emphasizing its fragility and limitations. The Tristan preserves the exemplary relationship between Tristan and Yseut, a union forged by love for the goodness of the knight and the beauty of the lady. Around the couple, however, the bonds between love and prowess gradually dissolve. What happens when a knight in love loses all hope, when Yseut does not fulfil the hopes of Palamedes, who is as good a knight as Tiistan? It would be diflicult for Palamedes to admit that one's right to be loved does not depend on prowess. Kaherdin, a lesser knight, has no alternative but to allow himself to die. Others, like Brunor or H6lys, resign themselves to never being loved, whatever their

merits. Love in the Tristan is no longer the reward for prowess, and in the end only the outspoken Dinadan expresses this clearly, continuously denouncing the perverse effects of passion and the absurdity of chivalric customs. What becomes of the knight-errant's raison d'€tre if, as Kaherdin and then Dinadan point out at every possible opportunity, a knight's function in this world is to fight in battles which are as deadly as they are pointless and to respect ridiculous and outdated customs in order to demonstrate his prowess? Under the influence of the love potion, Tristan never questions his love for Yseut and has no doubts about the mission of a knight-errant, except during the Grail Quest, the true meaning of which escapes him. He is born in sadness, yet he is destined to bring joy to the world; he is the knight who must risk all in adventure in order to bring peace, freedom and justice wherever he goes. Yet he is surrounded by knights, all speaking with one voice (except for Lancelot, who still respectfully attempts to protect a courtly world under threat), all questioning the meaning of their lives and expressing or demonstrating the dire consequences of love. Likewise, they all denounce chivalric practices, which are now either meaningless and can be transgressed with impunity, or they can be turned to individual advantage by knights such as Brehus, a veritable highwayman, or, more dramatically, by Gauvain and his brothers, who have now become hardened murderers. In Luce's prologue, the Tristan is presented as a 'translation' of 'le grant livre del latin . . . qui devise apertement l'estoire del Saint Graal' (the big book in Latin, which clearly recounts the story of the Holy Grail), a book which the prose author

has read Ll n,j. r estoire' I It't;;: depicts a ti::: : latin' ( Lu lt :' (ent ire 1', ,, (Baumgartn-: : book. a It.1:r-:. ' commoll II a,::. Queste clel 5., ' whilst prese:-. . tion of a n-.' : exercise his -: -. .' naffatir-e. H:... reader of u i- -: . :

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ri'

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prose 0t( 1,,, '

Is not the .r.-:

thirteenth cir.:

.

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he can and nr -.: remodelled c,: :. teenth cent Lii-. . ,- .

,

text. Instertü. .: novel use oi ;..

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assembles dl s:

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eql Jo qlnJl eql uotlsenb lou op osecueuro; esord 1see11e ro 'eso.rd 'r(rnluec qlueel -rltll eql uI eo^rleJJeu er{} Jo speeu eql ol Surprocce polue^ur ue^e ro pellepourer teqleSot l{?norq 'pelrrequr ueoq seq qclq^\ Ierre}Bru uo esodrur }snru pue uec erl slFull eql Jo snolcsuoc sr esord uroq,(yzvreu Jo JelrJ,lr eql lerll ',irn1uec qluoeurrll oq] se ,(Fue se 'ultoqs e^€q o1 uDts!.tJ eso;d eq] Jo uorlnqrJluoc urelu oql ]ou sI

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338

flexible prose writing can be, how it can accommodate all types and modes of narrative and even rival the lyric genre in celebrating and deploring love. When H6lie states in his epilogue that he must get back to work to 'crown'his book, he is not admitting that he has failed. He is calling for a renewal in the writing of fiction, and his call was immediately heard. With its dark forests of chivalric adventure, its clear springs and agreeable conversations on love, the ptose Tristan genuinely opened up new avenues and created new spaces in the world of romance, a fictional world epitomized, since its founding father Wace, by the image of the Round Table.

Notes

t

The epilogue appears in BNF, fr. 104, 760, 1628; Modena, Biblioteca Estense, MS E. 59 and Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Douce 189. The spelling is that of BNR fr. 1628. 2 Curtis's edition, the first two volumes of which were reprinted in 1985, corresponds to Löseth 1890, §§l-e2. 3 SeeBödieredn,II,190-3 ar,d32l-95 fortherelevantpassagesbasedonBNF,fr. l03.

a See Curtis, II, §§5 I 3-1 5, 532-3, 534-7: these are three ambush scenes which end with the lovers escaping into the Morrois (§§ 544 53). 5 Among the recent inventories and studies on the manuscripts and their classification, see Pickford 1959160*; Vielliard 1973,84-92 on Bodmer 164; Willard 1985; Field 1989; Chönerie 1998, as well as the introductions to the various volumes of the Curtis and TLF editions. 6 See vol. 1 of the Blanchard and Quereuil edition of BNF, fr. 7 57 . For a different opinion, see Bogdanow, chapter IX. 7 On the use of this version in Italy and the reasons for its use, see Heijkant 1989. 8 On this different quest narrative, see Bogdanow, chapter IX. e On the two quests inserted into the Tristan, see Bogdanow 1990 and 2000; Harf-Lancner's introduction to volume IX of the TLF edn, 25-38. r0 On the importance of tournaments in the Tristan, see the introductions and bibliography to vols II and V of the TLF edition, as well as L. Leonardi, 'I1 torneo della Roche Dure nel Tristan in prosa', CN,57 (1997),209 51.

tt

12

SeeAndreasCapellanusonLove,ed.byP.G.Walsh(London, 1982),285,rule31. Letter to Louise Colet, Correspondance, ed.by J. Bruneau (Paris, 1980), II, 79.

Reference List For items accompanied by an asterisk,

see

the General Bibliography.

Texts and Translations Le Roman de Tristan en prose. Ed. by R. L. Curtis, 3 vols (Cambridge, 1985). Le Roman de Tristan en prose: les deux captivitös de Tristan. Ed. by J. Blanchard (Paris, 1976). Le Roman de Tristan en prose, publiö sous la direction de P. Mönard,9 vols, TLF 353,381 ,398, 408, 416,437,450,462,474 16"n"rur: I, ed. by P. Mönard (1987); II, ed. by M.-L. ChÖnerie and T. Delcourt (1990); III, ed. by G. Roussineau (1991); IY ed. by J.-C. Faucon (1991); V, ed. by

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340

THE ARTHTJR OF THE FRENCH

Dubost, F. 1991. 'Trois g6ants, trois 6poques, un "roman":le gÖant poseur d'Önigmes, le GÖant de cornouailles et Taulas de la Montagne dans le Tristan en prose" PRIS-MA,'|,57-72. Dufournet, J. ed. 1990. Nouvelles recherches sur le Tristan en prose, Geneva. Field, P. J. C. 1989. 'The French Prcse Tristan: A Note on Some Manuscripts, a List of Printed Texts, and TWo Correlations with Malory's Morte Darthur' , BBIAS, 41 ,269-87 ' Harf-Lancne! L. 1996. 'Gauvain l'assassin: la r6currence d'un schÖma tatratif dans le Tristan en prose', in Tristan-Trisfiant: mölanges en I'honneur de Danielle Buschinger d l'occasion de son 60 anniv er s aire, Greifswald, 219-30.

Harf-Lancner 1998. 'Une seule chair, un seul c@ur, une seule äme: la mort des amants dans le Tristan en prose' , in Miscellanea Mediaevalia: mölanges offerts d Philippe Mönard,2 vols' Paris, I,

613-28.

Heijkant, M.-J. 1989. La tradizione del Tristan in prosa in ltalia

e

proposte di studio sul Tristano

Ric c ardian o, Nijmegen.

Huot, S. 2003. Madness in Medieval French Literature, Oxford' Le Vot, G. 1988. 'Les Lais lyriques du Tristan en prose et leur musique', in A. Gier et al.

eds.

Narrativa Breve, Medieval Romanica, Granada, 89-110. Löseth, E. 1890. Le Roman en prose de Tristan, le roman de Palamöde et la compilation de Rusticien de Pise: analyse critique d'aprös les manusÜits de Paris, Paris; repr. Geteva,l974. Menard 1993. 'Chapitres et entrelacement dans le Tristan en prose',it'Et c'est lafin pour quoy sommes ensemble'; hommage d Jean Dufournet, professeur d la Sorbonne Nouvelle: littörature, histoire et langue du Moyen Äge,3 vols, Paris and Geneva, II,955-62; repr. as 'LlEntrelacement dans le Tristan en prose' in M6nard 1999, 163-9 . M6nard 1994. 'Les Piöces lyriques dt Tristan en prose', in C. Lachet ed. Les Genres insörös dans le roman: actes du colloque international du l0 au 12 döcembre l992,Lyon,35-46; repr. in M6nard 1999,141-61. M6nard 1999. De Chrötien de Troyes au Tristan en prose: ötudes sur les romans de la Table Ronde, Geneva.

Milland-Bove, B. 1999. "'La dameisele (...) qui sa seror desheritoit": enjeux d'une recriture dans le Tristanen prose', Rom, ll7, 78-97. payen, J.-Ch. 1973. 'Lancelot contre Tiistan: la conjuration d'un mythe subversif (rÖflexions sur i'id6ologie romanesque au Moyen Age)',in Mölanges de langue et de littörature mödiövales offerts d Pierre Le Gentil,Pais,617-32. Rabeyroux, A., and V Roland 1990.'La Mort du trouvöre: Kahedin et la mise en scÖne du lyrisme', in Dufournet ed. 1990, 191-205. Ribard, J. lgg3. 'Figures du chevalier errant dans le Tristan en prose', in'Et c'est lafin pour quoy sommes ensemble'; hommage d lean Dufournet, professeur d la Sorbonne Nouvelle: littötature,

histoire et langue du Moyen Äge,3 vols, Paris and Geneva, III, 1205-16. Roubaud-B{nichou, S. 2000. Le Roman de chevalerie en Espagne: entre Arthur et Don Quichotte, Paris. Suard, F. 1993.'Le RÖcit ä distance de soi-mÖme dans le Tristan en prose', in'Et c'est la fin pour quoy sommes ensemble'; hommage d lean Dufournet, professeur d la Sorbonne Nouvelle: littörature, histoire et langue du Moyen Äge, 3 vols, Paris and Geneva, IIl, 1291-1305. Toury, M.-N. "'Morant d'amours": amour et mort dans le tome I du Tristan en prose" in

Dufournet ed. 1990, 173-90. Trachsler, R. 1994. 'Br6hus sans Piti6: portrait-robot du criminel arthurien', in La Violence dans le monde mödiöval, Senefltance 36, Aix-en-Provence, 52542 Traxler, J. lgg4.'Courtly and Uncourtly Love in the Prose Tristan', in D. Maddox and S. Sturm Maddox eds. Literary Aspects of Courtly Culture, Cambridge, 161-9. Van Coolput, C.-A. 1986. Ayentures quörant et le sens du monde: aspects de la röception productive des premiers romans du Graal cycliques dans le Tristan en prose, Louvain'

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REWRITING PROSE ROMANCE: THE POST-VULGATE ROMAN DU GRAIZ AND RELATED TEXTS Fanni Bogdanow and Richard Trachsler

The Post-Vulgate Roman du Graal

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Librarr llt,:-.-.:* The Vulgate Cycle of Arthurian prose romanceq which in its final form consisted of five branches, the Estoire del Saint Graal, a Merlin and Suite,the Lancelot,the Queste del Saint Graal and the Mort Artu (see chapter VII), was rewritten shortly after its composition by a writer who combined it with themes derived from the First Version of the prose Tristaz (see chapter VIII). This new Arthuriad, span-

ning the time from the early history of the Grail down to the destruction of Arthur's kingdom, used to be called the 'pseudo-Robert de Boron Cycle', but is now known as the Post-Vulgate Roman du Graal [P- Iz] (Bogdanow 2003). The P-V has not survived in French in its complete form in any one manuscript, but has had to be reconstructed from fragments of varying lengths, some of which have been discovered only recently, and also from Portuguese and Castilian translations, as well as from redactional information supplied by the writer himself. This evidence suggests that the original P-V Arthuriad consisted of three parts. The first two comprised a redaction of the Estoire del Saint Graal

and the prose rendering of Robert de Boron's Merlin, followed by a Suite du Merlin partly dependent on the Vulgate Suite, but mostly distinct from it. The final section included the P-Ils own version of the Queste and Mort Artu, both freely adapted from the corresponding Vulgate narratives. The section from which scholars first deduced the existence of a cycle parallel to the Vulgate Cycle was the Suite du Merlin, originally known from the following sources: (i) the early fourteenth-century Huth codex (British Library, Additional MS 38117), edited by G. Paris and J. Ulrich in 1886 [the Huth Merlin]; (ii) two early editions of the Castilian Baladro del sabio Merlin printed in Burgos in 1498 (Baladro, Bohigas edn) and Seville in 1535 (vol. 1 of La Demanda, Bonilla y San Martin edn); (iii) Malory's English adaptation. No manuscript of the Castilian Baladro has yet been discovered, though a small section of the Castilian Merlin proper has been preserved in MS 1877 of the Salamanca University Library (Spanish Grail Fragments, Pietsch edn, I, 3-54), and in 1979 a fragment of a Galician-Portuguese translation of the Suite section was discovered by A. J. Soberanas. Both the Huth Merlin and the two extant editions of the

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:rel€l sreo,{ rnoJ-f]q8ro eruos ]rl8r1 o] oruec 'sopuotuaq oql pue 0r€ '{ gNg ot peleloJ ,(1.ree1c lnq 'pelrslep eJolu lBrlAroruos 'uorlceper qcueJd Jer{unJ v 'Jetuulos ßq nA plun gcns s€ pouquepl lou lng '(OOgt) asQouy s,qlesg-I uro{ I68I eculs u1r\oul se,t. 'qleep s.oJe^eurnC Jo uorsJe^ opuDruae eqt .(g xepoc sry1 ut popece.rd pue'Oit 'U gNB 'suoLa sotptalp sap p snuv rcy np uoutoü s.esld ep uelcllsn5 go sldlrcsnueru eg1 Jo ouo ur perrress"rd 'Uleep s6{J€I I Jo }unocce opuoruae eq} Jo uorsre^ rlcuerd yeur8uo eq1 'qcns s€ pegrluepr 1ou qSnoqqy 'a1sanfi /l-d eql Jo pue eql reuB uo 1v\olloJ (9991 elvres pue §I§I opeloJ) ptrg opuos Pp opuowao D7 ue\r$e) egt Jo suolllpe pelurrd ,(1"ree on1 egl pue pDtg otuDs op ltpuorua1 7 esen8ngod eqt ul qcF{r!\ suorlcepeJ ogl are^\ qleep s(>lrel I 3ur;1;o }unorce ue nuy oql suorsJe^ 1{po eqt eurrl Suol u rog epnlctlr ol u1y\ou>l eJe^,\ Ltow 1eql Jo 'Sutssrur eJo^\ suollces ureuec ar ro eleldruoc se^\ e^rleJJuu eql JI IIel o1 elqe oq plno^\ repeer o^rl -ue}le eql 'sequcs rolel slr 3o,(ue .{q pereqruerusrp sr,llerc er{} Jo.(ro1s, er{} JI }eql Surppe ,(q lurod sql te psrrnrluv slrl Jo sluoluoc eqt 3urlr8 segrlsnl oH '(qtuep s6{JsIAI 8ur; seleleJ }r eJerl.e\ lurod ,{re,r eq} }e r{}eep s(}olecue'I JeUe seqsrurJ, lred p;rqt eql tslrq^\ (tsanj forg aW lo Suruur?aq ary ru) ;eer1 nop luotu -eqcuouuoc Ie, uorsnlcuoc slr o1 seruoc 1.rud puoces eqr iQq3ru1 olqrsr^ur ue Jo lsenb s,ureleg Jo puo eql1e sr leql'$anb s1r4t to Smuut&aq aqt ru),e1senb elsec ep lueruegouoruruoo n€, spue 'p1o1 eJB ezlr 'ged 1s"rg eql :sged pnbe eerql olut.{oog, sH papplp s?q oq ßW @VgZ'loJ 'SI41 eEpuque3 iOgT, 'l'u11tayy qtnH) uortces atms eqt ur secunouue '1lo.tr slq Jo eleJ er{} 8ur}udrcr}ue telu,t. A-d eq3'(Ofq-t OS :g-Z tS'Z'L1'upa ^4-7 rrrouepSog 19661 zvrouepSog 'p ie7661 lq pue eLB6l rpruqo8uol) ea,r1e.r.reu 711 '-t3 gNg eql Jo suorlces ureuec ol puodseuoc pue,ftnluec qlueegnoJ eql uro4 elep eu8olog pue elorul ur punoJ slueru8e.lg Jorllo lslrq \ 'slducsnueur e8puqure3 pu€ qtnH er{} Jo uorpod e sre^oc puu,funluec q}uoeurri} og} ruo{ sepp (1y-977 '9961 :q0961 zlrouepSo1g:Lg6l erlcl14tr) lueu8erg €uers eql :serrerqrl uurl€1l ur peJe^ocsrp uoeq etßq,y-d eql go slueru8e4 Uoqs '.(1luece.r erour 1e.( 'Ä11uurg 'GVA re,reurl) lueur?er3 T,II';. Uttg eqt u?r{} rellrue JIo s{eerq 1nq 'xepoc q}n11 eq1 Jo puo ogl puo,(eg senurluoc qcHr!\ '17971eaor1lppv 'lducsnueru ,ire.rqr1 .(lrsrezuun e8prrqrue3 ,(rnluec-qlueelrnoJ erll pourluepr .(1]ce.l.loc Je €ur uorllv\ '§?6I Ulun l{8q o1 etuoc lou pIp aUnS eq} Jo lducsnueur roq}ouv 'suorueduroc o \] slq pue ure^neg Jo sernluo^pe e1drr1 eql Sullelduoc ,(g reqlrng e^rleJJeu eql senurluoc osle 1e,{ 'xepoc q}nH eg} 3o uorgod leuu oql sepnlcu ltanaruaqvl rerrruos [q gtOt ur pegsrlqnd pue (q3S-qft sloJ '11 a.r,r.t'1) ZII 'r3 UNfl ul G68I) relssqce \.(q pe;e,rocsyp lueru8e;g y '@2961nouupSog) r{}eep s.urlrel I Jo tunoccs pelrclep eroru € rllrl\ p€elsur e^rlerr?u eqt Eurleldutoc'(pg7-961 eqt Jo uollces rollel oql 1nuo suolllpe oqopg lsgq \ '(lgz'II

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ESNV'\IOU ESOUd D}TIIIU1!\EU

344

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

i.e. the text included in Cologny-Genöve, cod. Bodmer 105 (see Bogdanow, Queste P-V,IlI, 506-28, §§701-14). This volume, a codex of the last three branches of the Vulgate Cycle, inserts in its version of the Mort Artu not only the account of Mark's death, but also certain other sections of the P-V Mort Artu of which previously no French manuscript was known. The Portuguese and Castilian Demandas are both translated, though not independently of each other, from the French P-V Queste-Mort Artu which, like the Suite section, no longer survives intact, but has had to be reconstructed from textual fragments incorporated in various manuscripts. Two of these (see Wechssler 1895) are BNF, fr. 712 (Livre IV), compiled by Micheau Gonnot in the fifteenth century (see below), and BNF, fr.343, copied in the fourteenth century by an Italian scribe.The latter codex combines the first two-thirds of the Vulgate Queste with a substantial section of the last third of the P-4 whilst BNF 112, in addition to one of the episodes which it shares with BNR fr.343, incorporates several others, both from earlier and later parts of the narrative. Another incident (that of the Olivier vermeil) derived from the P-V Queste was inserted by the scribe of a late fifteenth-century codex of the Vulgate Cycle, BNF, fr. 116, between the end of the Vulgate Queste and the beginning of the Vulgate Mort Artu, whilst yet further episodes were incorporated into a codex of Guiron le Courtois, Turin, Biblioteca Nazionale, MS L. I.7-9 (Bogdanow 1965; Queste P-V,1, 1,26-8) as well as into certain manuscripts of Rusticien de Pise's compilation, the Roman du Roi Artus et des chevaliers errans (Bogdanow 1967; Queste P-V,1, 128-37). Moreover, substantial sections from the second half of the P-V Queste, combined with the first half of the Vulgate Queste, were incorporated into the Second Version of the prose Tristan and have survived in some twentytwo manuscripts of the latter, including BNF, fr. 772 (Bogdanow 2002). ln 1984 a codex which had been in the Bodleian Library in Oxford since 1755, MS Rawlinson D. 874, was identified as a manuscript of the P-V Queste closely related to BNF, fr.343, but continuing beyond the point where the latter breaks off (Bogdanow 1985; Lloyd-Morgan 1985; Queste P-V,\ 108-12). A number of further fragments of the P-V Queste, which are likely to be from the same codex and some of which cover sections previously unknown in French, have in recent years come to light in the State Archives in Bologna (Longobardi 1987a;1992a; 1993; Queste P-V,I, 5-10, 101-8; [Y,2, 503-72,641-723). Finally, portions of the P- V Mort Artuhave survived in the two French manuscripts mentioned above (BNF, fr. 340 and Bodmer 105) as well as in two small strips from the same codex as the Bologna P-V Queste fragments (Longobardi 1989; 1992a: Queste P-Y,L 10-13;200-3). G. Paris (1887) was the first to realize that the Portuguese A Demanda represented the third part of the tripartite Livre announced in the Huth Suite du Merlin. Whilst neither the Vulgate Queste nor the Vulgate Mort Artu has

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346

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

some remanieurhad omitted the Lancelof. But there is no evidence to support any

with Galali-tc -:

these conjectures (Bogdanow 1966). In fact, the question of the form and structure of the original P-V Roman du Graal can only be resolved by taking at face value the evidence provided by the extant P-Vmanuscripts. At various points in the narrative the P-V writer not only states that he has divided his livre into three equal parts, but also that, although the substance of

woven $-rth c,- -'.; the Folie. SLl,-i. --

the 'Grant Hystoire de Lanscelot'was not irrelevant to his own work, he has excluded it from his composition, as its inclusion would have made the middle part three times as long as the other two. Thus at the point where, in the Suite,he refers to the ring that the Lady of the Lake gave to Lancelot, our author states explicitly that this fact is narrated in the'Great Story of Lancelot', which he is omitting because its inclusion would spoil the symmetry of his work (Bogdanow 2003,42; Cambridge MS, fol. 279c;Huth Merlin,II,57). But if the Lancelot proper formed no part of the Post-Vulgate Cycle, it is equally apparent that the Suite cannot have ended originally with the Abenteuer section. There is a considerable chronological gap between the end of the Abenteuer and the beginning of the P-V Queste: the Grail knights, Galahad and Perceval, have not yet been born, whilst Lancelot, who is to be Galahad's father, is still a small boy. Moreover, there are also in the P-V Suite a number of references to later incidents not related before the end of the Abenteuer section, but which the writer mentions retrospectively in the P-V Queste. In fact a considerable portion of the missing narrative has survived in two manuscripts, a thirteenth-century codex of the prose Trlslar, BNE, ft. 12599, and Livre III of BNR fr. 112. First published in 1965 under the title La Folie Lancelot lFoliel, this narrative has made it possible to understand how the P- V wtitet was able to exclude the Lancelot and yet avoid a break in continuity: in order to provide a transition to the P-V Queste, he extendedthe Suite by adapting certain incidents from the Agravain section of the Lancelot (see chapter VII, n. 1), combining these with his own inventions and a number of episodes derived from the First Version of the prose Tristan. The Folie begins with an incident announced in the Abenteuer (93): Gaheriet's slaying of his mother. This is then followed by episodes such as Lancelot's madness and his stay in the Isle de Joie, Perceval's youth, the death of two of Pellinor's sons, Lamorat and Drian, predicted in the Suite (Huth Merlin,l,26l) as well as Erec's early exploits, which are concluded in the P-V Queste. However, the Folie is in itself incomplete and does not completely fill the gaps preceding and following it. Many of these lacunae can now, howevet be filled by fragments preserved in libraries in Imola and Bologna (Longobardi 1992a; Bogdanow 1998,33-64; Queste P-V,lY:2, 51146, 614-4'0). Probably deriving from the same codex as the other P- V fragments in these libraries, this new series includes, among other incidents, Pellinor's death, announced in the Suite (1,261), and Lancelot's departure from the Isle de Joie

ments (BogC.1.. The first p;:

of

527J4). Fin..

96ll in the B. : naffatil'e.

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-

; .

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.

preceded the -',,', specific ret-er.:.,

figures onlr ir.

P-V,

III. ]9,

.

approaching t,,use of his boc-, Galahad. However. tir-: the Estoire tc:. Portuguese t r .:. Torre do Tt-rn^l Demanda dt S fragments cor . -: Merlin sectirrir slightly fronr :. The few dir erserate attempr : the Suite tlti't.,t Estoire rnanLts.. marvels and .: J' .

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5,I,226.!3-14), according to the Portuguese Josep these marvels will be caused by the blow of alance (Lisbon, MS 643, fol.232v), a clear reference to Balain's Dolorous Stroke in the P-V Suite. Elsewhere, the reference to this later event is even more precise. In speaking of King Pellean, the Maimed King, the Vulgate Estoire manuscripts explain that he received his wound in a battle in Rome (Rennes, MS 255, fol. 98c; S,I, 290.28-30)' The Portuguese Josep, however, announces that it will be the Knight with the Two Swords who will strike the fatal blow with the Avenging Lance and that this blow will not only maim the king, but inaugurate the adventures of Logres 'as this story will relate' (Lisbon, MS 643,

fol. 304v). Early scholars not only failed to recognize the structure of the P-V Roman du Graal, but condemned those of its constituent parts at their disposal as a 'labyrinth of fantastic adventures'(Bruce l923ll9}8*,I,464 cf. Huth Merlin,I, xlviii). In reality, the P- V is a creative reinterpretation of the Vulgate, the work not of a 'barbare maladroit', as Pauphilet claimed (1907,606), but of a writer who attempted to produce a more homogeneous and closely knit whole, of which Arthur and the history of his kingdom, rather than Lancelot, was the central character. The 'double esprit'so characteristic of the Vulgate - the clash between the exaltation of courtly love in large portions of the Lancelot and the religious mysticism of the Queste, followed by a resurgence of the love theme inthe Mort Artu (Bogdanow 1984a; 1984c;1986b) - is absent from the P-V. Oru author not only dispensed with the greater part of the Lancelol proper, but radically revised both the Queste and the Mort Artu sections. The Vulgate Queste, written by a man steeped in the mystical theology of St Bernard (Bogdanow 1986a), is essentially a treatise on grace, with almost every line intended for doctrinal exposition (Gilson 1925). For the P-V author,in contrast, the Queste is part of the history of Arthur's kingdom. Hence he does not confine himself to the adventures of the Vulgate Grail Knights, but adds incidents relevant to the fortunes of Logres. Moreover, to give his work a wider appeal, he cuts out or shortens some of the theological disquisitions. Yet the P- V is by no means secular in outlook. The Grail remains a symbol of grace and the Final Scene at Corbenic constitutes the high point of the narrative. Moreover, although the characters may not always be as assiduous in their religious practices as in the Vulgate, there are many references to prayer and confession, and sin by all standards is condemned. Lancelot not only repents of his love for Guinevere as in the Vulgate, but in a passage peculiar to the P-V, Cotnt Hernoul expresses his deep sense of guilt for not having revealed to Arthur Lancelot's love for Guinevere, which he refers to as 'folie', 'traison', 'vilennie'and'pechi6' (Queste P-V,III,59-60, §429). Similarly, in additional episodes which develop the love theme, the sinful nature of illicit love is underlined. Thus the unrequited feelings of King Brutus's daughter for Galahad are described as 'folle amouf' (Queste P-V,II, 142, rubric); Tristan and Yseut's

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in which the principal events of Arthur's reign are skilfully motivated. This

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achieved in a manner characteristic of thirteenth-century writers, not psychologically, but structurally, by supplying the antecedents of the incidents to be

elucidated (Vinaver, Le Roman de Balain, introduction;1949;1956). Hence the P-V Suite du Merlin, instead of being limited largely to a series of Arthur's wars, as is its Vulgate counterpart, consists of long sequences of events, which are completed in the later portions of the narrative. One of the most notable of these is the opening episode of the Suite proper, Arthur's begetting of Mordred, which is presented as the initial link in a chain of events leading up to the death of Arthur and the downfall of his kingdom (Bogdanow 1966,144-5). Similarly, the series of episodes culminating in Balain's Dolorous Stroke and its tragic consequences, i.e. the adventures of Logres, prepare for and are counterbalanced by the coming of Galahad. He is the chosen knight, who will not only end these adventures, but will, in the Final Scene at Corbenic, heal the Maimed King wounded by Balain's fatal stroke (Bogdanow 1966,129-37). Moreover, the structural unity of the P-V Roman du Graal is closely linked to the asceticism of the work, which is itself reflected in the author's conception of Arthur and his kingdom. For our writer, Arthur is the roi aventureux, the king of chance and mischance, and his kingdom isthe roiaume aventureux (Huth Merlin, II,97; Queste P-V,III,469, §679). Arthur and the knights of his kingdom are doomed to commit unintentionally, through mischance, sinful acts, which they and the whole country will subsequently have to expiate. Thus it is by chance that Balain arrives at the Grail Castle in his search for the invisible knight Garlan, who has slain his companion; and it is by chance that Balain, needing a weapon to defend himself when his sword breaks in combat against Garlan's brother King Pellean, enters the Grail Chamber and, unaware of the sin he is committing in touching the Holy Lance, seizes it and strikes with it the Dolorous Stroke that is to incur divine vengeance (Bogdanow 1966,129-37). Similarly, when Arthur begets Mordred on Lot's wife, he is unaware that she is his half-sister, but nevertheless, though his sin of incest is unintentional, he and his kingdom will pay for it. Indeed, this has been divinely decreed, as Arthur himself recognizes after the battle on Salisbury Plain, shortly before his death (Queste P-V,I1I,457-8, §672, cf. Vulgate Mort Artu, Frappier edn, §192). Yet this is not the final mischance to befall Arthur and his kingdom. After the king's death and that of Lancelot, King Mark in the P- Z version invades Arthur's kingdom for the second time to avenge the shame he suffered when he first invaded Logres during the P-V Grail Quest. And though Mark eventually dies, he succeeds in destroying not only Camelot, but also the symbol of Arthur's former glory, the Round Table. Yet this final tragedy could have been avoided if Arthur's behaviour had not turned Mark's early loyalty into hatred, for Arthur had allowed Tiistan and Yseut to take reluge at Joyeuse Garde, and it was in

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OITIJIdAEU

352

THE ARTHI]R OF THE FRENCH

Arthuriad. For while the Perlesvar.rs is the source of a reference in the Chevalier aux deux öpöes (Micha in Loomis ed. 1959*, 380), the latter is the source of an incident in the p-V Suite du Merlin. The details in question are the following' The Deux öpöes,like the Perlesvaus, states that Perceval's (or 'Perlesvaus'S') family home is the Vaus de Camaalot - compare 'Et Perceval le fil Alain, / Le Gros des Vaus de Kamelot' (Le Chevalier aux deus öpäes,2604-5)3 with'Gais li Gros de la Croiz des ErmitesfuperesJulainleGrosdesVaxdeKamaalot'(Perlesvaus,l,24,42-3)'aThe p-V authoralso develops in his Suite section the theme of the Knight with the Two Swords from the Deux öpöes. In the latter (1149-1309) a damsel called Lore arrives at Arthur's court with a sword girded round her waist, which only the best knight in the world can unfasten. Similarly, in the P-V Suite a female messenger from the Dame de l'Isle d'Avalon arrives at Arthur's court with a sword girded round her, which only the best knight in the country will be able to undo (Huth Merlin, t, Zt3_17).In both cases, though for different reasons, the damsel had first been to King Rion's/Ris's court. The knight who succeeds in the adventure, Meriadeuc in the Chevaliers, Balain in the P-V Suite, is henceforth called the 'Chevalier as deus epees'.s The fact that the P-V lhus clearly drew on the Chevalier aux deux öpöes means that just as the Perlesvaus,itself composed after the Vulgate, furnishes the terminus a quo for the Deux öpöes, so the P-Zfurnishes the terminus ad quem of 1240 for the Deux öpöes.6

Finally, as in the case of the Vulgate Cycle, we do not know the name of the compiler or compilers of the Post-Vulgate Roman du Graal. But whereas the writers of the Agravain, Queste and Mort Artu btatches of the Vulgate Cycle attribute to themselves the name Gautier Map, the Post-Vulgate redactor, like the redactors of the Vulgate Estoire del Saint Graal and the Vulgate Merlin, adopts the name Robert de Boron - the author of the late twelfth-century verse redaction of the Estoire dou Graal-Merlin.lßBl The Arthurian Material in Maistre Richart d'Irlande's Prophecies de Merlin Between 1272 and 1279 aVenetian, writing in French and referring to himself by the pseudonym'Maistre Richart d'Irlande', composed a long series of prophecies attributed to Merlin and now known as the Prophecies de Merlin. At the time of Paton's preliminary study (1913) and her edition in 1926 (henceforth PP), the Prophecies were known from thirteen manuscripts, including Cologny-GenÖve, cod. Bodmer 116, published subsequently by A. Berthelot in 1992 (henceforth PB). Since 1926 a number of other manuscripts have come to light: five frag-

ments preserved in Dijon, BibliothÖque Municipale, MS 2930 identified by Vermette (edn); several fragments from three different manuscripts preserved in

tire State \:-. iurthe r Ic -.: -:. edn: 1993 :c.

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354

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

to judge from his condemnation of evil-doers as well as the corruption of the priesthood and monastic life,e was obviously well acquainted with thirteenthLentury Arthurian prose romances. At various points he alludes to specific events in them. Not only, as one might expect, does he refer to Merlin's birth, explain his gift of prophecy (P P,I, 207_-8; PB, 38, 123, 315-16, 354) and mention the inci123, äent where Merlin exculpates his mother before the judge (PP, L 208; PB, from 258), but he also alludes io n r-ero,rs other Arthurian events. These include christ takes Arimathea the Estoire del saint Graal the incidents when Joseph of down from the cross and when Joseph's son JosephÖ is consecrated bishop in the city of Sarras (PB,116), and the conversion of England thanks to the teachings of Joseph and his son (PB, 354). perhaps one of the most notable predictions about Arthur concerns his future greatness: his reputation for prowess, nobility, courtesy and largesse will spread ihroughout the world (P P J,1 5 5) and he will conquef many lands (PP, \ 116-17) . Allusi,ons to specific events related in the prose Lancelot include the Dame du Lac's nurture of Lancelot (P8,93), whom she takes to be knighted to Arthur's coutt, where he falls in love with Guinevere (PP, l, 197; PB, 115,118); the knighting of Bohort (PB,24l);Galehot's intention to lay waste 'Great Bfitain', from which he is deterred only by Lancelot's intervention (PP,L89 P8,55);Arthur's wal against (PB, Claudas de la Desierte and his determination to avenge King Ban's death (P,8, 68); Gaul including 332); Arthur's conquest of a number of countries (PB, 30142, Arthur's .*"o-*,rri"ation until he takes back his wife Guinevere False the of machinations (PB, t69);the 313);Lancelot and Galehot's friendship 236); PP,l, 298-9; 268, Guinevere aided by Bertelai li vieus (PB, 136, 246-8, Lancelot saving the life of the genuine Guinevere falsely accused (PB,136; PP,l, 236); Lanceloi beheading Baudemagu's son Meleagant 'ensi com li livres de Lancelot le divise' Qust as the book of Lancelot relates it; P8,329); Lancelot's imprisonment by Morg an(P8,348); Lancelot and Guinevere's future love and the conception of Galahad: 'a knight who will descend from the lineage of Celydoyne signifying the leopard of Benoyc will go to the kingdom of Logres and give his heart to the crowned serpent of Logres', but 'he will beget a lion [Galahad] on another white serpent [Pellös's daughter] thinking that it is the crowned serpent' (P8,98-9). References to events inthe Queste include the prediction that Bohort will be one of the three successful Grail Knights (PP,1,223), and that Lancelot will succeed only partially'pour les pechiÖs de luxure qui se herbergera en lui' (because of the ti"i iT lechery which wiil reside in him): it will be his offspring Galahad who will achieve all he will fail to do: 'qui metra a fin tout ce a quoi llavrafalll' (PP,I,193; pB,ll3).As for the latter, he will be crowned the King of Sarras before his translation to heaven: 'and this lion [Galahad] will have wings and fly over the sea and become king of the land [Sarras] over which formerly Evalac rule d' (P8,99)' Other

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH have is particularly interesting that certain details in the Prophecies can only

in been dirived from the P-Y Roman du Graal.In preparing for the incident which Galahad will draw the sword reserved for him from a stone slab, the in Prophecies,like the P-V Suite du Merlin,explains that Merlin placed the sword begin a slab which would arrive at Camelot when the Grail Quest was about to of account the Similarly (pB, 122; PP,1,206; II,31; Huth Merlin,II, 59). Merlin's entombment was clearly influenced by the cofresponding P'V natrative. Just as in the latter Niviene fastened the lid on Merlin's tomb so firmly 'par her conjuremens et par force de parole' (by means of magic and the power of *oidrl that no one could evei again open it (Huth Merlin,ll, 197), so in the propiecies she secures the lid so firmly by magic that it was impossible ever again to raise it (p8,92; PP,r,168-9). The prediction of the final destruction oi Arthur's kingdom and of the Round Table appears also to point to the post-vulgate. Merlin tells Meliadus (who in the Prophecies, but in no other Arthurian text, is presented as Tristan's brother) that Arthur's court will be destroyed on account of the sin of lechery and that the Round Table will likewise PB, be desiroyed on account of his brother's (i.e. Tristan's) lechery (PP,l,l93; 115). In the P-V Mort Artu King Mark, after the death of Arthur, Lancelot, Galahad, Tristan and the other distinguished Knights of the Round Table, time decides to invade Arthur's kingdom for a second time, having failed the first to take revenge for the refuge offered to Tristan and Yseut in Logres. On the second occasion Mark succeeds in destroying not only the Joyeuse Garde, but also the greater part of Camelot, including the Round Table (P-V,III, 510, §703, t-2). The writer of the Prophecies, mofeover, does not limit himself to mere referof ences to Arthurian .r.rrt*. He also includes in his work detailed adventures Sebile Morgan, sister Arthurian characters, including Perceval, Arthur's l'Enchanteresse, 'evil'King Mark, to mention but a few, as well as two series of extended incidents adapted from earlier works: the adventures of Alixandre l,Orphelin, derived fromthe prose Tristaru but interwoven in the Prophecies with other events (PB, 159_.63, 281-5, 2gO-4, 325-9, 340-1,358-66, 377); the Tournament of Sorelois organized by Galehot in honour of Guinevere, derived in part from the prose Lancelot andthe prose Tristan (P,8, 163-80, 18+5)' These incidents have, however, been preserved only in certain of the Prophecies manuscripts: both the story of Alixandre and the Tournament are found in cologny-GenÖve, cod. Bodmer 116; Paris, BNF, fr. 350; London, British Library, Addiiional MS 25434 and MS Harley 1629; andpartially in some of the Modena fragments, the other manuscripts having omitted them. In addition, a revised redäction of the Alixandre,derived from a late version of the Prophecies, is incormanuscripts of Guiron le Courtois, BNF. fr.362 and Turin, porated -gibliot."uin two Nazionale, MS L. I. 9, whilst the version figuring in BNF, fr' 112 (see

below) is iC::.

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Agloval (as distinct from Mordrain's brother-in-law Nascien d'Orberique), was descended on his mother's side from the lineage of 'Joseph of Arimathea, who had the Grail in his care and brought it from Sarras to Logres'(,S, VII, 241.37-9; cf.l, 13.27-8; 19.18-19); the maimed kings Alain and Pellinor were wounded by the same lance as Joseph of Arimathea (,S, YII,244.26), a reference to the incident in the Estoire where Joseph was wounded in the hip by an angel (,S, I, 77.13-19); after ahermit has told Nascien the story of Christ's life, based on the Gospel of Nicodemas (,S, yII, 247.27-260.37), the LA recalls briefly Joseph of Arimathea's early life: his imprisonment by Cayphas, his delivery by Titus's son, his departure from the Holy Land with all of his lineage, taking the Holy Grail and going first to Sarras, where his son Joseph6 is consecrated bishop by Christ himsell and then to 'la Bloie Bertaigne'(Great Britain) where they convert many of the inhabitants. As for Mordrain, he gives up his crown and follows Joseph and Nascien to Britain (,S, VII, 260.39-26L 1, echoing events in the Estoire). Further details recall his fate as mentioned both in the Estoire and the Queste. Notably there are references to Mordrain's maiming and blinding as punishment for a sin he committed 400 years earlier and to the fact that sustained solely by a holy wafer, he will not be able to die until the coming of the Good Knight who will end the adventures of the Grail (,S, VII, 241.44-242.2; cf.1,241.26-242.7; Queste, Pauphilet edn, pp. 85,262-3). Other themes begun in the Queste and partially elucidated in the Estoire are explained and brought to an end inthe LA. For example,the Estoire (^S, I, 114-21) had explained why Mordrain's brother-inlaw Nascien had been carried on a cloud to the Isle Torneant (cf. Queste, pp. 205-7). The LA adds the explanation as to how and why the Isle Torneant was established by Merlin (,S, VII, 299.17-302.29) andhow the adventure is brought to a successful conclusion by Gauvain and four companions (S, VII, 303.3-310.4). The same processes are seen in the linking of the LA to the Vulgate Merlin sections (henceforth VAt[), as well as to the branches that follow it. Whilst introducing new incidents and characters, our writer not only prolongs Merlin's role as Arthur's counsellor, but reintroduces the theme of Arthur's wars with the Saxons, the 'mescreanz' (unbelieuers), during which, as in the VM, Arthur benefits from Merlin's advice and is aided by his foster-father Antor and the latter's son Kay, by Pharien (,S, VII, 15.17-19, etc.), Bohort of Gaunes, Leonce of Payerne (,S, VII, 11.42-3, etc.), the kings Karados, Brangorre, Belinant de Sorgales and many others (,S, VII, 15.20-1, etc.). Named amongst the Saxons who invaded Arthur's realm, first in the VM and then in the LA, is the ugly gigantic Hardogabran.l2 And in order to recall the theme of the rebel kings who from the beginning of the VM Suite had refused to acknowledge Arthut,the LA not only presents them as taking part in the fight against the mesueanz,btt states that they do less well than Arthur for'this was God's will as they did not wish to make peace with Arthur'(,S, VII, 15.28). Included among the Vulgate rebel kings

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IIBrO ÄloH :: - --r.. 'uos s6snllf ',.,J. .-: Jo qdesol i1r: - 0q1 uo pasEq ':.'I 'S) le8uu L::- -lcul eql 01 3::.:- :

:6-tE'rvr lr \

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or{^\ 'eeq}eruri \

-

:

suzlr '(enbueqr(_).

E]ITVI\IOU ESOUd OITIJIUAEU

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

360

Saxon king, Oriol, comes to his aid; the siege is lifted, but thanks again to Merlin, the Saxons are defeated (,S, VII, 116.5-117 .36; 120.39-123.19;126.25-38). Another incident serving to prepare for events in the Lancelot concerns the character called Alier/Alyer. In the Lancelot we are told briefly that when Alier, formerly a knight but now a hermit, learned that his son's enemies were mescreans,worse than Saracens, he left the hermitage dressed in his

Arthur

besieges the castle.

A

clerical robes to combat the enemies of Christianity (,S, fiI,359-2740).The LA, which sometimes assigns to Alier the title de Raguindel (,S, VII, 145.7;240.8) ot de Thaningues (vII, 22.5;199.15;203.13;VII, 200.4), relates how Alier, originally one of the rebel kings, takes part in the Saxon wars first near Clarence (VII, 22.5_29.22) and then near the Pui de Malohaut. He is accompanied by fourteen of his sons, who have all been knighted by Arthur (,S, VII, 145.7-9), the fifteenth, as well as a daughter, both little children, having remained behind at Thaningues (S, VII, 199.35-6). After the death of his fourteen sons near the Pui de Malohaut (,S, V[t, z}O.sl_z}lj;201.4t), Alier, overcome by grief, entrusts his baby son to the care of the lady of Roestic and enters a hermitage in the depths of the forest 'entre Norgales et Sorelois' (S, VII, I99.17-204.34). yet other details in the LA anticipate the role of Galehot, the son of la Bele Jaiande des Longtaines Isles, who in the Lancelof invades Arthur's kingdom, but at Lancelot's request makes peace with Arthur, is made a Knight of the Round Table and later dies of grief when he hears of Lancelot's presumed death (S, IY 144.31-155.28). In the LA, no doubt to prepare for his role as a distinguished warrior and a loyal friend, Galehot is referred to as the most courtly man alive (s, vII, 50.27*8; cf.,S, VII, 145.28). Descended from the lineage of giants, he has already at the age of fourteen sworn to conquer thirty kingdoms (,S, VII, t45.12-19), yet knows how to honour a person he respects (s, vII, 145.19-29). There are also references to Galehot's future invasion: in the account of the battle near the Pui de Malohaut, the author mentions that in the same place there was subsequently the 'conflict between Arthur and Galehot's men in which the Companions of the Round Table suffered so much' (,S, VII, 201.41-3; cf. VII, 261.1 8-19).

of all of her children except Agloval and Perceval, a situation mentioned in the Lancelot (5,Y, 383.17-13). When Perceval was still learning to walk, King Rion's uncle, King Agripe (,S, VII, 235.15-17),invaded their land and fourteen of Agloval's brothers were-killed (,S, VII, 239.41-3). Agloval himself only survived because he was aided by seventeen of his companions, one of whom was Nascien, son of 'la bele Damoisele de la Blanche Nue'(,S, VII, 239.46-242.37). But significant above all is that certain themes referred to in both the VM and the Lancelol are brought to a conclusion. The most notable of these is that of Merlin's love affairs with Morgan and Niviene, the Damsel of the Lake. The The

LA also provides an explanation for

Perceval's mother's loss

theme is tlrs:

:r-.

developed !r. : ( Bo-udano\\ 1 *: endeavours : a, ; interest in he:. ) \\'ith u,hom sl.: Brandus s ad,, .*.: Neither the P nrention \Ier--.." ,llrd one of th; . the point \\ he :11 37-8). \rS -: tire Grail. fre;;

\lerlin's

e\ en: -r-icalls N,{S - jj'.

-:tld 1o1'al Se r\. .'- --. :he good Kini F

Latitt ..-.r - .. The fact i 1- -, :elir er)' calrn -, :isposal ä ctrc.;-, i- 4 and \lS -:l

:-rtrttt

.

: :t

.

:

rt t he \\'rit -:

.

a larger ii i:,.

.

::.e tact that : .-

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,'

approrlni Oi ':-; .l:nce. after' -,..

t.,-rt

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\:o

',\

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ll

c.

: . t

ut'rcp)uo7 eql q8noqllv-(6.ls

I

-

eq] I{3ltl.\\ LII -.: .-" sElY\ eJeql 3l.t'.: : .-. e[]]eq oql jt-t i:." ' '(GZ-61 'sl l 'l l 'r 'IIA 'S) SLLIT-rp:- ": ',

n

eq 's1uut6

lo

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.

peqslnSrllslp :- i:' [t 'S) {teap :: --" -' punou oq] JC, --: lnq 'urop8ulI i.-'elofl €l Jo LItrS : .

-

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-

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o1 uos Äquq sl:, i-.' lneqoler\ 3p ir i senEuruerlf l1- : ." 'qlueeulJ etll ' *-_ uoelJnoJ iq p l -. ,' * 'IIA) scuartrlJ * r': ,(lleurElro rall\ :

ro (g'OVe :i S1- .. 'Y7 or{J '(01--. -

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ESITVruOU sSOUd Di{IIIU1Y\EU

ffi:!!M

362

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

contrast to the VM, doesnot assign the name Nascien to the wise man who counselled Arthur at the time of his war with Galehot (cf. .S, ilI, 215.32-216.39; II, 222.2-3), the LA identifies as Nascien both this counsellor and the hermit who used to visit the young Galahad while he was living in a convent (cf. ,S, VII, 261 .17 -22; S, Y, 407 .37 -9 ; a08.324). Another reference foreshadows the scene in the Queste when Lancelot remains in a stupor on seeing a wounded knight borne on a litter healed by the Grail (Queste,59.3-27;60.1-10; 61.8-20); in the LA aknight is healed in similar circumstances witnessed by Nascien and his companions. This Nascien, who is the son of the Bele Damoisele de la Blanche Nue and who later becomes a hermit, immediately recognizes the Grail, dismounts from his horse, kneels and utters a prayer (,S, VII, 245.3-26). His companions, though, like Lancelot in the Queste, fail to react, the LA explaining that their sins have prevented them from recognizing the Grail here and elsewhere for what it is (,S, yII,245.28-32). In order to prepare for the fact that Bohort, but not Lancelot, will be one of the three Grail heroe s, the LA mentions that Bohort, the best knight of his lineage except for Lancelot, saw more Grail adventures than Lancelot (,S, VII, 141.5_7). Similarly, in order to explain why Arthur's nephew Gauvain fails in the Grail Quest, the LA states that this was on account of his sinful lechery and because he was not of the chosen lineage (,S, VII, 2453942). But not all the references to the Quest correspond in every respect to incidents in the Vulgate Queste. The Grail, we ale told, will never be seen by anyone until the coming of the knight who will end the perilous adventures of the Grail; he must be virgin in body and mind and will have two companions of his lineage, one of whom will be a virgin and the other chaste (,S, VII, 147.13-16). These three will be together until their death from the time they find the Grail, and after the death of two of them, the Grail, in the presence of the third one Bohort - will ascend to Heaven (,S, VII, 147.17-20, cf. Queste,279.l-7). As for Perceval, the LA accounts for his second place in the hierarchy of the three chosen Grail heroes by linking it with the infirmity of his father, here named PellinorandnotPellehen as in the Vulgate Queste (201.14). We are told, in an account unique to the LA, that Pellinor, having refused to believe in the Grail miracles, suffered a double punishment: not only was he himself struck through both thighs by a fiery lance descending from heaven and had as his only recreation fishing in a river (,S, VII, 243.24-36), but his son Perceval will not be Guardian of the Grail until after the death of Galahad (,S, VII, 243.36-9). However, these statements concerning Perceval and Bohort do not fit the Vulgate Queste narrative. In the latter, not only does Perceval never have the Grail in his care, but it is in the joint presence of both Perceval and Bohort that, immediately after Galahad's death, a hand takes the Grail and the Lance up to Heaven (cf. Queste,279.l-7).

I

'.,t1

There rt r- ---.. notable are :: -; tLlal healitrg Tl peacefullr in C \{aimed Kiir -

Galahad 3l-212.1

Lr

n,--'-.

t \.

Galahad's

III.

Sr-:

29.1) u i^- ; u hich assigns :

138.12-15: :i1+-16), and; r: Accordin q : .

l--lt

Suire

\Iordrain.

Fr;. \\ ir

-

Perceval's fati";

the cousin ci P the brother ttr I rrf the seconü I

tennctitt

of

Pe

.

named maim;;

BNF. fr. 1l(-t. :,iather to be s:r ntother. in an s'.', reco\/er Llntitr : t-. 1iar,ing been s:: rlthou-eh he r,, :.

immediatell r-., Perceval, the rr -

enjoy is fishinq The author

,-

tlie Diclot-Pt'i',-llot be healed i... the Grail \\.as | ),

\lain,

c' : brother of Pe:-,. stays in thei: 117 .20-6). Now the ti.: ation, has Il tr ,' between the \ .,

Pel1in

u

oql plp :re,^asue o] olqrssodur uorlsonb e osreJ Y7 eql pu€ oleSln^ eql ueo.^Aleq sercuelsrsuocur Jeglo oql pue osorlJ 'aßana e]331n oql uI ecsld ou seg 'uo4e eql Jo leql e{[ 'osuorlsenb 3u»1se, Jo eueq] eql ^\oN 'O-ocwt -eJceJ s.8ur;tr peurrel4

'II^ 'S) perg ,(1og eqt ,(q po^ros sI oq^\ s{se pue 3ur11emp rreql ut sÄe1s lq8rul oql 1pun spuno^\ Jloql uro4 re^oceJ lou ilI1( (reqlout s(lu^ecJod Jo reqlorq eq1) crueq.ro3 ep lelseqJ np JouIIIed 'ulsnoc s.roullled pue roullled 'ulBIV t?rll selels ,(lreIurrs v1 eql'Gret'szt'II 3 lc ig8I 'loJ 'r€€ sl^tr) ss^\ Ilerc eql leg^\ pue u se1l\ eq,(q.arr rrrrq pels€ plro.,!\ eql uI lq3u1lseq eql llun peleoq eq lou plno.rvr ulelv 3ur;1 peurrentr oql leqt pocunouue ,(peo;1e peq'pxacn4-rcplq erll ecuenuur er{l ropun }qnop ou'w/ eql Jo Joglne eql ro p^nDd s6uerl?rqc Jo 'kt-OygVt 'II^ Jc :g-Vt'wZ 'IIA'S) Surqsrg st,(o[ue o1 elqe oq ru,!\'ulelv 8ur; ursnoc slq e{['oq leql uol]eeJcor z(1uo eql ',1oozta4 s.uert?rgC ur se 'ourrtueeru oql q'GE-7Z'EVT,'ll7. 'g) relgeereqt ,(lelerpeurut olp IIIIv\ eq tourqe4 ursnoc srq se ,(ep orues eql Wleeq stq ute8er rurv\ oq g8noqlle '1eq1 ecron eul^lp eql ,(g peruJoJuI sr 'ecue1 lnge8uen oql ,(q >lonJls ueeq Sur,req tour11e4 ?ur; puy '(V-e'trc'II^ 'S) ur8eq sernlue^pe IIBrC eql llun relocer lou 1p1r\ er{ }Bql srurelc teq}€J slq }noqe suo4senb s,1ulo13y o} Jezlrsue ut teqlour s.le^ecJed JoC 'lJnoc s6JnqIV JoJ lno sles I3^0cJ0d uoglv\ 0^ITB IIIIS 0q ol JoIIleJ s.le^ocred serunssB v.I eqt'(oZ-91 'T,g'u'ogz'd'a11og pu€ p0Is 'loJ '0zI 'JJ ,{N[ '1c) rc1acun7 eleEpn oq1 o{Hun 'tlcgdxe eltnb st y7 eqt's8ur1 perulsru petu€u -lsel eergt eser{} Jo e}eJ eql ot sV 'G-;gVt'11n) -reqleg s(le^ocred 1o morutaB utsno) ere,&\ ruoq,tr Jo oorr{l ge 's91e4 3ur;1 go pue roul1led 3ul) puocos er{l Jo rer{lorq or{} 'urelv ,(leug pue i(9-p',tz'IlL '5) .reqloru s(le^ecred Jo ror{lorq oql se ol perroJer sr orer{^rosle tnq'(g-tt'Et(, 'IIA'S) rer{leJ s.lu^ecrod Jo ulsnoc eq} eq o] pres sr lurod ouo le oqm 1our11ed puoces e i;our1e4 3ury1 reqleg s.l?^ecrod :s8u»1 perur€tu Jeqlo eeJql 'peuorlueu r(peerp o^eq o^\ r(u4sep esoq^\ 'urerpro141 soprsoq 'ere ereql '(gl-6'gZt'II 'S :q8I 'loJ) t€€ SW ul pe,rrese;d auns W/1 eq] Jo lunocce eq1 ped ur s.&\olloJ eror{ qcrql\ telervroq 'y7 eql o1 Surp.toccy '?ul)

pouretr I eqt ss rurq sluoserd rea.eu

'(t'tg) Iulecred Jo o^I]€ler e pue'(91-p1

'gg() ;sqßJ s.rezo{g pue elcun s.peqel€C '(V'62'III'S

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pue suorlcrpeJluoc IeuJelur Jo eer; 1ou 'ezrrlerreuButlzznd,(re,r e sJepeeJ uJepou JoJ sr ]lnseJ eql sr'smatuoruil Jer{lo pu? sJolenur}uoc pe}ceJ}}e snq} pue poqsr -ugun gyeslr Ä1geqo.rd sr 'sn o1 u,trop euoc seq 1r se ouorsrel sql 1nq 'crlueqlne ,(1;1eg eg ,(uru qclrl^\ lxel eql Jo elels u ,(grluepr 01 sn lrrured seop suorsrol luelxe egl Jo uorl€urruexe pelrelep y 'nuD^noru lerrlxq Ie^erpeu 3o elduexe lseq eql 'e8€rnu u eruoceg ol spuel snql srcunoC al uoilng Jo ecu€ruoJ er{} euuep o1 lsenb ogJ '(I .reldeqc pue IT,'u ees) aplug p )atg 3o Sur.repuer esord u oprs -3uo1e ue^e pue uorlepdruo3 (s.esy4 op uorcrlsng) s,esr6 Jo olleqcrlsnaan'untn.r1 esord eql 'ut1.tatrA1 ap satcaqdoq eqt 8ur,(uedruocce punoJ eJe uoilng go seposrdg 'sJolrJ^\ Jerllo Jo yesodsrp eql 1e ,(yee.lg eq 01 peJeprsuoc se,r\ uo4n1 3r se 's1xe1uoc ldr.rcsnueur lueJe,Urp Ä.re,r ur peuesur punoJ eJB ecueruoJ eql Jo sged 1eq1 lJeJ erll ,(q pesee:cur JegUnJ s uoilng Jo srnoluoc eqt Euugep ur ,(1pc1grp eq1 'uorlrsod -ruoc pu€ eJnlcnJls uJecuoc osle socuoJeJJlp or{} ecurs 'spunor8 e,rr1e1g1uenb uo ,(ydurs pesÄ1eue eq ]ouuuc uorsJe qcee Jo eJnleu oql 'onssr ue oJe seposrde go suorlnlrlsqns Jo suorssruo pu€ IerJeleru .A\eu, Jo suorlrppu q8noqtlV ,,'slse8rp "ro serSoloqlue olqueseJ ue^e slducsnueu urBlJeJ 'socueruoJ eleydruoc ssol Jo oJoru o1 'peqsrugun eJe seJnlue pB uregec eJoq \ 's1uour8e.r3 eq o1 ;esdde leq.tA uror; eSue; 'uJn1 uI 'suolsJet eser{J 'suorsJo^ 'Sur8rerr.rp ,(13uo"r1s seurrleuros 'ue1 ueql remeJ ou otur ep1lrlp sldr.rcsnueur eqJ 'G66I ruodu,rc7 pue rllepeueg :966I :qZAA :qggOt '8886I rpreqo8uol :cV66l :qAgA i7961 xouepSog) pere^ocsrp Sureq ,(lluelsuoc eJ" sJerllo pue u^{oDI ere slueu8e4 IeJe es pue sldr.rcsnu€ru ,(ql8ue1 ,(uItI] re,ro ixelduroc pue eldrlpru ete uoilng Jo serpnls Surcnpo"rd ur S9E

Äe1sp

eql Jol s LI.' . :-

r{ons 'u,trou1 i:: ','

-r

r{Jee ',s1;ed.

:Li

Jo lmd lsrl1

i

'

- . -:

l:- --::

Äpee eql (q rl,'-.-: et{t }3eu3J 3s*:' . ^ s[ouuoa7 a!) r i.'''' Ärnluec-qlu:: -',. i eI{J 'pe}Ip3u1'. -:::' -.

: -. ' '' \

er{} Jo sol}Ilrrl' S3lnql

nle

3S

tr ,-

Jo aouostat{ '. - 'go SuruurSaq :- -

sel\ Är1e,rrqr

:.

'..r -.

,

uoaq Eur,ruq .r; - -:' : 's:' ,' ; Jo JeqleJ 3q1

uelJn 'cel.'Li:'F oql ;o Ä"rols

]sEA eq] 'ltt)l

-

aL.

: r'

:-

'. , ,- :.

urlJeIAI su .i113I- ',. : 'estelg ';els E L:. i -atlns l/t/l eql - - -: pel€Illul uolllp:'* - :

m{ I[^e (pa:pi] j.. e>lel IIIA\ ell]r]c -:-:*. eq] o] pJe,\\JC-- ! 'IIA) ]no s]rIItri -=: .'

-

'se1cÄj

\--.

e1e31n

eql ßql ]qnop ,- -. pepnlcul uasq :'.,--,

}nfl

öeloq1!\ u

sf :, l

eql Iepouer 01 p -::-

EJ}TVhIOU ESOUd DI{IIIU1Y\EU

THE ARTHI]R OF THE FRENICH

366

centre of the story for a couple of years. Instead of adopting this method of filling in the gaps in Arthurian history, Guiron le Courtois,like Ysale le Triste and perciforest (see chapter XII), prefers a genealogical structure that widens the chronological frame, favouring an episodic rather than a linear approach' These three texts simply add, either before or after Arthur, the tale of one or more generations - Perceforesl presents itself as a pre-Arthurian chronicle, leading up to ihe time of Merlin and his prot6g6, whereas Ysaye le Triste recounts the story of the sons of the great warriors of the Round Table after the death of Arthur. Both texts have a concise plot and a very uniform manuscript tradition. It may therefore be tempting to link Guiron's extraordinarily fluctuating textual tradition, where each scribe seems to have used the extant material as a sort of quarry for his own purposes, to the characteristics of the plot itself. In Guiron le Courtois, there is no love potion, no Grail, and therefore no powerful and rigid 'vector', forcing the events to be depicted in a necessary order. The plot of the romance consists mainly of ambushes, imprisonments, abductions, unrelated to any larger scheme. Meliadus, Guiron and their friends are ready for any adventure of love or battle which comes their way, but seem to be guided only by whim. The lack of guiding principle and controlling pattern made it easy for scribes to omit, rewrite, or add episodes, according to their own taste or the taste of their patrons. (Pickford in Loomis ed. 1959*, 349)

Even

if it is true that

the readership around 1230 was probably more interested

in continuations than conclusions, and thus was less concerned with internal coherence and overall design than we are, it is easy to see that one major objective

Guiron le Courtois is constant throughout the romance: the author literally lays the foundations for the fictional universe of the Lancelot-Grail and the prose Tristan. For instance, he shows the moment when Brehus sans Piti6 becomes evil' He describes how famous traditions are inaugurated and well-known monuments are built, thereby linking his text to the great models and referring to them in order to legitimize all the minor customs and obscure towers and bridges he freely invents (Trachsler 2001). The large number of independent' stories the characters tell each other as soon as they meet is an effective way of inventing new facts and of pretending that they are already part of Arthurian memofy. Thanks to this technique, Guiron skilfully positions itself at the centre of the literary tradition, establishing credible filiations not only with the Tristan and Lancelot texts, but also with the epic world. In one instance, Ogier le Danois is presented as a descendant of the Arthurian knight Ariohan, and on another occasion Charlemagne visits a monument built by Arthur. It is not surprising then that the author of Guiron le Courtois also participates in this intertextual game, calling himself HÖlie de Boron and claiming to be a companion of Robert de Boron. This is most certainly a pseudonyrn, but it is a significant one (see Baumgartner 1988). If the authorship of this work remains anonymous, there is slightly more to be said concerning its date. The composition

of

Lrf the rollt;1..; {Lathuillere '-secretäIY ttr r:-. ,iil:er Pulunri,i

identificatit-rr

,--

Itr1Tläfice e\ iS t ; ;

and depe:r Lrsed. Since he J the prose Trt: . refiIember. h..',',. lltav be a dec,rc; The efitpe r,-'-' critics indeetl :: ]ta)' not be ail: :lame for his b,-, si,1)

.

-

took of

Palcrn.;

Palamedes is t1-;

,:i Paris. B\F.

,'

"je Guiron le ct-'. Guiron le cotn'. tliird position -:l n o scribal in tJ.;

Palamedes in :.. nlost commolt,' \ Ieliadus. just . . The legacl rrl been especiallr

.:

Bubenicek 19q ation (Cigni 19q: .1s early as the t1^ r

.1rrd

Ariosto

ta'

,

Lathuillöre 195t. even produced .. printed several :.

oblivion until r: , publication oi : Rornans in Il - t

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E]TTVI^IOU ESOUd OT{IJIU1Y\Eä

L9E

368

THE ARTHI]R OF THE FRENCH

Rustichello of Pisa (Rusticien de Pise)

17

Rustichello of Pisa is first of all a name that occurs, with some variants, in the prologue to a French Arthurian Compilation and in the prologue to Marco Polo's Deyisement du Monde.In the latter, one reads that the Venetian explorer asked a certain Rustaciaus (or Rusta pisan) to write down in order ('fist retraire par ordre') the contents of Marco's story, when they were both in prison in Genoa in 1298 (M6nard edn, I, 118). Little can be said about the circumstances in which Rustichello was captured, but we know that the prisoners were set free in 1299;we then lose track of Rustichello, since any attempt to identify him with contemporary persons by the same name recorded in Pisa has hitherto been unsuccessful (for more on Rustichello, see MÖnard edn, I, 19-24). On the basis of the striking resemblance between the two prologues (BertolucciPizzorusso 2002), it is generally accepted that the 'author' of the Arthurian Compilation and the scribe of the Venetian traveller are the same person. Indeed, the difliculties raised by the two prologues are very much the same: the exact nature of the collaboration between Rustichello and Marco Polo, especially the character of the 'sources' Rustichello had at his disposal and the question of the language in which they were written, is as much discussed as the problems raised by the prologue of his Arthurian Compilation. Here is the relevant passage as it appears in one of the oldest Franco-Italian manuscripts: Et sachiez tot voirement que cestui romainz fu treslaitös dou livre monseingneur Odoard, li roi d'Engleterre, a celui tenz qu'il pass6 houtre la mer en servise nostre Sire Damedeu pour conquister le saint Sepoucre. Et maistre Rusticiaus de Pise, li quelz est imagin6s desovre, conpil6 ceste romainz, car il en treslait6 toutes les tresmervillieuse novelles qu'il truev6 en celui livre et totes les greingneur aventures; et traitera tot sonmeemant de toutes les granz aventures dou monde. Mes si sachiez qu'il traitera plus de monseingneur Lanseloth dou Lac et de monseingneur Tristain , le fiz av roi Meliadus de Leonois, que de nul autre, por ce que san faille il furent li meillor chevaliers que fussent a lour tenz en terre. Et li maistre en dira de cist deus plusor chouses et plusor batailles que furent entr'aus que ne truever6s escrit en trestous les autres livres, pour ce que li maistre le truev6 escrit eu livre dou roi d'Engleterre. (Cigni edn, 233). (And know truly that this romance was translatedfrom the book belonging to milord Edward, the King of England, at the time when he went overseas in the service of Our Lord God to win back the Holy Sepulchre. And Master Rusticiaus of Pisa, who is painted above, produced this romance, for he translatedfrom the book all the marvellous stories and the most impressive adventures which he found in it; and he will teat briefly in this compendium all the great adventures of this world. But let it be known that he will treat milord Lancelot du Lac and milord Tristan, son of King Meliadus of Leonois, more fully than any other, for without doubt they were the best knights in the world living at the time. And the master will tell you many things about these two and describe many battles they fought against each other which you will not find written in any other book, for the master found them written in the book belonging to the King of England.)

If one assumes that the passage is not merely a variation

on the Buchtopos, these few lines provide not only the name, but also a date for the composition of

the Compi1ir..,- . and that Rrisi.-. \\ hen the kin g. The exact crrc -. kin._e

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scripts containt:. ;ts

for Guirort ..

369-10; Ci'enr ' is made up of .

immense rese:', , Ci.,qni edn. 1u r

.\rthur's, but

-

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,

sign of incolt : this style anno ".:' .1

"rbandon colltp i. tion' and culnti::romancers.

This does ntr. lo-.qical, if not cl, . tre starts off hrs ntiraculous sLIr''.. provoke and del'. \\ ith Karados .l.thimself. The C.. rllnning from ti ; -\.ents of the cit.-

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698

EfITVI^IOU :ISOUd DTTITru1Y\E}I

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

310

limits: off. Five other episodes have been placed within these chronological prose Tristan, Tristan and Lancilot at the perron Merlin, largely based on the from the taken Shield, Red followed by the adventures of the Knight with the Perceval, involving same source. There then follows a series of adventures

inserted the story inspired, perhaps, by the prose Lancelot,intowhich Rustichello in the as of the war between the iings of Ireland and North Wales, it appears

arrival in prose Tristan. He then rnor., on to the story of Galehot and his irthur's realm, before concluding with Tristan's death. Some of the episodes narrative material, yet the selected by Rustichello are real higilights of Arthurian They follow one author did little to create any narrative links between them' transitions obvious rather by another barely in chronological order, held together of Lancelot between the branches. The continuous presence of the characters of unifying thread and Tristan and the theme of their rivalry do form a kind towards throughout the entire compilation, but the individual episodes tend this new kind of autonämy. A literary study of Rustichello's work centred on aesthetics still remains to be written. met with Llke Guiron le Courton, Rustichello's Compilation seems to have opening episode in some success during the late Middle Ages. vÖrard uses the les chevaliers de tous de his edition of Gyroi le cortoys, avec la devise des armes la Table Ronde (no date, but probably 1501), and Denys Janot incorporates from 1532' In several other episodes into his edition of Meliadus de Leonnoys of romances production Italy, numerous echoes can be traced in the vernacular print or cantari, and there is evidence of a fairly similar reception in Spanish (cigni edn, 365-8). More surprising, perhaps, than these references is the exis1977-9) and a tence of a serbo-Russian version (see Muir 1979; Sgambati (Garzya Greek verse-adaptation, the latter unfortunately only fragmentary 1981).

nrt Micheau Gonnot's Arthuriad Preserved in Pariso BNR fr.ll2 and its Place in the Evolution of Arthurian Romancels

who was executed in Jacques d,Armagnac, duc de Nemours, comte de la Marche, to l47i , was or. oi the most remarkable fifteenth-century bibliophiles' We owe

him an impressive collection of manuscripts, including several of Arthurian 1470, prose romances, a number of which, including Paris, BNF, fr. ll2, dated iere transcribed by Gonnot.le Although in its present form MS 112 consists of Livre I three parts bound in one, originally it comprised four main sections, seventeenth having been lost, most probabiy when the work was rebound in the leaves vellum 230 of consists centuiy. Livre ll,with which the volume now opens, numbered l-248, Livre III of 301 and Livre IV of 230, numbered l-233.

At first sigir: to those of rh: \ Lancelot clu L.,

.

-

the Vulgate Lci; preserves a 1lrrl"

,

Biblioteca \ az. Tristan, as \\ e^l -. notably portic, :-. includirrg the tr P-V Queste ( B.'. that his compt.-. Gonnot speciii

-=

includes also t1.; tres vaillant Tr i>: speak here o.l t; Leonors; MS 1 1:

Pickford. to ',,, and who, with t. identified mosr

_-

on the one hanc. ation was a sin g^

knights, whilst . contained tale s.

characters (Pick. However, it is \

-\rthurian tales ma{Ce

of

these

'\,,

reader a collecri

,

_

history of Artii,,. and his greates: Vulgate Cycle ci the characters t the example of : Roman du Grur;

rial from these ,,,,, not himself cont: Arthuriad, he Se ., in such a wa). as : Hence, it is n.,. the first part oi :

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312

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Part III of the prose Tristan, but made extensive use of a volume similar to (MSS L' I' version of Guiron le Courtoispreserved in Turin, Biblioteca Nazionale contains a redaction of Guiron distinct from any of the versions 7-9), which

of the Paris and summarized by Löseth (1890; lgo5, 29-32) in his Analyses aftet 1275' British Library manuscripts. Like MS 112, the Turin Guiron (written oricompilation) the probable date of its most recent source, Rusticien de Pise's that the ginatty formed part of Jacques d'Armagnac's library.2t Il l. probable Turin the rather but itself, codex äanuscript rrr.d by Gonnoiwas not the Turin manua disposal his scribe's exemplar. For there is evidence that Gonnot had at episodes omitted by certain contained script of the Turin version of Guironwhich of MSS ll2and source the scribe of MS L.I.9 (Bogdanow 1965). This common L. I. 9 may well also have been in Jacques d'Armagnac's library' portion of his That Gonnot should deliberately have chosen for a substantial similar to Guiron Livre II and for a section of his Livre III a manuscript of version Part III of the Turin version (MS L. I. 9) is not surprising. For in this skilbeen aheady has prose Tristan material from the Vulgate LanLcelot and the a make not fully interlinked witi Palamöde-Guiron themes. But Gonnot did seeking, like straightforward copy of the whole of Turin Part III. For although not the same' was aim the writer of the laiter, to produce a unified whole, his Anxious to produce a cl,osely knit Arthuriad and not a history of the that Brun-Guironlamily, he selected from the Turin version only those incidents events, of order fitted into his oveiall plan, changing where appropriate the to link inserting episodes from other sources and modifying or adding references two with begins I. 9 L. MS the different sections of the narrative. Thus Turin, Beste the incidents derived from the P-v Quest: Esclabor's account of how and Glatissant killed eleven of his twelve sons (Turin, fol. lra; P-V,lI, §§125-6) {|I, P-V, §§604-9), the story of the birth of this monster (Turin, fols lrb-3va IV, fols and 176va-b (II, fol. Arthuriad 112 MS the in motifs to be used later which 150va-152va). Gonnot, in contrast, begins his Livre 11with a narrative abbreviheavily chronologically one would expect to find at this point, namely a he is knighted ated account of the early life of Lancelot up to the point where to Tristan's youth up and (MS 1 12,Il, fols lra-7vb) and of Tristan's ancestry 10r-t5v arrival at King Mark's court (MS ll2,II, fols 8ra-9vb; l6ra-l7ra, fols having been lost). These accounts of Lancelot's and Tiistan's youth ultimately are in parts derive from the prose Lancelot and the prose Tristan,withwhich they Turin identical. However, Gonnot copied them, with certain changes, from the were but combined, skilfully been Guiron, where these incidents had already the when Thus, related at a later point in the narrative (Turin, fols 6va-23vb). vulgate Lancelot, MS 112 and Turin describe Bannin/Banny/Bany (MS 112,Il, fol. 7vb; Turin, fol. 13va; Vulgate Lancelot, 'S, Itt, 108'33), MS 112' following the Turin version, announces that the story will now turn to another mattel of direct

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along with th; Raymon/Aränr,--'

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vII, 3, §4.5-1 i

Having melttit-rr. 'ainsi que l'ist c,^: and the Vulg.1:renewed war 11s-: the reader onc. Merlin's birth. :,,1vb).

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374

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

As already mentioned, Gonnot, attempting to produce a unified whole, does not make a straightforward copy of the whole of the Turin exemplar. Where appropriate, in order to strengthen the links between the various sections of his Arthuriad, he inserts episodes from other sources. It is thus no coincidence that following the account of Tristan's early life, Gonnot inserts (MS 112, fols 17rb-58rb) a series of incidents that do not figure in the Türin Guiron, the socalled triple adventures of Gauvain, Yvain and the Morholt copied from a manuscript of the P-V Suite du Merlin. This set of incidents (edited by Sommer in Abenteuer) begins with a reference back to Arthur's departure from Morgan, who had deceived him'par enchantement'(MS ll2,II, fol. 17rb; Abenteuer,l), an incident related at an earlier point in the P-V Suite. At first sight such a reference may seem surprising in the context of Gonnot's Arthuriad. But there is no reason for excluding the possibility that his lost Livre I included relevant portions of the preceding sections of the P-V Suite. And this would not be the only justification for inserting the triple adventures into his Livre II. For there are in this section incidents which at the same time link up with the preceding narrative and look forward to later portions of the MS 112 Arthuriad. One such notable anticipatory reference is to the Morholt's death resulting from his combat with Tristan in the Isle Sanxon when he came to claim tribute from Cornwall (MS 112, II, fol. l9va; Abenteuer,9; cf. MS ll2,Il, fol. 36ra and fol. 58rb; Abenteuer,64, 134). This reference not only links the narrative with the account of Tristan's early life during which in MS Il2, as in the Turin Guiron, the Morholt heard news of his death (Turin, fol.24ra-b; MS 112, II, fol. l6ra), but reinforces the link with alatw portion of the MS 112 narrative, the Morholt's fatal combat adopted from the Turin version (MS 112,Il, fols Tlva-74ra: Turin, fols 300rb-302va). Other equally notable references are to the coming of the Good Knight in the Queste section, to the death of Gauvain and his brothers Agravain, Gaheriet and Guerrehet in the Mort Artu section, as well as to the death of Arthur at the hands of his own son and the destruction of Arthur's kingdom. After the triple adventures of Gauvain, Yvain and the Morholt, MS 112 returns to the Turin Guiron, incorporating from this version the delivery of Danain le Roux, the lord of Malohaut (MS ll2,Il, fols 58va-61rb; Turin, fols 3rb-6rb), who, according to the narrative in Part II of the Turin version, and perhaps also in MS 112 Livre I, had been imprisoned in the Vallee de Faus Soulas. But even if the MS 112 compilation did not include the account of how Danain le Roux came to be incarcerated, the account of his delivery is of double significance from the point of view of the overall structure of Gonnot's Arthuriad. Firstly, it brings in the theme of Palamedes's quest for the Beste Glatissant (MS 112,Il, fol. 58va; Turin, fol. 3rb illegible) so important in MS ll2, Livre IV: it is Palamedes, who, in the words of the text, is destined to kill the Beste Glatissant (MS 112,Il, fol. 59d; Türin destroyed at this point) and who in quest

of this crerli..r; battle ,: :. Cher aliers ..1r u : an importer ^: tiom the prt\>; deliverl-. Dirn -:.. dies withiil i.t :doin,*u

.

ll2, II. lo1. 6 :.,, prose Lctn(L'Li, :. reveal their

;

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267.18-261.

tr;

death of the D,: ,s.

IY 156.1:-j

Gonnot s .1-. treatment oi t i.; the account rri I a further por:: .

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376

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

fol.262ra). And when the Dolorous Garde is finally captured, the Turin and MS 112 version adds that this event took place on the very day that Tiistan killed the Morholt (MS 112,ll,fol. 65ra; Turin, fol. 263rb), thereby linking these events. But before the Morholt's fatal combat with Tristan (MS 112,11, fols 71ra-78ra; Turin, fols 300rb-305vb; 320ra), significantly already announced previously on more than one occasion, Gonnot, still following the Turin version, inserts the same account as the latter of Lancelot's delivery of Guiron from prison (MS 112, II, fols 67vb-7bb; Turin, fols 296ra-300rb), this incident also being linked to Lancelot's conquest of the Dolorous Garde both in the Turin version and the MS 112 Arthuriad. When Guiron is freed after Lancelot's successful combat first with Helin le Roux's three sons and then with Helin himself, Lancelot does not at first reveal his name, but Helin suspects who he is, foq as he tells Lancelot himself, he had heard that Guiron would only be freed by the knight who would bring about the conquest of the Dolorous Garde (MS 1 12,Il, fol. 70va; Turin, fol-299vb, in part damaged). Gonnot, of course, never forgets, unlike the writer of the Turin version, that his overall aim was not to record the history of the Guiron family, but that of the Arthurian kingdom. Hence Gonnot changes or adds references. After Guiron's delivery and that of his son Galinant, Gonnot, still following the Turin version, mentions that Galinant, who had unhorsed near a fountain Tristan, Gauvain and Blioberis, as well as the knight'de qui Dynadam se moquoit tant' (whom Dinadan mocked so much, MS 112, II, fol. 71rb; Turin, fol. 300rb), was killed by Palamedes. But whereas the Turin codex adds 'ainsi que nous dirons cy aprÖs a la fin de nostre livre' (as we shall relate later at the end of our book; fol. 300rb), the MS 112 (II, fol. 71rb) refers the reader for details to the Grant Histoire de Guyron and the Grant Hystoire de messire Tristan de Leonois, explaining that'these do not form part of our present narrative'. As in the Turin version, a few days later Lancelot departs from Helin without revealing his identity. But before continuing thereafter with the Turin version of the Morholt's fatal battle with Tristan and the latter's subsequent voyage to Ireland where he and Palamedes first became rivals for Yseut's love, followed by Tristan's return to Mark's court (Turin, fols 300rb-303vb (fols 304r-305v are missing); 320ra; MS 112, II, fols Tlra-78ra), Gonnot gives a short account of Guiron's last years spent as a hermit in the Cave des Bruns, referring the reader once more for further details to the Grant Histoire de Guiron (MS 112,lI, fol. 7 lva). Following the account of Tristan's return to Cornwall, Gonnot, like the Türin codex, resumes narration of Lancelot's adventures. Carefully linking this section to Lancelot's earlier deeds by referring back to his delivery of Guiron 'ainsi que ouy av6s ga devant' (as you have heard earlier, MS 112, II, fol. 78a), Gonnot gives the same abridged version as the Turin codex of the prose Lancelot's accotnt of

Lancelot's rei i.:l ments. lollou e c

(\4S ll2. II. It,. iatter episode :s tolio 88 the \. his war \\.ith G-.. but in an iden:, Lancelot and C

\Ialohaut

resF'.

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:

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P

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E3}TYI^IOU ESOUd OITIIIU/Y\EU

318

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH stay at

(MS 112,ll,fols 183vb-l97vb) and is deliberately linked to Guinevere's Arthur, deceived by the Galehot,s castle in Sorelois where she sought refuge after up, arranged false Guinevere, had abandoned her: Galehot, to cheer Guinevere 183vb). the tournament together with Lancelot (MS 1l2,II, fol. death is followed chevalier's In the Turin Guiron (fols 282va-283va) the Bon of how the Bon immediately by the account, adapted from the prose Trzsran, Chevalier a la Cote Chevalier,s youngest son, Brunoil. Noi. (later named the to interMal Taillee), avenged his father's death. But Gonnot, obviously wishing III' Livre in his link firmly ih. rurio.r, parts of his Arthuriad, relates this incident of the Bon introducing it with a clear reference back to the circumstances the strucwith And Chevalier's death in his Livrell(MS llz,lll,fols 51ra-56rb)' incidents, which in ture of his composition in mind, Gonnot omits the first three Leodogan, Ariohan the Turin Guirinfollow Brunor's vengeance - the death of Turin Guiron complete and Lac (Turin, fols 283va-287ra),incidents which in the no direct relevance for the themes begun in Parts I and II of the latter, but are of two MS 112 Arthuriad. Instead Gonnot passes straight on to the following cousin Alixandre episodes in the Turin version, the adventures of Tristan's Norgales' de l,brphelin and the death of Ludinas, the Bon Chevalier story, tn tfre prose Tristan, fromwhich the Turin writer adapted the Alixandre but not in the Turin and MS 112 version, the narrative is in two sections, in his Alixandre's early exploits being separated from the events culminating story being death by a portion of the Tournament of Sorelois. The Alixandre 126,187) proof that thus presented as a single narrative is for Pickford (1959/60* , tales' But it Gonnot wished to pre-sent the reader with a series of unconnected and not Gonnot who combined the two portions of the was the Turin "o*pil.. Alixandre story. Moreover, the narrative is not treated as a self-contained the preceding and episode. f,ike ail the other portions, it is carefully linked to reintroduce King fäflowing parts. Both the initial rubric and the opening section preparing the thereby Mark and underline the treacherous side of his character, in Livre III in reader for incidents in Gonnot's last two Livres . Thus, for instance, ' to Mark's disloyal a section adapted from the ptose Tristan, there are references 1890, §§251-2) treatment of Tiistan (MS f12, III, fols l24vb_125ra; cf. Löseth of his whilst both in Livre III and IV there are references to Mark's assassination fol' 160ra) with own brother Perneham (MS 1 12,Ill,fols 119d-120a; MS l12,IY, death' which the Alixandre story began in Livrell (fol. 197vb)' As for Alixandre's of this is linked both in the Turin codex and in MS 112 to the Tournament fol' Turin, 204vb; fol. II, sorelois: it was following the tournament (MS Llz, Alixandre 294vb) that Lancelot after his departure from Sorelois encountered latter' the for fatal prove to and errgaged with him in the battle that was In both Gonnot and the Turin Guiron Alixandre's death is followed by Lancelot's encounter with Ludinas, the Bon Chevalier de Norgales, accompanied

h,_,.

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by Morgan: C

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ESTTVhIOä ESOUd DTTIIIU1KEU

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5

380

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Sorelois, where he is overcome with grief on not finding Galehot there; the latter's quest for Lancelot (MS 112,II, fols 208ra-236rb;5,IY,72.8-154.30). At this point, Gonnot turns to the prose Tristan (MS I 12,lI, fols 236va-247va; cf. Löseth, 1890, §§34-63) as his source, incorporating episodes vital for the later portions of his Arthuriad, notably Tristan's voyage to Ireland to request Yseut's hand in marriage for King Mark and how Tristan and Yseut drank the love potion intended for Yseut and Mark. Included are also Tristan's combat with Galehot's father, Brunor, the journey which Brunor's daughter made, taking the heads of her father and mother to her brother Galehot, and the latter's combat with Tiistan, all incidents which, though derived from the prose Tristan, link up with the Galehot theme from the earlier portions of Gonnot's Arthuriad. The last incident in this section adopted from the prose Tristan includes a reference to Tiistan's marriage to Kahedin's sister (MS 1 l2,Il, fol.247rb) prior to the chance arrival of the three of them in the Val du Servage, of which Nabon le Noir, a cruel giant, was the lord. Tristan mortally wounds Nabon in combat and the valley is henceforth called La Franchise Tristan. But in order to link this episode to the preceding narrative, notably the Bon Chevalier Sans Peur's incarceration in the Val du Servage (MS 112,Il, fols 178vb-l79ra) and the Bon Chevalier de Norgales's combat with Lancelot (MS ll2, II, fols 206d-208a), Gonnot recalls that Nabon kept prisoner all those who came to the Val du Servage with the exception of two knights, Brunor le Noir, known also as the Bon Chevalier Sans Paour, whom he finally set free as he had lost his senses, and Ludinas, the Bon Chevalier de Norgales (MS ll2,Il,fol.247rb). The final episode in Gonnot's Livre 11(fols 247vb*248ra), based on the prose Lancelot (S, IV 154.31-155.18), brings to its conclusion the Galehot theme: when on his return to Sorelois Galehot finds Lancelot's bloodstained bed empty, he goes in search of him, but still suffering from a previous wound and refusing to eat or drink, he dies some fifteen days later in an abbey (MS 112, II, fols 247vb-248rb). With his Livre III Gonnot continues his Arthuriad, making extensive use of both the prose Lancelot andthe prose Tristan, but nevertheless aiming to produce a unihed whole. Thus after aPrologue, in which he stresses that in his first and second livres he recorded the valiant deeds of the chevaliers errens and Companions of the Round Table, but especially those of Lancelot and Tristan, he begins his Livre III with an episode which not only follows on from the end of his Livre II, but also continues a theme begun in Livre II,that of the Dame de Malohaut's love for Galehot. As in the prose Lancelot, after mentioning Galehot's grief at not having been able to find Lancelot, there is a reference to the Dame de Malohaut who, as we mentioned earlier, died of grief on hearing of Galehot's death (MS ll2, III, fol. lra-va; ,S, IY 155.19-156.28). From here on Gonnot follows the greater part of the Vulgate Lancelot narrative, but at appropriate points

.]4

_

inserts reler Anr :

incidents. For adventures. brc

-

1va-5 l rb; .S. I \ Lamorat's adr ;: avenged his fiir^.

further

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II. Thtrs i le Noir, all tlie du Servage (\lS Livre

,

-,

Chevalier a Li C Peur, had been -. III, fol. 52rat Therealter G,-and the prose [; Lac, Guiron. Gsignificant fron. P-V Roman tlti b of his mother \

skilfully comL,i:.

includes incide: adventures of K his Livre I'[ -. .i. Arthuriad. he i, Queste. Hence :: Tristan with sec': author of the P King Mark's de; off themes begri: this incident the places an accrr i.: section and nor -: in killirg not on.by a fountain. D. where the follo,,r . Gonnot u'aS

i-1 :

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THE ARTHT]R OF THE FRENCH

382

purpose was to have that one of the most important literary techniques for this Arthuriad until each of the themes running intermitiently throughout the whole threads reached an appropriate conclusion' [FB]

Notes

--.:lJlltrLl.f ,-'- G--., ;

-.rr1'.1-i6]f" ;.1.:

_

: Tli; P... -.. -,-.-,i.:rble Irr:;- ::il

.itld caI'.t.; :

.:ltr\ t ). tOi- ',,, t -l'', Jr the u htr^; , . :'., .

1 See ,S. Bernardi Abbatis, ad Hugonem de Sancto victore epistola seu tractatus, de baptismo

atliisquequaestionibusabipsopropos=itis,,inMigne,PatrologiaLatina,lS2'1041-2. these works, see chapters VII and VIII' '3 n'o. itt. datingasofdeus 1966)' espees, ed.by w. Foerster (Halle/S., 1S77arwr._Alsterdam, Li chevaliers 4 Le Haut Livre du Grail: perlesvius, ed. by w. A. Nitze and T. A. Jenkins, 2 vols (New York, 1937;rcpr.l972).FurtherreferencesurPerlesvaus,I,42'457-8'46V2;I'148'3169-70' folio is missing in the s suite du Merlin,Roussineau edn, I, §104.14-16; the

Deux öpöes,1164-5; Huth manuscript (Paris and Ulrich edt,I,222)' 6 with regard to Rusticien de pise's Roman du roys Artus, this was clearly composed aftgr 1!e p-v,for itbonowed fiomJhe latter the episode of »aiides (Bogdanow 1967 Queste P-v,1,128-37)' ? Modena fragment II will be published by Bogdanow' 8 refers to the edition of the Vulgate Cycle by Sommer' P8',259-60'273-6',285-7 ' s ^S PP,r,65-6,78,80-1, 84-5, ß17,22g--31;li,zs-e ,272-6,366-1; figures in four manuscripts of tale Ali*andre ihe 10 manuscripts, ir:ophicrus in tne from

.':'\\,irds. -\r.,.' :..:. :.r'ipts Paris. B\r :..e stor\ -',-r the r

oi

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:

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l:: i:-

Apart

theproseTristan:BNBfr.99;Chantilly,Mus6eCond6,MS646;NewYork,PierpontMorgan 2'

v'xv' 41; St Petersburg, National Library of Russia' MS fr' composed before lhe a compilation part of was LA lhe which to Sommer,s theory according narrative' now lost' a on and based Vulgate Cycle (s, VII,2:'The Structure of Le Livre d')rtus') rejected bv B1uc9 rightly was which was also the source of the vulgate Merlin conl\nuation, (1919, 2634' Bruce However, 336). 1959*, ed. Loomis in (192311928*,I, 445 n.5; cf. whitehead in the prose to briefly referred episodes certain detail rclatedin LA 265, n.58), noticing tirat ttre Lancelot' sources of the Lancelot,assumed wrongly that the former wa§ one of the rz s, iI, 113.6, 126.20, il a so,etc'; 3.30-1, 4'2, 4'70, 13'17 46' 74'6' etc' (BNF, fr. 337 , fol. 93a); rr, 207 '15-23 13 cf. s, tt, 179.7-8 IBNF, fr. 337 , fot. 42b); rr,293.8 104)' fol' fr' 337' (BNF, 315'1-6 (BNF, fr. 337, fols 54d-55a);II, la Venceslas Bubenicek is currently preparing an edition of the beginning of the text' rs The changirg fo.rn, but also the^changing 'ideology' of the romance has been examined by manuscripts (Bogdanow 1967; Lathuillöre and Bogdanow in several of their studies oi different 1905; 1924. 1890; Löseth also see t980a;1980b). 1969b;l994;Lathuillöre 1979; in 16 See LathuillÖre in GRLMA*,IV:I, 610-14, but compare Bogdanow 1964a' who succeeds ap:uzzle' of pieces like fragments extant reconstructing an original outline for the romance by using t1 Rusticien,the form sometimes used by French critics, is the result of the Picard form of the Rusticiaus being misread as Rusticians' suffrx -el/as 18 For a fuller account, see Bogdanow 2005' re Like all but one uoti.n.s copied by Gonnot, MS 112 bears on the last folio the date jour de jullet l'an mil CCC soixante dis a estö when the copyist completed his work: ' Aijourduy IIIF en la ville de Tournay' ' A 'C' has been demeurant prestre Gantelet escript ce darnier livre par Micheau

iAiury,Ms M.

u

v[,

it

oiit.

effacedandthedateis 147},ttot1370.Asfoithewords GanteletartdTournay,writtenoverwordsin substituted for Gonnot and Crozant' Though now partly

part effaced, these have pÄUuUty been

248r a.'d Livre IV, fol' 233t' ärased, Gonnot,s signature is still visible in Livre II, fol. (t) Livre II, 20 The only sections of MS 112 for which no sources have hitherto been found ate: Glatissant; Beste the of why he hunts fols 175ra-l78vb (Palamedes's love for Yseut; an explanation

l-

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Terts and Translari The Post-\-ulgate

C

Ltt I ersiott Po.:r-I'.

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IV 2 (Par:.. _

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Die Abenteuer G., Beihefte ILLT Z, ,. -NIerlin preser'\;* Les EncltutttentL t :

Merlin Ed. 1.., P and LiteratLtl.i Cambridge nt.rr-

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EBE

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

384

La Folie Lancelof. A Hitherto Unidentified Portion of the Suite du Merlin Contained in Mss B.N. fr. 2 and 1 2 599. Ed. by F. Bogdanow, Beihefte ntr ZrP, 1 09 (Tübingen , 1965) fFoliel. Bogdanow, F. The Romance of the Grail, a Study of the Structure and Genesis of a Thirteenth-century Arthurian Prose Romance (Manchester, 1966). Contains an edition of 'The Establishment of the Round Table at Camelot' based on Siena MS (228a\; an edition of 'The Dolorous Stroke' based on the Cambridge MS (2a1-9); an edition of 'The Final Scene at Corbenic'based on BNF, fr.343 (250-61); an edition of 'Guenevere's Death and Mark's Second Invasion of Logres' based on BNF, tr.340 {26110). Lancelot-Grail. The Old French Arthurian Vulgate and Post-Vulgate in Translation. Ed. by N. J.Lacy, 5 vols sew York and London, 1993*96). Contains IY, The Post-Vulgate, part I: The Merlin Continuation, introduction and translation by M. Asher (161-277);Y, The Merlin Continuation 1

1

The Questfor the Holy Grail,trarrsl. by M. Asher (111-289); pattIII: The Death of King Arthur, transl. by M. Asher (291-312); chapter summaries for The Post-Vulgate by D. S. King (362-80).

[end, 1-109]; part

Related French T.' l-,'. [lr'g,ii. I:, ri H. O. S.,:-.t-:l . _,.t:-a',

t.'i',,ii'_,"',-

2 vols

XIII siöcle.Ed.by N. Koble (Paris, dissertation, 1997). of the Tournament of Sorelois', RPh, 16,268-81. An

Bogdanow, F. 1962-3. A New Fragment edition of the Modena fragment I. Bogdanow 1972a.'Some Hitherto Unknown Fragments of the Prophöcies de Merlin',in History ind Structure of French. Essays in the Honour of Professor T. B. W Reid,Oxford,3l-59' An edition of the Modena fragment III. Bogdanow lg12b. 'A New Fragment of Alixandre I'Orphelin', NMS, 16,61-8. An edition of the Modena fragment IV. Longobardi, M. 1989. Altri recuperi d'archivio: le Prophöcies de Merlin',\MV,35,73-140. An edition of the fragments of the Prophecies in Bologna. Longobardi 1993. 'Dall'Archivio di Stato di Bologna alla Biblioteca Comunale dell'Archiginnasio: resti del Tristan en prose e di Les Prophöcies de Merlin', SMV, 39, 57-103. There is a P-V fragment on pp. 63-5; the Prophecies are on pp. 75-103. O'Gorman, R. F. 1962. A Vatican Grail Manuscript' , Man, 6,3642. Vermette, R. 1981-2. An Unrecorded Fragment of Richart d'Irlande's Prophöties de Merlin', RPh, 34,277-g2.An edition of fragments 5,7,8,9,10 of Dijon, BibliothÖque Municipale, MS 2930.

The Livre d'Artus The Vulgate Version of the Arthurian Romances, Editedfrom Manuscripts in the British Museum.Ed. by H. O. Sommeg 8 vols (Washington, 1908-16). [q. VIL' Le Livre d'Artus of the MS no. 337 at l15a to 294d. the Bibliothäque Nationale,

ff

Guiron le Courtois Meliadus de Leonnoys, c.1532. Ed. by C. E. Pickford (London, 1980). A facsimile edition of the first part of the romance based on D. Janot's edition of c.1532. Gyron le Courtoys, c.1501. Ed. by C. E. Pickford (London, 1977). Afacsimile edition of the second part of the romance based on A. V6rard's edition of c. 1501' Anthologie de Guiron le Courtois: ödition et traduction d'öpisodes choisis. Ed. by R. Trachsler, with the collaboration of S. Albert, M. Plaut and F. Plumet, Gli Orsatti 22 (Alessandria,2004). An

_.

r_

:

:

Eiititrn br:;-

\1-,.

-Ltl', t'lifltl't,

(New York and London, 1926-27). An edition

reprint, with an introduction by C. E. Pickford, of the three-vol. work published by Antoine

.

-t.'.:.:rilitlfr' ,' O,.',

>.: Th.rntas

based on Rennes, BibliothÖque Municipale, MS 593 [PP]. Les Prophesies de Merlin ( cod. Bodmer I 16 ) . Ed. by A. Berthelot (Cologny-GenÖve, 1992) [PB]. ttterln7ryA,3 vols (Ilkley, Yorkshire and London, 1975), III: Les Prophecies de Merlin. A facsimile

Vörard (Paris, 1498). Les Prophesies de Merlin, roman en prose du

ltt.'t

l:S. jo-. l.

II:

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THE ARTHI]R OF THE FRENCH

386

A Demanda do Santo Graal.Ed. by J. M. Piel, completed by L Freire Nunes, introduction by I. de Castro (Moeda, 1988) lA Demandal. A Demanda do Santo Graal. Ed. by I. Freire Nunes (Moeda, 1995)lA Demandal. La Storia di Merlino di Paolino Pieri.Ed. by L Sanesi (Bergamo, 1898). Paolinio Pieri, La Storia di Merlino. Ed. by M. Cursietti (Rome, 1997). Studies Balaguer, P. B. 1925. Los Textos espafioles y gallego-portugueses de la Demanda del Santo Grial, Revista de Filologia Espaflola 7, Madrid. Baumgartner, E. 197 5. Le Tristan en prose'. essai d'interprötation d'un roman mödiöval, Geneva. Baumgartner 1988. 'Masques de l'6crivain et masques de 1'6criture dans les proses du Graal', in

M.-L. Ollier

ed. Masques et döguisements dans la littörature mödiövale, Montreal and Paris,

B..sdanou-

167-7 5.

Baumgartner 1998.'LaMusique pervertit les moeurs', in Miscellanea Mediaevalia: mölanges offerts d Philippe Mönard,2 vols, Paris, I, 75 89. Bayard, M.-J. 1985. 'LaPlace de la femme dans le Livre d'Artus: un exemple de la transposition litt§raire des structures sociales dans les romans en prose du XIII' siÖcle', in Foulon et al. eds 1985*, I,44-58.

Benedetti, R., and S. Zamponi 1995. 'Frammerti di Guiron le Courtois nell'Archivio Capitolare di Pistoia', Lettere ltaliane, 47, 423-35. Berthelot, A. 1993. 'Cartengles, Feragus, Mingles et le dragon de Babyloine.'les variations du Bestiaire apocalyptique dans les Prophesies de Merlin', ir Fin des tenxps et temps de la fin dans l' univers

mödiöval, Senefiance 33, Aix-en-Provence, 53-65.

Berthelot 1994a.'Lögetde arthurienne et histoire contemporaine dans les Prophesies de Merlin', in D. Buschinger and W. Spiewok eds Die kulturellen Beziehungen zvtischen ltalien und den anderen Löndern Europas im Mittelalter, WODAN 28, Greifswald,15-23. Berthelot 1994b.'La Dame du Lac, Sebile l'enchanteresse, la dame d'Avalon . . . et quelques autres', in D. Buschinger ed. Europr)ische Literaturen im Mittelalter: Festschrift Wolfgang Spiewok, WODAN 30, Greifswald, 9-17. Berthelot 1995. 'De Niniane ä la Dame du Lac: l'avönement d'une magicienne', in L'Hostellerie de pensöe. Etudes sur I'art littöraire au Moyen Äge offertes d Daniel Poirion par ses anciens ölöves, Berthelot 1996a. 'Merlin du substrat celtique ä la r€alritö politique du XIII" siöcle', in D. Buschinger and W Spiewok eds Ze Höros dans la röalitö, dans la lögende et dans la littörature mödiövale, WODAN 63, Greifswald, 1-9. Berthelot 1996b.'Le Graal nourricier', in Banquets et maniäres de table au Moyen Äge, Senefiance

Berthelot 1997a. 'Brehus sans piti6 ou le traitre de la piöce', in M. Faure ed. Fölonie, trahison, reniements au Moyen Äge: actes du troisiöme colloque international de Montpellier, Universitö Paul-Valöry (24-26 novembre 1995 ),Montpellier, 386-95. Berthelot 1997b. 'Magiciennes et enchanteurs: comment apprivoiser l'attre "faÖ"', in Chant et enchant ement, Toulouse, 1 05-20. Berthelot 1999. 'Merlin magicien?', in Magie et illusion au Moyen Age*, 5l-64. Bertolucci-Pizzorusso, y.2002.'Pour commencer ä raconter 1e voyage: le prologue dt Devisement du monde de Marco Polo', in E. Baumgartner and L. Harf-Lancner eds ,Seails de I'euvre dans le texte mödiöval, 2 vols, Paris, I, 115 30.

Bogdanow, F. 1955.'The Rebellion of the Kings in the Cambridge MS

of lhe Suite du Merlin',

ursE,34,6-11. Aev,27,145-61.

§.rgdano\\.

1

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Prose Romances', Med.

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Romances'. in S

Manchester anc \" Bogdanow I 971-5 t

do Santo Gt'cttt . t''

8, Aix-en-Provence, 45 1-66.

Bogdanow 1958.'The Character

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E]NVhIOU ESOUd DI{IJIUAEU

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

388

Bogdano\\ l,

,The changing vision of Arthur's Death" in J. H. M. Taylor ed. Dies llla" Death Bogdanow 1984c. in the Middle Ages, Liverpool, 107-23 ' po-st-vute1tg".{sr, 16,4-6. nogaarrow 1gg5a. A Hitherio unknown Manuscript of the of King Mark" in Foulon et al' eds' Faces Two The character: 'Theme and Bogdanow 1985b.

33-5

--

Brtice. J. D. 19 "

1985*, I, 89-109.

lv --

Brugger. E.

169-239: 11.:-:Brtt,uger 1 9ll-i R. = Bru,eger 193 5-- ' K Maistre Ric:--:r. Brugger 1936ir. 'Dr Verfassertiaqc'

Granada,l,273-90' Artu,,in Estudios romanicos däicados al Prof, Andres Soria Ortega,2 vols, a

do Santo Graal" it Homenaie Bogdanäw 1985d. 'Textual Criticism and the Portuguese Demanda 301-12' II' ilvaro Galmös de Fuentes,3 vols, Oviedo and Madrid' try Vulgate Queste del Saint Bogdanow 1986a. An Inie-rpretation of the Meaning and Purpos":.f irt' The Changing Face of Arthurian Graal inthe Light of ttre'fvfystical Theology of St. Bernard' , of Cedric E' Pickford, Arthurian Romance: Essays on Arthuiian Prose Romances in Memory Studies 16, Woodbrid ge, 2346. ,La Ctiuie Au royaume d'Arthur: övolution du thöme', Rom,707 ,50+19' nogdanow tg86b. 'rfre-ipanisnb emanda del Sancto Grial and a Variant Yersion of the Vulgate 198G87. B;;;;;"*

Brugger

1

'1,

6b,

93

Prophea'is;

,

:

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Brugger 1931-S 'Lt

gittrerto unnoticed Manuscript of the variant version of the Queste del saint Graal.). in the spatish Demanda' ' Boletim vulgate Queste del saint Graal andGalaad's Final Adventures

mit einem At-:--::

I

4A-1 3.

Bubenicek. \, i q*-' Courtois et 1.r .!"

de Filologirt, 31, 7 9-131.

Post-Vulgatet version d't Tristan en prose nouveau temoin de la Bogdanow1987. - -[nlutlotneque 'Un manuscrit 147)', in D.Queste ed. Tristan et Iseut mythe europöen et Buschinger Bodmer, 59-74' mondial. Actes du colloque des 10, 1t et 12 janvier 1986'Göppinget'

'L Invention du texte, intertextualit6

-

Bogdano\\'-itt: l'1 ti. 111 and ..> F

Tradition of the Vulgate Mort Bogdanow'1985c.'The Post-Vulgate Mort Artu and the Textual

Bogdanow 1990.

-:

1

Bubenicek

199- i

roman de G:,

et le problöme de la transmission et de la clas-

t';

Pltilologie

Graal Post-Vulgate et drt sification de manuscrits: le cas des versions de la Quiste del Saint

le moyen l)'dt;

'

':-. -

.

:

99:

Tristan en Prose' , Rom,1ll,12140'

Bubenicek

Its

romanza, L-ti: ,, Bubenicek 1999. ',-' Courtois' . Bir,.

post-vulgate Queste del saint Graal ard Bogdanow lggl. A N.*iy oi.*rered Manuscript of the place in the Manu'script Tradition of the Post-Vulgate', it Studia in honorem prof' M' de

1

Courtois' .

Riquer, 4 vols, Barcelo m, IY, 347 -7 0' et la transformation du Bogdanow 1994a. 'L] Amour illicite dans le Roman du Graal Post-Yulgate Perversions sexuelles au les eds spiewok w. thöme de la Beste Glatissant"in D. Buschinger and

in G

.

Bubenicek

20t)(

r 't

in Guert€s. t'r,.. . -' Busby, K. 198-+ '(.., . Busby 1991. 'L'l:'.:.' 306-19. Cigni, F. 1991. 'P - .

Moyen Äge,WODAN 46, 17 -28' m6connu dela Queste Bogdanow ISS+A.,LuRecherche des ant6cödents littöraires: un remaniement hier et auiourPerceval-Parzival' äu Soin, Graal Vulgate, nouvelle source de la Post-Vulgate',in ans de lean 95 les pour Spiewok W' et f€ter d'hui: recueil d'articles'assemblös par D. Buschinger Fourque t, Greifswald, 25-37.

de 1a BibliothÖque Bogdanow 1994c. 'UnL compilation arthurienne m6connue: le ms LV.30 Festschrift Mittelalter: im Literaturen Nationale de Turin,, in D. Buschinger ed. Europöische

fr. I463'. J'c ,,; ; Cigni 1993. '\ILrI. - :

Wolfgang Spiewok,WODAN 30, Greifswald, 1 9-3 1' .Robert de Boron,s vision of Arthurian History" AL,14, 19-52. nogaanäw"DÖ6. for the Reconstruction of Bogdanow 1998. 'The Importance of the Bologna and Imola Fragments the Post-Vulgate Roman du Graal ,81RL,80,33-64' and its Relationship to the Bogdanow 1999. 'The Madrid Terceio Libro de don Langarote (ms 9611) source of one of the French Roman du Graalirrthe Light of a Hitherto unknown

e prospettir e Convegno,

)[t'

; '

vols, Messini.,. Ir

Cigni 1999. ' Gt,.' del MS Parigr B) Delisle, L. 186S-i

Post-vulgate

Delisle 1905. '\,- . rn BEC, 66.:: : Field, P. J. C. 19v . Frappier, J. 1 95 5-:

IncidentsoftheTerceroLibro,,BulletinofHispanicStudies,,T6,44l_52.

Post-Vulgate etla Queste itcorBogdanow 2000a. 'Un nouvel examen des rappoits entre la Queste prose', Rom' ll8' 1-32' ior6e dans la deuxiÖme version dtt Tristan en in the Biblioteca Boidarrow 2000b. 'The Italian Fragm etfi of the Queste del Saint GraalPteserved 69'92-5' Aev' Med' Source', its French frazionale Centrale, Florence, and of the First and Second Bogdanow 2002. 'Interiextuality and the Problem of the Relationship Part of the PostVersions of the prose Tristantothe Post-Vulgate Queste del Saint Graal,Thitd Vulgate Roman du Graal, Arthur iana, 12. 2, 32-68'

118-93; repr ::.

Freymond, E. 1!

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Freymond 1E95 : 1-128.

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Thomas, A. 1906.'Jacques d'Armagnac, bibliophile', Journal des Savants,63344. Thompson, R. H. 1979. 'The Perils of Good Advice: The Effect of the Wise Counsellor upon the

Conduct of Gawain', Folklore, 90, 7 l-6. Trachsler, R. 1994. 'Brehus sans Piti6: portrait-robot de criminel arthurien', in La Violence dans le monde mödiöval, Senefi ance 36, Aix-en-Provence, 52542. Trachsler 2001, A l'origine du chant amoureux: ä propos d'un 6pisode de Guiron le Courtois', irr 'Chanson pouvez aller pour tout le monde': recherches sur la mömoire et l'oubli dans le chant mödiöval. Hommage d Michel Zink, Orleans, 133-50. Van Coolput-Storms, C.-A. 1999. 'Souillure, indignit6 et haine de soi: f impossible rachat dans la Demanda do Santo Graal',in H. Megale and H. Osakabe eds Textos medievais portugueses e suas fontes: matöria da Bretanha e cantigas com notagdo musical, Säo Paulo, 57-75. Vettermann, E. 1918. Die französische Balaain-Erzählung im Huth Ms., Beihefte zur ZrP,60, 85-193. Vinaver, E. 1949. 'La Genöse de la Suite du Merlin' , in Mölanges de philologie romane et de littörature mödiövale offerts d Ernest Hoepffner, Paris, 295-300. Vinaver 1956. 'The Dolorous Stroke', Med. Aev,25, 175-80. Vinaver 1959. 'The Prose Tristan', in Loomis ed. 1959*, 33947. Vinaver 1970. 'La Föe Morgain et les aventures de Bretagne' , it Mölanges de langue et de littörature du Moyen Äge et de la Renaissance offirts d Jean Frappier, 2 vols, Geneva, II, 1077-83. Wechssler E. 1895. Über die verschiedenen Redaktionen des Robert von Borron zugeschriebenen Gr aal- Lan c e I o t - Cy c lu s, Halle/S. Williams, H. F. 1959. Apocryphal Gospels and Arthurian Romance', ZrP,75,12+31. Wilson, R. H. 1952. 'The Rebellion of the Kings in Malory and in the Cambridge Suite du Merlin',

ursE,3l,13-26. Wilson 1957. 'The Cambridge Suite du MerlinRe-examined', UTSE,36,4l-51. Ztmthor,P. 1942. 'La D6livrance de Merlin: contribution ä l'6tude des romans de la Table Ronde', 2rP,62,370-86. Zumthor 1943. Merlin le Prophäte: un thöme de la littörature polömique de I'historiographie et des romans, Lausanne.

ARTHLRI

\lmost all t\\ e1:': take Chrötien's :,. Hasselmann 1 9:, However, of th; quest by Knigir:s only the first is s successors. In tili s these subjects \r. .. combination. In :: in importance ( Cl of these romän., t-amous by Chrer . Gauvain and K.. Norway in Srril. knight until NIer'." fights coura-.pe o L.: court. Motifs and th; lrom Erec and FContest, T€ct'€ctii accompanied b) . threat of forced ::. who refuse a pr,--,; uniting those \\ h . they fail to keep : romance begins : as those found ir- ,i _

characters. Br th; to be composeLi -

The number rr: than for their eprromance of the s.,.

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es€ec socueruoJ esJo^ u€IJnqlJV trnluec qlueeulrll eql Jo puo eql Äg 'srelce.ruqc (s1"tD7 errros Jo uorlcnporlul erll rq pl0:e Q sltryl) uI pu€ DMo8lÜ uI punoJ osogl se qcns slsenb eldrlpru ur,(1qe1ou 'secu€uroJ esJe eql ecuenuw ol sul8eq ocusruoJ esord trnluec qlueelrrrl] eqt Jo JIBr{ puoces oq} q 'sesruord rloq} dee>l ot ll€J feql ueq.la pe \ o1 s1q8ru13u6r1qo sepnlcu slgl :os op ol qsv( op oql\ esoql SuIlIun ur slsrsse uelJo eq 'souJeur ,tyerer uIe^nBC rlSnoqllY 'lesodord e esnJeJ oq^\ ueruolvr lsure8e ;e.tr Suteq llnseJ uoluluoc e'efltelstuool e8eu.reu pecJoJ Jo 1e0JII1 eq1 ,(up lseeg ue,rrr8 € uo ilnoc le penssl seSuelleqc pue 1q8ru1e,(q petuedruocc€ uollcnpqe eql tllTelldsog se qcns sruolsnc pu€ aslluoaoa.t'1se1uo3 suepreu Jo '3'e ,;1o,tac'tad plue )a'tg rrLorJ {^\eq-lfoJJedS eqt '3e15 e1n11 Or{1 roJ }unH eql esoql ,{llercedse tueddeeJ secuuruoJ s.uoll?JtlC uI uouruoc solueq} pue sJl}ohl 'unoc s.Jnqilv o] ,fum Jleql e)lelu ,(eq1 se pueqsnq req eplsSuolu ,t1snoe8e;noc s1q3g eJI^\ 3 aproll p tuDl.toll uI lsllq1( 'esrnEsrp.req qSno.rql sees uIIreI tr ylun 1q31u1 e soruoceq ueluoA\ e nuafs ap uDtuoü eql ut pue'rbsuo1tr ap auos ut .(e.uro51 ur IreJc orll Jo ecuerBedde eql epnlcul suoll?^ouul Jeqlo ,(e;1 pue ule^nec 'uoI1?J93,(q snorueJ Jo ossc eql ur,(Iqu1ou'se1o.r nteu,(e1d uec seru€u JeITIIusJ }nfl epeIu esoql eprsSuole reedde slstuoSelord /|eu 'elecrpur secusluoJ eseql Jo sollll eql se 'pue (gOg 'tOOt lolrl3 '1c i7 rc1deqc '*986I er"reugq3) ecuelrodurr ur epeceJ o] sluees oslB snolle Jsrrr ogl secueruoJ esre,r leuoSrde eql uI 'uollsulqluoc Jrer{} ruo{ Sursue surelqord eq1 Sur.roldxo Jo uol}uolut eql qlrrn s}celqns eseq] outqruoc qclql\'secueuroJ esord,(lerodueluoc uro4 JeJJIp,(eq] sFIl uI 'sJosseccns sH [q pesoduroc socueruoJ esJo^ u€Irnquv oI{1 ut lueclgluEls sI lsJU eq1 fluo 'llerg egl 'e^ol s.ere^eulnC pu€ lolecue'I 'olqel puno5 eql Jo slq8ru; Äq lsenb eq1 'peluelur ,(lqeqord se,(or1 op uel]gJq3 slcelqns ocueruoJ eq] Jo te,terrroll 'OAU'pe ]eqceT i*8-t86l spe ,(qsng pue Äge; ',(ce1 l*366I/086I uueruless€H -e4ouqcg) ]ceJJoc Jo ellJly\oJ 'e1elmue o1 slopolu sB secueruoJ s.uell?Jq3 e{€l ruoos secu€ruoJ esre^ uelJn{}ry .(rnluec-g}uoolrlq} pue -gulo,^a} IIe }sorulv

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in only one manuscript (see chapter I). Schmolke-Hasselmann has suggested that these romances were composed principally for British publics; if true, this may explain their relatively limited transmission (1980*, chapters 2:2-311998, chapters 8-9). In modern times, some were destroyed or badly damaged in the disastrous Turin library fire of 1904. Many survive in manuscript compilations (see chapter

xD. Until recently, these sometimes astonishingly diverse romances have not been subject to close reading, or have not even enjoyed much general attention. Although the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries produced a number of studies comparing them with Chrötien's romances, works of reference such as Loomis ed. 1959* and GRLMA* treat them by and large as 'miscellaneous' works, regarding them as the inferior epigones of greater twelfth-century masters such as Chr6tien de Tioyes, the Tristan verse romancers and Marie de France. Many, especially the longer ones, are still neglected. Most of the verse romances were edited in the late nineteenth or early twentieth century, but many of these editions are hard to find today, or they survive in a deteriorated state. Moreoveq many were prepared by methods of textual criticism that do not meet current standards. Editions published or forthcoming have begun to correct this problem, thus making these romances accessible once more to broader scholarly scrutiny.

Chr6tien's rise to critical prominence in the middle of the twentieth century tended to eclipse these romances. However, the publication in 1980 of SchmolkeHasselmann's Der arthurische Versroman offered a correction to received scholarly

opinion concerning their 'miscellaneous'character. The English translation of this volume (1998) will no doubt spur greater interest; the Foreword by Keith Busby, acritical summary of verse romance scholarship since 1980, is essential reading. Chönerie's Le Chevalier errant*, published in 1986, is an important study of the themes and motifs, and Trachsler's annotated bibliography and review of scholarship will facilitate study of these romances (1997*, 19-22,25-31, 59-63; see also Busby and Grossweiner 1996). Trachsler's research has also broadened the scope of investigation into the realms of intertextuality (including topical historical allusions) and of the history of medieval French literature. The originality of these romances can now be appreciated, especially the way in which they redefine and rewrite Chr6tien's concept of adventure, and in their remarkably diverse treatment of Gauvain, who from an exponent of ideal knighthood now becomes an alleged murderer, philanderer and misogynist lover. In many ways, the diverse representation of Arthur's nephew is characteristic of the diverse, sometimes quite original characterization of the knights and ladies who populate these works. An especially interesting development is the problem of identity, especially that of Gauvain. Topoi3 such as appearance (including portraits), name, gender, age and even death are sources of original, often problematic invention (van coolput-Storms 1994; Maddox 2000*; cirlot 2001; corbellari

1001). Motifs Llr.

\rthurian

\.erse :,

the sword (Cirltr:

The originalitL d'Arras and the ., Britain in the r\\ Marie de France mount, not so nt on his successors 1

980*, 29-311 Ie-

suggested hou t:' l5-59; Schmolkc-

adaptations and

,

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derive as much i: of Chrötien's Li..- . Kelly and Busbr . example, ChrÖtte: and Yvain - does . his successors. as of courtliness anc new knights intrt',, Parody is also a : 1969; Gravdal 1 ": which each allth,--,1 axis defined br .1, attributes ma) eL. or lady as variub. stock figureS \ Ltr.; idle kitchen scu,,. fact that he fal1s . Yder. Thus. in :.

Arthurian palttit; itional characters The most int:-. Gauvain.a Altht -. titular knight in ; romance inspirec main protagonis: defects in his u-h; Rigomer, for e\ --.

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396

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Knights, including Lancelot, achieves the redoubtable quest to terminate the enchantments of Rigomer Castle; yet the same romance also casts aspersions on his character. In other romances his alleged murder of fellow knights or other innocent persons, a motif borrowed from Chr6tien, raises serious questions concerning the quality of his chivalry. Gauvain's name, and therefore his identity, is also at issue in the Atre pörilleux. On the other hand, his role as an attractive sexual partner who remains celibate admits of more positive adaptations: he marries in Beaudous and Floriarut, and he is willing to marry, until rejected in Gligloß, betrayed in Rigomer or spurned in the Chevalier d l'öpöe. These romances also blend misogynist motifs into their apparent comedy (Baumgartner 1990; De Looze 1995). Three major features characterize the verse romances' adaptation of the conjointure principle inherited from Chr6tien, largely because of Gauvain's prominence (Cirlot 1991,393-5). For example, Gauvain's reputation does not have to emerge through a crisis; when called into question, it needs merely to be restored. Moreover, the absence of a quest for identity tends to deprive quests of a goal, thus permitting the return of eruances in place of the goal-orientated quest and creating a mole centrifugal or random narrative (Bruckner in Lacy, Kelly and Busby eds 1987-8*,I, 223-65; Lacy 1993). Finally, the doubling of knights, either through the introduction of Gauvain's son oI another, new protagonist, tends to juxtapose narratives, rather than subordinate them, as is usual in Chr6tien and the pfose fomances (except, perhaps, in Perceval; Meneghetti 1984). This juxtaposition leads to the extensive use of interlace in the second half of the thirteenth century (Kelly 1969; Combes 1992-5, 164-8), as well as to the multiplication of motifs beyond what was typical in Chr6tien (Lacy 1993). Interlace introduces more new or recycled names from Arthurian tradition, whilst multiplying, lengthening and complicating the plots. However, unlike the prose romances that probably inspired this use of interlace, the hierarchy of knights suggested by the titles is more imposed than justified by careful moral or social standards. verse romances use octosyllabic rhyming couplets, with occasional insertions of prose or other kinds of verse. Studies of versification and rhyme are rate, as are those of related topics such as rhetorical embellishment, orality and performance, unless by performance one understands manuscript layout (Huot 1987; Busby 2002*). The borrowing of passages from earlier romances occurs in Fergus, Floriant et Florete and Claris et Laris; recent studies suggest that more than plagiarism is at work in these instances (Kelly 1992*, 292-3Ol). Social and moral issues have been explored in the context of audiences,

All Arthurian

especially conservative, French-speaking audiences in Britain, for which a number of verse romances may have been written and whose concerns they seem to mirror (Schmolke-Hasselmann 1980*, chapter 2:311998, chapter 9). Yet their

tendencl, to crr', :. interpretation \.ra : 1991, 391-5. -\,.--i.: Since serioLrs s romances is

rell:.'

significance ( Tr. \Iuch remains t,--, progress has be::. implications oi :,. their originalitr ,i rltion of what rhe ', Given theSe r--., a sophisticated r." . superficialll,. \ I c,. close or distanr . strictly speakin g \ included, in crrni,length, the ronl.i:. tive lays; thel h;i',, of Britain and .\: to a recent ten,J-i-. textual links anü Maddox and \l;-

108-26).

The Breton rtr:. lnatter to Bretr-rlt .,: group of romarlcThe third grolrr : Round Table knr:: himself remains :Gauvain, contin...: into the romanc- ! opments, where C -

of knights

u'hLr>;

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various quests in: loose connectit-r1r

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chapter.

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E]NVWOU ESUEA NIVIäNHI}IV

398

THE ARTHI]R OF THE FRENCH

narrators, see Berthelot 1991; Halilsz 1992) are discussed within each section. The contributions are roughly tripartite. Treatment of factual matters such as title, manuscripts, editions and attribution is followed by a plot summary and finally by a discussion of issues of interpretation raised by modern scholarship. [DKI

Breton Romancess

Ille et Galevon Gautier d'Arras wrote two romances: Eracle and llle et Galeron. He worked in the same milieu as Chr6tien de Tioyes and is regarded as one of ChrÖtien's principal literary rivals and also as the creator of an alternative romance aesthetic (Pierreville 2001). Cowper (edn, x-xiv) identified the poet with a certain Gualterus de Atrebato who appears as a witness on numerous documents associated with the court of Philippe d'Alsace; but this evidence is by no means conclusive. Gautier was almost certainly a clerc familiar with court life (Renzi 1964), writing for a courtly audience. He was acquainted with a broad range of vernacular literatufe, including troubadour lyric poetry, chansons de geste, romans antiques, Wace's Brut andnarcative lais. 1//e is linked to Arthurian material through its Breton location and its intertextual relationship with Marie de France's Eliduc. The hero, Ille, is introduced as the son of Eliduc; his story is a careful reworking of the 'man with two wives'folktale that underlies Marie's lai. Critical opinion has been divided over whether llle represents a direct response to Eliduc or a parallel rewriting of similar Celtic source material. The number of similarities in incidental detail, as well as in plot outline, indicates that Marie's poem was probably Gautier's starting-point. The modifications made to the story-line by Gautier can therefore be read as a critique of the lai, thus giving an interesting insight into the reception of Breton material in the last third of the twelfth century. Ille swvives in two manuscripts, which differ markedly in length, and present different versions of the central episode of the hero's loss of an eye in combat. In the longer version found in BNF, fr.375 (P) Ille is injured as a result of an illjudged joust in a tournament; in the shorter version, preserved in the Wollaton manuscript at the University of Nottingham(W), he is injured whilst besieging a castle during the course of a war. Both versions may well be by Gautier (Fourrier 1960, 179_313); the evidence suggests that W is probably a revision of P. P is dedicated to the Empress Beatrice of Burgundy, wife of Frederick Barbarossa; W contains at the end an additional dedication to Thibaut Y Count of Blois, which suggests that the revised version was prepared for a new patron. Both versions were composed between11.67 (the date of Beatrice's coronation) and 1191 (the

death

of ThiL''.ri.:

late 1170s or i.,r. the early 1 17(-)s The outline c,. Lis a boy b1 his ^ -: Hoel and is ill.ic: sister Galero n ., :. Having lost an -', reject him beclt L. >;

.

and the empertrr : \\'hereabouts oi G lnarry Ganor. On the weddir : allow the marri.r=

lnuch to Ganor s \ \ ow made in chi.c Constantinople. ',," tor Galeron altc . defeats the inr ac:: hand her o\ er ttr ,

One

of lllt,':

.

nterveilleux: Ga L. ..; make them diftlc.. Brittany is ver\ c.. ated with the ltt

grounded in colt.; allusions to histc,:-.

logical realisnr i:. (Rauhut 1978 l. r..; portraits of the rnan with tlvo \\ .'. than in parallel: ...; and wife, not th; women are tfttns .

,;

;

and introduces t i.; debates about 1rr\ . (which closelv p"i-.:

in the assumptitrl. (Schnell 1982 l. L

,_-

'

concerns (woll)i. .: to personal menr . _

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A]NVI^IOU ESUEA NVIUNHJUY

400

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

in Brittany and Rome, two realms brought to the brink of collapse by weak leadership, represents the renewal of political authority through a return to the fundamental values of prowess and cortoisie (Castellani 1990).6 Gautier's style and narrative technique have often been compared, sometimes unfavourably, with those of Chr6tien de Troyes (Renzi 1964; Nykrog 1973; Offord 1979;Leone l99l; Pierreville 2001). King (1996) notes that both his romances are composed of poetic tableaux designed to lend visual power to the narrative. Particularly striking in llle are the skilful handling of metaphor, complex combinations of rhetorical devices in internal monologues, lively and wellconstructed scenes of combat (Burgess 1989) and the almost total absence of descriptions of people and places. Repetition is an important structuring device, ranging from the use of alliteration and anaphora to the doubling of plot elements, such as weak rulers and journeys between Brittany and Rome (Batany 1974;Pierreville 1994). Also worthy of note are the consistent use of proverbial expressions (Schulze-Busacker 1985,64-75) and the narrator's moralizing interventions, many of which point to the major themes of proper knightly conduct in war, peace and love. IPBI Galerun de Bretagne

The plot of Galeran de Bretagne unfolds by and large in a Breton setting. The titular hero is the son of Count Alibran of Brittany, but, as Jean Dufournet has noted, the romance departs from and, indeed, rejects marvellous motifs familiar in the Matter of Britain tradition (Dufournet transl., 10). The one brief reference to Arthur compares the king's combat with a cat (chapelu) to a character's anger during a chess game (5070-1). In fact, the romance turns away from a world that is obviously imaginary, whilst multiplying allusions to the contemporary, eatly thirteenth-century world. The one extant manuscript (BNF, fr. 24042) lacks the beginning; in addition, there is a lacuna after line 1128. The loss of the first folio would be all the more unfortunate if it identified a patron. The author's language is Franco-Picard, from a region not too far from the ile-de-France (Foulet edn, xiii-xix, xxx-xxxi), and in the last line he names himself as Renans. Langlois (1926-8,I, xxvi, 1-7) first suggested identifying this Renans with Jean Renart. Foulet accepted this oRenats' (7798; identification and corrected the manuscript reading 'Renans'to see the note on p.255). But this attribution has been widely contested; scholars generally agree in naming the author Renaut. More recent studies have demonstrated convincingly that Renaut and Jean Renart are different authors (Lejeune-Dehousse 1935, 24-34; Hoepffner 1936; Lindvall 1982). Similarities between Galeran and Jean Renart's writings are now attributed to the latter's influence. The identification of Renaut with Renaut de Bä96, author of the Bel Inconnu (Guerreau 1982) has also been rejected (Bel Inconnrl, Fresco edn,

xii-xiii). In r ien

--

1220, is inacclrr;

.,

(Renaut kno\\ s i:l

to the Saraceil (GRLMA*.I\-:l enced Renaut.

\,\ i.

and 1220 (Duti. ":" A noble ladr r.-: infidelity, she enr: ters in a place \\ lt girl in asumptLttr -.

amalellous

pi1i,..:

by Gente herseli outside a con\ en: and is brought -., abbess'snephe\\.:i The children . -. Their idyllic lit-e c,_ will. Yet clolrds s promises to ntAr:-. Brittany in orde: : couple's love. Or.:: she drives Fresnher keep by neec.: at the court of t1.; tournament in R:., Fresne (5530-1 r. ( the thought of 1,--,. and just as the :1. splendid attire sl ; placed in her cr;-"; and weeps jor c i.: Flourie withdrii,,,, . The basic ntr-rr-. : and moral reler ;.. means of famili.,: Renaut shou-s h-. backdrop, he adc: Early in the rollr -: and he also driti,, . L' Escoufle. Finli".'. .

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EJNVWOä IISUEA NVIUNHTUV

402

THE ARTHI]R OF THE FRENCH

Marie de France's Eliduc, Gautier d'Arras's llle et Galeron and Thomas's Tristan. Galeran voices his tribulations in long monologues that echo Tristan's doubts and hesitations before marrying Yseut of the White Hands; his delight in sensual play with his beloved's image embroidered on a sleeve recalls the way Tristan withdraws into the Salle aux images in search of intimate contact with Queen Yseut's likeness (Peron 1992;Yan Coolput-Storms 1994, 105-6; Grimbert 2005). Intertextuality is clearly important in Galeran (Hoepffner 1930; 1936, 208-29; Grossel 1996). But if this feature of the romance seems particularly attractive today, it was not always so. Branded a common plagiarist by Wilmotte (i928), Renaut certainly exploits the works he knows. Yet he does so with skill and originality, bequeathing to posterity a romance that is richly rewarding, subtle, interesting and of great charm. Certainly, Renaut suffers somewhat from comparison with Jean Renart, a brilliant forebear who fascinated him, but from whom he differs markedly. Both evidently belong to the same romance tradition that rejects the marvellous characteristic of Arthurian romances in favour of realistic features, with descriptions of towns peopled with craftsmen and burgesses, geographical realism (Brittany, Normandy, Champagne, Lorraine) and details of daily life, especially of beautiful objects such as embroidery. Psychological analyses reveal the characters' complexity through lively dialogue and monologue (Lyons 1965a,62-82;1965b; Lejeune, GRLMA*,IY:\,439; Galeran, Dufournet transl., 10-15). But Renaut is more of a moralist than Jean Renart. With marked religious sensibility (Hoepffner 1936,2204), he depicts characters brought up in a courtly tradition, anxious to enter marriage undefiled, attentive to social distinctions and disdainful of stooping to actions incompatible with their nobility. The originality of Galeran is evident first and foremost in the way it distinguishes constantly between surface and interior, body and heart, portrait and person, shape and essence, illusion and truth. The plot tells how its protagonists overcome a painful transition during which objects and persons seem to mirror one another. Individuals are torn between mutually contradictory forces, before achieving a happy resolution of their problems. Indeed, the principal characters reject illusions, which enables them to grasp the reality that finally unites them (Plasson 1973, 680). tcvcsl

Arthurian Romances: Gauvain Romances Le Chevalier d l'öpöe and La Mule sans frein Gauvain entered French literature in a largely supportive role. He was a model knight with whom individual heroes could be compared and against whom their accomplishments or failures could be measured. In Chr6tien's first four romances

he is a prolnin.r.: have been prt-rnr,_ Le Clteyctlier i ,

tively straightic:.., in a single Si:: Burgerbibliorhe.. datable to the i,i.; is uncertain. th:-. possibility. Each addres>.> he justifies his .,i ,: his romances e \.; tlre Chevalier Stl ; -: Yet that will nt-rr r;

(He was tol ,,,,, ;'' adventure wlt it i' '' , -

.

This makes litr ;

declarirrg his inr;: have been the ur:::' the margin of 11 ;

to the late eighi;. Martin Wieland :.-, The prolo._que : dist Crestiens d: T _

pseudonym in ,,r:. found in souther:. or indirectl1,. ro i .; or that one or t\r, also his name t c, : texts might be r:

r,

,-

career.

And

il

r1.=

substantial fragr:.:the Clrcvalier nr i !-. a conclusion.

'uorsnlcuoc e

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uol

E]ITVI\IOU ESUEA NVIUNHJUY

E0v

404

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Le Chevalier d l'öpöe Leaving court dressed like a dandy, Gauvain loses his way in the forest. A knight gives him hospitality there and in the morning precedes him to his home. Once there, Gauvain is denied nothing, including the company that night of the man's beautiful daughter. Despite the girl's own warnings and the inopportune interventions of an enchanted sword, he survives with only two slight wounds. Next morning the amazedhost recognizes him as Gauvain and gives him his daughter in marriage. Much later, whilst leaving the castle with the girl, Gauvain goes back to fetch her beloved hounds. When he returns, a knight appears and challenges him for his wife. Unimpressed by Gauvain's qualities as a husband, she chooses to leave with the stranger. Her dogs, however, when put to the same test, opt for Gauvain's company. He slays the objecting knight, but, when his wife tries to make her peace, he abandons her with a misogynistic tirade and returns to court with his sorry tale. Around 1155 Wace had departed from his source to have Gauvain sing the praises of peace, notably because it gave ample opportunity for drueries ('lovemaking,; Brut, 10767-72). This, or something similar, could have inspired the portrayal of Gauvain the philanderer in verse romances such as the Chevalier. Since it shows close knowledge of most of Chr6tien's works, it could be based on an encounter in the Perceval,where the king of Escavalon sends the hero ahead to enjoy the love of his sister, but to ill effect. This material would then have been combined with two widespread motifs, the perilous bed and the seduction test, as well as with the faithful-dog motif of the final episode.T In this well-told story, the poet's purpose is not to develop Gauvain's character, but to burlesque his qualities as a philanderer, and hence bring into focus the picture of him created in the Perceval. Apparent inconsistencies, as in the character of the daughter turned wife, may be read in this context. La Mule sans frein A girl arrives at court on a mule lacking a bridle, which, she claims, has been wickedly taken from her. If any knight should restore it, she would be entirely his. Her mule will guide him on the journey. Kay volunteers and heads for the forest, where terrifying beasts kneel in honour of the mule and its owner. He passes first a stinking valley full of fire-breathing dragons, then a wintry plain and a beautiful spring, before arriving at a black gulf spanned by a plank. Terrified and filled with shame, he returns to court. Gauvain volunteers for the search. Before he leaves, the mule's owner honours him, unlike Kay, with a kiss. He follows Kay's route up to the 'devil's bridge', which he crosses before coming to a castle surrounded by stakes with heads on all but one; the castle spins like a top. He manages to enter, though the mule loses part of its tail, and is greeted by a dwarf who promptly disappears. A black churl emerges from a cellar and then, after

dinner, challen S=, spared the retLlrrthen an assauit : received b1 a lac-, she gives him tn: aS a Savioul be It : greets him \\.ith i.-. The Mule ntr, contains appare:.: failing to achier c up to the point \\ :' departs as rr\ st-: hand, so is left i,,"1 various adventurto the testing L.::c Harrowing ol H; beasts and a nl.:t-. motif. Importan: fortress, which se , to Chrötien. Cor : to look beyond C: contemporaries '.,. memories, incllrü-

romances giYe Lls :'

Though onlr s -. more widely dissof as a pair. Bt .(c. 1 220). Rather .., as it seems diC :: Raoul (de Houd;: a{r apparent eCit,--, . It was, hou e\ ;:. surely under\\ ell: : ous English Lr c,;: Gawain and tiir i (presumabll Fr. :. related. But a n -. unlikely. A cont:. acknowledged > manipulated th;:: and the Mule. P,,:: 1

-

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lqEp{ V

Ef NIVIAIOU ESUEA NIVIUNHJäV

406

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

The Enfances Gauvain The Enfances Gauvain survives in a fragment of Tl2lines (Paris, Bibliothöque Sainte-Geneviöve). Dating probably from the 1230s, this is a version of a story,

variants of which occur elsewhere, namely in Perlesvaus and the Latin De ortu Walwanii, with traces of the tradition found in Geoffrey of Monmotth's Historia Regum Britanniae andWace's Brut. In this particular version, Gauvain is the son of Arthur's sister Morcadös and her page Lot. The child is entrusted to a knight called Gauvain le Brun, who names the boy after himself and sets him adrift in a cask; after the boy is rescued by a fisherman, he is brought to Rome and educated by the pope. Although the fragmentary state of the text makes it difficult to be categorical, this treatment of Gauvain would seem to bear little relationship to the ironic and burlesque treatment of him visible in other verse romances of the period; it may represent a conscious anachronism that attempts to restore him to the heroic status he enjoyed in Wace, and which had been generally eroded in both verse and prose romances. The popularity of heroes often generates 'prequels', as well as sequels and continuations, to a body of existing tales in which they are prominent, the Elucidation and Bliocadran prefrxed to Chr6tien's Perceval being obvious examples. The structure in which adult exploits precede the tale of a hero's birth and boyhood deeds is an ancient one, common in both classical and Celtic mythology, as well as in the Old French epic, of which it is practically a defining feature (Wolfzettel 19734). The genealogical structure, essentially an expedient for capitalizing on the popularity of particular subject-matter, can also be effected by adding the deeds of ancestors, including parents, and of immediate descendants. The Bel Inconnu and some episodes in the First perceval Continuation present adventures of Gauvain's son, but the huge amount of attention paid to Gauvain in romances of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries practically guaranteed the existence of an Enfances Gauvain.lKBl

La Vengeance Raguidel Dating from the first third of the thirteenth century, perhaps c.l22o-30 (Schmolke-Hasselmann 1980*, 1611998, r7), La vengeance Raguidel, by a certain Raoul, survives in two complete manuscripts, two fragments and some scattered lines transcribed by Pierre Borel (see chapter I). The complete manuscripts are chantilly, Mus6e cond6, MS 472, executed between 1250 and 1275, and, Nottingham, university Library, MS Middleton LM. 6, datingfrom the second half of the thirteenth century. The Chantilly manuscript is written in Picard, but Friedwagner argues that Raguidel was originally composed in a dialect of the south-western border of the ile-de-France (see also pallem ans 1992). BNF, nouv. acq. fr. 1263, is a thirteenth-century fragment corresponding to lines 3488-3637 (Meyer 1892); the BNF fragment, fr.2187, corresponds to lines 1-29.

The qLlestit tOriginalll'. rt u, ,: and that the Se ,- . de Houdenc. ,.11.:: was the sole i.il.:: author of 1I t i',, ., revived the deb., S

suggesting thirt ., alter careful e\.,:l

that 'Raoul'

si-.,:

Meraugls (Rat:, -' intertextual re .,: 1

Chrötien de Trc,,,Möry discusse. :.. referring to Rcrs:, Raguidel op-:. custom ary at s u, ture reaches his ! without him. L; ": his chest and his .knight of the R.. Gauvain succe.J> rings. An unkltc, off in pursuit. b,-.: His nephew drres l .

,,,

over, he for-qets

i,--

A

peasant 1e.,., observes the cL.>: outside the cast.; beheading cLl st,--, .r'

on Gauvain. \\ l:.. him to put an e: of Gautdestrrri:. : her.

Meanwhile. rr ; her prison in t-.-' received b"v the ..-" in place to a\ e1l:. she intends to c,. ,. court for the 1llt,.

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

kiss, falls in love with her. Gauvain spends the night with her, whilst Gaheriet enjoys the solaces of one of Ydain's friends.

of Licoridon and then, when they

Meanwhile, at Arthur's coult the 'ill-fitting cloak'has revealed that all men there are cuckolds, except for Carduel Briefbras. When Gauvain arrives with Ydain to fetch the lance, he arouses Kay's sarcasm. Gauvain retaliates by calling attention to the inconstancy of Kay's amie, provoking a misogynist outburst from the seneschal. Then a deformed knight appears asking the king for a boon. The knight, Druydain, whose name means 'Ydain's lovef', claims that Ydain was destined for him. In a month's time, at a tournament to be held at Baudemagu's court, Gauvain will fight him for her. Ydain departs with Gauvain. A knight catches up with them, claims Ydain and convinces Gauvain to let Ydain choose her companion. This ieu parti angefs Ydain because of what she considers to be Gauvain's indifference, so she chooses the unknown knight. Gauvain now voices sympathy for Kay's misogyny. When Ydain asks her new companion to fetch her greyhounds from Gauvain, he proposes another jeu parti for the dogs. When the animals choose to remain with Gauvain, the unknown knight challenges him, but is defeated and killed. Ydain claims that she was merely testing Gauvain's love for her. When they reach Baudemagus's court, Gauvain easily defeats Druydain but surrenders Ydain to him, together with the warning never to believe her. Next, Gauvain finds the vessel that brought Raguidel's body to Caerleon. The ship transports Gauvain to Scotland where he meets a lady who has vowed to wear her clothes inside out and sit backwards on her horse until she meets Gauvain, the knight destined to avenge Raguidel's death. Yder, the knight who removed Raguidel's rings, loves Trevilonete, daughter of Guengasouin, who will give her only to the knight who kills him. With the lance Gauvain wounds Guengasouin, who is always accompanied by an enormous bear. Yder kills the bear, then Gauvain kills Guengasouin, presenting his head to Raguidel's amie. Yder beseeches Gauvain for Trevilonete, but Arthur's nephew claims her for himself. However, when Trevilonete announces that she can love only Yder and the barons decide that she should go to him, Gauvain relinquishes his claim. Yder and Tievilonete go to court to vouch for Gauvain's avenging of Raguidel's death. Questions of authorship are related to the problem of Raguidel's composition. Micha, echoing Gaston Paris, has argued that the romance contains three distinct plots: Vengeance (I,874lines), Gautdestroit(2,863lines) and Ydain (1,441 lines) (GRLMA*,IV:1, 383; cf. Micha 1944-5,347-8), and that these three parts are loosely juxtaposed rather than integrally related to each other in a true coniointure. Atanassov believes that Raoul unifies these three parts through parody. For example, Raoul creates the figure of the Dame de Gautdestroit to parody the avenging of Raguidel's murder (Atanassov 2000, 10), whilst the Mantel episode parodies the Arthurian court, a place where infidelity prevails. Atanassov views

Gauvain as .i ::-(2000, I 8 ). In i.... the relation bre t'.'.

r

In

ar_.qLling t..-

rejects Busbr 's r: well as Schnrol.,; deeper moral :ig:.

too hastt, in rc'; ideal kni.*eht .ii.i love, also fails ,:s of earlier Arth,.

conventional :;. 11411998, 139r F and ridin-u her :.' image of the nr;.

tnent, 4996-- r \ Condö, MS -+-mairden

to Elic;

Ydain, another :r' 1980*, 1 121199:. Raguiclel's ctr:-.

status as knigitt

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Kay in order tc, .. a bungler u.ho I'-- : of his challellS:c:

knight, who Sv-r. woman w'ho ,. l

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L'Atre pörilleux The mid-thirteenth-century Atre pörilleux survives in three manuscripts: Chantilly, Mus6e Condö, MS 472 (c.1250-75); BNR fr. 2168 (end of the thirteenth century) and BNF, fr. 1433 (c.1315-30) (see chapter I). At least one other manuscript of the romance has been lost (Delisle 1907 ,II, 190; Trachsler 1997*,

dismembennen: Gauvain's tu qr -: defeats thern..,::

blinded and bn:. Gauvain's place :

8s).

then returns

The narrator claims in the prologue that his lady asked him to relate a story about the good knight Gauvain. The complex plot begins when a beautiful woman arrives at court and asks for a boon from Arthur: she wants to become his cupbearer and have his best knight designated as her defender. Whilst all are still at table, an arrogant knight named Escanor abducts her. After some hesitation, Gauvain pursues them. Incognito, Gauvain encounters three weeping maidens and a blinded knight, who inform him that Gauvain has been slain and dismembered by three knights. Resuming his pursuit of Escanor, Gauvain stops at the 'ätre p6rilleux' Qterilous cemetery), where he frees a young woman from bondage as a devil's sex slave. After pursuing Escanor for three days and two nights, Gauvain finds and kills him. Gauvain rescues a maiden who has lost her lover's favourite sparrow-hawk.

Espinogre. Ca...1:= The Atre srinr s his name. Tradr:. for his reputatitrr.

When he climbs a tree to retrieve the bird, the lover returns. Concluding that Gauvain is a rival, he takes Gauvain's horse Gringalet, leaving him stranded with the woman. Raguidel of Angarde arrives on the scene and gives Gauvain a horse in return for a future boon, taking the sparrow-hawk as pledge (BNF, fr. 1433 inserts here a 666-line episode not found in other manuscripts: Woledge edn, pp.212-33; Black edn and transl., 388421.In it Gauvain defeats Brun Sans Pitiö and delivers a maiden whom Brun mistrusts for doubting his prowess). Then another knight, Espinogre, appears and relates how a maiden scorned him, but he is nevertheless abandoning her for another woman. Gauvain defeats him in order to enforce his loyalty to his first love. Together with Espinogre and the sparrow-hawk maiden, Gauvain encounters Cadr6s, who must rescue his beloved from a rival and twenty friends. Because of the sparrow-hawk maiden's hunger and thirst, Gauvain discourteously steals food and drink from the chatelaine of a nearby castle, a woman whose seven brothers are away hunting. Raguidel reappears and demands as his boon that Gauvain abduct and bring to him the chatelaine with her seven brothers. In response to the chatelaine's cries, the eldest of her brothers, Codrovain, appears; he is also the sparrow-hawk maiden's jealous lover. Codrovain loses the ensuing battle with Gauvain and must return Gringalet, give his sister to Raguidel in marriage and make peace with his own amie.

Gauvain, Raguidel, Espinogre, Cadr6s and six of the brothers liberate Cadr6s's beloved by defeating the twenty knights holding her. Gauvain and Espinogre now seek the three maidens who lamented Gauvain's supposed death and

tc,

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couples; yet his .,::'

ist narrator Lln c - : His reputation ' maiden and the suggestions oi -. difficult to acce:: When Gaur.r.: quest to recor er -..:

of judging GaLr,. -: T* the time the f :, and semantic cu,t.: sanctions the rh^:: a new figure u i::.

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412

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

The division of opinion among critics reflects a debate implicit within the fomance itself with regard to Gauvain's status as exemplary knight and lover. This concern is also implicit in the romance's title, repeated many times over the course of the work(Atre,792,937,960, 1121, etc.) and emphasized in the rubrics in two of the three surviving manuscripts. Is this knight whom Chr6tien'forgot', according to the Chevalier d l'öpöe, a worthy continuator of the Arthurian tradition, or is he not? When Gauvain frees the young woman from the devil's embrace in the episode that gives the romance its title, the cemetery is said to lose its name (Atre,1443; Cirlot 2OOl,46-57). Thus, the loss of the Atre's name is a function of Gauvain's regaining his good name. Yet the romance reconfigures Gauvain's place in Arthurian tradition, metaphorically placing him, in his customary status as Arthur's nephew, as the representative Arthurian knight standing at a crossroads in the romance tradition. The continual deconstruction and reconstruction of a collective Arthurian memory is epitomized in all three surviving manuscript collections containing the romance (see chapter XI). Ir.lwl

Arthurian Romances: Romances about Gauvain's Sons Le Bel Inconnu This romance survives in a single codex, Chantilly, MusÖe Cond6, MS 472.Little is known about the author, who names himself 'Renals de Biauju'in line 6249 of the epilogue and entitles his romance Li Biaus Desconeüs; the usual title today is the Bel Inconnu.lJntil lg82 the author's name was taken to apply to a member of the house of Beaujeu, a powerful family in the French Mäcon region; however, Guerreau's analysis (1982,734) of both genealogical records and linguistic traits of the area provides persuasive evidence that the author in fact belonged to the rival house of Bä96. This is also the family to which belongs the blazon sported by the hero of the work: an ermine lion upon al arute field. Since Renaut was a common name in the Bä96 family, it is impossible to determine which member of the family wrote the Bel Inconnu; nor is it possible to date the romance mofe precisely than to the period 1191 to 1213. The earlier of these dates, taken to be the point at which Chrötien de Tloyes ceased to write, is derived from references throughout Renaut's romance to ChrÖtien's ßuvre; the later date is based on the quotation in Guillaume de Dole, thought to have been composed by 1213, of a song attributed to Renaut. But whether this is the same cangon as the one referred to by the poet in line 3 of his romance is not known. Indeed, if Renaut wrote a number of songs (Colby-Hall 1984, 120), the reference in the romance could be to another poem post-dating Guillaume de Dole. All we can say today is that Renaut de BägÖ appears to have been writing around L2l3 and that the Bel Inconnu would fit into the period from 1191 to 1225.

The proloq,..; loves (1-6 ): ad c.: the epilo,_uue. r;.-: Unknown). Ti-; sudden arrir a1 ,--'. festival, see \\-,:.: " the court as tire F courtly condlrc: Helie, arrir-es. r-i who can be rrSg -. Baisier (Grr,reStr rl the mission as ::.:

,

despite the misg.-.

The part) S J,--' , calqued on eprs demonstrates h: > Isle d'Or, \\;heri. : hero is introduc: (Maid of the \\ :" proves to be. is t': chemise. The nr-:. the morning th; night's events. T: desolation an d Baisier. The tri.: When the yoults : realize, from its monster and re i:-: and lineage: he .. the hero falls it ^;. She had been tr.: monster whonr :t: her and beconl: whom the ladr. B Guinglain is .;' now Surreptitit ..: his earlier deser-:. after subjecting . while, enlists ti ; Guinglain back : second time. rs i..

"

S

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E]T{VI\IOU ESUEA NVIUNHJUV

'aäiilp

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

4t4

with an epilogue in which the poet aflirms that his hero's heart belongs truly to the Pucele and that he will bring the two back together if his own lady grants him the favour of her'bel sanblant' (welcoming expression,6255,6266). The Bel Inconnuwas a relatively neglected text in the early part of the twentieth century, when scholars tended either to denigrate the romance's complex, bipolar structure involving two rival heroines, or to view it simply as an inferior reworking of Chr6tien (G. Paris 1886; Schofield 1895; Boiron and Payen 1970). Later work, however, opens up discussion of the romance as a play upon the thematics and conventions of Old French literary forms, paving the way for a number of more probing analyses (Sturm l97la; l97Ib; 1972; Haidu 1972; Freeman 1983; Guthrie 1984; Perret 1988; 1999). The figure of King Arthur provides a useful case study through which the principal themes of this recent critical interest may be explored. Arthur and his court represent one of a series of axes around which the aspirations of the hero revolve. It is possible, however, to read this aspirational focus on a variety of levels. At the simplest level, Arthur represents within the narrative the goal towards which the hero's political and social ambitions are directed: the Bel Inconnu approaches Arthur in his quest for the adventure which leads to the revelation of his name, aflirmation of his prowess and the acquisition of a wife and lands. On a more complex level, Arthur also provides the key element on which intertextual play is centred: surrounded by references to the works of Chr6tien, Renaut's Arthur typifies the courtly romance genre which Chr6tien had perfected, and to which the hero may also aspire (Bruckner inLacy, Kelly and Busby eds 1987-8*,1,224-65). On a different level again, the success of the hero in the Arthurian world provides wish fulfilment within the text for the house of Bägö, whose economic and political power was beginning to diminish in the early thirteenth century (Bel Inconnz, Fresco edn, xi). Renaut allows all these layers of meaning to coexist, along with other constructions of meaning from the text deriving from the inclusion within his romance framework of elements from lai and lyric conventions, and from the blurring of the intra- and extra-diegetic by the references to the poet-narrator's own lady (Guthrie 1984; De Looze 1990). He simultaneously invites his audience to use the cues he provides to construct meaning from his text, and thwarts such attempts by the inclusion of signals suggesting contradictory meanings. In this way the Bel Inconnu sets up a locus within which the processes of narrative composition, reception and reading are explored. The resultant plot marks a significant development on the first generation of Arthurian romances, as the

basic elements of the form are problematized and destabilized; yet, potentially unstable as Renaut's text is, it retains narrative cohesion and sense. There are other romances, both before and after the Bel Inconnu, in which some scholars

see the process

of

deconstruction leading

to narrative

collapse: Hue de

Rotelande's I;., examples (on r:.: The Bel In,, materials of O1r are derived: the : ,

Beuudous

Robert de Bltris. thirteenth cenr -. Francien dialec: survives in a sin= thirteenth cenr u: moralist writinq fore, that Beuir,; his patron at th; from the txa1tL.s, protection. A p; Robert's other i,,, of Poix (123(-)-f 1302 (Fox 195t.,. with those of T:' lived in the thir::, The romancr .

,

Beaudous. ,{t Pc: Ireland, has p;:: St John's Dä\. ;: episode derir es ..,

from court u irl l of renown. The I' ure and lect Ll:::. . Beaudous's cr.rr:;

white mule anc : success in this :;. of the Islands Beautö is L.e s.. Beaudous is s ;i.. . and he forrl Lt l'; rcaI name: 'T.tr-. : so beautiful (tii,;

combat betu

ee :.

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E]I{VI^[OU ESUEA ITVIUNHJUV

4t6

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

defeated suitor is dispatched to Arthur's court, where he confirms our hero's renown. Beaudous wins a tournament by unhorsing the best Round Table knights. The plot concludes as the court prepares to reward Gauvain and his son in a double marriage and coronation, Beaudous with Beaut6 and Gauvain with the Maid of Wales. Beaudous is one of those Arthurian romances that have been described as 'optimistic', because they are aimed at an aristocratic audience intrigued by exemplary conduct and familiar with the genre's conventions (SchmolkeHasselmann 1981, 283-5). Beaudous easily overcomes all obstacles; he undergoes no inner crisis and his destiny appears clearly set out. Arthurian values are not questioned; the Round Table still seats the flower of knighthood, especially Gauvain (428,671-2). The plot relates a largely conventional nuptial quest, drawing on time-honoured motifs such as a shield attached to a tree as a challenge, play on the hero's name, a three-day tournament with a daily change of armour in order to appear incognito and a marvellous sword. Robert reveals a certain literary culture by drawing not only on Perceval, but on Cligös and Yvain as well (Fox 1950, 47-Sl;Walters 1993b,179-80). A special fondness for proverbs suits his moralizing intentions. Robert went as far as to interpolate most of his poetic works into the plot of Beaudous. These include: religious poems; an Enseignement des princes, which also lauds King Arthur; Floris et Lyriopö, a romance about Narcissus's parents; some love poems; and finally a Chastoiement des dames. These interpolations fill no less than eighty-four folio pages in the manuscript. They are placed in the mouth of the Maid of Wales when she admonishes her son upon his departure for Arthur's court. His mother pointedly states that her son is not the only person to whom she directs her admonitions (poem iv: 7-10), implying that the romance's audience can profit from them too. In fact, her words resonate with concerns expressed by Robert de Blois in his prologue. At the same time, the larger audience she addresses justifies arranging her counsel in two branches, one for men and another for women. Despite the tensions and inconsistencies revealed by the interpolations in Robert's instruction (Krueger 1993*,16+6), the recycling of these moralizing poems in the romance's Arthurian context links them to the celebration of marriage as an institution in the d6nouement (Walters 1993b, 186-9). tcvcsl

Biblioteca \az^ January 190-+ T 1870s (Lac1 1 y: length, which i,r. romance and tl^e and La Mule .ttt,. Gliglois relare> hand of the ap:. Whilst a numL,e : Gauvain as sui: Chevalier a l'e1r, ,

Arthurian ronl"i:' (Lacy 1980). G.

patience, where -i j status as one

ot ,:

Gliglozs is enrr:

verse romance.

:,.

the naffatir,e tal.:; is a tournärrent * theme is traditit :' torments, but tli; ate formal. e\ er. eous. Most oi ri.. monologue. sol'i-: torn between h.. prevails. The ir.,: caused Gliglois'> and Gauvain's c become aware cr'

tion of the ..qrear I who is capable r--'l

s.l Although the : tion, the treatnt-. amour-vanitä'

(

elsewhere, and ..;

Arthurian Romances: New Protagonists with Gauvain Gliglois Gligloß is somewhat eccentric within the corpus of post-Chr6tien verse romances.

Written about 1230, this anonymous 2,942-line romance survived in Turin,

comes to doni... Gauvain a-qains: tantly, acceprs , conflicts, of o1c ,: romance is ) er ,--.. texts, and as rt C (

"

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figure. Like that of Arthur himself, the figure of Gauvain held the potential for articulating different concerns for different authors and their audiences. IKBI

Le Chevalier aux deux öpöes Also known as Meriadeuc, this anonymous verse romance of 12,353 lines was probably written in the first third of the thirteenth century. It survives in one manuscript, BNR fr.12603, which was produced in Arras and has been dated to the late thirteenth or early fourteenth century (Nixon in Busby, Nixon, Stones and Walters eds 1993, Il, 69-70; Trachsler 1994). Predominantly Francien, the romance contains enough Picard features to have convinced its editor that the author came from aL area of the ile-de-France bordering on Picardy (Deux öpöes, Foerster edn,

lxi-lxii).

The Deux öpöes opens at Arthur's court during Pentecost. King Ris d'Outre Ombre has laid siege to Caradigan. His messenger demands Arthur's submission and his beard, but Arthur refuses. Meanwhile, at Caradigan, Ris promises to grant the wish of anyone bold enough to retrieve his coat from the altar of the Gaste Chapelle and to put in its place a pqsture (fetlock fetter). A woman, Lore, the Dame de Caradigan, alone offers to retrieve the coat. Successful, she demands and receives as prize the restoration of her realm. She wears a talismanic sword she took from the grave of Bl6heris, whose burial she witnessed in the Gaste Chapelle. Only a knight whose qualities equal those of Bl6heris will be able to remove the sword. She goes to Arthur's court, where she requests that she be married to the knight who can perform this act. Gauvain is absent; his squire, whose name, Meriadeuc, is revealed only at the end of the romance, unsheathes the sword, but departs without marrying Lore. Since his name is unknown, Kay names him 'the Knight of the Two Swords'. The court soon learns that this young knight has defeated King Ris. Gauvain returns to court to learn that Arthur has promised to send him in search of Meriadeuc on Lore's behalf. This promise frames the rest of the naffative. Before his departure, the unarmed Gauvain is attacked by Brien des Illes. The Queen of the Isles has promised to marry him if he demonstrates that he is a better knight than Gauvain. The unarmed Gauvain is seriously wounded and Brien leaves him for dead. But Gauvain recovers and leaves court to seek vengeance and find Meriadeuc. Several comic episodes ensue, because Gauvain's hosts believe he is dead. Among these is that of the Demoiselle du Port, whose love Gauvain wins. But in bed she refuses to make love because she has been saving her virginity for Gauvain. When he identifies himself, she departs immediately to seek verification at Arthur's court. Gauvain then arrives at Les Illes where he and Meriadeuc disrupt Brien's coronation; they depart together. Later, learning that Gauvain had earlier slain his father Blöheris, Meriadeuc mistakenly assumes that he must take vengeance on Gauvain; they part company.

At the same :. next to whicit 1i;, Keeping the S\\,.,She eventuallr rrash boon had distinct from B:. him, but was 1r.,: his three s\^'ords husbafld, anotl']-': Gaste Chapelie. ensuing episotie . him. Meanwhile. ii. of the Lac as J-. pardons him lc: reconciles him i.i, des merveilles. r,,, l by the sword tir.,: the spring pro\ . the blood on the . Arthur, tr.lt tr Perilleus. Gau\ .:.. to Arthur's c tr .. l Ascension Dui Damoisele dr,r P consummate thl-: Lore, who \\-e ixr: Verse roma n, ; among French-:-: 206-7 11998. l-1"-: dialects in the :.. than to the atlti-,.-. well acquaintec ', 28411998,221.:Erec, Yvain ail!L-'

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ideals underpinning Arthurian society and, therefore, is unable to assure harmony. The final reconciliation scene is possible only because Yder is endowed with a talent for resolving conflicts by negotiation. The unfavourable light cast on Arthur in Yder has led to its being called an anti-Arthur romance (Schmolke-Hasselmann 1980*, 7611998, 92). Although Gauvain and Guinevere enjoy positive evaluation, the romance inaugurates a process of disillusionment with Arthurian ideals. Anti-monarchical criticism in Arthurian romance after Chrötien de Troyes becomes more virulent.In Yder, even King Arthur, who had once served to restore an ideal past, makes his conduct conform to present reality and, by doing so, dissipates any lingering illusions regarding its true features (Rieger 1989, 370). For the romance's audiences

in Britain this disappointing present was perhaps the reign of King

John

(1199-1216) (Schmolke-Hasselmann 1981, 292). Yder has attracted critical attention for another reason: it recalls the origins of the Arthurian legend; an Isdernus appears in the Modena archivolt. Dated about 112040, this archivolt was fashioned before the Historia Regum Britanniae could have become known in Italy. Isdernus appears in the archivolt together with Winlogee, who is probably Arthur's wife; but her name also resembles Guenloie's. Arthur and his barons, including Isdernus, liberate her (Stiennon and Lejeune 1963). Was there a link between Yder and a tale about the abduction of Arthur's wife, or even a love story about her and another knight, such as that in a plot echoed in Chr6tien's Charrette (Webster 1951,85-6)? From 1140 onwards a version of the abduction of Arthur's wife by King Melwas was in circulation, as we can observe in the Vita Gildae by Caradoc of Llancarfan (Faral 1929*,II, 4ll-12). Several decades later, the Folie Tristan de Berne refers to Yder's suffering on account of Guinevere and alludes to a combat between Yder and a bear. It is tempting to connect these elements, although it has proved difficult to assemble them into the Ur-Yder that some have conjectured. The trials imposed on Yder have also been linked to combat with a bear in an Indo-European warrior initiation rite attested among early Germanic peoples, and, in an Iranian analogue, victory over the three-headed Indra (Grisward 1978). Yder is also profoundly concerned with sovereignty and the qualities required for the exercise of power

(Morin 1995). tcYCSl Fergas

About a generation after Chr6tien's death, the tradition he started was remarkably exploited in Fergus by the self-styled Guillaume le clerc (owen 1997). This romance survives in two manuscripts: Chantilly, Musöe Cond6, MS 472, and BNF, fr. 1553. The former, an earlier manuscript, runs to 7,Ol2lines. Recent research has made it plain that Guillaume 1e Clerc was in close touch with Scotland's aristocracy, and it was for them and any others conversant with

contemporar\ F:. have been a nati'.

-

his detailed kllc' .', was able to qli'--: Roland and its L.William the Lrc, . authorship oi Ä A possible ci-u ,* come to Scotlat-; 1977). He prosr;: bishop, first oi Cr Lothian. He tii i.> to become not .with lost Latilt ',,. by whom both Foutcoffic, sonta a.devoted to the C divinely inspire; authorship \\ o Li (Owen l99i. f -i: poet. The plot beg.: . through the Sc' : Galloway.Thei; father Soumrllc'.. Inspired to see:; : is knighted A1r. = enemy, the B1.t-,, niece Galiene i,, has accomplisi.; * him to submrt : Fergus retrrrlt s Belatedly o\ er., .' undergoin-_u nllt -- : dwarf that he r,, . giant hag at D.. now mistress .',-' hostile kins AltL before winnin r

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432

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Arthurian knights. Nor is it Arthur who eventually resolves the conflict, but Durmart's father, who is present alongside Arthur and who recognizes his son in their brilliant adversary. Although the wedding takes place in the presence of Arthur and his knights, they are really no more than honoured guests among others, even though Arthur does crown Durmart king of Ireland. The marginalizing of Arthur and his court allows emphasis to be placed on independence and lineage. Arthur himself stresses the importance of lineage when he tells Durmart that he is bound to be a good knight because he comes from distinguished stock (9720-2).Wolfzettel discerns in this a political motive, relating to the situation in France since the time of Philip Augustus, when kings were attempting to centralize power and ally themselves with the growing townships; he sees the poem therefore as a plea to assert traditional feudal values such as the independence and autonomy of lineage (Wolfzettel 1985, 681). Durmart is therefore a model of a decentralized feudalism, an ancestral romance in which the highest nobility sets an example by upholding its traditional standards. One should always strive to be worthy whilst despising 'perece' (idleness,10386), even defeats various

older (15736-8). A profoundly moralizing romance, Durmart openly promotes a conservative ideology (Wolfzettel 1985,671), whilst addressing itself to the high nobility in general (15958). Wolfzettel concludes that it is not only anti-Erec,but also antiArthurian (1985, 681). Southworth, on the other hand, despite a detailed analysis of the poem, sees it as rather superficial (1973,175); because the hero undergoes no psychological crisis during his adventures, she finds them rather monotonous and even somewhat platitudinous (1973, 108). pcnl as one grows

Morgan sends : Floriant accoilt:.. enemies to Arth..:

to his court. The '" Morgan reveais i.. The Knights oi t.., his mother: \l.l:., island's suzerain Floriant sees Flrr:. in love. Hou.e\ e:. knowirrg that it is : Finally Florer-. the King of Hun. Florete, Gaur ain .: an evil dwarf drs; attacks Arthllr s .: Maragoz's treaci.; Maragoz is dett.,:. Gauvain and Bl:t:.. knights, inchrdin r Florete remain rn S For three \ eliis. chance, he o\ erh: -, inactivity as a kr:.-

:

in Britain. Flor-:. Floriant et Florete Floriant et Florete is an anonymous Arthurian verse romance of 8,278lines. The title is given by the explicit of the only extant manuscript, New York, Public Library,MS 122, which dates from the fourteenth century. The romance itself is generally dated to the second half of the thirteenth century. On linguistic grounds, its author hails from eastern France or northern Burgundy. These observations, though not without foundation, require further investigation. For an Arthurian romance the setting is unusual, as the action is situated almost entirely in the Mediterranean region. During a stag hunt, Elyadus, King of Sicily, is murdered by his seneschal Maragoz, who is in love with the queen. Maragoz offers to marry her in order to maintain peace in the land, but the virtuous queen rebuffs him, fleeing from Palermo to Monreale, where Omer, a reliable vavassor, helps her resist the treacherous Maragoz. On the way to Monreale, she gives birth to Floriant, whom Morgan the Fay immediately abducts and takes to her abode in Mongibel. There she raises and educates the child.

Biaus Sauva,_qes ,-.1 together. After lt-.. at almost the Sitn ; of the emperor'S u;

their residence r c, F leads him to \lc:although he \\ ili :, absence,

Morgi.lt

i-

between texts nt-: direct relationsh.-: . bles the romallC;: entire blocks oi :;-, He also drau s rr: - the chanson tlt !,. be mistaken. h.-'.;, .' .

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

434

seems more accurate to see in them the mark of the writer's intertextual awareness. The literary tradition is not simply repeated, but reassessed. The reuse of

Claris relares -.. young knights d,_

traditional motifs and themes, the highly formulaic style, with the same lines recurring in different parts of the romance, as well as the narrator's recounting of his own love story, are pafi of a literary project that could be recognized and appreciated by a public of connoisseurs. A most interesting feature in this context is the Sicilian setting Floriant shares with Guillaume de Palerne (McKeehan 1926), but which also echoes a twelfthcentury tradition associating Arthur, and especially Morgan, with Mount Etna (Graf 1893; Pioletti 1989; Sturm-Maddox 2000a). Modern critics alternate between intertextual analyses of the reprise of (local) Arthurian folklore and an approach in which the Arthurian universe is seen as the reflection of an external political environment.l0 To date no thorough, systematic investigation of the historical elements present in the text has been undertaken, and possible echoes of contemporary events are thus variously interpreted. It may prove useful to take a

nates between t:t i conquest, or sec dynamism. n he:-.quests and sieges

closer look at Sicilian history in the thirteenth century, and especially its relation to

the kingdom of Hungary, which may figure prominently in the romance, perhaps because at least twice in the thirteenth century it was ruled by Angevin kings. As with other Arthurian verse romances preserved in single manuscripts, Floriant raises the question of the actual diffusion of the text. Two manuscripts of a fifteenth-century mise en prosehave come down to us, and on the grounds of textual criticism it seems unlikely that they both depend on the New York manu-

script.llpt1

,

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admiration tl't-rnt -: who unfailing1,. : conquests.

The young L.. . Gascony. Her b'r queen, but oprs :,_ adventures on t h:. Madoine in the : Arthur's court. ... Gascony with rt --Claris confesses .. abducts Laris. .i:. _-

.

,

knights, inclr.rdrn: laces the separärr, a yer and Laris .: love with Yr.air:'. invades Gascoll., liberate her anc :: land to Claris. ,,r, i After some ne\\ --, Tallas, King of D; father King L-ri::. before the Dalres . -

Arthurian Romances: Multiple Quest and Interlace Romances Claris et Laris Claris et Laris derives its title from the explicit to the unique thirteenth-century copy of the romance, BNF, fr. 1447.Its 30,369 lines make it one of the longest Arthurian verse romances. Claris can be dated with some precision because the prologue (46-7) refers to the fall of Antioch in May 1268 as a recent event. It is unlikely that the work was widely known in the Middle Ages, since its existence is revealed only by the one manuscript that preserves it. There is little evidence as to the author's identity; on linguistic grounds one can presume that he hailed from Lorraine. The prologue suggests that he was a cleric with some interest in current events; it gives a sombre account of losses in the Orient due to greed (51-2). The prologue also states that the author was tempted to write a chronicle, but abandoned the project for fear of angering his contemporaries by telling the truth (79-82; but cf. 23477-512). Instead, he wrote an Arthurian romance.

related (2047E-\ i, * of Russia, Arth,.:

Marine's hand. :.. remains: the libr:-,: of Hungar:.r, \-ic: _ The author kr.: actual sources. s r-

romances, the P,InconHU, Meruir -' 1916). Althougir G

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.

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436

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

167-8t1998, 2034). Rewriting is evident in lines of verse literally lifted from antecedents, as well as in the recycling of commonplace adventure motifs, such as combat with one or more knights or with a monster, discovery of an empty castle in a'terre gaste' (waste lanfi andan enchanted setting. Some motifs appear transformed, as when Claris and Laris come upon a version of the pesme aventure episode from Yvain, in which men are victims (2325-2496), or when Brandelis, like Chr§tien's Perceval at the Grail Castle, is mute instead of questioning Merlin (22155-262). The anonymous author uses interlace, as in thirteenth-century prose romance, in order to organize two of the most elaborate quests in medieval literature. After Klose (1916) had set out the anonymous author's debts to his predecessors, Claris was long neglected in critical scholarship. It receives only passing, usually unfavourable comment in a few general studies. Bruce (1924*,1I,275) finds it 'mediocre and interminable', whereas Micha faults its unpolished, uninspired artistry (GRLMA*, IV:1,395). Although the plot is not stylistically distinguished, and at times seems repetitious, it does have an identifiable structure and narrative interest (Kelly 1969). Today Claris is approached in two different ways: either as a reservoir of romance and folklore motifs or as a marvel of narrative virtuosity. The first approach is less text-specific than the second. By studying motifs such as the maiden plunged into a fountain, or the providential boat, or by enumerating the occurrences of the forest of Broc6liande or of fabliau features, scholars focus on one or two examples from among the hundreds found in the romance (Milin 1991; Morales 1991; Pearcy 1991; Demaules 1995). 'A summa of all Arthurian motifs', the romance does indeed resemble an inventory of all kinds of adventures (Schmolke-Hasselmann 1980*, 168/1998, 204). However, by treating discrete adventures rapidly and separately, thus using the romance merely to support an independent argument, these studies fail to interpret Claris's narrative whole. The second approach concentrates on Claris's narrative structure. Its complex plot deploys almost perfectly the principle of 'multiple quests' to integrate numerous adventures into a coherent scheme (Kelly 1969). By distributing the adventures among a significant number of knights, eleven in the first set, thirty in the second, the author gives every questing knight a place in the plot, and the simultaneity of the adventures in the interlace scheme remains intact. In each of the two sets of multiple quests referred to here, the narrative brings about closure, as Claris's quest 'cuts across' the quests of the other knights, thus conjoining them again after the initial separation (Kelly 1969, 262). The theme of compagnonnage gives additional significance to the romance by focusing on the knight as he assists the others and achieves the multiple quest (Kelly 1983,413). Kay and Dodinel function comically in this scheme as counter-examples.

Much remains on the Claris aui:-. nique's inte..uritr. : keys in order to :l

few sequences Ic,: before imprisonn tive more than i: narrative elemeri: : 275), impedes tir: investigation oi :r, Besides its int:. For example. it .lines). One coulc .

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ESNVWOU ESUEA TTVIUNHIUY

LEV

ffi

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438

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

the story with the fanciful poem that Jehan once wrote. Whereas this version contains a great deal of carole andfable, its narrator assures his audience that he will not let them 'mengoigne entendre' (hear lies,6449). The romance, as we have it, pastes together, as it were, its multifarious adventures, linking them by a weak, but coherent narrative thread (Carapezza 2001 , 77 -9 , n. 2) The discussion in the prologue of desroi ('foolishness') and sers ('sense') becomes a leitmotiv in the romance (on this feature of the Chantilly manuscript, see chapter XI) as it explores issues of wisdom in king and vassal. Arthur himself is a knight who evinces more sense than foolishness. In the first, or Lancelot part (18-6402), a maiden leaves Arthur's court after accusing his knights of growing fat and lazy whilst waiting for adventures to come to them. A great exploit awaits them in Ireland: the deliverance of Dionise, the lady of Rigomer Castle, from a spell that prevents her from marrying. Two knights who ride after the maiden bungle their attempts to bring her back. Then Lancelot makes his way to Rigomer, only to fall victim to a spell that makes him lose his memory. His days are taken up with the lowly tasks of a kitchen scullion. In the second, or Gauvain part of the romance (6403-15916), Arthur's nephew frees both Lancelot and Dionise. It begins when a second maiden announces Lancelot's imprisonment to Arthur's court. Gauvain sets off with a party of other knights to rescue him. Their exploits combine the heroic and the less than heroic. For example, sagremor attempts to rape a passing maiden, whilst cligös triumphs over a 'living dead'figure who takes C1ig6s's place in a tomb in a perilous cemetery. Meanwhile, Gauvain is captured and thrown into a dungeon. Lorie de Roche Florie, Gauvain's fairy companion, brings about his release by promising to help his female jailer to marry her beloved. Gauvain is unmolested by the enchantments on the way to Rigomer. Not only does a serpent let him cross a bridge unharmed, a damsel also proclaims him to be Rigomer's long-awaited liberator. Gauvain frees Lancelot and the other prisoners by removing gold rings from their fingers. These rings signify their enthralment by erotic love defined as appetite. Noble (1996) argues that this differs from love as a form of magic that works for Christian ends, as in Lorie's case. Gauvain cannot claim the promised reward for his success, the hand of the lady of Rigomer and with it the crown of Ireland, because Lorie keeps him for herself. After promising to arrange a suitable match within a year for the disappointed Dionise, Gauvain returns to Britain and Lorie to Roche Florie. At Arthur's court, a distraught maiden requests help against Miraudiaus, who intends to force her to marry him. while the damsel's appointed defender, Midomidas, is waiting for Miraudiaus, Lancelot arrives on the scene, dressed as an idiot (which is appropriate, given his prior development). when Miraudiaus sees a scar that identifies his new opponent as Lancelot, he declares himself defeated on the strength of Lancelot's reputation. Gauvain matches Midomidas

.

,,-'..,.,,i'"..,

with Dionise. Arthur part. (--': Arthur helps ., -".

..

This unllsu.rnates with s1i.ii::: Rigomer the er.;. knights, traditr : Lancelot, then the prologue ,.-.: matches the ki:. -

.

,

himself sllperi,- : than succLllnb.: for flightiness chivalry u'hen ...

.

,

princess's h:rnc -. her with e1t_r q r.: reveal Lance 1-.--' .

desires.

Atier ..

kitchen scrapS -. Yet Gau\ .r. r-. Miraudiaus SLi:l into marriage. ... offers to rnake the appoint -ü miraculouslr . -.: .

.

grantArthurS.. Minor char'.:-

example, Lor.=. from the otiri: ' (Noble 1995. '" '

ally ideal

L'r,,-'

. -.

proverbial fee : Althou..eh ,R -' Gauvain's re ,:.- ., laughs at the >f ; scullion -qro\\ :-. .. convey to the .. . the more serit, -.: entertainmen: (Walters 20[)i i .

.

la,rrrl'(SOOZ s;e11e16)

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E3t{VruOU ESUEA ITVIUNHIUV

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440

THE ARTHTJR OF THE FRENCH

Escanor

In the late thirteenth-century romance Escanor, the author is identified in

the

prologue as Gerardinz or Gerars (4, 50). In the epilogue he is called Girars (25910) and, even more explicitly, Girardins d'Amiens (25900). Girart d'Amiens, as he is usually known today, also composed other literary works: Charlemagne, abiography of the emperor written in dodecasyllabic rhymed laisses, and Meliacin, an

octosyllabic non-Arthurian romance in which the motif of the flying wooden horse, also employed in Adenet le roi's Cleomadös, is prominent. All these 'signed' works may reflect the self-consciousness of an author who is convinced of his worth, a somewhat paradoxical fact in the light of the rather low esteem in which Girart d'Amiens is held by modern critics. Nonetheless, the little that can be gathered from his works suggests that he was amongst the more successful writers of his period. The dedicatees named in his prologues indicate that Girart wrote for the highest nobility: Charlemagne is dedicated to Charles de Valois, brother of Philippe le Bel, King of France, and Meliacrz seems to be connected to the same milieu. Asfor Escanor,the prologue and the epilogue mention explicitly Eleanor of Castile, wife of Edward I of England, thus establishing a link with this royal family. Only one nearly complete manuscript of Escanor survives (BNR fr. 24374). However, a reference in the inventory of Charles VI's library, along with two seemingly distinct series of fragments, all now lost, indicate wider reception (see chapter I). Girart's two other works, Meliacin and Charlemagne, both enjoy wider manuscript diffusion, which seems to confirm the reputation Girart enjoyed in his own day. Five manuscripts of Meliacin survive and two of Charlemagne. The date of the composition of Escanor can be determined fairly well. The romance is dedicated to Eleanor of Castile, who became Queen of England in 1274, when Edward acceded to the throne; she died in 1290. If one accepts the view that Escanor is partly a roman d clö, the presence within the romance of a king of Scotland bearing the arms of the historical king Alexander III (1241-86), and a king of Wales bearing the arms of Llywelyn ap Gruffydd, narrows the time even more. The latter was notoriously rebellious against English domination. However, he was on good terms with the English court during the short interval between 1277 and 1282; since he is depicted favourably in the romance, its composition probably falls within that period. It has also been suggested that the character of Escanor de la Blanche Montagne is an incarnation of Llywelyn ap Gruffydd, whose domain was the region around Mount Snowdon which the royal army rarely penetrated; the stiff resistance met by Arthur's troops on entering Escanor's dominion may reflect Edward's victorious campaign of 1277 against Llywelyn. It thus seems reasonable to date the romance in the years around 1280. Escanor is one of the longer Arthurian verse romances; it contains nearly 26,000lines and, if one counts the loss of a whole quire and two leaves in the first

third of the te r\.:. length and L1 cr,:l the plot is cle-,:'

II, l-('-:: King Cant: daughter Anc: 1924*,

seneSChal.

It

ta

i

Unfortunatel). Aiglin, his er i1 : whom he can C.: .

Arthur to rlliiAndrivete to n.-:

Into this Il r >:

Montagne is ir. ": murder b)' Es,--,-.increasinglr d^.: Galatinet tries : attacks the K.:. Gauvain is slrs: avenge his ltei .; who is sent ttr i:.. become lor ers imprisoned kri : the youn-.q F:..:. between Girll:: Escanor betirr; l Arthurian dcr In Northlin. r: He returns hc,:r-, 1,

despair, spend .:. .

his sister. G::.-

.

hermitage. i 1. r'. Queen of Tr.r-.:': death Girtlet r; . Escanol's c-,- : read it as a k,. :

Arthur's

txo s: marria-qe or nr.

margins of tl,; 56-65). This i: chose not to r.,, :.

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EfiTVI^I OU ESUEA ITYIU{IHIUV

442

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

but in verse; octosyllabic romances of the Round Table were mostly perceived as pro-English, whereas the prose romances, with their'Continental'hero Lancelot, may have had pro-French overtones. Whilst Escanor may mirror historical events, a political reading of this kind does not fully account for Girart's literary project (Tiachsler edn, 65-7). He is well aware of the earlier literary tradition regarding, for instance, Kay and Gauvain (Busby 1980*;Noble in Busby, Kelly and Lacy eds 1987-8*, II, 143-50). He nevertheless deliberately transforms the legacy of Chr6tien de Troyes, showing the king's nephew to be hesitant and frightened at the idea of having to face Escanor le Bel in a duel. Kay, traditionally a misogynous boaster, turns out to be not only enterprising, but also successful in what he does, under the influence of his love for the fair Andrivete (Schulze-Busacker 1984). Of course, Girart may have had access to sources now lost that presented a more heroic picture of Kay than the one common in the continental French texts (Noble 1984; Gowans 1988*); but one can also see Girart as drawing on ostock'characters and situations in a ludic manner. The public he was writing for was most certainly able to appreciate the ironic use of the legacy of earlier writers. This tradition includes, of course, Chr6tien de Tloyes, but most certainly the Huon de Bordeau.r Cycle as well (as Esclarmonde, the name of the fairy in love with Brien des Illes, suggests), and, most of all, the Arthurian prose romances. By its length and its use of interlace, Escanor resembles the prose Lancelot or the prose Tristan more than, for example, Erec or Yvain. Certain characters such as Dinadan, Lambegues or Sinados, who otherwise appear only in prose romances, strengthen this impression (Trachsler 1993). Several features connect Escanor thematically to the prose romances. For example, the hatred of Escanor le Bel for Gauvain is linked to Escanor le Grand's enmity for the king's nephew, the individual characters thus being entrapped in a conflict between clans recalling similar conflicts in the Lancelot-Grail Cycle and the prose Tristan. Escanor's retreat to the hermitage in the final section of Escanor, which runs to over 2,000lines, seems to echo the end of the Mort Artu. But a1l these factors may also be read as Girart's attempt, albeit somewhat artificially, to introduce more depth into the traditionally sunny universe of Arthurian verse romance and thus to reform the genre from within. pr;

Intertextual Innovations

Library, NIS \l Galeron, a ir;r:-. Arthurian I.,,--. to be an antlt'-,. context re\ e .i^: teenth-cen t rl r,, experience oi -:: teen small min.-: three (bV a tiit::

ated initial.

.:.

reproduced in T.

appellation 'nt.'.: identity of H:i; 467-74) sees hr:: jongleur. His tJ.,:, and his pr o\ e rl .: ';. no particulär may have bee:. hailed from F:. Francien u ith P

may be a

PSe,..

Cornwall. nlel :. even speculal. :: Mahdi edn. \.. :' Silence's app.,r r;. tieth-ceflturr .':.. After narr.i:. r. tells the Stor''. : his/her famil"'.

line upbringr:.; (2257-2350r.5 : minstrel antJ. :rance of chrr.r-:' queen Euf-en.;. unresponsir e lt;: test, achier aL..;

.

:

cipal Artlt ur',.: Gendered Narrative in Le Roman de Silence

The 6,706-line work known as the Roman de Silence, but which its author calls in line 1657 a story 'De Cador, de s'engendreüre'r4 (about Cador and his offipring), survives in a single late thirteenth-century manuscript, Nottingham University

thereby re\e,.rl> .. the queen antt ..; King Ebain's :-.:

and the politi,,,

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ESNYI\IOU ESUEA TTVIUNHI)IY

F

444

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

prohibition on female inheritance, thus conveniently acquiring Cornish land through his wife. Some scholars, emphasizing the positive depiction of Silence as a man, suggest that, although the narratorial commentary is ultimately gender-normative, the narrative structure indicates a protofeminist authorial stance (Brahney 1985; Lasry 1985; Psaki transl., xxxi-xxxii, on the unstable and unreliable narrator). Silence thus demonstrates that gender and the biological justification for different gender roles are cultural constructs (Krueger 1993*, chapter 4). Other critics view Heldris's portrayal of the eventual triumph of nature over nurture as a misogynist's attempt to repress his anxiety about women (Gaunt 1990). Queer theorists extend authorial anxiety to the presentation of sexual orientation, arguing that cases of female and male cross-dressing introduce the possibility of homosexual and lesbian desire (Perret 1985; McCracken 1994; Waters and Blumreich in Psaki ed. 1997). Lacanianldeconstructionist critics, on the other hand, read this texte de jouissance as a metaphor for poetic practice and the link between language and desire (Cooper 1985; Bloch 1986; Allen 1989). To support this view, they cite the extensive word-play on linguistic terms; for example, Nature creates by writing (1918, 1931), characters'names evoke types of speech (Silence, Eufeme, Eufemie) and Silentius becomes Silentia (2074-82) by losing the suffix us, i.e. she returns to her natural state by losing the 'habit' or 'custom' (Old French zs) which has gendered her masculine. Scholarly concentration on the political aspects of Silence has demonstrated fruitfully that, as its authorial title implies, the romance raises important questions regarding female inheritance and power struggles between barons and the monarchy (Kinoshita 1995). Throughout, Heldris treats these serious issues humorously; Silence, for all her success as a musician and knight, is a figure of fun, a phallically challenged 'male', whose troubling gender is eventually normalized through laughter (Pratt 2003).

Histories of Arthurian romance have often suppressed the Roman de Silence, claiming that its Arthurian credentials are slight. Although it contains three references to King Arthur (109,6154,6156), and Silence's final adventure resembles the Grisandole episode in the Vulgate Merlin, the events narrated in Silence are not contemporary with Arthur. Moreover, the tale of Merlin's capture is derived from a common source, not directly from the prose Merlin (Lecoy 1978, thereby challenging Thorpe's specific terminus post quem of 1230). However, Heldris's familiarity with Arthurian literature is unquestionable, for Silence's claim to be a descendant of Gorlois of Cornwall (6145) is probably based on Geoffrey of Monmouth or Wace (though not the Merlin, in which Ygerne's first husband is called Hoel). A further challenge to Thorpe's classification of Silence as Arthurian romance was provided by Schmolke-Hasselmann, who excluded it from her study of Arthurian verse romance, on the grounds that it possessed few

Arthurian

ch.r:., have a female i.:

deliberatelr. ir.,,,c gender and ee il r;

Heldris's portr.i'.

the Tristan

1e

g.

nature/nurture c of female spee.: main claim ttr l tional storr. oi . which the Art: behind the appi.:

Tournamen

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446

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

The romance begins by relating Sone's genealogical background. Count Assel de Brabant marries AÖlis, daughter of Count Ernoul de Flandre. One of their two sons, Henri, marries Ydoine, daughter of the Duke of Malone (Malines?). They also have two sons. The elder, Henri, remains a dwarf, whereas the younger son, Sone, is the protagonist of the romance. Sone falls in love with Yde de Donch6ri, but she spurns his suit, despite her apparent love for him. To forget her, he devotes himself to knighthood, undertaking a long journey to Norway to help its king repulse incursions by the Irish and Scots. There he sees the Grail. It is found on an island off the Norwegian coast where Joseph of Arimathea left it (Lachet 1992, chapter 7; Trachsler 2000, ll2-17). Back in France, Sone shines in various tournaments. He then returns to Norway, marries Od6e, daughter of the recently deceased king, and is crowned king. Following the wishes of the pope, he also becomes emperor in order to defend Christianity against the Saracens. Before his death he witnesses the crowning of his sons: Houdiant as King of Norway, Margon as King of Sicily and Henry as King of Jerusalem. Milon, the youngest son, is elected to the papal see. The plot follows, therefore, a strict chronological sequence. In order, its five major phases are: Sone's childhood (l-2914), his first exploits (effinces, 2915-8208), his victories (8209-16572), his marriage and coronation as King of Norway (16573-18006) and his coronation as emperor (18007-21231) (Lachet 1992, chapter 2). In spite of the Grail episodes, Sone is not, strictly speaking, an Arthurian romance. There is no Grail quest and no Arthurian knight appears. It is rather an adventure romance meant to entertain by love themes, psychological introspection and description of costumes, places and settings, especially tournaments, battles and sieges. The key motif is Sone's social ascent. As an ancestor of Godefroi de Boulogne, he fits into the genealogy of both the prologue and the plot. No less important to the narrative economy is Norway, an exotic country that enters medieval French literature in this romance as a virtual locus amoenus. This northern kingdom has even drawn the Grail into its paradise. Norway's idealized court life also contrasts with the author's contemporary world, which he believes to be in decline. Early criticism tended to fault the romance as dull, long-winded and monotonous (Lachet 1992, 5-7, 136-55). The unjustified neglect has been remedied in large measure by Lachet's monograph (see also Virdis 1997; Lachet 2000). Normand's thesis (1975) includes a summary, analysis of sources, motifs, conventional devices and the principal psychological portraits. lFCl Roman du Hem The Roman du Hem has been described as news-reporting in verse of exceptional historical value (Henry edn, xii). Its subject is an actual tournament that began

on 9 October. F:

in Franco-Pic,,:* in Picardy at ti.;

and thus close .: common in El: romances. oti::. Table. This hap; The author's : been a literate l. for closer iden: mentions the );-, in all likelihot-,c by the serior,rs '.:. ' Compiögne in mentioned thi. occurred prior : After a colrl,bygone glorr. :. Philippe III's :: Huart de Baze .order to insl-ri:; l of the eveltt r,\, ,- preside o\,er .-r.i- -. banquet 'Sore c -, beloved. At LJ,:.,' in successio n ,.: occupy the e\ 3:. disguises to 1:i, '. ment. Hemresenrb"= .

Both 'tournliir ; survive in Fr,-i:--. 1988, 1 l-1 0l r, (attested br t 1.; I Soredamors. K-,.

Knight of the less influence

-

,: r.

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448

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Allegorical Narrative in Le Tourruoiement Antechrist Huon de M6ry's Tournoiement Antechrisl1s is a short poem of about 3,544lines in which Arthurian elements blend with allegorical features. We know Huon de Möry only by what little his poem tells us. At the beginning, he declares himself to be a knight who had participated in Louis IX's campaign in 1234 against Pierre I Mauclerc. At the end of his text, he states that he retired to Saint-Germain in Paris (3520-1). His itinerary leading from the sword to the pen, from erotic wounding by Love to God and the Church, may of course be completely fictitious, illustrating a spiritual project of no documentary value (Gelz er l9l3; Jung 1971,27 4). Huon de M6ry is more safely defined by his vast culture, more redolent of monastic training than of a university education (Jung 1971, 278),thanhe is by the autobiographical details in the poem. Moreover, the Tournoiement contains passages reflecting the viewpoint of ajongleur claiming his reward, which would hardly suit the image of a knight that Huon gives himself. Busby (1983) argues that Huon is speaking pro domo when he mentions professional entertainers. We are somewhat better informed on the date of composition, since the military campaign of 1234 establishes a terminus a quo and also provides a reasonable date for the period during which Huon wrote his poem; for no one would refer long after the event to a minor campaign such as that against Pierre Mauclerc. The internal chronology of the romance suggests that the events described take place in1236 (Ruhe 1989, 64). The adventure starts 'la quinte nuit de mai' and ends, three days later, on Ascension Day, thatis SMay 1236.

The prologue recalls how once, whilst in the forest of Brocöliande, the narrator wished to see the marvellous fountain described by Chrötien de Troyes in Yvain. He rides through the forest for four days, and finally reaching his destination he twice pours water on the marble slab (perron), unleashing the famous tempest. The next morning Bras-de-Fer, a horrible Moor and chamberlain of the Anti-Christ, arrives and drags the narrator to the city of Despair. There he watches first the infernal dinner served to the Anti-Christ and his followers, and then, the following day, a tournament in which the troops of God (which include personified virtues, angels, biblical characters and Arthurian knights) do battle with the Anti-Christ's

army (pagan gods, personified vices and sins of all kinds). Inserted into the account of the tournament is the narrator's love-adventure. Struck through the

Some tu.e1r e :.

thirteenth and :,,This diversitr s:. the Middle Ag:: most interestut: synthetic pro ii, two masters. CTournoientent L.whom he citeS .r: and allegorical poem.

The no\,elt\ patronage of C trace (Grebel . :: a reprise of tl.; claims to har e other hand. tl:; naffator tr,r ice : . the storm (Rul:; an irnitatio Cl:," 'Tournoiement * but not as the .,and the Rortttt) Huon's Stt-rr,, that he sets olt: dons the dre,i:r .

.

.

allegorical a L.: naffatof , assll:t--.

-

-

is no mere sp.. . leaving his bec -

guide his \\ riti:.: Huon de N{er,, : acter of his i.l\tmaterial can b: ,,

eye by Venus's affow, he has an erotic vision. Having recovered, the narrator pres-

ents himself before Reason in order to establish whether the responsibility for his

injury should be borne by Venus, the eye or the heart. According to Reason, it is the heart's fault. Meanwhile, the tournament comes to an end with the temporary victory of God's forces. The narrator is invited to the city of Hope, where a banquet given by Largesse is taking place. Since he cannot enter God's palace, the narrator retires to the convent of Saint-Germain-des-Pr6s.

A number oi \ than the fact r .,, 1997*,431. :i:

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I{VIUNHIUV

450

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

permit modern scholars to attempt reconstructions such as those undertaken for the Tiistan poems. Others, lost today, are known through probable adaptations in other languages (e.g. the source of Ulrich vonZatzikhoven's Lanzelet). The existence of others is more controversial; some have claimed a French source for the Middle Dutch Walewein and the Occitan Jaufre, but the existence of such sources is considered unlikely today (Besamusca 2000, 214; see also chapter XIID. Allusions to names in extant romances may also be to lost works, but it is more likely that they refer to oral traditions, such as those that were sources of matiöre for the earliest romancers. IDKI

For items äcctrn-r.: chapter appeiri' ..-. -

Texts Cited lAtrel: L'Atre y,, , lBeaudousT: Ä -, Abenteu€tt'r )t)'-

,i,

:,,

(Paris, 1919 lChevalier d l'ti',.. frein. Ed. b,r R. Chevalier (l ri ...' , . i

I See the index to Schmolke-Hasselmann 1980*, 160-9/1998, 195-205;

Chönerie 1986*. There

Arthurian motif indexes by Ruck 1991* and Guerreau-Jalabert7992*. Cf. Vincensini 2000. 2 Froissart's Meliador is an exception. Verse romance survives otherwise only in Coudrette's Melusine (beginning of the fifteenth century) and in romances that alternate prose and verse, such as Thomas de Saluzzo's Livre du chevalier eruant and Ren6 d'Anjou's Livre du cuer d'amours espris. Some verse romances were, of course, still being copied in the fifteenth century. 3 On the use of topos in this sense, see chapter IV, pp. 158-60;Yit21989,31. a See Schmolke-Hasselmann 1980*, chapter l:411998, chapter 4; Busby 1980* and Busby in Lacy, Kelly and Busby eds 1987-8*, II, 93-109; Cirlot 1991, 391-5; Morin 1995. are

5 Trachsler 1997* does not include these romances or those illustrating textual innovations. 6 See also the'Roman'dönouements to Durntart ar,d Sone de Nansay. 7 The dogs episode is likely to have derived from a lost/abliau-type tale; see Chevalier d l'öpöe, Armstrong edn,63-7; Micha, in Loomis ed. 1959*, 364; Gauvain Roruances, Johnston and Owen edn. 8 In a prior scene with the host's daughter, Gauvain tells Hunbaut he is not 'de fust' (of wood, 882); here Gauvain's statue is 'de fust'(3112). e Kayh blackened character recalls his rcle in Perlesvaers, where he murders Loholt, the son of Arthur and Guinevere. Arthur's degradation is also one of Perlesvaus's distinctive features. 10 On the first tendency, see Castets 1886 (esp. 76-84): Harf-Lancner 1984,277 9; Stanesco 1995,349. On the second, see Martin 1892; Lejeune 1958 (esp. 331); Sturm-Maddox 2000a. rr See the introduction to Floriant 2 , Levy edn. 12 This episode was transcribed before the destruction of the codex, but editions differ with respect to the readings of certain passages (Trachsler 1997*, items 92,785-7). 13 For example, the Pölerinage de Charlemagne ard Welsh legends of the Chapalu, a ferocious cat referred to in Galeran de Bretagne, and perhaps, Yvain (Carapezza 2001, 108). 1a See Roche-Mahdi's edition, which incorporates most of F. Lecoy's proposed corrections to Thorpe's editio princeps (Lecoy 1978). 15 Orgeur (1994) reprints the Wimmer edition of the Tournoientent without the critical apparatus but with a French translation. Bender's edition is unreliable. 16 The identification of Tournoiement manuscripts is perhaps incomplete. The following have been identified: Paris, BNF, fr. 1593; fr. t2469:lat.238l (a miscellany containing 11.2203-3262);

fr. 24432; fr. 25407; fr. 25566; Rheims, Bibliothöque Municipale, MS 1275; London, British Library, MS Harley 4417; Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Douce 308; Turin, Biblioteca Nazionale, MS L. V. J:2 (largely destroyed in the 1904 flre); Vienna, Nationalbibliothek, MS 2602; Stockholm, Kungliga Biblioteket, MS Vu22. On these manuscripts,

'

lBel Incorutu]. ti, i, K. Fresco. t r-: r. :

(ä) Renzut

Notes

.

see

Busby 20024,480, 552, and 518.

lClarisl: Li Rt)ti .,' lDeux öpöesl. (i r I (Halle/S.. 1S-from the Tli:, .-

,

.

PA, 1965-5

r

lEnfonces Gutrl ., ' ',3e (1910). 1-_::

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fFergusl: (i) Gi,: Fergl/.r.

Ä,

lFlorianrl: (i)

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(11)

(11)

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i

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Floriurtr. .I

lFloriant 2l: (Ottawa.

L,

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fGaleran): Jeort Fi, 1925; repr. i ', - -' fGligloisl: (i) Ze

fi

;

Arthurian R, ,,'. fHem): Sarra\.,'r"

-:

fHunbautl: (it T: . M. E. Wintc:,

Ed. by J. Stu::."

/lle): (i) Guuri,, Galeron

pur

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by E. Löseth. le manuscrit

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THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

452

Romances'. Le Chevalier d l'öpöe and La Mule sans frein. Ed. by R. C. Johnston and D. D. R. Owen (Edinburgh and London, 1972),61-89.

lMulel: Two Old French Gauvain lRaguidetl: (i) Raoul de Houdenz, (11)

La

La

Vengeance Raguidel, in

Vengeance

Raguidel.Ed. by G. Roussineau, TLF 561 (Geneva, 2004);

vol. 2 of Raoul de Houdenc, Sämtliche Werke.Ed. by M. Friedwagner

(Halle/S., 1909). fRigomerf: (i) Les Mervelles de Rigomer: altfranzösischer Artusroman des XIII. Jalrhunderts, von Jehan.Ed. by W. Foerster and H. Breuer (Dresden and Halle/S., 1908-15); (ä) Jehan, Les Mervelles deRigomer: Chantilly,MusöeCondöMs.472 (626).Rev. ednbyT.E.Vesce(NewYork, 1995). lSilencel: (1) Le Roman de Silence. Ed. and transl. by S. Roche-Mahdi (East Lansing, N4l, 1992); (11) Heldrß de Cornudlle, Le Roman de Silence: A Thirteenth-Century Arthurian Verse Romance. Ed. by L. Thorpe (Cambridge, 1972). lSonel: Sone von Nausay. Ed. by M. Goldschmidt (Tübingen, 1899). lTournoiementl: (i) Huon de Möry, Li Tornoiemenz Antiuit. Ed. by G. Wimmer (Marburg, 1888); repr. without critical apparatus, with French transl., by S. Orgeur (Orleans, 199\; {ü) Li Torneiment Anticrist by Huon de Möri: A Critical Edition. Ed. by M. O. Bender (University, MS, 1976).

lYderl: (r) The Romance o.f Yder. Ed. and transl. by A. Adams (Cambridge, 1983); (ii) Der altfranzösische Yderuoman.Ed. by H. Gelzer (Dresden, 1913).

(Woodbridge. . " lRigomer): Jehtil:

York,

;

1988 t.

lSilencel: Heldt'i'

., .

Studies Accarie, M.

1

99

S '',

mödiövale'. R,,--

Adams, A. 197S 'L., Adler, A. 1 96u, 'S -. Troyes', RJ.1i " i Allen, P. L. 19S'l

J. N. Wasserm;-and Literattii 'r . )'

Ash, M. 197). 'T

.=

universitl'oi \;', Atanassov,,S. 19Si

Other Texts Cited

,,-

[Andreas Capellanus]: Andreas Capellanus: On Love. Edited with an English Translation. Ed. and transl. by P. G. Walsh (London, 1982). fBrutl: Wace, Le Roman de Brut. Ed. by L Arnold, SATF, 2 vols (Paris, 1938-40). fCrönel: Diu Cröne von Heinrich von dem Türlin.Ed. by G. H. F. Scholl (Stuttgart, 1852). [Malory]: Sir Thomas Malory, The Tale of the Sankt Greal, in vol. 2 of The Works of Sir Thomas Malory. Ed. by E. Vinaver,3 vols,2nd edn (Oxford, 1967);3rd edn, revised by P. J. C. Field

(Oxford, 1990). fSir Gawainl: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Ed. by revised by N. Davis (Oxford, 1967).

fMulel: Front C;, transl. b), E. B. l9l4), 59--1. r;

Atanassov 200(,). L

R. R. Tolkien and E. V. Gordon, 2nd edn,

Translations La Lögende arthurienne: le Graal et la Table Ronde, D. R6gnier-Bohler ed. 1989*. Includes complete or partial French translations of Le Chevalier d l'öpöe, Hunbaut, La Demoiselle d. la mule l= Mulel, L'Atre pörilleux, Gligloß, Möraugis de Portlesguez and Rigomer. Three Arthurian Romances: Poems from Medieval France. Caradoc, The Knight with the Sword, The Perilous Graveyard. Transl. by R. G. Arthur (London, 1996). fAtrel: The Perilous Cemetery (L'Atre pärilleux). Ed. and transl. by N. B. Black (New York and

London, 1994). lChevalier d l'öpöel: From Cuchulainn to Gawain: Sources and Analogues of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Transl. by E. Brewer as'The Knight of the Sword'(Cambridge, 1973),2842; rev. edn by E. Brewer as Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: Sources and Analogues (Woodbridge, 1992),

10926. lDeux öpöes]: The Knight of the Two Swords: A Thirteenth-Century Artlturian Rontance. Transl. by R. G. Arthur and N. L. Corbett (Gainesville, FL, 1996). fFergusl: Guillaume le Clerc, Fergus of Galloway: Knight of King Arthur. Transl. by D. D. R. Owen

(London, l99l). fGaleranl: Renaut, Galeran de Bretagne. Transl. by J. Dufournet (Paris, 1996). flllel: Gatier d'Arras, Ille et Galeron Tiansl. by J. C. Delclos and M. Quereuil (Paris, 1993).

'

Baumgartner. E. --* Moyen Äg,

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Baumgartner 19vj Bauschke, R. 19"-: de Beaujeu .\..::

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2000*,

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Billington, S. 'r Turnhout. Bloch, R. H.

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81-99. Boiron, F., and J -t7 6, 15-26. Bouchet, F. 199y 'r :. Mölang€s r t.t:,-

Boutet, D. 1991 ,Bozöky, E. 19-S 'F. 2L ,

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

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THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

460

Wolfzettel 1990b. 'La Recherche de l'universel. Pour une nouvelle lecture des romans de Gautier d'Arras', CCM, 33, I 13-31. Wolfzettel 1992. 'Rom und die Anf,änge des altfranzösischen Romans: Liebe, Religion und Politik bei Gautier d'Arras', in B. Schimmelpfennig and L. Schmugge eds Rom im hohen Mittelalter, Sigmaringen, 139-63. Zemel, R. M. T. 1991. Op zoeknaar Galiene: over de Oudfranse'Fergus'en de Middelnederlandse Ferguut, Amsterdam. Zemel 1994. 'The New and the Old Perceval: Guillaume's Fergus and Chrötien's Conte du Graal ,

88145,46,32442.

In the thirteenu. degree of soph^.: as the Lancel,i-t

romance comL.c,. writers such as \l fomanCes tO F1l-'-emerged during

:

as falsifyin._u the :. copies of Chr-.. romances of it:.

script, usuallr

..

disappeared rr, .: compilations \-r-century. There -: fragments are C -Research in.,more on post-c-.. ed. 2000*, 6(-)-- to readin._E \ e r>; : will be dealt ,,,, . .l 2002*, I, 93-1 .' should also cc r.: 2003b). This ,-. ., scholarship t-r l avenues for tirt -..-= emerged in c1'1.,:-. ambiguous cfi,::., cies are appar-. : which contain .. -

hr.--.."

suorlslrdruoc eoJql ur peurruBxe eq ilL&\ s^rlolulrel eseqJ 'rueql ureluoc qclr{1v\ suorlulrdruoc ]drJcsnueu oql ut osle ]nq 6slxel Jelel w Äpo 1ou lueredde ere serc -uepuol eseqJ 'secueruoJ esJe^ JoIBI JoJ slepour se ure^neg JelceJeqc snonSrgue ,(yqcu slrl Jo pue secueuor querl?rq3 Jo ocuugodur eq] 'y reldeqc ul pe8reure qcFI/!\ s^rloulrol roleur o1(1 uo oq rur!\ eJerl sncoJ erII 'qcJeeseJ eJn]nJ JoJ senue,{e 3ur1se33ns Jo pu€ socueruoJ esJo^ Jo ]xoluoc ldrrcsnuuru eql uo drqs.leloqcs ]selul eql Sur,rrer,re.r Jo uorlcunJ Ienp eql e^res snql p.u .reldeqc slr{J '(qgOOZ sre1ye16) suorleydruoc esJe^ go seydurexe ror{lrnJ rog .(gsng }lnsuoc oslu plnoqs repeer eql 'Og-§07 '1) sscuzruor uerrnqlry leuo8rde eqt pue (gOt-gO 'l'*2002 ,(qsng) ,6L'rJ UNg -]o lolng eqrrcs egt r€lncriled ur 'e.req qlp{ tleep eg ru,!\ 1eq1 slcelqns uo seqcnol '1xe1uoc lducsnueru Jreg] ut secueruoJ osrel Surpee; o1 ,(pn1s erunlo^-o^\] errlue ue selo^ep oq.u tqsng '(,r2002,(qsng :tt*Og '*0002 'pe "re8sn.r; ur tonH !9961 goqg i1961 long) ecueuror osre^ uerJgrq3-1sod uo eroru sncoJ sJsloqcs sB ,(lluecer porlsrJnou s?q suorlelldruoc eseql o]ur rlcJeosou ' OZZ' 8AAU61 I'*0g6 I uueulesseH-s11oulqc5) polunoc eru slueu8e.rg uo Surpuedep 'suorlcegoc qcns .{1ue,l1 ,(lelerurxo;dde e.le eJeql ,(rnluec ^\oq qlueelJlql oql ut ecueututo.rd urelJec e peÄolue secueruoJ esJe^ Jo suorlepduroc 'e"rn1ere1r1 r{cueJg Ie^erperu go sndroc eql ruo{ ,(1err1ue }sorule pe;eeddesrp ocueruor esro^ eJoJeq 'poopul '(1 reldeqc ess) uorlelrdruoc e ,(yyensn ,1ducs -nueru euo ,(po ur pe^JeseJd ,(poruruoc lsolu eJe sJosseccns srq Jo secueruoJ esJe^ eql 's;equrnu e3"re1 ,(lerrrleleJ ur e^r^Jns secueruoJ s.uerl?Jq3 go serdoc qSnoqllv 'G-tt '9661 reupe8urneg :U-ltZ '296I relqgJ) r{ln:l eqt Bur,(grsp; su pelrpeJcsrp sdeq.led'peuopuege r{genperS se.iv\ esJe^ t.tn1uec eg} Suunp ps8rerue ocueruor esord se terr.srrroll '(Zg-tgt'*0002 'pe re8enr;1 ur ,(ce1 :*O9t6g6I prog>1c1fl suorlullduroc xeldtuoc eJoru pue ;e8uo1 ualo ecnpord o1 secueruor eso.rd reqrue pourquocoJ osrd ep uercrlsnl{ pue }ouuof) neoqcrtrAl s€ qcns sJelrJ,^a ueq,r seSy olpplru e]BI egl olur penurluoc ocuereJo.rd sq1 'uorlrsoduroc ecueruoJ roJ ruJoJ pe:rege;d eql eurereq uotslu esord eq] pue e1c,(3 ltDrD-top)ul7 eqt se qcns suorlepduoc esord xelduroc 'q13ue1.lreq1 elrdseo 'uor]€crlsrqdos 3o ee.rSep r{8lq u poqceer uorlepduroc lducsnueru rog senbruqcel trnluec qlueeurq} eq} uI

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FE

(each containing from nine to eleven textual units) whose importance has long been recognized: BNF, fr. 794, transcribed c.1230 (Roques 1952, 184; Stirnemann 1999,66) in Champagne by the copyist and compiler Guiot; BNF, fr. 1450, transcribed c.1240 in Picardy by a single anonymous scribe-compiler; and Chantilly,

Mus6e Cond6, MS 472 (= Ch), transcribed by several scribes c.1250-75 in Flanders/Hainault (Tournai?). It is impossible to determine if Ch's compiler was also one of the copyists. The term 'compiler'is used here to refer to a function rather than to a person; one person may in fact have exercised several functions: compiler, scribe, editor, illuminator, planner, workshop head, bookseller, etc. (see Rouse and Rouse 2000). For a variety of reasons, I believe that the compilers of all three compilations were men, and will thus refer to each one using the masculine singular pronoun. In all three cases under study, the compiler may have been working with a planner andlor for a patron; these possibilities will be discussed when appropriate. The earliest Old French manuscripts tend to contain a single work, with the first

thematic or genre-based collections dating from the beginning of the thirteenth century. From then on, more voluminous manuscripts appear, transmitting a wide variety of text types and genres (Värvaro 2001,9-16). Manuscripts such as BNE, fr. 794, BNF, fr. 1450 and Ch reveal a desire for completeness on the part of manuscript producers, who tried to provide 'a full and true history of the major chivalric heroes and their adventures' (Nixon in Busby, Nixon, Stones and Walters eds 1993, I,25). Nixon connects such large-scale collections of literary works to the development of princely or royal courts with true literary interests (Busby, Nixon, Stones and Walters eds 1993,I,17-25); they did so, according to Taylor (1994;1996) to construct and preserve a certain vision of their literary andlor historical heritage (see below, next section). BNF, fr. 794 and BNF, fr. 1450 are the only surviving collections to contain all five Chr6tien romances transmitted as a group. The Annonay fragments testify to the existence of an earlier collection, c.1205-20, executed in Champagne. Although no trace of the Charrette remains, the collection may well have originally contained this romance along with the other four romances (Busby, Nixon, Stones and Walters eds 1993, 1I,202). Ch is matched by only one other collection that contains three Chr6tien romances, BNF, fr. 12560, although in its original state this collection may have included another of his romances (Nixon in Busby, Nixon, Stones and Walters eds 1993,

\I \\

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

462

II,

36).1

Large verse collections can run the gamut from true miscellanies (one-volume libraries rather than unified books) to carefully orchestrated compositions (Huot 2000, 68). In the three compilations studied here, the compiler comes to resemble a second author who shapes the total collection according to the structure of a typical romance with a beginning, middle and end (Walters 1985; Bruckner 1993*). In every case, each in a different but related way, the compiler 'completes'

Chrötien b1 ali S material. GaLr\ -: BNF, fr.791ttr C concentration . : Chrötien's

Spe

complete, all

c..-

th:;

ition epitomizec

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L

Two models \\ i.. target cornpiliu.,the compler crr t-

ning rou-uhlr .l compilations tl -,

the virtual excl... or sequential c.,consists of a SCr.;

pattern of birt:. other hand. 'SI i. : intact, and äbtr', ; parts of Ta1 itrr': tion of the oth;: .

series of mea n: I. tence of the hlii:. Augustine. Or..s.

The organic r:. the relation sh:: persons, \ 'ho s., :imization lor ti.; principle is re l.r,; the transferencas a result of d,', .

BNE fr.

791 .ri-.-

Chrötien in his : compilations. B their sometinr;. improvin-E kiri., 'linear cyclicitr, each collection -

plJo.^a Jo uorsr^ peJepJo u3, olur IuopSuDI s(Jnquv elBJSelur uorlcolloc qcee Jo sJelldruoc eqJ 'luoprccu luoJedde pu1qog JepJo eql Suqeezrer ',.(1rcr1cÄc Jeeurl, 3o selduexe prpueyds ere rllog '(gE's?tt2) ,ecuurg, go ruop8url Sur,rordurr -re^e eql IenJ ol r{crBru ssellueleJ sseleqleuou lnq uepprq solurleluos rr0rl} ut suorleJeue8 go lueruo^oru InJesodrnd eqt eceJl suorlcolloc qlog 'suorleydruoc orrlue rreqt Jo eldrcur.rd Ierntcnrls eqt z(1ddns o1sV3112 o1 enSolord srq ur uer]?rqJ ,(q epeur tueruo]€]s oltolsut.tt luelod eq1 sseurer{ 0§?l '.l3 gNg pue t6, 'U gNg ;o s.repduroc erlJ'rernod slr Jo osn q,(rlunoc e go lerro.rddesrp euhrp Jo llnsoJ e se lxeu eql o1,ft1unoc ouo Iuo4,(ceure;dns IeJnllnc pue Iecruod go ecue;e;sueJl eql seleplsod qclq \ ou.tadrun p nprys oltulsuDtl Jo uorlou eql 01 poleloJ sr eldrcuud eql 'euq Jroq] Jo uorlenurluoc snolrnuoJ eqt q8no;q1 sr elnJ Jreq] JoJ uorlaztrur -1r8e1 eurnrp e^receJ 'urea,o8 ,(eq1rft1unoc eql luoseJde"r,(ylucrloqrur(s oqm 'suos.led 1e,(or qcrqm ur ,(em euo 'epnlrueyd pue ,(Eoleeue8 uee.&Ueg drqsuorleler eql Jo uorssncsrp s,ro1,(e1 slueruelduroc crlqod,(poq eqt 3o "roqdeleur crueSro eq1 '(tOt 'gOOt) elqrg eql puu snrsorg'eurlsn8ny ]s uro{ se^rJep ,(1e1eur1p lepol.u ].led-o,trls,ro1r(ea 'ursruuSJo usrunq eq] Jo ecuo] -stxe eql Surure,ro8 su;e11ed pg8urueeur eql snsJo^ sluelo sselSurueeur Jo serJes e 'e.rn1cnr1s deep sns;el ecBJJns Jo surJol ur luql o1 sn sdyeq lI 'Jeqlo erll Jo uoq -cun; Surpuodser.roc eql sr gceo iluepuedep,(1en1nru ore loporu s,.roy,(e;;o sped oA\1erlJ '(gOt 'gOOt .1o1,(u1) .sorlr1rqelnru ssoJce 'yngesod:nd ile e^oqe pue '1ce1ur sunJ qcrq \ eroc Sunu;ns '1e.r1uec e, Surlrsod ,(q ,,(1mul1uoc sesseJls, 'puer{ Jer{}o eq] uo ',,(1rcqc.(c crue8ro Jo Jeeurl, l,uorlcn.llsep puu '.(1un1eur 'r{lJrq Jo urel}ud ctue8ro u^i\,o slr sBri qJrqA\ Jo qcBe se1c,(c oloJcsrp ,([ungu. Jo serJes e Jo slsrsuoc ,{"ro1srq uerunq, :snonurluocsrp se s}uole IecrJo}sq smen ,.{1rcr1c,(c lerluenbes ro lecordrcer, :elrgedrq sr Iepou s,ro1,(e1 'suorlepdruoJ osJol Jo uorsnlcxe IenlJr^ eq] ol uorlcnpoJd ecueuror f"rnluec-qluoounoJ o]€uliuop ol etuec leql suorlelrdruoc eso.rd eql ur Surleunulnc pue ,fun1uec qluoourql-pru oql ur ,(lq8nor Suru -ur8eq 'r(lerlueuodxe perldrlynru ]srll osJe^ pue sso.rd ur suorleydruoc xeldruoc eql ur lrcrldur u8lpered e serJrluopr (tefrc'966I:i661) -ro1,fu1 'suorlepduroc 1e3:e1 eerrll rno go crSoy 8urÄ1"repun pue ernlcnrts eq] ,(grrelc o1 dlsq [r^\ slepour o^r1

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464

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

history, an ideological continuity' (Taylor 1994,64), based upon typological models and the eschatological patterns of biblical history. The notion of plenitude, defined as 'a sense of narrative completeness which is predicated on a conception of time as circular and which attempts to integrate any particular fictional construct into a larger universal history conceived against the same overarching temporal scheme' (Taylor 1994,62), explains the impulse to completeness that can be seen in the development of large verse romance collections. Manuscripts containing works by Chrötien range from those limited to a single romance to those that transmit all five, usually as part of a larger grouping (see chapter I). Eight manuscripts of Perceval contain Manessier's conclusion to the quest, whilst two of these eight also include Gerbert de Montreuil's Continuation; five of the eight contain an extensive pictorial cycle (Walters 1999). These and other factors suggest that the aim of manuscript producers was to offer a 'full picture' of Chr6tien's Arthurian world. They could do this in various ways: by adding new knights to the Round Table, by enhancing the role of Gauvain, by completing Chr6tien's Grail story through the provision of continuations and conclusions to his Perceval (see chapter VI; Walters 1994a; i998; 1999) or by creating iconographic programmes which unified a number of originally separate texts (Walters 1991). Plenitude complements remembrance, the medieval term used

for the process of re-membering in both senses of the word that takes place in texts and in the assembling of individual textual units in larger groupings. It is related to a branch structure, whether explicitly or not. The Old French term 'branche'designates a subdivision of a text or books in a larger composition (Walters 1994b, 135). Authors and compilers of verse and prose cycles alike often referred to the divisions of their works as 'branches'. Two works included in Ch are examples of branch structure: the vast verse cycle of Le Roman de Renart (c.ll70-1250) and the early thirteenth-century Perlesvaus, the first prose compilation to organize itself in branches (Kelly 1974, 44-5). Remembrance is a function of the materiality of the codex as organic structure with branches radiating out from a central trunk, an arborial metaphor popularized by Hugh of Saint-Victor in his influential twelfth-century Didascalicon (IY,16, p. 118). The organic metaphor is well suited to book production, which involves a range of organic processeq from the wholesale incorporation of entire passages from earlier texts, long dismissed as plagiarism, to the constitution of the book itself as a physical object composed of folios, quires, etc. usually made of stretched and dried animal skins (Jager 2000, 52). The metaphor builds upon analogies between textual transmission and lineage, and between the well-ordered compilation and the body politic, which becomes apparent in deftly organized compilations such as the three in question. Branches support remembrance, a notion that recurs throughout Old French narrative (Rockwell

199 5,

103-228).

\1

rr

Remet7yfivrt. - .

and the tranS:-..:.

script book. C:.:. extant roman.---. name and his s: -

butgroundeti..( ished, he encrr.-r-: four Percevri, t Perlesvaus. T1r; ;

,

bring to mind i:.. to Branch 1. ',', follow, he flrsl . -, upholds Christ.-, ethical consid::., eleven textnai ,. - -. --.

The moral dinr::. second work ir: (

Gauvain star b:. typical role as I,:'. tion in late Ion.-: Gauvain SUr roS.dismembering .:-.

of afi Arthllrl;

Manuscripts th.,: The Atre heads E end of the thirte: the lrnage du \l passage from a ; and fabliaux. Th; cite four exampishort fables; the fois m'avoient rc,

220 contains

ti

Charlemagne beg

This collection he The Atre also c, which fuses sepltr

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(Walters 1991; Uitti 1997,3).Its compiler has substituted lhe Atre for the Charrette in Chr6tien's original textual coupling CharrettelYvain and further integrated the two romances through an extensive pictorial cycle that provides commentary on the two romances seen as parts of the 'whole book' (Nichols and Wenzel 1996). The compiler could be attempting to rehabilitate Gauvain's reputation

through manuscript layout and illumination (Walters I 99 1 ; Busby 2002* , I, 437), or he could be employing a previously rehabilitated Gauvain to represent a model knight, such as the depiction of him in the Atre,which predates BNF, fr. 1433by at least twenty-five years. Among the twelve scenes illustrated in the bifolium frontispiece are two from the episode concerning the King of the Red City, an interpolation absent from the other two manuscripts of the Atre.The first illustration shows a woman left naked in a cold stream by a jealous king because she claimed that Gauvain was Arthur's best knight; in the second, Gauvain defeats the king in combat. These illustrations show dramatically Gauvain's role as defender of women in need. In BNF, fr. 1433 Gauvain's knightly service to women contributes to the restoration of the reputation he loses at the beginning of the Atre. Portraying a rehabilitated Gauvain in compilations of French and Middle Dutch texts appears to have been a trend in early fourteenth-century Picardy and Brabant (Besamusca 2003). The compiler exploits the bifolium's iconography to create the image of Gauvain as a model knight. The illuminations cast him as one who accomplishes heroic exploits, rather than one in need of redemption. It is significant that Gauvain figures only in one picture in Yvain, found in the bottom right register on fol. 104, in which he fights a battle with Yvain after the two friends fail to recognize each other. In a second image in the same compartment, in which they are reconciled, they appear to be doubles of each other. A similar effect is created by the collection as a whole, where Gauvain and Yvain are assimilated to each other through their identical heraldic devices, a rampant lion, thus making them avatars of the same exemplary knight. Since the device depicts the lion of Flanders, the compileq working in Picardy, may be associating the two knights in order to create an image of an exemplary Flemish knight for political purposes. Thirteenth-century manuscript producers thus attempted to comment on the declining reputation of Chr6tien's eminently popular Gauvain by bringing together previously existing material on him, through textual conjoining of the CharrettelYvain type and through iconographic 'glossing'. This is also the case for Ch, the third collection containing the Atre (see p. 472, below). The three manuscript collections containing the Atre thus embody a major theme of thirteenth-century verse romance: the deconstruction and reconstruction of a collective memory with ethical import. The remainder of this chapter treats three outstanding examples of compilers whose verse-romance collections testify to their importance as organizers and

transmitters rr i .l the early Fren-:. things worthr ,.-,. fulness and ,1s > -. increasinglr e n .:.1

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only Philip Augustus's half-sister, the statement shows how authors in Marie's employ strengthened her connections to the royal crown, undoubtedly in conformity with her own desires, if not at her express request.

Chr6tien and Gauvain in BNE, fr. 1450 The original ordering of BNF, fr. 794, including Guiot's colophon, gives BNF, fr. 794 a pattern that is repeated in BNF, fr. 1450. Both manuscripts place Chr6tien's Arthurian romances alongside other Arthurian or Graeco-Roman material in a 'historiographical'sequence (Walters 1985; Huot 1987;lJitti 1997, 4) tracing a translatio studii et imperii (transfer of culture and power) from Greece and Rome to Arthur's realm and France. BNF, fr. 1450 (Walters 1985; Värvaro 200I,12-13) contains, in the following order: Troie, Eneas, the first part of Wace's Brut, Erec, Perceyal and its First Continuation, Cligös, Yvain, the Charrette, the second part of the Brut and Doloparftos (whose ending is missing). Dolopathos, an adaptation in Old French verse of aLatin prose text, structures its intercalated tales in a manner analogous to the way in which Chr6tien's romances have been inserted into the Brut in this manuscript (Walters 1985). Chr6tien's works have been copied into the Brut's narrative at the point in Arthur's reign when twelve years of peace enable the creation of the Round Table (see chapter II). To facilitate insertion, the compiler has edited some texts, most notably by eliminating the prologues to Erec and Perceval, and perhaps the prologue to the Charuette (since its opening folios are missing, it is impossible to know for sure). He has also composed two transitional lines to introduce Chr6tien's romances. In describing the adventures that took place during the time of the great peace, adventures that story-tellers have made appear to be fictitious, he adds, diverging from wace's text, 'Mais ce que crestiens tesmogne / Porös ci oä sans alogne' (but you can hear Chrötien's testimony here without delay). He also alters the final lines of Godefroy's epilogue (thereby omitting his name) to create a seamless link with his remaining transcription of the Brut (Walters 1985, 304, n. 1, 306). The scribe-compiler-editor of BNF, fr. 1450 appropriates Godefroy's voice for himself in order to lead back into the Brut, after having interpolated all five Chr6tien romances within its textual fabric (Walters 1985;Huot 1987). BNF, fr. 794 provides a point of comparison for understanding the manipulation of chr6tien by the anonymous scribal compiler of BNF, fr. 1450. on the one hand, the latter omits two (possibly three) prologues in which chr6tien names himself and constructs a powerful authorial persona, a gesture that appears to reduce Chrötien's authority. on the other hand, he accentuates Chr6tien's authority by referring to him by name, and by interrupting the transcription of the Brut to intercalate all five Chrötien romances inside Wace's text as a powerful

textual witnes s peace institLlt.c in which his r.'r' notion of an i,t..: than had Guitrr Guiot, an{C hai". clearer politic..i. discovered.

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Gauvain in Chantilly 472

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in both king ...: Ch is singled out by Schmolke-Hasselmann (1980*, 180/1998, 220) as the most important compilation of Arthurian verse romance to survive into modern times. Ch includes more late verse romances than any other compilation. The codex comprises in the following order: Rigomer, L'Atre pörilleux, Erec, Fergus, Hunbaut, Le Bel Inconnu, La Vengeance Raguidel, Yvain, the Charrette, pafi of the prose Perlesvaus and several branches of the Roman de Renart. Three of these works are unknown elsewhere: Rigomer (except for the Turin episode, on which, see chapter X), Hunbaur and the Bel Inconnu. The seemingly haphazard transcription of some romances 'suggests careful planning of a possibly unfinished manuscript rather than loss of text'(Busby 2002*,I,406). The running heads, which were all present in the original, untrimmed collection, provide the strongest evidence that someone subordinated the individual parts to an overall conception of the total collection. Ch is the product of an active compiler who has organized texts and groups of texts (Fergus and Hunbaut are the only two texts to share the same quire; Nixon in Busby, Nixon, Stones and Walters eds 1993, Il, 40) into a well-ordered'whole book' (see Carape zza 2001). The Chantilly collection centres on Gauvain (Walters 1994a, 1994b, 1998; Hasenohr 1999; Carapezza 2001; Besamusca 2003, 166-9). His adventures alternate with those of other knights on the level of the individual text and on that of the manuscript as a whole. Gauvain figures prominently in each and every romance, either as one of several major questing knights (Rigomer) or as the sole protagonist (Atre).In Fergus the protagonist seeks to take over Gauvain's role as the king's counsellor; in Hunbaut, Gauvain and the protagonist exchange roles as the king's favoured adviser, but that role is subject to serious undermining, and in Raguidel Gauvain is once again a major quester. Thus Ch's compiler continues Chr6tien by giving us a full picture of Gauvain as he emerges in the thirteenth century. He even goes so far as to include substitutes for the two Chr6tien romances missing from his compilation, Cligös and Perceval (Busby 2002*,I, 411). Throughout all its constituent texts, Gauvain remains the primary focus of its readers' attention, whether they crave a swashbuckling story of love and adventure or a moral tale. Gauvain is a prominent presence in the works situated at the beginning, middle and end of Ch. Located at the head of the manuscript, Rigomer provides a fitting introduction to the collection by promoting Gauvain over all other knights, including the supposedly peerless Lancelot. Gauvain is alone among over fifty knights to succeed in bringing to an end the enchantments of Rigomer Castle. Btt Rigomer sets the tone of the collection by subjecting Gauvain to the same sort of undermining as Lancelot. Ch holds Arthurian verse romance and its heroes up to serious scrutiny. Rigomer's prologue, in opposing'desroi'and 'sens'

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noted that 'the producers of the illustrated and rubricated Chr6tien manuscripts have re-written the master's verse in the likeness of prose' (Busby 1999b, 141; see also Combe s 1992-5; Trachsler 2000, 1 89). Extending Busby's astute observations, one can say that Ch rewrites all its verse texts by borrowing themes and techniques from prose romance. The move from verse to prose in this collection is shown in several ways. The Bel Inconnu, which we recall is unique to Ch, shifts the verse romance preoccupation with the uncle-nephew relationship (Arthur-Gauvain) to one of agnatic lineage (Gauvain-Guinglain). The major shift, however, comes when the compiler includes Perlesvaus, a Grail romance, amongst other Arthurian works which all lack an explicit religious message. Perlesvausbegins with a lengthy, heavily sermonizing prologue, complete with a scene depicting Christ's deposition and burial. In including Perlesvaus, the compiler introduces the compilation's commanding metaphor of the perilous cemetery into a new and decidedly Christian context. The compiler insists on the metaphor by breaking off his naffative - or by choosing to include a version that breaks off - at line 5195, around the middle of the longest version. This is soon after Dandrane, Perlesvaus's sister, has passed through another (the same?) dangerous burial ground, where she obtains Christ's shroud, a relic needed to defend her family against its enemies. Ch as a whole can be read as inviting moral reflection upon material that first appears to be merely entertaining. In terms of its themes, it progressively reformulates Arthurian chivalrywithin a Christian system (Walters 1998). By heading Ch with Rigomer and its sharply critical view of Arthurian verse romance, the anonymous compiler prepares the way for the more doctrinally Christian recasting of Arthurian themes carried out in prose by the anonymous Perlesvaus author. The latter, after recounting how the Roman soldier Joseph of Arimathea unexpectedly honoured Christ's crucified corpse with a decent burial, relates how King Arthur was stricken with a crisis of will that endangered his stellar reputation. Prompted by a tearful outburst by Queen Guinevere, Arthur sets out on a pilgrimage to St Augustine's chapel to renew his Christian faith and revitalize his court. Arthur's major champions set out on parallel quests, and, significantly, it is Gauvain's quest that dominates the branches present in Ch. Perlesvaus returns to the impasse or malaise that stymies Arthur's court in most of the verse romances in Ch, but with much more force than in any of them. When Arthur becomes depressed and abandons his characteristic largesse, there is a precipitous decline in adventures. Although Arthur at least partially redeems himself, the question of who will carry on his legacy arises. Like the Bel Inconnu, Perlesvaus deals with the issue of agnatic lineage, in this case by elaborating on Chr6tien's passing reference to Arthur and Guinevere's son, Loholt (Erec, Roques edn, 1700). In Branch 8, the last branch of Perlesvar;s included in Ch, Kay mistakenly kills Loholt. The narrative is at an impasse. It asks who will be the standard-bearer of Arthurian chivalry now that Arthur's only son is dead.

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juncture. Dandrane does not recognize her brother Perlesvaus standing before her, and the story never progresses to the point, located a little further on in the longer versions, in which Perlesvaus would have opened the tomb that announced him as the kingdom's saviour (Nitze and Jenkins edn,5222ff.). In the version of Perlesvaus included in Ch, Perlesvaus remains a 'bel inconnu'. Ch's compiler manipulates the text of Perlesvaus found elsewhere in order to introduce his conception of the Arthurian world as a place of recreantise in need of regeneration. The compiler proposes a recast version of Gauvain as the model of the saviour of the kingdom in place of Lancelot or Perlesvaus. In this new, reformulated and very ethically grounded version of the Arthurian universe which leaves Lancelot and Perlesvaus virtual unknowns when their stories break ofl, Gauvain becomes the knight with the greatest potential to save the kingdom. He can take the place of the chaste Perlesvaus on the moral level because his quest to rescue Guinevere - which he pursues in Yvain and the Charrette, works eight and nine in the compilation - is pure and disinterested, unlike Lancelot's. He can take his place on the rhetorical level as well. Gauvain, by virtue of his linguistic talents, is superior to Perlesvaus, who according to the narrator had no way with words. Gauvain is Ch's only true 'bon chevalier', as he is called in the prologue to the Atre, a romance in which he is promoted to the unusual status (for him) of sole protagonist. When Perlesvaus breaks off in Ch, Gauvain, who is on a quest for the lance that pierced Christ's side at the Crucifixion, has recently advised Perlesvaus about his duty to rescue his mother and her kingdom. These features make Gauvain a John the Baptist figure, whose mission was to announce the coming of the Messiah (Bryant transl., v; Carman 1946,64-5). Gauvain's son Guinglain functions as the prefiguration of Gauvain in his new incarnation as a model knight, the new'bel inconnu'announced by Ch. At the end of the Bel Inconnu Guinglain stands at a crossroads, confronted with a choice that gives him the possibility of going beyond his father's ambiguous status to become a figure of Arthurian legitimacy. The fact that the work bears an explicit suggests that Guinglain will stay with his lawfully wedded wife. Guinglain functions as a precursor of the ideal Christian knight. Görard de Liöge, Cistercian abbot of Val-Saint-Lambert, in his macaronic Quinque incitamenta ad deum amandum ardenter, c.1250, writes that Jesus, despite all his prowess and beauty, remains for many people 'li biaus descouneüs'(Newman 2003, 153). Jesus is the 'fair unknown'because people fail to realize his true identity as their saviour. The ideal Christian knight of Ch is the Gauvain-yet-to-come, the Gauvain prefigured by his son Guinglain. This may seem strange, until we remember that a fictional character can give metaphorical birth to a new vision of his literary fatheE as implied by the notion of plenitude (Taylor 1996, 117). A text deals with metaphorical truth, which only becomes literally true when readers apply its metaphors to their own lives. Gauvain will become the progenitor of the

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euoceq xopoc eql ur uorlrsod IeuU oql 8ur,(dncco seqcueJq Ltouaü eql 'spueg s,repduroc egl ur 'snql 'nu,ro?tg 'gJ ul ecuuruoJ lsJU eql o1 enSolord eql ur ,(11o9 pue uopsrlv\ Jo uorssncslp egl Surogce '(t6gz '1o1'1ool o s1 ryZnory qsl1ool sry satauaq.tataoryu).eesued eloJ es l1o.rc rnb lse snod, :speeJ.lJBueU uorsseJuoC, eql Eurpeeq esJe eqJ 'nruo?1y Surpeeq .f, rellel Ierlrur eql Eureq Jorllo eq] 'xepoc or{l ur lseE;e1o.ry\loq] Jo euo sr tr pue 'GWZ '1o3) seqcuetquauay eql Jo Suruur8eq eql s>lreru leql ,S, eql ueql re8rey sr rellel Ierlru sql '6ueuo1 uorsseJuo3, orll Jo euq lsJU orll sulEeg 1€q1.,{, Jel}el Ier}rur e8ruy er{l Jo ecueserd eql ur luepra'o seruoceg 'WLlt tfiuaü eql olur lno elerper Iurre]Eru tfiuay er{l Jo Surpeer Ieroru erlJ s^{olloJ o1 tuees sn0isauad Jo slerlrur il€uls pue sJellel le]uolueuJo ezrs-unrpeu oql 'secueruoJ esJe^ oql Jo 13111 o1 ueql snDlsau.ad Jo uorlsJocep eql o1 ,t1esolc e.roru spuodseuoc tfiuay eql Jo uorl?rocep eqJ 'uorlepduroc oJrlue eq] Jo e8esseu ogl souocoq qcFlrv\ 'snntsalta4 ;o eSesseu lenlrrrds oq1 ocJoJurer o1 peuErsep eldruexe Jo serJes B olut lfiuaü eql ruJoJsueJ] o] uorleJocep slr pua snnisalad Jo euol Surzruorures eq1slerlsJeru osle repdruoc eqJ 'GVyZ '1og),ernlucso6l ep zet;.tol -ne(I, se o1 sJeJeJ er{ qclr}\{ 'Ä1uoq1nu lurnldr.rcs qlvrr esord Jo osn sq slceuuoc Je]}€l eqJ 'ror{lne snD^sal,tad snotu,(uoue er{1 Jo ,(1l"roq1ne eql q}r^\ Jleslurq JepJo ur uorlcelloc eq] ur secuerrroJ esJe^ eq] Jo sJoqlne ,(uuru eq] Jo

eql Jo rolruo8csll ,(1dde srepLr:-: Wtzn sleop lx:t \ s€ teqteg ß.mrc 1:' I?uorl3lJ E ]Erlt ".;, pernErgerd uru \:- ,':

eql 'Jnor^es Jr:

_;

oql :uap?rqJ

urq

peurroJsuurl

v

esn sJepeeJ Jr Jnor^es

-

eq] sr snsef '( [ i {1neeq pue SSr LUnAp pD D l tt,'. :, 'uercJelslf 'ai::-- : '

-cunJ urelSurrr r-r : L1Ctr1dxa

ue sli-:

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eql }Y

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uI '066I ,fue1) .reJsuurl Jlloru, Jo esec

72y f,11pueqJ Jo ra11duro3 6uurlslrq3,

',cr111od,(poq, elqeuoopoJ,{11er1ue1od eql Jo crloqru,ts seruoceg lceJJe ur ure^neg 'rollesunoc ro ,(e1 pue ecuud tea.ol 'lq8ru)I erll ueql Euorue 1e,{or lecuelc 6lxel ogl eprslno sern8g ,(ueur uodn lq8q sls€c euosJsd srq pue 's>1.rom pue pue elpppr'8uruu€eq s,q3 ul snoncrdsuoc Ägercedse sr ecuoserd s.ure^neC ('peqeleg pue ]olecueT Jo onp uos-reqleJ s.loo,tg tutDs pp arsanfi eql Jo luelerrrnbe osJo^ eq] sr s,(e,u,(ueru ul 93 ul urc18urng-ure^nec Jo onp uos-JeqleJ eq1) 'euq s.ure^neg ruo4 eruoc III^\ eq 1eq1 slseE8ns ,(lpeluedsr pue uropEuq uerJnrluv eql Jnor^?s erll ,fir1uepr ar{} Jo uollsenb eq1 ureSe Je^o puE .rezro sesod q3 Jo Jo 'pl1\e(I3ury1 lecqqlq eql Jo Jel€^e,(ep-re11e1e se relnr eql 'euroc-o1-1e,(-qersse141 egt Jo uorlern?ryerd u sr ur€^neg '(OSt 'ZgOt e,fug) prleq Jo ]uepuecsep Ieeurl e se rlerssoru egl o1 peqdde ruJol € ',qcuelq, elerurlln er{} Jo JeuunJ -eroJ oql se uoes eq ol ruq slue,{ , ;epdruoc eq} esn€ceq sl }l '(€ I t 'I' *Z1OZ,{qsng) urBAneC 3o e;n8lg eql punore secseleoc ernlcnJls qcueJq l1cr1drur s.qC JI ,fienos Jreql pue se^lesrueql s.urop8ull

ea.ordur o1 ernSg ,fueldurexs ue se ,(1]cerJoc

SESNiVINOU ESUEA CO ST{OIJYTIdNOS

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IdIUSSNNYI\I

478

\I \)

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

moral tales designed to reinforce comically the lessons that a thoughtful reader could derive from the rest of the collection. It is as if the moral tone of Perlesvaus transforms the Renart into a negative exemplum of its Christian message. In Ch, Renart's false confession has the potential to transform itself into a true one in the reader's heart. The Renart'S comic, at times even faucous, tone softens the didactic lesson directed at Ch's readers, inciting them, through the therapeutic pill of laughter, to purge themselves of their'bestial'tendencies. Arthur's court, and the vernacular tradition that has transmitted the image of that court, find themselves at a serious juncture in Ch. The compiler responds to this cry for a renewal of Arthurian values by following in the wake of the Perlesvaus author's proposed redirection of romance along more canonical Christian lines. By placing Rigomer at the head of his collection, the compiler points the way to the higher level of meaning encoded in verse romance by means of Rigomer's critical view of the tradition epitomized by Chr6tien. In the Perlesvaus, as in prose romance generally, Chr6tien disappears as named author. The Ch compiler implies that in order for Chrötien to remain true to his name, a name that defines his identity as representative Christian writer, he had to 'die'in verse romance and be resurrected in a reconfigured form in prose. The Ch compiler appropriates for himself the Christian authority of the Perlesvaus narrator, which is coterminous with the disembodied and anonymous voice of the 'conte'. He thus tries to improve on Chr6tien's message by using his texts to channel romance into more doctrinally Christian avenues, associated more with prose than with verse. Ch's compiler encourages his audience to read romance as though it were sacred scripture. To paraphrase St Augustine, the reader is implicitly enjoined 'to take the gold out of Egypt', to mine Arthurian romance for its intimations of divine truth. In the hands of Ch's compiler, romance becomes the potential vehicle of tropological and typological readings, thus giving readers the opportunity to change their own lives. In staging his revision of Arthurian lomance in Ch, the compiler himself becomes a participant in the prototypical Christian incarnational drama in which the dynamics of sin and redemption are part and parcel of the workings of the divine Verbum. Set forth ever so eloquently in the opening words of St John's Gospel is the idea that the universe is nothing more, nor less, than a divine wordgame. (We wonder if it is mere coincidence that Ch opens on the name'Jehan'.) Rather than detracting from the compilation's serious message, its comic touches reinforce it. They are the 'hooks' that fix the reader's attention so that the compiler can transform the tragedy of the Fall into the 'divine comedy' that awaits the redeemed human soul. The Ch compiler builds upon the light-hearted details he finds in the collection's constituent texts. Nothing is more playful than Renaut de Bäg6's use of the persona of 'Renals de Biauju', whose name designates him as 'the good game-player'. The metaphor of game-playing appears

again in Huti^ -,. friendly ,_qanl. requests that :t (86-90; fol 1 l: compiler äctLi-:

.

assemble so in:. touch, 'Renais' slightly dittere.' adventures bn:: collection. rerC. to his readers One of the ,--.a double port:-: ambiguous rep: .

Perlesvalts aut:r

rnalo as the

'c,,--,

lent of a soap-., hailing GaLI\.1.:' demon fronr h-. 3Br). In Ch. G. or the other { R interpret in ri.* semantic dr.r: -, becomes the n. .

Ch not onlr

-:-.

readers to ct-r:.

Gauvain,

b.

::

Gauvain's lnlr :. the human kn,--: complex but r-:-..

If

Gaur ain

:

remains fuud; l

less proves ttr,--'] -

of treason an2005b). True :. tempers Arth..: Arthurian knr =: in the cour Se --,, in the LancL,',i, ,r earthly kni,*uht s

e8e8ue pue ]seJelur (sJopeor slq xU o1 ure^neC sesn repdruoc eql 's1q3ru>1,(yquee lseq Äre,r eql Jo euo Jo eJnlIeJ eql sI ornlleJ slq eroq^\ 'e1c,(3 lyt.tg-rcp)uD7 oqlur 1e,(erpod sII{ o1Jelrluls sl qJ ur uorlcrdep s.urB^ne0 'ecuuruoJ egl Jo osJnoc eql uI ecr^pe poo8 euos 8uq eqt JeJlo soop oq ]nq's8ulye; e,req Äeur's1q8ru1 uelJnqlrv IIe o{ll logesunoc s(rnqgv 'ecuerou8r pue Jnor^Brleq qsrrooq s,rnqgv s;edurel sseuelnlse lecrlryod s.ure^neC 'luoruelels Suruodo s,taruo?rg o1 en{ '(qSOOZ iegOOZ sre1ye16) suorsser8suerl s.ure^neg q8re,trlno reg ,fte1ynpe pue uoseerl Jo surs s.lolocue-l'Ll) uI 'lolecue'I Jo Jntluv Jo ]eq1ueql e^qlsod e.roru serro.ld ssel -egleuou uorler.ßllerer{c sq'(0002 sre11e16) snon8lque,(gelueruepunJ sul?Iuer 'qC ul socueuroJ esJel eql IIe uI sB (auy eqt ur uotldruepeJ s.ule^neg JI 'snd;oc pegrun 1nq xeydruoc euo ur sJeqrueu Ienlxel,(ueru s,uorlelduroc oql reqleSol serl leq] lou>I uelunq eql sepuro.rd e;n8g crleu8eur lnq IerJncJeru s.uru^n€C 'eeuos.red eldrlpru s.ure^nug lcegeJ IIB oq.&\ 'lreue11 ,(q pue slq8rul uerrnr{lrv req}o eq} z(q 'ure,rneg

Jo seceJ ,(ueur eql ,(q pelueserd esoql rllrlv\ eSerur rreql sredruoc 01 sJepeeJ selhur enSolerp s1r 'uorlrpeJl JerlJee qlrzn enSoyerp e olur sJelue Äpo 1ou q3 'lueurea.ordurr-Jles o1q1ed s6JepeoJ eql JoJ eprnS Surpu?ruruoc lsoru eql seruoceq ure^neC 'Qapm?ny uo reldeqc ees) suJecuoc Iecrgle qlrl\ erueJp crluerues s^\opuo snql repduroc s.qJ ,(lsrcos Jror{1 pue se^losruoql ol uorleler ur 1e"rd.re1ur o1 srepeer srq s{se "repduroc eq} l€qt u8rs e '(9V 'g6611e,tr>1cog) rerl}o eq} ro eprs euo ol peddry eg uec leql uroc e 'u8rs e.rnd e seuocoq ure^neg 'r{O uI '(r8€ '1o3) spruru€ ere,^d,(eql JI su secerd o] uetu qceq Ä1e8u,rcs orlzlr 'lloq ruo4 uoruop s€ ueql pue 'selce.rrur urrog;ed o] rllJee o1 lues Jnor.res egl se urc^neg Suqreq " 1srg,(q uorlcelloc eql roJ euol eq] sles nruo?ty 'ueru Surpeel e.redo-deos € Jo luel -ea.rnbe eql Jo Jels{crJ} nnllqnl e se seurl Jeqlo 1B '1ures B se pelouro-rd I€^erperu 'snuisaryad ur poll€c sr er{ se 'oureÄneg }reJJe}unoc) eql se opu,t sr eq seur] ut rc etn3rS Ieepr ue se ouoq u! .peet, eq uec urelneg 'qC uI 'Jorllne snoisaryad erll Jo ecuels eq] crrutru o1soruoc eq'uorlrperl roud ut uor]eluese.rde; snonErqure s.relcereqc srg] spue crlceprp .rog Surlroldxe ,(g 'ure^n€C rog lrurlrod elqnop e

y

ly

Jo uorleeJc eql sr sJepee.r srq Suqecnpe Jo suueru.(.reruud s,.repdruoc erl] Jo eug 'sJep€eJ srq o1

elqulupd eJorrr luelut Suzruoru.res Ägurluesse s,rspduroc eql Suuepuer 'uorlceloc eql tnoqSnoJq] selerper sseqng,{e1d 'pue ue o} uor}eydruoc eq} Surrq sern}ue^pe snolorJ esor{1r\ 'geue11 xoJ .(F.,ln eql Jo erusu eq} q Eurlleds }uoJoJJrp ,(pqEl1s e qlll\ soceJJnsoJ 'ernEg JoluJJeu s.nuuo)ul pg eql Jo erueu eql ',spueg, 'qcno1 Sururrro.rc s,qJ ul tenoe;otrzn 'lueur,(olue .sJepeeJ slr{ JoJ ,(y}uecouur os elqruesse o1 sluees eq slxe] eql Jo sJorllne eql IIe ,pullq qor, seop ,(1pn1ce rellduroc s,q3 'lrerlrod-g1es s,leod ruDqunH egl uo lsr,^al cruorr uB uI 'QttZt'loJ :06-98)

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SNNIVI^I

\1{)

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

480

their sympathies. Ch's anonymous compiler ploves to be an astute psychologist and preacher. He understands that his flawed and all-too-human character Gauvain is a more effective means of realizing his didactic ends than the Vulgate's perfect - and perfectly boring - Galahad. Finally and most importantly, Ch's emphasis on Gauvain's verbal abilities at the service of Arthurian exemplarity provides reflection on the compiler's own role in the book-making process. The compiler does his part to reorientate an evolving vernacular poetics towards its proper function as a tool for the establishment of the City of God on earth. In editing and re-ordering Ch's eleven texts, the compiler accomplishes an act of re-creation that looks forward to the restoration of the time of peace and harmony that had existed in Eden before the Fall. Carruthers (1998, 60-1i5) compellingly refers to this as 'remembering heaven', the process of exploiting the spoken and written word with the ultimate goal of realizing a vision of a just human society that approaches the perfect human community for ever present in the eternal mind of God. Ch's compiler allies himself with an ongoing and vigorous process of creating a vital Christian public memory in the vernacular, in which writers and book-makers strive to improve the individual and society through language, the skill that above all others distinguishes human beings from beasts.

to take a\\.a\ .'. : manuscript r- >. should ideal1,, I written \\'ord r.; lessons to re.i. compiler-hist ü :some of the :-.

evolving

s)'st e:

medieval Zeit

-

S=

Individuai t:',

problems 1acri.. type of jeu {,-; monarchl'. nt,t:.' Loholt's dearh one of the ab. Capetians or t:. Philip Au'uusti.. ,

several years

1..

two wives hac miracle, as shc'.,.

Grandes Cltr, ,,;;.

Remembering Gauvain: The Compiler and'Christian' Memory BNF, fr. 794, BNF, fr. 1450 and Ch are high points in a trend to associate Gauvain and his Old French popularizer, Chr6tien, with ideas about memory. The Atre treats the collective reputation of Arthur's court in its metaphorical dis-membering and subsequent re-membering of a Gauvain surrogate. The theme, current throughout the Old French tradition, receives its apotheosis in Ch. There Gauvain's fragmentation in the Atre goes hand in hand with Chr6tien's fragmentation in the total collection, where the compiler separates Erec from Yvain andthe Charrette, and removesthe Charrefle's prologue, Godefroy's colophon, and many of Chr6tien's own lines preceding the colophon. If Chr6tien had been whole and entire in BNR fr.794,he is subjected to fragmentation and dispersal at the hand of Ch's compiler, who then metaphorically resurrects him for more doctrinally Christian purposes. The movement from death to resurrection and back again, seen in individual romances marked by Chr6tien's influence and in compilations containing romances by Chr6tien and his epigones, symbolizes the constant deconstruction and subsequent reconstruction of an evolving public memory by authors and compilers working in a society founded upon Christian values. Our three compilers were keepers, shapers and transmitters of a dynamic 'Christian'memory. A manuscript is a memory place, aplace to consult information,

R

E-

King Louis I\ .' Ch treats pr,--,' Ch seem to r:. (Kantoro\\'icz time when the : (1274) to Lor:.. died in Tunis ': boiled, äS \\'a s : .' were then dist:-: (Le Goff 199c : blage of imp,:,: heart, like L c, -distribution ü:

power experie:-: in his seconrj ; -' .

was a practici continuitll Our three c.'.1 (1996, 402-3" , individual and !

,_

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Notes

I

Vatican City, Bibtioteca Apostolica Vaticana, MS Reg. lat. 1725 may have originally had three as well (Nixon in Busby, Nixon, Stones and Walters eds 1993, II, 63), and BNF, fr. 375 contains Guillaume d'Angleterue, ascribed to a 'Crestien', as well as Erec and Cligös forming part of an extensive collection with some'historical'texts like Troie and Wace's Ror.r (Nixon in Busby, Nixon,

Besamusce. ts lledie\ct, T -. Br,rsbl'. K. lv1Romances . -:.

Stones and Walters eds 1993,1I,64).

2 A versified table of contents that identifies its individual texts as 'branches'heads the second part of BNF, fr. 375 (Walters 1985,31720; Nixon in Busby, Nixon, Stones and Walters eds 1993, 7t, A+-AD. BNF, fr. 375 has analogies with Ch, because it too includes just one work in prose, in the case of BNF, fr. 375, a genealogy of the counts of Boulogne. 3 Works have no titles, but each has an explicit in text ink (Nixon in Busby, Nixon, Stones and Walters eds 1993, II, 29). The table added to the second compilation refers to works by title, rather than by author (see Nixon in Busby, Nixon, Stones and Walters eds 1993, II, 385). a Figure 7 identifies Louis VII's queen as Alix, whereas she was AdÖle de Champagne. Alix was the name of one of the two daughters Louis had with his first wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine. 5 This is consistent with revised dates for the Gui de Mori remaniement: 1245 for his revisions of Guillaume de Lorris; 1280 for his revisions of Jean de Meun (Walters 2001).

see

the General Bibliography.

105r du manuscrit f.

'

Carman.

J.

\. - "--

Carruthers i v'/: Cambridge

.

Combes. A. I q': Dagenais. J. ^v--

:

198: T

-

Sieben and F]

fr.

de la Bibliothöque

K. Meyer (Amsterdam,

Nationale: li chevaliers au lyeon

1995).

Renaut de Beaujeu, Le Bel Inconnu: roman d'aventures. Ed. by G. P. Williams, CFMA 38 (Paris, 192e).

The Romance of Hunbaut; An Arthurian Poem of the Thirteenth Century. Ed by M. Winters (Leiden, 1984). von lRigomerl: (i) Les Mervelles de Rigomer: altfranzösischer Artusroman des XIII Jahrhunderts, Jehan.Ed. by w. Foerster and H. Breuer (Dresden and Halle/S., 1908-15); (ii) Jehan, zes Mervelles de Rigomer: Chantilly, Musöe Condö Ms. 472 (626).Rev. edn by T. E. Vesce (New

York, 1995). T. A. Jenkins,2 vols fPerlesvaus): (i) Le Haut Livre du Graal: Perlesvaus.Ed. by Vl A Nitze and (Chicago, 1932-7; repr. New York, 1972); (ä) The High Book of the Grail: A Translation of the Thirteenth-Century Romance of Perlesvaus. Transl. by N. Bryant (Cambridge, 1978). The Didascalicon of Hugh of St. Victor: A Medieval Guide to the Arts. Transl. by J. Taylor (New

York, 1991). Eructavit; An Old French Metrical Paraphrase of Psalm XLIV. Ed. by T. A. Jenkins (Dresden, 190e).

J,Icutusc't"i '.

Carapezza. F. -

Hedeman. A t) 1274-14::. B::: Hindman. S. ,v*

Wace's Roman de Brut. A History of the British: Text and Translation. Ed. and transl. by J. E. Weiss (Exeteq 1999; 2rd edn, 2002). Chr6tien de Troyes, Erec et Enide. Ed. by M. Roques, CFMA 80 (Paris, 1952). Chrötien de Troyes, Cligös.Ed. by A. Micha, CFMA 64 (Paris, 1957). Chr6tien de Troyes, Le Chevalier de la Charrete. Ed. by M. Roques, CFMA 86 (Paris, 1958). Chr6tien de Troyes, Le Roman de Perceval ou Le Conte du Graal. Ed. by K. Busby (Tübingen, 1993). de Crestien de Troyes. Ed. by

)

Busbl 1999b 'R... Busb-r'. K.. T. \.",.

Frye, N.

Texts and Translations

La Copie de Guiot; fol. 79v

Il

Princeton.

Reference List For items accompanied by an asterisk,

Stuclies ir;

Busbr, 1999a 'F., r Itttctgittttii, i'. ' .!

Chrötien

dt

T

Huot, S. 19"q- . F

a '.: ' 'T:; )'l Huot 2000.

Poetry . Ith

Irvine, M. 1991 T . Jager, E. 2000 T .

Kantorowicz. E H Kelly, T. E. 19-: * Kohler, E. 1951 Literattu' dc r .'.-' Lacy, N. J. 19St -

Lacy 1996. '\ 1. . Le Goff, J. 199t : Newman, B. lt , -' Nichols, S. G . --..

Miscelltlr/.r . .\

'

Olson, G. 19S: : Powell, M. it tr ,; of Psalm -l- : Vernacului' \: Putter, A. 199 j : 1-16.

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

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NewYork. Roques,

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Amsterdartt ..:-. Walters 2005b " Dt. M. Mikhailr,'. -: :

Welter, J.-T. 19: - Toulouse: r-:: Woledge, B. 19- editions of Pt i'. ornamental rt-r ; sons de S€stt. i explains whr t -.. chivalry to en. -. izing, as did E c the political ir-' and his colrr:

Froissart's

11.

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EUNIVUEIIT NIVIUNHIUV TVAEICIEI\I EIVT

490

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

ideal which may be particularly desirable in a period of arduous ideological questioning: the universal image of the charismatic leader who transcends everyday

reality, the brotherhood in which there subsists a purer sense of unity and destiny.e Arthur and his court, in other words, are signifiers open to a broad variety of signifieds, and it may be that the popularity of the romances devoted to them derives from just that flexibility. t*rurl

Arthurian Nostalgia: Jean Froissart's Meliador

We do nrrt .':-and we can cn-', throughotrt .1 r..: nothing but 'si'.

pinch of salt I-i curtail the per:,, until he had ri*retain the lrlrln--: pause for tht-r L: i: as irremediabll Meliaclor llr i not been for t,,. work must ha"; .

One way to approach Froissart's romance, that exercise in creative anachronism, is suggested by a short sequence that occur§ early in the third book of his Chroniques. At the end of a long ride westwards from Pamiers, Froissart reaches his destination, Orthez, in November 1388, bringing with him some greyhounds from his patron Guy of Chätillon as a gift from the latter to the Count of Foix-

III

that is here thrown into B6arn; but it prominence: a manuscript volume containing his romance of Meliador. Woven into its narrative, he informs us, are the (seventy-nine) lyric compositions penned by Wenceslas of Bohemia, Duke of Luxembourg and Brabant, under whose patronage the poem had taken on its present guise. Count Gaston, we learn, is soon enjoying a reading from Meliador each night after supper (Chroniques, is the writer's own gift to Gaston

Livre III, Ainsworth edn, chapter 13). Whilst an initial version of Meliador, without Wenceslas's poems, seems to have been in existence by the mid- to late 1360s, the most intensive period of association between Froissart and Wenceslas was 1373-83 (Dembowski 1983, 47, 5l-2,57-B). Froissart's Dit dou Florin (305-9) informs us that Wenceslas did not live to see the romance completed; his poems may therefore have been incorporated between the mid-1370s and the years following his death in 1383. In any case, for reasons to be discussed, the Meliador known to modern readers through Longnonh 1899 edition was almost certainly different from that read aloud to Gaston F6bus; completed in all probability by 1389-90, it incorporates at least one new episode based on material ostensibly gathered during the visit to Orthez. The passage from Book III mentioned above reflects the poet-chronicler's perceptions of how Meliador was received by a live audience. Two sections from his Dit dou Florin (11. 293-309,349-89) inform us that the romance was read at a rate of seven folios per sitting, and that as a reward for each night's reading, Froissart received the dregs of the count's wine. Upon completion of the entire reading, he received eighty Aragonese florins, and the manuscript was returned to him: 'mon livre qu'il m'ot laissiö / Ne sgai se ce fu de coer liö' (my book, which he had returned to me - willingly or not, I do not know).

'--

In 1 891 , Lon s:.

teenth-centur\ . barely legible IArtus roy de B cantly, 'Melr aü,, 237 4, fols 3 6-u was listed in ti-.;

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Sagremor alrc : almost certain.'. Princess He:: impetuous allc : nature, suflers confidante F ^,- : young friend i: is the most ctr..l -

.

The quest is t,-judged by tu e.', : Arthur. The I.:.

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MTNIVUEJIT }TVIUNHJUV TVAEICIEI\I EIVT

492

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

with her inheritance, the realm of Scotland. The history of this five-year quest provides the armature for the interlaced narratives that make up the romance (see Dembowski 1983,63).

Despite its title, Meliador deploys a collective protagonist: 'the hierarchy of young Arthurian knighthood'(Dembowski 1983, 62).If Meliador is the supreme champion, Froissart appears to have been intent on marshalling a veritable champions'league of knights whose individual levels of achievement remind one of the degrees of chivalric aspiration discussed by Geoffroi de Charny inhis Book of Chivalry. Like the jousts at St Inglevert in Book IV of the Chroniques (c.1395-1400), those of the lomance may be rebarbative to the modern reader, but on closer inspection tum out to portray subtle shades of skill and prowess. The romance's ideology is to this extent congruent with that of the Chroniques, especially in the earlier redactions of Book I (c.1373-8), which celebrate the earlier military achievements of Edward III's reign, marking it out as a new Golden Age of chivalry. Meliador's prologue takes its audience back to another glorious dawn - that of Arthurian chivalry and the very beginnings of Arthur's court: En ce temps que li rois Artus Qui tant fu plains de grans vertus, De sens, d'onneur et de larghece, Regnoit au point de sajonece,

Et qu'il commengoit a tenir Grans festes et a retenir Chevaliers pour emplir ses sales. (Longnon edn, 1-7)

(In those early days of the youthful King Arthur, so possessed of every signal virtue, of wisdom, honour and generosity, when he began to hold great feasts and to retain knights to fill his halk.)

Meliador is the latest extant Middle French Arthurian romance to have been composed in verse, whilst its action takes place a good ten years before the appearance at Arthur's court of heroes such as Lancelot, Meliadus, Lot or Guiron (Tiachsler 1997*,166). That Froissart chose not to embroider upon the exploits of heroes already celebrated by Chrötien and his imitators may in part be accounted for by a desire to trace the very origins of the chivalric ideal. The early Arthurian world conjured up in Meliador cefiainly owes something to Froissart's enthusiasm for the spirited martial and courtly activity of the early years of Edward III's reign, and to the inspirational prowess of the captains who served under him at the decisive victories of Sluys (1340), Cr6cy (1346) and Poitiers (1356), their loyalty cemented by enrolment into Edward's post-1348 Arthurian' Order of the Garter. In the first section of Meliador, all the resources of chivalry are employed to stave off the premature marriage of Hermondine, heiress of the King of Scotland. Not yet fourteen years old, but under strong pressure to marry,

.

Hermondine . .. knights: chir .r-: alatming suit,-.: unnatural prt-rp;: Camel was ins:. Ofthez, nanlel'. somnambulisr:t Livre III, Ains."'" discussion

oi

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In the intrcc

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1

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fictional 'Ire1..

.

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ro ]oT

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EUNIYUEIIT I{VIUNHJUV TVAEICIAW AJVT

494

THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

subdue and conquer the real Ireland, a topic engaged with some thirty years earlier, albeit from a different perspective, by Diverres (1970). Froissart underscores the youth and chivalric promise of his Irish prince, supplanted for the moment by the unchivalrous Bondigal. Sagremor, moreover, is the only knight in the romance who will eventually experience'the privilege of entering into the truly Arthurian Other World, the land of faerie'(Dembowski 1983, 84). Upon meeting Meliador, Sagremor is instructed to go to Arthur's court as an apprentice in order to learn all he can about true chivalry, for there he will encounter figures such as Kay, Gauvain, Agravain and Yvain. With Bondigal eager to keep his realm free of courtliness and knight-errantry, it is not implausible to argue with Dembowski (1983, 85) that the section missing from the end of Meliador would have provided us (amongst other things) with an example of chivalry's conquest of Ireland, land of the uncouth, by Sagremor, the embodiment of chivalric youth and its potential, brought through training at Arthur's court to the very peak of knightly achievement. The 'Irish'theme was a live issue as early as 1365-7 (the final two years of Lionel of Clarence's unsuccessful campaign) - unless, as Dembowski has argued, for'Ireland'we should read'Prussia'and the activities of those guests of the Teutonic Knights who embarked with them on their crusading forays against the pagans of Lithuania and the neighbouring Baltic lands (cf. Henry, Earl of Derby's expedition of 1390-1; Dembowski 1983, l3944,and 184, n.46). This is a reading *fri"t we pelsonally find unnecessary, since the Ireland (Land-beyond-the-Pale) of Meliador, seized by the uncouth usurper Bondigal, already does sterling service as an exemplar of the pre-Arthurian land awaiting reconquest, redemption and civilization at the hands of the temporarily supplanted heir to the Irish crown, Sagremor, polished and trained through contact with the paragons of Arthur's idealized court.

Finally, rather than labelling Meliador as old-fashioned, tiresomely nostalgic, anachronistic or resolutely conservative, we may be nearer the mark if we recognize with Zinkthatit represents to some extent the emergence of a new poetic sensibility, best expressed in the lyrical interludes between the episodes of the quest proper, where verse 'is felt as the natural mode of effusiveness, of selfeipression, and of a subjective outlook on the world'(1998a, 171). To this extent atleast, Meliador looks forwards, rather than backwards to a remote and sterile Arthurian past. [PFAI

Arthurian Burgundy: The Politics of Arthur During a period of just over a century in the course of the late Middle Ages, the dukes of Burgundy amassed impressive libraries, acquiring by various means earlier manuscripts and commissioning copies or adaptations, often gathered

L

into sumpttltr -.: Philip the Bcic (1396-1461 t ..rr,l

eight inr,eltt t-r r.; Doutrepont 1 * though certaur ,--. content or the -c:

tti;-

Althou._Eh

Tioy

an(C

of

Ja

>

owned a fair IlL,::-. which we har e 12564, owned b:.

now in VieilIt"r. were better re i r. following tert s .,,. le Courtois. ) '.,' Of partictilri: sioned by Phrir: Cligös.to Botir -: I prepared as pr:.. more elaborurtr : {

,

neither

pro s ii. :

Burgundian C within the ter: roughly the Sil ; 9).'1 We hare r scholarly opir:. : :' These tu-o

'r,

l

modetnization. interpretation: altered.l3 \\'it1.;:' determined bl . "' she suggests.

i:;-

the Cligös in ir., departures titr .text, clarifl in q -were simplr :. studying both B , 'a process u he :; .

that the readef . ponding to his

-:

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EUNJYUETIT NIYruNH-LUV TYAEICIE'\tr EJY-I

s6v

496

This familiarizingor rationalizing process is perhaps most evidentinthe Erec, where the prosifier attempts to clarify or elucidate the central enigma of Chr6tien's romance: the reasons for Erec's harsh treatment of Enide and her reaction to that treatment. In the prose work, the result is to recast that enigma as an unambiguous test of Enide's love and to cast her in the role of patient Griselda, the dutiiul wife who will obey her husband's every wish and command (willard 199lb, 91). The text can thus be seen as a 'manual of wifely conduct' (Lacy 1994, 278). Moieover, Wallen (1972,61-91) emphasizes in particular the character flaw that leads Enide to question Etec's prowess and thus leads him, in turn, to doubt her love. The result of this focus is an interpretation of the prose lomance aS an anti-Enide reading of ChrÖtien (cf. Colombo Timelli edn, 33)' Certain of these observations about the Burgundian Erec are applicable also to its the Cligös: it has clearly been designed and executed to appeal to the tastes of necessarily particular audience. However, as noted, similar approaches do not demonstrate common authorship. The Ctigös generally respects the structure and narrative offered by its model but, like the Erec, repeatedly truncates, adds and modifies material. Most obvious to readers who compare the prose with its verse model will doubtless be the prosifier's treatment of the extended monologues that characterize Chr§tien's Cligös.The verse text is a highly rhetorical romance incorporating a number of long soliloquies examining the nature and effects of love, and it must be supposed that the Burgundian author would have found those monologues tedious - or atleast that he would have expected his audience to have little patlence with them. He tends therefore to abridge them drastically, effacing ,rrr.h of the psychological subtlety of the original and consequently placing greater emphäsis on adventures and warfare.la He also modifies ChrÖtien's ambiguous conclusion, in which the lovers achieve happiness but future generations suffer because of their deceptions. The prose author makes no mention of any negative consequences of their actions, preferring merely 'to provide the happiest ending possible - and in the shortest time possible'(Lacy 1998, 203). Neither of the Burgundian compositions is a masterpiece. Willard (l99la, 403), Lacy (1998, 205), Colombo Timelli (edn, 20) and others have recognized their deficiencies, most notably the deletion of fascinating monologues, the frequent transformation of dialogue into narrative, and a flat, unengaging style thai often sounds more like textual summary than literary composition or adaptation. Yet, these same critics and others have argued against a wholesale condemnation of the prose texts, emphasizing that they are instructive, both as examples of the prosifying methods of their age, and as invaluable witnesses to the literary tastes of the dukes and court of Burgundy in the mid-fifteenth century. [NJL]

'

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Arthu

The fifteenth-.; Englafld, the rq.

-

Jehan de \\-alrr.:. enOfmOUS u trl:...

founding of \ : volume ninetei:.. derived prinlar..'. as Fletcher tlv : prose Arthuri;:^ : The Flemin g J noble familr \-rt I his English a1li:. this period oi i ; history of Eng..: Burgundian il^i.-, dukes of Burg... chamberlain. "-.1 288-9). He beg. he claims that r en aulcuns pe ,: : -

books con('et'ti:; 1455, covered

1413.

After

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l:.;

E.l'.,.-,

and later to E r.,, ducal court Lu B too for wa1.s in .,i, decessors; 'hisI,- : as Morse (19St widely varl,ins : chronicle and . Scholars hrr,," major sources :.1 was primarih -. Arthurian sect. prose adaptaii,-- . Historia as tb r.,-. * Nationale de F.. Fletcher 1906. :Geoffrey of \ I,-.

.

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s04

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

course mean the romance as a whole, was written after his death in 1337. Roussineau (1985) has argued convincingly that certain details in the account of the founding of the Order of the Garter in 1344 make it clear that the founders knew, and were duplicating, details of the Franc Palais in Perceforesl. There is thus no reason to doubt that the romance was, originally, the work of a cleric at the court of Hainault (Taylor edn, 23-4; Roussineau edn, IV/i, ix-xiv; Roussineau, thesis, 63-7).If this is the case, however, there remains a problem, in that we currently possess two rather different versions of the romance, both preserved in Burgundian manuscripts which date from more than a century later than the conjectural date for the composition of the 'Hainault version'. Roussineau's version courte, represented by manuscripts A and B, seems to have abbreviated the romance somewhat, whilst the version longue, represented by manuscripts C and D (the latter being the grosse or fair copy of the former and deriving from the prolific workshop of David Aubert (Straub 1995», seems to have amplified it considerably. Which of these versions more closely represents that produced for the court of Hainault? Roussineau (edn IV/i, xvi-xx; thesis, l2l-78) has suggested, rather audaciously, that neither need be regarded as the version ancienne;it is his contention that both the longer and the shorter versions result from a characteristically Burgundian remaniemenl (reworking), done in the fifteenth century, of an older version of Perceforesr; a study of the lexis of the romance (Baldinger 1988) would seem to support this rather tempting hypothesis.2s And if the Burgundian hypothesis (that is, that the two versions of the romance as we have it derive from a Burgundian remaniemenr ) is correct, it is not difficult to see the attraction of this vast work in a court whose library contains Arthurian romances and commissioned Arthurian mises en prose and which, in particular, possessed copies of the Vulgate Cycle and of the prose Tristaz (see chapter I). Despite its brevity, the plot summary provided above nevertheless brings out just how crucially Perceforest depends on both of these sources.26 In order to read the Roman de Perceforesl adequately, one must know the Vulgate and the Tristan in considerable detail. How, otherwise, is it possible to understand the significance of the fact that Lancelot is descended from Lyonnel du Glat, the greatest knight of Perceforest's England, and from Gadiferh grand-daughter Lyonnette; Yseut from Gadifer I; Guinevere from a hero called the Chevalier au Dauphin, also known as the Dieu des Desiriers (I, BNF, fr.345, fol. 384vff.); Merlin from a turbulent knight known as Passelion, and so on? How to account for the curious name Louvezerp given to one of the more chivalric of the English knights, other than by recognizing that it is the name of a noted tournament in the prose Tristan? The writer works to a sense of the genealogically apposite (Taylor 1996, 115): a pseudo-biological retrogression to ancestors and antecedents which will seem appropriate, and which will account 'genetically'27 or onomastically for what happens under Arthur.

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508

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

fruit that had been new and green in the hearts and minds of gallant young knights had begun tofade. For old age wearied them and made them change colour and savour so much that in Great Britain and all neighbouring countries it seemed that a new age was beginning.) (The

His conception of

universal history, in other words, and of the place of

Perceforest's Britain within it, is analogous to one which was common currency in medieval historiography: the model of the Six Ages, and of what is known as the

theory of translatio imperii (Taylor 1996,102-8; Trompf 1979). His historical model is, in a sense, ameliorative: Perceforest and Alexander create a kingdom and a lineage which will be worthy of Arthuq in ways that Geoffrey visibly had not. Many readers will, however, feel that this nicely systematized reading of the romance is a misleading one, and that it is being forced too determinedly into a procrustean bed of purpose and finality. For most readers, it is not the fact of a well-ordered history that predominates, not the overarching structure, but rather the author's astonishingly fertile narrative imagination. Around the earnest pseudo-historical framework described here swirl quests and tournaments, enchanters and dwarfs, ladies and damsels in distress. Book III, for instance, sees twelve tournaments, identically patterned (Taylor 1987-8), which produce twelve identically patterned marriages for the twelve daughters of the hermit Pergamon, who had fled Troy and settled in the forests of Britain; Book V sees a series of twelve identically patterned tournaments, the winners of each of which will receive the prize of a red rose. There are astonishing comic interludes where, for instance, certain heroes and heroines are transformed into animals: Le Tors becomes a ragingbull (Roussineau edn, Illl1i,37-9); Estonn6 abear (Roussineau edn, II/i, 320-9); Liriope a greyhound (Roussineau edn, llll1i,68-74). There are grotesque and caricatural moments: a remarkable description, for instance, of a witches' sabbath (Roussineau edn, IIli,216-2I; Ferlampin 1993); a vivid and carefully circumstantial description of the Beste Glatissant (Roussineau edn, lIIlä,214-21, and his notes), which derives from the Vulgate Cycle and from the prose Tristaru; a burlesque episode which has Le Bossu shipwrecked on l'ile de la Singesse and obliged to fend off the alarming attentions of a female monkey (Roussineau edn, IV/i, 63-8). There are lyric interludes; like the prose Tristan, this romance is studded with lyric pieces (Lods edn; Huot 1991). There are charming little romances: Neronös, for instance, dresses variously as a shepherd and a squire, and allows herself to be buried alive out of devotion for her love, the Chevalier Dor6 (Roussineau edn,IIVii, 208-14;243-56; Szkilnik 1999a). There are little folk-tales: an early version of the story of the Sleeping Beauty (Roussineau edn, III/iii, 78*93; Lods 1951, 283-95), a Tale of the Rose which describes how a husband wagers on his wife's virtue with two rather unscrupulous colleagues, who end up condemned by the virtuous wife to spin for their supper.2e There is, in other words, a proliferation of episodes of all sorts, from the lyrical to the comic to the epic.

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forced to adcp: apocalyptic dei. fiction , zn illus .:. Similarl).. e\ -: into a larger i.ii'lgoblin, Zephir , E enough, in Al.r,-, Ili, 133), tr.htr . Thereafter'. Zer'.' since he clainrs edn, IIli, l1t ;1..,: which we are . : Zephft's marn : specializes in s. . -, some of the it;: ments. But cor- " r-: what one critic L go-betweert l'. :: Gaudine, mee: ,;,.' 104-23). \--tri,,. t includirg, of ;,. -" the luiton n.htr r: also responsib,.= himself (Bertir;. ideological strL.This, then. :. -inarily coherer.: : .

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THE ARTHIJR OF THE FRENCH

follow; he, however, works to a strongly realized narrative thread and with strong sense of ideological and politico-religious commitment. TJHMTI Ysaiie le Triste This sizeable romance exists in

a

just two manuscripts: ,4, Gotha, Ducal Library, MS 688 (called Gby Zeidler 1901, Bianciotto 1985; 1996) and B, Darmstadt, Hessische Landes- und Hochschulbibliothek, MS 2524 (called Dby Zeidler 1901, Bianciotto 1985; 1996). It enjoyed, however, some considerable popularity in the Renaissance, as the number of early printed editions (five are known) would it suggest (Bianciotto 1,996). The manuscript tradition is difficult to determine; s".Är, however, that A is considerably emended and has, in particular, been pruned of most of its dialectal traits (Bianciotto 1985), and that a similar operätion has been undertaken, independently, in the editio princeps for Galiot du Pr6 in l522,which has also, unfortunately, stripped the romance of most of its lyric insertions, particularly the longer and more interesting ones (Bianciotto 1996). The romance is anonymous; it is clear, however, from a careful study of the lyrics in the Darmstadt manuscript (Giacchetti 1989, 14-18), that the author is of Picard, and probably Walloon, origin. The question of the date is also a knotty one. The older of the two manuscripts, B, was, it seems from the explicit, copied in 1449 by a certain Amoury de Noyelle, 'demourant adont a Douay' (then living in Douai); it formed part of the library of the dukes of Burgundy in 1467 and 1487 (Barrois 1830, nos 1282 and 1834). Early commentators such as G' Paris (1901) thought it indisputably a product of the fourteenth century, primarily on linguistic grounds (B conserves traces of noun-declension), but also because they felt the literary climate of this latter period more conducive to such romances. Later commentators have been less cettain, in spite of the fact that the Darmstadt manuscript is strongly dialectal (Giacchetti 1989, 14-18; Bianciotto 1985). Giacchetti (edn,26) suggests the very early fifteenth century, principally (Giacchetti 19634) because of analogies he detects between what is said in the romance and the political situation in England in the early years of the century; he is supported by Bianciotto (1985; 1996; Capin 2004) because of consonances, morphol,ogical and lexical, between the language of B and other manuscripts securely datable to that period.30 The premise of the romance is disconcerting: it is that Tristan and Yseut have producid a son,31 Ysaye, baptized le triste partly etymologically, from his father's nu-., partly because of the sad circumstances of his birth:just before the deaths of both his parents (Victorin 2OO2). The boy is brought up by a hermit, under the protection of the fairies of the forest; he acquires a faithful squire and'mentor', ih. hid.o.r, dwarf Tronc. When Ysaye and Tionc emerge into the wider world, the battle of Salisbury has destroyed Arthur's kingdom. Ysaye's ambition becomes the restitution of the rule of law in Britain, and much of the first half of

the romance iS ,.-,. however, IVIarti ;.

reputation. has smuggled

.

intt t^r;

they conceir e .r. s undergo a seri-s ,viperish Venisse ,, n'ata peur' (rr i;, becomes insull:: his mother \Ia:: Ysaye, who. oll ^On reaching .i control as his i;. Saracens inr atl;. annihilate their' :1. Tlonc, is detern... he has fallen rn . Bretagne: the C::., where the tonrb still provokes I.:l Marc that Trcn; in a series of ;-.. adventures. Int-r r-; practi cal and t-r i :-.: together Ysai'e -:. cently celebrat.;. of Julius CaeS.:I Bordeaux), and :: §623). The dr i.-,. entente a mettrc : committed r0 Ä.. '. thus this glorirr -.: There can b,l .. Arthurian pro:expression (1V"5 Merlin (Szki.:.,, romance is rti,: .; hood, turbr"rier^:. :' the equall1 b,e. Tronc, in )lc,'.' . (Szkilnik 1 99 s,, .

,

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512

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

the Marthe of Ysaye le Triste, both of them being disguised as men, and searching for their lovers with the aid of song and lyric (Szkilnik 1999a; Victorin 2002); and is it merely a coincidence that Marc l'Essili6 is said to be the reincarnation, the restor, of Alexander the Great (YT, §281; Szkilnik 1996)? But the relations between the two romances would repay a proper investigation, not least because this in turn might be very revealing of narrative strategies in these late romances, and of the circulation of romances in the latter part of the Middle Ages.

The summary given above of Ysaye le Triste has the disadvantage of all summaries of these vast late-medieval prose romances: it conventionalizes them, and gives the impression of something far more ordered and directed than the romance can ever appeaf to be upon reading. It is true, however, that certain guiding threads can be defined, the major thread being ideological. Ysaye shares with Perceforest a surprisingly stlong sense of political pfocess - surprisingly, because both romances mask seriousness of purpose behind a plethora of episodes and adventures, often burlesque and frequently melodramatic. As he leaves the forest, where he had grown up under the tutelage of the hermit and theföes, Ysaye discovers that since Arthur's death at the battle of Salisbury the kingdom has dissolved into anarchy: 'ly chevaliers du pais et especiaument les nouviaux fais ont 1ev6 tant de mauvaises coustumes cy avant qu'a mervelles, pour ce qu'i n'y of personne puis qui presist le couronne, quant ly Rois Artus motut' (the knights of this country, and especially the most recently dubbed, have initiated an extraordinary number of bad customs, because there has been no king to control them since King Arthur died; YT, §37). Having had himself dubbed knight - a rather macabre episode - with Lancelot's disinterred right hand (Szkilnik 1995), Ysaye dedicates himself, as had Perceforest, to restoring the rule of law under God's grace by defeating, one after the other, a string of unruly robber barons ( fZ, §§37-93): 'qui poroit le torte voye ramener a droite, ce serroit boine paine ce me samble' (if there were someone who could make the twisted road straight, it would be effirt well spent, I think; YT, §44). They are made to recognize Ysaye's sovereignty; those who have most transgressed, particularly against women (again, there are strong echoes here of Perceforest), &re at best banished, at worst put to death, and full restitution is made to the women themselves. Ysaye becomes, ultimately, a wise and just ruler and the champion of Christendom (I7, §621).

What Ysaye also shares with Perceforest, ol the other hand, is a disconcerting instability of tone (Victorin 2002). There are, for instance, some extraordinarily primitive and savage moments: adversaries beheaded with a casual brutality ( I7, §§71-2), the two sisters who eat the hearts of their enemies raw (YT,§35).3'Tronc, on the other hand, is a creature of broad comedy. He takes a malign delight in disguise and in plunging his victims - Marc from time to time, but principally his

.

enemies

- int..,. :.

victim of beat^r-: the romance :> -: vacuum af ter t:-; Lancelot or "r:^ mentor Tronc i

!

dangerous

S;

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finally, who is *: final few pagrs burning, Marc --: and left. But most pi, exubetafit ilärr*. which make l.:

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vinced by her t.: romances, lendt writer's narrati,, a

Le Chevaliet' du I The little pros. : manuscript. B\ sixteenth-cent

L.:.

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Papegau erha l>:.

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5T4

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

that aknight be detailed to lend succour to her lady who is under attack from an oppressor. But this time it is not a young hothead who proposes himself, not some anonymous knight in search of a reputation: rather, it is Arthur himself who leaves the governance of the kingdom to Lot and rides off in the damsel's service. He meets adventures of all sorts, in which he naturally acquits himself with perfect chivalry; in particular, in combat against an exceptionally redoubtable champion, he wins the parrot which becomes his emblem, and which, like Dinadan in the prose Tristarz (see chapter VIII), provides a permanent and somewhat sardonic running commentary on subsequent events. Arthur, who is not yet married to Guinevere, also makes an amorous conquest, La Dame aux Cheveux Blons, and finally, after a'sabbatical'lasting precisely ayear, he returns triumphant to Camelot and to his royal destiny. Meanwhile, a welter of baroque adventures of al1 sorts have befallen him. He encounters combat against a monstrous knight, a sort of centaur, whose armour and horse are al integral part of him; a battle against an army of spectres, from which he is saved only by the scent of a flower from a magic ttee; a perilous bridge, defended by a wheel mounted with razor-sharp knife-blades; a dwarf driven to despair by his monstrous son, who was suckled by a unicorn and whose appetites cannot be assuaged. However, this is not just a matter of picaresque adventures, and Arthur is not just another folklore champion; rather, and this is a major preoccupation of late-medieval writers of romance, he is already the instrument of justice and good government. This is exemplified by the interesting little episode of an adversary called Lion Sans Mercy (Heuckenkamp edn, 5-10; Charpentier and Victorin edn, 82-3), who is described, luridly, as guilty of the worst crime imaginable. Our imaginations are fired, until we realize that this worst of crimes consists in his imposing on all the lords and knights of the country an act of homage 'par force et sans droit et sans raison' (by force, without justice or justification; Heuckenkamp edn, 5; Charpentier and Victorin edn, 82). Arthur's contempt: 'tu as moult malement gard6 l'ordre de chevalerie; car chevalerie veult rayson et droiture a toutes gens' l,tou have not adhered as you should to the order of knighthood; for knighthood demands reason and iustice for all; Heuckenkamp edn, 9-10; Charpentier and Victorin edn, 90) is symptomatic of what the author clearly conceives of as his political and ideological mission: the freeing of those labouring under an unjust 'servaige' or 'asservissement' (servitude or subjection), and the installing of a just society. Ought we to class under the same heading what seems to be the author's dismay at an amorous servaige? In the course of the romance Arthur is solicited by a beautiful lady, the Dame aux Cheveux Blons (Heuckenkamp edn, 29; Charpentier and Victorin edn, 131), who dares to demand that he make a fool of himself for her sake in a tournament. Arthur, having sworn that he will accede to her request, reluctantly does so, but later, furious, he accuses her of being a

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magician of p.,:., the continuati*--,.. : control of \r.b; feast of St Janr;, edn, 1-348 1 I

In a versic,: composed Shtr r': fairies, led br \ [sic!], Yvain. P-:--. 1

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drink they and bed Rainouart's to Morgan comes night That his heel. from blood help, Morgan's later, with conceive a son, the demon Corbon. Two weeks Rainouart retulns from Avalon to resume his epic adventures (Barnett edn, 3600-3962; Sturm-Maddox and Maddox 1994). This episode has been likened to Morgan's imprisonment and wooing of Lancelot in the Lancelot proper. Her negative traits may have been influenced by the Vulgate Merlin (Suard 1981). This episode directly influenced several of the late continuations of Ogier le Danois. One of the most celebrated paladins of Charlemagne'S court, Ogier the Dane appears already in the Chanson de Roland and was doubtless the hero of a

has a cat's head on a horse's body, and lestore it to human form by letting it

lost twelfth-century epic. The earliest poem now preserved, the Chevalerie Ogier, dates only to the early thirteenth century and makes him a rebellious vassal whose son was killed by Charlemagne'S offspring. An early fourteenth-century remaniemenl in decasyllables adds about 17,000 lines to the Chevalerle's original 13,800.35 This continuation consists of three main parts, modelled on Huon de Bordeaux and the Bataille Loquifer: Ogier's adventures in the East, Ogier and

Morgan the Fay (about 2,200 lines), and ogier's return to France. After

conquering Babiloine (Cairo) and imprisoning the sultan, Ogier wishes to return to France, but is the sole survivor of a shipwreck beyond the Red Sea. Alone and stranded after a magnetic mountain attracts the nails of his ship and holds it fast, Ogier wanders the land until he enters the earthly paradise. Hungry, he eats an apple that restores his youth. In a splendid boat he finds Morgan, who gives him a ring that will assure him eternal youth and leads him to Arthur's castle, Avalon, whose adamantine pillars shine like the sun (cf. the Bataille Loquifer,3678-700). Morgan offers her love, but first Ogier has to undergo a series of tests organized by Arthur: he must kill a lion and defeat the monster Chapalu, who turns out to be a knight enchanted by fairies. Ogier forgets his homeland and weds Morgan; they have a son, Meurvin, whose adventures are recounted in an early prose printed book from 1540 (Suard 1984). One day Morgan informs Ogier that he has spent 200 years in Avalon, that Charlemagne and all his peers are dead, and that France has a new king, Philippe, a descendant of Hugues Capet. She gives him a magical white horse, Papillon, which can carry him back, but which he will lose if ever he pronounces Morgan's or Arthur's name. Still profiting from eternal youth, Ogier valiantly serves the new king, but eventually Morgan returns to oFaetie' (Togeby 1969,1347). carry him back to Morgan and Arthur reappear, accompanied by Auberon, in Tristan de Nanteuil, an early fourteenth-century chanson d'ayenture (Taylor 2001). This Tristan, like his Arthurian predecessor, derives his name from his mother's suffering: 'Nez fustes en tristresse, pour ce vous appellon / Tristan' ('You were born in sadness, therefore we call you Tristan') says the fairy Gloriande after he saves her from a dragon (Sinclair edn,8432-3). Gloriande reveals to the orphaned

Tiistan for th; :-. fairyland (S5rcousin. There T by the brar es: ,- l

Arthur's lanc >adventures an. tof Arthur t-t 91.:..' is undoubte(C I',

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518

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

finds suspended from a tree a shield, on which is written: 'No one can bear this shield unless he is braver than all others and filled with loyalty and nobility' (Verelst edn, p. 229).He defeats sixteen champions to prove he is the best knight of all and gain entry to Arthur's castle, Aymant, where he is föted for a month, though he thinks it is only a day. He then uses his new shield to rescue and win the love of Gracienne, who bears him a son. They remain together in fairyland for a year, which seems like only five days, before Mabrien realizes he has tarried too long. In the wake of Huon de Bordeaux, the hero's adventure in fairyland became practically de rigueur in the later chansons de geste. These adventures are all cut from the same mould and serve a common purpose: as qualifying experiences for the hero. They allow the author to confirm in the Other World what is already manifest in this one, and often to relaunch the hero on his quest (Suard 1981). The Arthurian world evoked is that of Avalon after Arthur's disappearance, whether or not it is explicitly named. Except in Lion de Bourges it is located vaguely in the east and sometimes upon an island. The characters are invariably Arthur and his sister Morgan, with accompanying fairies, but, except in La Bataille Loquifer and Ogier, no other Knights of the Round Table. Arthur himself assumes magical powers in these works, replacing in this sense Merlin, who is never explicitly evoked. Arthur is no longer the head of the Round Table, but the master of an ethereal kingdom populated with fairies and spirits. twwKl

Notes

I

New prose adaptations of old romances continued into the Renaissance with Pierre Sala's adaptation of Chrötien's Yvain in 1522 and a mise en prose of Chrötien's Percettal in 1530 (Frappier 1961).

noting that th: :. that the prosii-.-. silence does n,-':

-

en prose) dr.rrir.; : 1939; Pickt'orc . -: -

deal to be de.::.of Cligös to f o ' ll The ct-rnr: - - (edn, 9-15 an.t ' page in O (Or:,- :': "

12

For a SLr'. Timelli edn. 9-. 13

..'

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that the prosific: amplify fllollt-r.,- accelerates its p-

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concept of lüt . romance,'\\'itlt,-' faded'. 15

.

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Histot,irt ql G, - - ' from 1325-1+-- ,-, 16 See alst-, F. =17 One occ -. -': .

in the Vulgate i would be the \1 *18 The aurir qu'une arbaleS.; . , seur la rive. e: .; Geneva, 196+. : - j distanc€ ottt' L -

2 For example, the Arbre d'Or held to celebrate the wedding of Margaret of York and Charles the Bold in 1468, described in La Marche (Beaune and d'Arbaumont edn), I, 11-122. 3 See Michel Pastoureau, 'Introduction ä l'höraldique imaginaire (XII'-XVI" siöcle)', Äevae

dismounted (rti

Frangaise d'Höraldique et de Sigilligraphie,30 (1978), 19-25. a See, for instance, the account of the wedding of Margaret of York and Charles the Bold given by a Flemish-speaking Burgundian, Simon Mulart, in P. C. Boeren, Tulee Maaslandse Dichters in Dienst yan Karel de Stout (The Hague, 1968). 5 See The Book of the Love-Smitten Heart by Renä of Anjou, ed. and transl. by S. Viereck Gibbs and K. Karczewska (London, 2001), xv. 6 See P. Meyer, 'Les Neuf Preux', Bulletin de la SATF,9 (18S3),45-54. 7 La Vie de Bertrand du Guesclin, par Cu,t'elier, ed. by E. Charriöre (Paris, 1839), 10716-19. 8 On the Order of the Golden Fleece, see Vaughan 1970.160 2. Jeatle Bei explains that Jean de France created his Order of the Star in direct emulation of Arthur and his Round Table: Chronique, ed. by J. Viard and E.Döprez,2 vols (Paris, 190+5), I1,204. e These terms are from Max Weber; see Charles Lindholm, Charisnta (Oxford, 1990). 10 It is not certain that both were commissioned. Colombo Timelli (Erec edn, introduction),

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530

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:

ret-erences :,--

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

(Whatever may be the fate, I make a lord and master of my lady. Because I drank love, for ever I must love you secretly. Tristan, when gentle and beautiful Yseut gave it to him, could not help himself in the matter; and I love my lady, v^hom I cannot renounce, in a similar v'ay. I shall surpass all in worth if such a shift as Yseut gave her lover is given to me, for it was never worn before. Tristan! You prized greatly the courteous gift: such a one as I am seeking! If she wltom I am courting gives it to me, I bear you no envy, fair brother! See, lady, hotv God aids a lady who

sLlch

in C.,-,..

1:

llames are ^]];. -. *

takes pleasure in loving. For Yseut was in great fear, then she v;as soon helped; for she made her husband believe that no man born of v,oman had ever touched her. You can quickly do the same! Carestia, bring me joy from that place where the lady is xho keeps me more joyous than I myself can tell.)

Following Roncaglia's demonstration that the individual addressed in the tornada (final short strophe) by the senhal (nickname) Carestia is in all probability Chrftien de Troyes himself (Roncaglia 1958), study of the Tiistan legend in the lyric has explored the various ways in which features of the story were exploited in intertextual dialogues which debated and developed different views of the natule and ethics of fin'amor, the role played by a lover's free choice, by supernatural forces and by the satisfaction or non-satisfaction of carnal desire (Meneghetti 1984, 13946; Rossi 1987; Girolamo 1989,12041). Chr6tien's poem 'D'Amors qui m'a tolu a mol' (Zai edn) is a contribution to this debate, which also involved Bernart de Ventadorn, who declares that he suffered greater pain in love than did Tiistan for Yseut: Plus trac pena d'amor De Tristan 1'amador Que.n sofri manhta dolor Per Izeut la blonda, (44, 45-q2

(I have more pain in love than Tristan the loyer, vho suffired so muchfor Yseut the blonde.)

Bernart also exploited the senhal'Tristan', very possibly as a nickname for Raimbaut d'Aurenga.3 Such readings indicate that the first Occitan public for these pieces would have been familiar enough with the legend to be able to savour the nuanced uses to which it was put in courtly debate, although the fact that Raimbaut gives something of a plot-summary in the poem quoted above may equally suggest that the story was a novelty for his audience. Given that none of these love songs is securely datable, it does not seem possible to establish conclusively the sequence of these exchanges: witness the different sequences so far advanced by scholars (Borghi Cedrini 1998). However, this cluster of compositions involving Raimbaut does indicate the influence of specific personal relations between the troubadours and the literary culture of northern France, rather than the existence of an indigenous Occitan tradition. Some approximate figures may help to indicate the general proportion of Arthurian features in the Occitan lyric landscape (contrast the table in Lejeune 1959,396). Out of some 2,500 surviving troubadour compositions and 2,100 by trouvöres, the following table gives the number of poems containing one or more

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:ueru relleq eril Surdee>l eq plno^\ aH 'eldoed sq peol 01 uJnler pue ue^€eH eleol 6{o;I}oec ueql rerl}er tnr{}rv lel o] ere^\ poc JI 'leql1se83ns o].]rea.suoler8, eql Jo oruoql eql uo sÄe1d u-rog ep u?rueg '(qgt t),(ue11rrg go,{ergoog tunoC o}BI egt roJ }ueulul sFI ul r.uorsnlle s.nJqecJel I ;e13e sree,(,(13g ro ,(poJ euros Flun uulrccg ur.reeddu lou op Jnrlrv Sururecuoc selrleJJeu o1 socueJoJe.r lrcrydxg 'slenpt,rrpur ,fueldtuexe peqsrue^ pue sseusseledoq 'ecuerled ,(e1ep glr^\ Eull?ep slxeluoc snorJ€^ ur pelroldxe eq plnoc z(eq1 qcns se pue '8uq }so1 ',{repue8el Jreql JoJ (}r€.Aa.suo}eJ8, eql Jo euloq} eq] qlrAr pelceuuoc 'lerq;elo.rd ,(1erl1ue lsourlB eJe JnqlJv 01 suorsnfi€ erlJ 'Sulddorp-erueu JerJg ueql eJoru lueserde.r tezrerrroq 'eseql ;o ./v\ed 'Bruelrcco ur au?n\a.tg ap aqqou.t orl] Jo e8pelmou>l JoJ ecuopt,to ledrcuud eq] eJe secueJeJeJ crrÄ1 eqt seoJeqa\ 'pepuelur eJe.i!\ so^lesrueql so^rleJJeu oql 13ql secuerpne gcuerg-uJeqlrou elues oql roJ se.&\ ll ]eql Jeqrueruer plnoqs o^\ lng 'uosuedruoc ,{g geurs reedde ,(uur secue.reJat aatno// Jo Jequnu eqJ

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

532

Normandy in 1182 (Gouiran edn, I,39-40). Once again, the influence of a northern literary tradition on Occitan cultural references could hardly be clearer. Just as evocations of Charlemagne and Roland occur mainly in the sirventes (political or satirical songs) of the troubadours, which are vehicles for social and political comment, allusions to Tristan and Yseut are found overwhelmingly in ior.-rongr. They are the archetypal lovers against whose exemplary passion, devotion and sufferings those of the poet-lover of the canso (love song) are measured in hyperbole. Pons de Capduelh, for example, declares that his lady should indeed grant him her love,'for I am a better fin'aman to her than was Tristan to Yseut'(XXIII, 14-1.5, Napolski edn). Similarly, Guilhem Augier Novella claims to have 'drunk from the same pitcher as did Tristan' (Y, 26-7, Calzolari edn). In contrast, the figures of Lancelot and Guinevele Seem quite unknown in Occitania in the twelfth century, and Lancelot is hardly mentioned thereafter. Explicit references in the lyric to other Arthurian characters which suggest familiarity with narrative sources occur at the end of the twelfth century' Raimbaut de Vaqueiras compares his own joy favourably to that of Perceval, 'when at Arthur's court he despoiled the Red Knight of his armour' (X, !7-I9, Linskill edn). Composed in northern Italy by a troubadour from Provence, this song's debt to Chr§tien de Tioyes's romance is evident, and it is not isolated, for in this milieu and at this time his fellow poets were also parading their awareness of the latest fashionable literary material from the north of France. Aimeric de Peguilhan mentions Gauvain and Yvain (10, 14-15, Shepard and Chambers edn), a song attributed to Giraut de Borneil refers to the Harpin de la Montagne episode in Chrötien's Yvain (LII,25-32),6 and it is to this period also that belongs Rigaut de Berbezilh's comparison of his tongue-tied wonderment before his lady to ihat of Perceval, who gazed on the vision at the Fisher King's castle and failed to ask what purpose the lance and the Grail served:7 Atressi con Persavaus El temps que vivia, Que s'esbait d'esgardar

Tant qu'anc non saup demandar

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(Just like Perceval in the time when he was alive, who'was so astonished in his contemplation that he could not ask what purpose the lance and the grail served-)

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.

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In our view, the references in Occitan lyric to versions of the legends once thought to be different from those which survive in the literature of northern Franie are imprecise, rather than clearly indicative of a different southern tradition,s and some are after all best explained as vague references to French material. Bertran de Paris's late thirteenth-century evocation of Yvain as the'first

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tamer of birds' (334,edn in Pitot 1972) may well refer to the Magic Fountain in

EnqleS tr,

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-e"rd ,(ygnoc og1 uo sncog (s,ureod crlcuprp) s,uau,mquasua eql qlt.&\ Uo1rr spJocce 'uor1cn.r1sur Jo {Jo { e ur 'ereq uorsnlcur Jreq} pue 'ecuelg uJeqpou ur u^{ou>l esoql luo{ }ueJeJJIp serJols Jo eruelrcco ur ecue}sxe eq} JoJ ecuephe e}nlrlsuoc ,(1preq sernleeJ osoql lnq '(OS-ggZ) srnJ eurleqrz pue selo18 ruezvt 01 lsrrJ eql Sureq eq'suorqse; epru ur Jelles-pueJl € se ur€AÄ pue '(06-187) enol'ur esrlredxe

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EUNIVUETIT ITVII)]O

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i{OIIICIYUI NIVIUNHIUV AHI

534

THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

From both the lyric references and the repertories there emerges a consistent picture of a slight and superficial knowledge of, and interest in, the Arthurian legend in medieval Occitania, in contrast to that of Tristan. Such knowledge as there is can plausibly be traced to influences from northern France towards the end of the twelfth century. [RHl

The Narrative Tradition The Occitan narrative corpus confirms the picture that emerges from the lyric tradition and the ensenhamens: the Arthurian tradition does not establish itself in Occitania as it does in northern France, England and Germany. Indeed, only three full-length romances survive in Occitan: Jaufre, Flamenca and Blandin de Cornouaille, of which only Jaufre is an Arthurian romance.rs As we have seen, some earlier scholars such as Lejeune (1959) and Pirot (1972,435-525) argued on the basis of references to Arthurian figures in the troubadour lyric and the ensenhamens that a substantial corpus of Arthurian material in Occitan once existed. Although Jaufre is the only extant Arthurian romance in Occitan, the survival of a fragment of a Roman de Merlin (Cornagliotti 2005), supposed Arthurian elements in the fourteenth-century Blandin de Cornouaille,t6 andreferences to Arthurian texts in later medieval library inventories in Occitan-speaking areas, were similarly used as supporting evidence for a lost Occitan corpus of Arthurian romances (Lejeune 1959,3934). But the Merlin fragment is isolated, Blandin has not a single Arthurian character,rT and it is not clear that the references to Arthurian texts in Occitan libraries refer to texts in Occitan, rather than to texts in French. In Flamenca (probably composed c.1270), there is famously a list of all the stories performed by jongleurs at Flamenca's wedding and this includes Arthurian stories, but, as with the lists in the ensenhamens, stories that can be identified as Arthurian are far outnumbered by stories from the Old French epic tradition and from classical sources.l8 In any case, the fact that Flamenca is set in northern France surely undermines its value as evidence for Occitan tastes or for lost Occitan texts; on the contrary, it may in fact offer an Occitan perspective on northern-French tastes. Attempts to argue for an extensive lost corpus of Occitan romances often amount to special pleading for Occitan culture. In fact, Baumgartner (1978, 642-3), basing her conclusions solely on the surviving texts, notes that there is scant evidence for an Occitan romance tradition in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Perhaps, pace Lejelur.e, we should take seriously medieval sources that suggest that French was deemed more suitable for narrative genres, and Occitan for lyric genres.le Indeed, Huchet (1991) argues that Occitan culture identifies romance as an alien genre, imitated infrequently only to be subjected to amused critical examination.

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s36

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always argue for the later dating.

Not only are the style and tone of Jaufre typical

of the later period (Schmolke-Hasselman 1980/98*, 19), but the later dating makes better sense of the romance's relationship to Chr6tien's corpus. Furthermore, if, as Huchet and others have suggested, there is an attempt in Jaufre to criticize and undermine the ideological underpinning of northernFrench romance (Huchet 1991,187-96; Jewers 2000), it makes better sense to see the text as dating from the period after the Albigensian crusade, when hostility to

the French and French culture in Occitania was rife. As for the argument concerning dual authorship, the text shows no obvious signs of remaniement; on the contrary, as Baumgartner has argued (1978, 634),it has a perceptible unity of conception and a uniform style throughout. Thus, as Huchet suggests (1991, 153), and Lee has recently argued in some detail (2003), the apparent distinction suggested in the epilogue between'the one who began the romance'and'the one who finished it'(10949-50) is a textual game that is far from unprecedented in medieval literature. Indeed, Lee (2003) persuasively contends that the author of Jaufre deliberately plays parodically and ambiguously on the supposed dual authorship of Chr6tien's Charrette. Jaufre narrates the story of a young man who appears at Arthur's court asking to be dubbed and to be allowed to undertake an adventure on the king's behalf. Mocked by Kay for his youth and inexperience, Jaufre sets out in pursuit of Taulat, a wicked knight who has insulted Arthur and his queen. As he follows Taulat, Jaufre vanquishes a series of foes, some of whom he spares, whilst others are killed. After each adventure either his vanquished opponent(s) or people he has liberated from his vanquished opponent(s) are sent back to Arthur's court to nanate Jaufre's exploits. In the midst of these adventures, Jaufre finds himself at a place called Monbrun, with whose mistress, Brunissen, he falls in love, despite being baffled by the frenetic lamentations to which the entire population abandons itself periodically throughout the night; indeed, when he asks the reason for this odd behaviour, he receives a beating. Despite being in love with Brunissen, Jaufre sneaks away from Monbrun, since he regards it as his duty to pursue Taulat. At his next port of call, the castle of one Augier d'Essart, Jaufre discovers that his quest for Taulat and the histrionics of the people of Monbrun are linked. For the last seven years, Taulat has held the lord of the land, Melian de Montmelior, prisoner. Once a month Melian is forced to climb a hill while being soundly whipped by Taulat; he is then allowed to recover for a month before the torture begins again. The people of Monbrun and the surrounding land have agreed to lament his plight at various points throughout the day and night until their lord is delivered. Augier explains that Taulat will return in a week's time for the ritual torture of Melian, and so Jaufre resolves to be there waiting for him. He takes advantage of the week's wait to vanquish a bandit black knight and a giant, but

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538

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marry him. This contrasts with Enide's behaviour in Erec once her husband's recreantise has been revealed; (vi) Gauvain's absence at key moments is noted (e.g. 5071, 6321), which is reminiscent of his equivocal role in Yvain; (vii) the forbidden question in Monbrun (asking why everyone laments) reverses the motif of the compulsory question in the Fisher King's castle in Perceval; (viii) Jaufre's quest is motivated by a desire to avenge mockery by Kay, which is reminiscent of the hero setting out in Yvain (and Perceval); (ix) Jaufre may play on dual authorship, like Chr6tien's Charrette (Lee 2003). But the most striking parallels, as many

scholars have noted (Limentani 1977,78-101; Baumgartner 1978, 623-34), concern the specific description of Kay in Perceval (M6la edn) and his description in Jaufre: Et Kex parmi la sale vint,

Ab tant Qecs per la sala venc,

Trestoz desaflublez, et tint En sa main destre un bastonet, O chief ot chapel de bonet . . . (Perceval, 2J 33-5)

Desenvoutz et en sa man tenc Un baston parat de pomier. E anc nu-i ac pros cavalier . . . (Jaufre, T23-6)

(And Kay came into the room, lightly attit'ed, and in his right hand he held a staff, and on his head he had a light hat . .. I And at that point Kay came into the room, dishevelled, and in his right hand he held a staff decorated with apple wood. And there never was such a bold knight . . .)

The close parallels here suggest that the author of Jaufre had written copies of Chr6tien's romances before him as he worked and that the specific verbal echoes of his northern-French predecessor are deliberate. But his imitation is obviously parodic, since his irony at the expense of Arthur and the ideals of the Arthurian world is pushed well beyond the delicate, tongue-in-cheek ambiguity at which Chr6tien excels. The author of Jaufre is not a particularly elegant writer; indeed, his apparent nonchalance about the niceties of style occasionally suggests that he took little trouble over the texture of his work.23 On the other hand, he does have a real sense of comedy, and one of the pleasures of reading Jaufre is that parts of the text are wickedly funny (see particularly Jewers 2000). Thus, for example, the comic representation of Arthur and his court unpicks the ideals of Arthurian romance in a manner that far exceeds the irony of a writer like Chr6tien. Arthur, in Jaufre, is twice made to look a total fool. As with many Arthurian romances, the text opens with a court scene, which finds Arthur forlornly waiting for an adventure. When Kay declares he is hungry and that it is perhaps time to eat (141-2} Arthur testily retorts that he cannot eat until the requisite adventure has materialized (144-53). So Arthur rides out to look for an adventure. He instantly encounters an apparently supernatural horned beast. By the time the Knights of the Round Table catch up with him, they find him dangling from the beast's horns over the edge of a high rock. Much lamenting and exaggerated expressions of grief culminate in Kay's claim that the loss of Arthur is the loss of 'valor' (worth) personified (358-74). Yet as if Kay's premature lament for

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The poet's wit and propensity for comedy are also to the fore in his treatment of the hero's quest. When he sets out in pursuit of Taulat, Jaufre vows, with an obvious echo of Arthur's unwillingness to eat before having an adventure, not to eat until he has found his foe (638); to this he later adds a vow not to sleep. His privations are dwelt upon insistently (1307, 1344,1661,2185-6, etc.). As his quest progresses, he becomes so tired and weak from hunger and lack of sleep that he has difliculty staying mounted and riding in a straight line (3025-33). This immediately precedes his arrival in Monbrun, where he desperately tries to sleep in Brunissen's garden, only to be woken repeatedly by her men as a result of her displeasure at his having disturbed the birds, whose songs she enjoys. Jaufre's inability here to pay attention to the birdsong - a conventional precursor of the onset of love - is not without irony: when he needs to sleep, he does not do so and this hampers his chivalric efäciency; when he should be staying awake, he falls asleep. A little later, as he falls in love with Brunissen, his feelings prevent him from eating and sleeping (6688-9). Jaufre is thus often portrayed as vaguely absurd and ridiculous. Similarly, Brunissen is often treated in a comic mode. For example, when she thinks Jaufre has drowned (when in fact he has been kidnapped by the fairy of Gibel), she rushes dementedly towards the lake in which he has disappeared followed by 500 frantic ladies; she attempts to drown herself, only to be dragged out by her hair. Between swoons she then intones a perfectly structured formal planh (lament), but this is underscored, of course, by dramatic irony, since the reader realizes that Jaufre cannot be dead. Jaufre also generates a good deal of comedy through its structure and pacing. As Fleischman argues (i981), the two episodes with the magician at Arthur's court ought to form a framing device, with the second episode marking closure, particularly since Taulat has been defeated and Jaufre's love for Brunissen seems to be reciprocated. But the romance continues for another thousand lines after this, and the kidnapping of Jaufre by the fairy of Gibel foils any expectations of neat closure. The structure of Jaufre is deliberately awry and this means that Arthur's court is deliberately, but unexpectedly, decentred by the plot, which, with its accumulation of apparently random adventures, sometimes resembles a shaggy-dog story rather than a tightly constructed romance. The humour generated by this is enhanced by the fact that the ostensible climax, Jaufre's defeat of Taulat, is dispatched with remarkable brevity, little intensity and still less drama (5841-6132). When this is considered alongside the narrator's tendency to delay the action and wander off the point with asides, eulogies of the King of Aragon, or apparently irrelevant laments on the loss of courtly virtues, it is hard not to see in the writing a deliberate deflation of the heroic dynamic and high style of romance narrative (Kay 1979; Fleischman 1981, 115). In short, Jaufre offers a humorous, but highly critical, rereading of the

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6 The attribution is nonetheless very uncertain; see Sharman edn of Giraut, 24. 7 The dating of Rigaut was for a long time the subject of vigorous controversy; for full references and a more balanced, better-documented conclusion, see Guida 1990, 87 108. 8 See, for example, Gauvain's evocation as a solitary hunter, 'Cabra juglar', 187-9, edn in Pirot 1972. e See Jeanroy and Salverda de Grave edn of Uc, 169-70; and Pirot 1972,480. r0 For the date of Arnaut's work not before 1180 and probably later see Guida 1999. 11 See Lejeune 1954 and 7959,397, though a systematic study of troubadour contacts and centres of lyric patronage which may permit an evaluation of this remains a desideratum. 12 Pirot's 1972 sttdy is an exhaustive survey of critical work on the relevant literary history published before 1972 and is still invaluable, but care is needed in consulting it because of the ramifications of his thesis regarding the early date of composition of 'Cabra juglar'. 13 The vague reference to 'Cardueill'(160) may also be to Arthurian material. ra 'Lanselot'(or'laniolet') conquered'gen landa', or'Islanda'(variously interpreted as'Island',

'Ireland' or 'Oriande': see Pirot 1972,482-5), but the manuscript evidence is not clear. 15 An exhaustive list of all surviving texts in Occitan that could count as romances, including fragments and short narratives, is given by Huchet 1991, 13. The texts of both Jaufre and Flamenca may be found with facing modern French translation in the Lavaud and Nelli edn, from which quotations here are taken; but for Jaufre, see also Brunel 1943 and Lee edn 2006; for an English translation, see Arthur transl., which has an excellent introduction. For an exhaustive analytic bibliography of publications relating to Jaufre before 1996, see Trachsler 1997*,217-33. 16 For parallels between Blandin and Arthurian romance, see van der Horst edn, 67-71. Huchet's reading of the text (1991, 196-206) rests upon the assumption that Blandin is an Arthurian romance from which Arthurian elements have been significantly erased. 17 There is also nothing to suggest that the work is set in a distant Arthurian past. 18 See Flamenca, 599 709. The Arthurian material includes two lais called Cabrefoil and Tintagoil (599-600), what looks like the complete surviving Arthurian works of Chr6tien together with Tristan (665-78) and Le Bel Inconnu (679), and then various narratives that are harder to identify, but which involve Guiflet (Girflet), Calobrenan, Kay and Mordret (682-90). re See Marshall edn of Raimon Vidal, 6: 'La parladura francesa val mais et [es] plus avinenz a far romanz et pasturellas, mas cella de Lemosin val mais per far vers et cansons et serventes'(Zfte French language is better and more seemly for composing romances and pastourelles, but that of the Limousin [Occitan] is better for composing lyrics and songs and sirventes). -fhe Razos date from ll90 to 1223. 20 For the earlier dating, see Lejeune 1948 and 1953; also Pirot 1972,498-506. For the later dating, see notably Römy 1950; also Schmolke-Hasselmann 1980/98*, 19, 7l-2. An excellent synthesis of the arguments concerning the dating of Jaufre is to be found in Arthur transl., x-xvii. 21 See de Riquer 1955, who thinks the earlier version of Jaufre must date from 1169-70 at the latest, and the remaniement from c.1200. 22 For example, Arthur's wife is called Guilalmer in Jaufre, 499, 2870, etc., a name that is not attested in any other source. 23 For example, in lines 5000-36, 20 lines begin with'E'. 2a For a stimulating reading of this episode as a mise d. nu of Arthurian romance, see Huchet

1991,187-93. 25 This is certainly the view of two recent commentators: Jewers 1997 196-7 and Fraser 1995. , , Fraser argues that scholars have overplayed the parodic thrust of Jaufre;she prefers to read the text as satire and does not regard the references to Chr6tien as central to understanding the text. 26 See in particular Fraser 1995, but these qualities are commented upon by others. Examples of Jaufre's uncourtly behaviour would be his summary execution or dismembering of some of his opponents, or his harsh treatment of Kay when he returns to Arthur's court.

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544

Chambers, F. M. 1971. Proper Names in the Lyrics of the Troubadours,University of North Carolina Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures 113, Chapel Hill. Cingolani, S. 1992-3.'The Sirventes-ensenhamen of Guerau de Cabrera: A Proposal For a New Interpretation', Journal of Hispanic Research, 1, I 9 1-200. Cornagiotti, A. 2005. 'Les Fragments occitans dt Merlin de Robert de Boron', in Etudes de langue et de littörature mödiövales offertes d Peter T. Ricketts d I'occasion de son 70ä'"' anniversaire, Tirrnhout, 5-16. Fleischman, S. 1981 . 'laufre or Chivalry Askew: Social Overtones of Parody in Arthurian Romance',

Viator,12,101-29. V 1995. 'Humour and Satire in the Romance of Jaufre', FMLS,3l,223-33. Gallais, P. 1967 .'Bleheri, la cour de Poitiers et la diffusion des rÖcits arthuriens sur le continent', in Actes du 7" congrös national de la Sociötö Franqaise de Littörature Comparöe ( Poitiers, 27-29 mai Fraser,

1965 ) ,Pais, 47-79. Gaunt, S. 1986. 'Did Marcabru Know the Tristan Legend?', Med. Aev,55, 108-13. Gaunt 1989. Troubadours and lrony, Cambridge. Gaurtt2002.'Desnaturat son li Frances: Language and Identity in the Twelfth-Century Occitan

Epic', Tenso, 17, 10-3

1.

Girolamo, C. di. 1989. I tovatori,Tuin. Guida, S. 1990. 'Problemi di datazione e di identificazione di trovatori. I. Rigaut de Berbezilh. II. Sifre e Mir Bernat. III. Guillem Augier', in G. Tavani and L. Rossi eds Studi Provenzali e Francesi, 86-87 , L) Aq:uila,

87 -126.

trovatori; l. Arnaut Guilhem de Marsan; 2. Amanieu de la Broqueira; Guilhem Peire de Cazals;4. Amanieu de Sescas', CN,59,71-127.

Guida 1999. 'Cartulari

e

Huchet, J.-Ch. 1991. Le Roman occitanmödiöval,Paris. Hunt, T. 1987.'Texte and Prötexte: laufre and Yvain',

it

Lacy, Kelly and Busby eds 1987-8*,

3.

II,

12541. of the Ruse and the Round Table: Occitan Romance and the Case for Cultural Resistance', N e op hil, 8 1, I 87-200. Jewers 2000. Chivalric Fiction and the History of the Novel, Gainsville, FL. Jung, M. R. 1986. A propos de la po6sie lyrique d'oc et d'oil', in M. R. Jung and G. Tavani eds Studi Provenzali e Francesi,84 35,UAqtila, 5-36. Jung 1991. 'Jaufre: "E aiso son novas rials"', in Il migliorfabbro .. .: mölanges de langue et de littöraJewers, C. A,. 1997.'The Name

ture occitanes en hommage d Pierre Bec, Poitiers, 223-34.

Kay, S. 1979. "fhe Uses of Time in the Romances of laufre ard Flamenca' , MR, 6, 37-62. Lee, C. 2003. 'L'Autew de Jaufre et celui du Chevalier de la Charrete', in R. Castano, S. Guida and F. Latella eds Scöne, övolution, sort de la langue et de la littörature d'oc: actes du 7" congräs international de l'Association Internationale d'Etudes Occitanes,2 vols, Rome, I,479-91. Lejeune, R. 1948. 'LaDate du roman de Jaufrö: ä propos d'une 6dition r6cente', MA,54,257-95. Lejeune 1953. A propos de la datation du roman de laufrö. Le Roman de Jaufrö, source de Chrötien de Troyes?', RBP H, 31, 7 17 47. Lejeune 1954. 'Röle litt6raire d'Aliönor d'Aquitaine et de sa famille', CN,14,5-57. Lejeune 1959. 'The Troubadours', in Loomis ed. 1959*, 393-9. Limentani, A,. 1977 . L'eccezione narrativa: la Provenza medievale e l'arte del racconto,'hxin. Meneghetti, M. L. 1984. Il pubblico dei trovatori: ricezione e riuso dei testi lirici cortesiJino al XIV secolo,Modena. Petersen Dyggve, H. 1934. Onomastique des trouvöres, Helsinki. Pirot, F. 1972. Recherches sur les connaissances littöraires des troubadours occitans et catalans des XII et XIII' siöcles: les 'sirventes-ensenhamens' de Guerau de Cabrera, Guiraut de Calanson et Bertrand de Par is, Barcelona. R6my, P. 1950, A propos de la datation du roman de Jaufrö', RBPH,28, 1349-77.

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XIV ARTHUR IN MODERN FRENCH FICTION AND FILM Joan Thsker Grimbert and Norris J. Lacy

Introduction Throughout the first half of the sixteenth century, and even beyond, Arthurian romances retained their popularity, and a good many of them were republished a number of times. Frappier (1973) cites as material proof of an enduring taste for the legend the frequent re-editions of romances throughout the century. As regards the Tristan material, he mentions, for example, the prose Tristan, Ysaye le Triste, Guiron le Courtois and Meliadus de Leonnoys. In addition, Pierre Sala's Tristan (1525-9), composed at the request of Frangois I, drew inspiration from these and other prose romances, as did Jean Maugin's Nouveau Tristan (1554). A number of earlier Arthurian texts were reworked, condensed, modernized or, in some cases, joined with other romances to constitute new cycles. An example of this reconstitution of earlier cycles is offered by L'Hystoire du Sainct Greaal (1516), a compilation that inserts Perlesvaus into a sequence including the Estoire del Saint Graal,the Queste del Saint Graal and a portion of the Lancelot proper. Although most of the modernized or recast romances were presented in prose, there are exceptions: around 1520 Pierre Sala, for example, composed, in addition to his Tristan romance, a new verse redaction of Yvain. Arthurian themes were praised and embraced by some major sixteenthcentury authors (e.g. the Plöiade poets Pierre de Ronsard and Joachim Du Bellay), but by that time the legend had come to be valued largely as history or pseudo-history, that is, as evidence of France's national or linguistic heritage, and not as imaginative literature possessing intrinsic interest. Later in the century some writers, including Montaigne, condemned Arthurian literature as fit only for the amusement of children. The continued publication of Arthuriana implies, however, that popular interest in the legend persisted, even though the stories of Arthur and the Round Table were disparaged by writers seeking to reject the past and forge a new literary aesthetic. In any event the prestige and appeal of the Arthurian legend waned in France in the late sixteenth and the early seventeenth centuries, and this eclipse lasted well into the nineteenth century. During the seventeenth century, writers produced several serious texts that included chivalric stories and Arthurian figures, generally presented as models of comportment for young people.1 Few of

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(1868-77) was virtually the only major scholar to give the prose texts serious attention, both in essays and, notably, in his extensive, though still substantially abbreviated, retelling of prose romances in five volumes. Despite the deficiencies of his presentation, his efforts were significant for bringing to the fore a vast body of important material, most of it devoted to the Grail. The composition of original Arthurian material began in earnest only after the mid-point of the nineteenth century. This statement is applicable both to treatments of the Tristan legend in particular and to the elaboration of other Arthurian subjects. Yet, despite this chronological correspondence, the fortunes and development of the Tristan material deviated so dramatically from that of other Arthurian subjects as to necessitate the two separate but complementary treatments set out here, beginning with'non-Tristan' subjects. lNll-;

Arthur in Modern French Fiction and Film (exclusive of the Tristan Material) It

virtually impossible to establish distinct and comprehensive categories within which modern French Arthurian compositions can be treated. The extraordinary variety, originality, and in some cases eccentricity, of much Arthurian literature in modern France require us to discuss tendencies, rather than unambiguous groupings. We can, however, discern two broad categories, as well as a number of marginally Arthurian texts and others that defy all efforts at categorization. The larger and more amorphous of the two major categories consists of works that, instead of renarrating the Arthurian legend or part of it, simply appropriate an Arthurian character or theme for use in the elaboration of a personal, philosophical or political statement (Lacy 2000, 125). The second and more familiar category comprises texts that retell part or all of the Arthurian story as it became known to French authors through Tennyson (Bowden 1930), Wagner or, more recently, medieval French sources. In both of these broad categories, the figure and work of Richard Wagner loom large, and modern French Arthurian literature includes a number of works that are strongly, and sometimes entirely, inspired by Wagnerian themes. Some, indeed, are devoted to the composer himself rather than to those themes. Finally, as suggested, there are a good many French Arthurian works that simply frustrate all efforts at categorization. Arguably, the first modern French Arthurian composition of originality and literary import is Edgar Quinet's Merlin I'enchanteur (1860).3 Quinet's massive text is an allegorical epic, with Merlin's exile representing both the author's own disillusion and the political and moral decadence Quinet perceived in a dispirited is

France sufferingunder Louis-Napolöon (Glencross 1995,163-72;Lacy 1996,377-8).

Merlin undertakes voyages or pilgrimages, during which he meets significant

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ln Le Roi du monde Renö Gu6non's project was to examine the entire history of the Grail, beginning with its origin in the emerald that dislodged from Lucifer's forehead at the time of his fall. It was entrusted to Adam and later to the Druids. The Grail quest is the primary function and justification of the Arthurian court. Montsalvat, at the centre of the world, represents the Land of Immortality, which is identified with the earthly paradise. Although Gu6non traces the history of the Grail, his emphasis remains on a mystical vision of that history and of the redemptive power of the Vessel. Like a number of the works discussed here, a 1991 novel by Breton author Philippe Le Guillou entitled Immortels: Merlin et Viviane proves difficult to classify. It presents the effects of Merlin's meeting with Viviane and might, to an extent, be considered a retelling of part of the Arthurian story. However, Le Guillou also uses Merlin as a mouthpiece for the exposition of esoteric principles. The author's intent here, as in several essays, is to 're-enchant' adventure and past tradition, countering the loss of wonder. He attempts to revivify the matiöre de Bretagne, which includes his native Brittany in particular, as well as the Celtic lands across the Channel. Alongside these sometimes radical reinterpretations or appropriations of the Arthurian matter, we also have a number of comparatively full, if occasionally idiosyncratic, 'retellings'of the king's story.s Retellings are a renarration of part or all of the Arthurian legend that are set in a historical context, even if the intent is to modernize or modify the spirit of the story. From this point of view, Briant's and perhaps even Gu6non's may, with effort, be interpreted as retellings. However, in contrast to Barjavel's work (see below), these two compositions appear remarkably personal and esoteric. The distinction is not always obvious, but it turns on the question of whether an author wishes to tell the Arthurian story or instead use it as a structure on which may be overlaid a philosophical, political or other vision. Retellings of the Arthurian story are strikingly common in modern Englishspeaking traditions, but far less so in French. The causes for this difference in focus are complex and elusive, but, whatever the reasons, writers in English have been much more intent on recasting the legend of Arthur, either as historical fiction or as an effort to renew the mythic appeal of the Arthurian story. In contrast, French authors, rather than renew a historical narrative (of a British king, after all), have been more prone to seize on images, on symbols and on elements of the story that can crystallize avariety of philosophical concerns. Nonetheless, modern French retellings of the Arthurian story include some outstanding and important literary creations, as well as some notable failures. Apart from the scholarly or semi-scholarly presentations of medieval Arthurian texts, the earliest of the memorable accomplishments in this category may well be two Parsifal works by Julien Gracq (Baudry 1998*, 60-75, 91-4, 99-195).

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who, now one hundred years old, looks back and reflects on Arthurian history and on his own relationship with Viviane. Rio extended his exploration of Arthuriana with two novels, the first devoted to Morgan, the second to Arthur himself (Rio 1999; 2001). Both of them offer allusions to, or retellings of, Arthurian events, but Rio shows himself to be particularly interested in his characters and in their response to elements of the Arthurian story. Memory had also been the theme of Jean-Pierre Le Dantec's 1985 novel GraalRomance. The events of this work occur ten years after Arthur's death, when a cleric, commissioned to write the king's story, comes to Broc6liande to interview Guinevere, Merlin and Viviane, and to consult the available documents. Although memories are shown to be unreliable and contradictory, a portrait of Arthur ultimately emerges, and it is not a happy one: he is remembered as a mad, drunken, self-pitying failure. Jacques Roubaud and Florence Delay cannot easily be discussed with any of the preceding authors. The two of them have composed a cycle of dramas that stands as the most ambitious and most intriguing Arthurian effort in modern France, and Roubaud has authored several other books on Arthurian themes. The drama cycle, entitled Graal-Thödtre, was planned as a group of ten plays, though only six have been completed. Several were published separately, and they were then gathered in two volumes issued in 1977 and 1981.7 The plays are Joseph d'Arimathie, Merlin l'enchanteur, Gauvain et le chevalier vert, Lancelot du Lac, Perceval le Gallois and L'Enlövement de Gueniävre (Delay and Roubaud have pointed out that these six plays are in fact numbers II-VII in the series, and that the last planned play, Blaße de Northombrelande, is designed to be numbered X, but to stand at the head of the cycle and lead into the rest). If the titles and much of the material are familiar, the juxtaposition of events is often surprising. For example, in the first play, Joseph of Arimathea encounters the Questing Beast in a dream, and Gauvain et le chevalier vert, after recounting the beheading test known to readers of the Middle English sir Gawain and the Green Knight, then presents a visit by Perceval to the Grail Castle. The play ends with Gauvain himself at the Grail Castle. The material offered in the other dramas is similarly traditional and familiar, but reconfigured and recombined in decidedly original fashion, with scenes sometimes repeated from one play to another, manipulation of temporal sequence and knowledgeable and effective use of the interlace technique that characterizes the medieval Arthurian prose cycles. The dramatic material is drawn from the authors' serious and mature knowledge of medieval sources, from ChrÖtien de Tfoyes to the Vulgate Cycle to Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, the Baladro del sabio Merl{n and the Mabinogion.s Roubaud is also the author of Graalfiction (a mixture of fictional recreation with textual commentary)e and of a novel Le Roi Arthur au temps des chevaliers et

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but, despite his temptation, vows to remain chaste. Eventually, Guinevere returns to Arthur, and in the climactic war against Mordred the king is joined by Lancelot, who is killed in the conflict. Rohmer, to a considerable extent, simply films the text of the Perceval sections of Chrötien de Tioyes's Perceval, though adding a new ending in the form of a Passion Play. He even retains linguistic archaisms and uses stylized and clearly artificial sets and actors who move much like automata. In both films the effect is to reinforce the temporal and cultural distance between the story and the viewer and to emphasize the unreality of the Arthurian world. One of the fascinating and problematic phenomena within the modern French conception and presentation of the legend is the existence of marginally Arthurian texts in which the Arthurian elements are ephemeral and elusive (or merely allusive). The novels of Benoit and Perec, discussed above, may be considered marginal, insofar as they seize upon Arthurian images, symbols or allusions and construct non-Arthurian narratives around them. Far more striking and challenging, though, is a work such as Robert Pinget's Graal Flibusle, a surrealistic quest novel (Henkels 1979). The title implies a Grail quest, but there appears to be no Grail, or at least it is not the object with which we are familiar, or, for that matter, an object at all. It is, instead, a person; the title of the novel, linking the Grail to a reference to piracy, is the name of the monarch of the strange land in which the protagonist travels. Among discernible Arthurian themes we find only the notion of the quest - if indeed it is a quest - and a reflection of the motif of the Waste Land. And even the purpose of the quest or voyage is uncertain, for just as the quester, having passed through extraordinary and very strange lands, arrives at a large gate and prepares to enter, the text ends. Long before Pinget's work, Andrö Gide had offered an even more marginal, pseudo-Arthurian text in his 1892 Voyage d'Urien, in which a number of characters are given Arthurian names: Urien (traditionally Yvain's father), Morgain, Agloval, etc. But apart from those names and the fact that there is a voyage (but not necessarily a quest), it is difficult to discern anything Arthurian in this text. Farther removed still from the legend of Arthur is a composition such as Benoite Groult's erotic novel les Vaisseux du ceur, in which the first-person narrator gives her lover the pet name of Gauvain, presumably in recognition of his physical beauty and his prowess. Otherwise, there is nothing discernibly Arthurian about the novel. With this novel and a great many other works we find ourselves in a literary grey area, where all narrative traces of the legend disappear, though Arthurian names and images (most often the Grail) may remain and provide a source of allusion recognizable, to varying degrees, by all readers. The legend of King Arthur in France has attracted far fewer modern authors (and readers) than has been the case in English-speaking countries. As in an anglophone context, however, Arthurian compositions run the gamut from

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THE ARTHUR OF THE FRENCH

Tristan und Isolde, completed in 1859, premiered in 1865, provoked a stunning revival of the legend and had a prodigious impact on the French conception of it. Using Gottfried, Wagner transformed the early medieval verse tradition, based on a conflict between love and law, into a tale of love and death. He endowed the lovers with a death wish, from the first act on the boat bound for Cornwall, when they consumed the potion, believing it to be poison, to the soaring 'love duet'of the second act, to the final Liebestod'transfiguration' sung by Isolde (Yseut) before joining Tristan in death. The idea of Eros and Thanatos intertwined was an elegant formula that was bound to captivate the French imagination, especially those with a romantic or decadent bent. So it is not surprising that Wagner's influence was felt not only in the various dramas of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, but also in numerous novels and poems in which the protagonists (not necessarily explicit recreations of Tristan and Yseut) embarked on a quest for idealized love that inevitably ended in death. Baudelaire, Mallarm6, Verlaine and their Symbolist successors were al1 inspired by Wagner in their quest for a new language exemplifying the artist's aspiration to escape from the material world towards the spiritual realm.13 The second event of the nineteenth century that was crucial to the development of the legend was the discovery and publication by Francisque Michel (1835) of the Anglo-Norman Tristan poems, notably the long-lost fragments of Beroul and Thomas. This remarkable discovery of the earliest known Tristan poems invested the French with the paternity of a legend that had seemed to belong to the Germans, especially after Wagner, and it incited Joseph B6dier to attempt to reconstruct, on the basis of the various extant medieval versions, the disparate elements of the two traditions, which he called the 'Common Version' (Beroul and Eilhart) and the 'Courtly Version' (Thomas and Gottfried). His Roman de Tristan par Thomas appeared in 1902, followed in 1905 by a volume of notes, including fragments of the Beroul-Eilhart tradition, designed to reconstitute the non-extant 'archetype'. Before B6dier had finished this monumental task of erudition, he published his Roman de Tristan et Iseut (1900), destined to become the best-selling Tristan of the twentieth century, not only in France but throughout the world.ra B6dier wished to acquaint the general public with the Old French legends through a modern French adaptation of a romance that might reflect the elusive 'archetype' (which he dated to c.ll20) that he believed had nurtured the more primitive of the two Tristan traditions. However, his nineteenth-century sensitivity caused him to tone down both the lovers'deceit and Mark's cruelty and to imbue all three characters with the noblest of feelings. Although he intended to draw mostly on Beroul and Eilhart, he used for the beginning of the romance the Thomas-Gottfried tradition, which ended up permeating the entire work. Not only was he aiming at a unified style but also the 'courtly' tradition appealed

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