The Art of Technical Writing

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The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

Meena Malik Ravinder Malik

National Dairy Research Institute (Deemed University)

Karnal-132001, Haryana (INDIA)

All rights reserved March 2013 NDRI Publication No. 93/2013

Price: Rs. 125/-

Published by Director National Dairy Research Institute (Deemed University), Karnal, Haryana NDRI, Karnal

CONTENTS Foreword Preface I

TECHNICAL REPORTING AND WRITING

1-38

1.

Technical Writing and its Importance

2

2.

Forms of Technical and Scientific Writing

11

3.

Style of Technical and Scientific Writing

17

4.

Research Paper Writing

26

5.

Review Article Writing

34

II WRITING EFFECTIVE SENTENCES

39-75

6.

Agreement: Subject -Verb and Pronoun-Antecedent

40

7.

Conciseness

52

8.

Coordination and Subordination

60

9.

Parallelism

66

10.

Elimination: Dangling Modifiers, Incomplete and Illogical Comparisons

III MANUSCRIPT MECHANICS AND BIBLIOGRAPHIC PROCEDURES

70 77-96

11.

Manuscript Mechanics

78

12.

Indexing and Bibliographic Procedures

87

13.

Manuscript Presentation: Final Copy

93

IV SUMMARISING AND CURRICULUM VITAE /RESUME WRITING

97-114

14.

Précis Writing /Abstracting/Summarizing

98

15.

Curriculum Vitae/Resume Writing

104

FOREWORD Technical writing is used in all fields of science, technology, agriculture, engineering and social sciences. From a simple work assessment report to a highly technical write-up, reports are a common form of workplace communication. It has been found that on an average, employees spend 20% of their time writing memos, letters or reports. Superiors and supervisors not only spend their time writing, but they also spend additional time reviewing and revising the writing composed by their subordinates and students. A clear, concise and well written report saves a lot of time of the users, be it researchers, students, teachers, managers or the clients. In other words, the value of accuracy and precision is not only important for researchers in scientific education and research but also for professionals in all sorts of work situations. Realizing the importance of imparting knowledge and skills in this specialized field of communication, a course in Technical Writing is being offered to all the post-graduate students of NDRI Deemed University. The purpose of the present manual is to acquaint the students with the fundamentals of technical writing in order to equip them with all the skills needed to be effective communicators in this specialized area. I believe that the manual would help them comprehend and appreciate the concept of clear, precise and accurate expression, which should gradually become a manifestation of their personality. The present publication is the outcome in distilled form of the vast experience of the authors in scientific documentation/ publication and technical writing. A considerable portion of this volume has been devoted to the examples and illustrations drawn

from the practical situations so as to help the students apply the concepts of technical writing in proper perspective. The section on effective sentence writing, manuscript mechanics and bibliographic procedures will be handy for them to prepare the manuscripts of their dissertations, theses and bulletins. I trust that this publication would be of tremendous use to the postgraduate students and the faculty alike. The efforts made in bringing out this manual are highly commendable. It gives me immense pleasure in recommending this Manual to the graduates and also in extending my best wishes to the authors for this excellent endeavor.

(A. K. Srivastava)

PREFACE Communicating science is as important to the scientific process as designing, conducting and analyzing the experiment itself. A scientific experiment, irrespective of its spectacular results, is not completed until the results are published. In fact, the foundation of science is based on the premise that original research must be published. This is the only way by which new scientific knowledge can be authenticated and then added to the existing data base for further dissemination. Science or for that matter any branch of knowledge requiring a systematic study, involves the use of technical writing for the purpose of recording and reporting information. Technical writing is the art of recording information on specialized/technical fields accurately and effectively. It is different from creative writing as it deals with scientific facts and does not present an imaginary view of reality. Technical writing uses structure, rather than the physical presence of the writer, to achieve clarity. It has to be clear, simple and well ordered communication to transmit the facts and findings. Technical writing may take the form of reports, articles, research papers, dissertations and theses, manuals, and official correspondence. All these writings must conform to the rules of scientific and technical reporting so that they are properly understood and appreciated. The ability to produce a clear, concise and professionally presented report is a skill that one is required to develop to be successful both at the research/academic institution and the workplace alike. With this objective in view, the present manual on “The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing” has been prepared to familiarize the students with the fundamentals of technical writing and to make them learn the art of presenting the subject specific information in a clear, concise and effective manner. The present Manual has been divided into four sections. Section I gives the essentials of technical reporting and writing and dwells on different aspects related to its style and organization with special reference to research paper and review paper writing. The sections II deals with writing of effective sentences i.e. how best one can bring in improvement in sentence structure to make them concise, clear and effective. It covers in brief all the established rules for agreement of subject and verb, and pronoun and its antecedent; proper use of coordination and subordination; and parallelism illustrated with suitably examples. It also emphasizes on some of the common mistakes in use of

modifiers; incomplete and illogical comparisons that can be scrupulously avoided to make the sentences more effective. Section III deals with manuscript mechanics and bibliographic procedures and describes the issues related to preparation and finalization of the manuscript, and making it ready for printing. Section IV pertains to summarizing and curriculum vitae (CV)/ resume writing. Précis writing and abstracting is an art, which is an essential component of technical writing, whereas CV/resume is a direct reflection of one’s credentials and achievements to the prospective employer. All the lessons have been introduced and explained in simple terms followed by plain examples. One of the important features of the manual is the inclusion of an exercise carrying a set of questions and assignments for practice after each lesson. The authors sincerely thank Dr. A. K. Srivastava, Director and Vice Chancellor, and Dr Rishendra Verma, Joint Director (Research), NDRI Deemed University, Karnal for their constructive suggestions, constant support and encouragement, and also for providing conducive ambience for academic pursuits. The support received from Joint Director (Academics), Joint Director (Administration) and Academic Coordinator for providing funds under Development Grant Scheme for Deemed Universities of ICAR, is gratefully acknowledged. Hope, this manual serves as a ready reference for the students and may prove useful to them throughout the course of their study and beyond.

Dr. Meena Malik Associate Professor (English) NDRI (Deemed University), Karnal

Dr. Ravinder Malik Principal Scientist & Head, Dairy Microbiology, NDRI (Deemed University), Karnal

Lesson 1 TECHNICAL WRITING AND ITS IMPORTANCE 1.1

Introduction

Technical Writing/Reporting is a specialized branch of the field of communication. Technical Writing is used in all fields of science, technology, agriculture, engineering and social sciences. Any branch of knowledge requiring a systematic study involves the use of scientific and technical writing for the purpose of recording and reporting information. It is an art of recording information on specialized fields accurately and effectively and passing it on to those who have to use and process it. Technical writing uses structure, rather than the physical presence of the writer, to achieve clarity. It has to be clear, simple and well ordered communication to transmit the facts and findings. 1.2

Importance and Scope of Technical Reporting

1.2.1

Students

The typical undergraduate students regard the writing of reports as a dull and superfluous task. Consequently, they have little desire for instructions in technical writing. One of the main reasons for this state of affairs is that the undergraduates, particularly in their earlier years, seem to have very little to say. As they progress through college and to graduate school or industry, they develop a body of knowledge. At some point of time in their career, they acquire some information or some idea that they want to pass on to others. This is when they need to acquire skills in technical reporting. 1.2.2

Big organizations

The complexity of an organization increases exponentially with its size and soon there is the need for written records and communications. Only through a full 2

Technical Reporting & Writing

exchange of information can the various divisions of large organization coordinate their efforts effectively. 1.2.3 Small organizations But even a small organization has a vital need for accurate technical reporting. How was a special part fabricated last year? How was a test performed? What are the precautions to be observed with seldom used instruments? Written records furnish authoritative answers to many of these questions, and increase the efficiency of organization that maintains vigorous reporting procedure. 1.2.4 Scientific organizations In many of the scientific organizations, particularly those doing experimental work or research, the young employee’s chief communication with his superiors is through his written (or oral) reports. Often the superior has no other criterion by which to judge an employee’s work. Moreover, these scientific organizations do nothing but investigation, testing, experimentation, or research. Their only tangible product is the report. If they are to have anything to show for their efforts, they must do thorough job of reporting. Many industrial and research organizations nowadays place so much value on high quality reports that they maintain separate editorial departments to write technical reports or to edit and polish them. Reports have achieved a recognized position of importance in our technological world. 1.3

Functions of Technical Writing

Technical Reporting is different from creative writing because it deals with scientific facts and does not present an imaginary view of reality. Scientific and Technical Writing is objective in content and systematic in form. It is always precise, exact, and to the point so that it may have the desired effect on the reader and lead to the required action. 3

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

1.3.1

Education and research

Journals publish technical material on specialized fields and are circulated amongst the scientists and scholars. All these writings must conform to the rules of scientific and technical reporting so that they are properly understood and appreciated. All types of articles such as Technical Articles; Semi-technical Articles; Popular Articles; Research Papers

and Dissertations, Theses and

Technical Bulletins are covered under the ambit of Technical Writing. 1.3.2

Industry/Service sector

The written word is very important at every stage of Industrial development. Industrial reports are must for spread of latest advances in the vast field of Industry. They provide guidance to Industrial enterprises and keep us abreast of the information about the products coming out of the Industrial unit. Service manuals and guidance manuals are efficient tools to provide specifications to the users. Technical Reports include all kinds of reports such as Form Reports on a given proforma; Article Reports, Formal Reports such as Annual Reports, Quarterly Reports; Manuals and Formal Correspondence such as letters, memoranda etc 1.4

Format and Structure of Technical Reporting

The nature of the subject, the purpose of the scientific report and the reader for whom the report is written determine the form and structure of the report. Every written communication has a specific purpose and a specific audience. It should be carefully planned and constructed to fit both. Every scientific and technical communication has one certain clear purpose: to convey information and ideas accurately and efficiently. The objective requires that the communication be: (1) as clear as possible; (2) as brief as possible; and (3) as easy to be understood as possible. 4

Technical Reporting & Writing

Any communication, if it is to be effective and efficient, must be designed for the needs and the understanding of a specific reader or group of readers. One must, therefore, have adequate knowledge of the educational and professional background of the readers. The language and style of the report depends, to a great extent, on the academic and professional background of its readers. We need to have an idea of what the reader expects from the report and his level of understanding. A reader who is unfamiliar with the subject may find the level of the reporting too high. On the other hand, attempting to explain every basic concept and obvious technical terms to the reader who is already familiar with subject will make the report unnecessarily tedious and boring. Writing should be aimed at the average reader, but should also cater to those at either extreme of the range. It should interest the more knowledgeable reader and be intelligible to the reader who is less familiar with the subject. 1.4.1

The contents

The subject of the report primarily determines the nature of the contents. Report writing is meaningless when the writer is not clear about the subject of his report. However, the detailed aspects of the contents are determined by the purpose for which the report is written. Basic questions (5 Ws i. e. What, Why, Who, Where, When, and How) need to be answered satisfactorily before one sets out to write the report. The answers depend on the usefulness of the information to the reader and his interest in the subject, the details of the work carried out, and the recommendations and suggestions one intends to make and their implications. 1.4.2

A framework for the parts

Any form of scientific writing always begins with the general statement about its nature and scope. It should give background information, define the nature and

5

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

extent of the problem, explain the objectives and highlight the need for present investigation. 1.4.3

Emphasis of the significant

The most common fault found in most of the scientific reports is the burial of the really important and significant ideas under a mass of details. One must make a conscious, planned effort to keep the key ideas uncovered. 1.4.4

Prominent position

Perhaps the most fundamental way of making an idea stand out is to put it in a prominent position. The most prominent position in any report or paper is the very beginning. Even though one has not yet led up it logically; one can often put across one’s major thesis most effectively by stating it right at the start and later supplying support for it. A secondary prominent position is the end, particularly in a short communication. 1.4.5

Elimination of detail

One sure way to stress important information is to remove unessential material. On the other hand, one may need to include a lot of details for record purposes. If it is so, one can usually put them into an appendix leaving the main discourse uncluttered. 1.4.6

Liberal use of subheads

Subheads make the structure of the exposition apparent. They help to supply the reader with the frame work on which to fasten the parts. Subheads serve as convenient and efficient signposts. They let the reader know that he/she has reached the end of one subject and is about to begin a new one. When the reader is studying a long or complicated exposition, he/she may have to go back and

6

Technical Reporting & Writing

reread in order to refresh his/her memory. One can find the material he/she is looking for very much more easily if it is supplied with subheads. 1.4.7

Repetition

Psychologists tell us that children learn by repeated experience. The same process works on even the sophisticated and highly educated scientists. If one wants to be sure that an idea does not fade into the background, it is recommended to repeat it. If it can be said in a different way each time, the repetition will be subtle and therefore, palatable; but one shouldn’t shy away from the even bald, frank repetition, if the point is important enough to warrant it. 1.4.8

Visual aids and tables

Visual aids such as graphs, curves, drawings, diagrams, photographs often present information in a striking and efficient manner. They can be used to reinforce and emphasize key ideas. 1.4.9

Typography

Capital letters, larger type size, boldface and italics are all effective means of emphasis, if not overused. 1.4.10

Specific mention

It is all right to be explicit and say “This is a particularly important point,” or “This is an important part of the report”. Such statements may be made along with the material they refer to, or they may be made separately in a letter of transmittal or preface. 1.5

Organization of Scientific Reporting and Writing

There is no precise formula for the organization of scientific reports. The material in any report should be presented in an order that leads logically towards a conclusion or conclusions. The various sections of the report are organized so that each of them has its logical conclusions. 7

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

Almost every scientific communication should have three functional elements. This does not mean that it should be divided by boundaries into three distinct parts. But functionally it should have a beginning, middle and an end. The beginning orients the reader and supplies him with background material, so that he will see how the subject of the paper fits into the general scheme of things. It prepares the reader for the main presentation of information-the middle. The beginning is often called Introduction, which states the purpose of the investigation and describes the basic scheme of the procedure or methods used. It orients the reader by supplying as much historical background as necessary and then describing the present problem. It may define the scope of the study, discussing limitations or qualifications. The middle is usually the longest part of the report. It can be organized in many different ways: – It tells what you did. (Description) – It tells what you found out. (Results) – It analyzes, interprets and discusses these results. (Discussion) The end is sometimes labeled conclusions. It brings together the various subjects that have been discussed and shows their relationships with each other and with broader fields. It leaves the reader with some thoughts about one phase of it. This end section makes the exposition come to a logical and an obvious termination. It is commonly believed that in order to be objective, the scientific report must present only facts, never opinion. However, engineers and scientists are employed not only to discover facts but also to draw inferences from those facts and to make decisions based on them. Therefore, the scientific report must often present the judgment and opinion of its writer or his organization. But the opinion should be impartial and based as soundly as possible on demonstrated facts. 8

Technical Reporting & Writing

Exercise and Assignments 1. Do you term your writing skills to be adequate? Make an objective statement on the need for training in technical reporting and writing. 2. Discuss the important functions of scientific and technical writing. 3. What are the principal factors that determine the form and structure of the report? 4. Comment upon a piece of scientific and technical writing that you have read recently. 5. Choose the appropriate answer out of the choices given below each statement to fill in the blanks : i)

Scientific and Technical Writing is _____________ in content and systematic in form. a) objective b) subjective c) exhaustive d) informative

ii)

Technical Reporting deals with _____________________. a) scientific facts b) unscientific facts c) imaginary view of reality d) important facts

iii)

Graphs, drawings, diagrams and photographs are used in report to reinforce and emphasize ______________. a) superfluous ideas b) key ideas c) unimportant details d) selective detail

iv)

The ________________states the purpose and scope of the investigation a) Middle 9

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

b) Introduction c) Conclusions d) objective v)

______________analyzes, interprets and discusses the results. a) b) c) d)

Results Introduction Discussion Conclusion

Answers i)

a

ii)

a

iii)

10

b

iv)

b

v)

c

Lesson 2 FORMS OF TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC WRITING 2.1

Introduction

Any branch of knowledge requiring a systematic study involves the use of scientific and technical writing for the purpose of recording and reporting information. Technical writing is used in all fields of science, technology, agriculture, engineering, social sciences, and even the humanities. Therefore, many forms of written communications fall within its range. Scientific and technical writing may take the form of reports, articles, papers, dissertations and theses, manuals, and correspondence. Mechanics of style and techniques of technical writing are applied in all types of scientific and technical writing. Several forms of scientific and technical writing are as follows: 2.2

Reports

A scientific and technical report may follow a pattern according to its purpose and scope. The most important types of scientific and technical reports are form reports, article reports, and formal reports such as research papers, dissertations and theses. Form reports are made on given proforma designed especially by an organization according to its specific requirements. The report writer has to fill in the columns and give the required facts under different heads. It is a true statement of facts, figure, or data, which form the basis for the evaluation of work in an institution or organization. Such reports are quite common in the fields of technical education, industry, and scientific research. Article reports take the shape of technical articles. The use of headings and subheadings, tables and figures, charts and graphs, etc. is made for effective 11

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

communication of facts and findings. Related information may also be given in appendices, if it cannot be integrated into the text of the report. Formal reports involve big institutions, scientific organizations, and technical establishments. Annual reports of institutions, formal reports of committees, commissions, public and private enterprises fall under this category. A formal report takes the shape of a book and is divided into many chapter and sections. The writing of this report requires a sound selection of facts and careful organization of subject matter.

2.3

Articles

Scientific and technical writing often takes the shape of articles of varying length and specific format. Such articles may communicate knowledge on a particular subject for preservation and dissemination of ideas. These articles may be subdivided into three categories-technical, semi-technical, and popular. Technical articles contain highly specialized information and involve the use of technical vocabulary and scientific abbreviations, which are understood by experts belonging to a particular discipline. These are published in specialized journals. The scope of semi-technical articles is much broader as they can also be understood and used by people working in similar disciplines. The use of technical vocabulary and abbreviations is, therefore, reduced to the minimum. These articles are also published in scientific journals but they have wider readership. Popular articles on scientific and technological subjects are meant for the educated people who are not specialists. The use of technical vocabulary and abbreviations is, therefore, avoided. The emphasis is on easy and interesting 12

Technical Reporting & Writing

communication of information and not on complicated details. These articles are published in periodicals and journals of common interest and are widely read. 2.4

Scientific/Research Papers

Scientific/Research papers are written and published reports describing original research results. A scientific experiment, no matter how spectacular the result, is not complete, until the results are published. In fact, the cornerstone of the philosophy of science is based on fundamental assumption that original research must be published. Only this way, new scientific knowledge be authenticated and then added to the existing data base that we call science. Research papers are instrumental in cross-fertilization of ideas in the fields of science, agriculture, and technology. These papers are published separately or included in journals of research brought out by universities and other educational institutions. The techniques of scientific and technical writing are strictly observed in research papers. A scientific paper is primarily an exercise in organization. A scientific paper is, or should be, highly stylized, with distinctive and clearly evident component parts. Each scientific paper should have, in proper order, its Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion. “Good organization is the key to good writing”. However, there have been several somewhat different systems of organization that is preferred by some journals and some editors. The tendency towards uniformity is increasing nowadays; the same order is being followed. 2.5

Dissertations and Theses

Dissertations are like research papers, but they are wider in scope and longer in size. A dissertation is based on a student’s research on a particular subject. Like research paper, it must conform to specific format requirement and should strictly follow the rules of scientific and technical writing. A thesis is also based on the 13

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

research work of a student or a scholar. It often refers to the outstanding research work done by scientists in various disciplines. While the term “dissertation” is modest in connotation, the term “thesis” is high sounding; the former should, therefore, be preferred while referring to the research work done by a student at the master’s or doctoral level. 2.6

Manuals

It is a functional form of scientific and technical writing, which aims at attracting the user’s attention and providing him with easy and accurate information and guidance about methodology, experiments, a machine or a product. Information brochures, instruction books, guidance manuals and style manuals contain useful information for the users. All these publications require skill in scientific and technical writing. Manuals should, therefore, be written with great care to have the desired effect. The success of these manuals, to a great extent, depends on the effectiveness of the information provided in these booklets. Many industrial establishments engage experts to do this job. 2.7

Scientific Correspondence

Scientific communication may be in the form of correspondence between two different organizations or within the same organization for vertical and horizontal flow of scientific information. Both letters and memoranda are the two useful tools for scientific and technical communication. They help in recording technical information, making and seeking recommendations on scientific and technical matters, providing clarifications, co-ordinating projects, initiating action, and meeting many other requirements of different institutions. All these forms of scientific and technical writing are used by students, scientists, scholars, administrators, and industrialists according to their specific needs.

14

Technical Reporting & Writing

Exercise and Assignments 1. What are the various forms of scientific and technical reports? 2. Discuss the various kinds of articles on subjects dealing with scientific writing. 3. Write a note on research papers and dissertations for scientific research. 4. Comment upon the usefulness of any form of scientific and technical writing that you have read recently. 5. Choose the appropriate answer out of the choices given below each statement to fill in the blanks : i)

_______________contain highly specialized information. a) Popular articles b) Technical articles c) News articles d) Film articles

ii)

Scientific/Research papers are written and published reports describing____________ research results. a) original b) old c) imaginary d) new

iii)

Manual is a ____________form of scientific and technical writing. a) superfluous b) redundant c) functional d) active

iv)

A ______________ is based on a student’s research on a particular subject. a) Service Manual b) Dissertation c) Scientific Report 15

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

d) Technical report v)

A _________________ is highly stylized, with distinctive and clearly evident components parts. a) scientific paper b) review article c) newspaper article d) sports article Answers i.

(b)

ii.

(a)

iii.

16

(c)

iv.

(b)

v.

(a)

Lesson 3 STYLE OF TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC WRITING 3.1

Introduction

Successful communication depends upon the correct use of language and a good style of writing. One may learn the correct use of language, but has to cultivate a good style of writing. The former concerns grammar, usage, spelling, capitalizations and punctuation, the latter concerns the organization of ideas through proper choice of words, arrangement of words into sentences, grouping of sentences into paragraphs, sections and chapters. The use of abbreviations, approach to the reader, idiom, and use of visual aids, the format and layout of the report are all aspects of style. 3.2

Brevity, Clarity and Objectivity

Scientific and technical writing is different from literary writing in a number of ways. Primarily, the aim of technical writing is to inform rather than to entertain. Hence, the style of writing adopted is generally simple and concise. The primary objective of Technical Writing is to transmit information briefly, clearly and efficiently. Hence, Scientific and technical writing is objective in content and systematic in form. It is always precise, exact, and to the point so that it may have the desired effect on the reader and lead to the required action. Every written communication has a specific purpose and a specific audience. It should be carefully planned and constructed to fit both. 3.3

Use of Simple Language

The primary objective of Technical Writing is to transmit information briefly, clearly and efficiently. This can be achieved only through simple, direct and unadorned style. The first step towards a simple and clear style is to use simple language. One must choose a short word rather than a long word, a plain and 17

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

familiar word rather than a fancy or unusuaal word and a concrete word rather than an abstract word. 3.4

Choice of words

The first and foremost objective of the technnical report is to enable the readers grasp its meaning quickly and accurately. T This is possible only through proper choice of words, which can enhance the readaability and clarity of the message. To achieve this objective, use of simple, plain aand short words is recommended in technical writing. 3.4.1 •

The simple word The agreement was effected.

The agreement was made. •

We expect to commence work on this project immediately.

We expect to start work on this project iimmediately. 3.4.2 •

The plain word or familiar word Everybody working near these tubes shhould be cognizant of the danger of explosion.

Everybody working near these tubes shhould be aware of the danger of explosion. 3.4.3 The concrete word Concrete nouns name objects or things thaat can be perceived by the senses. Abstract nouns name qualities, ideas or condditions that are conceptions of mind. Abstract nouns tend to be general and vague. As a result, expressions that contain 18

Technical Reporting & Writing

abstract nouns are less forceful, less direct, less exact than their concrete counterparts. •

There is adequate access to the jobb for men and materials.

Men and materials can reach the joob easily. •

Production engineers have found ddirect control of this operation to be a necessity.

Production engineers have found tthat this operation must be directly controlled. 3.5

Avoid Verbosity (Wordiness)

For simple, clear style, eliminate from yyour writing every word that does not contribute to the meaning or clarity off your message. Long-winded phrases should be avoided. Don’t use words that aadd nothing. Don’t write “because of the fact that”, if simple “because” will sufficee. On the other hand, don’t eliminate so many words that your writing reads likee a telegram. If a word adds anything worthwhile to your sentence - meaning, grace rhythm, emphasis - let it remain. Remove it if you don’t miss any of these. •

It is very correct that there are threee unfilled vacancies in the directorate of the company. (Omit)

•

The work schedule in regard to thee plant was drafted two months ago. (for)

199

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

•

The wages vary in relation to the age and experience of the employee. (with)

•

Owing to the fact that the wages were low, highly skilled workers left the country.

•

(Because)

It should be noted that the factory will remain closed on 31st May. (Omit)

3.6

Discreet Use of Jargons

Jargon is specialized vocabulary of a particular group- words that an outsider unfamiliar with this field would not understand. Jargon encompasses all technical terms. Such terminology is useful and often necessary in technical communication restricted to people working on the same or similar subjects. Technical terms become jargon only when carelessly used for wider audience. Jargon is a special language of a particular field or profession. We can’t expect lawyers to say habeas corpus in English just because the rest of us don’t understand. The Jargon of any given field is often the most efficient means of communication within that field. It becomes offensive when handy English equivalents are available or people outside the field are expected to understand, what is said. In other words, using jargons unnecessarily is pretentious, showy, and artificial. 3.7

Avoid Colloquial Diction

Colloquial diction is a language that reads like spoken English. In some contexts, colloquial diction is perfectly appropriate. This is mostly used in fiction as conversational lines for the characters and is considered as a private style. In Public style or scientific reporting - Colloquial diction is not desirable. e.g. The

20

Technical Reporting & Writing

president was apparently unaware of his appointment with this real important guy in Moscow. 3.8

Avoid Cliché

A cliché is a trite (stale or stereotyped), overused expression or combination of words that has lost its capacity to communicate effectively. It is usually a tricky phrase that was fresh and vigorous when it was first coined because it involved a certain surprise element. But when such a phrase is used over and over again, it becomes so familiar that it loses all impact. Like an overplayed phonograph, it is hardly even heard. Some comparisons, once clever, have grown trite: dead as a doornail, gentle as a lamb, straight as an arrow. e.g. The ship of state is in troubled waters. Education is what we’re all about. Quality says it all. 3.9

Avoid Faulty Parallelism

In written English, word and phrases joined by ‘and’ are normally similar both in form and its meaning. Violations of this convention are called “Faulty Parallelism” My hobbies are hunting, fishing and to write. 9 My hobbies are hunting, fishing and writing. He would like a career in publishing or as a teacher. 9 He would like a career in publishing or in teaching. Nobody wants wealth without being happy. 9 Nobody wants wealth without happiness.

21

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

His success was generally attributed to his talent, integrity and to his insatiable appetite for work. 9 His success was generally attributed to his talent, integrity and insatiable appetite for work. 3.10

Faulty Predication

The subject of a sentence is whatever answers the question ‘who’ or ‘what’ before the verb. The ‘predicate’ includes the verb along with any word that complete or modify its meaning. When a mismatch of meaning occurs between a subject and a predicate, the result is called “Faulty Predication”. e.g. Grammar is where I have most of my writing problems. (the predicate treats grammar as if it were a place) 9 I have most of my writing problems in Grammar. College athletics is a controversy that will not be easily resolved. 9 College athletics is a controversial subject. 3.11

Use of the Passive Voice

In the passive voice, the subject is the receiver of an action rather than the doer of it. Passive voice is employed by writers when they want to evade or conceal the responsibility for someone’s behaviour. e.g. I regret to inform you that your application has been rejected. As the passive voice is sometimes vague and less economical than the active voice, good writers tend to avoid it except when it is genuinely useful. The passive voice may be preferable, for example, when the real doer of an action is either unknown or, in the context of a discussion, relatively important.

22

Technical Reporting & Writing

3.12

Use of the Verb ‘BE’

The verb ‘be’ is often a cause of stylistic problems. Eight basic forms of verb ‘be’ are: am, are, is, was, were, be, being, been. Avoid verb ‘be’ followed by adjectives or nouns that can be turned into strong, economical verbs. The new policy is violative of the Civil Right Act.

e.g.

The new policy violates the Civil Right Act. His new skateboard was the cause of an accident. His new skateboard caused an accident. 3.13

Use of Subordination

A common failing of technical writers is the expression of ideas of unequal importance in constructions that seem to give equal weight. Meaning can be grasped more quickly and more easily if subordinate ideas are indicated and put in subordinating constructions. A sentence should express the main thought in a principal clause. Less important thoughts should be expressed in subordinate clauses. This machine has been imported from Japan and it is easy to operate. 9 This machine, which has been imported from Japan, is easy to operate.

Exercise and Assignments 1.

‘Successful Communication depends upon the correct use of language and a good style of writing’. Elaborate this statement with special reference to the style of Technical Report Writing. 23

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

2.

Elaborate the following terms. Illustrate them with suitable examples, wherever necessary.

i)

Verbosity

ii)

Jargon

iii)

Colloquial Diction

iv)

Cliché

3. Choose the appropriate answer out of the choices given below each statement to fill in the blanks : i)

A sentence should express the subordinating thought in a) b) c) d)

ii)

coordinate clause main clause principal clause

In scientific writing, the following is not desirable. a) b) c) d)

iii)

subordinate clause

colloquial diction use of correct language use of technical terms use of abbreviations

Excessive use of words is called a) b) c) d)

Jargons Verbosity faulty predication Cliché

24

Technical Reporting & Writing

iv)

In scientific writing, the style of writing is Simple Vague Colloquial Indirect

a) b) c) d) v).

The first step towards a simple and clear style is to use Verbosity Jargon simple language Cliché

a) b) c) d) Answers i.

(a)

ii.

(a)

iii.

25

(b)

iv.

(a)

v.

(c)

Lesson 4 RESEARCH PAPER WRITING 4.1

Introduction

Communicating science is as important to the scientific process as designing, conducting and analyzing the experiment itself. A scientific experiment, irrespective of its spectacular results, is not completed until the results are published. In fact, the foundation of science is based on the premise that original research must be published. This is the only way by which new scientific knowledge can be authenticated and then added to the existing data base that we call science. In the field of education and research, journals publish technical material on specialized fields and are circulated amongst the scientists and scholars. All these writings must conform to the rules of scientific and technical reporting so that they are properly understood and appreciated. All types of articles such as Technical Articles; Semi-technical Articles; Popular Articles; Research Papers; Dissertations and Theses, and Technical Bulletins are covered under the ambit of Scientific/Technical Writing. This chapter is particularly focused on the writing of research paper, which itself is the best example of the organized form of scientific writing. 4.2

Research Paper as a Form of Scientific Writing

A scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results. A research/scientific paper is primarily an exercise in organization. Each scientific paper should have, in proper order, its Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion (IMRAD). Early journals published descriptive papers. IMRAD pattern slowly progressed and came to be adopted by most of the journals in the latter half of the nineteenth century. 26

Technical Reporting & Writing

IMRAD pattern is an effective way to proceed to answer these four questions: •

Introduction: What question was studied?

•

Materials and Methods: How was the problem studied?

•

Results: What are the findings?

•

Discussion: What do these findings mean?

4.3

Essential Parts of the Research Paper

Good organization is the key to good writing. A research paper is highly stylized with following distinctive and clearly evident components parts. 4.3.1

Title

The title should be short but sufficiently explanatory for the reader to know what the report is about. It should be appropriate, brief, indicative and informative. The title is likely to be reprinted in bibliographies and subject indexes, stored in bibliographic data bases. It has to be ensured that the title does not promise more than what is in the article. At first glance, on the basis of the title a paper/article may be rejected or opened up. A good title is the one that: ¾ Contains a few words/ is short ¾ Describes the contents of the paper accurately/ is clear ¾ Describes the subject as specifically as possible ¾ Avoid abbreviations, formula and jargon ¾ Is easy to understand ¾ Contains key words for the benefit of information retrieval system. 4.3.2

By-Line

The by-Line normally has two elements; the names (s) of the author (s) – that is, the person (or persons) who contributed materially to the research being reported;

27

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

and the name (s) of the institution (s) where the research was done. If the author has moved to another institution, his current address may be given in the footnote. 4.3.3 Abstract An abstract is a very important portion of an article and is best placed before the text of the manuscript so that the reader might comprehend the essence of the author’s research. Abstract is generally restricted to 250 words or even less. The abstract should be informative, give a succinct condensation of the article and complete in itself and be intelligible without reference to the text, figures or tables. It should include principal objectives and scope of investigation, methodology/ techniques employed and the contribution of the particular piece of work towards new knowledge. The abstract is placed on a separate page or immediately after the title. It should be typed in single space and centered on the page leaving equal space on the left and right side. It should: ¾ Avoid use of abbreviations. ¾ Be written in the past tense as it refers to work done. ¾ It should never give any information or conclusion that is not stated in the paper. ¾ It must be accurate with respect to figures quoted in the main text. ¾ It should not cite any references (except in rare cases) 4.3.4

Introduction

Introduction should be relatively short. This should give background information, define the nature and extent of the problem, relate research to previous research, explain the objectives and highlight the need for present investigation. It should reveal the background, important and specific objective of research work undertaken. It should also point out lacunae in earlier research in that field. 28

Technical Reporting & Writing

¾ Detailed review of literature should be avoided. Cite peer-reviewed scientific literature or scholarly reviews. Avoid general reference works such as textbooks. ¾ Three to four citations may suffice to corroborate a statement. ¾ Keep the use of abbreviations to a minimum in this part. ¾ Use present tense but the work reviewed of others may be presented in past tense. ¾ Define any specialized terms or abbreviations 4.3.5

Materials and Methods

This section describes subjects, materials and methods used, including experimental design, in sufficient detail to enable other scientists to evaluate the work or to duplicate research procedure. The usual sequence for experimental studies is design of the experiment, subjects (plant, animal, human), materials, procedures and methods for observations and interpretation. Unnecessary details are avoided.

If well known methods are used without modification, simply

methods are named, or at the most papers describing them are cited. Methods are described in sufficient details in case modifications of previously described methods are used. Methodology be explained in such a manner that the entire experience could be repeated by other research workers by adopting the technology method mentioned in this section. The planning and presentation of the body of the report should be done with the reader in mind. He should be able to learn what you have done and how and what you have found and where your findings stand in relation to existing knowledge. And, above all, no reasonable question that may arise in the mind of the reader should be left unanswered.

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The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

4.3.6

Results

This section provides facts and figures duly supported by statistical analysis. The results are given in orderly and coherent sequence including pertinent mean data and their standard errors. Results should be related with other standard and recent work on the subject, drawing conclusions and logical implications. All the tables, graphs, histograms and photographs etc, should be arranged in a logical order.

4.3.7

Discussion

The purpose of the discussion is to clarify matters developing from the work described earlier in the report. The contents of this section should be directly based on the work contained in the body of the report. No new information should be introduced in the discussion. This part in fact is an attempt to show how far the objectives set out or the assumptions made at the beginning of the research work/ experiments have been achieved. It is interpretation of the data. Data should be referred to and discussed but should not be repeated under discussion. In the discussion, all possible explanations should not be hypothetical but based on the work of other scientists. If the observations/ results of the other workers are to be contradicted, ensure that the experimental conditions, materials and methods of your experiment were the same as used in experiment that to be contradicted. This section is meant to explain, justify or defend anything new or unusual about the results and make sure that the approach is logical and arguments are objective. In any report or article, the discussion should be brief and to the point. 4.3.8 Conclusions The main findings and inferences flowing directly from your work are listed in this section. This section is brief and does not present new arguments. All conclusions should be unconditional and unambiguous, and listed in order of importance; with the most important one first. 30

Technical Reporting & Writing

4.3.9

Recommendations/Proposals

Recommendation is distinct from the conclusion in that the conclusion is a direct outcome of your work whereas a recommendation need not be so. A recommendation is to some degree a matter of opinion and should not be included under conclusions. Recommendations should be made with complete objectivity and be based as soundly as possible on demonstrated facts. The understanding, integrity and seriousness of the author are judged through these recommendations. Proposals too are suggestions based on the findings of the work, but made with less conviction than are recommendations. A proposal needs further study before it is accepted and acted upon. 4.3.10 Acknowledgments Some journals include an acknowledgements section in which credit is given to persons for grants in aid and to those who have helped with research or in writing the article. In short reports, acknowledgements may be placed at the end of the report and in large reports, at the beginning. Sometimes acknowledgements are made in the preface to the report.

4.3.11 Literature Cited or References Rarely is it possible to write a report without consulting the work of others, published or otherwise. Reference to the work consulted will, on the one hand, enable the reader to refer to the work if necessary. If the number of references is large or if the same work is referred to frequently, a separate list of references will be necessary but if the number of references is small they may be given in foot note. The listing may be in alphabetical order or in the sequence in which the reference occurs in the article. Where the number of references is large, the alphabetical order is desirable.

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The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

4.4

Authorship

Authors should include persons who can defend the intellectual content, including data and conclusions. The author is responsible for generating at least part of the intellectual content (conception or design, data analysis and interpretation) or for drafting, reviewing or revising critically the intellectual content. Authors must comply with the following rules when submitting the manuscript for publication: •

The manuscript is not under consideration elsewhere and the research will not be submitted elsewhere until a final decision has been made by the journal.

•

The manuscript is a trustful, original work without fabrication, fraud or plagiarism.

•

The authors have made an important scientific contribution and are familiar with the primary data.

•

The authors have read the manuscript and take responsibility for its content, and understand that if the paper, or part of it, is found to be faulty or fraudulent, they share responsibility.

•

All funding sources supporting the work and all institutional or corporate affiliations of the authors must be acknowledged.

•

The authors must certify that they have no commercial association that might pose a conflict of interest in connection with the submitted paper.

4.5

Order of Authorship

Some journals use the alphabetical order for authorship. Most of them assume an order based on each author’s importance to the study: •

The first author is primarily responsible for collecting and analyzing data, and writing.

•

The last one, an established investigator, assumes the overall responsibility for the study. 32

Technical Reporting & Writing

• 4.6

The middle authors are listed according to their order of importance to the study. Epilogue

Scientific paper is objective in content and systematic in form. It has to be clear, simple and well ordered communication to transmit the scientific facts. Scientific paper has a specific purpose and a specific audience. It should be carefully planned and prepared keeping the reader in mind. It is the art of making the subject intelligible to others, which requires invaluable mental discipline and in turn enhances clear thinking.

Exercise and Assignments 1. What is the criterion for Authorship in a research paper? 2. What is a research paper? Enumerate and discuss various sections of a research paper. 3. Make a list of important journals which you consult in your special area of study. Comment upon the usefulness of a research paper given in any one of them. 4. Fill in the blanks with suitable word(s): (i) A research paper is a published report describing _

research

results. (ii) A _____________________ is published in a peer reviewed journal. (iii)

The ________________ author is primarily responsible for collecting and analyzing data, and writing.

(iv)

Review of literature prior to start of any research work is essential to avoid ___________________ in work.

(v) __________________ of a paper contains name/s and address of the authors.

33

Lesson 5 REVIEW ARTICLE WRITING 5.1

Introduction

A “review” article is not an original publication. This is a secondary publication. At times, reviews also contain new data (from author’s own laboratory) that have not yet appeared in a primary journal. However, the purpose of a review is to review previously published literature and to put it into some kind of perspective. A review paper is usually long, typically ranging between 10 and 50 printed pages. The subject is fairly general, compared with that of research papers. And the literature review is, of course the principal product. Good review papers are much more than annotated bibliographies. They offer critical evaluation of the published literature and often provide important conclusions based on that literature. 5.2

Organization of a Review Paper

The organization of a review paper is very important like any research paper. However, organization of a review paper is very different from that of a research paper. Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion arrangement cannot be used for the review paper. In format, a review paper is not very different from a well organized research paper or thesis. If we have previously written research papers and are ready now to write our first review, it might help us conceptually, if the review paper is visualized in terms of a research paper. While writing the review, we expand the introduction; delete the Materials and Methods (unless original data are being presented); delete the Results and expand the Discussion.

34

Technical Reporting & Writing

5.3

Preparing an Outline

There is no prescribed organization for review paper unlike research papers. It has to be developed on our own. The important rule for writing a review paper is to prepare an outline. The outline must be prepared carefully. The outline assists in organizing the paper. If the review is organized properly, the overall scope of the review will be well defined and the integral parts will fit together in logical order. Moreover, before start writing the review, it is wise to determine whether a review journal would be interested in such a manuscript. At times, review papers are prepared on demand. In other words, some reviews are especially invited from the subject matter experts. In some cases, the editor will want the author to limit or expand the scope of the proposed review or to add or delete certain of the sub topics. In addition, a list of key references showing the author’s contributions to the field and one or two paragraph statements detailing the aim, scope and relevance of the topic to be reviewed must be included with the outline .Not only is the outline essential for the preparer of the review, it is also very useful to potential readers of the review. For that reason, many review journals print the outline at the beginning of the article, where it serves as a convenient table of the contents for prospective readers. 5.4

Types of Reviews

Before actually writing a review, it is necessary to determine the critical requirements of the journal to which we plan to submit the manuscript. Some journals demand critical evaluation of the literature, whereas others are more concerned with bibliographic completeness. Both of these types of review papers serve a purpose, but the different purposes need to be recognized.

35

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

5.4.1

Chronological Reviews

At one time, review papers tended to present historical analyses. In fact, the reviews were often organized in chronological order. Many of the “Book series” (“Annual Review of”, “Recent Advances in”, “Yearbook of” etc), however, publish reviews designed to compile and to annotate but not necessarily to evaluate the papers published on a particular subject during a defined time period. Some active areas of research are reviewed on a yearly basis. 5.4.2

Critical Reviews

Critical reviews are those reviews which offer the critical analysis of the subject irrespective of the chronological details. These days, the review journals prefer and demand authoritative and critical evaluations of the published literature on a subject. Those reviews are preferred that provide a new understanding of the rapidly moving field. Only the recent literature on the subject is catalogued or evaluated. If we are reviewing a subject that has not previously been reviewed or one in which misunderstandings or doubts have developed, a bit more coverage of the historical foundations is appropriate. If the subject has been effectively reviewed before, the starting point for the review might well be the date of the previous review (not publication date, but the actual date up to which the literature has been reviewed. 5.5

Writing for the Reader

Another basic difference between review papers and primary papers is the reader. The primary paper is highly specialized and so are its readers (peers of the author). The review paper will probably cover a number of these highly specialized subjects, so that the review will be read by many peers. The review paper will also be read by many people in the related fields because reading of 36

Technical Reporting & Writing

good review is the best way to keep oneself abreast with the new knowledge in one’s broad areas of interest. Review papers are also valuable in the teaching process and equally liked by the students.

5.6

Style of the Review Paper

As the review paper is likely to have a wide and varied audience, the style of review writing should be much more general than it need be for a research paper. Jargon and specialized abbreviations must be eliminated or carefully explained. Writing style for a review is a bit verbose and general. 5.7

Importance of Introductory Paragraphs

Readers are much influenced by the introduction of review paper. They are likely to decide whether or not to read further on the basis of what they find in the first few paragraphs. Readers are also influenced by the first paragraph of each major section of a review, deciding whether to read, skim or skip the rest of the section depending on what they find in the first paragraph. If “first paragraphs” are well written, all readers will be able to achieve some degree of comprehension of the subject. 5.8

Importance of Conclusions

As the review paper covers a wide subject for a wider group of readers, “conclusions” form a very crucial component of the review. This is especially important for a highly technical, advanced or difficult subject. It has to be summarized to the satisfaction of both the expert and the beginner in learning. Good summaries and simplifications gradually form part of the text-books and mean a great deal to student community.

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The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

Exercise and Assignments 1. What is a review article? How it different from a research paper? 2. In what respect the organization of a review paper different from that of a research paper? 3. Elaborate on the various types of reviews. Which type of review is preferred these days? 4. Make a list of important journals which you consult in your special area of study. Comment upon the usefulness of a review paper given in any one of them. 5. Write a review article on any given topic of your choice.

38

Lesson 6 AGREEMENT: SUBJECT -VERB AND PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT 6.1

Introduction

Agreement is the grammatical relationship between a subject and a verb or a pronoun and its antecedent or an adjective and the word it modifies. Such agreement frequently poses a few problems in English language. This lesson discusses as to how we can write effective sentences by making proper use of agreement between a subject and a verb or a pronoun and its antecedent. 6.2

Subject -Verb Agreement

Subject -verb agreement occurs at least once per sentence. To be grammatically correct, subjects and verbs must match in number (singular or plural) and in person (first, second or third). •

When two singular nouns refer to the same person or thing, the verb is singular. The poet and scholar is dead.

•

Do not be confused by words or phrases that come between the subject and verb. Find the subject and make the verb agree with it. The first two chapters of the book were exciting. [The verb agrees with the subject, chapters, not with the nearest noun, book].

•

When two singular nouns are practically synonymous, the verb is singular. His power and influence is very great. Peace and order is the most important issue.

40

Writing Effective Sentences

•

When two singular nouns though not synonymous, are intended to express jointly a single idea, the verb is singular. Bread and butter is what he has for breakfast. Slow and steady wins the race.

•

When the same singular noun is qualified by two contrasting adjectives, the verb is plural. Mental and physical science are not the same.

•

Use a singular verb with collective nouns when the group is considered as a unit acting together. Use a plural verb when the individual members of the group are acting separately. Collective nouns have a singular form but name a group of persons or things as a single unit: audience, bunch, crowd, family, herd, jury and the like. Our family goes out to dinner fortnightly. [The family acts together as a single unit.] The family have been arriving all morning. [Members of the family arrived at different

times.]

The committee is meeting today. [The singular verb is emphasizes the committee acting

as a unit.]

The committee are unable to agree on a plan. [The plural verb are emphasizes the members of the committee acting separately.] •

Subjects indicating sums of money, distance, measurement and the like ordinarily take singular verbs. Three quarters of the money is already spent. Ten rupees is not a large sum. Forty years is a long time to live in one town. Six miles is a long distance. 41

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

•

If the items that make up the quantity are thought of as separate parts rather than as a single unit, the verb may be plural. Forty percent of the trees were damaged by the hurricane. [The trees were damaged separately.] One half of the students have finished the examination. [The students finished individually.]

•

The expressions the number takes a singular verb, but a number takes a plural verb. The number of candidates for the position was large. A number of candidates were applying for the position. The number of people moving to the Southwest is increasing. A number of business firms have moved from New York.

•

Use a singular verb with nouns that are plural in form but singular in meaning, such as economics, news, and physics. Mathematics has always been Betty’s downfall. The financial news was favorable last month.

•

A plural verb is preferred with nouns which are plural in meaning though singular in form. They are: number, plenty, variety, rest, enemy, cannon, none, pair, dozen, the brave etc. None but the brave deserve the fair. Plenty of men are charitable.

•

Plural verb is placed after such nouns, as plenty, number and variety according to the

context. Unless the context shows that those words

are used to imply plurality, the verb must be singular: Too great a variety of pursuits costs much and pays little. There is often a number of claims to meet.

42

Writing Effective Sentences

•

Two nouns connected by and not, as well as, with, together with, besides, in addition to, like, are followed by a verb in the singular when the former of the nouns is in the singular. For example: John and not his brother was present. The coach, as well as the players, was happy over the victory. Reema, together with her friends, was here. Silver as well as gold, has fallen in price. The commander with all his men has been killed. Milk besides butter, is supplied by this dairy. Satish like Harish, is a good boy. The house with all its fittings and furniture was sold yesterday.

•

When two nouns or pronouns are joined by not only … but also the verb agrees with the second noun or pronoun. For example: Not only the officer, but also six soldiers were killed. Not only six soldiers, but also the officer was killed.

•

Two or more singular nouns or pronouns connected by the conjunctions either …. or, neither …. nor, require a singular verb. If the subjects differ in number or person, the verb follows the number and person of the subject nearest to it. Either the cat or the dog has done it. Neither praise nor blame seems to affect him. Neither the Prime Minister nor his Ministers desire war. Either the dean or his assistant was to have handled the matter. Either you or he has to be here. Either you or your friends have made this mistake. Either the Ministers or the Prime Minister is to be blamed.

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The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

•

When either and neither are used as nouns or adjectives they must be followed by singular verbs. He asked me if either of the applicants was suitable. Neither man was strong.

•

Any noun qualified by adjectives each and every must be followed by a singular verb. Each one of these qualities is to be found in him. Every man and woman was killed.

•

A verb should agree with its subject and not with the complement. Our only guide was the stars. (Correct) The stars were our only guide. (Correct)

•

When the subject is the title of a novel, a play, or the like, or a word used as a word, use a singular verb even though the form of the subject is plural. Romeo and Juliet is a Shakespeare play. Songs and satires is a book by Edgar Lee Masters. Women is the plural of woman.

•

Indefinite pronouns ending in –one, -body and –thing, such as anyone, everybody, and something, always take singular verbs. The indefinite pronouns another, each, either, neither and one always take a singular verb. Everybody in the audience was enthusiastic. Another of the pesticides has provided harmful to birds. Each of the students needs individual help. Neither of the books was available in the library.

44

Writing Effective Sentences

•

The indefinite pronouns all, any, most, none and some may take either a singular or a plural verb depending upon the noun they refer to. Some of the silver is missing. [Some refers to the singular noun silver.] Some of her ancestors were slaves. [Some refers to the plural noun ancestors.] None of the work is finished. [None refers to the singular work.] None of the birds have migrated yet. [None refers to the plural birds.] A singular verb is sometimes used with none even when it refers to a plural noun. The plural is more common, however, in both spoken and written current English.

•

When the adjectives, much little and less are used as nouns they must be followed by a singular verb. Much of what you have said, has been said by others. More than a year has passed since I saw him. A little of good manners makes our life sweet. Less than a million tons is produced in a year.

•

Many a should always be followed by a singular verb. Many a man has lost everything by putting his eggs in one basket. Many a soldier has died for the sake of his country. BUT Many a man and woman were standing there.

•

If the principal clause is in the past tense, it must be followed by a past tense in dependent clause. He told me he does not believe in God. (Wrong) He told me he did not believe in God. (Correct) However, this rule does not apply to such universal truths as We are taught that the earth moves round the sun. 45

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

At last he was convinced of the fact that honest is the best policy. •

In a subjunctive mood where there is an expression of some wish or supposition, the verb is plural. I wish I were a film actor. Though he were the P.M. of this country, I would say the same. If he were here, he would support me.

•

Learn the correct uses of will and shall. To express simple future action shall is used in the First Person and will in the Second Person and the Third Person. I shall come. (First Person) You will come. (Second Person) He will come. (Third Person) They will come. (Third Person)

•

Shall is used in the second and third person to express (a) command, (b) promise, (c) threat, (d) determination, whereas will is used in the first person to express (a) willingness, (b) promise, (c) threat or determination. Thou (you) shall not steal. (Command) You shall have a holiday tomorrow. (Promise) You shall be punished for this. (Threat) I will send you my book. (Willingness) I will try to do better next time. (Promise) I will punish you if you do that again. (Threat)

•

Make sure that a demonstrative adjective (this, that, these, those) agrees in number with the noun it modifies. These adjectives forms seldom cause difficulty. One frequent error, however, occurs when the demonstrative adjective is used with kind of or sort of followed 46

Writing Effective Sentences

by plural nouns. Demonstrative adjective modifies the singular noun kind or sort and not the following plural noun. Thus a singular demonstrative is used.

6.3

Nonstandard:

These kind of fruits taste sweet.

Standard:

This kind of fruit tastes sweet.

Nonstandard:

These sort of dresses are expensive.

Standard:

This sort of dress is expensive.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

The form of the most pronouns depends on antecedents--- nouns, noun phrases, or other pronouns to which the pronouns refer. The connection between a pronoun and its antecedent must be clear if writing is to be clear and coherent. 6.3.1 •

Number, Person and Gender Possessive, relative and demonstrative pronouns must match their antecedents in number, person and gender as the nouns e. g. One should not waste his energy over trifles. (Wrong) One should not waste one’s energy over trifles. (Right)

•

The pronoun is singular when two singular nouns joined by and are preceded by each or every. Every day and every night brings its own duty. (Right)

•

When the singular nouns joined by and refer to a single person or thing, use a singular pronoun. My guide and teacher asked me to take down the notes as she checked my report.

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The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

•

The pronoun is singular when two or more singular nouns are joined by or, either or, or neither nor. Thus: The manager or the assistant should put his time in investigating the details. Either Ram or Jagmohan forgot to take his pen. Neither Sita nor Rekha did her job sincerely.

•

When a plural noun and a singular noun are joined by or or nor, the pronoun agrees with the noun/antecedent nearest to it. Either the manager or the assistants failed in their duty. Either the assistants or the manager failed in his duty. Neither he nor they have done their duty.

6.3.2 •

Relative Pronoun After such, use the relative pronoun as and not who or which e. g. His performance was such as I had expected him to give.

•

A relative pronoun should agree with its antecedent in person and number, e. g., This is one of the most interesting stories that has appeared this year. (Wrong). This is one of the most interesting stories that have appeared this year.(Correct) This is the only one of his books that are worth reading. (Wrong). This is the only one of his books that is worth reading. (Correct) (Change are to is, for here the antecedent of that is one).

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Writing Effective Sentences

•

A relative pronoun or relative adverb should be placed as close to its antecedent as possible e. g. I have read Plato’s writings, who was a disciple of Socrates. (Wrong) I have read the writings of Plato who was a disciple of Socrates. (Correct)

• Each other should be used in speaking of two persons or things, ‘one another’ in speaking of more than two: When we two friends parted, they wished luck to each other. We should respect one another. •

Either should be used in reference to two. When the reference is to more than two, we should use any one: Either of these two medicines will do you good. She is more beautiful than any of her four friends. (not either)

•

Which when used as a relative pronoun, must relate to some noun or pronoun, i.e. its antecedent previously mentioned. Using which without an antecedent is wrong: He won the gold medal in race, which pleased his parents. (Wrong) His winning of the gold medal in race pleased his parents. (Right) No one objected to his suggestion, which was disappointing. (Wrong: Because the sentence fails to clarify what was disappointing, the suggestion, or the fact that no one objected).

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The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

Exercise I. Choose the appropriate answer out of the choices given below each statement to fill in the blanks. 1. Forty miles ___________ too long distance for us to cover on foot. a) are b) is c) has d) were 2. Law and order _____________the major issue facing our nation. a) is b) are c) has d) have 3. Medical Science and Space Science _______________ today. a) is b) are c) us d) have

much advanced

4. The number of applicants for the Director’s position ___________quite large. a) were b) was c) very d) so 5. A number of applications _______________received for this position. a) were b) was c) is d) has

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Writing Effective Sentences

6. The burden of sales taxes ________ most heavily on low income families. a) fall b) falls c) falling d) to fall 7. Anil, together with his colleagues, _________ present in the meeting. a) was b) were c) is d) has 8. Either you or your friends ______________ made this mistake. a) have b) has c) are d) were 9. Neither praise nor blame __________ to affect him. a) seems b) seem c) seemingly d) to seems 10. Neither of the players ____________ strong. a) was b) were c) has d) have Answers 1. 6.

(b) (b)

2. 7.

(a) (a)

3. 8.

(b) (a)

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4. 9.

(b) (a)

5. 10.

(a) (a)

Lesson 7 CONCISENESS 7.1

Introduction

Conciseness describes writing that is direct and to the point. Writing that is not concise is wordy. Wordy and indirect writing irritates the readers. In contrast, concise writing appeals to readers because it is direct. Hence, all efforts should be made to eliminate from the writing every word that does not contribute to the meaning or clarity of your message. Conciseness makes the writing clear and effective. 7.2

Eliminate Wordy Sentence Structures

Wordy sentence structures, including expletive and passive constructions, can make writing seem abstract and uninteresting.

7.2.1 Revise unnecessary expletive construction •

An expletive postpones the subject and diminishes its effect by putting it or there plus a form of the verb be before the subject. If you remove the expletive and revise slightly, you give the subject – and the entire sentence –greater power. e.g.

It is compulsory for students to participate in Physical Education classes. Students must participate in Physical Education classes. (Improved)

There are three courses offered by the Dairy Technology Division. Three courses are offered by the Dairy Technology Division. (Improved) The Dairy Technology Division offers three courses. (Improved)

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Writing Effective Sentences

7.2.2 •

Revise unnecessary passive constructions For most writing, the active voice adds liveliness as well as conciseness. e.g. Social service camp was attended by the students for credit in sociology. Students attended social service camp for credit in sociology. (Improved)

7.2.3 •

Combining sentences When you revise, look carefully at the set of sentences in the draft. You may be able to make writing more effective by combining a set of sentences into one sentence. e.g.

I visited Bombay. It was during summer holidays. I had to attend the marriage of my cousin. I visited Bombay during summer holidays to attend the marriage of my cousin. (Improved)

He wrote a letter. He addressed it to the Deputy Commissioner. He pointed out the insanitary conditions in the town. He urged the Deputy Commissioner to look into the matter. He wanted an early action.

He wrote a letter to the Deputy Commissioner pointing out the insanitary conditions of the town and urging him to look into the matter for an early action. (Improved) 7.2.4 •

Reducing clauses You can reduce adjective clauses to phrases, sometimes just by dropping the opening relative pronoun and its verb. e.g. 53

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

NDRI, which is a premier Institute in dairying, was established at Karnal in 1955. NDRI, a premier Institute in dairying, was established at Karnal in 1955. (Improved) •

Sometimes you can reduce the clause to a single word. e.g. The scientists held a memorial service for their colleagues who had died. The scientists held a memorial service for their dead colleagues.

7.2.5 •

Reducing phrases Sometimes, you will be able to reduce phrases to shorter phrases or to single words. e.g. Although loaded with state-of –the art equipments, the laboratory was considered to be most neglected part of the Division. The state-of –the art laboratory was considered to be most neglected part of the Division. (Improved)

7.2.6

Using strong verbs Your writing will have more impact when you choose strong verbsverbs that directly convey an action. Be and have are not strong verbs. When you revise weak verbs to strong ones, you will often reduce the number of words in your sentence.

•

Avoid verb ‘be’ or ‘have’ followed by adjectives or nouns that can be turned into strong, economical verbs. e.g.

The project proposal has to do with improving the productivity of animals. 54

Writing Effective Sentences

The project proposal envisages improving the productivity of animals. The Institute oversaw the establishment of a children’s park. The Institute established a children’s park.

The Institute had the appearance of being renovated. The Institute appeared to be renovated.

The policy of the government is violative of the human rights act. The policy of the government violates the human rights act. The old machine was the cause of an accident. The old machine caused an accident. 7.2.7

Eliminate superfluous words Superfluous words clutter your writing. Always eliminate them to achieve conciseness. A writer may use six inexact words when one precise word would work better. Unnecessary padding of words should be avoided. e.g.

Infact, the television channel, which was situated in the local area, had won a great many awards as a result of having been involved in coverage of all kinds of controversial issues.

The local television channel had won many awards for its coverage of all kinds of controversial issues. (Improved)

It is considered that the entire exercise appears to be a waste of time. The entire exercise appears to be a waste of time. (Improved) 55

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

Exercise Combine each of the following sets of simple sentences into a single

I

concise sentence by making any changes that you think necessary.

i)

Sardar Patel was a man of strong will. He played an important role during the freedom struggle. He worked for a united India. He is known as the iron man of the country.

ii)

The population of the world is increasing at an alarming rate. It was about one and a half thousand million in the beginning of the century. It would be more than six thousand million by the end of this century.

iii)

He wrote a letter. He addressed it to the Deputy Commissioner. He pointed out the insanitary conditions in the town. He urged the Deputy Commissioner to look into the matter. He wanted an early action.

iv)

Birds live in higher reaches of mountains. They come down during the winter. They come to the foothills or even the plains. They spend their winter there.

v)

An engineer must be accurate. He must be very responsible. He should also be above board in his dealings.

vi)

Abraham Lincoln came of a poor family. He had to struggle hard to get education. He rose to a position of eminence with his hard work.

Answers: i)

Sardar Patel, a man of strong will and known as the iron man of the country, played an important role during the freedom struggle and worked for a United India.

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Writing Effective Sentences

ii)

The population of the world, which is increasing at an alarming rate, was about one and a half thousand million in the beginning of the century and would be more than six thousand million by the end of it.

iii)

He wrote a letter to the Deputy Commissioner pointing out the insanitary conditions of the town and urging him to look into the matter for an early action.

iv)

Birds that live in higher reaches of mountains come down to the foothills or even the plains during winter.

v)

An engineer must be accurate, responsible, honest and above board in his dealings.

vi)

Abraham Lincoln, who came of a poor family and had to struggle hard to get education, rose to a position of eminence with his hard work.

II Combine each of the following sets of short and choppy sentences into one sentence as indicated.

i)

Germs cause diseases. Germs are too small to be seen with the naked eye. They get inside the body.

ii)

The students submitted a memorandum. They submitted it to the Vice-Chancellor. It contained a charter of demands. The demands related to the creation of better employment opportunities for them.

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The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

iii)

The war wrought great havoc. It took a heavy toll of life. It rendered hundred and thousands of people homeless.

iv)

The University holds a Kian Mela every year. The Mela has various attractions. There is the sale of seeds. There is also physical demonstration of scientific cultivation of crops.

v)

A technical library helps a researcher mainly in two ways. It enables him to identify the sources of information. It helps him collect material for the research paper.

vi)

These two machines were installed in 1975. One of them is showing signs of wear. The other one continues to give good service.

vii)

The vehicle completed the thousand-hour test. It did not fail. Its condition was, therefore, considered good.

viii)

The management advised the workers to resume duty. The workers ignored the advice. The management was forced to declare a lock-out.

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Writing Effective Sentences

Answers

i)

Germs, which are too small to be seen with naked eye, cause diseases by getting inside the body.

ii)

The students submitted to the Vice Chancellor a memorandum containing a charter of demands related to better employment opportunities for them.

iii)

The war wrought great havoc taking a heavy toll of life rendering hundreds and thousands of people homeless.

iv)

The University holds every year a Kisan Mela having various attractions such as the sale of seeds and physical demonstrations of scientific cultivations of crops.

v)

A technical library helps a researcher to identify the sources of information and to collect material for the research paper.

vi)

One of these two machines installed in 1975 is showing signs of wear and the other one continues to give good service.

vii)

The condition of the Vehicle, which completed the thousand hour test without fail, was considered good. or Having successfully completed the thousand-hour test, the vehicle’s condition was considered good.

viii)

The management was forced to declare a lock-out as its advice to the workers to resume duty was ignored by them. 59

Lesson 8

COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION 8.1

Introduction

Most effective sentences bring together two or more ideas that they relate to one another by coordination and subordination. Broadly, coordination expresses equality: two things that coordinate have roughly the same importance, the same rank, the same value. Whereas, subordination expresses some sort of inequality: when one thing is subordinate, or dependent, upon another, it is in some way of lesser importance or rank or value. 8.2

Coordination

Coordination is joining of two or more words, phrases, or clauses of equal importance, rank or value. A coordinate sentence is also known as compound sentence. It consists of grammatically equivalent independent clauses joined by a semicolon or a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, or, nor, yet or so) 8.2.1 •

Coordinate to bring equal ideas together Coordination allows you to bring equal parts of separate sentences together into single sentences by creating compound subjects, objects, modifiers, or whole predicates. By connecting them and putting them in same grammatical form, the ideas can be expressed more clearly and their equal importance is better emphasized. e.g. Ram wanted a new suit. He wanted a new tie. He wanted a new hat. He couldn’t afford them Ram wanted a new suit, tie and hat, but couldn’t afford them.

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Writing Effective Sentences

8.2.2 •

Coordinate to show equal relationships Coordination also allows you to express equal relationships among more complex ideas and information among a series of sentences. e.g.

Dr. Sen has taken over as the Director of the company. He still lives simply and unpretentiously. Dr. Sen has taken over as the Director of the company, but still lives simply and unpretentiously. 8.2.3 •

Avoid illogically coordinated sentences Coordination is illogical when ideas in the compounded independent clauses are not related. One part of a coordinate construction must lead logically to the other. e.g.

Computers came into common use in the 1980s, and they sometimes make costly errors. (Faulty) 9 Computers came into common use in the 1980s, but they have not been improved sufficiently to prevent occasional costly errors.

John Keats wrote “Ode to Nightingale” and died of tuberculosis. (Faulty) 8.3

Subordination

A sentence with some information subordinated contains 1) an independent clause, which stands on its own as a complete grammatical unit and 2) one or more phrases or clauses that cannot stand alone as a sentence. (So-called a complex sentence) Subordination weaves elements together so that the main idea is featured in the main clause, and the other subordinate ideas are given in the 61

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

subordinated clause/s. What information you choose to subordinate depends on what meaning you want a sentence to deliver. Adverb clauses are dependent clauses that start with subordinating conjunctions (after, before, until, when, so that, although) Example:

When he was late, I was angry.

8.3.1

Put your main idea in the main clause; subordinate other information

•

A sentence should express the main thought in a principal clause. Less important thoughts should be expressed in subordinate clauses. This offset printing machine has been imported from Germany and it is easy to operate.

9 This offset printing machine, which has been imported from Germany, is easy to operate. We waited for an hour when we decided to see the manager in his office. 9 Having waited for an hour, we decided to see the manager in his office. 18.3.2 Choose the subordinate conjunction appropriate to your meaning •

Subordinating conjunctions help in communicating the relationship between major and minor ideas in sentences.

Subordinating Conjunctions and the Relationship they Imply Time after, before, once, since, until, when. Whenever, while Reason or Cause as, because Result or Effect in order that, so, so that Condition if, even if, provided that, unless Concession although, even though, though, whether Location where, wherever Choice rather than, than, whether 62

Writing Effective Sentences

Each of the following sentences deals with the same idea. But each sentence conveys a different meaning due to the subordinating conjunction attached to it. e.g.

After you have submitted it, you cannot make any changes in the proceedings. (Tme-limit) Because you have submitted it, you cannot make any changes in the proceedings. (Reason) Unless you have submitted it, you cannot make any changes in the proceedings. (Condition) Although you have submitted it, you can make any changes in the proceedings. (Concession) You can make any changes in the proceedings so that I can evaluate it. (Purpose) 8.3.3 •

Avoid illogical subordination Subordination is illogical when the subordinating conjunction does not make clear relationship between the independent and dependent clause. e.g.

Because Milton was blind when he wrote it, his Paradise Lost is considered to be his masterpiece. 9 Although Milton was blind when he wrote it, his Paradise Lost is considered to be his masterpiece. 8.4

Appropriate Use of Coordination and Subordination ¾ Avoid overusing subordination. Too many images or ideas may crowd together, confusing readers and making them lose track of the message. Try to keep the length of the sentence short as far as possible by using not 63

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more than one or two subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns in a sentence. There is a greater risk of grammatical error in longer sentences. ¾ Likewise, a series of short, simple sentences all of the same or very similar structure will give all your facts and ideas equal weight and importance. Excessive coordination is also misleading at times. Appropriate use of coordination and subordination should be made by carefully examining which ideas are important and which are minor, reworking them into simple, compound and complex sentences.

Exercise I

Rewrite the following sentences effecting improvements in the structure or the arrangement of parts in each case. 1. He is not a sincere man but also works hard. 2. I visited the place where many freedom fighters lost their lives during the summer holidays. 3. He gave the novel to his friend that he had borrowed from me. 4. There was a power breakdown in the city which caused great inconvenience to the citizens and it was suspected to be an act of sabotage. 5. The judge had no alternative but to impose a penalty on the accused and this penalty was the announcement of four months imprisonment. 6. This brand of shoes is as good, if not better than the brand that you are already using. 7. He is one of the wisest, if not the wisest, man that I know. 8. I always do my work in time like you do. 9. I think it will do you good by taking tea without sugar. 10. I visited Agra. It was during summer holidays. I had to attend the marriage of my sister. 64

Writing Effective Sentences

Answers 1. He is not only a sincere but also a hard working man. 2. I visited during summer holidays the place where many freedom fighters lost their lives. 3. He gave to his friend the novel that he had borrowed from me. 4. The power breakdown, which was suspected to be an act of sabotage, caused great inconvenience to the citizens. 5. The judge had no alternative but to impose a penalty of four months imprisonment on the accused. 6. This brand of shoes is as good as the one that you have been already using. 7. He is one of the wisest men that I know. 8. I do my work in time like you always do. 9. I think that taking tea without sugar will do you good. 10. I visited Agra during summer holidays to attend the marriage of my sister.

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Lesson 9

PARALLELISM 9.1

Introduction

Parallelism is the use of equivalent grammatical forms to express equivalent ideas. An equivalent grammatical form is a word or group of words that matches-- is parallel to -- the structure of a corresponding word or group of words.

9.2

Use Words in Parallel Form •

Words in parallel structures must occur in the same grammatical form. e.g. The protesters had tried pleading, threats, and shouting.

9.3

9

The protesters had tried pleading, threatening, and shouting.

9

The protesters had tried pleas, threats, and shouts.

Use Phrases and Clauses in Parallel Form •

Phrases and clauses in parallel structures must occur in the same grammatical form. e.g. The Board member read the proceedings, were discussing the agenda, and the unanimous decision was to ignore it.

9 The Board member read the proceedings, discussed the agenda, and unanimously decided to ignore it.

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9.4

Use Parallelism for Elements Joined by Coordinating or Correlative Conjunctions Coordinating Conjunctions: Harry is tall, with grey eyes, and has an amiable demeanor. 9 Harry is tall, grey eyed, and amiable. Mohini enjoys her work as a teacher during the day and going to the music classes in the evening. 9 Mohini enjoys working as a teacher during the day and going to the music classes in the evening. Correlative Conjunctions: Correlative conjunctions are coordinating pairs: either …or, neither… nor, both…and, not only…but also. Parallelism requires that the structure following the second part of the correlative be the same as that following the first part. e.g. Priyanka not only has been outstanding in her studies but also in sports. 9 Priyanka has been outstanding not only in her studies but also in sports. You are either late or I am early. 9 Either you are late or I am early. Not only he is a good administrator but also a good orator. 9 He is not only a good administrator but also a good orator

9.5

Avoid Faulty Parallelism with and who, and which, and that Do not use and who, and which, and that clause in a sentence unless you have already used a parallel who, which, or that clause. He sought appointment with the Principal, an astute administrator and who is also a renowned academician.

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9 He sought appointment with the Principal, who is an astute administrator and who is also a renowned academician. 9

He sought appointment with the Principal, who is both an astute administrator and a renowned academician. I like a car with elegant looks and that has all the security features.

9 I like a car that has elegant looks and that has all the security features. 9 I like a car that has elegant looks and has all the security features.

Exercise I

Rewrite the following sentences to express coordinate ideas in parallel form.

1. He is a person who knows how to play badminton and having a knack for dancing. 2. I was asked to collect my certificates and that I could apply for admission. 3. To be a good teacher, one must have knowledge, liking to help others, and to show a great capacity for learning. 4. The biography of Ratan Tata is interesting, lively and also an informative piece of writing. 5. Good politicians not only work well with the public but also they do not compromise their own ideals. 6. Some people neither like reading or writing. 7. His poems and short stories not only were fresh and interesting, but he also influenced other writers.

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Answers: 1. He is a person who knows how to play badminton and who has a knack for dancing. 2.

I was asked to collect my certificates so as to apply for admission.

3. To be a good teacher, one must have knowledge, helping attitude and great learning capacity. 4. The biography of Ratan Tata is interesting, lively and informative. 5. Good politicians not only work well with the public but also do not compromise their own ideals. 6. Some people like neither reading nor writing. 7. His poems and short stories were not only fresh and interesting but also influential.

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Lesson 10 ELIMINATION: DANGLING MODIFIERS, INCOMPLETE AND ILLOGICAL COMPARISONS 10.1

Introduction

The purpose of writing is to communicate facts, feelings and ideas effectively. For the clarity of expressions, we need to write correct sentences, which conform to the conventions of written English. As sequel to the preceding few chapters, the present lesson discusses as to how we can write clear, unambiguous and accurate sentences by taking care of some of the avertable faults in sentence structure especially dangling modifiers and illogical comparisons, which should also be carefully avoided. 10.2

Dangling Modifiers

As a rule, an infinitive or a participle at the beginning of a sentence should modify the subject of the sentence. If it has nothing to modify either logically or grammatically in the sentence, it is called a ‘dangling modifier’ and the sentence is grammatically incorrect. In other words, a dangling modifier is one that that has nothing to modify because what it ought to modify has not been clearly stated in its sentence. •

So we eliminate the dangling modifiers by (1) reworking the sentence so that the modifier is clearly attached to the right word or (2) expanding the dangler into a full subordinate clause.

For example: Driving through the mountains, two lions were seen. 9 Driving through the mountains, we saw two lions. 9 When we drove through the mountains, we saw two lions. 70

Writing Effective Sentences

Looking through the telescope, clusters of stars were seen. 9 Looking through the telescope, I saw clusters of stars. 9 When I looked through the telescope, I saw clusters of stars. 10.2.1 Avoid dangling participial phrases A participle is a verb form used as an adjective to modify a noun or pronoun. A participial phrase consists of a participle or object. Dangling

Taking the right turn, the market was closed. [There is nothing in the sentence that can sensibly be taking the right turn. A revision must identify some person.]

Revised

Taking the right turn, we found the market closed. When we took the right turn, the market was closed.

Dangling

Being made of glass, Mohan handled the tabletop carefully.

Revised

Because the tabletop was made of glass, Mohan handled it carefully. [The Participial phrase is expanded into a subordinate clause.]

10.2.2 Avoid dangling phrases containing gerunds A gerund is an – ing form of a verb used as a noun. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund, its object and any modifiers of the gerund or object. In typical dangling phrases containing gerunds, the gerund or gerund phrase serves as the object of a preposition. 71

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

Dangling

Before going to the market, our work was done. [Who did it?]

Revised

Before going to the market, we did our work.

10.2.3 Avoid dangling infinitive phrase An infinitive consists of the infinitive marker ‘to’ followed by the plain form of the verb. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive, its object and any modifiers of the infinitive or object. Dangling

To write properly, a cardboard must be used. [Who will use the cardboard?]

Revised

To write properly, you must use a good cardboard.

Dangling

To write effectively, practice is necessary.

Revised

To write effectively, you [or one] must practice.

10.2.4 Avoid dangling elliptical clauses An elliptical clause is one in which the subject or verb is implied or understood rather than stated. The clause dangles if its implied subject is not the same as the subject of the main clause. Eliminate a dangling elliptical clause by (1) making the dangling clause agree with the subject of the main clause or (2) supplying the omitted subject or verb. Dangling

When a small girl, my grandfather gave me a scarf.

Revised

When a small girl, I was given a scarf by my grandfather. [The subject of the main clause agrees with the implied subject of the elliptical clause.]

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When I was a small girl, my grandfather gave me a scarf. [The omitted subject and verb are supplied in the elliptical clause.] Dangling

While going to Delhi, three peacocks were seen.

Revised

While going to Delhi, we saw three peacocks. [The subject of the main clause agrees with the implied subject of the elliptical clause.] While we were going to Delhi, we saw three peacocks. [The elliptical clause is expanded into a subordinate clause.

10.3.

Incomplete and Illogical Comparisons

A comparison expresses a relation between two things. To make a comparison complete and logical, include both items being compared, include all words necessary to make the relationship clear, and be sure that the items are in fact comparable.

10.3.1

Avoid incomplete comparisons Incomplete

Our new car gets better mileage. (Better than what?)

Revised

Our new car gets better mileage better than our old one did.

10.3.2

Avoid ambiguous comparisons Ambiguous

I like her more than Jane. (More than Jane likes her? More than You like Jane?)

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Revised

I like her more than I like Jane. I like her more than Jane does.

10.3.3

Avoid illogical comparisons Illogical

A doctor’s income is greater than a teacher. (The sentence compares an income to a teacher.)

Revised

A doctor’s income is greater than a teacher’s. A doctor’s income is greater than that of a teacher.

10.3.4

Avoid grammatically incomplete comparisons Comparisons using expressions as good as, as strong as and the like always require the second as. Incomplete

He is as good, if not better than, Ram.

Revised

He is as good as, if not better than, Ram.

In comparisons of items in the same class of things, use other or any other. In comparisons of items in different classes, use any. Incorrect

Calcutta is bigger than any city in India.

Revised

Calcutta is bigger than any other city in India. Calcutta is bigger than any city in Pakistan.

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Exercise I Choose the appropriate answer out of the choices given below each statement to fill in the blanks: 1. My interests are hunting, fishing and _________ a) to swim b) swimming c) is swimming d) are swimming 2. He would like a career as a teacher or ___________. a) an actor b) acting c) be an actor d) an acting 3. Looking through the telescope, _____________________________ . a) I saw clusters of stars. b) clusters of stars were seen. c) I seen cluster of stars d) Clusters of stars was seen 4. A lawyer’s income is greater than ________________. a) a teacher b) a teacher’s c) that of a teacher d) teacher 5. She is ________________, if not faster than, Priyanka. a) as fast b) as fast as c) fast d) fast as Answers 1.

(b)

2.

(a)

3.

(a) 75

4.

( c)

5.

(b)

Lesson 11 MANUSCRIPT MECHANICS 11.1

Introduction

‘Manuscript Mechanics’ include use of abbreviations, symbols, footnotes, capitalization and punctuation. Manuscript mechanics are equally important and has a bearing on the clarity of the writing. The present lesson focuses on some of the issues related to manuscript mechanics with a view to make our writing plain, effective and easy to comprehend. 11.2

Abbreviations and Symbols

Abbreviations and symbols used in scientific writing generally contribute to economy of words and clarity. Abbreviations are curtailed versions of words. Symbols need not always bear a direct relationship to the words (phrases) that they present. Symbols may be used to represent quantities, units of measurement, mathematical operations, and objects and their components. Symbols of units are generally standardized within each system of measurement. The International System of Units (SI) has a standard set of units and symbols, which are used by and large in all the countries that have adopted the metric system of measurement. There are no absolute rules about abbreviations. However, there are certain guidelines that you may follow in abbreviating names and technical terms. In British English, the general rule about abbreviating words is that an abbreviation should be suggestive of the source word. A period is not used at the end of the abbreviated form of the word if the abbreviation includes the last letter of the word; a period is used if the abbreviation does not contain the last letter. e.g. 78

Manuscript Mechanics & Bibliographic Procedures

•

Chem.

for

Chemistry or Chemical

•

memo.

for

Memorandum

•

Mx

for

Middlesex

•

dept.

for

department

Exceptions:

log (for logrithm) Mr. (for Mister)

11.2.1 Acronyms In names consisting of several words, the abbreviation is generally formed with the first letter of the key words, each followed by a period. The capital letters in the name to be abbreviated are retained in the abbreviation. In certain abbreviations like SAARC, which can be pronounced like a single word, the periods may be omitted. Such abbreviations are called acronyms. Some of them, after prolonged use, are treated like common words, as Unesco etc. 11.2.2 Technical Acronyms They may be written in all capital letters (DDT, DNA) or in lower case (laser, radar) while some may have only the initial letter in capital (Fortran, Cobol). •

Some names consisting of several words are abbreviated by selecting more than one letter from each key word, and the first letter of prepositions and articles, where necessary. Such abbreviations can generally be pronounced like a single word e.g. Comintern (for Communist International) Benelux (for Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg)

•

In abbreviating units of measurement consisting of more than one word, the standard practice is to retain the period after each word unless the name refers to the product or combination of the units represented by the

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individual words. e.g. e. m. f. (electromotive force), r. m. s. (root mean square), sp. gr.(specific gravity). •

Don’t use abbreviations in your sentences unless the whole word or phrase is repeated several times within a short passage or you see a definite advantage in using the abbreviation.

•

If your reader is not likely to be familiar with an abbreviation, define it the first time it occurs in your writing.

•

If you are using numerals in your writing, the names of the accompanying units should properly be abbreviated; if the numbers are expressed in words, don’t abbreviate the names of the units. e.g. 15 A fuse; fifteen ampere fuse

•

Abbreviated names of units are preferred in all tabulated information and numerical data accompanying illustrations.

•

Abbreviations are mostly used, in preference to the full form, in footnotes, tables and bibliographies.

•

These are used in text only in exceptional cases.

•

Abbreviations for words are written without intervening space, and the general tendency is now to eliminate the full stop not only between the letters forming an abbreviation, but also at the end.

•

The abbreviations, except for those desired from proper names, are written in lower case, in roman with no end, or middle full stops. And except for the units of currencies, they are always placed at the end of the figures.

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•

The standard abbreviations for the common metric units are as follows:

Units

Symbols

Units

Symbols

milimetre

Mm

miligram

mg

centimetre

Cm

gram

g

metre

M

kilogram

kg

kilometre

Km

quintal

q

Square metre

m2

hour

h

Cubic metre

m3

m i nut e

m in

second

S

hour

h

11.3

Footnotes

Footnotes have a pronounced effect on style, general tone and clarity. Every footnote is a digression from the main stream of thought. It interrupts the reader. If he reads it, his eyes must make an excursion to the bottom of the page; and when he is through, he must find the place where he departed from it. Lengthy footnotes can cause the reader to lose the thread of your message, to miss what you are trying to tell him.

11.3.1 Reference footnotes When we borrow the words or ideas of somebody else, we must give credit for them. Reference footnotes are convenient to fulfill this obligation. 81

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11.3.2

Explanatory footnotes

Explanatory Footnotes can practically never be justified on the grounds of necessity. Explanatory Footnotes should be evaluated carefully. Explanatory Footnotes should either be integrated into the main text or put in parenthesis, if they are of secondary importance. Some of the information, if really of some use for record purposes, can be given in the appendix. As far as possible, explanatory footnotes should be avoided. 11.4

Punctuation

Punctuation is a series of symbols that helps the reader to determine structural relationships within a sentence. Marks of punctuation may link, separate, enclose, terminate, and indicate omissions from sentences. The most common of these are the period (or full stop in British English), the comma, the exclamation mark, the question mark, the colon and semi-colon, the quote, the apostrophe, the hyphen and dash, and parentheses and brackets. Grammatical conventions and the writer's intentions govern the use of punctuation. Misuse of punctuation may cause the reader to misunderstand the meaning of your sentence. For example, Woman, without her man, is nothing. (Emphasizes the importance of men) Woman: without her, man is nothing. (Emphasizes the importance of women) He eats shoots and leaves. (To mean "consumes plant growths") He eats, shoots and leaves. (To mean "eats firstly, fires a weapon secondly, and leaves the scene thirdly") 11.4.1 •

The Comma

Use a comma to separate main/independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction. e.g., They closed the shop early, for they wanted to get home. 82

Manuscript Mechanics & Bibliographic Procedures

The machine was repaired last year, but it has again gone out of order. Caution:

But

don’t

put

comma

after

the

coordinating

conjunctions It was just 4 O’clock in the evening but, it was complete dark. 9 It was just 4 O’clock in the evening, but it was complete dark. Caution:

Don’t use comma when a coordinating conjunction links two words, phrases or dependent clauses. Learning classical music requires a lot of hard work, and practice.

9 Learning classical music requires a lot of hard work and practice. •

Use a comma after an introductory clause, phrase, or word. e.g., Having completed his project, the engineer took some time off. In winter, storms are frequent in the Atlantic.

•

Use commas to separate items in a series. e.g., She talked fluently, wittily and penetratingly. The workers were efficient, honest and hardworking.

•

Use commas to set off nonrestrictive elements. Do not set off restrictive (essential) elements. e.g., Restrictive

A man who is honest will succeed.

Non-restrictive

Deven, who is honest, will succeed.

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The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

•

Use commas to set off nonrestrictive appositives and non-defining modifiers. e.g., Dr.

G. R. Anand, Director of IARI, will inspect the

exhibition ground. Dr. Parveen Garg, who specializes in surgery, has gone abroad. Caution:

But don’t put comma to set off defining modifiers. A man who is not honest in his dealings is likely to fail in this endeavour.

•

Use a comma to introduce a direct quotation. e.g., He said in his speech, “It is better to light the candle than to curse the darkness”.

11.4.2 The semicolon •

The semicolon is a stronger mark of punctuation than the comma. We use it mostly to join two co-ordinate clauses, which are not joined by coordinating conjunctions. e.g., Good writing is not merely “correct writing”; it is clear, economical and effective.

•

Use a semicolon to separate main clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb (however, moreover, therefore, consequently, indeed-that carry a thought from the main clause to the other). e.g., The meeting was long and boring; nevertheless, we stayed till the end.

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Manuscript Mechanics & Bibliographic Procedures

•

Use a semicolon to separate the items of a series if the items themselves contain commas. e.g., The following guests were present: Dr. S. Ayyappan, Director General, ICAR; Dr. K. M. L. Pathak, Deputy Director General, ICAR; and Dr. A. K. Srivastava, Director NDRI.

11.4.3 The Colon The colon indicates an addition or expectation. It indicates that what follows will explain, clarify and further illustrate. •

Use a colon to introduce a list or an explanation. e.g., We bought these electric items from the market: power points, cable, bulbs, and wall fans.

•

Use a colon to separate two main clauses when the second explains, illustrates, or amplifies the first. e.g., This is what you should do: if the meeting is over by 11 a.m., you should leave; if it continues beyond 11a.m., you should cancel the ticket.

•

Use a colon after the salutation of an official letter. e.g., Dear Mr. Gupta:

•

Use a colon to separate hours from minutes. e.g., The meeting will be held at 2:30 tomorrow evening.

•

Use a colon in documentation to separate the place of publication from the publisher’s name e.g., …New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers, 2013. 85

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

Exercise I

Write short answers (in 7 to 8 lines) on the following:

i) Footnotes ii) Use of Abbreviations iii) Acronym

II Match the Following i)

Specific gravity

a)

g

ii)

Hemoglobin

b)

sp. gr.

iii)

Association

c)

ha.

iv)

hectare

d)

Assoc.

v)

gram

e)

Hb

iv.

(c)

Answers i. (b)

ii.

(e)

iii.

86

(d)

v.

(a)

Lesson 12

Indexing and Bibliographic Procedures 12.1

Introduction

Periodicals are magazines and journals published at a set period during the year. Indexes to periodicals list articles written during the particular period as given on the cover of each edition. Some indexes include abstracts-brief summaries of each article. General indexes list articles in magazines and newspapers whereas specialized indexes list articles published in academic and professional periodicals.

12.2 Bibliographic Procedures We keep a list of books, articles, and other sources that seem promising for our paper. Such a record is called a working bibliography. Our preliminary reading will probably provide the first titles for this list. Other titles will emerge when we consult the library catalog, as well as indexes, bibliography, and other reference works. We discover additional important sources also through the bibliography and notes of each book and article consulted by us. The working bibliography will frequently change as new titles are added and those that do not prove useful are eliminated. The working bibliography will eventually evolve into the list of works cited that appears at the end of the research paper. •

Many instructors recommend that students use index cards to compile the working bibliography.

•

Writing each source on a separate index card allows greater flexibility than does listing sources on a sheet of paper.

87

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

•

These cards can be arranged and rearranged as per the need. (e.g. in alphabetical order, in chronological order by date of publication, in order of relevance to your topic)

•

Index cards also allow us to divide sources into groups (e.g. those already consulted and those not yet consulted, those most useful and those less so).

•

Similar results can be achieved with a personal computer.

•

A computer file is created for the working bibliography, and titles are entered as we proceed with the research. The file can be revised by additions or deletions as per the requirements and then saved for the future use.

•

As with index cards, we are able to arrange, rearrange, and group sources. At any point, the file can be printed to review it or to use it for research.

•

When we add sources to the working bibliography, we have to be sure that we have all the publication information needed for the works cited list. The information to be recorded depends on the kind of sources used. It could be : – Books – Articles in a Scholarly Journal – Newspaper or Magazine Article

12.2.1 Format for citing a reference for a Book i.

Author’s full name (last name first)

ii.

Full title (including any subtitle) 88

Manuscript Mechanics & Bibliographic Procedures

iii.

Editor or translator (if there is one)

iv.

Edition (if the book is a second or later edition)

v.

Number of the volume and the total number of volumes (if the book is a multi volume work)

vi.

Series name (if the book is part of a series)

vii.

City of publication (note only the first city if several are listed)

viii.

Publisher

ix.

Year of publication

Example: Thompkinson, D. K. and Sabikhi, L. Quality Milk Production and Processing Technology. New Delhi: New India Publishing Agency, 2012.

Budden, Julian.The Operas of Verdi. Trans. Thomas Colchie. Rev. ed. 3 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1992.

Chaucer, Geoffery. The Works of Geoffery Chaucer. Ed. F. W. Robinson. 2nd ed. Twayne’s World Authors Ser. 679. Boston: Twayne, 1957.

12.2.2 Format for citing a reference for an article in a scholarly journal i.

Author’s name

ii.

Title of the article

iii.

Title of the journal

iv.

Volume number (and issue number, if needed)

v.

Year of publication

vi.

Inclusive page numbers of the article ( i.e. the number of the page on which the article begins, a hyphen, and the number of the page on which the article ends) 89

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

Example: Singh, T. P., Malik R. K.

and Schillinger, U. “Characterization of

Intestinal Microflora”. Probiotics & Antimicrobial Proteins. 4.1(2012):4758. Vartanov, Anri. “Television as Spectacle and Myth.” Journal of Communication 41.2 (1991):162-71.

12.2.3 Format for citing a reference for newspaper or magazine Article i.

Author’s name

ii.

Title of the article

iii.

Title of the periodical

iv.

Date of publication

v.

Inclusive page numbers of the article or the initial page number followed by a plus sign, as appropriate.

Example: Shea, Christopher. “The Limits of Free Speech.” Chronicle of Higher Education, 1 Dec. 1993: A37-38.

Feder, Barnaby J. “For Job Seekers, a Toll –Free Gift of Expert Advice.” New York Times, 30 Dec. 1993, late ed.: D1+.

•

For a book, check the author’s name, title, subtitle (if any), edition (if relevant), editor or translator (if there is one), volume number and number of volumes, series name (if the book is part of a series), city of publications, publisher, and year of publication. (This information normally appears on the title and copyright pages of the book).

90

Manuscript Mechanics & Bibliographic Procedures

•

For an article in a periodical, check the author’s name, title of the article, title of the periodical, date of publication, and, as appropriate, inclusive page numbers or initial page number. If the periodical is a scholarly journal, check the volume number (and, if needed, issue number) as well, (Volume numbers and dates of publication normally appear on the title page of journals).

•

Eventually, you will transform your working bibliography into a works cited list.

•

The working bibliography functions as an efficient tool for finding and acquiring information and ideas and, on the other, provides all the data we need for the list of works cited.

12.3

Science Citation Index

Science Citation Index (SCI) is a citation index originally produced by the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) in 1960, which is now owned by Thomson Reuters.

The online version (Science Citation Index Expanded)

covers 6,400 of the world’s leading journals of science and technology, but mainly those in the English language. It is made available online through the Web of Science database, a part of the Web of Knowledge collection of databases. (There are also CD and printed editions, covering a smaller number of journals). This database allows researchers to identify, which later articles have cited any particular earlier article, or cited the articles of any particular author, or determine which articles have been cited most frequently. Science Citation Index helps to: •

Find high-impact articles from peer-reviewed, influential journals.

•

Uncover relevant results in related fields.

91

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

•

Keep up with the latest developments in your field, helping you pursue successful research and grant acquisition.

•

Identify potential collaborators with significant citation records.

12.3.1 Comprehensive and relevant coverage: Every journal included in Science Citation Index has met the high standards of an objective evaluation process that eliminates clutter and excess and delivers data that is accurate, meaningful and timely. Cited reference searching enables to: Track prior research and monitor current developments •

See who is citing your work

•

Measure the influence of colleagues’ work, and follow the path of today’s hottest ideas.

•

Navigate forward, backward and through the literature, searching all disciplines and time spans to discover information with impact.

Science Citation Index helps in cover-to-cover indexing. One can access every significant item from a journal, including original research articles, reviews, editorials, chronologies, abstract, and more. It covers a full range of disciplines and helps to find information in areas such as agricultural, biological and environmental science, engineering, technology, applied science, medical and life sciences, and physical and chemical sciences.

Exercise and Assignments 1. How would you compile a Working Bibliography? Indicate the format for citing a reference in case of i) Book, ii) Article in a Scholarly Journal and iii) Newspaper or Magazine Article by giving an example in each case. 92

Lesson 13 MANUSCRIPT PRESENTATION: FINAL COPY 13.1

Introduction

Writing is an essential stage of scientific and technical research. The researcher has to put his work on paper and make a cogent and systematic presentation of ideas, facts and findings. The manuscript of any form of technical publication passes through various stages of editing right from the first draft to its finalization after incorporation of all the suggestions and comments of different authors and referees. The different stages of manuscript finalization till its final printing involve considerable effort on the part of the authors, the editors, the compositors and the printers involved in giving it its final shape. During all these stages, due care is taken to achieve the best results in terms of the final publication by presenting the manuscript in an impressive and effective manner. 13.2

Galley Proofs

In printing and publishing, proofs are the preliminary versions of publications meant for review by authors, editors, and proofreaders, often with extra wide margins. Proofs issued in the proofreading and copy-editing review phase are called galleys or galley proofs. Galley proofs may be uncut and unbound, or in some cases electronic. They are created for proofreading and copy-editing purposes. Galley proofs are so named because in the days of hand-set type, the printer would set the page into galleys, the metal trays into which type was laid and tightened into place. These would be used to print a limited number of copies for editing mark-up. Proofs created in a near-final version for editing and checking purposes are called page proofs. In the page-proof stage, mistakes are supposed to have been corrected. To correct a mistake at this stage is expensive, and authors are discouraged from making many changes to page proofs. Page layouts are 93

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

examined closely in the page proof stage. Page proofs also have the final pagination, which facilitates compiling the index. 13.3

Proofreading Symbols

Use of proof-reading symbols is required during the manuscript finalization and different stages of its printing. All the persons right from the author to the referees, editor, compositors and printers must familiarize themselves with this coded language to facilitate bringing out the technical report in its finished form. Listed below are some the proofreading symbols:

94

Manuscript Mechanics & Bibliographic Procedures

95

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

Exercise I

What is ‘Galley Proof’? Why is proof-reading so important? Give any five proofreading symbols with examples.

II

What symbols would be used for proofreading in the following cases? i. Deletion should be restored ii. Paragraphs should be joined iii. Transpose order of words iv. Make a new paragraph v. Close up vi. Insert a comma vii. Delete or take out

96

Lesson 14 PRÉCIS WRITING /ABSTRACTING/SUMMARIZING 14.1

Introduction

The ability to summarize effectively – to compress a paragraph or a chapter down to its central meaning without distortion of the original thought or idea is extremely useful. Précis Writing /Abstracting/Summarizing is an art and very important for reference and review purpose.

14.2

Précis Writing

Précis is a French word and concerned with the English word precise. A précis is a summary and précis writing means summarizing. This is an exercise in compression. It is the gist or main theme of a passage expressed in as few words as possible. It should be lucid, succinct and full (including all the essential points so that anyone, on reading it, may be able to grasp the main points and general effect of the passage summarized. •

It is not paraphrasing. It is the detailed restatement of someone else’s words in your own. A paraphrase should reproduce not only the substance of a passage, but also all its details. It will, therefore, be at least as long as, and probably longer than, the original.

•

A Précis should not contain more than a third of the number of words in the original passage.

•

It is an exercise to grasp the gist of the passage and to read the material with full concentration. So summarizing is an excellent training in concentration of attention. It teaches us to read with the mind, as well as with the eye, on the page.

•

It’s a good exercise in writing a composition.

•

It teaches us to express our thoughts clearly, concisely and effectively. 98

Summarising and Curriculum Vitae/ Resume Writing

•

It corrects our common tendency to be vague, disorderly and diffused in our thinking and written expressions.

•

It is an exercise to choose our words carefully and to construct our sentences with an eye to fullness combined with brevity and to put our matter in a strictly logical order.

•

In other words, it is an ability to grasp quickly and accurately what is read, or heard and to reproduce it clearly and concisely.

14.2.1 Method or procedure •

Read carefully for comprehending clearly its main theme or general meaning.

•

Think of some word, phrase or short sentence that will sum up briefly the main subject of the passage. Sometimes this is supplied by what we call key sentence.

•

Key sentence may be found at the beginning or the end of the passage.

•

We are required to supply a title for the précis.

•

Sift the essential from the inessentials. Leave out superfluous details. Omit repetitions, illustrations and examples. Important ideas should find place in the précis.

•

Jot down brief notes, title and the essential details.

14.2.2 Final draft •

The précis should be all in your own words.

•

It must be a connected whole. The ideas must be joined together in such a way to read continuously.

•

The précis must be complete and self-contained.

•

It must convey its message fully and clearly without requiring any reference to the original to complete its meaning. 99

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

14.3

•

The language should be simple and it should be grammatically correct.

•

A suitable title should be provided to the passage.

Abstract Writing

An abstract is a very important portion of an article. Abstract is best placed before the text of the manuscript so that the reader might comprehend the essence of the report. The formulation of an abstract into a short paragraph forces the author to express precisely the most important information of the technical report. •

The abstract should be informative, give a succinct condensation of the article, and complete in itself and intelligible without reference to the text, figures or tables. It generally appears at the beginning and written in the past tense.

•

Always begin the abstract with rationale and objective statements; never jump directly into the materials and methods. It should include: ¾ Principal objectives and scope of investigation. ¾ Methodology/technique(s)

employed/but

not

mega

emphasis on techniques but on results. ¾ The main and important findings of the experiment. ¾ The contribution of this particular piece of work towards new knowledge •

The abstract is not needed in a short report though it is required in a long report. The busy technocrat or an over busy executive may read only the abstract and refer to the relevant parts of the report only if it is absolutely necessary.

•

The abstract is placed on the separate page or immediately after the title.

100

Summarising and Curriculum Vitae/ Resume Writing

14.4

Abstract and Summary •

Abstract is generally restricted to 250 words or even less, but a summary may be somewhat longer.

•

If a summary is the précis of a report, an abstract is a précis of the summary.

•

Long reports, sometimes has a summary as well as an abstract; in short reports the abstract tends to coincide with the summary.

•

A synopsis is a summary with some particulars, especially of the results, given in greater detail than in a summary.

14.5

Extract and Summary •

Extract is one or more portion of a document selected to represent the whole (an excerpt).

•

Summary is a brief restatement within the document (usually at the end) of its salient findings and conclusions and is intended to complete the orientation of a reader who has studied the preceding text.

14.6

Synoptic •

A Synoptic is a concise first publication in a directly usable form of key results selected, from an available but previously unpublished paper. It differs from an abstract (which it contains) in that it is often a combination of text, tables, and figures, and may contain the equivalent of 2000 words.

101

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

Exercise I Choose the appropriate answer out of the choices given below each statement to fill in the blanks. 1.

The Précis should not contain more than a) b)

half of the number of words in the original passage. one third of the number of words in the original passage.

c) d)

2.

3.

three –fourth of the number of words in the original passage. one fourth of the number of words in the original passage.

The précis must be a) b)

complete and self-contained. repetitious, illustrative and full of examples.

c) d)

verbose. lengthy and full of details.

Abstract is placed a) b)

after the references . before the middle of the report.

c) d)

before the text of the manuscript after the end of the report.

102

Summarising and Curriculum Vitae/ Resume Writing

4.

Summary is a) b)

longer than the abstract. shorter than the abstract.

c) d)

more precise than the abstract. as brief as the abstract.

Extract is

5

b)

one or more portion of a document selected to represent the whole. gist of the document.

c) d)

summary of the document. paraphrase of the document.

a)

Answers 1.

(b)

2.

(a)

3.

(c)

103

4.

(a)

5.

(a)

Lesson 15 CURRICULUM VITAE/RESUME WRITING 15.1

Introduction

Curriculum Vitae/Resume is a factual document that presents your qualifications for a particular position or employment. Curriculum Vitae/Resume writing is an art to present a positive picture of yourself to your prospective employer. Curriculum vitae is relatively longer and used mainly for research and academic positions whereas resume is typically one to two page in length and used outside the academia and research-oriented positions. 15.2

Curriculum Vitae

Curriculum Vitae (CV) is a written summary of one’s educational and professional experience. It is a thorough list of one’s academic achievements and its content can vary from discipline to discipline.

It is usually used for

applications for academic or research positions; departmental or tenure reviews; leadership positions for professional associations; publishing; editorial review boards; consulting; grant proposals and fellowships. In the world of academia, a strong CV may open the door towards a tenured position. 15.2.1 Content of the curriculum vitae It includes post doctoral experience, research and teaching experience, publications, academic service, grants, etc. in a very clear and easy to understand language. CV contains the summary of postdoctoral experience, research and teaching experience, publications, academic service, grants, etc. It may also contain a section on research/teaching interests. But the CV should be credible and amply support and justify what we write in this section. For those with significant additional experience besides research and teaching, “Professional 104

Summarising and Curriculum Vitae/ Resume Writing

Experience” may be included. Additional sections after “Teaching Experience” section may include •

Informal Teaching Activities

•

Fellowships and Awards or Honors and Awards

•

Additional Activities and Honors

•

Refereed Publications

•

Invited Reviews

•

Selected Abstracts (National and International Meetings)

•

Selected Seminars

•

References

In the “Reference” section, many job seekers put, “references available upon request”. It’s preferable to list the names of two or three people here. However, they should be informed beforehand that job employers may contact them. If not, your prospective employer will not be impressed when he contacts your references and it takes two minutes before your reference is able to understand what the telephone call is about. 15.3

Resume

Resume is generally used outside the academia and research-oriented positions. It is typically one to two pages in length and targeted to the specific position, employer, and/or industry. Webster’s defines resume as a summary or a set of accomplishments. The résumé is a marketing piece, an advertisement for one’s unique set of skills, abilities and experience. This is a “ticket” to an interview and is different for the college graduate versus someone with years of experience. Research shows in India that only one interview is granted for every 200 (applications) resumes received by the average employer. It is equally true that the resume is quickly scanned, rather than read. The prospective employer doesn’t 105

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

spend more than 10-20 seconds to find some merit in getting to the details of the resume. What this means is that the decision to interview a candidate is usually based on an overall first impression of the resume. 15.3.1 Writing an effective resume Having a well written, effective resume at one’s disposal is an excellent tool in today’s ever changing job market. A strong resume may be the sole difference in getting a call for an interview. At the same time, it enables you to assess your strengths, skills, abilities and experience - thereby preparing you for the interview process. It also acts as a reminder of you to the employer/interviewer after you're done interviewing and is a basis for the interviewer to justify your hiring. As the resume is a living, breathing document, it should adjust to the position for which it is used. No one standard resume could be used to apply to unrelated positions. It entails targeting the text through proper selection and description of experiences. 15.3.2 Contents of the resume While no two resumes will look the same, there are certain commonalties in all good resumes. Almost every resume should include the following headings or sections: objective, education, work experience, skills summary and additional/ optional

information

on

accomplishments/

memberships; activities and honors etc. •

Contact Information

•

Objective

•

Education

•

Experience

•

Skills Summary

•

Additional/ Optional Categories 106

achievements;

affiliations/

Summarising and Curriculum Vitae/ Resume Writing

15.3.3 Objective An objective is like the thesis statement of your resume. Everything you include after it should support it. It tells the reader why you are sending the resume, i.e., what position or type of position you are seeking. It should be very brief, to the point, ideally stated in one sentence. •

Use the objective to tell what you can do for the company, NOT what you want the company to do for you… no statements like: to gain valuable experience, etc.

•

Don’t use fluffy phrases that don’t mean anything such as “Allowing the ability to enhance potential and utilize experience in new challenges”.

•

The objective is to be ideally stated in one sentence. It should be short and crispy without any exaggeration.

15.3.4 Education/Work Experience In case of new entrants to the job market, one must list the “Education” section directly after stating the objective. GPA score should be given, if it is 3.0 or higher. Make sure your part-time and summer employment, if any, should also be included. It will impress the employers if you worked to pay your way through college. If you have some work experience, it should be included immediately after the objective. At this point, the job experience is usually much more important to an employer than the college grades. One can list “Education” background thereafter. 15.3.5 Organization You can organize your resume in many different ways, but the following order is the most common. •

Contact Information 107

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

•

Objective – state what kind of job or internship you are looking for.

•

Experience – describe your job history.

•

Education – just list your high school unless you have taken college courses on the side.

•

Other Skills/Information – this is where you list your computer or language skills and any associations or memberships to which you have belonged.

Differences in formatting (bullets, border lines headings etc), fonts, font styles and sizes will catch the eye and draw attention to most important information. 15.4

General Template of Curriculum Vitae/Resume Writing

A lot of students think a generalized resume describing everything they have ever done is great way to get any kind of job or internship. Not true. The first rule of thumb for resume writing is to only include information that is useful to the job you are applying for. Contact Information Your Full Name Street Address City State and Zip code Phone Number and Email Address Career Objective What you want to do that will add value to your employer. Work Experience Job title and Company Name 108

Summarising and Curriculum Vitae/ Resume Writing

Duration of employment Achievements during this period Educational Qualifications Course and Name of Institution last attended City and Year of Completion Achievements during this period Activities/ Interests Community service, hobbies, interests etc. Other Skills Mention languages known, computer proficiency or other special useful skills. References Mention only if required by employer. 15.5

Do’s and Don’ts of a Resume •

Do tailor the resume to the given position.

•

Make sure it looks professional

•

Do choose language that reflects the industry.

•

Do treat your resume as a sales brochure.

•

Don’t list false information.

•

Don’t write in paragraph form.

•

Use bullets and powerful verbs.

109

The Art of Technical Reporting and Writing

•

Use action words such as achieved, accomplished, certified, delegated.

15.6

•

Keep your contact information current

•

Use the vocabulary (keywords) of your field

•

Be honest, but don’t undersell yourself

•

Don’t list irrelevant information.

•

Use standard sized, white/light tint paper.

•

Print on only one side

Some Tips

15.6.1 Action words Be sure to describe your roles and accomplishments with strong action words and terms usually the ones that signify leadership and team you’ve had. These include words such as: team work/player, multi-tasking executed, organized, performed, maintained, supervised, managed, developed, and implemented. 15.6.2

Keywords

Recruiters use keywords to search for resumes. So choose some of the basic, important keywords in your field and pepper them throughout your resume. 15.6.3

Writing style

The wording of your resume is just as important as the look. You may have to write several rough drafts to come up with one that will really shine. Here are a few writing style rules to keep in mind: •

Use matching verb tenses. 110

Summarising and Curriculum Vitae/ Resume Writing

•

Keep all descriptions short. Descriptions should generally take up no more than one to four lines on the page.

•

15.7

Full sentences are not necessary, but be consistent with punctuation.

Words to Avoid in Your Resume

15.7.1 Abbreviations and acronyms Too many abbreviations and acronyms in a resume make it unreadable. As a rule, avoid using abbreviations and acronyms unless they are commonly recognized. If you work in an acronym-heavy industry, such as technology, use acronyms sparingly.

AFPCA, CHIGFEET, FIPL, MRSRM, ZWE: Looks like a fresh game of Scrabble. 15.7.2 Personal pronouns Since your resume is all about you, the addition of “I” or “me” is redundant. Since a resume should contain no unnecessary words, there is no place for the personal pronoun. Your resume, after all, is not a memoir but a concise summary of your skills and experience. 15.7.3 Negative words Negative Words spell death for a resume. Words like “arrested,” “boring,” “fired,” “hate” and “sexist” catch a recruiter’s eye like to a two-ton magnet catches a paper clip. If there are difficult issues you want to raise, save them for the interview.

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15.7.4 Words that weaken your resume A strong resume gives potential employers a concise, clear picture of your skills and experience. And it’s the crucial first step in securing an interview and hopefully a job offer. For maximum impact, keep your resume as concise as you can. You need to include all your achievements in only one to two pages so do not waste space on meaningless words. The employer does not want to spend time trying to understand vague phrases or decipher confusing jargon. •

‘Assist’, ‘Contribute’ and 'Support’: An employer would not know what you did if the wording on your resume is too vague. Words like “assist,” “contribute” and “support” all say (or don’t say) the same thing. They say you helped, but they don’t say how. They beg the question: Exactly how did you assist, contribute or support a person or project? These words should be used sparingly and always follow with a description of your role and responsibilities. Let an employer know the part you played and how you affected the outcome.

•

‘Successfully’: Of course you want to show that you have accomplished on your resume. But your achievements will be more impressive if you give concrete examples of what you have done and how you have been successful. You don’t need to use words like “successfully” or effectively” to show an employer that you are a good worker, your experience should speak for itself. Instead of explicitly saying that a project was successful, state your achievements clearly and factuality. Then give examples of how or why the project was a success.

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•

‘Responsible for’: The phrase “responsible for” can make your resume feel like a laundry list. Instead of just listing your responsibilities, try to stress your accomplishments. Your resume will also have more of an impact if you quantify your accomplishments. Use figures to show how you affected growth, reduced costs or streamlined a process. Provide the number of people you managed, the amount of the budget you oversaw or the revenue you saved the company.

•

‘Interface’ and Other Buzzwords: Don’t flower your resume with fancy words. By trying to sound intelligent or qualified, you may end up annoying or confusing your reader. You don’t want an employer to need a dictionary to discover what you really did at your last job. Avoid buzzwords that have become cliché and words that are unnecessarily sophisticated. ‘Synergy’ and ‘Liaise’ are examples of buzzwords that have been overused and abused. Say what you mean plainly and simply. For example, instead of ‘interface’, say ‘work’. Instead of ‘impact’, say ‘affect’, instead of ‘utilize’, say ‘use’.

Exercise I Choose the appropriate answer out of the choices given below each statement to fill in the blanks:

i) ______________is a written summary of one’s educational and professional experience. 113

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a) b) c) d) ii)

Curriculum Vitae Career Objective Experience Curriculum Objective

________________is generally used outside the academia and researchoriented positions. e) Resume f) Curriculum Vitae g) Work Experience h) Resume Work ii)

You should avoid -------------------------- in your resume. e) key words f) strong words g) fancy words h) stylish words

iii)

One should avoid using -------------------------- in one’s resume. a) objective statement b) negative words c) work experience d) objective words

iv)

Be sure to describe your ________________ with strong action words. ĂͿ accomplishments ďͿ failures ĐͿ contact information ĚͿ objectives

Answers i.

(a)

ii.

(a)

iii

(c)

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iv

(b)

v.

(a)

Further Reading… 1. CBE Style Manual: A Guide for Authors, Editors and Publishers (1983). 5th ed. Council of Biological Editors, Bethesda, Maryland, USA. 2. Chicago Manual of Style (1996). 14th ed. Prentice Hall of India. 3. Day, R. A. (1998). How to Publish a Scientific Paper. 5th ed. Oryx Press, Westport, Connecticut. 4. Gordon, H. M. and Walter J. A. (1970) Technical Writing. 3rd ed. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 5. Joseph, G. (2000) MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 5th Ed. Affiliated East-West Press. New Delhi. 6. Leggett, G., Mead, C. D., Charvat, W. and Beal, R. S. (1982) Handbook for Writers. 8th ed. Prentice- Hall, USA. 7. Richard, W.S. (1969) Technical Writing. Barnes & Noble, New York. 8. Sewak, S. N. and Batra, R. K. (2008). Scientific and Technical Writing: A Practical Approach. 3rd ed., Kala Sanchar, Ludhiana. 9. Troyka, L. Q. (1987). Simon & Schuster Handbook for Writers. Prentice Hall, Inc. New Jersey. 10. Wren, P. C. and Martin, H. (1989). English Grammar and Composition. Rev. ed. N. D. V. Prasada Rao. S. Chand and Co. Ltd. New Delhi.

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