The American Superhero: Encyclopedia Of Caped Crusaders In History 1440861234, 9781440861239, 1440861242, 9781440861246

Table of contents :
Cover......Page 1
Title......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 12
Chronology of Milestone Events......Page 14
The American Superhero: History, Ages, and Study......Page 22
Histories and General Studies of Comics......Page 28
Thematic Essays......Page 30
The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955......Page 32
Note......Page 40
Further Reading......Page 41
The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s......Page 43
Further Reading......Page 50
From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—the 1970s and 1980s......Page 52
The Bronze Age and Social Relevance......Page 53
The New Woman......Page 56
Black Superheroes in the Age of Blaxploitation......Page 57
The Copper Age......Page 58
Further Reading......Page 62
The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s......Page 64
Kingdom Come and the Post–Cold War Hero......Page 69
Further Reading......Page 73
The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World......Page 74
Old Heroes, New Threats......Page 75
Marvel’s Civil War......Page 78
Beyond the Comic Book Page......Page 80
Further Reading......Page 83
Ant-Man/Giant-Man/Goliath/Yellowjacket......Page 86
Aquaman......Page 88
Atom......Page 90
Further Reading......Page 91
Avengers......Page 92
Further Reading......Page 95
Batgirl/Oracle......Page 96
Further Reading......Page 99
Batman: Comics......Page 100
Further Reading......Page 104
Batman: Other Media......Page 105
Batman: Rogues’ Gallery......Page 108
Batwoman......Page 111
Black Canary......Page 114
Black Lightning......Page 116
Further Reading......Page 117
Black Panther......Page 118
Black Terror and Tim......Page 121
Black Widow......Page 123
Blade, the Vampire Hunter......Page 125
Blue Beetle......Page 127
Brother Voodoo......Page 129
Further Reading......Page 130
Bucky/Young Allies/Winter Soldier......Page 131
Bulletman and Bulletgirl......Page 133
Further Reading......Page 135
Captain America: Comics......Page 136
Further Reading......Page 140
Captain America: Other Media......Page 141
Captain Marvel (a.k.a. SHAZAM!)......Page 143
Cloak and Dagger......Page 146
Further Reading......Page 148
Crimson Avenger......Page 149
Further Reading......Page 150
Daredevil......Page 151
Deadpool......Page 153
Further Reading......Page 155
Doctor Doom......Page 156
Further Reading......Page 157
Doctor Fate......Page 158
Further Reading......Page 159
Doctor Strange......Page 160
Further Reading......Page 162
Falcon......Page 163
Further Reading......Page 164
Fantastic Four......Page 165
Fantomah......Page 169
Further Reading......Page 170
Fighting American......Page 171
Flash......Page 172
Further Readings......Page 175
Ghost Rider......Page 176
Further Reading......Page 177
Green Arrow......Page 178
Green Hornet......Page 180
Green Lantern......Page 182
Green Lantern Corps......Page 185
Guardians of the Galaxy......Page 187
Further Reading......Page 190
Harley Quinn......Page 191
Further Reading......Page 193
Hulk......Page 194
Further Reading......Page 197
Human Torch (1940s)......Page 198
Further Reading......Page 200
Hydra/AIM......Page 201
Further Reading......Page 203
Iron Fist......Page 204
Iron Man......Page 205
Further Reading......Page 208
Joker......Page 210
Further Reading......Page 213
Justice League......Page 214
Justice Society......Page 217
Further Reading......Page 220
Legion of Superheroes......Page 221
Luke Cage/Power Man......Page 222
Further Reading......Page 224
Ms. Marvel......Page 225
Further Reading......Page 227
Nick Fury/SHIELD......Page 228
Further Reading......Page 230
Nightwing/Robin I......Page 231
Further Reading......Page 233
Phantom, The......Page 234
Plastic Man......Page 235
Punisher......Page 237
Further Reading......Page 239
Question, The......Page 240
Further Reading......Page 241
Red Hood/Robin II......Page 243
Red Hulk/“Thunderbolt” Ross......Page 245
Red Robin/Robin III......Page 248
Red Skull......Page 250
Robin/Robin IV......Page 253
Further Reading......Page 255
Sandman......Page 256
Further Reading......Page 257
Scarlet Witch/Quicksilver/Vision......Page 258
Shadow, The......Page 260
Further Reading......Page 261
She-Hulk......Page 262
Shield (1940s), The......Page 264
Silver Surfer......Page 266
Spawn......Page 269
Further Reading......Page 271
Spectre, The......Page 272
Further Reading......Page 273
Spider-Man: Comics......Page 274
Spider-Man: Other Media......Page 278
Spider-Man: Rogues’ Gallery......Page 282
Further Reading......Page 285
Spider-Woman......Page 286
Further Reading......Page 288
Spirit, The......Page 289
Sub-Mariner......Page 291
Suicide Squad......Page 293
Supergirl/Power Girl......Page 295
Superman: Comics......Page 298
Further Reading......Page 303
Superman: Other Media......Page 304
Superman: Rogues’ Gallery......Page 307
Swamp Thing......Page 311
Further Reading......Page 313
Teen Titans......Page 314
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles......Page 317
Thor......Page 318
Further Reading......Page 321
Tick......Page 322
TNT and Dan the Dyna-Mite......Page 323
Further Reading......Page 324
Uncle Sam......Page 325
Further Reading......Page 327
V/Vendetta......Page 328
Further Reading......Page 330
Watchmen......Page 331
Wolverine......Page 334
Further Reading......Page 338
Woman in Red, The......Page 339
Further Reading......Page 340
Wonder Woman: Comics......Page 341
Further Reading......Page 346
Wonder Woman: Other Media......Page 347
Further Reading......Page 350
X-Men: Comics......Page 351
X-Men: Other Media......Page 356
X-Men: Other X-Groups......Page 359
Further Reading......Page 361
X-Men: Rogues’ Gallery......Page 362
Further Reading......Page 364
X-23/Wolverine II......Page 365
Further Reading......Page 366
Glossary......Page 368
Bibliography......Page 372
About the Editor and Contributors......Page 382
Index......Page 384

Citation preview

The American Superhero

The American Superhero Encyclopedia of Caped Crusaders in History

Richard A. Hall

Copyright © 2019 by ABC-CLIO, LLC All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Hall, Richard A., 1969- author. Title: The American superhero : encyclopedia of caped crusaders in history / Richard A. Hall. Description: Santa Barbara : Greenwood, 2019. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018039666 | ISBN 9781440861239 (hardcopy : acid-free paper) | ISBN 9781440861246 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Comic books, strips, etc.—Encyclopedias. | Comic books, strips, etc.—United States—History and criticism. | Superheroes—Encyclopedias. | Superheroes in literature. Classification: LCC PN6707 .H35 2019 | DDC 741.5/03—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018039666 ISBN: 978-1-4408-6123-9 (print)     978-1-4408-6124-6 (ebook) 23  22  21  20  19   1  2  3  4  5 This book is also available as an eBook. Greenwood An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC ABC-CLIO, LLC 147 Castilian Drive Santa Barbara, California 93117 www.abc-clio.com This book is printed on acid-free paper Manufactured in the United States of America

In Memory of Stan Lee (1922–2018): The Superhero’s Hero.

Contents

Preface  xi Chronology of Milestone Events  xiii Introduction xxi Thematic Essays The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955  3 The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s  14 From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—the 1970s and 1980s  23 The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s  35 The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World  45 A–Z Entries Ant-Man/Giant-Man/Goliath/Yellowjacket  57 Aquaman  59 Atom 61 Avengers  63 Batgirl/Oracle  67 Batman: Comics  71 Batman: Other Media  76 Batman: Rogues’ Gallery  79 Batwoman  82 Black Canary  85

viii Contents

Black Lightning  87 Black Panther  89 Black Terror and Tim  92 Black Widow  94 Blade, the Vampire Hunter  96 Blue Beetle  98 Brother Voodoo  100 Bucky/Young Allies/Winter Soldier  102 Bulletman and Bulletgirl  104 Captain America: Comics  107 Captain America: Other Media  112 Captain Marvel (a.k.a. SHAZAM!)  114 Cloak and Dagger  117 Crimson Avenger  120 Daredevil 122 Deadpool  124 Doctor Doom  127 Doctor Fate  129 Doctor Strange  131 Falcon  134 Fantastic Four  136 Fantomah  140 Fighting American  142 Flash  143 Ghost Rider  147 Green Arrow  149 Green Hornet  151 Green Lantern  153 Green Lantern Corps  156 Guardians of the Galaxy  158 Harley Quinn  162 Hulk  165

Contents ix

Human Torch (1940s)  169 Hydra/AIM  172 Iron Fist  175 Iron Man  176 Joker  181 Justice League  185 Justice Society  188 Legion of Superheroes  192 Luke Cage/Power Man  193 Ms. Marvel  196 Nick Fury/SHIELD  199 Nightwing/Robin I  202 Phantom, The  205 Plastic Man  206 Punisher  208 Question, The  211 Red Hood/Robin II  214 Red Hulk/“Thunderbolt” Ross  216 Red Robin/Robin III  219 Red Skull  221 Robin/Robin IV  224 Sandman  227 Scarlet Witch/Quicksilver/Vision  229 Shadow, The  231 She-Hulk  233 Shield (1940s), The  235 Silver Surfer  237 Spawn  240 Spectre, The  243 Spider-Man: Comics  245 Spider-Man: Other Media  249 Spider-Man: Rogues’ Gallery  253

x Contents

Spider-Woman  257 Spirit, The  260 Sub-Mariner 262 Suicide Squad  264 Supergirl/Power Girl  266 Superman: Comics  269 Superman: Other Media  275 Superman: Rogues’ Gallery  278 Swamp Thing  282 Teen Titans  285 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles  288 Thor  289 Tick  293 TNT and Dan the Dyna-Mite  294 Uncle Sam  296 V/Vendetta 299 Watchmen  302 Wolverine  305 Woman in Red, The  310 Wonder Woman: Comics  312 Wonder Woman: Other Media  318 X-Men: Comics  322 X-Men: Other Media  327 X-Men: Other X-Groups  330 X-Men: Rogues’ Gallery  333 X-23/Wolverine II  336 Glossary  339 Bibliography  343 About the Editor and Contributors  353 Index  355

Preface

Heroes have been with us since the very beginning. From gods like Zeus and Osiris to the more human Hercules and Samson, humanity has used heroes to teach morality to their youth. Likewise, for centuries, academics have studied these hero narratives in order to learn more about their respective societies. Today’s “superheroes”—from the all-powerful Superman to the “normal” but well-armed Punisher—have been mainstays in American popular culture for decades, utilized by generations of Americans to perform this age-old role of establishing morality and a sense of “right” in their youth. As America—and Americans—have changed since the latter days of the Great Depression, so too have our superheroes. In the 21st century, as superheroes have gone from dominating the printed page to dominating television and movie theaters, they have also become the focus of considerable academic study in an attempt to more fully understand both who we have been, who we are, and who we hope to be as a people. Like most fans, I was introduced to superhero comic books as a kid. I was around six when I was introduced to reruns of the 1960s Batman series starring Adam West. When I was seven, Star Wars was released, and comic books were put aside in favor of action figures. I was reintroduced to comics after graduating high school. Comics had gone mainstream, and I began to collect them obsessively. I put them aside once again when I started having kids of my own (and simply couldn’t afford them). Ironically, it was the pursuit of my PhD that would bring me back to the genre. Once I’d reached the dissertation stage in 2007, I had no good ideas for a topic. It was a discussion with my major professor about the recent “death” of Captain America that set off a lightbulb in both our heads. I would examine the importance of comic books as primary historical sources by studying Captain America comics from 1941 to 2001. However, the most frustrating aspect of my research was that I needed multiple sources to find even the most basic information on various heroes. I cannot count the hours spent going from book to book, Web site to Web site, searching for that one small piece of information, or the piles of books I went through to find some mention of the hero I was researching. If only there was one all-encompassing source from which to start researching superheroes. It is the purpose of this volume to be the best possible starting point for such research.

xii Preface

Having said that, no one source can be perfect. A truly comprehensive resource on the subject would be a multivolume work costing hundreds of dollars. This volume consists of 100 entries on heroes ranging from the iconic (Superman and Captain America) to the obscure (Bullet Man and Fantomah). Some may appear in team entries but do not receive a solo entry. For example, the Marvel heroine “the Wasp” does not appear in her own entry, but she does appear in the entry for her longtime partner, Ant-Man. As such, if a hero or creator you are searching for does not appear in this volume, I do sincerely apologize. I have done my best to compile a list of heroes that are either (1) part of the popular American zeitgeist, (2) were once very popular but have since fallen into obscurity, or (3) have prime potential for continuing—or initial—research. This work also consists of 30 sidebars for important individuals and events in the history of the medium; again, in the interest of brevity, hard choices had to be made to narrow that list. This volume also includes five thematic essays examining the overall history of superheroes and a chronology and glossary of important events, terms, and jargon for comic book research. While this book endeavors to be purely neutral and academic in scope, certain areas of discussion (specifically, some of the material in the thematic essays and sidebars) are very controversial in the comic book fan and academic community, such as how valid Dr. Fredric Wertham’s crusade against comics was, and the respective roles of Stan Lee versus those of Jack Kirby and Steve Ditko in regard to the creation of the Marvel Universe. In such areas, the arguments—pro or con—presented in this volume are the educated opinions of the respective authors. Last—and, again, in the interest of brevity—superhero appearances in video games are not covered, limiting appearances outside of comics to film and television. Though this book has been an absolute joy to write, it would not have been possible without the assistance of several notable individuals. My contributors—Deborah Blackwell, Josh Plock, Maria Reyes, and Rob Weiner—have been kind enough to add their own perspectives on topics that fall more within their various areas of expertise. Finally, I would like to thank my endlessly supportive editor, Catherine Lafuente, who has given me this amazing opportunity to create a work that I hope will be helpful, as well as entertaining, to the academic and layperson alike. Enjoy!

Chronology of Milestone Events

1933 Maxwell Gaines and Harry Wildenberg of Eastern Color Printing, working with Dell Publishing, publish Famous Funnies: A Carnival of Comics, considered to be the first American comic book. 1935 Retired cavalry Major Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson, through his company, National Allied Publications (which would eventually become DC Comics), publishes its first comic book: New Fun: The Big Comic Magazine. 1937 National Allied Publications publishes Detective Comics #1. 1938 Superman is introduced in Action Comics #1, by the creative team of Jerry Siegel and Joel Schuster, through National Allied Publications. Superman represents the first “superhero.” 1939 Batman is introduced in Detective Comics #27 by the creative team of Bob Kane and Bill Finger, through Detective Comics/National Allied Publications. Timely Comics is established by magazine publisher Martin Goodman. Marvel Comics #1 is published by Timely Comics, introducing the original Human Torch, created by Carl Burgos. 1940 Fantomah is introduced in the pages of Jungle Comics #2 by Fletcher Hanks, through Fiction House. Fantomah is widely considered to be the first female superhero. The New York City World’s Fair celebrates “Superman Day.” To commemorate the event, National Allied Publications presents New York World’s Fair Comics #1. The Adventures of Superman debuts as a radio program running three to five 15-minute episodes per week. Upon cancellation in 1951, the program had aired 2,088 episodes. Robin the Boy Wonder is introduced in Detective Comics #38 by the creative team of Bill Finger and Bob Kane through DC Comics, becoming comics’ first teenage sidekick.

xiv

Chronology of Milestone Events

The Joker and Catwoman are introduced in Batman #1 by the creative team of Bill Finger, Bob Kane, and Jerry Robinson through DC Comics, becoming comics’ first “supervillain.” Captain America is introduced in Captain America Comics #1 by the creative team of Joe Simon and Jack Kirby through Timely Comics. 1941 Paramount Pictures releases a series of animated “Superman” short films in theaters. Fleischer Studios produced nine shorts from 1941 to 1942, when Famous Studios took over and produced eight more shorts from 1942 to 1943. Wonder Woman is introduced in All Star Comics #8 by creator Dr. William Moulton Marston through All-American Publications, which would eventually merge with National Allied to create DC Comics. 1943 Rudolph Flothow produces a 15-part movie serial starring Batman, directed by Lambert Hillyer and starring Lewis Wilson as the Dark Knight Detective. The success of the series led to a second in 1949, directed by Spencer Gordon Bennet and starring Robert Lowery and Johnny Duncan in the title roles of Batman and Robin. The rerelease of these serials in 1965 assisted in prompting the 1966 television series. 1944 Republic Pictures releases a multipart movie serial, Captain America, based very loosely on the Timely Comics hero. It was directed by Elmer Clifton and John English and starred Dick Purcell. 1946 National Allied Publications, Detective Comics, and All-American Publications merge to create National Periodical Publications (eventually renamed DC Comics). 1947 Orrin Cromwell Evans writes and publishes All Negro Comics #1, becoming the first American comic book to be created by and feature African Americans. Only one issue is published. 1948 Sam Katzman produces a 15-part movie serial starring Superman, directed by Spencer Gordon Bennet and Thomas Carr and starring Kirk Alyn as the Man of Steel. The success of the series led to a second in 1950, titled Atom Man vs. Superman, with the same production team. 1951 Lippert Pictures releases Superman and the Mole Men, directed by Lee Sholem and starring George Reeves as the Man of Steel. The theatrical release would be a launching pad for the new television series. Adventures of Superman is released in syndication and is the first television series to feature a comic book superhero. The series starred George Reeves as Superman and aired until just prior to the actor’s mysterious death in 1959.



Chronology of Milestone Events xv

1953 In response to outcries from parents and religious groups concerned about the influence of comic books, spurred in large part by the research of psychiatrist Dr. Fredric Wertham, the U.S. Senate establishes the Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency to investigate the medium. 1954 Dr. Fredric Wertham publishes Seduction of the Innocent, a harsh criticism of the comic book industry blaming the medium for everything from juvenile delinquency to homosexuality in young people. The comic book industry voluntarily creates the Comics Code Authority as an internal censoring body. The strict guidelines of the Code would require wholesome material in all comic books. 1956 DC Comics Editor Julius Schwartz introduces a rebooted version of the Golden Age hero the Flash in Showcase #4. The new science fiction–based hero would usher in what is considered the Silver Age of superhero comics. 1960 DC Comics Editor Julius Schwartz brings together his newly rebooted slate of heroes along with mainstays Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, and Aquaman to create the Justice League of America in The Brave and the Bold #28. 1961 In response to the success of the Justice League, Timely Comics Editor Stan Lee and artist Jack Kirby introduce the Fantastic Four, launching what would become known as the Marvel Age of Comics. 1962 Spider-Man is introduced in the pages of Amazing Fantasy #15 by the creative team of Stan Lee and Steve Ditko, through Marvel Comics. 1963 The X-Men are introduced in the pages of X-Men #1 by the creative team of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby through Marvel Comics. 1964 At Marvel Comics, Stan Lee and Jack Kirby reintroduce Captain America in the pages of Avengers #4, explaining that the hero had been frozen in ice since the waning days of World War II. The retconned story would create continuity issues, as it negated Captain America’s postwar adventures. 1966 ABC-TV debuts Batman, produced by William Dozier and starring Adam West in the title role. The series ran for two and a half seasons and presented a campy, comedic version of the comic book superhero. Black Panther is introduced in the pages of Fantastic Four #52 by the creative team of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby through Marvel Comics. Black Panther is widely considered the first mainstream superhero of African descent (though not African American).

xvi

Chronology of Milestone Events

1967 National Periodical Publications is bought by Kinney National Company and eventually renamed Warner Communications. ABC-TV debuts the animated series Spider-Man. The series was a critical and commercial success and ran until 1970, with the third and final series running in syndication. 1968 At DC Comics, writer Denny O’Neil introduces the “New” Wonder Woman, stripped of her superpowers and fighting crime with basic martial arts skills, in the pages of Diana Prince: Wonder Woman (later titled New Wonder Woman). The change was not embraced by the women’s movement, and the character was returned to her superpowered roots two years later. 1969 The Falcon is introduced in the pages of Captain America #117 by the creative team of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby through Marvel Comics. Falcon is widely considered the first African American superhero. 1970 DC Comics creative team Denny O’Neil and Neal Adams address current sociopolitical issues in their iconic 13-issue run of Green Lantern/Green Arrow. 1973 ABC-TV debuts the animated series Super Friends, a kid-friendly version of the DC Comics property Justice League of America. The series was very popular and continued under various titles until 1985. 1974 Wolverine is introduced in The Incredible Hulk #181 by the creative team of Len Wein and John Romita Sr. through Marvel Comics. 1975 Marvel Comics writer Len Wein reintroduces the “All-New, All-Different X-Men” in the pages of Giant Size X-Men #1, bringing a more multinational and multiethnic group of superpowered mutants, including Wein’s previous creation, Wolverine. ABC-TV debuts Wonder Woman, starring Lynda Carter in the title role. After one season, the show was picked up by CBS-TV, where it aired two more seasons as The New Adventures of Wonder Woman. It was the first television series to feature a female superhero. 1976 The first DC/Marvel superhero crossover event is published with Superman vs. The Amazing Spider-Man, written by Gerry Conway and drawn by Ross Andru. 1977 One month prior to the release of the movie Star Wars, Lucasfilm employee Charles Lippincott negotiates a deal with Stan Lee for Marvel Comics to begin publishing



Chronology of Milestone Events xvii

a monthly comic based on the film. With sales of superhero comics severely lacking, the wildly popular Star Wars comic saves Marvel from financial ruin. 1978 CBS-TV debuts The Incredible Hulk, starring Bill Bixby in the title role. The series ran for four seasons and spawned several made-for-TV movies. It was the first successful live-action series for a Marvel Comics character. Warner Bros. releases Superman: The Movie, directed by Richard Donner and starring Christopher Reeve in the title role. The film was a critical and commercial success, spawning three sequels that would star Reeve as the Man of Steel. 1982 Arnie Roth is introduced in the pages of Captain America #268 by the creative team of J. M. DeMatteis and Mike Zeck through Marvel Comics. Roth was presented as a childhood friend of Steve Rogers (Captain America) and represents the first homosexual character in American superhero comic books. 1985 DC Comics publishes Crisis on Infinite Earths from the creative team of Marv Wolfman and George Perez. This major crossover comics event was created to fix continuity problems in the DC Comics Universe that had accumulated over 40 years of publication. 1986 DC Comics publishes The Dark Knight Returns from the creative team of Frank Miller and Klaus Janson and Watchmen from the creative team of Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons. These two landmark comic books are credited with gaining attention for comic books as a serious literary art form. 1988 In the wake of a stock market crash in late 1987, the comic book industry experiences a “collectors’ bubble” in which investors see comic books as financial investment opportunities. The bubble spurred numerous sales gimmicks by the major publishers, leading to an eventual crash circa 1995 when investment value proved overstated and causing a near collapse of the industry. 1989 Warner Bros. releases Batman, directed by Tim Burton and starring Michael Keaton in the starring role and Jack Nicholson as the Joker. The film was a critical and commercial success, rescuing the character from its campy 1960s incarnation and cementing Batman as an icon in American culture. 1992 Warner Bros. and DC Comics produce Batman: The Animated Series, developed by Bruce Timm and Paul Dini. The series was a critical and commercial success and later retitled The Adventures of Batman and Robin and, finally, The New Batman Adventures. The success of the series led the creative team to create the additional series Superman: The Animated Series, Justice League, Justice League Unlimited, Batman Beyond, and several home video–released animated films.

xviii

Chronology of Milestone Events

Marvel Comics reveals that the superhero Northstar, member of the Canadian mutant hero team Alpha Flight, is a homosexual in the pages of Alpha Flight #106. The character was finally allowed to marry his husband, Kyle Jinadu, in the pages of Astonishing X-Men #51 in 2012. Northstar stands as the first openly gay superhero (and a participant in the first same-sex marriage) in American comic books. FOX-TV debuts the animated series X-Men. A critical and commercial success, the series ran until 1997. Image Comics is founded by former Marvel creators Todd McFarlane, Jim Lee, and Rob Liefeld. Their first offering, Spawn #1, by McFarlane, would begin one of the most popular comic book series of the 1990s. 1993 DC Comics publishes “The Death of Superman” in the pages of Superman #75 under the creative team of Mike Carlin, Dan Jurgens, Louise Simonson, Jerry Ordway, Roger Stern, and Karl Kesel. Superman remained dead for months, replaced by four would-be supermen. He returned from the dead in Adventures of Superman #505. 1994 FOX-TV debuts the new animated series Spider-Man. A critical and commercial success, the series ran until 1998. 1996 In the wake of the collapse of the collectors’ bubble, Marvel Comics declares bankruptcy. The company was saved by merging with Toy Biz a few months later, creating Marvel Enterprises. 1998 New Line Cinema releases Blade, directed by Stephen Norrington and starring Wesley Snipes in the title role of the Marvel vampire hunter. It was the first major motion picture based on a Marvel Comics property. The film was a critical and commercial success. 2000 20th Century Fox releases X-Men, based on the Marvel Comics franchise; it is directed by Bryan Singer and stars Sir Patrick Stewart as Professor Charles Xavier and Hugh Jackman as Wolverine. The film was a critical and commercial success and spawned eight films related to the original. 2001 The WB Television Network (later called “The CW”) airs Smallville, a series presenting the teenage years of Clark Kent on his road to becoming Superman. The series was developed by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar and starred Tom Welling as Clark Kent. The series ran for 10 seasons, making it the most successful superhero television series to date. 2006 Marvel Comics publishes Civil War, a crossover event from the creative team of Mark Millar and Steve McNiven. The series split the company’s lexicon of heroes



Chronology of Milestone Events xix

against each other over the issue of complying with the U.S. government’s Superhero Registration Act. A critical and commercial success, the series is commonly seen as a commentary on the Patriot Act passed in the wake of the 9/11 terrorist attacks. 2007 In the wake of Civil War, Marvel Comics publishes “The Death of Captain America” story line by writer Ed Brubaker, beginning with Captain America #25. As with the death of Superman, the story line received widespread coverage in the national press. It is commonly seen as a commentary on the changing values of the United States since the 9/11 terrorist attacks. 2008 Marvel Studios releases Iron Man, directed by Jon Favreau and starring Robert Downey Jr. in the title role. The film was a critical and commercial success and the first of a chain of successful Marvel Comics-based films. Warner Bros. releases The Dark Knight, a sequel to its 2005 film Batman Begins, directed by Christopher Knowles and starring Christian Bale in the title role. The film was the most successful superhero-based film to date and garnered a posthumous Oscar Award for Best Supporting Actor for Heath Ledger’s performance as the Joker. 2009 The Walt Disney Company purchases Marvel Entertainment for $4 billion. 2012 Disney/Marvel Studios releases The Avengers, directed by Joss Whedon and starring Robert Downey Jr., Chris Evans, Chris Hemsworth, Scarlett Johansson, Mark Ruffalo, and Samuel L. Jackson as the superhero team. The film was the first to collect characters from previously released films into one major motion picture. The film was a critical and commercial success. 2013 Warner Bros. launches its new DC Cinematic Universe with Man of Steel, directed by Zack Snyder and starring Henry Cavill as Superman. Though it was successful, many criticized the film for portraying a darker version of Superman. 2016 20th Century Fox releases Deadpool, based on the Marvel Comics character. Directed by Tim Miller and starring Ryan Reynolds in the title role, the film became the second most successful R-rated film ever. 2017 Warner Bros. releases Wonder Woman, directed by Patty Jenkins and starring Gal Gadot in the title role. The film was a critical and commercial success, and it was the most successful female-driven film in Hollywood history. 2018 Disney/Marvel Studios releases Black Panther, directed by Ryan Coogler and starring Chadwick Boseman in the title role. The film was a massive critical and

xx

Chronology of Milestone Events

commercial success, breaking records for February releases, movies directed by an African American, and movies starring a primarily black cast. In its opening weekend, it became the fifth-highest grossing opening to date in movie history. Disney/Marvel Studios releases Avengers: Infinity War, directed by Anthony and Joe Russo and starring all of the heroes from the previous 10 years of MCU films. The film garnered the highest-grossing opening weekend for any film in history, with a domestic haul of over $257 million.

Introduction The American Superhero: History, Ages, and Study

Superheroes, like jazz, are an American creation. They are spandex-clad protagonists with remarkable abilities above and beyond what would be considered “normal.” Today in American culture, they have become what the gods of Olympus were to the Ancient Greeks: the stars of mythological morality tales. From their inception, they have been a means of explaining right and wrong to our children. In the 21st century, superheroes are everywhere: television, home video, movies, toy isles, video games, costume parties, conventions, and—for now, at least— comic books. Originally, they were strictly the purview of the comic book medium. A comic book is a periodical published monthly (occasionally twice monthly), bimonthly, quarterly, or annually that tells a story through sequential art combined with a narrative text that includes both dialogue and inner monologue. Ori­ ginally marketed to children aged 8–10 years, the key demographic for comic book sales today leans closer to 40-year-old (primarily white) men. Telling stories through pictures is as old as human society. Prehistoric cave drawings still exist as windows into the world of early humanity. The majority of what we know today of ancient Egyptian culture comes to us through its hieroglyphs, a strictly pictorial language. Political cartoons have been around for centuries. Comic books, as the term is understood today, have been around since the Great Depression. They were primarily designed as a way to republish previously released newspaper comic strips in a single-volume format. Early on, they became an industry driven to a large degree by Jewish American writers and artists, many of whom had been ostracized from the publishing world due to both the growing economic crisis and the prevailing anti-Semitism of the day. Immediately popular with children and affordable at the price of 10 cents, this new medium gained even more popularity with the introduction of a new genre: the superhero. Since just before World War II, superheroes have been a constant in American popular culture with every generation of children from the Baby Boomers to the present; they’ve all grown up with these colorful symbols of American ideals. These characters have shaped and inspired American youth for decades, and since the horrific events of 9/11, they have been a matter of close scrutiny and academic research. In the end, like denizens of all popular culture, comic book superheroes tell us who we are, who we’ve been, and who we aspire to be. They exist today as

xxii Introduction

one of the longest-lasting genres of American popular culture, predating Star Wars, Star Trek, and rock ’n’ roll by decades. Like film, television, and music, comic books are an area of fascinating historical and cultural study. Ever since the publication of Action Comics #1 in June 1938, containing the introduction of Superman by his creators, Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster, comic books—and, more specifically, comic book superheroes—have clearly reflected the times in which they were published. As much as any other medium of entertainment (and some might argue more so), comic books have held up a mirror to American society and have shown a reflection of who we were, what we believed, what we feared, and our resolve in overcoming any obstacle. Originally designed as nothing more than disposable consumer products aimed at children, as the United States emerged from the Great Depression into World War II and came out the other side as the modern world’s first superpower, so too the Superhero emerged. Decade by decade, our superheroes have been us with all our flaws and foibles, all our strengths and weaknesses, all our hopes and dreams. By the 1940s, Superman, Batman, Captain America, and Wonder Woman— mainstays throughout the history of the genre—have fought everything from simple street thugs to international fascists. Born as he was of Jewish American origins, Superman was the ideal American immigrant: eager to be involved in his new society and a firm believer in the American dream. Batman represented our fear of street-level crime and the uncertainty that came with rapid urbanization in the wake of a massive economic depression. Captain America and Wonder Woman—clad in the colors of the American flag—offered an idea that America stood for justice and freedom for the entire world and that it would soon come to the world’s defense when it was needed most. Coming into the 1950s, superheroes appeared to have run their course. Captain America—along with the entire line of Timely Comics heroes—had been discontinued, with no sign that they would ever return. Wonder Woman, like the rest of the women of the Rosie-the-Riveter generation, was expected to return to her “traditional” role and focus more on home and hearth, with her attention turned more toward romance than supervillains. Batman, after public accusations that the character represented and promoted a gay lifestyle with his young ward Robin, began to reflect the science fiction boom that was so evident in movies of the period. Batman and Robin frequently left the crime-ridden streets of Gotham City to focus on threats from outer space, with archvillain Joker becoming more a “Clown Prince of Crime” than the vicious murderer of the early 1940s. As a result of the wave of fear among politicians and parents’ groups that comic books were the primary cause of the rise of juvenile delinquency (though those fears rose more because of the admittedly disturbing crime and horror comics of the day), publishers were under tremendous pressure to create more “kid-friendly” adventures. Superman, originally presented as a crusader for social justice, had become the “Big Blue Boy Scout,” a stereotype that would haunt the character well into the 21st century. Batman and Robin were given “girlfriends” and a dog, promoting the proper 1950s idea of a “family.” Wonder Woman began to focus more on her love life with Col. Steve Trevor.

Introduction xxiii

On entering the 1960s, the “Golden Age” of comics had given way to the “Silver Age,” due primarily to the reimagining of Golden Age heroes by DC Comics editor Julius Schwartz, culminating with the creation of the Justice League of America in 1960. A plethora of new heroes arrived on the scene with powers that, more often than not, originated from some manner of radioactivity or other science-related accident, reflecting the major fears of the day—the Atomic Age. The newly minted Marvel Comics (previously Timely Comics and then Atlas Comics), under the auspices of editor in chief Stan Lee, reinvigorated the industry with exciting new characters: the Fantastic Four, the Incredible Hulk, Spider-Man, Thor, Iron Man, the Avengers, the X-Men, Daredevil, and Doctor Strange. At this time, the Cold War was at its peak. The fear of nuclear war was prevalent and deeply ingrained in American society, exacerbated in 1962 with the Cuban Missile Crisis—the closest America would come to all-out nuclear war with the Soviet Union. Older heroes such as Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman had become outdated, bland representations of a bygone era. As the country became embroiled in Vietnam, Stan Lee and Marvel reintroduced the World War II hero Captain America. The reawakened Sentinel of Liberty, however, was presented as a “man out of time,” an example of how America had changed—and not for the better—since the “Greatest Generation” that had seen the country through the Great Depression and World War II. Marvel began to focus on heroes with problems—heroes who did not necessarily want to be heroes. This reflected the baby boomer generation and its doubts about whether the United States should be a superpower—whether we might have, as a nation, corrupted the responsibility inherent in that title. It would be around this time that comic books began to transcend the “kid market” and attracted older, more educated readers. The 1970s would see an increase in the number of minority and women superheroes. By the 1980s, the comic book medium was faced with increasing competition in the forms of cable television and video games. By mid decade, it appeared once again that comic book superheroes had run their course, no longer able to meet the entertainment needs of society. Ironically, though children began looking elsewhere for their entertainment, the children of the previous decades, who had grown up on these heroes, continued to follow their adventures into their teens and adulthood. Sales demographics shifted, even as sales outlets moved from corner newsstands to privately owned comic book shops. Then, in 1986, two comic miniseries—both published by DC Comics—evolved the genre overnight, bringing the quaint “kids’ fare” of comic books into the mainstream like never before. Batman: The Dark Knight Returns by Frank Miller and Watchmen by Alan Moore saved superheroes by deconstructing them. In both comics, the thesis emerged that superheroes were dangerous, mentally unstable, and a potential threat to society (much like the status of “superpower” was proving to be potentially as dangerous in the real world). The two publications gained the attention of literary critics around the Western world and reinvigorated the medium for an entirely new generation. As the Cold War came to an end in the early 1990s and the United States emerged as the world’s only superpower, the role of superheroes once more came

xxiv Introduction

into question. When the stock market crashed in 1987, many investors turned to comic books with high hopes of making a quick buck. This led to a “collectors’ bubble” that would bring the medium to new heights, only to bring it crashing harder than ever before by the mid-1990s. By the end of the decade, Marvel Comics had declared bankruptcy. Superhero movies—boosted by the 1989 film Batman by director Tim Burton—had become jokes, with box office flops like Spawn and Batman and Robin. As the world’s only remaining superpower, we no longer needed superheroes, as we no longer had a dangerous enemy to fear. As the decade—and the century—came to a close so too it appeared had the day of the superhero. That would change with massive piles of rubble on an otherwise clear autumn morning. In the immediate aftermath of the terror attacks of September 11, 2001, Americans felt fear like no time since the Cuban Crisis of nearly 40 years earlier, but it would last much, much longer. In the new post–9/11 world, Americans needed heroes once again, and comic books were there to salve the wounds of a devastated populace. Comic book sales surged once more, and comic book superheroes dominated television, movie screens, and toy stores like never before. Once the immediate dust settled and Americans caught their breath again, they began to question some of the policies that they had—out of fear—supported. Comic books responded in kind, once more holding a mirror up to American society. In Marvel Comics’ Civil War, heroes under the leadership of Captain America and Iron Man divided over the issue of security versus liberty. By the end of President George W. Bush’s terms in office, Captain America was dead, an old-fashioned relic no longer in touch with the country whose name he bore. Always present on the fringes of American society since the close of World War II, superheroes were now at the forefront of American life. Movies such as The Dark Knight and The Avengers broke box office records. The Supermanbased television series Smallville became one of the longest-running live-action television series of all time. While comic book sales once more began to lag, the heroes they spawned had evolved beyond the printed page to iconic status. Today, the question of America’s role in the world is in doubt like never before. A continuing “War on Terror,” the economic competition from rising superpower China, and domestic division over issues such as abortion, gun control, and global warming all leave Americans in an atmosphere of uncertainty that rivals that of the Cold War. America needs its superheroes like never before, and whether sales of comic books survive another decade, it seems clear that our superheroes are here to stay. The massive appeal of superheroes since 9/11 has caught the attention of academics to a degree never before seen. Why do these characters appeal to children and adults to nearly equal degrees? What is it about superheroes that continues to speak to Americans long after childhood? What do they say about us? Why have characters like Superman, Batman, Captain America, and Wonder Woman— products of the Great Depression and World War II—survived so many decades despite the radical changes in American culture and society over the same period, rather than falling away with contemporaries like swing music and the neighborhood milkman? In what ways do comic books reflect American society, and to

Introduction xxv

what degree do they inspire changes in that same society? Are they primarily works of art or consumer products? These are just some of the questions posed by academics over the years. This is why comic book studies has become such a major area of academia, and it is the primary purpose for this work. There exists some debate among both those who collect and those who study comic books how exactly to divide the various periods of comic book “ages.” There are currently about a half dozen different ideas on comic book ages. For the purpose of more narrowly focusing attention on the various periods of comic book superhero history, connecting the medium to the history that it represents, the following definition of such “ages” will be used in this volume: •

•

•

•

•

•

The Golden Age (1938–1955): From the birth of Superman to the near collapse of the genre when America made the transition from Depression to global war to superpower status. The Silver Age (1956–1968): From the emergence of the new age of superheroes from editors Julius Schwartz at DC and Stan Lee at Marvel through the most turbulent decade in American history. The Bronze Age (1969–1979): Comic books became more socially relevant as Americans experienced what President Jimmy Carter called a “crisis of confidence.” The Copper Age (1980–1991): Comic books took a darker, grittier turn as the Cold War once more reignited fear and uncertainty and the industry began to target much older readers. The Chromium Age (1992–2001): As America experienced recession, the comic book industry surged. As the American economy rebounded to neverbefore-seen heights, comic books collapsed and nearly disappeared for a second time. In a post–Cold War world, who needed heroes? The Modern Age (post–9/11): Comic books rebounded again as superheroes made the leap from the page to dominate all of American society in the wake of the most terrifying day in American history, and they went on to gain audiences around the world.

Along with breaking down comic book history into “ages,” there is also the debate over “dating” comic books. Today, the month that a comic book is published is specified on the cover. In the early decades of the medium, however, when comic books were sold primarily on newsstands and supermarket checkout lines, the month printed on a comic book cover represented the date that a book should be taken off the shelves. As such, a comic book with a cover date of “June 1938” likely hit newsstands around three months earlier. Unfortunately, there is no definitive way to determine exactly what month a particular comic was released to the public. Therefore, in the interest of uniformity, comic books specified in this volume will reflect the actual “cover date” of each particular issue. The goal of this work is to create a single reference volume from which comic book studies can begin. The specific “biographical” material for each hero represented here is a culmination of the gathering of information that would normally have to be sought out through the original comics themselves, general histories on

xxvi Introduction

the subject, or Web sites and databases such as (to name a few): Comics Alliance, Comic Book Resources, Comic Book Database, IGN, Comics Alliance, Comic Book Vine, Wikipedia, or the online DC, Image, and Marvel databases. It is designed to appeal to both the comic book expert and the novice to relatively equal degrees. Each entry concludes with a list of suggested readings on the subject. The lists consist of academic or professional works. It goes without saying that the comics themselves are strongly recommended reading. The brief mentions and synopses of the comics in each entry can only go so far in discussing issues that, in their original context, are many times much more complex. That being said, many brief synopses will appear throughout the work, so: SPOILER ALERT. This book is broken down into two major parts: (1) a series of five thematic essays examining more closely the major periods described above and addressing the major issues of the day; and (2) an A–Z encyclopedia of major, minor, and a few outright obscure superheroes created since 1938. The heroes addressed in this volume fall into three major categories: (1) major superheroes who are well known in the popular zeitgeist and have been consistently sold and closely studied over the decades; (2) superheroes that are well known to comic book aficionados but have been largely ignored by popular culture and academia to date; and (3) more obscure heroes that very much exemplify the periods in which they were created but have since slipped both from the printed page and public consciousness. Because superheroes are static characters—characters that, for purposes of consumer culture, are not allowed to “progress” or “evolve” over time—comic book producers are forced to, from time to time, “retcon” their characters (make slight alterations to previously established story line continuity). Often (many would say too often), even origin stories are tweaked or even dramatically changed to suit the newest audiences. For example, someone who was introduced to Captain America in the pages of The Ultimates in the early 21st century may not recognize the original World War II origin of the character. Both original origin stories and major alterations to characters over time will be addressed in many of the entries of this volume. Individual entries are broken down into three major parts: (1) basic “biographical” data (i.e., first appearances, creators, secret identities, key allies and villains, etc.); (2) brief histories of the character addressing the character’s origin, major story lines, and impact—if any—on popular culture outside of comic books (by necessity, then, characters with longer histories will have longer entries); and (3) “Further Reading” sections pointing the reader in the direction of books and articles of importance for further academic study of a character. Those characters more embedded in the overall American pop culture—Batman, Captain America, Spider-Man, Superman, Wonder Woman, and X-Men—are followed with separate entries for “Other Media” featuring them. Similarly, Batman, Spider-Man, Superman, and X-Men have separate entries for their iconic “Rogues’ Galleries” of villains. Also, there are characters that have passed along their superhero mantles to other individuals over the years, such as Ant-Man, Batgirl, and the Flash. Such characters will have their major incarnations dealt with within a single entry with a relative degree of acknowledgment of others who have donned each mantle.

Introduction xxvii

A chronology of important dates in comic book history and a glossary of key terms are also provided to guide the comic book novice in an introduction to the genre. In an attempt to maintain focus on the historical context of the characters described in this volume, the multiple “reboots” of the DC and Marvel Comics Universes since 2010 will be avoided, with a few minor exceptions. Several contributors have been utilized so as to provide perspectives other than my own: Dr. Deborah Blackwell and Rob Weiner, pop culture historians; Joshua Plock, comic book journalist; and Dr. Maria Reyes, who examines popular culture as a means of analyzing and explaining our political institutions. Each brings to the table their own unique background with superheroes and the industry that creates them. It is not the intention of this volume—as it would be impossible to accomplish—to be a comprehensive history of comic books, superheroes, or even the superheroes presented. It is, rather, the intention of the volume to be a comprehensive beginners’ reference guide, a starting point for comic book research—and as valuable and convenient a starting point that has ever been produced in a single volume. From essays to entries, The American Superhero is designed to present what has been done to date and, hopefully, to inspire what is yet to come. With that, I leave you to it.

HISTORIES AND GENERAL STUDIES OF COMICS Coogan, Peter. 2006. Superhero: The Secret Origin of a Genre. New York: Monkeybrain. Costello, Matthew J. 2009. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books & the Unmasking of Cold War America. New York: Continuum Press. Duncan, Randy, and Matthew J. Smith, 2009. The Power of Comics: History, Form & Culture. New York: Continuum Press. Hatfield, Charles, Jeet Heer, and Kent Worcester, eds. 2013. The Superhero Reader. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi. Heer, Jeet, and Kent Worcester, eds. 2009. A Comics Studies Reader. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Lawrence, John Shelton, and Robert Jewett. 2002. The Myth of the American Superhero. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans. Lopes, Paul. 2009. Demanding Respect: The Evolution of the American Comic Book. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown Archetype. McAllister, Matthew P., Edward H. Sewell Jr., and Ian Gordon, eds. 2001. Comics & Ideology. New York: Peter Lang. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Peaslee, Robert, and Robert Weiner, eds. 2018. The Dark Side: A Supervillain Reader. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press. Pustz, Matthew, ed. 2012. Comic Books and American Cultural History. New York: Continuum Press.

xxviii Introduction Regalado, Aldo J. 2015. Bending Steel: Modernity and the American Superhero. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Reynolds, Richard. 1994. Superheroes: A Modern Mythology. Studies in Pop Culture. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Rosenberg, Robin S. 2013. Superhero Origins: What Makes Superheroes Tick and Why We Care. Self-published. Rosenberg, Robin S., and Peter Coogan. 2013. What is a Superhero? Oxford: Oxford University Press. Steranko, Jim. 1970. The Steranko History of Comics, Vols. 1 and 2. New York: Supergraphics. Tucker, Reed. 2017. Slugfest: Inside the Epic 50-Year Battle Between Marvel and DC. New York: Da Capo Press. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Thematic Essays

The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955 When the United States emerged from World War II, not only did it emerge as the most powerful country in the world but also as a country with superheroes. The modern superhero is an American creation. The first heroes, such as Superman and Batman, were inspired by the prevailing feeling during the 1930s that the system was broken. Establishment institutions—like the government, economy, or local law enforcement—were no longer doing enough to meet the needs of a growing and increasingly urban American society. Then, as war raged all around us, and America remained isolationist, patriotic heroes like Captain America and Wonder Woman represented the idea that America should—as it eventually had in World War I—save the world for democracy. After the war, superheroes slowly went out of vogue, replaced by other genres of comics: westerns, romance comics, and “funny books.” This was due in no small part to the conclusions of Dr. Fredric Wertham, who, in his book Seduction of the Innocent (1954), suggested that superheroes in general – and Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman specifically—were dangerous for America’s children. As such, by 1955, all but the aforementioned superheroes (and minor heroes such as Green Arrow and Aquaman, appearing in ancillary stories) were gone, seemingly never to return. However, for this period (1938–1955), known as the “Golden Age” of comics, superheroes reigned supreme, symbols of the growing greatness, and evolving identity, of America. In the study of comics, however, it is important to note that this iconic American creation—while primarily expressing a traditional white, Anglo, Germanic, Protestant society—was also connected to the evolving ideas on race, gender, and the very concept of what defines an “American” that would dominate the decades to come. The comic book was a product of the Great Depression. In 1933, Harry Wildenberg and Max Gaines, employees of the Eastern Color Printing Company, discovered that the standard printing plates used for printing newspaper comic strip sections could be used to print smaller, magazine-size pages and proposed using the idea to reprint old comic strips to drive advertising revenue. The first of these new “comic books” was Funnies on Parade. Gaines then persuaded publishers and advertisers to invest in the idea with the series Famous Funnies. In 1935, a retired U.S. Army cavalry officer and pulp story writer, Major Malcolm WheelerNicholson, founded National Allied Publishing, which, over time, would become known as DC Comics (Wright, Comic Book Nation, 3–5). While the concept of comic books was very popular, it soon became clear that the burgeoning

4

The American Superhero

companies would soon run out of old material to reprint, and the call soon went out for original material. Though the Great Depression hit all sectors of American society, minorities were hit particularly hard. The inherent and systemic racism was amplified by the dramatic decrease of job opportunities. As such, when the burgeoning comic book industry sought out writers and artists, they received their greatest boon from the minority community, particularly Jewish Americans. By 1935 in Germany, the Nazi regime had already begun its policies against the German Jewish community, but here in America, Jewish Americans were not faring much better. The “America First” movement of the 1930s had many famous individuals known for their anti-Semitic beliefs, such as Father Charles Coughlin and Henry Ford. In 1939, a ship bearing thousands of European Jewish refugees fleeing Nazi occupation was denied entry into the United States, forcing them to seek refuge in ­Mexico. America’s ambassador to Great Britain, Joseph Kennedy Sr., was also very vocal in his opinions against Jews. It is with some degree of irony, then, that one of America’s greatest and most iconic creations, the modern superhero, would have Jewish origins. In fact, many of the most important people in the history of comic books were of Jewish descent: Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster, the creators of Superman; Bob Kane, cocreator of Batman; Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, creators of Captain America; Will Eisner, creator of the Spirit; and future Silver Age spearheads Julius Schwartz and Stan Lee, to name but a few (Weinstein, Up, Up, and Oy Vey!, 16). By the 1930s, America was experiencing a massive uptick in urbanization. Americans were moving from the farms to the cities in larger numbers than ever before, due in no small part to the economic chaos of the Depression and the equally massive disaster of the Dust Bowl, which was both the product of and a contributing factor to the collapsing of the agriculture industry. By 1938, and nearly a decade of Depression, Americans had lost faith in the system. They needed a hero to sweep in and save them, much the way they viewed President Franklin Roosevelt. Superman and Batman, the first major superheroes, both represented answers to this need. Early, Clark [Kent] decided he must turn his titanic strength into channels that would benefit mankind. And so was created . . . Superman! Champion of the oppressed. The physical marvel who had sworn to devote his existence to helping those in need! — Jerry Siegel, Action Comics #1, June 1938 There is a time when justice is blind, when justice errs, the time the long arm of the law points an accusing finger at an innocent man. This is the story of such a man . . . a man who, because of the law’s wrong judgment, almost became a criminal, but for the timely intervention of the Batman and Robin, the Boy Wonder. For it was they who gave him back his self-respect . . . — Bill Finger, Batman #5, March 1941

The focus of these earliest comic book superhero adventures was social injustice. Superman’s first adventures had him dealing with a corrupt landlord, a dirty politician, and an abusive husband (Siegel and Shuster, Action Comics #1, June 1938).



The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity 5

Soon, however, a crisis would emerge that would draw all Americans together, at least for a short time: World War II. By the time America was finally drawn into World War II, superheroes were well established: beings with enormous powers who would stand up for the weak and oppressed (Fingeroth, Disguised as Clark Kent, 17). Superman was himself an immigrant, born on another world but raised by adopted American parents and imbued with the ideals of the American dream. Just as the superhero emerged before the war, America would emerge from it as another 20th-century concept: the superpower. At first, however, Americans wanted nothing to do with the foreign wars raging in Europe and the Pacific. Having lost more than 100,000 troops in World War I, they were in no hurry to sacrifice their own for others again. Over a year before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, at Timely Comics, two other Jewish American comic book creators, Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, gave birth to a superhero who would not only support the war against fascism but also become an American icon that would span the decades: Captain America. As the ruthless war-mongers of Europe focus their eyes on a peace-loving America . . . the youth of our country heed the call to arms for our defense . . . but great as the danger of foreign attack . . . is the threat of invasion from within . . . the dreaded fifth column. — Joe Simon, Captain America Comics #1, March 1941

The first patriotic superhero had actually been introduced a year earlier. The Shield was actually FBI Agent Joe Higgins, wearing a red-white-and-blue shield for a costume and answering directly to real-world FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover (Harry Shorten and Irv Novick, Pep Comics #1, January 1940), as opposed to his Timely Comics counterpart, “J. Arthur Grover” (Simon and Kirby, Captain America Comics #1, March 1941). Despite the similarities between the two heroes and their relatively equal popularity during the 1940s, it was Captain America who would endure beyond the war years and throughout the century. The image of Captain America punching out Adolf Hitler on the cover of his first issue quickly drew the ire of many sections of America, including the isolationist “America First” movement and the American Nazi “Bund” (or “Party”). Death threats from these groups soon caused New York City Mayor La Guardia to assign the New York Police Department to act as bodyguards for Captain America creators, Simon and Kirby. The message of Captain America, however, was clear: America must be the world’s stalwart against evil. One year after Captain America’s debut, Americans would have yet another superhero to rally people to the cause: Wonder Woman. Wonder Woman, different in so many ways from her Golden Age counterparts, was not the product of a Jewish American background. She was created by Dr. William Moulton Marston, a trained psychologist and lawyer, who had begun writing comics under the pen name “Charles Moulton” (Daniels, Wonder Woman, 11). Marston was a dedicated feminist, firmly believing that women were not only as capable as men but also, in many regards, superior. Marston believed in the educational potential of comic books but criticized their blatant misogyny. He

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The American Superhero

believed that women needed their own hero, one as powerful as Superman. Wonder Woman made her debut in All-Star Comics #8 (October 1941). The character was an instant hit, especially with young girls such as Gloria Steinem and Trina Robbins, who would, decades later, become outspoken advocates for women’s rights. Shortly after her debut, the U.S. government launched the “Rosie the Riveter” program, a massive propaganda campaign to urge women to come out into the workplace to fill much-needed heavy industry jobs that historically had been denied to them. Roughly 6 million women would answer the call. Twenty years later, the second wave of American feminism would be launched by women who, by and large, had grown up exposed to Wonder Woman comics. Race was also very much a part of American identity during the 1940s. Ten years before the rise of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the modern civil rights movement, the issue of race in America was already being addressed. As early as 1940, labor union leader A. Philip Randolph had planned a civil rights march on Washington, D.C. President Roosevelt urged him to postpone the march due to the need to prevent divisiveness in the country, as war was just around the corner. Randolph complied with the president’s wishes and lived long enough to speak at the 1963 march alongside Dr. King. Roosevelt, in the meantime, passed Executive Order 8802 in 1941 banning racial discrimination in any industry that held a government contract (which, once America entered World War II, would constitute almost all American industries to one degree or another). America has had a long history of racism dating to its very inception, and the fact that a large part of Nazi ideology revolved around institutionalized racism was not lost on Americans at the time. With the disclosure to the public regarding the concentration camps in Europe, the evil of racism was placed right in the faces of Americans, and many did not want the world’s newest superpower to represent such reprehensible behavior. Shortly after the war, in 1946, the radio program The Adventures of Superman sought out new enemies for America’s greatest superhero, and they found one right here at home: the KKK. It was the advertising firm of Kenyon and Eckhardt that suggested that Superman should return to his social reform roots and take on racism here at home (Bowers, Superman versus the Ku Klux Klan, 115). The program would focus its attention on the members of the country’s premier racist organization as the dangerous villains they were. This public stand against racism led by America’s greatest hero doubtless influenced millions of young minds regarding race relations in America. It is reasonable to assume that many of these children would be among the first generation of marchers protesting for civil rights just a decade later. Within comics themselves, however, racism—particularly against African Americans—continued. There were no black heroes in the comics of the 1940s or 1950s. Black characters were almost always portrayed in the most racist of ways: with thick lips, slouched posture, poor or servile roles, and speaking in pidgin English. During the war, in the pages of Young Allies—a group of child heroes led by Captain America sidekick Bucky—Timely Comics introduced the character Whitewash Jones, a black child member of the Young Allies. Unlike the other Young Allies, who dressed as real-life children dressed, Whitewash dressed in child-sized brightly colored zoot suits, complete with wide-brimmed hat, looking



The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity 7

like a racist rendition of Cab Calloway. Whitewash is consistently portrayed as cowardly and speaking in the aforementioned pidgin English (Stevens, Captain America, Masculinity, and Violence, 52–53). Whitewash Jones is a clear representation of how African Americans were presented in comics, undoubtedly having an equal—and no doubt counterproductive—impact on the comics’ young readers. One man attempted to change this. Twenty years before the Black Panther or Falcon would grace the pages of Marvel Comics, Americans were introduced, albeit briefly, to Ace Harlem, Lion Man and Bubba, Sugarfoot and Snakeoil, and Dew Dillies in the pages of All-Negro Comics #1 (June 1947). This one-issue run was published by Orrin C. Evans, an African American journalist and occasional contributor to The Crisis, the official publication of the NAACP. The issue was produced by the creative team of George J. Evans Jr. (Orrin’s brother), John Terrell, Bill Driscoll, and two other artists who are known only by their pen names “Cooper” and “Cravat” (Christopher, “Orrin C. Evans and the Story of All-Negro Comics,” www.TomChristopher.com). However, the issue of an all-black-produced publication faced extreme difficulties in pre–civil rights America. Despite its inability to catch on, its mere existence is something of historical significance. Evans’s hopes for the magazine are clear in this brief editorial published in the lone issue: Dear Readers: This is the first issue of All-Negro Comics, jam-packed with fast action, African adventure, good clean humor and fantasy. Every brush stroke and pen line in the drawings on these pages are by Negro artists . . . This publication is another milestone in the splendid history of Negro journalism. All-Negro Comics will not only give Negro artists an opportunity gainfully to use their talents, but it will glorify Negro historical achievements. (Evans, “All-Negro Comics: Presenting Another FIRST in Negro History,” 1947)

It is unknown to what degree Stan Lee and Jack Kirby—future creators of Black Panther and Falcon—were aware of Evans’s groundbreaking work, as the limited release of the single issue makes it difficult to ascertain. As the copyright on AllNegro Comics has long since expired, all the characters are now public domain. Early in the publication of superhero comics, newspaper book reviewers, editorial boards, and religious and parents’ groups viewed comic books as potentially dangerous to children. Leading the charge in this crusade was Dr. Fredric Wertham. Wertham was a senior psychiatrist for the New York Department of Hospitals and director of the LaFargue Clinic, the first psychiatric clinic in Harlem, and head of the Association of Advancement of Psychotherapy. While many within the comic book industry have spent decades vilifying Wertham and his research, many scholars today see him as a man who firmly believed that what he was doing was best for children. Beginning in 1941, Wertham began working with juvenile delinquents in New York City. His research suggested that the most common denominator among these young people—more so, apparently, than an unhappy home life, poverty, or poor education—was the reading of comic books. By 1947, comic books were being blamed for everything from juvenile delinquency to teen suicide to two specific incidents: one where two 11- and 12-­year-old

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National Allied/DC Comics National Allied Publications – known today as DC Comics – was founded in 1934 in New York City by Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson. Wheeler-Nicholson became a pioneer in the burgeoning industry of “comic books.” He published New Fun: The Big Comics Magazine #1 in late 1934. National Allied published two more titles before Wheeler-Nicholson became steeped in debt to his printer/distributor, Harry Donenfeld. In order to publish his next book, Detective Comics #1 (March 1937), Wheeler-Nicholson created a new company, Detective Comics, with Donenfeld and Jack Liebowitz, who were looking for more “acceptable” material to publish, as the two had run into legal problems publishing racy pulp magazines. Additional debt eventually led to the ouster of Wheeler-Nicholson, and Donenfeld and Liebowitz purchased what was left of National Allied. In 1938, the two published Action Comics #1, which debuted Superman. The following year, in Detective Comics #27, Batman was introduced, and Detective Comics Inc. had given birth to a new American genre: the superhero. After World War II, National Allied and Detective Comics merged with All-American Publications (which Liebowitz had co-owned with Max Gaines) to form National Comics Publications. In the late 1950s, National Publications merged with Independent News (a magazine distribution company) to form National Periodical Publications. This merger gave the two men general control of all comic book printing. In 1967, Kinney National Company bought National Periodical and, a few years later, Warner Bros., creating Warner Communications. Warner then merged with Time Inc. in the late 1980s to form Time-Warner. By that time, the subsidiary company, Detective Comics, had officially changed its name to “DC.” With the financial backing of a large corporation, while maintaining its creative autonomy, DC stands as one of the two major superhero comic book publishers in the United States. Richard A. Hall

boys stole and flew an airplane (something they claimed to have learned by reading comics) and a separate incident where another 11-year-old boy killed a 42-­year-old woman in an attempted robbery. His 20-year-old brother blamed comics (Wright, Comic Book Nation, 90). In March 1948, Wertham and the AAP convened a symposium called “The Psychopathology of Comic Books” (Goulart, Great History of Comic Books, 263). The general findings of the members of the symposium were that comic books catered to the basest of instincts in the minds of impressionable children and that superhero comics in particular were “ubermensch fantasies.”1 Likewise, in his 1949 work, Love and Death: A Study in Censorship, Gershon Legman claimed that it was the tight controls that censor boards held over sexual content that led fictional works like comic books to increase the amount of violence in order to keep readers’ suspense built up (Wright, Comic Book Nation, 89–91). In December 1949, Frederic Thrasher put up a strong defense of comics in that month’s Journal of Educational Sociology (3, no. 4, December 1949, 201), questioning the validity of Wertham’s research. His penultimate point was that although most juvenile delinquents might have read comics, that does not and should not mean that most comic book readers are juvenile delinquents and that stronger issues such as home life, socioeconomic status, and



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education level should be considered not only equally but also preferentially (Thrasher 1949, 201). By 1954, superhero comic book sales had hit all-time lows, with the exception of Superman titles, which were selling as much as ever due to the popularity of the television program The Adventures of Superman. The young readers of the World War II years had since grown up and were looking for more mature material. In the wake of actual war, “heroes” were no longer needed, and the fears and tensions born of the Cold War could not be assuaged by the supermen and wonder women of superhero comics. Unfortunately, that same atmosphere of fear and tension required some manner of escapism for young minds. What young people found to answer this need were horror and crime comics. These, then, were the primary focus of televised hearings of the Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency that began in 1954. The few pro-comics specialists that were called were dismissed as “paid apologists” for the industry. Other specialists who found little or no fault with comic books were not asked to testify at all. Defendants from EC Comics—publishers of some of the more sordid horror and crime comics—were treated as almost criminal. The star of the proceedings was Wertham. His overall conclusions concerning comic books were as follows:            

1. The overall format of comic books “invites illiteracy.” 2. Crime comics create an “atmosphere of cruelty and deceit.” 3. Comics create a “readiness for temptation.” 4. Comics “stimulate unwholesome fantasies.” 5. Comics “suggest criminal or sexually abnormal ideas.” 6. Comics “furnish the rationalization for criminal and sexual ideas, which may be ethically even more harmful than the impulses.”   7. Comics “supply details of technique to juvenile impulse.”   8. Comics “may tip the scales toward maladjustment or delinquency.” (Wertham, Seduction of the Innocent, 118) Of superhero comics in particular, Wertham had specific complaints. He considered Superman a fascist: Actually Superman (with the big S on his uniform—we should, I suppose, be thankful that it is not an S.S.) needs an endless stream of ever new submen, criminals and “foreign-looking” people not only to justify his existence but even to make it possible. Superman has long been recognized as a symbol of violent race superiority. The television Superman, looking like a mixture of an operatic tenor without his armor and an amateur athlete out of a health-magazine advertisement, does not only have “superhuman powers,” but explicitly belongs to a “super-race.” (Wertham, 92)

With this statement, America’s first superhero had been reduced to a cartoon fascist. This likely seemed odd to anyone viewing the hearings on television, since the 1950s television version of Superman claimed to stand for “truth, justice, and the American way” (changed from its radio version of “truth and justice”). While these accusations alone were strong, they were but the beginning of Wertham’s criticisms of superheroes. He saw far more dangerous issues in these comic books,

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issues that were of serious concern to many in 1950s America—issues of gender and sexuality. Along with concerns of juvenile delinquency, Congress was concerned with the corruption of traditional American values among young people. The days of “Rosie the Riveter” were now a decade past. Women were supposed to be homemakers and mothers. Wertham saw a great threat to this status quo in the ­American-flag bathing-suit-clad Wonder Woman, who Wertham viewed as little more than a lesbian: “She is physically very powerful, tortures men, has her own female following, is a cruel ‘phallic’ woman. While she is frightening for boys, she is an undesirable ideal for girls, being the exact opposite of what girls are supposed to want to be” (Wertham, 49). From this, one can easily see the social-sexual climate of the mid-1950s. Caught between “Rosie” and Betty Friedan, the image of the ideal woman of the 1950s dramatically changed to one of subservience and docility. If Wonder Woman’s sexuality was ambiguous, it was nothing compared to that of the Batman. Wertham viewed the relationship between Batman and Robin thusly: Just as ordinary crime comic books contribute to the fixation of violent and hostile patterns by suggesting definite forms of their expression, so the Batman type of story helps to fixate homoerotic tendencies by suggesting the form of an adolescentwith-adult or Ganymede-Zeus type of love relationship. (Wertham, 190)

Herein lies one of the great problems of the early Cold War era. Along with the atavistic view of women as homemakers, the view of “manhood” and sexual identity as moral issues are shown here not only as social issues but also as apparent social “problems.” The final Subcommittee report, Comic Books and Juvenile Delinquency, was written by Committee Chair Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee in 1955. The report basically conceded all of Dr. Wertham’s conclusions. Wertham’s own book would come out shortly thereafter, as would a similar work, Youth in Danger, by former committee member Senator Robert Hendrickson, which looked much more broadly at the issue of delinquency but gave even more credence to Wertham’s work. By the time the committee had completed its report, however, the comic book industry had already voluntarily imposed its own censoring board: the Comics Code Authority. Following are some of the mandates agreed upon by publishers and strictly enforced until the early 1970s (“Code of the Comics Magazine Association of America”):   1. Crimes shall never be presented in such a way as to create sympathy for the criminal . . .   2. Policemen, judges, government officials, and respected institutions shall never be presented in such a way as to create disrespect for established authority.   3. If crime is depicted it shall be as a sordid and unpleasant activity.   4. In every instance good shall triumph over evil.   5. No comic shall use the word “horror” or “terror” in its title; and “crime” should be discouraged.   6. All lurid, unsavory, gruesome illustrations shall be eliminated.   7. . . . walking dead, torture, vampires and vampirism, ghouls, cannibalism and werewolfism are prohibited.



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  8. All characters shall be depicted in dress reasonably acceptable to society.   9. Females shall be drawn realistically without exaggeration of any physical qualities. 10. Divorce shall not be treated humorously nor represented as desirable. 1 1. . . . sexual abnormalities are unacceptable. 12. Sex perversion or any inference to same is strictly forbidden. In order to address Wertham’s criticisms, Superman became the “Big Blue Boy Scout” standing for “truth, justice, and the American way.” Batman and Robin were given girlfriends, and Wonder Woman focused more on her love life with Steve Trevor. The professional and governmental attacks on the comic book industry are a perfect example of the fear, misunderstanding, intolerance, and suspicion of the early Cold War era. Faced with an enemy that threatens right-wing dominance by attacking from the left forces a society to be fearful of progressivism in all its forms. Comic books posed a threat to the conformity and “normalcy” that was the safety point for the paranoid adults of the late 1940s and early 1950s. Teachers and librarians could not control comic books. Reading material for young minds became a consumer relationship. The lack of control led to fear of what would result. Along with the fears for our children, the attacks on comic books exposed a fear of ourselves. The fear that a comic book could influence the sexuality of the reader underscores the depth of how 1950s America was menaced by what were deemed “alternative” lifestyles. Wertham’s findings in this regard clearly appear to have stemmed from contemporary ideas of sexual ambiguity being a matter of mental anomaly or dysfunction rather than hard scientific research. To children both then and now, such confusion and uncertainty over what is “right” or “normal” can be frightening. Thankfully, when such frights arise, Americans still have their superheroes. The early years of the Cold War represented a strange mixture of massive economic growth and severe social stagnation. The white Anglo-Saxon male Protestant (WASP) was seen as the ideal. Racial and ethnic minorities, women, and the LGBTQ community were viewed as the “other.” By 1955, superheroes were expected to reflect such ideals, misguided or not. What is clear from the Golden Age of comic books is how the burgeoning genre of superheroes, though produced primarily by an ethnic minority, reflected the prevailing ideas of what it was to be American. From standing up to a broken system and social injustice to patriotically supporting the American effort in World War II, to addressing issues of sexism, racism, and the fears of a changing America, the superheroes were there, standing as stalwarts of the American dream. In the decades to come, many of these heroes would go on to become national icons, defining what it was to be American as the times and social mores continued to evolve. NOTE   1. The papers and discussion presented at this symposium were posted in their entirety in 1998 as a 50th Anniversary Retrospective on the Web site http://www.wonderwoman-online​ .com/wertham.html; the original text appeared in the American Journal of Psychology II, no. 3, (1948): 472–90.

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FURTHER READING Beaty, Bart. 2005. Fredric Wertham and the Critique of Mass Culture: A Re-Examination of the Critic Whose Congressional Testimony Sparked the Comics Code. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press. Bellman, Allen. 2017. Timely Confidential: When the Golden Age of Comics Was Young. Sunrise, FL: Bold Venture. Beritela, Gerard F. 2007. “Super-Girls and Mild Mannered Men: Gender Trouble in Metropolis.” In The Amazing Transforming Superhero!: Essays on the Revision of Characters in Comic Books, Film and Television, edited by Terrence R. Wandtke, 52–69. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Bowers, Rick. 2012. Superman versus the Ku Klux Klan: The True Story of How the Iconic Superhero Battled the Men of Hate. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic. Christopher, Tom. 2002. “Orrin C. Evans and the Story of All-Negro Comics.” Accessed September 20, 2018. TomChristopher.com. “Code of the Comics Magazine Association of America.” In Reinhold Reitberger and Wolfgang Fuchs, Comics: Anatomy of a Mass Medium, 248. Boston: Little, Brown. Cohen, Lizabeth. 2003. A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America. New York: Vintage Books. Daniels, Les. 2000. Wonder Woman, the Complete History: The Life and Times of the Amazon Princess. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. Dittmer, Jason. 2007. “Retconning America: Captain America in the Wake of World War II and the McCarthy Hearings.” In The Amazing Transforming Superhero!: Essays on the Revision of Characters in Comic Books, Film and Television, edited by Terrence R. Wandtke, 33–51. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Evanier, Mark. 2003. Wertham was Right! Raleigh, NC: TwoMorrows. Evans, Orrin C. 1947. “All-Negro Comics: Presenting Another FIRST in Negro History.” All-Negro Comics #1. Feiffer, Jules. (1965) 2003. The Great Comic Book Heroes. Seattle: Fantagraphics Books. Fingeroth, Danny. 2007. Disguised as Clark Kent: Jews, Comics, and the Creation of the Superhero. New York: Continuum Press. Gavaler, Chris. 2015. On the Origin of Superheroes: From the Big Bang to Action Comics #1. Iowa City: Iowa University Press. Goulart, Ron. 1986. Ron Goulart’s Great History of Comic Books: The Definitive History from the 1890s to the 1980s. New York: Contemporary Books. Hajdu, David. 2008. The Ten-Cent Plague: The Great Comic Book Scare and How It Changed America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper Perennial Press. Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters, and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Lopes, Paul. 2009. Demanding Respect: The Evolution of the American Comic Book. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us about Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Rosenberg, Robin S., and Peter Coogan, eds. 2013. What Is a Superhero? Oxford: Oxford University Press. Simon, Joe. 2011. My Life in Comics. New York: Titan Books. Stevens, J. Richard. 2015. Captain America, Masculinity and Violence: The Evolution of a National Icon. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press.



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Tucker, Reed. 2017. Slugfest: Inside the Epic 50-Year Battle Between Marvel and DC. New York: Da Capo Press. Tye, Larry. 2012. Superman: The High-Flying History of America’s Most Enduring Hero. New York: Random House. Weinstein, Simcha. 2006. Up, Up, and Oy Vey!: How Jewish History, Culture, and Values Shaped the Comic Book Superhero. Baltimore: Leviathan Press. Weldon, Glen. 2016. The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture. New York: Simon & Schuster. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. York, Chris, and Rafiel York, eds. 2012. Comic Books and the Cold War, 1946–1962: Essays on Graphic Treatment of Communism, the Code and Social Concerns. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s

The 1960s was one of the most turbulent periods of American history. By that time, the Space Race had begun, and America set its sights on the stars. The Cold War reached its peak with the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, followed soon by the escalation of the Vietnam War to nightmarish proportions. The civil rights movement, focused primarily on African Americans in the South, would spread to movements for Hispanics, Native Americans, and, by decade’s end, women and the gay and lesbian community. The assassinations of President John F. Kennedy, his brother and presidential candidate Senator Bobby Kennedy, and civil rights leaders Medgar Evers, the Rev. Malcolm X, and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., left many Americans in an atmosphere of fear and doubt, even while a vocal minority cheered. The baby boomers came of age, publicly resisting the traditions and norms of their parents and leading the charge for protest and change. All the while, in the pages of comic books, the superhero evolved, once more proving to be a reflection of who we are and who we hope to become. The Wertham crusade of the early 1950s had left the future of the comic book industry in serious doubt. By 1955, the only superheroes that remained were Superman, featured in an astounding seven titles; Batman (once he was able to “prove” he wasn’t gay); and Wonder Woman (contractually kept afloat to prevent the rights to the character reverting to creator Marston). Aquaman and Green Arrow were still around as ancillary features in Action Comics and Detective Comics respectively, but overall, it appeared that the day of the superhero was over. Then, in 1956, DC Comics tasked editor Julius Schwartz with bringing back the Golden Age hero the Flash. Working with writers Robert Kanigher and John Broome, and artist Carmine Infantino, Schwartz devised a new science fiction twist on the character, and the Silver Age of Comics was born. After successfully rebooting Green Lantern along similar lines, Schwartz brought the two together with Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Aquaman, and Martian Manhunter



The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age 15

(created by Joseph Samachson and Joe Certa, Detective Comics #225, November 1955) to create the Justice League of America (Gardner Fox and Mike Sekowsky, The Brave and the Bold #28, March 1960). As the legend goes—and has been repeated many times over the decades— Martin Goodman, publisher of Timely Comics (later Atlas Comics), learned of the success of the Justice League and assigned his editor, Stan Lee, to come up with a similar super team. Since the 1940s, Timely/Atlas had gained a reputation for basically copycatting whatever was popular in comics at the time. The story is that Lee, who had been working in comics for 20 years by that time, was looking to retire from the business altogether, creatively exhausted from decades in a muchderided medium. When he mentioned his dilemma—and Goodman’s request—to his wife, Joan, she suggested that he do what Goodman was asking, but in his own way. The way she viewed it, if Goodman was unhappy with what Lee produced, the worst-case scenario was that Lee would be fired—and he wanted to quit anyway. Lee took her advice and turned to his chief artist, Jack Kirby, and the two created the Fantastic Four in 1961. The massive success of this first collaboration launched what came to be known as the “Marvel Age” of comics (Wright, Comic Book Nation, 204; Tucker, Slugfest, 17–18). Over the next two years, Lee, Kirby, and artist Steve Ditko would create a plethora of wildly popular superheroes: the Hulk, Spider-Man, Thor, Iron Man, Ant-Man and the Wasp, the Avengers, Doctor Strange, Daredevil, and the X-Men. As the featured characters began to cross into other books, the Marvel Comics Universe was born. In the decades since, considerable controversy has arisen in regard to what degree Lee versus Kirby and Ditko were responsible for the creation of these characters. As so much time has passed and so few witnesses to events remain outside of those three, the “truth” of the matter will likely never be known. Regardless of who was more or less responsible, the popularity of these characters is not in dispute. Due to the demands of deadlines and the limited staff at the newly minted “Marvel Comics,” Lee developed what has come to be known as the “Marvel method”: Lee would provide his artists with a general plot outline, the artists would then draw out the plot sans dialogue, and Lee would then fill in the narrative text. The system worked, and superhero comics would never be the same (Howe, Marvel Comics: The Untold Story, 37). Marvel superheroes were like no superheroes before. The Thing and the Hulk saw themselves as monsters and their powers as a curse. Iron Man and Doctor Strange were conceited egomaniacs humbled by unexpected accidents that had caused permanent physical disabilities. The X-Men were the victims of prejudice for not being “normal.” Thor, the ancient Norse god of thunder, spoke in Shakespearean verse. In 1964, Lee and Kirby reintroduced Captain America, explaining that he had been frozen since the end of World War II, and brought him into the 1960s as a modern-day Rip Van Winkle suffering from survivor’s guilt over the death of his wartime partner, Bucky. Spider-Man, perhaps, best explains the Marvel take on heroes: In this world, with great power there must also come—great responsibility. —Stan Lee, Amazing Fantasy #15, August 1962

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The Marvel heroes, though mostly white men, represented widely differing backgrounds from American society in the 1960s. Spider-Man was a lowermiddle-class teenager being raised by his elderly, widowed aunt. Hulk, Ant-Man, and Reed Richards of the Fantastic Four were all brilliant scientists. Ben Grimm, the Thing, was a test pilot. Professor X was a teacher, and his students were teenagers. Daredevil grew up poor as the blind orphan of a professional boxer, and he became a practicing lawyer. Doctor Strange was originally a gifted surgeon with no belief in or understanding of the supernatural. Iron Man was the ultimate representative of the military-industrial complex, a weapons manufacturer—but who then saw the error of his ways. Each character possessed his own distinct personality and voice despite all being written by the same author. Though DC Comics had spearheaded the Silver Age, their characters were much more homogenous. Though written by multiple writers, their voices were nearly identical. This became even more evident when they were brought together as the Justice League. As the new Marvel characters gained popularity—and readership—the staff at DC were agog as to how Lee pulled this off, and yet it was adamantly resistant to following Marvel’s example. As such, when it came to the 1960s, it was Marvel’s comics that most closely reflected the changes happening in America, a fact that explains why, as the target comic book audience aged over the next few decades, Marvel dramatically gained market share. By 1964, Captain America—the star-spangled, Golden Age superhero—had not been on comic book racks for a decade. In the wake of the brutal death of President John F. Kennedy, Lee and Kirby decided to revive the hero of World War II in their burgeoning Marvel Universe. In Avengers #4 (March 1964), readers discovered that Captain America had been frozen in ice since the waning days of World War II (a retcon that would have to be addressed in years to come). Rather than simply add Captain America to the roster, however, Lee chose to give the character a “man-out-of-time” arc, a relic of the Greatest Generation suddenly cast into the world of the baby boom. His confusion and feeling of being out of place was only exacerbated by his survivor’s guilt over the death of his wartime sidekick, Bucky. By decade’s end, Cap lamented his place in the world: CAPTAIN AMERICA: I’m like a dinosaur . . . An anachronism . . . who’s outlived his time! This is the day of the anti-hero . . . the age of the rebel . . . and the dissenter! It isn’t hip to defend the establishment . . . only to tear it down! . . . Now . . . there are those who scorn love of flag . . . love of country!! . . . Those to whom patriotism is just a square, out-dated word! —Stan Lee, Captain America #122, February 1970

Through Captain America, then, Lee and Kirby—both veterans of World War II— could speak directly to the baby boom generation, acknowledging its views while simultaneously urging it not to stray too far from the ideals for which ­America had fought against the same fascist principles that the new youth—mistakenly or not— saw in their own country. By 1966, the “sixties” were in full swing. The second wave of American feminism was launching with the formation of the National Organization for Women. The civil rights movement was beginning to splinter, with more militant factions



The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age 17

The Marvel Method The “Marvel Method” of creating comics came about in the early 1960s, when Stan Lee was working on nearly all of Marvel’s output. The writer gave the artist a basic plot outline (although sometimes writer and artist would work together on this). The artist created pages based on the outline, sometimes adding secondary characters. The writer then filled in dialogue. This differed from operations at other comic companies, where the writer would turn in a full script that the artist would draw as is, often having little input. Ultimately, the goal was a truly collaborative process between writer and artist. When Stan Lee, Steve Ditko, Jack Kirby, Don Heck, Bill Everett, Larry Lieber, and others were creating the Marvel Universe (with Lee doing practically all the scripting), this method served to get the work done quickly. Occasionally, though, this way of working blurred the lines as to who created what. For example, the Amazing Spider-Man was often so fleshed out by Ditko that it left Lee with very little to do. In early press interviews, Lee was often singled out, while Ditko and Kirby’s contributions, if mentioned at all, were secondary. This became a sore spot for Kirby and Ditko, as they both felt that their contributions in creating the Marvel Universe were being slighted. It has been argued that comics artists serve as auteurs in the same way that a director is considered an author of a particular film. Kirby has sometimes claimed that he was a sole author. Like films, comics are a collaborative process. Although sometimes controversial in assessing who gets credit for what, the Marvel Method remains a unique contribution that Lee, Kirby, Ditko, and others have given to the cultural landscape of comic books. Robert G. Weiner

developing through the rise of the Black Panther Party and the “Black Power” movement the following year. Vietnam got serious, and the Students for a Democratic Society (more popularly known as the “hippies”) had begun their nonstop protest of the war and the establishment overall. Stan Lee’s experiment at Marvel was proving wildly popular with both younger comic book readers and older, more educated readers as well. DC Comics, while continuing to produce more traditional superhero tales, also saw booming sales due in no small part to the wildly popular live-action Batman television series starring Adam West and Burt Ward as the Caped Crusaders. For the series’ third season (1967–1968), producers even pushed DC to create a female partner for Batman: Batgirl, the college-educated daughter of Police Commissioner Gordon. Months before the Black Panther Party was officially organized, Stan Lee and Jack Kirby had already introduced comics’ first black superhero, ironically of the same name: the Black Panther. First appearing in Fantastic Four #52 (July 1966), Black Panther was actually T’Challa, king of the fictional African kingdom of Wakanda. Three years later, Lee and Kirby would introduce the first African American superhero: the Falcon (Captain America #117, September 1969). Aside from being major milestones for black inclusion in superhero comics, these were also huge risks on the part of Marvel Comics. The white establishment in the Southern states could easily have instituted boycotts of Marvel Comics, severely affecting sales and, therefore, profits for the company. Lee was a firm believer, however, in inclusion, both in comics and society overall. In 1967, Lee began writing the column Stan’s Soapbox, which was included in the Bullpen Bulletins section of each comic,

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where Lee would post special announcements and messages for Marvel readers. Occasionally, the Soapbox contained social commentary, as is evidenced in this entry, which appeared in all Marvel comics with the November 1968 cover date: Let’s lay it right on the line. Bigotry and racism are among the deadliest social ills plaguing the world today. But, unlike a team of costumed supervillains, they can’t be halted with a punch in the snoot, or a zap from a ray gun. The only way to destroy them is to expose them—to reveal them for the insidious evils they really are. The bigot is an unreasoning hater—one who hates blindly, fanatically, indiscriminately. If his hang-up is black men, he hates ALL black men . . . Now, we’re not trying to say it’s unreasonable for one human being to bug another. But, although anyone has the right to dislike another individual, it’s totally irrational, patently insane to condemn an entire race . . . Sooner or later, we must learn to judge each other on our own merits. Sooner or later, if man is ever to be worthy of his destiny, we must fill our hearts with tolerance. For then, and only then, will we be truly worthy of the concept that man was created in the image of God—a God who calls us ALL—His children. Pax et Justitia [“Peace and Justice”] Stan. —Stan Lee, Marvel Comics, November 1968

It is impossible to gauge how many young readers actually read this soapbox. However, its inclusion in a popular medium like comic books—along with the introductions of Black Panther and Falcon—show a consistency with the rest of popular culture in regard to addressing the issue of racism in America. Television series such as Star Trek (1966–1969) and Rowan and Martin’s Laugh-In (1967–1973), and major motion pictures such as Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner (1967) were, by then, already addressing the issue and reaching wide audiences with their messages of inclusion, acceptance, and diversity. However, while comics appeared to be fully on board with the idea of racial diversity and social tolerance, they still had a ways to go in regard to the burgeoning movement for equality for women. In an issue of DC’s Superman’s Girlfriend Lois Lane, in a story called “The Lois Lane of the Future,” a superpowered Lois flies through space just slightly behind Superman. Her thought bubble reads: I really feel much more secure this way, staying just a little bit behind him! Perhaps this is a good lesson to me in keeping a husband, when I get married. —John Forte, Superman’s Girlfriend Lois Lane #28, October 1961

Even in the pages of the more “enlightened” Marvel Comics, old ideas of malefemale relations prevailed in the pages of Fantastic Four. Below is a conversation between Mister Fantastic and the Invisible Girl: REED RICHARDS: Just like a woman!! Everything I do is for your own good, but you’re too scatter-brained and emotional to realize it! Well, all right . . . I can play it your way too, Miss Storm! SUE STORM [AFTER REED LEAVES]: That Man!! I know he’s right . . . and that’s why I’m angry! If only he understood females better! —Stan Lee, Fantastic Four #23, February 1964

Those ideas prevailed even toward the end of the decade. Two years after Reed Richards and Sue Storm are married, the two make up after an argument, and an overcome Sue says, “Darling—I don’t know what to say . . .!” Reed counters with



The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age 19

“Fine! Wives should be kissed . . . and not heard!” (Lee, Fantastic Four #65, August 1967). Women did not fare much better in the pages of DC Comics. As stated earlier, the producers of the Batman television series had urged the comics company to create a female ally for Batman. Batgirl was introduced in the pages of Detective Comics #359 (January 1967). She quickly came to symbolize—both on the comics page and on-screen—one of the major issues of the burgeoning women’s movement: men could not see women for who they truly were. From Batgirl’s inception in late 1966 through the 1970s, Batman—“The World’s Greatest Detective”—and his young sidekick, Robin, could not figure out that their friend the red-haired, intelligent, fit Barbara Gordon was also their ally the red-haired, intelligent, fit Batgirl (though, to be fair, the television version of Barbara had black hair and wore a red wig when Batgirl). The writers of the television series mostly portrayed Batgirl as Batman’s equal in both intellect and ability. In the comics, however, though that version of Barbara was a PhD, even the teenage Robin often spoke down to her, and both members of the Dynamic Duo saw her as more of a nuisance: BATMAN: No sign of our rival [Catwoman] . . . or Batgirl! ROBIN: That suits me fine! Nabbing crooks is man’s work! —Gardner Fox, Batman #197, December 1967

By 1968, the Women’s Liberation Movement was well underway, but in comics, women had not changed much. Marvel had the Invisible Girl, Marvel Girl, and the Wasp, and DC had Batgirl, Supergirl, and World War II holdovers Black Canary and Wonder Woman. In 1968, new DC writer Dennis (“Denny”) O’Neil decided to tackle the new feminist movement in the pages of Wonder Woman. O’Neil attempted to show that women were, in their own right, so powerful that they did not need “super” powers to make a difference. In the story “Wonder Woman’s Last Battle,” Wonder Woman’s mother, Queen Hippolyta, informs Princess Diana that the Amazons’ immortality is at risk, that the entire society must travel to another dimension in order to rejuvenate its members, and that Diana must go with them. Diana refuses, renouncing her Amazonian powers out of love for the human Steve Trevor, and returns to the world of men to open a fashion boutique and study martial arts under the tutelage of her (male) Asian mentor, I-Ching (Denny O’Neil, Wonder Woman #179, December 1968). Though the new, depowered Wonder Woman would continue through 1972, the new take was not embraced by the women’s movement. While O’Neil—an open and unapologetic progressive liberal—believed he was complimenting women by showing that they did not need fantastical powers to make a difference, feminist icon Gloria Steinem—portraying Wonder Woman in her traditional garb on the cover of the first issue of Ms. magazine in 1972—viewed the change as stripping the world’s most powerful woman of her power. DC reassigned O’Neil, and the original Wonder Woman was restored in 1973. Traditional sexism was even prevalent in the advertisements present in every issue of every comic book. Alongside such harmless novelties as “space shoes” (basically sandals with springs on them) and imitation plastic vomit, young

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readers saw ads for “x-ray specs” portraying a man using them to see through a woman’s clothing. There were ads for special perfume that would allow women (or, more accurately, “girls”) to “steal” any man. Body image was expressed in both “fat burning” pills for women and weight gain/muscle-building ads for men. There were ads for toy guns and real lock-blade knives for boys to be manlier. Perhaps most shocking of all, however, were the ads for “realistic” plastic, inflatable, life-size female “dolls.” The ad itself showed a photo of a real woman, fully clothed. Though the text of the ad suggests that this “Judy” doll could be an ideal companion for lonely girls (and even a “burglar deterrent,” presumably providing a shadow of a person when no one was home), the subtext for older readers is clear with comments such as, “You’re bound to find hundreds of exciting and unusual uses for me . . .” (Brian Cronin, “I Saw It Advertised One Day—A Life Size Inflatable Doll! What a Great . . . Burglar Deterrent! Yeah, That’s the Ticket!” January 7, 2016, Comic Book Review, https://www.cbr.com/isaw-it-advertised-one-day-a-life-size-inf latable-doll-what-a-great-burglardeterrent-yeah-thats-the-ticket/) Though ideas of race and racism were clearly being addressed in comic books both visually and narratively, prevailing ideas on sex and gender roles in society were obviously still stuck in the cement of popular culture. Over at Marvel, as the decade began to wane, Lee began to work his philosophy more directly into his superhero narratives. Between Vietnam and civil rights movements on multiple fronts, America appeared more divided than at any point since the Civil War. As Americans strove for the moon, their treatment of each other here on earth seemed atavistic at best. Lee laid this out in the pages of Fantastic Four from the mouth of the alien Ronan, the Accuser, of the Kree Empire: RONAN: [Humanity’s] sociological structure is still economically oriented—and their scientific advances have far outdistanced their moral and spiritual concepts . . . Though learning to master their physical world, they are still sorely beset by greed, hatred, fear, and other viruses of the spirit! —Stan Lee, Fantastic Four #65, August 1967

In 1966, Marvel artist Jack Kirby created the Silver Surfer, herald to the godlike Galactus, Devourer of Worlds (Fantastic Four #48, March 1966). Lee loved the character so much, he gave him a life of his own in the pages of Fantastic Four over the next few years. The character received his own title in 1968, and Lee utilized the series as his most philosophical work. In the premier issue, the Silver Surfer laments humanity’s shortsightedness when it came to its home world: SILVER SURFER: . . . in their uncontrollable insanity . . . in their unforgivable blindness . . . [humanity seeks] to destroy this shining jewel . . . this softly-spinning gem . . . this tiny blessed sphere . . . which men call Earth. —Stan Lee, Silver Surfer #1, August 1968

Not all political philosophies in comics in the 1960s were liberal. Artist Steve Ditko had reached iconic status as cocreator of Marvel superheroes Spider-Man and Doctor Strange. His psychedelic artwork on Strange Tales made Doctor Strange wildly popular among the LSD crowd on college campuses around the country. Ditko himself, however, was personally very politically conservative.



The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age 21

After becoming disgruntled with Lee and Marvel, Ditko took his talents to Charlton Comics, where he created the Question. First appearing in Blue Beetle #1 (June 1967), The Question was a faceless detective promoting the conservative ideology of “objectivism.” During this period of radical social progressivism, objectivism was a philosophy developed by Ayn Rand. Born in Russia, Rand moved to the United States a few years after the Communist Revolution. Due to her experiences with Leninism, Rand placed much more emphasis on the individual, laissez-faire capitalism, and rational self-interest. Ditko placed these ­philosophies—albeit with much more subtlety than Lee or O’Neil—within the text of his Question adventures. Through these dueling ideologies, the divisions in America are clearly expressed. Twenty years after America had united to fight racism and military aggression, America itself had become a military aggressor, and the racism that had been prevalent since the country’s founding was finally being nationally addressed. Into this foray came a new generation of superheroes, heroes with the same humanity and flaws as the gods of ancient myth. In the decades to come, the Silver Age superheroes would continue to speak to the ever-changing landscape of America. As the 1960s came to a close, the “silent majority”—those middle-class white Americans who had remained relatively quiet through the turbulence of the decade—had narrowly elected the radically conservative Richard Nixon to the presidency. Dr. Martin Luther King and progressive hopeful Senator Robert Kennedy had both been assassinated. The gay rights movement had begun. Americans had landed on the moon. Social progressivism had taken a hit but was still going strong. Additionally, superhero comic books once more began to decline, even as the first generation of comic book creators were stepping aside for the first generation to have grown up reading comics. Despite the dip in sales, comics—and, more important, superheroes—were forever changed. More than ever before, superhero comics reflected the society for which they were produced. In the decades to follow, reflection would transform into relevance, aspiring to influence the thinking of comic books’ still largely young audience. FURTHER READING Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. New York: Rowman and Littlefield. Beard, Jim, ed. 2010. Gotham City 14 Miles: 14 Essays on Why the 1960s Batman TV Series Matters. Edwardsville, IL: Sequart Research and Literacy Organization. Cocca, Carolyn. 2016. Superwomen: Gender, Power, and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury. Cohen, Lizabeth. 2003. A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America. New York: Vintage Books. Costello, Matthew J. 2009. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books and the Unmasking of Cold War America. New York: Continuum Press. Cronin, Brian. 2016. “I Saw It Advertised One Day—A Life Size Inflatable Doll! What a Great . . . Burglar Deterrent! Yeah, That’s the Ticket!” Comic Book Review, January ​7. Accessed September 10, 2018. https://www.cbr.com/i-saw​-it-

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advertised-one-day-a-life-size-inflatable-doll-what-a-great-burglar-deterrent -yeah-thats-the-ticket/. Daniels, Les. 2000. Wonder Woman, the Complete History: The Life and Times of the Amazon Princess. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. Dittmer, Jason. 2013. Captain America and the Nationalist Superhero: Metaphors, Narratives, and Geopolitics. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Duncan, Randy, and Matthew J. Smith. 2009. The Power of Comics: History, Form and Culture. New York: Continuum Press. Evanier, Mark. 2017. Kirby: King of Comics, Anniversary Edition. New York: Abrams ComicArts. Goulart, Ron. 1986. Ron Goulart’s Great History of Comic Books: The Definitive History from the 1890s to the 1980s. New York: Contemporary Books. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper Perennial Press. Lee, Stan. 2009. Stan’s Soapbox: The Collection. New York: Marvel Comics. Lee, Stan, Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone. Lopes, Paul. 2009. Demanding Respect: The Evolution of the American Comic Book. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Raphael, Jordan, and Tom Spurgeon. 2003. Stan Lee and the Rise and Fall of the American Comic Book. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Rosenberg, Robin S., and Peter Coogan, eds. 2013. What Is a Superhero? Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stevens, J. Richard. 2015. Captain America, Masculinity and Violence: The Evolution of a National Icon. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. Tucker, Reed. 2017. Slugfest: Inside the Epic 50-Year Battle Between Marvel and DC. New York: Da Capo Press. Tye, Larry. 2012. Superman: The High-Flying History of America’s Most Enduring Hero. New York: Random House. Weldon, Glen. 2016. The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture. New York: Simon and Schuster. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—the 1970s and 1980s

Coming into the 1970s, many Americans hoped that the decade would reflect the proverbial calm after the storm. Social outrage, political violence, and an increasingly unpopular war in Vietnam had left the country demoralized and emotionally exhausted. Unfortunately for those people, the calm they sought was still years away. The women’s and gay liberation movements would bring decades-old societal “norms” to the breaking point. Economic inequality for minorities would lead to even more social unrest. Rises in crime and divorce rates would lead many Americans to question whether the American dream, as it had been established since World War II, was dead. In 1969, the “hippie” movement had seen both its high point—the Woodstock rock festival—and its low point—the radically militant Weather Underground movement. The war in Vietnam was soon to end, but not before escalating into neighboring Cambodia. Added to all of that chaos, the decade would be bookended by the equally devastating political crises of Watergate and the Iran Hostage Crisis. Through it all, our superheroes were there, and the second generation of comic book creators would use the medium to bring to light the issues facing American society like never before. Much has been written about the so-called “Golden Age” of comics, running roughly from 1938 to 1955, and the “Silver Age” running from about 1956 to about 1970. Most scholarship on comics, however, then jumps directly to the mid1980s, when the groundbreaking works Watchmen and Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, represented a “growing up” of the medium, creating works more directly aimed at adult audiences and worthy of literary recognition and criticism. What scholars heretofore have more or less sidestepped has been the pivotal decade of the 1970s. Comic books were not stagnant from the 1960s to the 1980s. The 1970s were a vital period of radical social and political change in America, and those changes were rife within the pages of comic books. Women and minorities were

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represented in superhero form like never before. Further, from the pages of Batman, Wonder Woman, and Green Lantern (at DC Comics) to Spider-Man, Captain America, and the X-Men (at Marvel Comics), America’s hopes and fears, dreams and aspirations, were brought to the pages of our four-color heroes, and, as they always had in the past and would continue to do in the future, our heroes were there to reflect our society as it was while simultaneously attempting to inspire us to greatness once more. By 1970, comic book audiences were already growing up. More high schoolers, college students (and even college professors) were following the adventures of superheroes. In 1970, the first San Diego comic book convention was held. In 40 years, it would become a cultural phenomenon. Also in 1970, the first issue of the Overstreet Price Guide was published, allowing those who had already begun collecting comic books to follow the increasing value of their collections. In 1974, at the Indiana University School of Law, Bloomington, grad student Michael Uslan received accreditation for the first academic class on comic books, The Comic Book in Society (Michael Uslan, “Confessions of a Comic-Book Professor,” The Amazing World of DC Comics no. 3, November 1974, 26–29). In 1975, DC and Marvel produced their first joint project, but rather than focusing on a meeting of their various superheroes, the project instead was a comics adaptation of the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz (Tucker, Slugfest, 90). Facing declining sales by the end of the 1970s, Marvel Comics would be saved by receiving license to produce comics of popular sci-fi franchises Star Wars, Battlestar Galactica, and Star Trek. Many have associated the decline in sales to the increasing reality-driven story lines and messages in many superhero titles. THE BRONZE AGE AND SOCIAL RELEVANCE At new comics powerhouse Marvel Comics, a new generation of writers and artists were beginning to focus on social relevance in their narratives. At the request of the U.S. government, Stan Lee utilized Marvel’s best-selling book, The Amazing Spider-Man, to address the growing drug problem among America’s youth. The story had Spider-Man saving a drug user from certain death due to believing he could fly and leaping from a tall building, and there was a side story of Peter Parker’s longtime friend, Harry Osborn, abusing drugs that were leading him to follow in his father’s footsteps and become the Green Goblin. However, as any discussion or portrayal of drugs was banned by the Comics Code Authority, the book did not receive the industry-mandated seal of approval. Lee and Marvel publisher Martin Goodman overrode the Code and sent the book to press without the seal (Stan Lee and Gil Kane, The Amazing Spider-Man #96–97, May–June 1971; Howe, Marvel Comics: The Untold Story, 112). By the end of that year, the CCA had made numerous adjustments in order to more accurately reflect the changing American norms since the mid-1950s. This change would open the door for more writers and artists to take chances in storytelling that had, for 15 years, been stifled for a generation by the Code. Shortly thereafter, The Amazing Spider-Man took another huge leap of faith with their readers by injecting a far-too-realistic story line: the death of Gwen



From Relevance to Acceptance 25

Jenette Kahn Jenette Kahn was born in 1947. After graduating from Harvard, she focused on magazines for younger readers. Her most famous creation was Dynamite, which was published by Scholastic Publications from 1974 to 1992. It was aimed at grade-school children and had articles on popular television series, children’s books, and general school life. It also included puzzles, games, bookmarks, and fold-out mini posters. In 1976, at the age of 28, Kahn became the youngest—and first female—publisher in the history of comic books when she was appointed publisher of DC Comics. She became president of DC in 1981 and editor in chief (as well as president) in 1989. She continued to work for DC until 2002. During her revolutionary tenure, she solidified royalties for creative teams, oversaw DC’s first feature film venture with Superman: The Movie (1978), approved new creative imprints Vertigo and Milestone, and oversaw major diversification in the comic book industry (by the end of her tenure, nearly half of DC’s creative department was female). Many today consider her primarily responsible for modernizing DC Comics and carrying the company to new heights of success. She is featured prominently in the documentaries Secret Origins: The History of DC Comics (Warner Home Video, 2010) and Superheroes: A Never-Ending Battle (PBS, 2013). Richard A. Hall

Stacy. Peter Parker’s longtime girlfriend meets her end when the Green Goblin throws her from the George Washington Bridge, and Spider-Man, in an attempt to save her, shoots a web to break her fall, only to have her neck snap when the webline goes taut (Gerry Conway and Gil Kane, The Amazing Spider-Man #121, June 1973). For the first time in a superhero comic book, a major character dies, not due to the actions of the villain but by a mistake on the part of the hero. This particular instance was a dark mirror of the death of Parker’s Uncle Ben at the hands of a criminal that Spider-Man failed to apprehend (Lee and Steve Ditko, Amazing Fantasy #15, August 1962). This initial death had been due to SpiderMan’s failure to act; the second was due to his failure to think through his actions. What one can derive from the story is simple: in this age of social relevance, no character is safe. Perhaps the best examples of relevance in 1970s Marvel Comics are in the pages of Captain America (renamed Captain America and the Falcon for most of the decade). To date, there had been very little mention of the Vietnam War in superhero comics. In the summer of 1973, months after U.S. involvement in the war had ended, Captain America met a Vietnam veteran who had lost his arm in the war. The veteran, Dave Cox, refused to assist the captain in his quest against the monthly villain, stating: DAVE COX: I refuse to participate in violence! I swore to myself and my God, Who said, “Thou Shalt Not Kill!” And “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you!” Men talk of using a gun “to keep peace,” of “fighting the war to end all wars”! Don’t you see that it doesn’t work—that violence only breeds violence! —Steve Englehart, Captain America and the Falcon #163, July 1973

Englehart would go on to also address the issue of the Watergate scandal. For nearly two years, the alleged criminal activity of President Richard Nixon kept the nation’s citizens captivated, glued to their newspapers and television sets. In 1974,

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as the scandal reached its climax, writer Steve Englehart told the story of Captain America fighting the “Secret Empire” led by the mysterious, hooded “Number One.” In the spring of 1974—just months before Nixon would resign in disgrace— “Number One” was revealed to be President Nixon (though his name is not mentioned, nor his face shown, it is clear to the reader who it is). The fictional Nixon, faced with disgrace and prison, commits suicide in front of Captain America. The issue closes with the following narration: NARRATOR: A man can change in a flicker of time. This man trusted the country of his birth . . . he saw its flaws . . . but trusted in its basic framework . . . its stated goals . . . its long-term virtue. This man now is crushed inside. Like millions of other Americans, each in his own way, he has seen his trust mocked! And this man is Captain America. —Steve Englehart, Captain America and the Falcon #175, July 1974

Even young readers likely saw the same confusion and anger in the faces of their parents and teachers as they now saw in Captain America’s. Americans’ faith in their system was broken, perhaps indefinitely. Within the comic, this would lead Captain America only a few issues later to give up the mantle of “Captain America” in favor of “Nomad: The Man without a Country.” Over at DC Comics, relevance was also on the horizon of the new decade. Writer Dennis (“Denny”) O’Neil had already made a name for himself by returning the Batman books to their darker, grittier tone of 1939. He was also well into his controversial run on Wonder Woman. O’Neil and a frequent collaborator, artist Neal Adams, were next given carte blanche on the failing title Green Lantern. O’Neil decided to use the book as his platform for addressing some of the serious issues facing America in 1970. Teaming Green Lantern with the suddenly more liberal Green Arrow, O’Neil took the two on a nationwide tour, exposing the ugly underside of America: racism, corporate and political corruption, and drugs (Wright, Comic Book Nation, 226–227). In the first story line of the run, Green Lantern—ever the upright, by-the-book interstellar policeman—interrupts a fistfight in an inner-city ghetto, sending the “aggressor” off to jail without ascertaining the facts of the skirmish. He is quickly set straight by the nearby spectator, Green Arrow: GREEN ARROW: The lady here is the grandmother of the kid you sent to [police] headquarters! She’s eighty—and he’s her only means of support! Mike had to drop out of school and get a crummy job . . . because she has no one else! GREEN LANTERN: That’s tough . . . but, blast it, he was breaking the law! GREEN ARROW: Technically, he was . . . sure! He lost his temper . . . and roughed up the fat cat landlord who owns this dump!—The creep who hasn’t spent a cent for repairs in years! Now he figures he can make more money using the property for a parking lot! So he’s going to evict the tenants . . . kick a lot of old folks out on the street! —Dennis O’Neil, Green Lantern/Green Arrow #76, April 1970

In the epilogue to the issue, Green Arrow soliloquizes the plight that America is facing in 1970 and sets the stage for the O’Neil/Adams run on the title: GREEN ARROW: [America’s] a good country . . . beautiful . . . fertile . . . and terribly sick! There are children dying . . . honest people cowering in fear . . .



From Relevance to Acceptance 27 disillusioned kids ripping up campuses . . . on the streets of Memphis a good black man died . . . and in Los Angeles, a good white man fell . . . something is wrong! Something is killing us all . . .! Some hideous moral cancer is rotting our very souls! —Dennis O’Neil, Green Lantern/Green Arrow #76, April 1970

Inspired by Marvel’s decision to forgo the CCA seal to publish its antidrug issue of Spider-Man, O’Neil and Adams produced their own, published just months after Lee’s; yet, the CCA approved it. In that issue, readers discover that Speedy, Green Arrow’s teenage sidekick, was, in fact, a drug addict. Going further than Marvel had done, Green Lantern/Green Arrow #85 (September 1971) attacked the subject right on the cover, with Green Lantern and Green Arrow discovering Speedy covering his arm and a needle and drugs lying next to him, along with the caption “DC Attacks Youths’ Greatest Problem . . . DRUGS!” (Tucker, Slugfest, 77). Unfortunately, despite the social relevance of the O’Neil/Adams run in GL/GA, lagging sales led to a change of creative team after only a year. Though comics sales of the early 1970s might not have testified to a public embrace of this more mature take on superheroes, the presence of comics as historical documents of the period are vitally important resources for studying the Nixon years. THE NEW WOMAN The 1970s represented the high point of the second wave of American feminism. At the dawn of the decade, Wonder Woman was already deep into her controversial depowered story line, which would end in 1973, due primarily to the protests of Women’s Lib leader Gloria Steinem in the pages of the first issue of Ms. magazine the previous year. From the perspective of writer Denny O’Neil, the depowered Wonder Woman sent the message that women did not need superpowers to be heroes, but from Steinem’s perspective, male comic book producers had stripped the most powerful female superhero of her “super” status. In the decades since, in numerous interviews, O’Neil has repeatedly apologized for his failure to see that from the beginning. At that time, there were very few female heroes. Marvel had Wasp, Black Widow, and Sue Richards (still going by the moniker “Invisible Girl” despite being a wife and mother). Over at DC, there were Wonder Woman and Black Canary (holdovers from the Golden Age), along with Supergirl and Batgirl (both portrayed as younger, less powerful derivatives of their “-man” counterparts). That would begin to change by decade’s end. In 1970, Marvel Comics introduced the Valkyrie, the leader of Asgardian warriors who comes to earth to become part of the superhero team “the Defenders” (Roy Thomas and John Buscema, The Avengers #83, December 1970). By mid decade, the X-Men’s “Marvel Girl,” Jean Grey, evolved into the Phoenix, one of the most powerful characters in the Marvel Comics Universe (Chris Claremont and Dave Cockrum, X-Men #101, October 1976). The following year saw the introduction of two characters that would become mainstays of Marvel Comics: Ms. Marvel (first appearing in Ms. Marvel #1, January 1977); and Spider-Woman (first appearing in Marvel Spotlight #32, February 1977). Use of the monikers “Ms.” and “Woman” is important; this showed significant awareness of the social relevance of the Women’s Liberation Movement. Last, in 1980, Marvel introduced

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She-Hulk, who would go on to play an important role with both the Fantastic Four and the Avengers as well as have her own solo run under the pen of John Byrne. DC Comics lagged in this progressive agenda, introducing only two major female heroes: Power Girl, an older, more sexualized alternate-reality version of Supergirl (first appearing in All Star Comics #58, February 1976); and Huntress, an alternate-reality daughter of Batman and Catwoman (first appearing in DC SuperStars #17, December 1977). The two companies would be somewhat closer in product when it came to black heroes. BLACK SUPERHEROES IN THE AGE OF BLAXPLOITATION Coming into the 1970s, the major Hollywood studios were forced to come to terms with the massive amounts of money spent on the huge historical epics of the previous decade. This paved the way for smaller, independent films to receive wider distribution than normal. Among these were the popular “Blaxploitation” films: films written, directed by, produced by, scored by, and starring African Americans. These were movies by black people for black people, but they soon garnered a considerable white following as well. By far the most famous of these was 1971’s Shaft, starring Richard Roundtree and directed by Gordon Parks, with a score by Isaac Hayes. These films began a period of considerable increase in the portrayal of African Americans throughout pop culture, especially raising their presence on television throughout the decade. By that time, of course, Stan Lee and Marvel Comics had already introduced the first black superhero (Black Panther) as well as the first African American superhero (Falcon). For most of the 1970s (February 1971–June 1978), Marvel renamed its monthly Captain America title, calling it Captain America and the Falcon, with most issues providing a separate, solo adventure for the Falcon, usually focusing on inner-city unrest in Harlem. These stories opened the door for Falcon to explain to the white Captain America why the black community was feeling and behaving the way that it was; this is probably the longest-running example of socially relevant discussion in the 1970s. The first appearance of a “Blaxploitation” hero in comics was Luke Cage: Hero for Hire (Archie Goodwin and John Romita Sr., Marvel Comics, June 1972). In July 1973, in the pages of The Tomb of Dracula #10, Marvel introduced Blade the Vampire Hunter. A few months later, Black Panther was given his own monthly title, beginning with Jungle Action #6 (September 1973). That same month, Len Wein, John Romita Sr., and Gene Colan introduced Brother Voodoo in the pages of Strange Tales #169. By mid decade, all of these characters would be discontinued except for Cage, who would partner with white character Iron Fist in the pages of Power Man and Iron Fist, which would continue through the rest of the decade. Perhaps the most successful black character from Marvel during this period was Storm, the female mutant member of the second generation of the X-Men, beginning in 1975 (Giant-Size X-Men #1, May 1975). Also in 1975, after the apparent death of original (white) Giant-Man, Bill Foster becomes Black Goliath (Tony Isabella and George Tuska, Power Man #24, April 1975). Black characters also began to appear over at DC. In 1972, DC introduced its first black character when John Stewart joined the Green Lantern Corps (O’Neil



From Relevance to Acceptance 29

and Adams, Green Lantern/Green Arrow #87, January 1972). DC finally had its first black character to headline his own comic series with the publication of Black Lightning #1 (Tony Isabella and Trevor Von Eeden, Black Lightning #1, April 1977). DC’s most successful black hero would not make his first appearance until 1980 with Cyborg, who would soon become a primary character with the New Teen Titans (Marv Wolfman and George Perez, DC Comics Presents #26, October 1980), and, in the 21st century, the Justice League. As in movies and television, the number of black characters would quickly diminish as the 1980s began. Ironically, the message of “inclusion” that these characters were meant to represent was probably best exemplified in a comic that had only one black character. The aforementioned Giant-Size X-Men #1, which introduced the black character Storm, also introduced an overall multiethnic/multinational cast of characters. The blue-skinned German, Nightcrawler; the steel-skinned Russian, Colossus; the Canadian superagent, Wolverine; the Irish gentleman, Banshee; and the Native American, Thunderbird; joined Storm and classic Caucasian American team leaders Cyclops and Professor X to revitalize the previously canceled X-Men series. Soon taken over by the iconic creative team of writer Chris Claremont and artist John Byrne, the new Uncanny X-Men series spoke not only to people of all races, nationalities, and religions but to anyone who felt ostracized from American society. This message of tolerance and acceptance—which had always been an aspect of the title dating back to its 1963 origins—would be of particular importance as the 1970s came to an end and the mysterious disease AIDS began to alienate the gay community to an even harsher degree than it had previously experienced. THE COPPER AGE A great deal was changing by 1980. America was facing a massive conservative wave politically, electing President Ronald Reagan by huge margins. This would be a near death knell for the gay rights movement for nearly a generation. The comic book industry was shifting dramatically from aiming at the youth market through newsstands and supermarket checkout lines to the older audience of collectors through the burgeoning “direct market” of small comic book shops that were popping up nationwide (Tucker, Slugfest, 133–140). At Marvel, however, the age of social relevance had one last great gasp in it, and it would appear in the pages of Captain America. On October 14, 1979, the gay rights movement spearheaded the National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights. Roughly 100,000 people marched, making it the largest march on Washington since the historic 1963 march where Dr. King gave his “I Have a Dream” speech. In 1981, the first cases of AIDS in the United States were reported. The disease was mysterious and originally called “the gay cancer,” as it appeared to affect only the male gay community. Televangelists credited the disease to God’s judgment on the gay community and its lifestyle. Coming as it did during the wave of conservatism of 1980, this ostracized the gay community to degrees not seen since the 1950s. Despite this, comic book writer J. M. DeMatteis and artist Mike Zeck introduced the first openly gay character in mainstream comic books: Arnie Roth.

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Arnold Roth first appeared in Captain America #268 (April 1982) as an old childhood friend of Steve Rogers. Short, stocky, middle-aged, and balding, Roth appeared to be nothing more than a one-and-done character reminding readers of Steve Rogers’s real age. In the coming issues, however, Roth returned, begging for Captain America’s help to find his “friend,” Michael. Once found and taken to the hospital, Captain America comes into Michael’s room to discover Arnie sitting very close to his friend (rather than toward the end of the bed as a casual friend normally would), and Captain America says, “Hope I’m not interrupting anything” (DeMatteis and Zeck, Captain America #275, November 1982). At this point, there has been no mention that Arnie and Michael are a gay couple or that anything other than friendship exists between the two, but the imagery and Captain America’s comment are a subtle suggestion of a romantic relationship. A few months later, Michael dies, and Arnie exclaims, “[Michael] was all I had—all I wanted. He was . . . everything to me,” and then to Steve, he says that at least Steve has “a woman who loves and accepts you for what you are” (DeMatteis and Zeck, Captain America #279, March 1983). The following year, Red Skull kidnaps several of Captain America’s friends— Bernie Rosenthal (Steve Rogers’s Jewish girlfriend), Falcon (Captain America’s African American partner), and Arnie—disgusted by the tolerance of Captain America (and ergo, America in general). Under the Skull’s mind control, Arnie is forced to dress as a clown and perform a song that finally exposes his sexuality to the reader: ARNIE: “My name is Arnold Roth . . . I am a fat little sloth . . . I prance and pout . . . I scream and shout . . . and my name is Arnold Roth. My taste is not quite right . . . my flab . . . is pasty white . . . I am a fat little sloth . . . my name is Arnold Roth!” A funny song, isn’t it Steve? A funny song—about a funny little man. A potbellied, bald-headed wretch—who doesn’t know a thing about real, human love. No wonder the Nazis wanted my kind—the weak, the misfits—locked away in the concentration camps with the other pariahs! I’m a menace to society . . . a disease! And you Star-Spangled idiot—you call me friend! Wh-what does that say about you? Most people simply hate men like me . . . yet you always treated me with respect, c-compassion. Why? Is it because . . . you’re one of us? Is it because, deep inside, under all that macho bravado, you’re really a sorry excuse for a man . . . like me? Wh-what kind of man are you h-hiding underneath that chain mail? You st-stupid . . . silly . . . NO!!! No more! I can’t! I w-w-won’t! Oh, Steve . . . it hurts! Help me! M-make them s-stop! MAKE THEM STOP!! [Arnie on his knees, sobbing, before blood streams from his mouth]. —J. M. DeMatteis and Mike Zeck, Captain America #296, August 1984

This powerful scene, spread across three pages and 13 panels, is a cry, not just to Captain America, but to the readers as well. One would be extremely hard-pressed to find any example in all of 1984 American popular culture containing such a powerful plea to the heterosexual community. After this, Roth more or less disappears from the pages of Captain America until his death in 1995 from bone cancer (Mark Gruenwald and Dave Hoover, Captain America #443, September 1995). It was around the same time that Roth first appeared in Captain America that writer Chris Claremont and artist Brent Anderson produced one of the most



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powerful stories in superhero comic book history: X-Men: God Loves, Man Kills. In this graphic novel, Claremont introduces the televangelist Rev. William Stryker and his band of “Purifiers.” Stryker’s ministry sees mutants as the offspring of Satan, publicly pushing an ideology of hatred and intolerance (Claremont and Anderson, X-Men: God Loves, Man Kills, 1982). The story exists outside of the regular comic continuity, telling a one-off story of intolerance at a time when the message could not be more relevant. Facing down the reverend, live on television, X-Men leader Cyclops proclaims: CYCLOPS: What makes your link with Heaven any stronger than mine? [Mutants] have unique gifts—but no more so, and no more special, than those granted a physician or physicist, or philosopher or athlete. It could be due to an accident of nature or divine providence, who’s to say? . . . For all you know, we could be the real human race . . . and the rest of you, the mutants. —Chris Claremont, X-Men: God Loves, Man Kills, 1982

At the end of the adventure, as the team deals with the psychological aftermath of what they have just experienced, Professor Xavier exclaims: “If ever there was a moment which justified my creation of the X-Men, this is it” (Claremont, X-Men: God Loves, Man Kills, 1982). This quote could easily have come from Stan Lee himself. Though originally conceived to address the civil rights movement that was prevalent in 1963, the X-Men have, over the decades, been a constant voice for diversity and acceptance among all people. Superhero comic books have always been socially relevant, with strong morality tales and principles of civic duty, and they still are today. But the period from 1970 to 1984 was really their high point of addressing social issues directly—and at a time when America needed it most. However, until the mid-1980s, comic books were popularly seen as strictly the purview of children. Even though by 1980, the primary readership of comic books had shifted to people in their teens and early 20s, they were still viewed by the general public as disposable novelties. That perception would change forever in 1986 with two seminal works produced by DC Comics. Beginning in February 1986, DC published Frank Miller’s iconic four-part miniseries: Batman: The Dark Knight Returns. This dystopian alternate reality sees Bruce Wayne in his midfifties, having retired from being Batman for 10 years. Though the exact time is not specified, the presence of President Ronald Reagan and the Cold War with the Soviets sets it presumably in the 1980s. Superheroes have been outlawed—with the exception of Superman, who works directly for the president—and rising crime rates suggest that Batman had had no real effect on Gotham after all. Viewing the nightly news awakens Bruce’s calling, and he returns to his role as Batman. Slower and out of shape, Batman quickly finds himself once more Gotham’s protector, saving the city from Two Face, recently released from the sanitarium, and a street gang called “the Mutants,” and a revitalized Joker before a final confrontation with the government via Superman (Miller, Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, February–June 1986). The multilayered story examines many issues: the importance—or unimportance— of superheroes, the role of the media, and the threat of the Cold War. In December

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1984, New Yorker Bernhard Goetz gained notoriety for shooting four alleged muggers on the subway. In the first issue of Dark Knight, Batman tells a criminal he has just severely beaten and who exclaims “I Got Rights!”: BATMAN: You’ve got rights. Sometimes I count them just to make myself feel crazy. But right now you’ve got a piece of glass shoved into a major artery in your arm. Right now you’re bleeding to death. Right now I’m the only one in the world who can get you to a hospital in time. —Frank Miller, Batman: The Dark Knight Returns #1, February 1986

Miller’s Batman speaks to the rugged, cowboy individualism of vigilantism that epitomized the Reagan era as well as to the fact that the very system over which Reagan presided was perceived as broken. Just three months after Dark Knight completed its run, similar tropes would be evident in DC’s Watchmen, published from September 1986 to October 1987. Written by Alan Moore and drawn by Dave Gibbons, the 12-part miniseries told yet another story of a dystopian 1985, where Richard Nixon—sans Watergate—remains president (inexplicably long past his two-term limit), and the Cold War with the Soviets is at its most dangerous point. Like in Dark Knight, superheroes have been outlawed except for the Superman-like Doctor Manhattan, who—like Superman in DKR— works for the government as a deterrent to the Soviets. The story revolves around the murder of retired superhero/government agent The Comedian. The investigation— led by former superheroes Rorschach, Nite Owl, and Silk Spectre—culminates with the exposure of a plot to end the Cold War by killing millions of Americans (Moore and Gibbons, Watchmen #1–12, September 1986 to October 1987). Like Miller, Moore examines the issues of the role and mentality of superheroes and the threat of the Cold War. Winner of the coveted Hugo Award, Watchmen has been hailed by numerous magazines and newspapers as not only one of the most important “graphic novels” of all time but also as one of the most important “novels” of the 20th century. In a 2016 article for the BBC, Nicholas Barber cites Watchmen as the point where comic books “grew up” (Barber, “Watchmen: The Moment Comic Books Grew Up,” August 9, 2016). The timing of these two works could not be more perfect. Just as mainstream society was beginning to acknowledge comic books as something more than simple kids’ fare, investors would begin to see them as something much more intrinsically valuable. On October 19, 1987, the U.S. stock market experienced its biggest crash since the Great Depression. Less than three weeks earlier, an article in The New York Times had reported how adults were now buying comics in larger numbers than ever before. The article also suggested that older comic books were garnering large returns on initial investment (Kurt Eichenwald, “Grown-Ups Gather at the Comic Book Stand,” The New York Times, September 30, 1987). After the crash, numerous newspapers and magazines would begin to make the same suggestions. This—along with the acknowledgment of the genre in literary circles—would lead to what came to be known as the “collectors’ bubble” that would run roughly from 1988 to 1995. By the end of the 1980s, superhero comic books were bigger than they had ever been. The focus on social issues in the 1970s might have lost younger readers, but it succeeded in gaining an even larger audience among young



From Relevance to Acceptance 33

adults. This dramatic shift in marketing would bring the industry to never-beforeseen heights, but it eventually became a contributing factor in the industry’s stark decline beginning in the 1990s. The Bronze and Copper Ages represent a major evolutionary step for both the comic book medium and the superhero genre. Writers did not “talk down” to their audiences; they used vocabulary that was years ahead of that of most young readers, focusing on issues that children could only be minutely aware of. The art form was growing with its past audience, its target audience remaining with the same core readers from the previous decade. Comic books were growing up, for better or worse. The continued focus on increasingly older readers, however, would eventually hit a point where young readers would find it difficult to relate to (or afford) these monthly superhero adventures. Going into the 1990s, the comic book industry was becoming more a consumer market than a platform for artistry. FURTHER READING Barber, Nicholas. 2016. “Watchmen: The Moment Comic Books Grew Up.” BBC. Accessed September 10, 2018. http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20160809-watchmen​ -the-moment-comic-books-grew-up. Centers for Disease Control. 2001. “HIV and AIDS—United States, 1981–2000.” Accessed September 10, 2018. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml /mm5021a2.htm. Cocca, Carolyn. 2016. Superwomen: Gender, Power, and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury. Cohen, Lizabeth. 2003. A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America. New York: Vintage Books. Costello, Matthew J. 2009. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books and the Unmasking of Cold War America. New York: Continuum Press. Daniels, Les. 2000. Wonder Woman, the Complete History: The Life and Times of the Amazon Princess. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. Dittmer, Jason. 2013. Captain America and the Nationalist Superhero: Metaphors, Narratives, and Geopolitics. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Duncan, Randy, and Matthew J. Smith. 2009. The Power of Comics: History, Form and Culture. New York: Continuum Press. Eichenwald, Kurt. 1987. “Grown-Ups Gather at the Comic Book Stand.” New York: The New York Times, September 30. Accessed September 10, 2018. https://www​ .nytimes.com/1987/09/30/business/grown-ups-gather-at-the-comic-book-stand​ .html. Evanier, Mark. 2017. Kirby: King of Comics, Anniversary Edition. New York: Abrams ComicArts. Goulart, Ron. 1986. Ron Goulart’s Great History of Comic Books: The Definitive History from the 1890s to the 1980s. New York: Contemporary Books. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper Perennial Press. Lopes, Paul. 2009. Demanding Respect: The Evolution of the American Comic Book. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau.

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Rosenberg, Robin S., and Peter Coogan, eds. 2013. What Is a Superhero? Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stevens, J. Richard. 2015. Captain America, Masculinity and Violence: The Evolution of a National Icon. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. Tucker, Reed. 2017. Slugfest: Inside the Epic 50-Year Battle Between Marvel and DC. New York: Da Capo Press. Tye, Larry. 2012. Superman: The High-Flying History of America’s Most Enduring Hero. New York: Random House. Uslan, Michael. 1974. “Confessions of a Comic-Book Professor.” The Amazing World of DC Comics 3 (November): 26–9. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s

The 1990s—what many comic book collectors call the “Chromium Age”—was a transformative decade, both for America on the world stage and for Americans at home. The 10-year period between the end of the Cold War and 9/11 was a decade of massive economic growth nationally and the slow-but-steady beginnings of national cultural acceptance of the LGBTQ community. The crime rate maintained historic lows. On the surface, it appeared that the 21st century was going to be a whole new world, a bright and promising future. Comic books, as usual, reflected what was happening in America. The “collectors’ bubble” was about to burst, and it soon began to appear that, as Americans no longer possessed enemies to defeat, the day of the superhero was over. Having been symbols of American ideals for decades, comic book superheroes, given the changes in the real world, were about to be reduced to nothing more than consumer commodities—and decreasingly valuable ones at that. When the Berlin Wall came down in 1989, the world saw the deeper meaning behind it: the iron will of the Soviet Union was weakening. By the end of 1991, the Soviet Union was no more. Throughout that year, the Communist Party in Moscow had split, with hardliners turning against their leader, Mikhail Gorbachev. One by one, Soviet republics began to separate from the Union. The hardliners attempted to arrest Gorbachev and remove him from power, but the people began to protest, led by Boris Yeltsin. By the end of December, Russia was no longer communist, and the 45-year Cold War was history. In February of 1992, in a joint press conference, the new Russian interim president Yeltsin stood alongside American president George H. W. Bush and officially declared the Cold War to be over. America had “won,” and democratic capitalism had triumphed over Leninist/Stalinist totalitarian communism. In hindsight, a key factor throughout the Cold War had been American popular culture, which acted both to unify Americans at home and inspire millions living under communism abroad (Brands,

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Overstreet Price Guide/Wizard Magazine The Official Overstreet Comic Book Price Guide is the bible for serious comic book collectors and sellers. Robert M. Overstreet was born in West Virginia and raised in Tennessee. He grew up collecting arrowheads, fossils, and comic books. In 1970, with considerable assistance from Jerry Bails, he published his first comic book price guide. Bails, a Missouri native, is widely known as the “Father of Comic Book Fandom” and was one of the first Americans to recognize comic books as a subject of serious academic study. During the comic book “collectors’ bubble” (roughly from 1988 to 1993), the Overstreet Price Guide was the Wall Street Journal for serious comics investors. From 1991 to 2011, portions of the Overstreet guide were a regular feature in Wizard magazine. Wizard was a monthly comic book and popular culture magazine that was published out of New York City from 1991 to 2011. Spawned in response to the massive comics sales of the collectors’ bubble, the magazine featured articles revolving around upcoming comic book story lines, lists of recently published trade paperbacks, and articles suggesting possible casting for future superhero films and television projects. As time went on, the magazine featured interviews with popular comic book artists and writers as well as Hollywood actors and directors. As the Overstreet Price Guide was published annually, Wizard’s Overstreet section featured monthto-month updates on alterations to values of comic book back issues. The magazine continued for around 15 years after the collectors’ bubble burst, primarily due to its increasing focus on other pop-culture-related material. The magazine spawned two high-selling magazines: ToyFare (1997–2011), and Inquest Gamer (1995–2007), for action figure and video gaming interests, respectively. The Overstreet Price Guide continues to be published annually, and in 2017, rumors circulated that Wizard was seriously considering a comeback. Richard A. Hall

American Dreams, 276–278). Without the Cold War and its inherent threat of a World War III, Americans faced a future with no more apparent threats, no more fear, and no more need for heroes. The remainder of the 1990s appeared to point toward a bright future—what President Bush called a “New World Order” (Brands, 281). After a brief recession from 1992 to 1993, the last half of the decade would see the greatest economic expansion in the history of the United States. Unfortunately, with no external threats to unite against, Americans soon began to turn on each other. A “culture war” emerged, pitting the conservative right against the liberal left like never before in the country’s history. Prior to the 1990s, only racial strife and Vietnam had divided the country to this degree. Now the divisions erupted over seemingly every single issue: abortion rights, LGBTQ rights, health care, gun control, the environment, and even whether it is proper to say “Merry Christmas” or “Happy Holidays.” Over the next 20 years, these disagreements would devolve into outright hatred between left and right like at no time since the Civil War (even worse, arguably, than in the 1960s). Meanwhile, superheroes, no longer needed to help society feel safe, ceased to be symbols to unite behind and became instead strictly consumer products to be mined for profit and audience exploitation. This was the true new order of things. The suddenness—and peacefulness—of the end of the Cold War was a culture shock for Americans. Two generations had grown up whose childhoods had been spent hiding under school desks for nuclear war drills. Suddenly,



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literally overnight, the threat was gone. With 9/11 still a decade away and radical, fundamentalist terrorism still something that Americans viewed as a Middle East problem, there appeared to be a world with no more enemies. Television programs such as The A-Team and Knight Rider were replaced by Friends and Seinfeld. Roseanne continued to redefine the traditional ideas of “family” with a focus more on unbridled—and uncensored—honesty rather than respect for traditional familial roles. On the big screen, the militant adventures of Rambo and Rocky were replaced with the talkfests of Quentin Tarantino and the dinosaurs of Jurassic Park. Tim Burton’s grim, dark film incarnations of Batman (Batman in 1989 and Batman Returns in 1992) were replaced, by decade’s end, with the campier, comedic Batman and Robin from director Joel Schumacher (1997). Within the comic book industry, the collectors’ bubble was in full swing when the Cold War ended. Years earlier, on October 19, 1987, the stock markets in New York saw the biggest single-day drop since the Great Depression. By that time, mainstream America was beginning to notice the potential value of comic books and how they might outperform stocks (Hayner, Chicago Sun Times, 1987. This represents just one of numerous news articles and editorials on the subject in the late 1980s). Original copies of “Golden Age” comics such as Action Comics #1 (the first appearance of Superman) and Detective Comics #27 (first appearance of Batman) were selling for tens of thousands (eventually millions) of dollars. These coinciding events led to the speculator push known as the “collectors’ bubble,” running roughly from 1988 to 1995. In 1991, Wizard magazine became the Wall Street Journal of the burgeoning collector market. With the cultural need for heroes appearing to be a thing of the past, comic book publishers went back to seeing their products as originally intended: as consumer items. This shift in focus resulted in a near destruction of the comic book industry and the superhero genre in the process. Mainstream popular culture seemed divided on how to deal with superheroes in a post–Cold War world. Television cashed in on more traditional takes on heroes, with animated series revolving around Batman, X-Men, and Spider-Man, and live-action series of Flash and Superman. On the big screen, however, superheroes were presented as cheaply—and often as comedically—as possible. Film versions of Batman and Spawn were panned by critics, while movies of Captain America and the Fantastic Four were deemed so bad as not to warrant being released theatrically at all. Throughout the 1990s, it was clear that even the writers of comic book superheroes were no longer sure what the mission of those heroes should be. Numerous gimmicks were used to try to keep readers interested and collectors buying: Superman and Captain America were killed; Spider-Man discovered that, since the 1970s, he had actually been a clone of the original Spider-Man (only to discover in the end that, in fact, he was really the original). Batman’s back was broken, forcing a more violently unstable replacement to don his mantle; a resurrected Superman married Lois Lane; and a resurrected Captain America sacrificed his life (along with the lives of the Avengers and Fantastic Four) once again to save the world, only to be resurrected yet again in a pocket universe . . . and finally returned

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home. These “event” stories—often with corresponding #1 issues to give the appearance of future value—eventually caused collectors to wise up to the truth: old comic books were valuable because there were so few of them still around; these new #1’s were being released in millions of copies, making them worth less than the paper they were printed on. The frequency of these events began to stretch all credulity (even within the incredulous world of comic book fandom), and readers themselves began to ask if the superheroes’ days were done. Perhaps the most famous of these sales gimmicks was the “death” of Superman in 1993. In interviews for the documentaries Secret Origins: The Story of DC Comics (Warner Home Video, 2010), and Superheroes: A Never-Ending Battle (PBS, 2013), the creative teams of the Superman titles explain the story line as their reaction to the publisher’s rejection of their preferred idea to finally marry Clark Kent and Lois Lane. The rejection had been due to the fact that the television series Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman on ABC-TV was not yet ready for the characters to marry. So, in Superman Vol. 2, #75 (January 1993), after a multi-issue crossover story line featuring the new supervillain “Doomsday,” the creative team of Dan Jurgens and Brett Breeding told the story of the Man of Steel finally meeting his end (if you ignore the numerous times over the decades that he died only to be immediately resurrected). That issue became one of the highest-selling single issues of a comic book in the industry’s history. To the surprise of everyone involved, this story line caught the attention of the national news media. Culturally, this event posed a question: in a world with no threats, do Americans need Superman? Of course, Superman—and all comic book superheroes—are first and foremost commercial properties, and Superman did indeed rise from the dead just months later: under Dan Jurgens in the pages of Superman #82 (October 1993). The message received by collectors was simple: this was just a gimmick, and Superman #75 was not going to put anyone’s children through college any time soon. The bubble began to burst, and the issue of the role of superheroes in a post–Cold War world soon became a matter of concern for those who profited by them. That same year, an eerily similar story line erupted in the pages of Batman and Detective Comics: Bruce Wayne’s caped crusade came to an apparent end in the “Knightfall” story line. In Batman #497 (July 1993), Doug Moench and Jim Aparo tell the story of the Dark Knight’s defeat at the hands of the new supervillain, Bane, who, after having exhausted the Dark Knight by releasing all of his worst enemies from prison and the insane asylum, breaks Batman’s back. As with Superman, a substitute Batman was needed, and in Batman #500 (October 1993), Moench and Aparo told the story of the mentally unstable former assassin, Azrael, donning the mantle of Batman, with the potential of the traditional hero becoming much more deadly than ever before. As with Superman, however, Bruce Wayne would soon return to reclaim his role (Batman #509, July 1994). At their core, in historical context, it appears clear that the primary issue at the heart of these gimmick story lines is consistent: since America no longer needed superheroes, comic books could reclaim their original purpose as commodities similar to television programs or movies.



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As stated earlier, a more traditional take on Batman was still evident on television with the critically and commercially successful Batman: The Animated Series, which had debuted on FOX-TV under the direction of Paul Dini and Bruce Timm in 1992, and it spanned most of the decade with occasional title changes. This series mixed the gritty style of the 1940s Fleischer animated Superman tales with the darker Batman evident in comics since the Denny O’Neil run of the early 1970s. While the comics industry faced possible extinction and the Hollywood Batman became more and more similar to his comedic 1960s television incarnation, the popularity of this series (soon to be followed with Superman: The Animated Series, Justice League, Justice League Unlimited, and the futuristic Batman Beyond under the same creative team) is evidence that more traditional takes on these 50-year-old franchises were far more popular among fans than what modern creative teams were developing in New York and Hollywood. Marvel Comics was not immune to the collectors’ bubble. Capitalizing on the popularity of its artists, the company had published Spider-Man #1 by Todd McFarlane (August 1990) and X-Men #1 by Chris Claremont and Jim Lee (October 1991), and these issues were the two highest selling in the company’s history. Marvel also cashed in on the long history of its universe with the miniseries Marvels by Kurt Busiek and superstar artist Alex Ross. In the pages of the Spider-Man comics from 1994 to 1996, Marvel sold the infamous “Clone Saga,” suggesting first that the hero calling himself Spider-Man had—since the 1970s—actually been a clone of the original, only to discover by saga’s end that he was, in fact, the real Spider-Man and had always been (Howe, Marvel Comics, 365–366). In 1996, Marvel teamed with rival DC to present the ultimate universe-spanning crossover event Marvel Comics vs. DC, which would be followed by the short-running “Amalgam” line of comics, featuring characters that were amalgamations of both universes: such as, “Super Soldier,” a mixture of Superman and Captain America, and “Dark Claw,” combining Batman and Wolverine (Tucker, Slugfest, 188–189). By this time, however the bubble had burst, Hollywood was no longer taking these spandex-clad heroes seriously, and comic books were facing the greatest threat to their survival since the Wertham crusade of the early 1950s. The 1990s also saw the continued rise of the antihero. By 1990, traditional comic book superheroes had lost most of their punch. Superman was seen as little more than a boy scout (this image was exacerbated by the Christopher Reeve movies and Frank Miller’s portrayal of the character in his iconic Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, all from the previous decade). Comic book fans sought darker, grittier, more violent heroes such as Wolverine, Punisher, and Deadpool (all at Marvel Comics). These “antiheroes” were not afraid to kill the bad guys or their henchmen, or anyone remotely connected to the bad guys. Batman remained popular, but only because he, too, had become darker and grittier (again, due mostly to Frank Miller). Perhaps the grittiest superhero of all came to life during this Chromium Age, connected to neither Marvel nor DC Comics but rather the offspring of resistance to both. In 1991, several disgruntled Marvel Comics artists—among them Todd McFarlane and Jim Lee—abandoned their comfortable jobs with Marvel and formed Image Comics. This was a risky move, as Marvel and DC had dominated the

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industry for most of its 50-year history. These men, however, took a chance on their talent and their popularity with comic book fans, and it paid off. In 1992, McFarlane published Spawn #1 (May 1992), and Rob Liefeld would launch Youngblood #1 (April 1992). Though Image was wildly successful at first, the collapse of the collectors’ bubble—and the strong personalities of the creators themselves— soon caused problems. That same year, Image partner Jim Lee launched Wildstorm Comics, which was soon taken over by DC, and Liefeld launched his own imprint, Event Comics. In 1993, DC created another imprint, Vertigo, allowing more creative control out from under the umbrella of established DC continuity. At around the same time, the smaller company Dark Horse Comics (established in 1986) attempted its own superhero line under what it called “Comics’ Greatest World.” With limited sales, and appearing as it did near the end of the collectors’ bubble, the series would run only from 1993 to 2000. Dark Horse would ultimately have more success with its own Star Wars titles. In 1993, DC Comics agreed to an experiment to address the underrepresentation of African Americans in comic books by backing the Milestone Comics imprint. Created by African American creators such as Dwayne McDuffie, Derek Dingle, and Denys Cowan, Milestone met with some success despite the current bursting of the collectors’ bubble. Its most successful hero was Static. Produced by the creative team of McDuffie, Robert Washington III, and John Paul Leon, Static was a young “metahuman” (a term used for superpowered humans in the Milestone universe that would later be adopted by the mainstream DC titles) named Virgil Hawkins, who was exposed to radioactive chemicals; this granted him the ability to generate and control electromagnetic energy. Though Milestone was shut down in 1997, Static returned in the popular animated series Static Shock from 2000 to 2004. In retrospect, both Image and Milestone were groundbreaking attempts to carry the superhero genre beyond the oligopoly of DC and Marvel. Their lack of broader appeal (beyond the aforementioned Spawn and Static) speaks more to the status of superheroes in the post–Cold War environment than to the quality of the creations themselves. KINGDOM COME AND THE POST–COLD WAR HERO Perhaps the best example of the crisis of the post–Cold War superhero came through DC Comics in 1997. That year, writer Mark Waid and artist Alex Ross produced Kingdom Come. Its basic premise was that superheroes had grown out of control, becoming quasi-dictators to a society that no longer required their firm hand to keep it safe. In the real world, the United States was quickly seen in much the same light. Areas that had once leaned on American protection were now finding themselves to be dependent economies, preserving American dominance at their own expense. America, it could be argued, had become more of a global bully forcing its brand of hegemonic capitalism on the world. The great “hero” that the United States had once been (i.e., Superman) had been replaced by a younger version that was just utilizing power for the sake of doing so rather than for a greater good.



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“This is a story about truth obscured, justice deferred and the American way distorted in the hands of petty semanticists” (Elliot S! Maggin, “The New Bards: An Introduction,” in Kingdom Come by Waid and Ross, 6). In the wake of the new world order, the U.S. government began a dramatic scaling back of services, privatizing where it could in an attempt to treat the American citizen more like a consumer, or what Lizabeth Cohen called the “Consumerization of the Republic” (Cohen, A Consumer’s Republic, 396). This ideology spread into foreign policy as well, turning recent “protectorates” into “client states.” William Berman suggests that President Clinton’s primary goal “was to enlarge the scope of democracy and to extend free markets in a global setting, while hoping that they would serve to advance both economic and strategic interests for the United States” (Berman, From the Center to the Edge, 35). Economic considerations—as well as keeping the American consumer/citizen at home happy—permeated most foreign policy decisions in the 1990s. In its handling of issues from NAFTA to China, the new role of the United States appears to have been more of financial watchdog than moral authority, constantly weighing the risk of cost versus reward (Berman, 36–37). The Cold War had been easy: spend whatever it takes to stop the spread of communism. The post–Cold War era had different challenges: a nuclear-hungry Iran, an Iraqi dictator constantly claiming to have “weapons of mass destruction,” pirate warlords in Somalia, ethnic cleansing in the Balkans, political intrigue in Haiti, a burgeoning communist /capitalist experiment in China, and the as-yet-unclear threat of international, religiously zealous organizations such as Al-Qaeda. The American response to each of these crises was based on cost versus gain. From this arises the question: Was the Cold War about democracy, or about capitalism? This question was in the hearts and minds of Americans in the 1990s as well. Why did we need to win the Cold War? And what was our next step? Now that we’d saved the world from the threat of global communism, did the world owe us its consumer dollars? What fealty was owed to the world’s only remaining superpower? Or, an even more important question: Did the world still need a superpower at all? America had done its job against two global threats in 50 years; perhaps it was time for the old girl to retire. “It is about the time in [the lives of Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman] when finally they learn that despite their limitations they must be potent and responsible anyway” (Maggin, “The New Bards”). With the election of President Bill Clinton in 1992, the baby boomers had, quite literally, taken over. The generation that not so long ago had spent its days flouting authority was now that very authority. The main character of Kingdom Come, Norman, observes how the world has changed: NORMAN: The world Wesley [a.k.a. the Sandman] left [through his death] is filled not with his heroes . . . but with their children and grandchildren. They number in the nameless thousands . . . progeny of the past, inspired by the legends of those who came before . . . if not the morals. (Waid, Kingdom Come, 22)

As Kingdom Come opens, the comic book world is very different from the one that would be recognizable to regular readers. In this “Elseworlds” near future,

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Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, and their allies have been replaced with a new breed of superhuman. With no more supervillains to oppose, these heroes see their job as imposing order on those they are supposed to be protecting. The Greatest Generation, which had made the United States a superpower, was dying off, and its offspring were proving not to be up to the task ahead. When Wonder Woman forces Superman to see what has become of the world under the leadership of the new “superman,” Magog, Superman returns to public life. Kingdom Come is the author’s commentary on both the status of comic book superheroes and America itself by the mid-1990s. With no more villains to fight, the focus of those in power (like baby boomer Bill Clinton) was on attempting to restore order, even at the cost of the safety of those who needed protection, as would be seen in Waco, Texas, and at Ruby Ridge, Idaho. The traditional idea of government was replaced with the consumerization of politics—using sanctions against would-be villains like Iran, Iraq, and Somalia to force them into an Americanized order. The call for Superman’s return was a call to reclaiming our post–World War II superpower status in the world. However, Superman’s promise to restore justice came with the possibility that force would be required (Waid, 22). BATMAN (TO SUPERMAN): Once ordinary folks decided you and I were too gentle and old-fashioned to face the challenges of the 21st century . . . They wanted their ‘heroes’ stronger and more ruthless. (Waid, 74)

This response to Superman’s request that Batman join him in his new crusade was actually quite prescient. After 9/11, one question would be whether traditional heroes (as the United States was viewed to be) would be enough for the challenges ahead or whether a new, more ruthless hero would be needed for the enemies of the 21st century. “Whenever possible, Superman negotiates peace. Whenever impossible, he enforces it . . . at every turn, transforming enemies . . . into allies” (Waid, 77–78). This statement—with Superman representing the United States—appears to represent the post–Cold War idea of America’s new role in the world: diplomacy, then sanctions; then, if necessary, military force. Once the Soviet Union was dissolved, President Clinton was able to enact the nuclear weapons treaty with the new Russian republic that President Reagan had outlined years earlier. Sanctions against Iran and Iraq were allegedly keeping those regimes in order, but—to return to an earlier point—at what cost? Despite the best efforts of American diplomats, sanctions ultimately hurt those who are powerless in any regard. The thinking here is that such actions may lead those who are suffering to demand regime change from within. The reality, however, is that those regimes are quite capable of maintaining power by suppressing any real dissent. The question then became: Could Superman—or the United States—lead without force? “Is it possible that the constant pressures thrust upon [Superman] as an emerging world leader . . . could bend even a man of steel to the breaking point?” (Waid, 89). This question, too, seems prescient. After 9/11 and the deaths of 2,977 Americans, few wanted to see Osama bin Laden brought to trial. They wanted him dead. The issue here, for both Superman and the United States, was not that of



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“justice”—the murder of so many certainly calls for a penalty equal to the crime— but the absence of due process. Must a superpower adhere to the principles for which it stands? Or does a superpower status allow for a certain degree of latitude in such situations? These were the questions plaguing post–Cold War America and beyond. After taking his new dictatorship to its ultimate, logical conclusion, Superman became aware of his mistake. He confronted the human secretary general of the United Nations: SECRETARY GENERAL: We . . . We saw you [superheroes] as gods. SUPERMAN: As we saw ourselves. And we were both wrong. But I no longer care about the mistakes of yesterday. I care about coping with tomorrow . . . together. The problems we face still exist. We’re not going to solve them for you . . . we’re going to solve them with you . . . Not by ruling above you . . . but by living among you. We will no longer impose our power on humanity. We will earn your trust . . . (Waid, 194–195)

Here we see the author’s answer to the questions posed. The post–Cold War world did not call for a Pax Americana. Though the United States may have possessed powers and abilities far beyond those of other nations, its role was not to rule over the world but to use its abilities to help guide the world to a better tomorrow, working alongside the rest of the world to bring it. However, if this story helps to answer the questions facing the superpower at the close of the Cold War, how does it address the same question for the superhero? Ultimately, future events would make the issue moot. Aside from the success that superheroes had on television during the 1990s, Hollywood heroes were experiencing the same lackluster interest as comic book ones. Films such as Spawn and Batman and Robin, both released in 1997, were critical and commercial disasters. However, while comic book sales continued to slide as the century came to a close, there was some sign that, on the big screen at least, there might yet be some hope for the genre. The film Blade (1998), based on the Marvel Comics vampire hunter and directed by Stephen Norrington and starring Wesley Snipes, was a surprise success. Two years later, 20th Century Fox released X-Men, directed by Bryan Singer and starring Sir Patrick Stewart and Hugh Jackman. It was one of the biggest box office hits of the year. The 1990s were, as President Bush had predicted, a “new world order.” The days of international conflict were seemingly over, and the future appeared to be all about expansion of the national economy and the improvement of the human condition. With no more threat of nuclear war, America naturally fell into a false sense of security. The economy—outside of comic books—boomed like never before. Americans felt safe and secure. For decades, comic book superheroes had existed as colorful analogies of the American superpower. By 1992, the term “superpower” went from plural to singular and a superpower’s role from being a “side” in a conflict to a responsibility for global stabilization. There was no longer a place for superheroes as the world entered the 21st century. Their time seemed over, their mission complete. That would end on a cool September Tuesday in 2001.

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FURTHER READING Berman, William C. 2001. From the Center to the Edge: The Politics & Policies of the Clinton Presidency. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Brands, H. W. 2010. American Dreams: The United States Since 1945. New York: Penguin Press. Cocca, Carolyn. 2016. Superwomen: Gender, Power, and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury. Cohen, Lizabeth. 2003. A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America. New York: Vintage Books. Costello, Matthew J. 2009. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books & the Unmasking of Cold War America. New York: Continuum Press. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper Perennial Press. Lopes, Paul. 2009. Demanding Respect: The Evolution of the American Comic Book. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Maggin, Elliot S. 1997. “The New Bards: An Introduction.” In Kingdom Come: The Greatest Super-Hero Epic of Tomorrow. New York: DC Comics. Stevens, J. Richard. 2015. Captain America: Masculinity and Violence. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. Tucker, Reed. 2017. Slugfest: Inside the Epic 50-Year Battle Between Marvel and DC. New York: Da Capo Press. Tye, Larry. 2012. Superman: The High-Flying History of America’s Most Enduring Hero. New York: Random House. Waid, Mark, and Alex Ross. 1997. Kingdom Come: The Greatest Super-Hero Epic of Tomorrow. New York: DC Comics. Weldon, Glen. 2016. The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture. New York: Simon and Schuster. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World

As America entered the 21st century, the day of the superhero appeared to be over. In a new world order devoid of external threats, Americans began to look inward for conflict, and the “culture wars” were born. The term was coined by Republican presidential candidate Pat Buchanan as he challenged the sitting president, George H. W. Bush, for his party’s nomination in 1992. The ultraconservative commentator sought to arouse the anger of “mainstream” America by suggesting that the growing trends in cultural relativism were a threat to “traditional American values.” By 2001, as the gay rights movement began to regain

San Diego Comic Con (SDCC) While there are numerous comic book/pop culture conventions around the country every year, the San Diego Comic Con has become the American pop culture Mecca. Pop culture enthusiasts endeavor to attend SDCC at least once in their lives. The SDCC is an annual four-day event held every summer in San Diego, California, since 1970. It began as the “Golden State Comic Book Convention” and was founded by local individuals including Shel Dorf, Richard Alf, Ken Krueger, Mike Towry, Barry Alfonso, Bob Sourk, and Greg Bear. Originally held at the U.S. Grant Hotel, current cons are held at the San Diego Convention Center. In the decades since its inception, it has grown to include all of American popular culture—from film and television franchises such as Star Trek and Star Wars to Japanese anime and British franchises such as Doctor Who and Harry Potter. Major film and television studios now host panels to present their current and immediate-future projects. The focus on comics has expanded to include card collecting and video games as well. The convention has grown from its original crowd of 300 to average attendance in excess of 130,000. Of all of the pop culture conventions held nationally every year, SDCC is by far the largest and most prestigious. It was featured in 2012 in both the documentary ComicCon, Episode IV: A Fan’s Hope, directed by Morgan Spurlock, and the book Comic-Con and the Business of Pop Culture: What the World’s Wildest Trade Show Can Tell Us About the Future of Entertainment, by Rob Salkowitz. Richard A. Hall

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momentum and some on the far left began a push to do away with religion-centered traditions such as saying “Merry Christmas” and “Happy Easter,” many Americans, particularly those of a more conservative or religious bent, began to believe that their way of life was, indeed, under threat. A brief—and unwelcome— respite in these culture wars arrived, however, on an otherwise unassuming Tuesday morning in September 2001. By noon on September 11 that year, 19 terrorists from Egypt and Saudi Arabia working on behalf of the international terrorist group Al-Qaeda and under the orders of its leader, Osama bin Laden, had hijacked four American passenger planes. Two planes brought down the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. A third plane sliced a gash in one side of the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. The final plane, having experienced a revolt from the passengers, took a suicide dive into a field in Pennsylvania. In all, 2,977 Americans—as well as all 19 terrorists—were dead. As White House chief of staff Andrew Card informed President George W. Bush, “America is under attack.” As comic book superheroes were just beginning to address the growing culture war problem, they would soon find a new mission. Americans were about to need their heroes again, perhaps more than ever. OLD HEROES, NEW THREATS In the last Captain America story to be produced before the events of 9/11, in the arc “America Lost,” writer Dan Jurgens addressed the mounting divisions in America in a tale that saw the Red Skull planning the ultimate attack on the United States—from within. He would play on America’s own fears and prejudices: conservative against liberal; American workers against illegal immigrants; and sexism, racism, and class struggle. At one point, Red Skull, explaining his plot to Captain America, makes a statement that would prove frighteningly prescient: Your nation is a cauldron of hate waiting to erupt, a cesspool of violent thoughts looking for release. It’s a fuse extending from one coast to the other, waiting for someone to ignite the flame. (Jurgens, Captain America #46, October 2001)

With an October cover date, this story line was likely storyboarded and approved some time that late summer. At the end of the story arc (likely written in the immediate wake of 9/11), the events of the real world bled into “America Lost” as Captain America urges the country: People, don’t let small-mindedness become the downfall of us all . . . Every now and then I allow myself to think the war is over. But it never ends. There’s always someone with a sick idea. Someone who wants to wallow in violence and destruction . . . Let us never forget that we have been blessed with the power and ability to help those in need. That we must give our all—no matter the price. (Captain America #48, December 2001)

With the return of widespread fear and uncertainty, the wake of 9/11 would see a dramatic upsurge in the popularity of superheroes. The genre would dominate on both the big and small screens, comic book sales would rebound, and Marvel and



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DC Comics would become once more financially viable. The post–Cold War era had given way to the post–9/11 world. Ten years after the fall of the Soviet Union, the world was suddenly a different place. It appeared that, other than small regional conflicts, the world no longer faced any overall threat. However, the threat had been there all along. Throughout the decade, there had been numerous attempts against American interests by Al-Qaeda, beginning with an initial attack on the Twin Towers in 1993 and most recently against the U.S. Navy vessel USS Cole off the coast of Yemen in 2000. By the time George W. Bush came to office, though, Al-Qaeda’s threat seemed piecemeal at most. The failed attempt to blow up the parking deck of the World Trade Center and attacks on embassies and military targets around the Middle East and Africa did not register with most Americans as anything other than desperate moves by religious radicals. After the terrorist attacks against the United States homeland on 9/11, however, America embarked on a “War on Terror,” promising to thwart future attacks before they happened, and to destroy any individual, group or state that supported such activities. With the return of a global threat, our heroes returned. Superman and Captain America were once more needed to stand as symbols for American power. Numerous comic books addressed 9/11 in its immediate aftermath. Marvel writer J. Michael Straczynski showed Spider-Man—a denizen and protector of Marvel’s fictional New York City—witnessing the horrifying events at the World Trade Center (The Amazing Spider-Man #36, December 2001). Captain America, recently slated for cancellation, was brought back by writer John Ney Riber and artist John Cassaday. He was shown clearing debris and rubble from Ground Zero as Steve Rogers when SHIELD Director Nick Fury drafted him back into service against America’s new enemies (Captain America #1, June 2002). At DC Comics, just days after the attacks, Superman was shown responding to the aftermath of the recent “Our Worlds at War” story line, with a damaged Twin Towers being repaired (Joe Casey and Mike Wieringo, Adventures of Superman #596, September 2001). Within months, the publisher released a special edition featuring many popular comic book writers and artists in 9/11: The World’s Finest Comic Book Writers & Artists Tell Stories to Remember, featuring the iconic cover portraying Superman and his dog, Krypto. Their backs are to the camera as Superman exclaims “Wow” while looking at a large broadside showing police and firefighters, the true heroes of that day. By September 11, 2001, DC’s Frank Miller had already sent to press his long-awaited sequel to the iconic 1986 comic Batman: The Dark Knight Returns. Hitting newsstands in November 2001, Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again would feature Batman remotely flying an explosiveladen Batmobile into a high-rise building. Though the imagery was shockingly similar to recent events, DC decided to allow the book to proceed, doubtless due to the fact that it involved a hero committing the act against a villain. For the 10 months prior to the attacks, many Americans had been recovering from the tumultuous nature of the presidential election of 2000. The controversial victory of George W. Bush had left the country even more divided and its citizens hostile toward each other. The 9/11 attacks put all minutiae aside for a while. America’s response was quick and reactionary. President Bush announced the

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“Bush Doctrine,” a policy of preemptive strikes against anyone who threatened— or supported those who threatened—our security or the security of our allies. Within weeks, American troops, backed by NATO, invaded the nation of Afghanistan under the rule of the Al-Qaeda–friendly Taliban regime. Soon after, in October of 2001 and literally in the ashes of 9/11, Congress passed the USA PATRIOT Act, granting sweeping powers to American law enforcement agencies to weed out future potential threats [The “Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act” (USA PATRIOT Act)]. Even at the time, there was considerable concern that this act would give the federal government unprecedented overreach and threaten fourth amendment protections against unwarranted searches and seizures. (Evans, “Hijacking Civil Liberties: The USA PATRIOT Act of 2001,” 2002). Bush established the Department of Homeland Security. The United States requested a oneyear (extendable) exemption from any action—for or against it—by the International Criminal Court. America chose to handle this on its own terms: due process was quickly disregarded; potential terrorists were held indefinitely without lawyer or trial; phones and Internet activity were monitored and records maintained. All this went largely unquestioned for some time and was seen as an unfortunate necessity of living in a post–9/11 world. In 2003, the Bush Doctrine would call for the American invasion of Iraq and the toppling of the dictatorship of Iraqi President Saddam Hussein. President Bush would win reelection in 2004 relatively easily due to what was seen as his strong leadership during America’s greatest crisis. In the spring of 2006, approaching the fifth anniversary of 9/11, Warner Bros. studios released the film version of Alan Moore’s 1980s dystopian graphic tome, V for Vendetta. Directed by James McTeigue and starring Hugo Weaving as the masked V and Natalie Portman as his protégée, Evey, the film warns of the dangers of placing security above liberty and the line of fascism that can be so easily crossed. The film was a moderate success, but its warnings, perhaps, came too soon after the tragic events to fully drive the message home for most viewers. The film—like the earlier comic of the same name—utilized the first stanza of the 1870 poem commemorating the memory of Guy Fawkes, the 1605 terrorist who had attempted to blow up the houses of Parliament, and it is his image that the terrorist V adopts in his mission: Remember, remember! The fifth of November, The Gunpowder treason and plot; I know of no reason Why the Gunpowder treason Should ever be forgot! (“The Fifth of November,” http://www.potw.org/archive/potw405.html)

Eventually, as it always does, fear subsided. The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq were becoming increasingly unpopular. It appeared more and more unlikely that Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden would ever be found, and the surveillance policies of the Bush administration were becoming incrementally questionable. By



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that time, however, within popular culture, comic book superheroes experienced a radical resurgence not seen since the 1960s. The television series Smallville, starring Tom Welling as the future Man of Steel and showcasing Superman’s formative years in rural Kansas, debuted just weeks after 9/11 to strong audiences and would go on to run for 10 seasons. Batman, Spider-Man, and Fantastic Four cartoons once more graced the screens of children’s TV. Furthermore, between 2002 and 2017, Hollywood released nearly 50 superhero-themed movies based on DC and Marvel comics. Superheroes were in such high demand that in 2009, Disney bought Marvel Comics. America was in crisis. It needed its heroes again. MARVEL’S CIVIL WAR By then, Marvel Comics editor in chief Joe Quesada had overseen a project that would directly reflect what was going on in American society. The 2006–2007 story line was called “Civil War.” Written by Mark Millar and illustrated by Steve McNiven, the basic premise of the comic was as follows: during the taping of a superhero reality show, an battle with a minor villain leads to an explosion that kills the heroes and hundreds of innocent bystanders, many of whom are children. As a reaction to societal outrage concerning superheroes’ unchecked ability to conduct what is essentially warfare in any place and at any time, Congress passes the Superhero Registration Act requiring all masked superheroes to register their secret identities with the federal government and undergo supervised training to become licensed government agents. Heroes who are already publicly known, like Tony Stark (a.k.a. Iron Man) and Dr. Reed Richards (Mr. Fantastic of the Fantastic Four) strongly support the new law. Captain America, however, whose identity is also public, opposes it on the basis that superheroes are public servants already, putting their lives on the line every day to keep society safe. If they were to make their secret identities known, the possibility would always exist that such information could make its way into the hands of supervillains, endangering the lives of the people closest to the heroes. Additionally, even if the government were to successfully keep the identities of superheroes classified, the danger would always exist that unscrupulous officials could access and release them (Millar and McNiven, Civil War, 2006–2007). The argument ultimately leads to all-out war between the two heroic factions. The heart of the argument is the same as that over the Patriot Act: security versus liberty. MARIA HILL, DIRECTOR OF SHIELD: [The Superhero Registration Act] goes to a vote in two weeks’ time and could be law in as little as a month . . . We’re already developing an anti-superhuman response unit here, but we need to make sure The Avengers are onside and that you’re out there leading The Avengers. CAPTAIN AMERICA: You’re asking me to arrest people who risk their lives for this country every day of the week. MARIA HILL: No. I’m asking you to obey the will of the American people, Captain.

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CAPTAIN AMERICA: Don’t play politics with me, Hill. Super Heroes need to stay above that stuff or Washington starts telling us who the super-villains are. MARIA HILL: I thought super-villains were guys in masks who refused to obey the law. (Millar and McNiven, Civil War #1, July 2006)

In the comics, Captain America has traditionally been seen as representative of the U.S. government, both as an agent of SHIELD and as leader of the Avengers. Tony Stark—a.k.a. Iron Man—by contrast, is a billionaire industrialist, the very embodiment of the private sector. In Civil War, however, these roles are reversed. Stark represents the government’s position that superheroes should be registered and trained agents of the government, while Captain America represents the continued privatization of superheroics. This juxtaposition represents an element of surprise for the reader and a higher level of uncertainty in the ultimate resolution of the conflict. What it also represents is the close relationship between big business and government, to the potential detriment of the general populace. A similar juxtaposition existed in the real world. A committed conservative, President George W. Bush was publicly a proponent of limited government. However, with the Patriot Act and the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security, Bush oversaw the greatest expansion of the role of the federal government since the liberal Great Society programs of the 1960s. His defense was also Iron Man’s: the logical conclusion that the government possesses the greatest ability to oversee security, as there is neither profit motive nor logistical support for the private sector to take on that responsibility. The difference, however, is that in Civil War, the question at hand is simply a matter of domestic policy, and it commentates specifically on the possible violations of personal liberty by way of the USA PATRIOT Act. The larger question in the real world includes the factor of the threat of a foreign enemy in relation to the potential threat to liberty. The issue at the heart of both is this: what is the role of superpower in the post–9/11 world? Since World War II, comic book superheroes had been the fictional embodiment of the superpower that is the United States, defending “truth, justice, and the American way.” As noted earlier, once the Cold War was over, this traditional role was in question. The decade between the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the attacks of 2001 represented a period of geopolitical uncertainty, which was reflected in superhero comic books. What is the role of superpower in a world at peace? That question was moot after September 11, 2001. The world once more faced a global threat, and the American flag once more had to become a cape. However, the alleged supervillain of the 21st century was a different type of enemy. Unlike Nazis and Communists, Al-Qaeda possessed no government, no territory, and no conventional military. The new enemy was no visible “super” villain but more of a shadow villain. Yet, the immediate action—or, according to some, overreaction—of the United States was that of a superhero against a supervillain, flexing superpower both at home and abroad. This is the heart of the argument against the Patriot Act, the War on Terror, and Civil War: action versus overreaction. IRON MAN (in response to Captain America’s arguments against superhero registration): Cap, please. I know you’re angry. I know it’s an enormous change from the way we’ve always worked, but we aren’t living in 1945 anymore. The public doesn’t



The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World 51 want masks and secret identities. They want to feel safe when we’re around, and there’s no other way to win back their respect. (Millar and McNiven, Civil War #1, July 2006)

In the immediate wake of Civil War in 2007, Captain America was murdered (Ed Brubaker and Steve Epting, Captain America #25, January 2007). Major news outlets and late-night talk shows discussed what this must mean for America. The symbol of World War II was dead. The “Greatest Generation” no longer reflected Bush’s America, but America still needed a captain to guide the proverbial ship of state. As Brubaker’s narrative of a world without Captain America progressed, the new “Captain America” would be Steve Rogers’s World War II sidekick, Bucky Barnes, a.k.a. “the winter soldier” (Brubaker and Epting, Captain America #34, March 2008). A few years earlier, Cap had discovered that his long-lost partner, presumed dead at the end of World War II, had been kidnapped by the Soviet Union and programmed to be the world’s best assassin, kept on ice and thawed when needed (Brubaker and Epting, Captain America #12, December 2005). This would be America’s new, Bush-era “sentinel of liberty,” a former assassin armed with a gun and knife as well as a shield. BEYOND THE COMIC BOOK PAGE By this time, superheroes on the big screen were already facing the call of the post–9/11 world. After disastrous 1990s superhero films such as Spawn and Batman and Robin, it seemed that Hollywood had milked the genre for all that it could, but after the successes of Marvel films revolving around Blade, the X-Men, and Spider-Man (all purely escapist adventures just prior to and immediately following 9/11), along with the revived cultural need for heroes, capes soon dominated multiplexes around the world. In 2005, director Chris Nolan relaunched Batman in his “Dark Knight” trilogy beginning with Batman Begins and continuing through The Dark Knight (2008) and The Dark Knight Rises (2012). In all three films, Batman protects Gotham City from terrorists intent on utilizing—and manipulating—fear to bring down society. In 2006, director James McTeigue brought Alan Moore’s 1980s dystopian prophecy V for Vendetta to theaters, showing a near-future England brought to heel by a radical conservative dictatorship that had come to power with the support of the people under the guise of protecting them and keeping them safe. The message of all four films is similar: systems cannot keep you safe without sacrificing freedom; true safety—both from terrorist threats and political demagogues—comes only through constant, private vigilance. In 2008, seeing how Americans were embracing superheroes outside of the comic book page, Marvel Comics decided to get into the movie business more directly. However, having sold the movie and television rights to its heavy hitters— X-Men, Spider-Man, and the Fantastic Four—the new studio was forced to rely on what many considered to be its second-tier heroes. Marvel Studios, then, was launched with the release of Iron Man, directed by Jon Favreau. The massive success of Iron Man led to the creation of the “Marvel Cinematic Universe,” which would bring the Hulk, Thor, Captain America, the Avengers, the Guardians of the

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Galaxy, Ant-Man and the Wasp, Doctor Strange, and Black Panther to the big screen. On the small screen, Marvel introduced SHIELD, Daredevil, Jessica Jones, Luke Cage, Iron Fist, the Defenders, the Punisher, and the Inhumans. By the 10th anniversary of 9/11, America had a new president, Barack Obama, and Osama bin Laden was dead. Combat operations in Iraq were ended, and those in Afghanistan were appearing to near an end as well. The key questions, however, remained. What was the acceptable line between security and freedom? What was the role of the superpower in this new world with its new threats? By that time, the superheroes had cemented themselves in American society to a degree never before seen. Hollywood released four to five new superhero movies per year. The success of television series such as Smallville and Arrow would go on to spawn Supergirl, Flash, and Legends of Tomorrow. As America approached the 15th anniversary of the 9/11 attacks, the market seemed to be oversaturated with superheroes, causing many to predict the genre’s collapse due to superhero “fatigue.” By 2016, American fears of terrorist threats had once more abated as terrorists appeared more interested in attacks overseas. So, the culture wars once more emerged, and as Americans went to the polls to choose their next president, the country was more divided than at any point since the Civil War 150 years earlier. If superheroes were to survive as a commercial product, they, too, would have to begin looking inward to address the issues facing their audiences. In February 2016, 20th Century Fox released the film Deadpool, which broke box office records for R-rated films—concrete proof that the murderous mercenary was wildly popular, not just in the United States but abroad as well. A few months later, Marvel Studios brought Civil War to theaters with a tweaked story line more in line with current audiences, focusing more on the dangers of division and the failure to compromise than the freedom-versus-security issue. That summer, the original Captain America, Steve Rogers, returned to the comic book page (after having returned from the dead only to have his Super Soldier Serum removed, causing him rapid aging and forcing him to once more give up his mantle—this time to his longtime partner, the Falcon, Sam Wilson). However, Rogers was quickly exposed as an agent of the enemy Hydra and apparently always had been so (Nick Spencer and Jesus Saiz, Captain America: Steve Rogers #1, June 2016). In the spring of 2017, Fox released another R-rated superhero film with Logan, focusing on an aging Wolverine confronting his inner demons and even (spoiler alert!) his own mortality. That summer, DC’s iconic Wonder Woman finally achieved a live-action feature film after 75 years in comics (and briefly on television). This film version of the Amazonian princess was set during World War I, with the clear message that men had created a world of hate, fear, and warfare and that it was time for a more feminine approach to leadership. To be fair, during production, it had been universally accepted that Hillary Clinton would win the 2016 presidential election; however, conservative populist real estate billionaire Donald Trump won it instead. Regardless of one’s support, or lack thereof, for candidate Trump, his political campaign did rely on a degree of divisiveness rarely seen in recent national campaigns. By 2017, ideological differences between the political left and right ran so deep that political gridlock remained unavoidable. If



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the history of the superheroes is taken into account, this would suggest that America was still in fear. Rather than fearing outside threats, however, Americans more and more appeared to be most fearful of each other: moral relativity versus “traditional values” and diversity versus the status quo. However, though superheroes had moved beyond the comic book page to dominate all forms of popular media, comic book sales themselves hit historic lows. There are three primary contributing factors to this decline: (1) the endless “event” gimmicks promoted by the two big companies, Marvel and DC, often with unsatisfactory, anticlimactic endings; (2) the continuous rollout of new #1 issues (frequently just months after the same title’s most recent #1; and (3) constant reboots of the two major superhero universes that ended entire universes only to begin them anew in an endless cycle (there were roughly 10 reboots between the two major publishers in a period of 10 years). Additionally, with comic book publishers focused entirely on the direct market (a.k.a. “comic book stores”), there was little opportunity to attract new readers. The days of children being exposed to the latest issues of Batman or Spider-Man in grocery store checkout lines were long gone, and parents rarely have time, opportunity, or money to take their children to their local comic book store (institutions that themselves are rapidly decreasing in number). So, the industry is completely reliant on its primary target audience: white, middle-class men. If these trends continue, it is doubtful that comic books as an industry can survive. Since their inception in 1938, superheroes have consistently closely followed American ideals, values, fears, and aspirations, frequently changing to adjust to their times. The popularity of superheroes has always risen during times of national crisis (i.e., Pearl Harbor, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and, most recently, 9/11). Unlike other decades-spanning franchises that have served more as general escapism—such as Star Wars, James Bond, or the Disney animated films— superheroes have reflected, commented upon, and frequently attempted to influence real-world events. More than most any other genre of entertainment, superhero comic books can tell us a great deal about America and Americans at any given point in time. Their heroes are a reflection of who we’ve been, who we are, and who we hope to be. September 11, 2001, was possibly the most devastating day in American history. The fact that it was a “shared experience”—with a higher percentage of Americans witnessing events as they happened than during any catastrophe previous—brought Americans closer together than perhaps any national event since the space shuttle Challenger disaster 15 years earlier. Unlike any other genre of popular culture, save perhaps daytime television soap operas—comic books are a continual medium. Whereas conventional television series have many months between seasons and movies have years between sequels, superhero comic books come out every month, with very few delays. This facet of the medium brings it closer to the day-to-day experience of everyday life than anything else in pop culture; it therefore can more immediately and directly address sociopolitical issues than do other visual arts. Superheroes can feel what we feel as we are feeling it because their creative teams are producing these narratives as they are feeling what we are feeling. This aspect of superhero fictions is perhaps what most

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makes them popular among such a wide swath of Americans. The more rapid turnaround of comic books from concept to market has allowed superheroes to respond more quickly to our darkest and most confusing times. From the immediate wake of the events of 9/11 and on through the growing divisiveness over the most basic issues that define us as a society, superheroes show us who we are and who we can be. FURTHER READING Brands, H. W. 2010. American Dreams: The United States Since 1945. New York: Penguin Press. Cocca, Carolyn. 2016. Superwomen: Gender, Power, and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury. Evans, Jennifer C. 2002. “Hijacking Civil Liberties: The USA PATRIOT Act of 2001.” Loyola University Chicago Law Journal 33 (4): 935. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper Perennial Press. Jewett, Robert, and John Shelton Lawrence. 2004. Captain America and the Crusade Against Evil: The Dilemma of Zealous Nationalism. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans. Lopes, Paul. 2009. Demanding Respect: The Evolution of the American Comic Book. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Morris, Tom, and Matt Morris, eds. 2006. Superheroes and Philosophy: Truth, Justice, and the Socratic Way. Chicago: Open Court Press. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Siegel & Grau. Moulton, Jeffery. 2012. The Superhero Response: How 9/11 Changed Our Superheroes and Why It Matters. Self-published. Regalado, Aldo J. 2015. Bending Steel: Modernity and the American Superhero. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press. Rosenberg, Robin S., and Peter Coogan, eds. 2013. What Is a Superhero? New York: Oxford University Press. Salkowitz, Rob. 2012. Comic-Con and the Business of Pop Culture: What the World’s Wildest Trade Show Can Tell Us About the Future of Entertainment. New York: McGraw-Hill. Stevens, J. Richard. 2015. Captain America: Masculinity and Violence. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. Tucker, Reed. 2017. Slugfest: Inside the Epic 50-Year Battle Between Marvel and DC. New York: Da Capo Press. Tye, Larry. 2012. Superman: The High-Flying History of America’s Most Enduring Hero. New York: Random House. Weldon, Glen. 2015. The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture. New York: Simon and Schuster. White, Mark D. 2014. The Virtues of Captain America: Modern-Day Lessons on Character from a World War II Superhero. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons. Willis, Susan. 2005. Portents of the Real: A Primer for Post–9/11 America. London: Verso Press. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

A–Z Entries

A Ant-Man/Giant-Man/Goliath/Yellowjacket First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers:

Tales to Astonish #27 (cover date: January 1962) Stan Lee, Larry Lieber, and Jack Kirby Marvel Comics Shrinking, increasing size, communication with ants (as Ant-Man) Weapons: Helmet to control the minds of ants (Ant-Man); Bio-sting (Yellowjacket) Base of Operations: New York City Key Allies: Wasp, Iron Man Key Enemies: Ultron, Whirlwind Team Affiliations: Avengers Secret Identity: Henry Pym (all three identities); Scott Lang and Eric O’Grady (Ant-Man); Bill Foster (Black Goliath/ Giant-Man/Goliath); Rita DeMara (Yellowjacket) Nicknames: N/A The first individual to don the mantle of Ant-Man was Dr. Henry “Hank” Pym, a brilliant scientist who discovers the size-altering “Pym Particles” (Lee, Lieber, and Kirby, Tales to Astonish #35, September 1962). Deciding to become a crime fighter, Pym teams with girlfriend Janet Van Dyne. Pym places implants in Van Dyne’s shoulders that allow her to grow wings once shrunken by the Pym Particles, making her the superheroine “Wasp” (Lee, H. E. Huntley, and Kirby, Tales to Astonish #44, July 1963). The two become founding members of the Avengers, eventually marrying in The Avengers #60 (Roy Thomas and John Buscema, January 1969). Years later, reformed criminal Scott Lang steals Pym’s Ant-Man helmet and Pym Particles to become the second Ant-Man (by which time Pym has reversed the Pym Particles to become Giant-Man). Decades later, a third man, Eric O’Grady, an unscrupulous SHIELD agent, steals the Ant-Man suit and dons the identity in order to pursue his own personal pleasure, reluctantly becoming a hero eventually. After a brief stint as the original Ant-Man, Pym learns to reverse the Pym Particles, allowing him to increase his size significantly, changing his hero name to Giant-Man (Lee and Kirby, Tales to Astonish #49, November 1963) and later Goliath (Lee and Don Heck, The Avengers #28, May 1966). Years later, Stan Lee and

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artist Don Heck create Pym’s African American lab assistant, Dr. Bill Foster. Foster grew up in the slums of Watts outside Los Angeles, and he becomes a biochemist working first for Tony Stark and eventually for Pym. In 1975, after the apparent deaths of Pym and Van Dyne, the creative team of Tony Isabella and George Tuska have Foster utilize the Pym Particles to become Black Goliath, shortening the name later to just “Goliath” (Tony Isabella and George Tuska, Power Man #24, April 1975). He then becomes the second Giant-Man a few years later (Mark Gruenwald, Ralph Macchio, and John Byrne, Marvel Two-in-One #55, September 1979). Depressed over his initially unrequited feelings for Van Dyne, Pym later experiences a lab accident, exposing him to mind-altering chemicals and leading him to don his third persona, Yellowjacket. First claiming to having killed both Pym and Van Dyne, the Avengers eventually discover Pym’s true identity and seek help for their comrade (first appearance as Yellowjacket: Thomas and Buscema, The Avengers #59, December 1968). In 1986, reformed criminal Rita DeMara assumes the identity of Yellowjacket. Pym would spend the next few decades going back and forth in hero identities. During the Civil War story line of 2006–2007, Pym once more donned the persona of Yellowjacket. Perhaps the most significant Hank Pym story line appeared early on, under the creative team of Roy Thomas and John Buscema. In 1968, the Avengers face off against a villain calling himself the “Crimson Cowl.” In the following issue, however, the villain is exposed as Ultron, a robot built by Pym and programmed with Pym’s own brainwaves (Thomas and Buscema, The Avengers #54–55, July– August 1968). In the ultimate Frankenstein analogy, Ultron would become one of the most formidable foes of the Avengers, continually “upgrading” into newer and more dangerous incarnations over the years. Ultron later gives birth to the villainturned-hero Vision. In 2001, Marvel Comics launched its “Ultimate” line of comics, relaunching major titles with a new universe and continuity in an attempt to appeal to new, younger readers. In this reality, under the creative team of Mark Millar and Bryan Hitch, Pym is hired by Nick Fury and SHIELD to work on their “Super Soldier” project, an attempt to repeat the success that had led to Captain America decades earlier (Millar and Hitch, Ultimates #1, March 2002). This reality presented a darker, more psychologically unhinged Pym (along the lines of the original Yellowjacket), who is married to Janet Van Dyne/Wasp. Pym is a physically and emotionally abusive husband. The Hank Pym character has appeared in numerous Marvel animated series: The Marvel Super Heroes, X-Men, The Avengers: United They Stand, Fantastic Four: World’s Greatest Heroes, The Super-Hero Squad Show, and The Avengers: Earth’s Mightiest Heroes. In the animated series Avengers Assemble!, the Scott Lang Ant-Man appears. As part of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Scott Lang becomes Ant-Man under the tutelage of an older Hank Pym in the 2015 film AntMan directed by Peyton Reed, starring Paul Rudd as Lang and Michael Douglas as Pym. Ant-Man appears alongside the other Avengers for the first time in the 2016 film Captain America: Civil War (directed by Joe and Anthony Russo). Rudd then resumed the role in Ant-Man and the Wasp (2018), directed by Peyton Reed.

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The Hank Pym and Bill Foster characters represent a popular trope of Marvel Comics: that of the genius scientist-turned-hero. The Lang, O’Grady, and DeMara characters represent another popular Marvel story arc: that of the reformed villain. Overall, the characters of Ant-Man, Giant-Man, Goliath, and Yellowjacket, despite who is behind the mask at any given time, have been mainstays of the Avengers team, and Pym is one of the most important recurring characters in Marvel Comics. Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Captain America: Other Media, Scarlet Witch/Quicksilver/Vision; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. Evanier, Mark. 2008. Kirby: King of Comics. New York: Abrams. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Lee, Stan, Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone. Raphael, Jordan, and Tom Spurgeon. 2003. Stan Lee and the Rise and Fall of the American Comic Book. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. White, Mark D. 2012. The Avengers and Philosophy: Earth’s Mightiest Thinkers. New York: Wiley Press.

Aquaman First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers:

More Fun Comics #73 (cover date: November 1941) Mort Weisinger and Paul Norris National Allied/DC Comics Psychic link with aquatic creatures/Super strength and speed (in water) Weapons: Trident/Wrist harpoon (temporarily) Base of Operations: Atlantis Key Allies: Aqualad Key Enemies: Black Manta, Ocean Master Team Affiliations: Justice League Secret Identity: Arthur Curry Nicknames: King of Atlantis Aquaman was originally presented as the son of a human father and an Atlantean princess. Raised in Atlantis and trained and taught certain “scientific secrets” by his father, he learned to communicate with the creatures of the deep (originally orally, and only in close contact), he later emerged to the surface world in

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adulthood as “Aquaman” (Weisinger and Norris, More Fun Comics #73, November 1941). Over time, the character’s powers grew, giving him telepathic communications with aquatic animals and greater strength and speed (while in or near water). As was the case with most Golden Age heroes, Aquaman’s World War II adventures revolved around fighting America’s real-world enemies, the Nazis and the Japanese. Immediately after the war, the character was moved to the pages of Adventure Comics, beginning with issue #103 in 1946. Though his origin story would be tweaked considerably over the years, Aquaman’s premier origin story was given more detail in the late 1950s. Under the editorship of Weisinger, it was explained that Aquaman’s name was Arthur Curry, and his parents were a human lighthouse operator, Tom Curry, and Atlanna, an Atlantean cast out of her underwater kingdom. Due to his half-Atlantean heritage, Aquaman must frequently return to the water (originally hourly) or die (Jerry Coleman and John Sikela, Adventure Comics #260, May 1959). In 1960, under the creative team of Robert Bernstein and Ramona Fradon, Aquaman discovers an Atlantean boy who has been cast out due to his fear of fish. Aquaman takes the boy as a sidekick and names him Aqualad; he would eventually join the team of sidekicks known as the Teen Titans (Bernstein and Fradon, Adventure Comics #269, February 1960). The following month, Julius Schwartz made Aquaman one of the original members of the Justice League (Gardner Fox and Mike Sekowsky, The Brave and the Bold #28, March 1960). The Atlantean king initially received his own solo series in 1962 (Jack Miller and Nick Cardy, Aquaman #1, February 1962). That series would have an unbroken run until 1971, returning in 1977. The return was due to a story line from Adventure Comics #452 (August 1977) where the villain Black Manta murdered Aquaman’s infant son, Arthur Curry Jr. Writer David Michelinie and artist Jim Aparo revived the series to continue the story of Aquaman’s revenge (Aquaman #57, September 1977). Nine years later, Neal Pozner and Craig Hamilton would begin a new series, with Aquaman sporting a watery-blue uniform (Aquaman Vol. 2, #1, February 1986). A third series was launched in 1991 to celebrate the character’s 50th anniversary, but it ran for only a year. Two years later, under the creative team of Peter David and Martin Egeland, Aquaman was relaunched as a reclusive, disillusioned hero, his hair and beard grown long and his left hand replaced with a harpoon hook (Aquaman Vol. 5, #1–2, August–September 1994). This series was the character’s most popular run, continuing for 75 issues and ending in early 2001. As part of the universe-altering “Flashpoint” event in 2011, an alternate time line erupted that saw Aquaman involved in a romantic relationship—and later war—with Wonder Woman (Tony Bedard, Ardian Syaf, and Vicente Cifuentes, Emperor Aquaman #1–3, August–October 2011). This story line would lead to the “New 52” reboot of the DC Comics Universe. In 2013, having previously been dethroned as king of Atlantis, Aquaman and the Justice League go to war with the underwater kingdom when its current king, Ocean Master, declares war on the surface world (Geoff Johns and Paul Pelletier, Aquaman Vol. 7, #16, March 2013). Aquaman was first visible outside of comics in 1967 as part of the animated series The Superman/Aquaman Hour of Adventure, which also featured short

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cartoons of the new Teen Titans. The most recognizable image of Aquaman in popular culture comes from his appearance on the Super Friends Saturdaymorning cartoon produced by Hanna-Barbera and airing on ABC-TV from 1973 to 1986. Though the character was brought mainstream, he has become the target of considerable derision due to his apparent weaker powers compared to those of the other Justice Leaguers; he became the butt of recurring jokes in the 2012 Robot Chicken DC Comics Special on Cartoon Network. Arthur Curry made two appearances on the television series Smallville, played by actor Alan Ritchson; the first was as a love interest for Lois Lane. The character’s film debut came in the form of a cameo in the 2016 film Batman v. Superman: Dawn of Justice (directed by Zac Snyder), and he was finally given voice in the following year’s Justice League film (also directed by Snyder) as performed by Jason Momoa, who played the character as a hard-drinking, athletic brawler. Considered one of the high points of that underperforming film, the character created by Momoa returned in the 2018 film Aquaman, directed by James Wan. Very little has been written about Aquaman outside of his comic book exploits. He is, however, noteworthy for his nearly continuous presence in DC Comics since his inception in 1941. Even during the early 1950s, when superheroes all but disappeared from newsstands, Aquaman stories continued in the Superman-based anthology series Adventure Comics as a clear example of the character’s continuing popularity despite his relative anonymity outside of comics. Similar in many ways to Marvel Comics’ Sub-Mariner, Aquaman has enjoyed a much longer—and relatively unbroken—run by comparison. Richard A. Hall See also: Justice League, Sub-Mariner, Superman: Other Media, Teen Titans; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

Avila, Mike. 2018. The Art of Making Aquaman. San Rafael, CA: Insight Editions. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype.

Atom First Appearance: Creators:

All-American Comics #19 (cover date: October 1940) Ben Finton and Bill O’Connor (Reimagined by Julius Schwartz, Gardner Fox, and Gil Kane) Publisher: National Allied/DC Comics Powers: Atom punch (originally); Shrinking/Growing (later) Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Ivy Town Key Allies: Hawkman, Batman Key Enemies: Chronos, Floronic Man

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The American Superhero

Justice Society of America/All Star Squadron (originally)

Justice League (later) Secret Identity: Al Pratt/Ray Palmer Nicknames: N/A The Atom was originally a scrawny college student (similar to later heroes Steve Rogers/Captain America; and Peter Parker/Spider-Man). Al Pratt honed his physicality as he earned his degree in physics. Pratt was a tank driver in World War II, making him one of very few comic book superheroes to be shown as having actively served in the war (Finton and O’Connor, All-American Comics #19, October 1940). With no powers at first, Atom joined the Justice Society of America and later the All-Star Squadron, where he eventually developed his “Atom Punch.” At the height of World War II, Atom appeared alongside Golden Age Flash, Green Lantern, Hawkman, and Wonder Woman in the special 128-page The Big AllAmerican Comic Book #1 (Joseph Greene and Joe Gallagher, “Putting on the Dog,” December 1944), edited by Sheldon Mayer. Pratt’s last Golden Age appearance was in 1951 (John Broome, Frank Giacoia, and Arthur F. Peddy, All-Star Comics #57, March 1951). It was later explained that the All-Star Squadron had retired when faced with the government requiring them to reveal their identities. The Atom would be reinvented as part of Julius Schwartz’s reimagining of Golden Age heroes that ultimately ushered in the Silver Age of comics. Reintroduced as Ray Palmer, the new Atom made his first appearance in the pages of Showcase #34 (Gardner Fox and Gil Kane, October 1961). As with the sciencebased reimagining of the Flash, Palmer’s Atom is a physics professor at Ivy University. Experimenting with “white dwarf star matter,” Palmer eventually discovers the ability to shrink himself to the atomic level (and, conversely, later to increase his size to gigantic levels). In his shrunken form, Atom maintains the proportional strength of a regular-size human; in his giant form, his strength grows exponentially with his size. Eventually joining the Justice League, Atom plays a relatively minor role until the 21st century, playing a more prominent part in the “Identity Crisis,” “Countdown,” and “Blackest Night” story line events. In 2001 to 2002, the character played a major role in Frank Miller’s Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again. In 1967, Atom animated shorts appeared as part of The Superman/Aquaman Hour of Adventure. Richard A. Hall See also: Justice League, Justice Society; Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955, The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s.

Further Reading

Feiffer, Jules. (1965) 2003. The Great Comic Book Heroes. Seattle: Fantagraphics. [For information on origin period, not character]. Schwartz, Julius, with Brian M. Thomsen. 2000. Man of Two Worlds: My Life in Science Fiction and Comics. New York: Harper Entertainment.

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Avengers First Appearance: The Avengers #1 (cover date: September 1963) Creators: Stan Lee and Jack Kirby Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers (Original Team): Captain America—Enhanced physical abilities Giant-Man/Ant-Man—Growing/Shrinking/ Communication with ants (as Ant Man) Hulk—Near-limitless strength Iron Man—Genius intellect/Flight (with armor) Thor—Supernatural strength Wasp—Shrinking/Flight (with wings) Weapons: Captain America—Indestructible shield Giant-Man/Ant-Man—Size-altering suit/­ Communication helmet Hulk—N/A Iron Man—Weaponized armor Thor—Enchanted “Uru” hammer Wasp—“Stinger” blasts Base of Operations: New York City Key Allies: Nick Fury/SHIELD Key Enemies: Kang, Loki, Thanos, Ultron Other Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: Captain America—Steve Rogers Giant-Man/Ant-Man—Hank Pym Hulk—Bruce Banner Iron Man—Tony Stark Thor—Donald Blake, Erik Masterson, Jane Foster, Odinson Wasp—Janet Van Dyne Nicknames: Earth’s Mightiest Heroes

At one time or another, nearly every superhero in the Marvel Universe has served as an Avenger. The original team was organized when the Norse god Loki, stepbrother of Thor, uses his powers to gain control of the Hulk. The Hulk’s teenage friend, Rick Jones, urges Iron Man, Giant-Man, and the Wasp to assist Thor in overcoming this extraterrestrial threat. Once successful, the five heroes decide to create a team that can be called together to face any threat that no one hero could handle alone (Lee and Kirby, The Avengers #1, September 1963). Several months later, the Atlantean king, Namor, the Sub-Mariner, discovers the frozen form of the World War II hero Captain America. Released into the open ocean, he is soon found by the Avengers, who thaw him out, bringing him into the burgeoning

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Marvel Universe (Lee and Kirby, The Avengers #4, March 1964). Under the leadership of Captain America, the Avengers rally with the battle cry, “Avengers assemble!” Over the years, the official team roster has changed many times. This is often excused as certain team members needing a break from the stresses of being an Avenger. What separates them most from DC’s Justice League is that the Avengers have often offered a place where former villains could redeem themselves. Heroes such as Hawkeye, Black Widow, Swordsman, Scarlet Witch, and Quicksilver were all, at one time, villains. Early on, the heart of the team was established to be the trio of Captain America, Iron Man, and Thor. Their primary mission Cover for The Avengers #4 (March 1964), written was always to deal with threats by Stan Lee and drawn by Jack Kirby. In this that required a team effort to issue, Captain America is introduced into the overcome. The time-traveling new Marvel Comics Universe. (Marvel Comics Kang, the Conqueror, the mad Group/Photofest) titan Thanos, and the evil robot Ultron—the creation of Avenger Hank Pym—are frequent threats faced by the team. In the 1990s, the Avengers became embroiled in the X-Men’s “Onslaught” story line written by Mark Waid and Scott Lobdell. The villain—a physical manifestation of the psyches of the mutant villain Magneto and the X-Men’s leader, Professor Charles Xavier—gains power from contact with mutants, leaving his defeat to the nonmutant heroes: the Fantastic Four and the Avengers (Onslaught Marvel Universe #1, October 1996). The apparent deaths of the nonmutant heroes led to the multititle “Heroes Reborn” story line, finding the Avengers starting from the beginning in a pocket universe called “Counter Earth” (Rob Liefeld, Jim Valentino, and Chap Yaep, Avengers Vol. 2, #1, November 1996). Ultimately, the heroes would return to regular Marvel continuity in 1998. In 2002, as part of Marvel’s alternate-reality “Ultimate” universe story line and under the direction of the creative team of Mark Millar and Brian Hitch, the Avengers were reintroduced as “the Ultimates.” In this series, grittier, darker versions of the traditional Avengers were introduced. Captain America uses stronger language. Thor is presented as a hippie protester who may be insane for believing

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George Perez George Perez was born in 1954 in New York City and is considered one of the greatest artists in the history of superhero comics. Perez began working for Marvel Comics as a penciler in 1974. His debut as primary artist came with The Avengers #141 (November 1975), written by Steve Englehart. Perez’s most famous work has been on so-called “team” books, as he enjoys drawing as many different characters as possible. In 1980, Perez gained the distinction of working briefly for both Marvel and DC simultaneously when he was tagged by DC to draw their Teen Titans reboot, The New Teen Titans, written by Marv Wolfman, which quickly became one of DC’s strongest-selling books. In 1985, Perez teamed once more with Wolfman to produce the company’s 50th-anniversary special event: Crisis on Infinite Earths. This universe-altering mega-crossover event redefined the DC comics universe and became one of the most iconic contributions in the history of the genre. In 1987, Perez played an important role in creating the new, post–Crisis Wonder Woman, cementing his portrayal of the Amazonian princess as one of the most beloved in the character’s history. In the 1990s, Perez did work for several companies, including DC, Marvel, Gorilla, Malibu, and Topps, where he drew the artwork for the comics adaptation of the film Jurassic Park. A consistent favorite of both fans and comic book writers, Perez has had difficulty working with various editors. Overall, his work on Marvel’s Avengers and DC’s Wonder Woman have contributed more than perhaps any others in regard to how those characters are envisioned and imagined both inside and outside of the fan community. Richard A. Hall

himself to be the god of thunder. The Hulk is the product of a “super-soldier” experiment gone wrong, and the relationship between Giant-Man and Wasp is even more dysfunctional (Millar and Hitch, The Ultimates #1, March 2002). In 2004, in mainstream continuity and under the pen of Brian Michael Bendis, the Avengers were “disassembled.” With the Scarlet Witch under the influence of an entity known as the “Life Force,” Doctor Doom manipulates her to put a series of events in motion that kill several Avengers and turn the others against each other. Though many of the “deaths” would be proven false later, the impact on the team is deep, requiring time to recover. After Scarlet Witch is taken away by her father, the mutant Magneto, the team is left in disarray, its future uncertain (Bendis and David Finch, The Avengers #500–503, September–December 2004). The team has often come into conflict with both the federal government and SHIELD, both agencies feeling that the Avengers should be answerable to some authority. This became the core issue of the 2006–2007 Civil War storyline penned by Mark Millar and drawn by Steve McNiven. After a fight between a team of young heroes and an arsonist villain leads to a tragic accident causing hundreds of civilian casualties, the federal government concludes that all heroes (which means all Avengers) must register with the government and be officially trained as law enforcement agents. The team is split down the middle, with Iron Man and Yellowjacket (a.k.a. Giant-Man/Ant-Man) on the side of registration, and Captain America leading the heroes in favor of maintaining their autonomy (Civil War #1, May 2006).

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Outside of comics, the Avengers have appeared—as a team—in three animated series from the mid-1990s to 2017. They also represent the core of the Marvel Cinematic Universe franchise debuting in the 2012 film Marvel’s The Avengers, directed by Joss Whedon, after the key members were established in their own, individual film adventures. The success of the film led to successive appearances in Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015, directed by Whedon) as well as Captain America: Civil War (2016) and Avengers: Infinity War (2018), both directed by Anthony and Joe Russo. With connections to essentially every other Marvel title, the Avengers concept represents the heart of both the Marvel Comics and Cinematic Universes. Richard A. Hall See also: Ant-Man/Giant-Man/Yellowjacket, Black Panther, Black Widow, Captain America: Comics, Captain America: Other Media, Cloak and Dagger, Doctor Strange, Hulk, Iron Man, Luke Cage/Power Man, Ms. Marvel, Nick Fury/SHIELD, Scarlet Witch/ Quicksilver/Vision, She-Hulk, Spider-Man: Comics, Spider-Man: Other Media, SpiderWoman, Thor, Wolverine, X-Men: Comics, X-Men: Rogues’ Gallery; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. Costello, Matthew J. 2009. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books and the Unmasking of Cold War America. New York: Continuum Press. Evanier, Mark. 2008. Kirby: King of Comics. New York: Abrams Press. Lee, Stan, Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Morrison, Grant. 2011. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Masked Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Moulton, Jeffery. 2012. The Superhero Response: How 9/11 Changed Our Superheroes and Why It Matters. Self-Published. Raphael, Jordan, and Tom Spurgeon. 2003. Stan Lee and the Rise and Fall of the American Comic Book. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. White, Mark D., ed. 2012. The Avengers and Philosophy: Earth’s Mightiest Thinkers. New York: Wiley Press.

B Batgirl/Oracle First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

AS BATGIRL: Detective Comics #359 (cover date: January 1967) AS ORACLE: Suicide Squad #23 (cover date: ­January 1989) BATGIRL: Gardner Fox and Carmine Infantino ORACLE: John Ostrander, Kim Yale, and Luke McDonnell DC Comics Expert acrobatics and hand-to-hand combat, gifted intellect, computer expert Various gadgets Gotham City Batman, Robin/Nightwing, Black Canary, Commissioner Gordon Joker, Mirror Birds of Prey Barbara Gordon (though others have used the name “Batgirl”) N/A

The first character to don the mantle of Batgirl (or, in this case, Bat-Girl) was Betty Kane, niece and sidekick to Kathy Kane’s Batwoman. Created by Bill Finger and Sheldon Moldoff, the Betty Kane Bat-Girl was designed primarily to be a love interest for Robin, the Boy Wonder, as an attempt to allay suspicions that Robin and Batman were involved in a homosexual relationship (Finger and Moldoff, Batman #139, April 1961). The character was discontinued in 1964 when DC Comics Editor Julius Schwartz took over the Batman titles and felt that the “Batman family” concept wasn’t working. The iconic Batgirl, Barbara Gordon, came about in large part due to the popularity of the Batman television series (1966–1968) on ABC-TV. When producer William Dozier approached Schwartz for a female character who could act as a partner to the Dynamic Duo, Gardner Fox and Carmine Infantino created the character that most people think of as Batgirl. The daughter of Gotham City police commissioner James Gordon, Barbara had just completed her PhD (presumably in library studies, though it is never fully defined), and has returned to Gotham to

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Yvonne Craig portrayed Barbara Gordon/Batgirl in the third and final season of the live-action ABC television series Batman (1966−1968). In this image, Batgirl heads into battle aboard her iconic Batgirl Cycle. (20th Century-Fox Television/Photofest)

work in the public library. On her way to a policeman’s costume ball dressed in a feminized version of Batman’s iconic costume (as a nod to her father’s support of the hero), Barbara stumbles across the villain Killer Moth and his henchmen as they attempt to kidnap millionaire Bruce Wayne (who, of course, she does not know is Batman). After using her own ballet and self-defense skills to rescue Wayne, Barbara decides to continue as a masked crime fighter (Fox and Infantino, Detective Comics #359, January 1967). Though at first seemingly supportive of Batgirl’s assistance, Batman (and even the young Robin) frequently suggest that she should leave crime fighting to the men. Batgirl continues both in adventures with Batman and Robin and her own solo adventures in the pages of Detective Comics—and featured later in Batman Family—through the 1970s. A fascinating aspect of the first decade of Batgirl adventures is that, despite Batman being the “World’s Greatest Detective,” neither he nor Robin ever discover her identity (despite knowing Barbara as well). In fact, the only person who does figure out her dual identity is her father, Police Commissioner James Gordon, a subtle but touching nod to a father’s support of his “New Woman” daughter (Frank Robbins and Don Heck, Detective Comics #422, April 1972). In these 1970s adventures, Barbara Gordon becomes a U.S. congresswoman, again an iconic representation of the times. Throughout the 1980s, Batgirl was rarely seen in the pages of the Batman titles. In 1988, Barbara Kesel and Barry Kitson tell “The Last Batgirl Story,” at the end of which Batgirl informs Batman (who, inexplicably, is now aware of her alter

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Gail Simone Prolific author Gail Simone began her career in 1999 when, inspired by conversations with fellow comics fans about the gender dynamics of some of their favorite series, she initiated a blog entitled Women in Refrigerators. Taking its title from Green Lantern #54, in which the hero finds his girlfriend brutally murdered and stuffed into a refrigerator, Simone critiqued the practice of including female characters in comics solely for the purpose of advancing a hero’s story line and subjecting women to various horrific forms of rape, torture, murder, and depowering rather than giving them any substantial story lines of their own. Some of the authors she critiqued responded to her on the Web site, providing an often contentious exchange on gender in comic books. The recognition that Simone received from Women in Refrigerators led to her first professional writing jobs, including those with Bongo Comics for The Simpsons cartoon strips. Simone entered the world of writing comic books in 2002 with Marvel’s Deadpool, continuing in 2003 as the series was transformed into the short-lived Agent X. In 2004, she moved to DC Comics and turned her hand to several different series, including Villains United, The Secret Six, and Welcome to Tranquility. Her Birds of Prey (August 2003–July 2007) is widely praised for its all-female superheroes, complex characters, and use of humor. Simone took over the reins of Wonder Woman in 2008 and eventually became its longest-serving female writer. Published interviews highlight her desire to bring together the many different versions of Wonder Woman into a coherent narrative to honor the fans’ desire for clarity. Simone has also written for both Batgirl and Red Sonja, continuing her tradition of writing complex, interesting female characters with plot lines of their own—ones that attract female readers as well as male. Deborah L. Blackwell

ego) that she is retiring from crime fighting (Batgirl Special #1, May 1988). Two months later, Alan Moore and Brian Bolland produced the classic graphic novel Batman: the Killing Joke. Designed as an origin story for the mysterious supervillain the Joker, its crux was his plot to prove that anyone could be pushed to insanity with just “one bad day.” In it, the Joker shoots and paralyzes Barbara Gordon, kidnaps her father, and—having stripped the commissioner naked and forced him into an abandoned fun house ride—forces him to observe photographs of his wounded, bleeding daughter (Batman: The Killing Joke, July 1988). The story laid the groundwork for the next 23 years of Barbara Gordon adventures. The following year, Barbara Gordon emerges with a new alter ego, “Oracle,” a brilliant computer hacker (long before even the concept of the Internet was popularly known) who assists the drafted-criminal supergroup the Suicide Squad (Ostrander, Yale, and McDonnell, Suicide Squad #23, January 1989). Oracle would go on to use her computer abilities to assist the Justice League as well, but her primary ally would continue to be Batman. In 1996, writer Chuck Dixon teamed Oracle with Black Canary in Black Canary/Oracle: Birds of Prey. This would lead to an ongoing series (Dixon and Greg Land, Birds of Prey #1, January 1999). Oracle would become a central character in the 1999 story line “No Man’s Land,” where Gotham City—having been devastated by an earthquake—is cut off from the rest of the country, and Batman is mysteriously absent (trapped by the earthquake in the Batcave). It was during the “No Man’s Land” story that a new Batgirl emerged: Helena Bertinelli, previously known as “the Huntress” (Greg Rucka and Mike Deodato

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Jr., Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight #120, August 1999). In that same issue, Bertinelli passes the mantle of Batgirl to Cassandra Cain, who will go on to feature in the first monthly Batgirl comic book in 2000. In 2011, as part of the “New 52” reboot of the DC Comics Universe, writer Gail Simone brought Barbara Gordon back to her Batgirl persona, retconning her story to reveal that, after only a few years of paralysis, Barbara underwent experimental surgery to regain use of her legs (Simone and Adrian Syaf, Batgirl vol. 4, #1, November 2011). The decision was a controversial one, as the Oracle character had been highly regarded for decades for presenting a strong hero with a physical disability. Batgirl has been very present in Batman adventures outside of comics, beginning with her debut in the Batman live-action series’ third season (1967–1968). Portrayed by Yvonne Craig, Barbara Gordon/Batgirl was the first female character on television to be presented as a strong hero equal to her male counterparts. As in her comics incarnation at the time, neither Batman nor Robin (or even her father) ever discovered her true identity. The Barbara/Batgirl character also appeared in every animated incarnation of Batman from the late 1960s to the early 2000s, most notably in the renowned Batman: The Animated Series of the 1990s. In 1999, under the creative team of Paul Dini and Bruce Timm, Barbara Gordon returned as a much older woman in the futuristic series Batman Beyond, where she served as the new Police Commissioner Gordon, aiding the new “Batman” and the retired Bruce Wayne in their continued war on crime. Batgirl/Barbara played a more prominent role in the 2016 animated film Batman: The Killing Joke than she did in the original graphic novel on which the film was based. In the comic, her only involvement in the story was when Barbara, retired as Batgirl, is shot and paralyzed by the Joker. In the film, this story is preceded by Batgirl’s last case, involving an up-and-coming crime boss who becomes romantically obsessed with her, leading to her decision to retire. The film was controversial for its R rating and a love scene between Batgirl and Batman. The Barbara Gordon version of Batgirl—the only one widely known in the zeitgeist—has been a subject of considerable attention from academics. From her early days representing the Women’s Lib Movement to her run as a symbol for the disabled, she has remained one of DC Comics’ most popular characters. She has been dramatically de-aged over the years: in comics, she has gone from her beginnings as a woman in her late twenties to a college student a decade younger, while in animated form, she has gone from her midtwenties in the 1970s to being a high school student in 2005’s The Batman (except in one episode set in the future, where she is the wheelchair-bound Oracle) and 2015’s DC Super Hero Girls. She continues to be a popular role model for superhero fans everywhere. Richard A. Hall See also: Batman: Comics, Batman: Other Media, Batwoman, Black Canary, Joker, Nightwing/Robin I Suicide Squad; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages: The 1970s and 1980s—The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Beard, Jim, ed. 2010. Gotham City 14 Miles: 14 Essays on Why the 1960s Batman TV Series Matters. Edwardsville, IL: Sequart Research and Literacy Organization.



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Cocca, Carolyn. 2016. Superwomen: Gender, Power, and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury Press. Craig, Yvonne. 2000. From Ballet to the Batcave and Beyond. New York: Kudu Press. Frankel, Valerie Estelle. 2017. Superheroines and the Epic Journey: Mythic Themes in Comics, Film and Television. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Madrid, Mike. 2009. The Supergirls: Fashion, Feminism, Fantasy, and the History of Comic Book Heroines. Minneapolis, MN: Exterminating Angel Press. Nicholson, Hope. 2017. The Spectacular Sisterhood of Superwomen: Awesome Female Characters from Comic Book History. Philadelphia: Quirk Press. Schwartz, Julius, with Brian M. Thomsen. 2000. Man of Two Worlds: My Life in Science Fiction and Comics. New York: Harper Entertainment. Stuller, Jennifer K. 2010. Ink-Stained Amazons and Cinematic Warriors: Superwomen in Modern Mythology. London: L. B. Tauris. Weldon, Glen. 2016. The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Batman: Comics

First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies:

Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Detective Comics #27 (cover date: May 1939) Bill Finger and Bob Kane DC Comics Expert in hand-to-hand combat, martial arts/ Genius intellect Various gadgets Gotham City Robin I/Nightwing, Robin II/Red Hood, Robin III/ Red Robin, Robin IV, Robin/Carrie Kelley (alternate universe), Batgirl, Batwoman I and II, Superman, Alfred Pennyworth, Commissioner Gordon, Catwoman, Lucius Fox, Huntress Joker, Penguin, Riddler, Catwoman, Scarecrow, Mr. Freeze, Clayface, Two-Face, the Court of Owls, Bane, Ra’s al Ghul, Man-Bat Justice League Bruce Wayne The Dark Knight Detective, the Caped Crusader, the World’s Greatest Detective, the Dynamic Duo (with Robin)

Batman stands—along with Superman—as one of the most enduring and iconic superheroes. Though cocreated by Bob Kane and Bill Finger, Kane managed to capture sole recognition for years. Most comic book researchers now popularly consider Finger’s contribution to encompass the majority of what is most

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recognizable about the character, from his costume to many details surrounding his early years. First introduced in the popular anthology series Detective Comics, Batman immediately took over as the featured story of that title as well as gaining his own title the following year. Batman is secretly billionaire Bruce Wayne, who witnessed the murders of his parents as the result of simple street crime while he was still very young. The child Wayne then dedicates his life to fighting crime, spending the next 10 years honing his physical and mental skills and finally deciding to don the costume of a bat in order to scare the criminals he would face, based on his conclusion that criminals are a “superCover for Detective Comics #27 (May 1939), with cover art by Bob Kane. This issue debuted “The stitious, cowardly lot” (Finger Batman” with his first case, “The Case of the Chem- and Kane, Detective Comics ical Syndicate,” written by Bill Finger and drawn by #33, November 1939). Bob Kane. (PA Images/Alamy Stock Photo) Facing concerns that Batman was too dark a figure for comics’ young audiences, the character was the first to receive a kid sidekick: Robin the Boy Wonder, whose civilian guise was Dick Grayson, Bruce Wayne’s ward (Finger and Kane, Detective Comics #38, April 1940). That same year, Batman also gained comics’ first “supervillain,” the Joker, created by Jerry Robinson (Finger and Kane, Batman #1, Spring 1940). It was around the same time that Batman and Robin appeared in World’s Best Comics (April 1941); this special costarred DC’s other big name, Superman—in essence creating what would become known as the DC Comics Universe. The popularity of the idea soon led to the continued teamup of the Dark Knight and the Man of Steel in the ongoing title World’s Finest Comics. By this time, Batman had gained other allies in his war on crime: Police Commissioner James Gordon and Wayne’s butler, Alfred Pennyworth. In his 1954 book Seduction of the Innocent, German psychologist Fredric Wertham suggested that the duo of Batman and Robin promoted a gay lifestyle (ignoring the fact that if a physical relationship did exist between the two fictional characters, it would actually represent pedophilia, not homosexuality). This accusation, appearing as it did during the ultraconservative 1950s, led DC Comics to introduce two female characters—Batwoman and, later, Bat-Girl (not to be confused with the 1966 Barbara Gordon character of the same name) as de facto “girlfriends” of the Dynamic Duo. These characters, along with “Ace, the Bat-Hound,”



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Bob Kane and Bill Finger Bob Kane (1915–1998) and Bill Finger (1914–1974) were the cocreators of Batman. Kane was from New York City and Finger from Denver, Colorado. After the success of Superman, DC Comics wanted more “superheroes.” Kane suggested an idea for a character whom he originally called “the Bat-Man.” His early drawings suggest a strong influence by Superman. After collaborating with shoe salesman-turned-writer Bill Finger, the character began to develop. Most today associate the primary tropes of Batman—the serrated, bat-wing cape, the bat-eared cowl, the alter ego of Bruce Wayne, and even the character’s more scientific approach to crime fighting—primarily to Finger. Despite this, Kane’s contract with DC gave him sole byline for the character. Their collaboration debuted in Detective Comics #27 (May 1939). Finger is also often associated with the creation of Green Lantern in 1940. Both men worked together on Detective Comics as well as other Batman titles and stories into the 1950s. In 1946, Kane renegotiated his contract by convincing DC that he had been a minor when the original contract was signed, which was untrue. Finger continued to write Batman (and Superman) stories for DC into the 1960s. Kane continued to produce artwork for the Batman titles into the mid-1960s, usually outsourcing the work to the various artists who worked for his private studio. In 1989—the 50th anniversary of Batman and 15 years after Finger’s death—Kane published his autobiography, Batman and Me, and worked as a consultant on the feature film Batman, directed by Tim Burton. Kane would consult on two more Batman films and write a second volume to his autobiography before his death in 1998. It was not until 2015 that DC began to officially acknowledge Finger as a cocreator of Batman. Richard A. Hall

were meant to give the appearance of a “Bat-Family” to assuage any fears concerning the sexuality of Batman and Robin. In the late 1960s, due to lagging sales after the cancellation of the campy Batman television series, the Batman titles were given to the creative team of Dennis (“Denny”) O’Neil and Neal Adams. The two brought the character back to his original Depression-era roots: a dark avenger of the night. Allowing Dick Grayson to grow up and go to college, O’Neil and Adams’s new, darker, lone Dark Knight confronted new threats Ra’s al Ghul and Man-Bat. In 1983, Batman was given a new sidekick: Jason Todd, who would become the second Robin (Gerry Conway and Don Newton, Batman #357, March 1983). Todd officially became Robin months later when original Robin, Dick Grayson, gave up the mantle in exchange for the new moniker Nightwing (Dough Moench and Don Newton, Batman #368, February 1984). The new Robin, however, was not popular with fans. As such, DC Comics chose to allow fans to decide his fate in the story line “A Death in the Family” (Batman #426–429, December 1988–February 1989). Readers were given a 1-800 number to call and decide whether Todd would live or die at the hands of the Joker. By fewer than 100 votes, readers chose death. In 1986, writer-artist Frank Miller redefined the comics genre—along with Alan Moore’s Watchmen that same year—in the classic alternate-reality miniseries Batman: The Dark Knight Returns (February–June 1986). Set in a dystopian near future, Bruce Wayne, now in his midfifties, has been retired from his Batman persona for a decade. The growing threat of a violent street gang known as “the Mutants” inspires Wayne to don the cape and cowl again. In the four-issue series, this older, grittier,

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more violent Batman takes on not only the young Mutants but also former nemeses Two-Face and Joker before a final confrontation with former ally Superman, whom the government sends to stop Wayne’s revived vigilantism. The Dark Knight Returns caught the attention of mainstream literary critics and gained considerable respect for the decades-old genre. Miller would follow up this success with another four-part story line: “Batman: Year One,” providing more detail to Batman’s origin story (Batman #404–407, February–May 1987). The following year, writer Alan Moore and Brian Bolland published the one-shot story Batman: The Killing Joke (July 1988). This story finally gave an origin to the Joker as well as disabling Barbara Gordon, forcing her to continue her fight against crime as the wheelchair-bound computer hacker Oracle. In 1989, the young character Tim Drake emerged as the third Robin (Batman #442, December 1989). Since the late 1980s, Batman comics have consistently been among the highest selling in the industry. By the mid-1990s, there were three additional monthly Batman titles: Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight (beginning in 1989), Batman: Shadow of the Bat, and The Batman Adventures (both beginning in 1992, with the latter inspired by the popular Batman: The Animated Series on television). In 1993, the story line “Knightfall” began in Batman #492. This story line saw the rise of the criminal mastermind Bane, a masked Colombian criminal whose musculature was enhanced by the serum known only as “venom.” Bane releases all of Batman’s nemeses from prison and Arkham Asylum, forcing the Dark Knight to work 24/7 to recapture them. Once Batman is physically and mentally exhausted, Bane fights him and breaks the Caped Crusader’s back, seemingly ending his crime-fighting career (Doug Moench and Jim Aparo, Batman #497, July 1993). Beginning in October of that year, Wayne chose a replacement Batman, but rather than longtime sidekick Dick Grayson, he instead picked a mentally unstable former assassin known as Azrael. The “Knightquest” story line would see a very different, more violent Batman (Moench and Aparo, Batman #500, October 1993). This radical departure from traditional Batman stories ran congruently with the “Death of Superman/Reign of the Supermen” story line in the pages of the Superman magazines, representing the type of sales gimmicks that symbolized the collapse of the collectors’ bubble of the early 1990s. The year 1996 saw four more iconic story lines. In the company crossover event “DC versus Marvel,” the two publishers pitted their most recognizable heroes against each other, eventually merging the two universes temporarily to explore “amalgams” of their characters. DC’s Batman was merged with Marvel’s Wolverine to create the hero “Dark Claw,” secretly known as Logan Wayne (Ron Marz, Dan Jurgens, and Claudio Castellini, Marvel Versus DC #3, April 1996). A few months later, writer Mark Waid and artist Alex Ross published their iconic miniseries Kingdom Come, which saw yet another dystopian future where Superman has retired, a new generation of more violent heroes has taken up the war on crime, and an elderly Bruce Wayne has implemented de facto martial law in Gotham City, operating an army of Bat-Bots from his Batcave (Kingdom Come #1, July 1996). The year ended with the first issue of Batman: The Long Halloween by the creative team of Jeph Loeb and Tim Sale. Running for 13 issues, the story covered an early yearlong investigation into the so-called “Holiday Killer,” which would see Batman develop his relationships with Commissioner Gordon and Gotham district attorney Harvey Dent.



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The story line, “Cataclysm,” ran through all Batman and Batman-related titles for the first few months of 1998. In it, Gotham City is hit with a magnitude 7.6 earthquake trapping Batman in the Batcave for its first half (beginning with Batman: Shadow of the Bat #73, April 1998). This story line would be immediately followed by the “No Man’s Land” arc that would also run through all Bat-titles for the next year. In the aftermath of the contagion and the earthquake, the federal government elects to cut Gotham City from the United States, as it is too devastated to revive. The people of Gotham are allowed to leave before the city is sealed off from the rest of the country. Since the quake devastated the prison and Arkham, the supervillains carve up the remains of the city, dividing it into spheres of influence. Since many Gothamites have nowhere else to go and therefore stay in the city, Commissioner Gordon and the GCPD stay to restore law and order. With Batman still out of sight, the police are on their own for months (beginning with Batman: No Man’s Land #1, March 1999). The dark, psychologically disturbed nature of Batman requires some manner of emotional grounding, or else the character runs the danger of crossing the line to become more like the Punisher. That grounding is effected through his surrounding “family”: the various Robins; his butler, Alfred; and his ally, Commissioner Gordon. For 80 years, Batman has been a staple in American popular culture, crossing over into all entertainment media. Portrayals of the Caped Crusader have run the gamut from campy to gritty. Through it all, his popularity has endured. Though much has been written academically on the Dark Knight, his continuing popularity and influence on American culture will doubtless keep the door open for many more analyses to come. Richard A. Hall See also: Batgirl/Oracle, Batman: Other Media, Batman: Rogues’ Gallery, Batwoman, Green Hornet, Joker, Justice League, Nightwing/Robin I, Red Hood/Robin II, Robin/ Robin III, Robin/Robin IV, The Shadow, Superman: Comics, Superman: Other Media, Watchmen; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

DiPaolo, Marc. 2011. War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Feiffer, Jules. (1965) 2003. The Great Comic Book Heroes. Seattle: Fantagraphics Books. Fingeroth, Danny. 2007. Superman on the Couch: What Superheroes Really Tell Us about Ourselves and Our Society. New York: Continuum Press. Langley, Travis. 2012. Batman and Psychology: A Dark and Stormy Knight. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Morris, Tom, and Matt Morris, eds. 2005. Superheroes and Philosophy: Truth, Justice, and the Socratic War. Pop Culture and Philosophy Series, edited by William Irwin. Chicago: Open Court Press. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Wandtke, Terrence R. 2007. “Frank Miller Strikes Again and Batman Becomes a Postmodern Anti-Hero: The Tragi(Comic) Reformation of the Dark Knight.” In The

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Amazing Transforming Superhero!: Essays on the Revision of Characters in Comic Books, Film and Television, edited by Terrence R. Wandtke, 87–11. Jefferson: NC: McFarland & Company. Weldon, Glen. 2016. The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture. New York: Simon and Schuster. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Batman: Other Media First Appearance: Creators: Producers: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies:

Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Detective Comics #27 (cover date: May 1939) Bill Finger and Bob Kane Columbia Pictures, 20th Century Fox Television, Warner Bros./Warner Bros. Television/Warner Animation/Warner Home Video Expert in hand-to-hand combat/Martial arts/Genius intellect Various gadgets Gotham City Robin I/Nightwing, Robin II/Red Hood, Robin III/ Red Robin, Robin IV, Robin/Carrie Kelley (alternate universe), Batgirl, Batwoman (II), Superman, Alfred Pennyworth, Commissioner Gordon, Catwoman, Lucius Fox Dr. Daka, Joker, Penguin, Riddler, Catwoman, Scarecrow, Mr. Freeze, Clayface, Two-Face, the Court of Owls, Bane, Ra’s al Ghul, Man-Bat Justice League Bruce Wayne, Terry McGinnis (“Batman Beyond”) The Dark Knight Detective, the Caped Crusader, the World’s Greatest Detective, the Dynamic Duo (with Robin)

Other than perhaps Superman, no superhero has been more visible outside of comics than Batman. This is due not only to the enduring popularity of the character but also to the fact that as Batman possesses no superhuman abilities requiring complicated special effects, the character’s adventures are easier to produce in a video format. Throughout the long-running radio program The Adventures of Superman (1940–1951), Batman (and Robin) featured in annual adventures—­ providing much-needed vacation time to the Superman cast—and was played by three actors over the decade: Matt Crowley, Stacy Harris, and Gary Merrill. Like many comic book heroes of the 1940s, Batman was featured in two popular movie serials. The first, The Batman, was in 1943 and starred Lewis Wilson as the Caped



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Crusader. The second, Batman and Robin (1949), starred Robert Lowery. In 1965, the original serial was rereleased in theaters as a feature-length film called An Evening with Batman and Robin. The popularity of this release is said to be a contributing factor in ABC-TV’s decision to produce a color, live-action series around the character. William Dozier and Lorenzo Semple Jr. produced the revered Batman television series from 1966 to 1968 for ABC-TV. Starring Adam West as Batman and Burt Ward as Robin, the Boy Wonder, the series—one of the first to be filmed in color—was an immediate pop culture phenomenon with its bright colors, odd camera angles, and campy style. A theatrical film was also produced using the TV cast in 1966, primarily as a way of selling the series to overseas markets. Many die-hard Batman fans have derided the series for its comedic take on the character, but a closer analysis of the series shows that the episodes were written, directed, and acted in such a way as to be comedic to adult viewers while simultaneously reading as deeply dramatic to younger ones. The enduring popularity of this series led to the production, 50 years later, of two animated home video releases: Batman: Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) and Batman vs. Two-Face (2017). Both featured the return of West and Ward in their original roles as well as Julie Newmar in her original role as Catwoman. In 1989, after more than a decade of diligent work, producer and lifelong Batman fan Michael Uslan succeeded in bringing the Dark Knight to the big screen with Batman, directed by Tim Burton. A huge success both critically and commercially, the film cemented Batman in popular culture ever since, with Uslan continuing to produce every live-action and animated project. After a second successful Burton film, Batman Returns (1992), also starring Michael Keaton as the title character, a third film, Batman Forever (1995), which was directed by Joel Schumacher, starred Val Kilmer as Batman. The fourth film of the series, Batman and Robin (1997), again directed by Schumacher but this time starring George Clooney, was panned by critics and fans alike, seemingly killing the franchise. In 2005, director Chris Nolan rebooted the franchise with Batman Begins, launching a wildly successful trilogy of films starring Christian Bale. The second in the series, The Dark Knight (2008), even won a posthumous Best Supporting Actor Oscar for Heath Ledger for his performance as the Joker. The third film, The Dark Knight Rises (2012), though financially successful, was widely seen as a failure by both fans and critics. Batman would return to the big screen in the 2016 film Batman v. Superman: Dawn of Justice, with Ben Affleck in the role of Batman—a role he would revisit in the films Suicide Squad (2016) and, more prominently, Justice League (2017) before pursuing solo films for the character. Since the late 1960s, Batman has appeared in numerous animated series: The Adventures of Batman (1968–1969), The New Adventures of Batman (1977–78), Batman: The Animated Series (1992–1999, with some title changes), The Batman (2004–2008), and Batman: The Brave and the Bold (2008–2011). He has also appeared along with the Justice League in the animated series Super Friends (1973–1986, with some title changes), Justice League (2001–2004), and Justice League Unlimited (2004–2006). Perhaps his most interesting animated appearance, however, was in the short-lived series Batman Beyond (1999–2001), with

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Adam West and Burt Ward portrayed Batman and Robin in the live-action ABC television series Batman (1966−1968). In this image, the Dynamic Duo head into action in their iconic Batmobile. (Yale Joel/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images)

Kevin Conroy reprising his beloved voice role from Batman: The Animated Series. This series, set decades in the future, saw an elderly Bruce Wayne, long retired from his role as Batman, taking on a de facto apprentice in the form of teenager Terry McGinnis (voiced by Will Friedle) and training him to be a new Batman for a new generation. Former Batgirl Barbara Gordon now maintained her father’s mantle as Gotham City police commissioner and ally to the new Batman. Additionally, Batman has appeared in numerous home video animated films from DC/Warner Bros., most controversially in the 2000 film Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker, which showed that the third Robin, Tim Drake, had been tortured by the Joker, eventually becoming an embodiment of the criminal decades later. FOX-TV aired the live-action series Gotham (2014–2019), which was focused on a young Detective James Gordon (played by Ben McKenzie) and an even younger Bruce Wayne (played by David Mazouz) in the immediate wake of his parents’ murders. The series spotlights the emergence of popular Bat-criminals Penguin, Riddler, and Catwoman as well as Wayne’s own growing calling to fight crime as a vigilante. Popular among Batman fans, the series—like Batman Beyond—shows the malleability of the character and the seemingly endless means by which Batman stories can be told. The enduring popularity, and profitability, of the character all but ensures his continued appearance on the big and small screens. Richard A. Hall



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See also: Batgirl/Oracle, Batman: Comics, Batman: Rogues’ Gallery, Green Hornet, Harley Quinn, Joker, Justice League, Nightwing/Robin I, Red Hood/Robin II, Red Robin/ Robin III, Robin/Robin IV, Suicide Squad, Superman: Other Media; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

Beard, Jim, ed. 2010. Gotham City 14 Miles: 14 Essays on Why the 1960s Batman TV Series Matters. Edwardsville, IL: Sequart Research and Literacy Organization. Uslan, Michael. 2011. The Boy Who Loved Batman: A Memoir. New York: Chronicle Books. Weldon, Glen. 2016. The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture. New York: Simon and Schuster. West, Adam, and Jeff Rovin. 1994. Back to the Batcave. Berkeley: Berkeley Trade Paperbacks.

Batman: Rogues’ Gallery

Villain Joker

First Appearance

Batman #1 (Spring 1940) Catwoman Batman #1 (Spring 1940) Scarecrow World’s Finest Comics #3 (September 1941) Penguin Detective Comics #58 (December 1941) Two-Face Detective Comics #66 (August 1942) Riddler Detective Comics #140 (October 1948) Mr. Freeze Batman #121 (February 1959) Poison Ivy Batman #181 (June 1966) Man-Bat Detective Comics #400 (June 1970) Ra’s al Batman #232 Ghul (June 1971)

Creators

Secret Identity

Bill Finger, Jerry UNKNOWN Robinson Finger and Bob Kane Selena Kyle Finger and Kane

Jonathan Crane

Finger and Kane

Oswald Cobblepot

Finger and Kane

Harvey Dent

Finger and Dick Sprang Finger and Sheldon Moldoff Rob Kanigher and Moldoff Frank Robbins, Neal Adams Denny O’Neil and Adams

Edward Nygma Victor Fries Pam Isley Kirk Langstrom Ra’s al Ghul

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Villain

First Appearance

Creators

Bane

Batman: Vengeance of Bane #1 (January 1993) Batman vol. 2, #3 (October 2011)

Chuck Dixon, UNKNOWN Graham Nolan and Doug Moench Scott Snyder and VARIOUS Greg Capullo

Court of Owls

Publisher: Base of Operations: Key Enemies:

Secret Identity

DC Comics Gotham City Batman, Robin, Nightwing, Red Robin, Red Hood, Batgirl, Batwoman, Commissioner Gordon

The concept of the “supervillain” originated in the pages of Batman comics. Over the decades, Batman has accumulated a vast array of villains to face, only the most notable of which appear in this entry. If the hero is truly defined by the villains he or she faces, then Batman’s rogues’ gallery certainly explains why Batman is one of the most complex and popular heroes in comic book literature. Batman’s array of villains have even become popular to audiences outside of comics, due in no small part to their complexity and variety. In 1940, in the first issue of Batman’s own self-titled comic, readers were introduced to both the Joker and Catwoman. Originally known as “the Cat,” Selena Kyle was, in essence, a simple cat burglar. Over the decades—and appearing in all Batman-related media—Catwoman has been villain, hero, and even love interest to the Caped Crusader. In the “Batman: Year One” story line (and eventual animated DVD feature), Kyle was shown to have originally been a prostitute in Gotham City, inspired to don her catlike costume by the new bat-clad vigilante (Frank Miller and Dave Mazzucchelli, Batman #404–407, February–May 1987). One of Batman’s more fearsome villains, Scarecrow, originated in 1941. Weak and feeble Jonathan Crane was constantly bullied as a child (eventually retconned as bullied by his own father). When he grew up, he became a professor of chemistry, devising a fear toxin that would incapacitate individuals or entire groups of people, including Batman (World’s Finest Comics #3, September 1941). Scarecrow would soon be followed by the Penguin. Oswald Cobblepot, with his rotund shape, beaked nose, tuxedoed appearance, and trick umbrellas soon became one of the more comedic of the Batman villains. Best known for organizing crimes around fowl-related targets, Penguin eventually emerged as one of Gotham City’s more powerful crime bosses. One of Batman’s more sympathetic villains was Two-Face. Two-Face began as Gotham district attorney Harvey Dent, who was scarred by an acid attack from a local gangster on trial; this deformed half of Dent’s face. The traumatic event created the dual personality of “Two-Face,” causing Dent to leave good-versus-bad decisions to the flip of a double-headed coin that was scarred on one side. Origin­ ally it was decided that the character was too dark for Golden Age tales, and the



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character disappeared from the pages of comics until the 1970s, when Denny O’Neil and Neal Adams brought the character back as part of their darker, grittier take on the Dark Knight. The last major Bat-villain to be introduced in the Golden Age was the Riddler. Edward Nygma (“e-nygma”), clad in green-and-purple tights emblazoned with question marks, was obsessed with riddles and puzzles and equally obsessed with confounding the “World’s Greatest Detective.” The first major villain to be introduced in the Silver Age of comics was Mr. Freeze. Accidentally poisoning himself with chemicals while producing an ice gun, Victor Fries was later turned into a sympathetic villain in an Emmy-­nominated ­episode of Batman: The Animated Series in the 1990s, where it was discovered that his accident had actually occurred while he searched for a cure for his dying wife, whom he’d cryogenically frozen. His uncontrollable grief led him to a life of crime to fund his experiments. Another Silver Age villain was Poison Ivy, whose obsession with plants—and later environmentalism in general—led her to a life of crime, relying heavily on her own mind-control toxin that would later be transmitted through her lipstick. The 1970s introduced two more fascinating characters. Man-Bat was the result of the experiments of Dr. Kirk Langstrom, an obsessed fan of Batman. Similar in many ways to the Spider-Man villain the Lizard, Langstrom transforms into a lifesize bat, losing his mental faculties while in his bat-form. Conversely, Ra’s al Ghul has emerged as possibly Batman’s most intelligent adversary. Ra’s is centuries old due to his continual use of the “Lazarus Pit,” which not only rejuvenates his youth but also heals any ailments or wounds. Ra’s is the leader of an ancient and international organization that has been called both the “League of Assassins” and the “League of Shadows.” Ra’s knows that Batman is really Bruce Wayne and respectfully refers to him as “Detective.” Batman’s relationship with Ra’s’s daughter, Talia, would later produce his only child, Damian Wayne, a.k.a. (the fourth) Robin. Batman’s most daunting adversaries have emerged in recent decades. As part of the “Knightfall” story line, readers were introduced to Bane, a South American criminal mastermind who devises a plan to release all of Batman’s foes from Arkham Asylum to wear the Dark Knight down both physically and mentally before facing him himself, breaking Batman’s back, and forcing Bruce Wayne to turn the Batman identity over to the mentally unhinged former assassin Azrael (Doug Moench and Jim Aparo, Batman #497, July 1993). In 2011, as part of the “New 52” reboot, Batman encountered the Court of Owls, a secret organization of individuals who could trace their ancestry to Gotham’s origins. The Court has an army of ninja-like assassins at their disposal called Talons (Snyder and Capullo, Batman vol. 2, #3, October 2011). It soon becomes clear to Batman that the Court has been manipulating criminal events in Gotham for his entire career, dating back to the city’s founding. Over the decades, Batman has had many other recurring villains: Black Mask, Firefly, Dr. Hugo Strange, Solomon Grundy, the Ventriloquist, several “Clayfaces,” and Harley Quinn, to name but a few. Those discussed above represent the most archetypal and regularly occurring. All have appeared—to one degree or another— in the many Batman movies, cartoons, and television series over the years, most notably in the 2014–2019 FOX-TV series Gotham, which has gone to great lengths to

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reexamine the origins of such high-profile Bat-villains as Penguin, Riddler, and Catwoman (and, to a lesser degree, the Court of Owls). All have become historic in their own respective ways, and each has contributed to the continuing popularity of Batman both on and off the printed page. In all, they have helped to define and add depth to the World’s Greatest Detective. Richard A. Hall See also: Batman: Comics, Batman: Other Media, Harley Quinn, Joker, Nightwing/ Robin I, Red Hood/Robin II, Red Robin/Robin III, Robin/Robin IV, Suicide Squad; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

Dyer, Ben, ed. 2009. Supervillains and Philosophy: Sometimes, Evil Is Its Own Reward. Popular Culture and Philosophy Series. Chicago: Open Court Press. Heldenfels, Richard. 2019. “The Bat, The Cat . . . and The Eagle?: Irene Adler as Inspiration for Catwoman.” In The Dark Side: A Supervillain Reader, edited by Robert Peaslee and Rob Weiner. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press. Langley, Travis. 2012. Batman and Psychology: A Dark and Stormy Knight. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Peaslee, Robert, and Rob Weiner, eds. 2018. The Dark Side: A Supervillain Reader. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press. Weldon, Glen. 2016. The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture. New York: Simon and Schuster. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Batwoman

First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies:

Detective Comics #233 (cover date: July 1956) Edmond Hamilton and Sheldon Moldoff DC Comics N/A (modern incarnation: Military training) Various gadgets Gotham City Batman, Robin, Batgirl (original) Religion of Crime, Shadow Cabinet (modern incarnation only) Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: Kathy Kane/Kate Kane Nicknames: N/A

Batwoman 83

Batwoman debuted in the pages of Batman comics due in large part to the accusations of Dr. Fredric Wertham in his book Seduction of the Innocent (1954) that Batman and Robin represented a homosexual lifestyle. In order to save the popular character, DC Comics decided to give a love interest to the Caped Crusader. Ed Hamilton and Sheldon Moldoff (drawing the issue under the name of Batman creator Bob Kane) introduced Kathy Kane, a wealthy heiress who was obsessed with Batman. She dons a costume similar to Batman’s, only orange and yellow rather than his blue and gray, and begins to fight crime. Batman strongly urges Kane to give up crime fighting because it is no place for a woman, but Batwoman continues to appear in Batman comics until 1964 (Hamilton and Moldoff, Detective Comics #233, July 1956). Batman continues to treat Batwoman as a nuisance, often leaving her to clean the Batcave while he spends time with Robin. The goal of discrediting the homosexual allegations of Batman and Robin’s relationship therefore necessitated at least the appearance of a girlfriend for the Boy Wonder. In 1961, the first Bat-Girl, Kathy’s niece, Betty Kane (Moldoff and Finger, Batman #139, April 1961), finally gave the appearance of a “Batman family,” with Batman; Robin; their butler, Alfred; Batwoman; Bat-Girl; Ace the Bat-Hound; and the interdimensional magical imp Bat-Mite, often portrayed as a troublesome child. When DC editor Julius Schwartz was given the task of revamping the Batman books in 1964, his first move was to discontinue Batwoman and Bat-Girl.

Fredric Wertham/Comics Code Authority After World War II, growing concern about the influence that comic books had on America’s youth was led largely by Dr. Fredric Wertham (1895–1981), a German immigrant and noted psychiatrist who worked with juvenile delinquents. His crusade led the U.S. Senate to establish a Sub-Committee on Juvenile Delinquency in 1954. Chaired by Senators Robert Hendrickson (R-NJ) and Estes Kefauver (D-TN) and with Wertham as key witness, the committee’s primary target was EC Comics, which was headed by Bill Gaines, son of comic book pioneer Max Gaines. EC specialized in crime and horror comics such as Tales from the Crypt. Wertham and the Committee concluded that the graphic violence and sexuality of the EC Comics were, indeed, damaging to American children. In 1954, Wertham published his findings in the book Seduction of the Innocent. Aside from his criticisms of horror comics, Wertham went further to criticize popular superhero comic books. Wertham considered Superman a “fascist” and Wonder Woman an unsuitable role model for young girls, and he asserted that Batman and Robin promoted a homosexual lifestyle. Now under pressure from the public, the remaining comic book publishers came together to form the Comics Magazine Association, which then created the “Comics Code Authority,” an internal self-censoring organization tasked with enforcing wholesome material in comic books. Comics were henceforth prohibited from portraying werewolves, vampires, or anything connected to the occult. Likewise, heroes were required to promote the status quo, and crime always had to be presented in a negative light. The CCA would dominate the moral sphere of the medium for nearly 20 years, stifling creativity on the part of comic book writers and artists. It would remain officially in effect (though dramatically amended) until the early 21st century. Richard A. Hall

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Batwoman would still appear in the pages of World’s Finest Comics and Batman Family (fighting alongside the second Batgirl, Barbara Gordon) in the 1970s. In 1979, under the creative team of Dennis (“Denny”) O’Neil and Don Newton, Kathy Kane is murdered (Detective Comics #485, September 1979). In the 1985– 1986 event series Crisis on Infinite Earths (Marv Wolfman and George Perez), DC continuity is rewritten, erasing the original Bat-Girl from existence but keeping Kathy Kane (though without her Batwoman persona). Despite this retconning erasing the Batwoman persona, there are numerous mentions of both characters in the years that follow. In 2006, the villain Penguin refers to the newly introduced Kate Kane as the “new” Batwoman, possibly insinuating that there had been one previously (Paul Dini and Don Kramer, Detective Comics #824, December 2006). In the 2011 series Batman Incorporated, Grant Morrison reimagines Kathy Kane as Bruce Wayne’s aunt (married to Bruce Wayne’s mother’s brother) who fights crime and becomes romantically involved with Bruce. By this time, however, the modern Batwoman, Kate Kane, had been established. “Kate” Kane, the new Batwoman, was originally introduced in 52 #7 (August 2006) as the daughter of career-military parents. Unlike the original, dark-haired “Kathy” Kane, “Kate” has red hair and an extremely white pallor to her skin. After being dishonorably discharged from the U.S. Army due to a lesbian relationship while at West Point, Kate moves to Gotham City, putting her lifelong military training to use as the crime fighter Batwoman, an affiliation not sanctioned by the Dark Knight. Batwoman then became the first LGBTQ character to have her own ongoing comic title in 2011 (J. H. Williams III, Haden Blackman, and Amy Reeder, Batwoman #0, January 2011). She is soon joined by her young cousin Bette Kane, who dons the identity of Flamebird. A reluctant occasional ally of Batman’s, Batwoman worked primarily on her own in the “New 52” universe, with the exception of a crossover story line fighting alongside Wonder Woman. After the events of the “Rebirth” story line (in yet another relaunch of the DC titles), Batwoman works more closely with Batman, providing military training to the other members of the “Batman family” (James Tynion IV and Eddy Barrows, Detective Comics #934, August 2016). Kate Kane/Batwoman made her debut outside of the DC Comics universe in the 2016 animated feature Batman: Bad Blood, directed by Jay Oliva. Batwoman has had one of the more convoluted histories in the genre of comic book superheroes. While it is not unusual for different characters to bear the same superhero identity, Batwoman’s two alter egos have nearly identical secret identities named “Katherine Kane.” Originally used in the 1950s as a means of underscoring Batman’s heterosexuality, the character has emerged in the 21st century as the most prominent LGBTQ character in comic book history. This makes her particularly appealing for academic study. While her 1950s incarnation represents ideas of womanhood during that time, her 21st-century persona does the same for women and gender identity issues in this era. Her continued popularity in comics stands as an historic example of the strides made by the LGBTQ community in the 21st century. Richard A. Hall



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See also: Batgirl/Oracle, Batman: Comics, Batman: Rogues’ Gallery; Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Beaty, Bart. 2005. Fredric Wertham and the Critique of Mass Culture. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Frankel, Valerie Estelle. 2017. Superheroines and the Epic Journey: Mythic Themes in Comics, Film and Television. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Hajdu, David. 2008. The Ten-Cent Plague: The Great Comic Book Scare and How It Changed America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Madrid, Mike. 2009. The Supergirls: Fashion, Feminism, Fantasy, and the History of Comic Book Heroines. Minneapolis, MN: Exterminating Angel Press. Weldon, Glen. 2016. The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Black Canary First Appearance: Flash Comics #86 (cover date: August 1947) Creators: Robert Kanigher and Carmine Infantino Publisher: DC Comics Powers: Sonic scream Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Gotham City/Star City (on television) Key Allies: Green Arrow, Oracle, Huntress Key Enemies: N/A Team Affiliations: Justice Society, Justice League, Birds of Prey Secret Identity: Dinah Drake/Dinah Lance Nicknames: N/A Originally, Black Canary possessed no superpowers. She used her intellect and hand-to-hand combat skills to assist her boyfriend—and later husband—Larry Lance, a detective with the Gotham City Police Department. She debuted as a supporting character in a Johnny Thunder story, eventually replacing him as a featured hero (Kanigher and Infantino, Flash Comics #86, August 1947; John Broome and Lee Elias, Flash Comics #92, February 1948). Early on, she joins the Justice Society of America (Broome and Infantino, All Star Comics #41, June–July 1948). When the DC Comics universe is rebooted in the late 1950s, beginning the Silver Age of comics, DC’s original “Golden Age” heroes—including Black Canary—continue their adventures as the Justice Society in an alternate universe called “Earth-2.” In 1969, Canary joins the “Earth-1” continuity after her husband sacrifices himself to save her, and she becomes an unofficial member of the Justice League, finally acquiring her trademark sonic scream (Denny O’Neil and Dick Dillin, Justice League of America #74, September 1969). In 1970, legendary comic book

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team Dennis (“Denny”) O’Neil and Neal Adams introduced Canary (now Dinah Lance) into the pages of their iconic run of Green Lantern/Green Arrow. Lance and Green Arrow (Oliver Queen) had begun a decades-long romance earlier that year (O’Neil and Dillin, Justice League of America #78, February 1970). They would finally be married 37 years later (Judd Winick and Amanda Conner, Green Arrow and Black Canary Wedding Special #1, November 2007). In 1995, Canary joined the Gotham City-based computer hacker hero Oracle (Barbara Gordon, previously Batgirl) to create the team “Birds of Prey” (Chuck Dixon, Jordan B. Gorfinkel, and Gary Frank, Black Canary/Oracle: Birds of Prey, November 1995). The popularity of this one-shot book would lead to a continuing series beginning four years later (Dixon and Greg Land, Birds of Prey #1, January 1999). That same year, the creative team of James Robinson, David Goyer, and Stephen Sadowski would begin a run of classic Justice Society of America (JSA) tales featuring Black Canary (JSA #1, August 1999). In 2007, at the same time as Canary was marrying Green Arrow in the base DC continuity, Frank Miller and Jim Lee told a story of Canary’s brief romantic encounter with Batman in the alternate time line story All Star Batman and Robin (All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder #7, November 2007). Outside of comics, Black Canary first appeared in two one-hour live-action comedy specials collectively referred to since as Legends of the Superheroes. Originally airing on NBC-TV on January 18 and 25, 1979, these productions were designed primarily as a reunion special for the iconic Batman series from the 1960s, returning Adam West and Burt Ward as the Dynamic Duo and Frank Gorshin as the Riddler. Directed by Bill Carruthers and Chris Darley and based loosely on the popular Hanna-Barbera Super Friends Saturday-morning cartoon (airing on ABC-TV), the first special presented a “Challenge,” with the Super Friends facing off against their most iconic enemies, while the second followed the style of a celebrity roast of the heroes hosted by Tonight Show sidekick Ed McMahon. The specials were commercial and critical flops. Black Canary was portrayed by Danuta Wesley. In 2002, in the short-lived WB-TV series Birds of Prey, Black Canary is presented as Carolyn Lance, mother to Dinah Redmond, a telepath and member of Barbara Gordon’s new team. Canary gave up her daughter at birth in order to keep her safe. The Dinah Lance Black Canary appeared in four episodes (spanning three seasons) of the WB/CW-TV series Smallville. Dinah “Laurel” Lance played a more important role in the CW-TV series Arrow, where she eventually became Black Canary (or “the Canary”), assuming the identity from her deceased sister, Sarah. This version of the character would also appear in the CW-TV series The Flash, where she would finally develop her trademark “Canary Cry” power, and later in the spin-off series Legends of Tomorrow, also airing on CW. The character remains a mainstay in all aspects of the DC Comics lines. Since 1947, Black Canary has been a recurring character in the DC Comics universe of heroes. Her romance with Green Arrow and partnership with the Birds of Prey are some of the most popular stories in DC Comics history. Richard A. Hall



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See also: Batgirl/Oracle, Green Arrow, Justice League, Justice Society; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

Cocca, Carolyn. 2016. Superwomen: Gender, Power, and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury Press. Cronin, Brian. 2016. “Green Arrow and Black Canary: A Rocky Love Affair.” Comic Book Review. Accessed June 1, 2017. http://www.cbr.com/green-arrow-and-blackcanary-a-rocky-love-affair/. Frankel, Valerie Estelle. 2017. Superheroines and the Epic Journey: Mythic Themes in Comics, Film and Television. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Iaccino, James F. 2017. Arrow and Superhero Television: Essays on Themes and Characters of the Series. New York: McFarland Press. Madrid, Mike. 2009. The Supergirls: Fashion, Feminism, Fantasy, and the History of Comic Book Heroines. Minneapolis, MN: Exterminating Angel Press. Madrid, Mike. 2013. Divas, Dames & Daredevils: Lost Heroines of Golden Age Comics. Exterminating Angel Press. Online. Accessed September 20, 2018. https://­ exterminatingangel.com. Morris, Tom, and Matt Morris, eds. 2005. Superheroes and Philosophy: Truth, Justice, and the Socratic War. Pop Culture and Philosophy Series, edited by William Irwin. Chicago: Open Court Press. Stuller, Jennifer K. 2010. Ink-Stained Amazons and Cinematic Warriors: Superwomen in Modern Mythology. London: L. B. Tauris.

Black Lightning First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Black Lightning #1 (cover date: April 1977) Tony Isabella and Trevor Von Eeden DC Comics Peak physical condition/Absorption, generation, and manipulation of electricity/Transforming into electricity Power belt (originally) South side of Metropolis, Washington, D.C. Green Arrow, Thunder, Mister Terrific Tobias Whale, the 100, Syonide, Warhog Outsiders, Justice League (later, and sporadically) Jefferson Pierce N/A

DC Comics was behind the curve when it came to promoting black heroes in its superhero universe. While Marvel had enjoyed considerable success over the previous 10 years with Black Panther, Falcon, Luke Cage, and Storm (and even minor success with Blade and Brother Voodoo), the only black hero at DC to date had

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been John Stewart, who had joined the Green Lantern Corps in 1972. By 1977, the Blaxploitation genre had fallen from popularity, and many of the black-themed books at Marvel had been either discontinued or were on the verge of being so. It was at this point, however, that DC published its first book featuring a headlining black hero: Black Lightning. Black Lightning was originally Olympic gold medalist decathlete Jefferson Pierce. After the murder of his father, Jefferson returns to the south side of Metropolis (known now as “Suicide Slum”) to work with kids at the inner-city school Garfield High. He soon discovers that the south side, and the high school, are under the corrupt influence of the powerful gang “The 100.” Pierce then decides to take on crime in his neighborhood as Black Lightning (Isabella and Von Eeden, Black Lightning #1, April 1977). Originally, Black Lightning’s electrical powers were derived from a power belt; later incarnations would explain his powers as naturally occurring, making him one of earth’s many “metahumans” (the DC equivalent to Marvel’s “mutants”). The original run of Black Lightning consisted of only 11 issues before it was canceled (April 1977–October 1978). Throughout the 1980s, he appeared as de facto leader of “the Outsiders” and in solo adventures in the pages of Detective Comics. A second solo series ran from February 1995 to February 1996 (13 issues total). A third series launched in 2011 as part of DC’s “New 52” reboot. As a member of the Outsiders, Pierce worked alongside his daughter, Anissa, who was also the metahuman superhero Thunder. In 2000, Pierce worked briefly as secretary of education under the new president of the United States, Lex Luthor. Outside of comics, Black Lightning has appeared in the animated series Super Friends, Batman: The Brave and the Bold, and Young Justice. He had a small role in the animated feature Superman/Batman: Public Enemies (2009) and a dark-­ mirror/alternate universe version of him called “Black Power” appeared as a member of the “Crime Syndicate of America” in the animated feature Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths (2010). The character finally received a live-action version with the launching of the CW-TV series Black Lightning, which debuted in 2018 to considerable critical and commercial success. In the television incarnation starring Cress Williams as the titular hero, Jefferson Pierce lives in “Freeland” and is the principal of Garfield High. Though consistently a C-list character in the DC Comics Universe, the success of the television series has finally raised the profile of Black Lightning as a more recognizable character in the superhero zeitgeist, along with fellow black heroes Black Panther, Blade, Falcon, and Luke Cage. Collectively, they add a number of black heroes to the overall American pop culture spectrum. Richard A. Hall See also: Black Panther, Blade, the Vampire Hunter, Brother Voodoo, Cloak and Dagger, Falcon, Justice League, Luke Cage/Power Man, Spawn; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages: The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Boyd, Todd. 1997. Am I Black Enough for You?: Popular Culture from the ’Hood and Beyond. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.



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Gateward, Frances, and John Jennings, eds. 2015. The Blacker the Ink: Constructions of Black Identity in Comics and Sequential Art. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Howard, Sheena C., and Ronald L. Jackson II, eds. 2013. Black Comics: Politics of Race and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. Nama, Adilifu. 2011. Super Black: American Pop Culture and Black Superheroes. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Black Panther First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers:

Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Fantastic Four #52 (cover date: July 1966) Stan Lee and Jack Kirby Marvel Comics Peak human strength, speed, stamina/Acute senses, including night vision (source of powers: mystical Wakandan herbs and a spiritual connection to the legendary Wakandan Panther God) Hereditary panther costume (later retconned as enhanced with vibranium), claws, Wakandan technology Wakanda, Africa Fantastic Four, Shuri, Storm (Ororo Munroe-IqadiT’Challa), Dora Milaje Killmonger, Man-Ape, Ulysses Klaw, White Wolf, Ku Klux Klan, Sub-Mariner, Doctor Doom The Panther Tribe, the Avengers T’Challa N/A (briefly referred to as “Black Leopard”)

The first superhero to be called “Black Panther” was actually white. He had no superpowers, simply fighting crime in a black panther–themed costume. He was originally published by Centaur Comics (Paul Gustavson, Stars and Stripes #3, 1941). The modern Black Panther, arriving between the assassination of Malcolm X and the founding of the militant Black Panther Party, first appeared in the pages of Fantastic Four, soon revealing his identity to the FF as T’Challa, king of Wakanda, a scientifically and technologically advanced African nation rich in the rare element of vibranium. When Stan Lee decided it was time for a black superhero, he worked with Kirby on a design that Kirby had previously pitched: the Coal Tiger. As there was some resistance from the publisher as to whether America was ready for a black hero, Lee decided to make the character African rather than African American. Lee and Kirby broke all stereotypes by not only making T’Challa a PhD in physics and the wealthiest character in all of comic books (with far more wealth than Marvel’s Tony Stark and DC’s Bruce Wayne combined), but

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also by making his African nation the most advanced in the world. The source of the Panther’s enhanced abilities are connected to a heart-shaped Wakandan herb (to be ingested by all those who are awarded the mantle of the Black Panther) as well as through his hereditary connection to the mysterious “Panther God.” In 1968, Black Panther became a member of the Avengers (Roy Thomas and John Buscema, The Avengers #52, May 1968). Also under Thomas and Buscema, Black Panther became the feature character of Marvel Comics’ Jungle Action (vol. 2), beginning in issue #5 (July 1973). Writer Don McGregor successfully used Black Panther to experiment with superhero comics’ first multi-issue story arc, “Panther’s Rage” (Jungle Black Panther, the first black superhero in Action #6–18, September 1973– ­American comic books, debuted in the pages of November 1975). This format The Fantastic Four in 1966. This image is from the would revolutionize comic book cover of Black Panther #1 (January 1977), written storytelling from that point on. and drawn by co-creator Jack Kirby. (Futuras McGregor and artist Billy GraFotos/Alamy Stock Photo) ham presented a controversial story in the mid-1970s, pitting the Panther against the Ku Klux Klan, or “The Clan,” as it was spelled on the story line’s covers (the story within did spell the word “Klan”); this story line is significant in the study of portrayals of racism in literature, as the final issue of the arc was published just prior to the wildly popular novel Roots by Alex Haley (Jungle Comics #19–22, January, March, May, and July 1976; Roots, August 1976). The Black Panther was also the inventor of the winged costume worn by the Falcon. It is later revealed that, aside from the Black Panther, Wakanda is also protected by its own “special forces” unit, the all-female “Dora Milaje” (Christopher Priest and Mark Texeira, Black Panther vol. 3, #1, November 1998). The Black Panther has become a much more visible character in the 21st c­ entury. In 2006, under the creative team of Reginald Hudlin, Scot Eaton, and Kaare Andrews, Panther would marry his longtime paramour, Ororo Munroe (also known as the hero Storm of the X-Men), eventually joining Captain America’s team of antiregistration heroes in the Civil War story line (Black Panther vol. 4, #18, September



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Dwayne McDuffie/Milestone Comics Dwayne McDuffie (1962–2011) holds the distinction of being the first prominent African American creator in superhero comics. Originally a physicist, he left the profession on discovering that his research was being used for military applications. He began working for Marvel Comics in the late 1980s, tasked with launching the company’s superhero trading card project. Unhappy with the way Marvel utilized its black heroes, McDuffie became a freelance writer in 1990. In 1993, he founded Milestone Media along with Derek T. ­Dingle, Michael Davis, and Denys Cowan. It was Milestone’s mission to take a more multicultural approach to superheroes specifically and comics more generally. As editor in chief of Milestone—distributing its titles through DC Comics—McDuffie oversaw the creation of black superheroes Static, Icon, and Hardware; the Asian American hero Xombi; and the multicultural, multigender superteam Blood Syndicate. Unfortunately, arriving as it did in the waning years of the “collectors’ bubble,” Milestone dissolved by 1997. McDuffie went on to work on DC animated projects. Aside from his writing/editorial/producing work on animated series such as Justice League, Justice League Unlimited, and Ben-10, McDuffie also oversaw his own creation, Static, becoming the star of a popular animated series, Static Shock. In 2008, the Milestone characters were officially incorporated into the overall DC Comics Universe. In 2011, McDuffie died unexpectedly due to complications from emergency heart surgery. Despite his relatively brief involvement in comic books, his influence continues to be felt. McDuffie appeared in the 2003 History Channel documentary Comic Book Superheroes Unmasked. McDuffie and Milestone comics were featured in an episode of the 2018 AMC documentary series Robert Kirkman’s Secret History of Comics. Richard A. Hall

2006). In 2009, T’Challa is severely wounded in battle against Doctor Doom. As he recuperates, his sister, Shuri, takes up the mantle of Black Panther (Reginald Hudlin, Johnathan Maberry, Ken Lashley, and Will Conrad, Black Panther vol. 5, #1–12, April 2009–January 2010). T’Challa finally reclaims his role in 2016. T’Challa has also been a more visible part of the Marvel Universe outside of comics in the decade after Civil War. He appeared in the short-lived self-titled animated series under the “Marvel Knights Animated” banner produced by BETTV in 2010. He was a regular character in the animated series Avengers: Earth’s Mightiest Heroes. In 2016, Black Panther was introduced into the Marvel Cinematic Universe in Captain America: Civil War, played by Chadwick Boseman. This introductory story led to the first Black Panther film released in 2018 and directed by Ryan Coogler, followed by the actor reprising the role for Avengers: Infinity War (2018) directed by Civil War alums Anthony and Joe Russo. The Black Panther film broke records with more than $200 million in ticket sales its opening weekend. Though originally presented as a guest character in the pages of Fantastic Four, Black Panther has become a vitally important member of both the Marvel Comics and Cinematic Universes. Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Black Lightning, Blade, the Vampire Hunter, Brother Voodoo, Bucky/ Young Allies/Winter Soldier, Captain America: Other Media, Cloak and Dagger, Doctor Doom, Falcon, Fantastic Four, Luke Cage/Power Man, Spawn, X-Men: Comics; Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955, The

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Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. Evanier, Mark. 2008. Kirby: King of Comics. New York: Abrams. Gateward, Frances, and John Jennings, eds. 2015. The Blacker the Ink: Constructions of Black Identity in Comics and Sequential Art. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Howard, Sheena C., and Ronald L. Jackson II, eds. 2013. Black Comics: Politics of Race and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial Press. Lee, Stan, Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Morrison, Grant. 2011. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Nama, Adilifu. 2011. Super Black: American Pop Culture and Black Superheroes. Austin: University of Texas Press. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of American Youth Culture. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Black Terror and Tim First Appearance: Creators: Publisher:

Exciting Comics #9 (cover date: January 1941) Richard E. Hughes and Don Gabrielson Standard Comics (a.k.a. Nedor Comics, Pines Comics, Better Comics), AC Comics, Eclipse Comics, America’s Best Comics, Dynamite Entertainment, Image Comics Powers: Super strength/Invulnerability/Agility (under Standard Comics and most others) N/A (under Eclipse Comics) Polymath/Time travel (under America’s Best Comics) Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Unknown Key Allies: Various (according to publisher) Key Enemies: Various (according to publisher) Team Affiliations: Society of Modern American Science Heroes [SMASH] (2001) Secret Identity: Bob Benton (among others over the years) and Tim Roland Nicknames: Terror Twins



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The Black Terror was one of the more popular Golden Age superheroes, his initial adventures running for 267 issues through 1949. Originally, Bob Benton was a pharmacist working alongside his assistant, Tim Roland, to discover a chemical that would give him advanced powers to fight crime. Their ultimate success was called “Formic Ethers,” giving Benton (and later Tim) enhanced strength and overall stamina. The characters gained their own title under “Pines” Comics the year after they were introduced (The Black Terror #1, 1942). Once the original publisher, Standard Comics, went out of business, the character eventually fell into public domain, meaning that no one owned the copyright on the character. This allowed other publishers, begin- Cover for The Black Terror #1 (January 1942). In ning in the 1980s, to utilize and this image, the Black Terror stops an enemy plane while his sidekick, Tim, rushes to catch an reimagine him. Under AC Comics, the Black enemy bomb. (Digital Comic Museum) Terror was reimagined as a revenge-driven vigilante avenging the murder of his wife (similar to Marvel’s Punisher) and known simply as “Terror” (with no sidekick). AC later made him an antihero/villain called “the Terrorist.” Later in the 1980s, Eclipse Comics introduced the character as simply an undercover FBI agent hunting criminals with a gun (again, very similar to Punisher). In the late 1990s and early 2000s, America’s Best Comics reintroduced Benton as a retired agent of SMASH who returns to crime fighting as Terror/Terrorist, once again to avenge the murder of his wife. Prior to dying, Benton downloads his consciousness to a computer program called “Terror 2000,” who, without the human conscience of his creator, murders Benton’s old partner, Tim Roland. Other incarnations have also appeared in the early 21st century. Though many publishers have picked up Black Terror over the decades, the original Standard Comics issues are considered public domain. In the study of comic books, Black Terror and Tim have remained relatively unstudied. This fact is likely due to the difficulty in retrieving original copies of Golden Age comics. Considering his popularity during the 1940s—and the tendency for modern creative teams to be attracted to reviving him—the original Black Terror definitely deserves closer study and analysis. Richard A. Hall

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See also: Punisher; Thematic Essay: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages— The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Feiffer, Jules. (1965) 2003. The Great Comic Book Heroes. Seattle: Fantagraphics. [For information on origin period, not character]. Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Kantor, Michael, and Laurence Maslon. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype.

Black Widow First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers:

Tales of Suspense #52 (cover date: April 1964) Stan Lee, Don Rico, and Don Heck Marvel Comics Enhanced healing/Reduced aging/Standard espionage, martial arts training Weapons: “Stingers” Base of Operations: New York City Key Allies: Daredevil, Nick Fury/SHIELD, Hawkeye, Iron Man, Captain America Key Enemies: Bullseye, Ulysses Klaw Team Affiliations: KGB, Avengers, SHIELD Secret Identity: Natasha Romanoff, Natalia Romanova Nicknames: N/A The mantle of “Black Widow” was originally carried by one of the first costumed female heroes in comic books. Published by Timely (later Marvel) Comics, and created by George Kapitan and Harry Sahle, the original Black Widow was really Claire Voyant, an assassin in service to Satan, killing villains and delivering their souls (Mystic Comics #4, August 1940). There was also a villainess named “Black Widow” on the 1966–1968 Batman television series portrayed by actress Tallulah Bankhead, but this character was in no way connected to the Marvel Comics hero of the same period. Another Golden Age “Black Widow” was Linda Masters. She fought crime after the murder of her husband, armed only with a pistol and a sixth sense warning her of danger. This character is now considered public domain (Holyoke Publishing, Cat-Man Comics #1, May 1941). The superhero “Black Widow” would be revived under Stan Lee’s “Marvel Age” in the 1960s. The modern Black Widow is Natalia Romanova (or Natasha Romanoff). She is first introduced as a Soviet spy facing off against Iron Man (Lee, Rico, and Heck,



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Tales of Suspense #52, April 1964). She later teamed up with the archer and future fellow Avenger Hawkeye. She was given her first recurring comic under the creative team of Jack Kirby, Gary Friedrich, and John Buscema, sharing the title with the Inhumans (previously introduced in the pages of The Fantastic Four), though her appearances only lasted for eight issues (Amazing Adventures vol. 2, #1, August 1970). Her most popular run in the 1970s was in the pages of Daredevil (Gerry Conway and Gene Colan, Daredevil: The Man Without Fear #81, November 1971). Beginning with issue #93 (and running through issue #108), the title would be renamed Daredevil and the Black Widow. Reverting to simply Daredevil with issue #109, Black Widow would continue to appear through issue #124. For the duration of her run in Daredevil, Widow was also Daredevil’s love interest, and despite the rising power of the women’s movement at the time, numerous exchanges exist showing Daredevil’s sexist ideas toward his female partner. Her iconic wrist shooters originally projected rope-like threads similar to Spider-Man’s webs before finally projecting her “Widow Sting,” or electric shocks. For the next 25 years, Black Widow would appear only as a member of the Avengers or an agent for SHIELD, with a few guest appearances scattered among various titles, mainly those associated with other Avengers. In 1999, as part of the new “Marvel Knights” adult-oriented titles, Widow finally received her own solo title (Devin Grayson and J. G. Jones, Black Widow vol. 1, #1, June 1999). The title was rebooted just 18 months later for a three-issue miniseries teaming Natasha with would-be successor Yelena Belova (Grayson, Greg Rucka, and Scott Hampton, Black Widow vol. 2, #1, January 2001). Richard K. Morgan and Bill Sienkiewicz rebooted the Marvel Knights title yet again over three years later (Black Widow vol. 3, #1, November 2004). Widow appeared in numerous titles during the Marvel “Civil War” story line, where she sided with Tony Stark/Iron Man and his allies, favoring superhero registration with the U.S. government. During Bucky Barnes’s (a.k.a. the Winter Soldier’s) rehabilitation in the pages of Volume 5 of Captain America, Black Widow assumed a romantic relationship with the former World War II sidekick, sympathetic with Barnes’s situation as a brainwashed Soviet assassin. She finally received a female writer, Marjorie Liu, teaming with artist Daniel Acuna, for the fourth volume of the series (Black Widow vol. 4, #1, June 2010, previously released digitally April 2010). Similar to fellow superspy Nick Fury, Black Widow consistently operates in the shadows of the Marvel Comics Universe. Outside of comics, Black Widow has appeared in the animated series The Super Hero Squad Show (2009–2011) and the Avengers Assemble! animated series that debuted on Disney-XD in 2013. Her most visible presence, however, has been in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, portrayed by Scarlett Johansson, debuting in Iron Man 2 (2010) with more prominent roles in Marvel’s The Avengers (2012), Captain America: Winter Soldier (2014), Avengers 2: Age of Ultron (2015), Captain America: Civil War (2016), and Avengers: Infinity War (2018). Johansson’s performance and the corresponding merchandising campaigns surrounding the films have brought the character mainstream after 50 years of relative

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obscurity. Even before her big-screen debut, however, the character has proven resilient through her continued appearances in Marvel Comics since her inception. Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Captain America: Other Media, Daredevil, Nick Fury/SHIELD; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Cocca, Carolyn. 2016. Superwomen: Gender, Power, and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury. Frankel, Valerie Estelle. 2017. Superheroines and the Epic Journey: Mythic Themes in Comics, Film and Television. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Ginn, Sherry, ed. 2017. Marvel’s Black Widow from Spy to Superhero: Essays on an Avenger with a Very Specific Skill Set. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Lee, Stan, Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible!: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone. Madrid, Mike. 2009. The Supergirls: Fashion, Feminism, Fantasy, and the History of Comic Book Heroines. Minneapolis, MN: Exterminating Angel Press.

Blade, the Vampire Hunter First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

The Tomb of Dracula #10 (cover date: July 1973) Marv Wolfman and Gene Colan Marvel Comics Enhanced strength, agility, and senses/Immunity to vampire powers Swords/Stakes/Bladed weapons New York City, London, Detroit (in the films) Hannibal King, Ghost Rider Dracula, Morbius, Deacon Frost Nightstalkers Eric Brooks Daywalker

Blade was introduced as a guest character in the popular comic book The Tomb of Dracula as an “antagonist” to the titular character. He was born Eric Brooks, whose mother, while in labor with him in a London hospital, was visited by the vampire Deacon Frost posing as a doctor. Frost fed on Eric’s mother as she was



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giving birth, passing along his vampiric powers to the child. As Blade grew up, he discovered that he possessed all the strengths of a vampire while suffering none of their weaknesses. Steve Gerber and P. Craig Russell brought the character to their book Adventure into Fear to fight Morbius, “the Living Vampire,” a recurring Spider-Man villain (Adventure into Fear #24, October 1974). The character made a handful of appearances in various Marvel titles over the next few years. Wolfman and Tony DeZuniga created a story for Vampire Tales #8 (December 1974). DeZuniga teamed with Chris Claremont and Rico Rival for a story in Marvel Preview #3 (September 1975); and the original creative team of Wolfman and Colan produced a short story for Marvel Preview #8 (Fall 1976). After those few appearances, the character would all but disappear from comics until the 1990s. In 1993, Marvel produced a line of comics under the banner “Midnight Sons,” featuring supernatural characters such as Ghost Rider. Blade appeared in the series Nightstalkers and Midnight Sons Unlimited from 1993 to 1994. The character finally received his own title, again under the “Midnight Sons” banner (Ian Edington and Doug Wheatley, Blade vol. 1, #1, July 1994). With the cancellation of the “Midnight Sons” arc, Blade was launched in two titles due largely to the success of the feature film. In 2002, as part of Marvel’s adultoriented “MAX” line of comics, Blade was relaunched again under the creative team of Christopher Hinz and Steve Pugh (Blade vol. 4, #1, May 2002). In Marvel’s “Ultimate” line of comics in the early 2000s, Blade appeared under the name “Daywalker.” A fifth volume of Blade was published beginning in November 2006 under the direction of Marc Guggenheim and Howard Chaykin. This title would coincide with Marvel’s “Civil War” story line. During this period, Blade would side with Iron Man’s pro-registration heroes, aligning himself tangentially with SHIELD (Mark Millar and Steve McNiven, Civil War vol. 1, #5, November 2006). In his own title, Blade seeks to fulfill a prophecy that he believes will free all souls under the vampire curse, only to discover that the actual result was to revive all previously killed vampires (Guggenheim and Chaykin, Blade vol. 5, #12, October 2007). In 2008, Blade returns to the city of his birth, London, joining the government-sponsored group “MI:13” (Paul Cornell and Pat Oliffe, Captain Britain and MI:13 #5, November 2008). Outside of comics, Blade gained widespread recognition due to the release of the movie Blade by 20th Century Fox in 1998. Directed by Stephen Norrington and starring Wesley Snipes, the film was a critical and commercial success, spawning two sequels: Blade II (2002) and Blade: Trinity (2004). In 2005, Spike-TV launched a short-lived series, Blade: The Series, starring former rapper Kirk Jones. In 2011, an animated series produced in the Japanese anime format was the fourth of the “Marvel Anime” line. Blade is one of the longerlasting representations of Marvel Comics’ attempt at diversity in the early 1970s. Inspired to a large degree by the Blaxploitation films of the period, the character has transcended the stereotypes of that genre, due in large part to the portrayal by Snipes in the feature films. Like Black Panther and Brother Voodoo, Blade was not originally “African American,” though the films have altered that origin. As such, Blade—as well as the other heroes of African

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descent mentioned—not only represents an interracial superhero society but an international one as well. Richard A. Hall See also: Black Lightning, Black Panther, Brother Voodoo, Cloak and Dagger, Falcon, Ghost Rider, Luke Cage/Power Man, Nick Fury/SHIELD, Spawn, Spider-Man: Comics; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Gateward, Frances, and John Jennings, eds. 2015. The Blacker the Ink: Constructions of Black Identity in Comics and Sequential Art. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Howard, Sheena C., and Ronald L. Jackson II, eds. 2013. Black Comics: Race and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Nama, Adilifu. 2011. Super Black: American Pop Culture and Black Superheroes. Austin: University of Texas Press. Thomas, Roy. 2017. The Marvel Age of Comics: 1961–1978. New York: Taschen.

Blue Beetle First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Mystery Men Comics #1 (cover date: August 1939) Will Eisner and Charles Nicholas (Wojtkoski) Fox Comics/Charlton Comics/DC Comics Enhanced strength/Flight and x-ray vision (during World War II) Various gadgets Chicago (as Kord)/El Paso, Texas (as Reyes) Booster Gold, the Question (as Reyes) Firefist (as Kord)/Brother Eye (as Reyes) Justice League (as Kord and Reyes) Dan Garret(t)/Ted Kord/Jaime Reyes N/A

Blue Beetle was originally Dan Garret in the pages of Fox Comics in 1939. Garret was a police officer equipped with an experimental bulletproof vest, with his strength and overall stamina temporarily enhanced by the mysterious “Vitamin 2X” (Charles Nicholas, Mystery Men Comics #13, August 1940). During World War II, Garret became a government agent. As superheroes went out of vogue by 1950, the character was relieved of any “super” elements, and his tale featured primarily as a crime comic until it was finally canceled in 1955. Shortly after cancellation, Fox Comics was bought out by Charlton Comics.



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Under Charlton, the character was revived in 1964 with some alterations. Dan Garrett (a t being added to the original name) was an archaeologist who discovered a mysterious ornamental scarab while on a dig in Egypt. After saying the magical incantation “Kaji Dha,” Garrett would transform into the Blue Beetle with the powers of flight, super strength and vision, and shooting blasts of energy from his hands (Joe Gill and Tony Tallarico, Blue Beetle vol. 3, #1, June 1964). The Garrett Beetle would later be killed, passing the scarab—though inexplicably not the powers—to his student Ted Kord (D. C. Glanzman and Steve Ditko, Blue Beetle vol. 4, #2, August 1967). The Kord Beetle was a genius inventor, creating gad- Cover for Blue Beetle #1 (December 1939). This gets and a flying vehicle to fight issue featured the original Blue Beetle origin crime. In 1983, DC Comics pur- story, written by Will Eisner and drawn by chased the Charlton Comics Charles Nicholas. (Digital Comic Museum) line of heroes, bringing the Kord version of Blue Beetle into its 1985–1986 Crisis on Infinite Earths story line with frequent references to the Garrett incarnation in various origins anthology series. The Kord Beetle would appear in the pages of Justice League, Justice League International, and his own brief series from 1986 to 1988; and, in the 1990s, in the short-run Extreme Justice. Ted Kord became one of several casualties in the 2005–2006 Infinite Crisis story line, being killed in the prelude issue (Geoff Johns, Greg Rucka, Judd Winick, Ed Benes, Phil Jimenez, Rags Morales, Ivan Reis, and Jesus Saiz, Countdown to Infinite Crisis #1, May 2005). The following year, Blue Beetle returned when the scarab was discovered by high school student Jaime Reyes (Johns, Jimenez, Reis, Jerry Ordway, Infinite Crisis #5, April 2006). In this newest incarnation of the Beetle, the scarab bonds with the new host, Reyes, creating a symbiotic relationship with the teenager that allows him to transform into his suit and grants him superpowers. In other media, the Fox version of Blue Beetle had a short-lived radio program in the 1940s and was even sponsored in a “Blue Beetle Day” during the 1940 World’s Fair in New York City. In recent years, the Reyes Beetle has appeared in several DC Comics animated projects. Overall, the character has remained a mainstay in superhero comic books since the genre’s earliest years. In the 21st century, Blue Beetle

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represents one of the earliest attempts by the major comic book studios to introduce more racial and ethnic diversity into their superhero lines. Richard A. Hall See also: Justice League, the Question, Teen Titans; Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955; The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Aldama, Frederick Luis. 2017. Latinx Superheroes in Mainstream Comics. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. Duncan, Randy, and Matthew J. Smith. 2009. The Power of Comics: History, Form & Culture. New York: Continuum Press. Feiffer, Jules. (1965) 2003. The Great Comic Book Heroes. Seattle: Fantagraphics Books. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Ong, Walter. 2013. “The Comics and the Super State.” In The Superhero Reader, edited by Charles Hatfield, Jeet Heer, and Kent Worcester, 34–45. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press.

Brother Voodoo First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Strange Tales #169 (cover date: September 1973) Len Wein, John Romita, and Gene Colan Marvel Comics Magic Eye of Agamotto (as Sorcerer Supreme) Haiti/New York City Doctor Strange Dormamu, Damballah, Baron Samedi Avengers, SHIELD Jericho Drumm Doctor Voodoo, Sorcerer Supreme

Brother Voodoo represents a wave in the early 1970s to introduce more diversity to superhero comic books, as well as coinciding with the popular wave of “Blaxploitation” films. His arrival also comes just after the Comics Code Authority was amended in 1971 to once more allow portrayals of the occult and the supernatural in comic books. Like Black Panther from the previous decade, Brother Voodoo was of African descent but not African American. Returning to Haiti after his college studies in the United States, psychologist Jericho Drumm discovers that his brother, the local houngan (or voodoo priest) is dying as a result



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of evil sorcery. At his brother’s request, Jericho searches out Papa Jambo, his brother’s teacher. After learning the ways of voodoo sorcery, Jericho defeats the evil Damballah and decides to continue fighting evil as “Brother Voodoo” (Wein, Romita, and Colan, Strange Tales #169, September 1973). After very brief runs in Strange Tales and Tales of the Zombie from 1973–1975, Brother Voodoo all but disappeared from the pages of Marvel Comics, making brief appearances alongside Spider-Man, the Thing, and Moon Knight. In 1984, artist Fred Hembeck satirized the character, making fun of his inability to have his own comic (Marvel Age #14, May 1984). Hembeck, teaming with writer Scott Lobdell, returned the character to the Marvel Universe in the story “Don’t Do That Voodoo You Do So Well” (Marvel Super-Heroes vol. 2, #1, May 1990). Voodoo would not become a recurring member of Marvel continuity, however, until the 21st century. In 2009, after the mystical “Eye of Agamotto” deems the Sorcerer Supreme, Doctor Strange, to no longer be worthy, the Eye comes into the possession of Drumm, installing him—briefly—as the new Sorcerer Supreme. Drumm then goes by the alias “Doctor Voodoo” (Brian Michael Bendis and Billy Tan, The New Avengers #53, July 2009). He later sacrifices himself to the actual being called “Agamotto” to prevent the entity taking over the earth (Bendis and Stuart Immonen, The New Avengers vol. 2, #6, January 2011). In 2014, as part of the “Axis” story line, the creative team of Rick Remender and Leinil Francis Yu resurrect Voodoo when Doctor Doom conjures him from the dead to help stop the Scarlet Witch (Avengers & X-Men: Axis #8, February 2015). The character continues to appear in the pages of Doctor Strange and Uncanny Avengers. Brother Voodoo has undergone little academic scrutiny, due largely to the limited number of primary sources with which to work. However, his role as a representation of diversity in superhero comic books is significant. With the introduction of Doctor Strange to the Marvel Cinematic Universe, future appearances of Brother/Doctor Voodoo appear likely. Richard A. Hall See also: Black Lightning, Black Panther, Blade, the Vampire Hunter, Doctor Strange, Falcon, Luke Cage/Power Man, Scarlet Witch/Quicksilver/Vision, Spawn; Thematic Essay: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages: The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Gateward, Frances, and John Jennings, eds. 2015. The Blacker the Ink: Constructions of Black Identity in Comics and Sequential Art. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Howard, Sheena C., and Ronald L. Jackson II, eds. 2013. Black Comics: Race and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Morris, Jon. 2015. The League of Regrettable Heroes: Half-Baked Heroes from Comic Book History! Philadelphia: Quirk Books. Nama, Adilifu. 2011. Super Black: American Pop Culture and Black Superheroes. Austin: University of Texas Press.

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Bucky/Young Allies/Winter Soldier First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Captain America Comics #1 (cover date: March 1941) Joe Simon and Jack Kirby (Ed Brubaker for Winter Soldier identity) Timely/Atlas/Marvel Comics Trained assassin (as Winter Soldier) Gun, Knife, Bionic Arm (as Winter Soldier) New York City Captain America, Falcon, Black Widow, Nick Fury Red Skull, Hydra Sentinels of Liberty, Young Allies, Invaders, SHIELD James Buchanan Barnes Captain America (briefly)

Bucky was first introduced in Captain America Comics #1 (Simon and Kirby, March 1941) as Captain America’s sidekick. Steve Rogers was enlisted in the army as a private, where young Bucky Barnes served as the company “mascot.” When Bucky walks in on Rogers as he is changing into Captain America, Rogers concludes that he now has no choice but to allow the youngster to accompany him as his sidekick. Throughout World War II, Bucky would appear with Cap in the pages of All Select Comics and All Winners Comics. He also appeared with his own group, the “Young Allies.” The Young Allies were originally called the “Sentinels of Liberty,” which was also the name of the real-world Captain America fan club. Originally, they were simply a group of kids dedicated to helping Bucky fight the fascist threat here at home. The most notable member of the group was Washington “Whitewash” Jones, the only African American member of the group, who served primarily as comic relief and was drawn and portrayed in an extremely racist format (Simon and Kirby, Young Allies #1, Summer 1941). Within the pages of Captain America, Bucky frequently killed the primary villain, often by maneuvering the villain into a situation where his death was almost certain. In 1948, Bucky was shot by the villainess Lavender, seemingly permanently incapacitating the young sidekick, as he does not appear for the remainder of the Captain America run of the 1940s; he is replaced by Betsy Ross, a.k.a. “Golden Girl” (Stan Lee and Syd Shores, Captain America Comics #66, April 1948). By 1950, Captain America Comics had been canceled. Bucky would return to Cap’s side in 1953, when John Romita Sr. and Mort Lawrence revived the characters in the pages of Young Men #24 (December 1953). The three-issue run was designed to set up new runs of Human Torch, Sub-Mariner, and Captain America. The following year, Romita and Carl Burgos launched the new Cap title with the subtitle “Commie Smasher!,” focusing on Cap’s and Bucky’s crusade against the growing threat of international communism (Captain America #76, May 1954). The brief run is symbolic of the period when the attitude known as “McCarthyism” was prevalent.



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When Captain America’s history is retconned in the early 1960s, it is established that Bucky had gone missing and was presumed dead near the end of World War II. Responding to fans who clearly recalled Cap’s and Bucky’s post–World War II adventures (most notably the “Commie Smasher” issues), writer Steve Englehart produced a story line in 1972 explaining that the 1950s Cap and Bucky were not the originals but replacements established by the U.S. government to assure the world that the two were still alive. When the pair appeared to be mentally unstable through their rabid anticommunism, the government froze them. Twenty years later, a disgruntled government employee, unhappy with the liberal bent of the 1960s, released the two to continue their anticommunist crusade. The story line expresses the blatant racism of the McCarthy era as the two quickly confront the Falcon (Englehart and Sal Buscema, Captain America and the Falcon #153–156, September–December 1972). The rehabilitated “Bucky,” Jack Monroe, would become a Cap ally under the new name “Nomad.” The real Bucky would reemerge in 2005 as the mysterious “Winter Soldier.” The name is a reference to the writings during the American Revolution of Thomas Paine, who defined the “Winter Soldier” as the true patriot who never gives up regardless of how desperate a situation appears (Paine, The American Crisis, 1776–1783). After a yearlong mystery during which the Winter Soldier murders Jack Monroe, Bucky finally regains his memory. He had been captured by the Soviets, lost an arm, and had been brainwashed to be a trained assassin, kept on ice until needed by his communist (and later Hydra) masters (Ed Brubaker and Steve Epting, Captain America vol. 5, #14, April 2006). After the death of Steve Rogers, a reluctant Bucky agrees to don the mantle of Captain America, modernizing the hero by carrying a knife and gun (Brubaker and Epting, Captain America vol. 5, #34, March 2008). He would continue as Cap until Rogers’s return to his original role in late 2010. His most iconic story line as Captain America was the highly controversial “Two Americas” story line in 2010. In it, Captain America and the Falcon discover a new, radically conservative organization made up of the former racist group “the Watchdogs,” led by the crazed anticommunist “Captain America” from the retconned 1950s (Brubaker and Luke Ross, Captain America #602–605, March–June 2010). This series gained attention in the mainstream press for its clear portrayal of the real world “Tea Party” movement, presenting the radical conservative group as a threat to America. Outside of comics, Bucky appeared alongside Cap in the animated features called The Marvel Super Heroes (1966). Winter Soldier appeared briefly in the animated series Avengers: Earth’s Mightiest Heroes in 2013. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Bucky, played by Sebastian Stan, was introduced as Steve Rogers’s lifelong friend and part of Captain America’s team in World War II in the film Captain America: The First Avenger, directed by Joe Johnston and released in 2011. Stan returned as the Winter Soldier—and to the core story line—in Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014) and Captain America: Civil War (2016). He also appeared in Avengers: Infinity War (2018). All three films were directed by Joe and Anthony Russo. Though absent from the pages of comics for decades, Bucky Barnes/Winter Soldier continues to play an active role in both Marvel Comics and feature films. Richard A. Hall

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See also: Black Widow, Captain America: Comics, Captain America: Other Media, Falcon, Nick Fury/SHIELD, Human Torch (1940s), Hydra/AIM, Red Skull, Sub-Mariner; Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938– 1955, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Dittmer, Jason. 2013. Captain America and the Nationalist Superhero: Metaphors, Narratives, and Geopolitics. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Later, Naja. 2019. “A Darker Truth Underneath: Bucky Barnes and Captain America.” In The Dark Side: A Supervillain Reader, edited by Robert Peaslee and Rob Weiner. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press. Moulton, Jeffery. 2012. The Superhero Response: How 9/11 Changed Our Superheroes and Why It Matters. Self-published. Simon, Joe. 2011. My Life in Comics. London: Titan Books. Stevens, J. Richard. 2015. Captain America, Masculinity, and Violence: The Evolution of a National Icon. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press.

Bulletman and Bulletgirl First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Nickel Comics #1 (cover date: May 1940) Bill Parker and Jon Smalle Fawcett Publishing/DC Comics Enhanced strength and stamina via the chemical “Crime Cure” “Gravity Regulator Helmet” (granting flight and bullet deflection) Fawcett City (under DC) Captain Marvel (a.k.a. SHAZAM!) King Kull Squadron of Justice (under Fawcett); Justice Society (under DC) Jim Barr and Susan Kent (Barr) N/A

Bulletman and Bulletgirl were among the earliest of the burgeoning genre of comic book superheroes, preceding Captain America by nearly a year and Wonder Woman by more than a year. Jim Barr was introduced as a young man whose policeman father was a victim of crime. Unable to pass the physical exam for the police academy, Barr utilized his considerable intellect to create a chemical concoction that he called the “Crime Cure.” He then designed a bullet-shaped helmet called the “Gravity Regulator” that allowed him to fly and gave him the ability to



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deflect bullets. He created a second helmet, giving it—along with the chemical enhancement—to his girlfriend (and later wife) Susan Kent (Parker and Smalle, Nickel Comics #1, May 1940). Bulletman and Bulletgirl was an immediate success in a market hungry for more superheroes. Throughout Fawcett Comics’ run in the 1940s and early 1950s, the team was second only to Captain Marvel (a.k.a. SHAZAM!) in popularity. Fawcett sold its superhero catalog to DC Comics in 1953, and DC introduced some of them into the DC Comics Universe in 1976 in the pages of All Star Comics. Bulletman then became a member of the retconned Justice Society of America (Martin Pasko and Dick Dillin, Justice League of Amer- Cover for Bulletman #1 (June 1941), with cover art by Charles Sultan. This cover features Bulletman ica #135, October 1976). The along with his sidekick, Bulletgirl. (Digital Comic character was little more than a Museum) background extra until he—and Bulletgirl—became prominent once more in the 1990s in the pages of The Power of Shazam!, where they were given a daughter, Deanna, who became the superhero “Windshear” (Jerry Ordway and Pete Krause, The Power of Shazam! #32, November 1997). The original pair would reappear in the pages of the 2005–2006 Infinite Crisis story line, populating an alternate Earth along with all of the other Fawcett-era heroes. From 1940 to 1949, Bulletman and Bulletgirl appeared in the pages of Nickel Comics, Master Comics, America’s Greatest Comics, and Bulletman. The character should not be confused with “Bullet Man,” a character with a very similar costume that was introduced into the 12-inch line of G.I. Joe dolls in the 1970s, though it does appear that the original Bulletman was, at the very least, a source of inspiration. After a few appearances in Justice League of America in 1976 and two issues of World’s Finest Comics in late 1978 and early 1979, the two appeared more prominently in the pages of The Power of Shazam! from 1995 to 1999 before their final, though mostly background, appearance in the Infinite Crisis story line from 2005 to 2006. Though the duo has garnered no real attention from academics to date, its popularity during the Golden Age of comics makes it a subject worthy of closer study. Richard A. Hall

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See also: Captain Marvel (a.k.a. SHAZAM!); Thematic Essay: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955.

Further Reading

“Bulletman.” Comic Vine. Accessed September 10, 2018. https://comicvine.gamespot .com/bulletman/4005-6280/. Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books.

C Captain America: Comics First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Captain America Comics #1 (cover date: March 1941) Joe Simon and Jack Kirby Timely, Atlas, Marvel Comics Enhanced strength, speed, and agility Indestructible shield New York City Bucky Barnes, Sub-Mariner, Human Torch (original), Iron Man, Falcon, Sharon Carter (Agent13), Nick Fury Red Skull, Hydra, AIM, Arnim Zola, Watchdogs, Dr. Faustus, Madame Hydra/Viper, Serpent Society, Crossbones All Winners Squad, Avengers, Invaders, SHIELD Steve Rogers (though others have donned the identity through the years) Star-Spangled Avenger; Sentinel of Liberty; Cap

The first two patriotic-themed comic book superheroes were the Shield (January 1940), and Uncle Sam (July 1940); but the longest-lasting and most iconic is Captain America. Though Captain America’s origin story has been slightly altered over the decades, his general origin story has remained the same. In the early days of World War II, physically puny Steve Rogers was unable to pass the physical for the U.S. Army, so he volunteered for a secret government experiment, allowing himself to be injected with a “Super Soldier Serum” which promised to enhance his physical abilities. Though Rogers had been intended as the first of an army of super soldiers, the primary scientist running the program, Dr. Reinstein (later retconned Dr. Erskine), was killed, and all remaining vials of the experimental serum were destroyed by a Nazi spy. As the sole super soldier, Rogers donned a red-white-and-blue costume and became “Captain America” in Captain America Comics #1 (Simon and Kirby, 1941). Captain America was the first comic book superhero to debut in his own, self-titled comic book. On the cover of that first issue, Captain America is shown delivering a powerful right hook to real-life German dictator Adolf Hitler. The message of this image is clear: by 1940, a growing number of Americans, particularly Jewish Americans, were becoming increasingly aware of the threat posed by the Nazi regime overseas.

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During the war, Cap and Bucky fought enemy Axis agents, includ­ ing Cap’s archnemesis, the Red Skull. In most World War II sto­ ries, the “bad guy” would be kil­ led, often by the young sidekick. Throughout the war, Captain America appeared in several Timely Comics, most notably All Winners Comics, where he fought as part of the team “All Winners Squad” alongside the other Timely heroes Sub-Mariner and the original Human Torch. After the war, Rogers became a public school geography teacher, with Bucky as one of his students, at the Lee School named for then–Cap writer Stan Lee (Stan Lee and Vince Alascia, Captain America Comics #59, 1946). By the end of the 1940s, superhero comics were no longer in vogue, and Cover for Captain America Comics #1 (March Captain America Comics was 1941), from co-creators Joe Simon and Jack canceled. The hero briefly Kirby. This historic image of Captain America punching real-world dictator Adolf Hitler was returned in late 1953, first in the a call from the hero’s creators for the United pages of Young Men and later States to enter the war against fascism. in Captain America: Commie (Marvel Comics/Photofest) Smasher!. The stories in these issues turned Cap’s antifascism approach and directed it toward the perceived growing threat of inter­ national communism. Once the book was canceled yet again, Captain America would disappear until the advent of the “Marvel Age” of comics in the 1960s. In 1964, Captain America returned in the pages of The Avengers #4. Cap was discovered frozen in ice, due to an accident after a mission near the end of World War II. This provided the first retcon of the character, essentially erasing all Cap stories since 1945, including those of the “Commie Smasher” (Lee and Kirby, Avengers #4, 1964). For the duration of the 1960s, Cap would experience being a “man out of time,” exploring how America had changed in the years since World War II. A year after the assassination of Martin Luther King, Lee and artist Gene Colan introduced the first African American superhero in the pages of Captain America: Sam Wilson, the Falcon (Lee and Gene Colan, Captain America #117, 1969). In the 1970s, under the new title Captain America and the Falcon, Cap would confront issues from changes in race relations since the 1950s to the realworld sociopolitical crisis arising from the Watergate scandal (Steve Englehart and Sal Buscema, Captain America and the Falcon, #153–154, 1972; #175, 1974).



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Mark Gruenwald Mark Gruenwald (1953–1996) was one of the most important writers/editors in the history of Marvel Comics. He began his career at Marvel in 1978, working alongside comic book legend Denny O’Neil. He was immediately given editorial control of several Marvel books, including Avengers, Iron Man, Thor, and the alternate-reality series What If. Two of his biggest projects came in 1982, cowriting Marvel Super Hero Contest of Champions and personally directing the creation of The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe, a multivolume encyclopedia of Marvel characters to date. He is perhaps most remembered for his iconic 10-year run as writer of Captain America (1985–1995), during which time he created several iconic supporting characters for the Sentinel of Liberty: U.S.Agent, Diamondback, and Crossbones. Among the many stories from his run, one of the most powerful consisted of the U.S. government firing Cap and replacing him with a more violent, obedient replacement, leading Steve Rogers to continue fighting villains as simply “the Captain.” After revealing that the Red Skull had manipulated the government’s decision, Rogers once more donned the mantle of Cap. Gruenwald owned a valuable replica of Cap’s shield, and in 2007—after the death of Captain America in the comics—the shield was given to television host Stephen Colbert by Marvel editor in chief Joe Quesada. Gruenwald died unexpectedly of a heart attack in 1996 at the age of 43. As per his request, he was cremated and his ashes were mixed with the ink for the trade paperback compilation of Squadron Supreme (Brian Cronin, June 3, 2005). “Comic Book Urban Legends Revealed #1,” Comic Book Resources). Richard A. Hall

Captain America’s World War II adventures were revisited in the pages of The Invaders in 1975. From editor Marv Wolfman and under the pen of Roy Thomas, this comic teamed Captain America with his fellow Golden Age heroes Human Torch and Sub-Mariner. This was a series of retcon adventures capitalizing on Cap’s origin years. In 1976, Jack Kirby returned to Marvel to write and draw Captain America and the companion piece Captain America Bicentennial Battles. Widely marketed by Marvel, Kirby’s return was neither a critical nor commercial success. This would mark Kirby’s final work with Marvel Comics. With the country in a severely demoralized state, the writers of Captain America toyed with the idea of Cap for president in 1980 (Roger Stern and John Byrne, Captain America #250). After listening to his fellow Avengers giving him all of the pros and cons, Cap decides that he cannot run for president. Captain America represents the American “ideal,” not the American “reality.” In 1982, writer J. M. DeMatteis introduced the first gay character in American comic books: Arnie Roth. The significance of this introduction becomes clearer when taking into account the context of the period. In 1982, the AIDS epidemic in America was still relatively new, and the gay community in the United States was becoming more and more ostracized due to its apparent connection with the illness. The story lines of the 1980s often revolved around the shifting concept of “hero” in that decade. For example, when the federal government claims ownership of “Captain America,” requiring the hero to submit to its orders and assignments, Steve Rogers, feeling he cannot support the current administration’s policies, steps down as Captain America and is replaced by the more violent John

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Walker (Mark Gruenwald and Tom Morgan, Captain America #332–333, 1987). Rogers would continue to fight crime as “the Captain,” wearing a black version of the Cap costume. He reclaims his colors when it is revealed that the federal commission that had forced Rogers to resign was, in fact, working for the Red Skull (Gruenwald and Kieron Dwyer, Captain America #350, 1989). Walker would continue in “the Captain” costume as “U.S. Agent,” changing his secret identity to “Jack Daniels.” After the Cold War, in 1992, Americans appeared to no longer need superheroes. During this decade, Captain America “died” twice, only to be resurrected immediately both times (Gruenwald and Dave Hoover, Captain America #443, 1995; Scott Lobdell, Mark Waid, Andy Kubert, and Joe Bennett, Onslaught Marvel Universe #1, 1996). The title would be relaunched under the “Heroes Reborn” banner, where members of the Avengers and Fantastic Four die and are reborn in a pocket universe. The failure of this line led to these characters’ return to regular continuity under the “Heroes Return” story line. Comics sales dropped dramatically by mid decade; and by the turn of the century, the future of comic books was uncertain. The terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, rekindled Americans’ need for comic book superheroes. In the wake of the attacks, Cap was relaunched as America’s first line of defense against terrorism at home and abroad. In 2002, as part of Marvel’s new “Ultimate” universe, designed to appeal to newer and younger readers and under the creative team of Mark Millar and Bryan Hitch, Cap is presented as part of the Ultimates. Representing a darker version of Cap, he and his new team of avengers worked directly under the guidance of General Nick Fury and SHIELD (The Ultimates #1, March 2002). In 2003, Robert Morales and Kyle Baker published Captain America: Truth. This story posited a retconned origin for the “Captain America” program, making it very similar to the horrific Tuskegee experiments in which African American men were subjected to procedures for decades in a study of the progression of syphilis. In Truth, the Super Soldier Serum that gave Captain America his powers was first tested on a platoon of African American soldiers, with mostly unfortunate results. In 2007, in the immediate aftermath of the Civil War story line, during which Captain America led half of the Marvel heroes in opposition to the idea of superhero registration, Steve Rogers was assassinated (Ed Brubaker and Steve Epting, Captain America #25, 2007). By the end of George W. Bush’s presidential administration, it was becoming clear that Cap, a hero of World War II, no longer reflected the American ideals of the World War II generation. Many viewed America as a shadow of its former self. With Steve Rogers dead, the mantle of Captain America was taken up by his former World War II sidekick, Bucky Barnes, the former assassin Winter Soldier (Brubaker and Epting, Captain America vol. 5, #34, March 2008). The “Star-Spangled Avenger” was resurrected once more in 2009 after the election of Barack Obama (Brubaker and Bryan Hitch, Captain America Reborn #1, September 2009) proposed an era of “hope” and “change.” In recent years, Sam Wilson, the Falcon, has taken up the mantle of “Captain America,” and for one yearlong story line, Steve Rogers came back as Cap but was secretly an agent of Hydra (beginning in Nick Spencer and Jesus Saiz, Captain



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America: Steve Rogers #1, July 2016). Through the decades, Captain America has been a mainstay of American comic book superheroes and a symbol of hope to millions of comic book readers young and old. The various writers over the decades have utilized Cap—perhaps more so than any other comic book superhero— to address sociopolitical issues of the day. He stands as the ultimate representation of the American dream. Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Bucky/Young Allies/Winter Soldier, Captain America: Other Media, Falcon, Fighting American, Nick Fury/SHIELD, Human Torch (1940s), Hydra/AIM, Iron Man, Red Skull, Shield (1940s), Sub-Mariner, Uncle Sam, Wonder Woman: Comics; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Costello, Matthew. 2009. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books & the Unmasking of Cold War America. New York: Continuum. DiPaolo, Marc. 2011. War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Dittmer, Jason. 2007. “Retconning America: Captain America in the Wake of World War II and the McCarthy Hearings.” In The Amazing Transforming Superhero!: Essays on Revision of Characters in Comic Books, Film and Television, edited by Terrence R. Wandtke, 33–51. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Dittmer, Jason. 2013. Captain America and the Nationalist Superhero: Metaphors, Narratives, and Geopolitics. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Evanier, Mark. 2008. Kirby: King of Comics. New York: Abrams Press. Feiffer, Jules. (1965) 2003. The Great Comic Book Heroes. Seattle: Fantagraphics Books. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Lee, Stan, Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible!: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone. Michaud, Nicolas, and Jessica Watkins, eds. 2018. Iron Man vs. Captain America and Philosophy: Give Me Liberty or Keep Me Safe. Chicago: Open Court Press. Moulton, Jeffery. 2012. The Superhero Response: How 9/11 Changed Our Superheroes and Why It Matters. Self-published. Raphael, Jordan, and Tom Spurgeon. 2003. Stan Lee and the Rise and Fall of the American Comic Book. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Simon, Joe. 2011. My Life in Comics. London: Titan Books. Stevens, J. Richard. 2015. Captain America, Masculinity, and Violence: The Evolution of a National Icon. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. Weiner, Robert G., ed. 2009. Captain America and the Struggle of the Superhero: Critical Essays. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. White, Mark D. 2014. The Virtues of Captain America: Modern-Day Lessons on Character from a World War II Superhero. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. White, Mark D. 2016. A Philosopher Reads . . . Marvel Comics’ Civil War: Exploring the Moral Judgment of Captain America, Iron Man, and Spider-Man. Ockham. Online. Accessed September 20, 2018. https://www.ockham-publishing.com/.

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Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Captain America: Other Media First Appearance: Creators: Producers: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Captain America Comics #1 (cover date: March 1941) Joe Simon and Jack Kirby Republic Pictures/Grantray-Lawrence Animation/ Universal Studios/Marvel Studios/Walt Disney Corporation Enhanced strength, speed, and agility Indestructible shield (except the 1943 serial version, who has a gun) New York City Bucky Barnes/Winter Soldier, Falcon, Peggy Carter, Nick Fury, Iron Man, Black Widow, Sharon Carter/Agent-13 Red Skull, Hydra, Arnim Zola, Bucky Barnes/ Winter Soldier, Iron Man Avengers, SHIELD Steve Rogers (Grant Gardner in the 1943 movie serial) Star-Spangled Avenger; Sentinel of Liberty; Cap

Starting from the very early years of the superhero genre, publishers sought outside opportunities to profit from their popular properties. Joe Simon’s and Jack Kirby’s popular Timely Comics superhero first appeared in other media in a 1943 Republic Pictures movie serial. There were some alterations to this first film incarnation. Rather than would-be soldier Steve Rogers, the Republic Captain America was District Attorney Grant Gardner, who—unlike his comic book counterpart—carried a gun. The film version was also missing the trademark wings on his cowl, and his belt buckle acted as his shield. Also missing from this first film version is comic book sidekick Bucky. Additionally, although the United States was, by this time, deeply embedded in World War II and the Nazis and Japanese were frequent villains in the comic book, neither appeared as the serial villain. Cap next appeared outside of comics on American television screens in a series of animated episodes airing in 1966 under the title The Marvel Super Heroes. The series consisted of 65 half-hour episodes, with Captain America appearing in a seven-minute segment each episode in addition to “The Incredible Hulk,” “The Invincible Iron Man,” “The Sub-Mariner,” and “The Mighty Thor.” The project was overseen by Stan Lee, and the animation consisted of minimal movements provided to already-produced comic book panels. Due to questions of distribution



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Joe Simon and Jack Kirby Joseph “Joe” Simon (1913–2011) and Jacob “Jack Kirby” Kurtzberg (1917–1994), both from New York City, cocreated Captain America. Simon was the first editor of Timely Comics, which later became Marvel Comics. The creation of Captain America spawned tremendous criticism from conservative groups such as “America First” and the “American Nazi Bund,” leading to death threats over the pro-war, anti-Nazi hero. After producing only 10 issues of Captain America Comics, the two left Timely to work for National Allied/ DC Comics. Once the United States entered World War II, both men went to serve— Simon in the coast guard and Kirby in the army. After the war, the men returned to their partnership, eventually opening their own company—Mainline Publications. In 1954, in response to Timely/Atlas Comics’ attempted revival of Captain America, Simon and Kirby created Fighting American, which at first was a direct copy of the “Commie Smasher” Captain America from Atlas, but it soon turned into a political satire in the wake of McCarthyism. The two parted ways in 1955, with Simon moving to advertising and Kirby returning to Timely—now Atlas but soon to be Marvel—Comics. There, in 1961, Kirby, working with former Timely office boy (and now Marvel editor) Stan Lee, cocreated what became known as the Marvel Age of Comics. Kirby’s collaboration was responsible for many iconic superheroes: the Fantastic Four, Thor, the Hulk, and the X-Men. This era earned Kirby the nickname “King of Comics.” In 1970, Kirby once more left Marvel and moved to DC Comics, where he created the New Gods series of books. From 1980 until his death in 1994, Kirby continued to work for smaller comics companies and animation studios, even collaborating with DC on a season of its Saturday-morning cartoon Super Powers. Richard A. Hall

copyrights, the series has not been released on DVD but can be found on YouTube. In 1979, two television movies of Captain America appeared on CBS-TV: Captain America and Captain America II: Death Too Soon. Directed by Rob Holcomb and starring Reb Brown as the Sentinel of Liberty, this incarnation of Captain America saw Steve Rogers as the modern-day (1979) son of a 1940s government agent. After suffering a vehicle accident, the former marine is injected with the FLAGG formula in an attempt to save his life. The serum gives him enhanced powers. Donning the traditionally recognized costume of Captain America (with a motorcycle helmet rather than a mask), the modern hero is born. It was hoped that the films would inspire a television series along the lines of the more successful Wonder Woman and The Incredible Hulk; however, no such success was achieved. A theatrical movie was filmed but never released in 1990. Produced by Marvel Entertainment and directed by Albert Pyun, this Captain America remained truer to the comic book. Steve Rogers, played by Matt Salinger, became Captain America in World War II, was frozen, and reemerged in 1990 to battle his old foe the Red Skull. With poor production values, the movie was not released theatrically but was aired on cable television and released on home video two years later. In 2008, Marvel Studios launched the “Marvel Cinematic Universe” with the release of Iron Man. In 2011, Chris Evans bore the shield in Captain America: The First Avenger, directed by Joe Johnston. A critical and commercial success, Evans

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reprised the role in Marvel’s The Avengers (2012), Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Captain America: Civil War (2016), and Avengers: Infinity War (2018). With Marvel Studios in complete control of the production, the movies of the MCU remain much closer to the source material than had previous endeavors. The success of the cinematic Captain America stories led Marvel Studios to produce a live-action series based on his love interest, Agent Peggy Carter. Agent Carter aired two seasons from 2015 to 2016 on ABC-TV. In 2009, Marvel was purchased by the Walt Disney Company, which has a long history of maximizing the profitability of its properties. That same year, Captain America debuted along with the other Marvel heroes in the kid-friendly cartoon series The Super Hero Squad Show running from 2009 to 2011. Due to the success of the feature films, Marvel Animation produced a popular cartoon series, The Avengers: Earth Mightiest Heroes, in 2010. Though successful, this series was replaced by Avengers Assemble in 2013, due primarily to the 2009 purchase by Disney and the question of television rights. With Captain America featured in both series, these animated versions represented an amalgamation of the comic and cinematic versions of the characters. With the continued success of the Marvel film franchise, the future of the Star-Spangled Avenger in other media seems a certainty. Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Black Panther, Black Widow, Bucky/Young Allies/Winter Soldier, Captain America: Comics, Falcon, Hydra/AIM, Nick Fury/SHIELD, Iron Man, Thor, Red Skull; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

DiPaolo, Marc. 2011. War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Michaud, Nicolas, and Jessica Watkins, eds. 2018. Iron Man vs. Captain America and Philosophy: Give Me Liberty or Keep Me Safe. Chicago: Open Court Press. Stevens, J. Richard. 2015. Captain America Masculinity, and Violence: The Evolution of a National Icon. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. White, Mark D. 2014. The Virtues of Captain America: Modern-Day Lessons on Character from a World War II Superhero. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

Captain Marvel (a.k.a. SHAZAM!) First Appearance: Whiz Comics #2 (cover date: February 1940) Creators: Bill Parker and C. C. Beck Publisher: Fawcett Publications/DC Comics Powers: Super strength and speed, Flight, Lightning Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Unknown Key Allies: Captain Marvel Jr., Mary Marvel, Bulletman and Bulletgirl



Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

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Black Adam, Doctor Sivana Squadron of Justice (under Fawcett)/Justice League (under DC) Billy Batson SHAZAM!, the Big Red Cheese, the World’s Mightiest Mortal

Not to be confused with the Marvel Comics hero bearing the same name since the late 1960s, the original “Captain Marvel” is a Golden Age hero first published by Fawcett Publications. Among superheroes, the original Captain Marvel is unique. Rather than an adult with a secret identity, Captain Marvel is actually preteen boy Billy Batson. After an encounter with the mysterious wizard Shazam, young Billy gains the ability to transform into the adult Captain Marvel by simply calling out the wizard’s name, which magically summons powers from ancient figures: the wisdom of Solomon, the strength of Hercules, the stamina of Atlas, the power of Zeus, the courage of Achilles, and the speed of Mercury (Parker and Beck, Whiz Comics #2, February 1940). Throughout that decade, Captain Marvel was the closest sales competition to the industry leader, Superman, surpassing the Man of Steel as often as not. Over time, Captain Marvel gained two sidekicks, creating what would become known as “Marvel Family”: Captain Marvel Jr. (Ed Herron, Beck, and Mac Raboy, Whiz Comics #25, December 1941); and Mary Marvel (Otto Binder and Marc Swayze, Captain Marvel Adventures #18, December 1942). Aside from appearing in Whiz Comics, the two sidekicks also gained their own series as well as appearing with Captain Marvel in the pages of Master Comics, Wow Comics, and The Marvel Family throughout the 1940s. As early as 1941, National Allied Comics (known today as DC) sued Fawcett Publications, arguing that Captain Marvel was a copyright infringement of Superman as Marvel was a superhero with a cape and dark hair who could fly and had super strength. This argument, however, fails to mention the fact that Captain Marvel (hitting newsstands in November 1939) could fly long before Superman, who only “[leapt] tall buildings in a single bound” until finally flying in Superman #10, which was published in 1941 (Cronin, “Comic Legends: When Did Superman First Fly?” Comic Book Review, 2016). Additionally, there were the obvious differences: the boy-to-man transformation and the connection to mythical legends. Despite these, however, in 1952, the court ruled that Captain Marvel was copyright infringement, and Fawcett canceled all of the Marvel books by 1954. In 1972, DC Comics, having purchased the publishing rights to the Fawcett catalog of characters, attempted to bring back Captain Marvel. However, by the time it was ready to go to press, rival Marvel Comics had already created—and copyrighted—its own, very different, character by the same name. Thus, the very company that had sued to stop Captain Marvel decades before now found itself in a similar legal quandary. Finally, in 1973, the hero finally returned in the pages of his own comic, referred to simply as “Shazam.” The creative team of Denny O’Neil and cocreator C. C. Beck brought back the entire Marvel family, explaining

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that, for the last 20 years, it had been trapped in a globe of “suspendium” by the Sivana family connected to original villain Dr. Sivana (Shazam! #1, February 1973). With his introduction to the DC Comics multiverse, the Marvel Family was soon distributed to the alternate “Earth-S” reality along with other Fawcett acquisitions such as Bulletman and Bulletgirl. After being reincorporated into mainstream DC continuity with the 1985 Crisis on Infinite Earths story line, Shazam was written into the reboot of the Justice League title (Keith Giffen, J. M. DeMatteis, and Kevin Maguire, Justice League #1, May 1987). Writer/artist Jerry Ordway reintroduced the Cover for Whiz Comics #2 (February 1940), with character in a one-shot graphic cover art by C.C. Beck. Debuting Captain Marvel, novel called The Power of the cover image of this issue shows “The World’s Shazam (March 1994), leading Mightiest Mortal” throwing a car full of criminals to a continuing series of the against a wall. (Digital Comic Museum) same title one year later. This series would cross over into two major DC story lines in the coming years: “DC: One Million” and “Blackest Night.” Perhaps the character’s most significant role in his years at DC was in the graphic novel Kingdom Come by writer Mark Waid and artist Alex Ross in 1996. In this dystopian future story line, the villainous Lex Luthor has relative control of the world, with the classic heroes—most notably Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman—long-since retired. Luthor mentally controls the now-adult Billy Batson. This “Elseworlds” alternate-reality story line would finally see the physical confrontation between longtime rivals Superman and Shazam, with the former winning only by freeing his opponent from mental control. In 2011, DC Comics relaunched its entire line of superheroes with the “New 52” story line. In this retconned reality, young orphan Billy Batson soon joins the Justice League (Geoff Johns and Gary Frank, Justice League #7, March 2012). Captain Marvel was the first comic book superhero to appear on film. In 1941, Republic Pictures—which would later produce the Captain America film serial— produced The Adventures of Captain Marvel starring Frank Coghlan Jr. as Billy and Tom Tyler as Captain Marvel. Seventy years later, Marvel would appear in minor roles in a handful of direct-to-DVD animated DC adventures before



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starring in the feature story of an anthology DVD titled Superman/Shazam!: The Return of Black Adam (Warner Home Video, 2010). However, the most iconic portrayal of Captain Marvel was in the 1974–1977 Saturday morning live-action series produced by Filmation and airing on CBS-TV, starring Michael Gray as an older (early-twenties) Billy Batson and Jackson Bostwick and later John Davey as the World’s Mightiest Mortal. The series ran alone for its first season before being teamed with episodes of The Secrets of Isis as part of The Shazam!/Isis Hour for the remainder of its run. The entire Marvel Family appeared in a short-lived animated series from 1981 to 1982 called The Kid Super Power Hour with Shazam!. Despite decades of absence from the printed page followed by decades of relative obscurity, Captain Marvel was not only one of the very first comic book superheroes; for the first decade of his existence, he was one of the most popular. As the hero that most directly addresses a child reader’s dreams of being a hero, he stands unique among superheroes. The legal controversies that have frequently revolved around the character are a window into the often unseemly behind-the-scenes world of superhero comics. Despite all of the problems that have plagued the character over the decades, Captain Marvel has maintained a small but dedicated following. Richard A. Hall See also: Bulletman and Bulletgirl, Justice League, Superman: Comics; Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955.

Further Reading

Cronin, Brian. 2016. “Comic Legends: When Did Superman First Fly?” Comic Book Review, December 3. Accessed September 10, 2018. http://www.cbr.com /comic-legends-when-did-superman-first-fly/. Feiffer, Jules. (1965) 2003. The Great Comic Book Heroes. Seattle: Fantagraphics Books. Fingeroth, Danny. 2007. Disguised as Clark Kent: Jews, Comics, and the Creation of the Superhero. New York: Continuum Press. Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Knowles, Christopher. 2007. Our Gods Wear Spandex: The Secret History of Comic Book Heroes. San Francisco: Weiser Books. Regalado, Aldo J. 2015. Bending Steel: Modernity and the American Superhero. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Cloak and Dagger First Appearance: Creators: Publisher:

Peter Parker, The Spectacular Spider-Man #64 (cover date: March 1982) Bill Mantlo and Ed Hannigan Marvel Comics

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Powers:

Cloak: Teleportation, Intangibility, Connection to “Darkforce Dimension” Dagger: Creating “light daggers,” Healing others (even from addiction) Weapons: Cloak: N/A Dagger: “Light” daggers Base of Operations: New York City, New Orleans (television series) Key Allies: Father Delgado, Detective Brigid O’Reilly (a.k.a. “Mayhem”), Spider-Man Key Enemies: Various street-level criminals, various Marvel Universe villains Team Affiliations: “Secret” Avengers, X-Men (unofficially), “Secret” Defenders Secret Identity: Cloak: Tyrone “Ty” Johnson Dagger: Tandy Bowen Nicknames: N/A By 1982, the drug crisis in America had reached nightmare proportions. That same year, First Lady Nancy Reagan launched her “Just Say No” campaign across the country. It was into this atmosphere that Cloak and Dagger were introduced. Ty Johnson is an African American teenager who has run away from his home in Boston to the streets of New York City, where he meets white teenager Tandy Bowen, who has run away from her supermodel mother due to a lack of attention. The two teens find themselves taken in by an unscrupulous chemist who is devising a powerful synthetic form of heroin. While his experiments have killed all of his previous teen subjects, his drugs somehow imbue Johnson and Bowen with supernatural powers. Ty becomes a shadowy figure with the ability to transport himself or others through what is called the “Darkforce Dimension.” Tandy gains the ability to create daggers of pure light and to heal others from injury and even from addiction. Together, they choose to fight street-level crime as “Cloak and Dagger” (Mantlo and Rick Leonardi, Cloak and Dagger #4, January 1984). After their first few appearances in Peter Parker, The Spectacular Spider-Man and their four-issue miniseries, Cloak and Dagger received their first ongoing series from 1985 to 1987. At that point, they were combined with Doctor Strange adventures in the anthology series Strange Tales before returning to their own series, The Mutant Misadventures of Cloak and Dagger, which ran from 1988 to 1990. Also in 1988, the duo appeared in Marvel Comics’ 34th graphic novel, Cloak and Dagger: Predator and Prey, from creator Bill Mantlo and artist Larry Stroman. Since 1990, Cloak and Dagger have appeared (both together and apart) in various Marvel titles, mostly as ancillary characters, and in events such as House of M and Civil War. Cloak and Dagger have had very limited appearances outside of comics to date. They appeared in one episode of the Disney-XD animated series Ultimate Spider-Man in 2014.



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In 2018, the cable-TV station Freeform (previously “ABC Family”) launched the live-action series Cloak & Dagger starring Aubrey Joseph and Olivia Holt in the title roles. Set in New Orleans, Ty Johnson is the son of an upper-middle-class black family whose oldest son was shot down by a policeman despite his having done nothing wrong. Tandy Bowen is the daughter of a Roxxon Oil Company employee who dies in a car accident, leaving his daughter and alcoholic and drug addict wife destitute. The accident happens in conjunction with the explosion of a Roxxon oil derrick offshore; Bowen’s car, with young Tandy in the back seat, goes into the bay. This event happens simultaneously with Ty’s brother’s shooting on the dock, and Ty dives into the bay to recover his brother. Though both family members are lost, Ty somehow discovers and saves Tandy, and the two wash ashore. Coming to on the shore, young Tandy wanders off, leaving her savior alone. Ty goes on to become a star high school basketball player while Tandy’s life spirals into despair, alcohol and drug abuse, and crime. The two eventually meet again just as each begins to manifest mysterious powers, presumably the result of whatever had spilled from the oil derrick into the bay when they were children (Cloak & Dagger, Episodes 1–3, Freeform, 2018). The original incarnation of Cloak and Dagger spoke directly to what was happening in America at the time. The primary victims of the drug epidemic in the early 1980s were poverty-class minorities and upper-class whites. The 21st-century incarnation also strives to reflect current events, from the wrongful shooting of Ty’s brother to corporate noncompliance with paying out survivor benefits to the dangers of unchecked, unregulated business and the impact of its misdeeds on an unsuspecting populace (and the environment). Though the duo has not had a consistent run of comics in over 25 years, the characters remain popular with superhero fans, as is evidenced from early reception of the television series. At a time when teenagers face growing up in an increasingly dangerous and uncertain world, Cloak and Dagger may be more relevant than ever. Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Black Lightning, Black Panther, Blade, the Vampire Hunter, Brother Voodoo, Doctor Strange, Falcon, Luke Cage/Power Man, Spawn, Spider-Man: Comics, X-Men: Comics; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Boyd, Todd. 1997. Am I Black Enough for You?: Popular Culture from the ’Hood and Beyond. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Gateward, Frances, and John Jennings, eds. 2015. The Blacker the Ink: Constructions of Black Identity in Comics and Sequential Art. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Howard, Sheena C., and Ronald L. Jackson II, eds. 2013. Black Comics: Race and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Nama, Adilifu. 2011. Super Black: American Pop Culture and Black Superheroes. Austin: University of Texas Press.

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Crimson Avenger First Appearance: Detective Comics #20 (cover date: October 1938) Creators: Jim Chambers Publisher: National Allied/DC Comics Powers: N/A Weapons: Gas gun Base of Operations: Unknown Key Allies: Wing Key Enemies: N/A Team Affiliations: Seven Soldiers of Liberty Secret Identity: Lee Travis Nicknames: N/A Crimson Avenger was one of the earliest comic book superheroes, following immediately on the heels of Superman. Following in the tradition of radio heroes the Shadow and Green Hornet but more closely resembling future comic book heroes the Spirit and the original Sandman, Crimson Avenger was reporter Lee Travis, who donned a mask (making him the first DC hero to do so), fedora, and cloak and waged a vigilante war on crime armed with a gas gun. Appearing regularly in Detective Comics through World War II, he joined the Seven Soldiers of Victory alongside such other DC heroes as Green Arrow and Star-Spangled Kid in the pages of Leading Comics under the pen of Mort Weisinger beginning with the first issue (December 1941). The Crimson Avenger—like most superheroes in the late 1930s—fought mainly street-level crime and corrupt businessmen and politicians. DC would bring back the character for a few appearances in the 1980s, mostly tweaking his origin story to place him more directly within the actual history of pre–World War II America. In 2000, Geoff Johns and Scott Kolins introduced a new Crimson Avenger in the form of Jill Carlyle, an African American woman and lawyer. After losing a case that allowed a guilty man to go free, she uses a pair of pistols that once belonged to the original Crimson Avenger. After exacting her vengeance, she is cursed to continue to use the guns to kill those who have taken innocent life. Now cursed to be a “Spirit of Vengeance,” she bears an endlessly bleeding bullet wound in her chest as a reminder of her mission (Stars and S.T.R.I.P.E #9, April 2000). Unlike the original Crimson Avenger—and as part of her Spirit of Vengeance curse—Carlyle can become intangible (allowing enemy bullets to pass through her) and is involuntarily teleported to the location of her next victim. Prior to the introduction of supervillains in 1940—and real-life villains in the form of the Nazis and Japanese a year later—comic book superheroes, including Superman, were social crusaders, fighting the kind of Depression-era villains that Americans saw every day: corrupt landlords and politicians, domestic abusers, and common street criminals. They were a symbol of individual action against a



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system that no longer seemed to work. This is the ultimate legacy of the original Crimson Avenger. He is a window into a time in America’s past when the general populace—children key among them—sought out a hero to save the day. Richard A. Hall See also: Green Arrow, Green Hornet, The Phantom, The Shadow, The Spirit; Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955.

Further Reading

Heer, Jeet, and Kent Worcester. 2009. A Comics Studies Reader. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Kantor, Michael, and Laurence Maslon. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Regalado, Aldo J. 2015. Bending Steel: Modernity and the American Superhero. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press.

D Daredevil First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Daredevil #1 (cover date: April 1964) Stan Lee and Bill Everett Marvel Comics Enhanced senses (including organic “radar”), Ninja skills Club (can separate into two, extend into nunchaku, or produce a cable for swinging between buildings). New York City (Hell’s Kitchen) Elektra, Black Widow, Franklin “Foggy” Nelson, Karen Page, Spider-Man, Stick, Echo, Punisher, Night Nurse, Ben Urich Bullseye, Kingpin, Owl, Mary Walker (a.k.a. “Typhoid Mary” and “Bloody Mary”), Punisher Avengers, Defenders (TV) Matt Murdock The Man Without Fear, Horn-Head

Daredevil represents the last of the first wave of the “Marvel Age” of comics in the early 1960s and comes from the creative team of Stan Lee and artist Bill Everett (though many have suggested input from fellow artist Jack Kirby). As a child, Matt Murdock was exposed to dangerous radioactive chemicals when a barrel containing the substance fell from a truck that young Murdock had just saved a man from being hit by. Suffering permanent blindness, Murdock soon discovers that his other senses have been dramatically enhanced, including a form of organic “radar” that allows him to “see” much of what immediately surrounds him. When his father, boxer Jack Murdock, is murdered by his gangster manager for refusing to throw a fight, Murdock trains in martial arts, growing up to become a lawyer by day, and crime-fighting, costumed vigilante Daredevil by night, secure that his true identity will never be revealed, as the rest of the world believes him to be blind (Lee and Everett, Daredevil #1, April 1964). Originally sporting a yellow and red costume, Daredevil receives his more traditionally recognized red suit beginning with Daredevil #7 (March 1965). In 1972, the title was temporarily changed to Daredevil and the Black Widow beginning with issue #93 (Gerry Conway and Gene Colan, November 1972) and continuing through issue #107 (January 1974) before the character was returned to solo adventures. As

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Daredevil devolved to secondtier status, editor Denny O’Neil turned to title over to up-andcoming writer/artist Frank Miller beginning in 1981. Miller’s debut issue introducing Murdock’s college girlfriend and current assassin Elektra quickly received attention from fans and critics alike (Daredevil #168, January 1981). During this run, Miller retconned Daredevil’s training by introducing the character’s mentor, Stick, as well as establishing that Matt Murdock is Catholic, opening the door for more internal conflict to the character’s crusade (Daredevil #176, November 1981). Fans reacted positively to the new run, making it all the more shocking when Miller Charlie Cox stars in the live-action Netflix series decided to kill off Elektra slightly Daredevil that debuted in 2015. The series has over a year later (Daredevil #181, been hailed for remaining more true to the April 1982). source material than the Ben Affleck film from In the mid-1980s, Miller and 2003. (Netflix/Photofest) new artist David Mazzucchelli introduced the “Born Again” story line, where Wilson Fisk, the “Kingpin of Crime,” discovers Daredevil’s secret identity and systematically destroys Matt Murdock’s life, forcing the hero to expose Fisk—previously seen as an upstanding businessman—as the source of all crime in Hell’s Kitchen (Daredevil #227–233, February–August 1986). Miller would resurrect Elektra in the miniseries Elektra: Assassin with artist Bill Sienkiewicz (August 1986–March 1987). Throughout the 1990s, Daredevil would once more return to second-tier status while Elektra gained popularity. In 1998, as part of the new “Marvel Knights” mature-themed titles, Daredevil returned under the creative team of popular Hollywood director Kevin Smith and superstar artist Joe Quesada (Daredevil #1, November 1998). Coming into the 21st century, Daredevil would find his secret identity revealed, emerging as the new Kingpin of Crime and eventually serving time for his vigilante transgressions (Brian Michael Bendis and David Mack, Daredevil #16, May 2001). A retconned story line appeared in Daredevil: Yellow under Jeph Loeb and Tim Sale, reexamining the hero’s early days (beginning in August 2001). During Marvel’s Civil War story line, Daredevil would fight on the side of anti-registration heroes led by Captain America. Outside of comics, Daredevil has appeared as a guest star in several animated television series and video games. In 2003, a feature film, Daredevil, was released, directed by Mark Steven Johnson and starring Ben Affleck as the “Man Without Fear.” It

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experienced some commercial success but was widely panned by fans and critics. In 2015, Netflix debuted a Daredevil series starring Charlie Cox in the title role, which was met with considerable commercial and critical success and led to a second season in 2016. Cox continued in the role in the 2017 Netflix series The Defenders, teaming Daredevil with other Marvel/Netflix heroes Jessica Jones, Luke Cage, and Iron Fist. Representing the Silver Age wave of comic book superheroes that literally saved the genre, Daredevil has continually been a mainstay of the Marvel Universe. Richard A. Hall See also: Black Widow, Luke Cage/Power Man, Iron Fist, Punisher; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Lee, Stan, and Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone. Moulton, Jeffery. 2012. The Superhero Response: How 9/11 Changed Our Superheroes and Why It Matters. Self-published. Raphael, Jordan, and Tom Spurgeon. 2003. Stan Lee and the Rise and Fall of the American Comic Book. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Rosenberg, Robin S., and Peter Coogan, eds. 2013. What Is a Superhero? Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Deadpool First Appearance: New Mutants #98 (cover date: February 1991) Creators: Rob Liefeld and Fabian Nicieza Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers: Mutant regenerative abilities, Ninja skills Weapons: Swords, knives, guns Base of Operations: Canada Key Allies: Blind Al, Weasel, Wolverine, Cable, Spider-Man Key Enemies: New Mutants/X-Force, Weapon-X (Garrison Kane), Ajax Team Affiliations: X-Force Secret Identity: Wade Wilson Nicknames: The Merc-with-a-Mouth Deadpool is what is known in heroic fiction as an “antihero.” Though he does heroic acts and often defeats villains, he is also capable of working against

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traditional heroes and does not hesitate to take a human life. He represents a darker, more morally ambiguous “hero,” the archetype of which became popular in the 1970s. According to creator Rob Liefeld, the idea of Deadpool drew from three major sources: Wolverine, SpiderMan, and Deathstroke, the villain in DC Comics’ Teen Titans. Deadpool’s name, Wade Wilson, is even a nod to Deathstroke’s secret identity, Slade Wilson (Mark Hughes, “Interview,” Forbes Online, February 12, 2016). Based on his popularity in the pages of X-Force, Deadpool was given a miniseries in 1993 under the direction of Fabian Nicieza and Joe Madureira. The popularity of that book led to an ongoing series under Joe Kelly and Ed McGuinness, which would finally reveal Cover for The New Mutants #98 (February 1991), the antihero’s origin story. with cover art by Rob Liefeld. This issue marked Deadpool is the result of an the first appearance of Deadpool, a new villain experiment by the Canadian created by Liefeld. (Stephen Lloyd UK/Alamy government’s “Weapon-X” pro- Stock Photo) gram. Wade Wilson was a former soldier who has recently been diagnosed with a particularly aggressive form of cancer. With promises of a cure, Wilson allows the Weapon-X program to experiment on him, attempting to synthesize the genetic healing factor of the mutant former “Weapon-X,” Wolverine. The experiment is partially successful, giving Wilson unrivaled healing abilities. However, it does not cure his cancer; it only becomes more aggressive—and Wilson’s abilities stay one step ahead of the disease that leaves his skin permanently damaged and his brain in a state of constant flux, causing a high degree of mental instability (Kelly and McGuinness, Deadpool #1, January 1997). This has left his brain and therefore memory in a state of unrest, which allows for occasional tweaks to his past as writers see fit. It also leaves his personality, morals, sexuality, and even reality consistently changing. His mental instability has left the character with the ability to break the “fourth wall”: Deadpool is keenly aware that he is a character in a comic book, frequently directing his monologues directly at the reader. The characters with whom

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Deadpool interacts see this as a sign of his insanity. Though developed by Kelly, this aspect of the comic book was made more popular under the pen of Gail Simone, who wrote the title beginning with issue #65 (May 2002). The character’s sustained—and increasing—popularity has led to his both guest-starring and being featured in numerous comics in the 21st century. Perhaps Deadpool’s most famous story line came in Deadpool Kills the Marvel Universe by Cullen Bunn and Dalibor Talajic in 2012. In this paperback one-shot, Deadpool has been captured by the X-Men and taken to an asylum, where he falls into the clutches of the villain Psycho Man, who attempts to brainwash Deadpool into becoming his personal assassin. When the experiment fails, Deadpool kills Psycho Man and then proceeds to kill every hero in the Marvel Universe, eventually escaping the comic book page to kill the comic’s creative team before warning readers that they are next. Aside from its almost unprecedented comic gore, this book more than any other emphasizes the depth of Deadpool’s instability and his relationship with the reader. Outside of comics, Deadpool was featured in the animated DVD feature Hulk v. Wolverine in 2008. On film, the character was first introduced in X-Men Origins: Wolverine in 2009 from 20th Century Fox, directed by Gavin Hood and portrayed by Ryan Reynolds. This version of the character—and the film in general—was widely panned by both fans and critics, as it stripped Deadpool of his definitive wit by having his mouth sewn shut. Once the cinematic X-universe was restarted due to the events of the 2014 film X-Men: Days of Future Past by director Bryan Singer, Deadpool was free to be rebooted in a way more faithful to his comics origins. In the 2016 20th Century Fox film Deadpool, directed by Tim Miller, Reynolds was allowed to redeem himself and the character with a story that was not only faithful to the comics but was both a critical and commercial success, becoming the second-highest-grossing R-rated film after The Passion of the Christ. The massive success led to a sequel, Deadpool 2, directed by David Leitch, in 2018. The continuing popularity of the character all but guarantees that more projects—on both page and screen—featuring the “Merc-with-a-Mouth” will be forthcoming for the foreseeable future. Richard A. Hall See also: Punisher, Wolverine, X-Men: Comics, X-Men: Other Media, X-Men: Other X-Groups, X-Men: Rogues’ Gallery; Thematic Essays: The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Hughes, Mark. 2016. “Interview: Rob Liefeld Talks ‘Deadpool,’ Comics, Cable, and More.” Forbes Online, February 12. Accessed September 10, 2018. https://www​ .forbes.com/sites/markhughes/2016/02/12/interview-rob-liefeld-talks-deadpool​ -comics-cable-and-more/3/#2abbbd4f7b47. Moulton, Jeffery. 2012. The Superhero Response: How 9/11 Changed Our Superheroes and Why It Matters. Self-published. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.



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Doctor Doom First Appearance: Fantastic Four #5 (cover date: July 1962) Creators: Stan Lee and Jack Kirby Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers: Magic/Advanced intellect Weapons: Various gadgets/“Doombots” Base of Operations: Latveria Key Allies: Sub-Mariner, Loki, Mephisto Key Enemies: Fantastic Four, Mephisto, Black Panther Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: Victor Von Doom Nicknames: N/A Doctor Doom has emerged as the premier supervillain of the Marvel Comics Universe. Every Marvel superhero has faced off against Doctor Doom at least once. Doom was originally presented as a fellow college classmate of Reed Richards, nearly as gifted in science as the future Mr. Fantastic. Doom, however, was equally fascinated by magic and the occult. In an accident from a failed attempt to contact the afterlife, Doom was left disfigured. Once he learns of the emergence of the Fantastic Four, he dedicates himself to the dual goals of destroying the FF and conquering the world (Lee and Kirby, Fantastic Four Annual #2, September 1964). Over the years, there has been some confusion over the degree of his facial damage. Jack Kirby has stated on numerous occasions that Doom suffered little more than a single scar but that his own vanity viewed this as a horrible disfigurement that must be covered. Lee, on the other hand, has equally repeatedly stated that the degree of damage was much more severe; this version was verified later under writer/artist John Byrne in his 1980s run on Fantastic Four. Doom is the dictator of the small European country of Latveria, where his people alternately fear and adore him. Beginning in 1970, Doom received his own monthly solo adventures in the pages of Astonishing Tales (Roy Thomas and Wally Wood, Astonishing Tales #1, August 1970). In 1975, Thomas and artist John Buscema teamed Doom with fellow FF villain Namor, the Sub-Mariner, in the pages of Giant-Size Super-Villain Team-Up #1 (March 1975). After two successful issues, the series continued as a standard 32-page regular run, continuing for 17 issues. In 1987, Doom featured prominently in the four-issue miniseries Fantastic Four vs. the X-Men, written by Chris Claremont and drawn by Jon Bogdanove. When the X-Men approach Reed Richards for a cure for their teammate, Kitty Pryde (a.k.a. Shadowcat), who was slowly phasing into nothingness, Richards claims he cannot help. The X-Men then turn to the next most brilliant scientist on the planet: Doctor Doom (Fantastic Four vs. the X-Men #1, February 1987). In the 1990s, as part of Marvel’s “2099” story line, Doom appears in the year 2099, having disappeared from the past. He soon becomes a freedom fighter to

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liberate his home of Latveria, leaving readers to speculate whether this is the original Doom. By story’s end, it is revealed that this is the one, true Doom, though from an alternate reality to the base 1990s continuity. Once he has successfully liberated his homeland, Doom decides that the entire 2099 world needs his leadership and sets out to conquer it. During this story line, he will once more face off against the Fantastic Four, who have also traveled to 2099 from the past (first appearance: John Francis Moore and Pat Broderick, Marvel Comics Presents #118, December 1992; reveal of identity: Warren Ellis, Moore, and Broderick, Doom 2099 #25, January 1995). A kinder Doom is portrayed in the special 9/11-themed Amazing Spider-Man vol. 2, #36. In this issue, Doom stands alongside X-Men villain Magneto in the ashes of New York City’s Ground Zero, differentiating between the villainy of global conquest and the senseless murder of innocents (J. Michael Straczynski and John Romita Jr., Amazing Spider-Man #36, December 2001). Later, as part of the “Ultimate” alternate-universe story line in the early 2000s, Brian Michael Bendis, Mark Millar, and Adam Kubert reimagined the FF’s origin, focusing on a young Reed Richards attending a school for gifted students along with Sue and Johnny Storm. Reed creates an experimental transportation device that he tests along with the Storms and visiting friend Ben Grimm. Due to the sabotage of fellow student Victor Van Damme, the four are transformed into the FF, thus making Doom the cause of their superpowers (Ultimate Fantastic Four #1, February 2004). In recent years, Doom has often crossed paths with the Black Panther, even leading to the hero’s temporary coma in 2009. Outside of comics, Doom has been featured in episodes of the animated series Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends (1981–1986) and The Super Hero Squad Show (2009–2011). He appeared in a more regular role in the several animated series featuring the Fantastic Four (1967, 1978, 1994–1996, and 2006–2007). In the 2005 film Fantastic Four, directed by Tim Story, Doom is a wealthy scientist/ industrialist who sponsors Reed Richards’s space experiment, sharing in the accident that creates the FF and gives him power over electricity that ultimately scars him physically. He returns in the 2007 sequel, Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer, also directed by Story, where he steals the cosmic-powered board of the Surfer in an attempt to conquer the world. In the critically and commercially panned film Fant4stic (a.k.a. Fantastic Four), based on the “Ultimate” story line and directed by Josh Trank, the comic book character “Van Damme” is once more called “Von Doom.” Throughout his long history in the pages of Marvel Comics, Doctor Doom has proven to be the most formidable villain in the comics universe’s rogues’ gallery. A scientific and mystical genius with all the resources of his nation of Latveria at this disposal, he stands as a consistent threat—and occasional ally—to the greatest heroes of the Marvel Comics Universe. Richard A. Hall See also: Black Panther, Fantastic Four, Sub-Mariner, X-Men: Comics; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.



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Costello, Matthew J. 2009. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books & the Unmasking of Cold War America. New York: Continuum Press. DeFalco, Tom, ed. 2005. Comics Creators on Fantastic Four. London: Titan Books. Evanier, Mark. 2008. Kirby: King of Comics. New York: Abrams Press. Hatfield, Charles. 2013. “Jack Kirby and the Marvel Aesthetic.” In The Superhero Reader, edited by Charles Hatfield, Jeet Heer, and Kent Worcester, 136–154. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Lee, Stan, and Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone. Morrison, Grant. 2011. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Raphael, Jordan, and Tom Spurgeon. 2003. Stan Lee and the Rise and Fall of the American Comic Book. Chicago: Chicago Review Press.

Doctor Fate First Appearance: More Fun Comics #55 (cover date: May 1940) Creators: Gardner Fox and Howard Sherman Publisher: DC Comics Powers: Magic Weapons: Helmet of Fate (or Nabu), Amulet of Anubis, and Cloak of Destiny Base of Operations: Salem, Massachusetts Key Allies: Inza Cramer-Nelson (as Kent Nelson) Key Enemies: Wotan, Extant, Mordru Team Affiliations: Lords of Order, All Star Squadron, Justice Society Secret Identity: Kent Nelson (though others have assumed the identity over the years) Nicknames: N/A Doctor Fate was one of the original Golden Age heroes published by DC Comics. From 1940 to 1944, he appeared in the pages of both More Fun Comics and, as a member of the All Star Squadron and the Justice Society of America, All Star Comics. The original Doctor Fate was Kent Nelson, who, as a young boy, accompanied his archaeologist father to the Middle East, where they uncovered the crypt of the ancient sorcerer Nabu the Wise. After his father is accidentally killed from the release of poison gases, Kent is trained by Nabu to become a modern-day sorcerer with the assistance of the Helmet of Fate, which connects the wearer to Nabu and gives them control over the dual forces of order and chaos; the Amulet of Anubis, which creates a mystical void that can act as a prison; and the Cloak of Destiny, which gives the wearer the powers of flight, super strength, and invulnerability. Kent returns home as Doctor Fate, the primary agent of the Lords of Order,

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a group of advanced beings dedicated to maintaining cosmic balance (Jerry Siegel and Bernard Baily, More Fun Comics #61, November 1940). Later that year, he becomes a founding member of the Justice Society of America (Fox and Everett E. Hibbard, All Star Comics #3, December 1940). In the decades that followed his cancelation, Doctor Fate made guest appearances in comics such as World’s Finest and The Brave and the Bold. The character returns to regular DC comics continuity in the wake of the events of the “Crisis on Infinite Earths” story line by Marv Wolfman and George Perez (Crisis on Infinite Earths #1–12, 1985–1986). In 1987, with the death of Kent Nelson, Nabu chooses Eric Strauss and his stepmother, Linda, to merge to form the new Doctor Fate, advising them by possessing the corpse of the deceased Nelson (J. M. DeMatteis and Keith Giffen, Doctor Fate #1, July 1987). Four years later, it is revealed that original (deceased) Doctor Fate, Kent Nelson, and his wife Inza have been existing within the Amulet. When they are revived into younger bodies, Inza is given the power to become Doctor Fate (DeMatteis and Shawn McManus, Doctor Fate vol. 2, #24, January 1991). After losing the Helmet, the Nelsons hire a smuggler by the name of Jared Stevens to retrieve it. When the Nelsons die in a battle with demons, Stevens attempts to use the Amulet, but it explodes, giving him magical powers and marking him with an ankh tattoo. After ripping the Cloak to use as a bandage for his wounded arm, Stevens melts down the Helmet into a golden knife. After this incident, Stevens continues as the hero Fate (John Francis Moore and Anthony Williams, Fate #1, November 1994). When Stevens is murdered, the artifacts revert to their original forms and remain dormant until being passed to Hector Hall, the son of Hawkman and Hawkgirl (James Robinson, David S. Goyer, and Stephen Sadowski, JSA #4, November 1999). With Hall’s death, the artifacts are passed around before finally being given to Kent B. Nelson, a descendent of the original Doctor Fate (Steve Gerber and Justiano, Countdown to Mystery #1–8, 2007–2008). On the alternate-reality world of “Earth 2,” Doctor Fate is Khalid Ben-Hassin (James Robinson and Nicola Scott, Earth 2 #9, April 2013). In 2015, the mantle of Doctor Fate fell to Khalid Nassour, another descendent of the original Kent Nelson (Paul Levitz and Sonny Liew, Doctor Fate #1, June 2015). Outside of comics, Doctor Fate has appeared in the animated series Superman: The Animated Series, Justice League Unlimited, Young Justice, and The Brave and the Bold, as well as the live-action series Smallville. Throughout the character’s long and complicated history, Doctor Fate has consistently proven to be one of the most powerful figures in all of superhero comics. Richard A. Hall See also: Doctor Strange, Justice Society; Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955.

Further Reading

Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Kantor, Michael, and Laurence Maslon. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Knowles, Christopher. 2007. Our Gods Wear Spandex: The Secret History of Comic Book Superheroes. San Francisco: Weiser Books.



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Doctor Strange First Appearance: Strange Tales #110 (cover date: July 1963) Creators: Stan Lee and Steve Ditko Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers: Magic Weapons: Eye of Agamotto, Cloak of Levitation, Orb of Agamotto, Crimson Bands of Cytorrak Base of Operations: Sanctum Sanctorum, New York City Key Allies: Ancient One, Wong, Clea, Topaz, Rintrah, Brother Voodoo, Scarlet Witch, the Vishanti Key Enemies: Dormammu, Baron Mordo, Mephisto, Dracula, Nightmare, Silver Dagger, Death, Morgan Le Fay, Enchantress Team Affiliations: Defenders, Avengers, Illuminati Secret Identity: Stephen Strange Nicknames: Master of the Mystic Arts, Sorcerer Supreme Not to be confused with the Golden Age character “Dr. Strange,” who appeared in Nedor Comics’ Thrilling Comics in the 1940s, “Doctor Strange” was part of the first wave of “Marvel Age” superheroes in the early 1960s. Stephen Strange was a brilliant surgeon whose brilliance was surpassed only by his ego. After suffering irreversible nerve damage in his hands due to a near-fatal car accident, Strange traveled to Tibet to find a cure. Instead, he discovered the mystical Sorcerer Supreme known only as “the Ancient One,” who taught Strange the mystic arts, and Doctor Strange returned to New York City as the world’s first line of defense against the supernatural and paranormal (Lee and Ditko, Strange Tales #115, December 1963). The character soon developed a following due to Ditko’s psychedelic artistry (Wright, Comic Book Nation, 213). In 1968, the Strange Tales title— originally featuring stories of both Strange and Nick Fury—was renamed Doctor Strange as a solo title. Strange briefly wore a mask in 1969 (Roy Thomas and Gene Colan, Doctor Strange #177, February 1969). In 1972, Doctor Strange teams with the Incredible Hulk and the Sub-Mariner to form the team the Defenders (Steve Englehart and Sal Buscema, The Defenders #1, August 1972). The series would run until 1977 and feature such other heroes as the Valkyrie (cousin to the Norse god Thor) and the X-Men Angel and Beast, among others. In 1973, the title had a crossover event with the series The Avengers, pitting the two heroic teams against each other in a quest to retrieve pieces of an object called “the Evil Eye” (Avengers #115–118, Defenders #8–11, 1973). The team was killed in the final issue, to be revived in later series (David Kraft and Keith Giffen, Defenders #50, August 1977). The most iconic comics run of Doctor Strange began with the second volume starting in 1974 and running until 1987. Originally under the direction of writer Steve Englehart and artist Frank Brunner, this series went even deeper into the

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occult due to the Comics Code Authority amendation of its standards in 1971, allowing vampires, werewolves, and the supernatural to once more appear in comics for the first time since 1955. In 1976, Doctor Strange fights Dracula in a crossover event that appeared in both comics. The story begins in the Tomb of Dracula title, which ends with Dracula placing Strange in a trance and preparing to feed on him (Marv Wolfman and Gene Colan, Tomb of Dracula #44, May 1976). In the Doctor Strange title, Strange defeats and kills Dracula (Englehart and Colan, Doctor Strange #14, May 1976). In 2006, as a prelude to the Civil War event, it was discovered that Tony Stark (a.k.a. Iron Man) had brought together a group of the most intelligent minds in the world—himself, Cover for Doctor Strange, Vol. 2, #1 (June 1974), Reed Richards of the Fantastic with cover art by Frank Brunner and Gaspar Four, Black Bolt of the InhuSaldino. This run, written by Steve Englehart and mans, Professor Charles Xavier Brunner, proved a worthy successor to the original Lee/Ditko run. (Uber Bilder/Alamy Stock of the X-Men, the Sub-Mariner, and Doctor Strange—to form a Photo) group called “the Illuminati” to foresee future threats and coordinate team efforts accordingly (Brian Michael Bendis and Alex Maleev, The New Avengers: Illuminati #1, May 2006). In 2009, after the Eye of Agamotto deemed Strange to no longer be worthy of being Sorcerer Supreme, the Eye turns to Brother Voodoo, who changes his name to “Doctor Voodoo” (Bendis and Billy Tan, The New Avengers #53, July 2009). Strange would regain his title four years later (Bendis and Mike Deodato, The New Avengers vol. 2, #34, January 2013. Outside of comics, Doctor Strange first appeared on the cover of the 1968 Pink Floyd album A Saucerful of Secrets and was mentioned by name in the 1969 Pink Floyd song “Cymbaline” from the album Soundtrack from the Film More. Strange has appeared in numerous Marvel animated series, most notably The Super Hero Squad Show (2009–2011). The made-for-TV movie Dr. Strange, starring Peter Hooten and directed by Philip DeGuere, aired on CBS-TV in 1978. The home video animated feature Doctor Strange: The Sorcerer Supreme, was released in 2007. His most notable appearance outside of comics, however, was in the 2016 feature film Doctor Strange, directed by Scott Derrickson and starring Benedict



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Steve Englehart Steve Englehart is an American comic book writer who had several iconic runs on numerous books for both DC and Marvel Comics in the 1970s and 1980s. He was born in Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1947. One of his most iconic story lines was also one of his first. Explaining how, if Captain America had been frozen from 1944 to 1964, there had been Captain America adventures in the intervening years, Englehart developed the idea that the 1950s “Commie Smasher” Captain America was, in fact, a stand-in, frozen himself due to mental instability. This 1950s Cap was awoken in 1972 and brilliantly showed readers how dramatically American society had changed in the previous 20 years (Englehart and Sal Buscema, Captain America and the Falcon #153–156, September–December 1972). Two years later, in the wake of the Watergate scandal, Englehart wrote the “Secret Empire” story line that culminated with President Nixon (though not stated specifically) becoming the primary villain, leading Captain America to disavow his identity and become “Nomad: The Man Without a Country” (Englehart and Buscema, Captain America and the Falcon #180, December 1974). In the year in between, Englehart produced one of the more iconic Avengers story lines with the “Avengers/Defenders War” (Avengers #115–118, Defenders #8–11, September–December 1973). Englehart is likely most remembered for his surreal run on Doctor Strange vol. 2 (beginning in June 1974). In this run, Englehart and artist Frank Brunner drew on the previous work of Stan Lee and Steve Ditko and took their psychedelic surrealism to the next level. In the late 1970s, Englehart would write for Detective Comics and Justice League of America, and—in the 1980s—Green Lantern Corps for DC Comics. Richard A. Hall

Cumberbatch. The film was a critical and commercial success, and the character would next appear in the 2017 film Thor: Ragnarok, before appearing in the Marvel film crossover event Avengers: Infinity War (2018). Throughout the decades, Doctor Strange has proven to be one of the most powerful characters in the Marvel Comics Universe. Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Brother Voodoo, Cloak and Dagger, Doctor Fate, Scarlet Witch/ Quicksilver/Vision, Spawn, Sub-Mariner; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. DiPaolo, Marc. 2011. War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Lee, Stan, Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone. Raphael, Jordan, and Tom Spurgeon. 2003. Stan Lee and the Rise and Fall of the American Comic Book. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Thomas, Roy. 2017. The Marvel Age of Comics: 1961–1978. New York: Taschen. White, Mark D., ed. 2018. Doctor Strange and Philosophy: The Other Book of Forbidden Knowledge. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

F Falcon First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Captain America #117 (cover date: September 1969) Stan Lee and Gene Colan Marvel Comics Telepathy with birds (originally) Wings (Shield as Captain America) Harlem, New York City Captain America, Winter Soldier, Nick Fury Red Skull, Hydra, Taskmaster Avengers, SHIELD (as part of the Super Agents) Sam Wilson Captain America (in the 21st century)

Although the Black Panther was the first black superhero in American comics in 1966, he was not American. The first African American superhero was the Falcon, first introduced in the pages of Captain America in 1969. Captain America first met Sam “Snap” Wilson while the two were stranded on Exile Island by the Red Skull. Cap inspires Wilson to become the Falcon (Lee and Colan, Captain America #117–118, September–October 1969). First clad in a green-and-orange costume, Falcon’s only power originally was his telepathic link to his trained falcon, Redwing. Without wings originally, Falcon would swing around the city on a retractable cable with a bird-claw tip. Five years later, the tech-savvy Black Panther fits Falcon with a pair of mechanical wings that allow him to fly. His new winged costume would now be red and white (Steve Englehart and Gary Friedrich, Captain America and the Falcon #170, February 1974). Rather than a “sidekick” to Captain America, Falcon was presented as a full partner to the Sentinel of Liberty. Beginning with issue #134 (February 1971) and continuing through issue #222 (June 1978), the monthly magazine Captain America would be called instead Captain America and the Falcon. Throughout these 1970s issues, when Falcon was not directly involved in the Captain America story, he would appear in a secondary story focusing more on his work in Harlem. The 1970s saw a wave of “relevance” in American comic books, with many titles directly tackling social and political issues of the period. As such, the pages of Captain America and the Falcon frequently examined issues of race and the inner city, topics that readers of the day would have seen on

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the nightly news on television. Though published during the height of the Blaxploitation genre in American film, Falcon was never presented in the Blaxploitation stereotype as were other Marvel heroes Blade and Brother Voodoo. Falcon faces off against the revived “Commie Smasher” Captain America of the 1950s (Englehart and Sal Buscema, Captain America and the Falcon #153, September 1972). Designed originally as a means of clearing up continuity issues with the Captain America character, it also allowed for a deep analysis of how much America itself had changed since the more conservative 1950s. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Falcon was reduced to a recurring guest star status, with a few short-lived solo titles scattered here and there. In 2014, after Steve Rogers is stripped of his Super Soldier Serum and rapidly ages to his actual age, he officially appoints Sam Wilson as the new Captain America (Rick Remender and Stuart Immonen, All-New Captain America #1, January 2015; released digitally November 2014). Though the new Falcon/Cap dons a red, white, and blue costume and bears Captain America’s shield, he maintains his wings as well. When Steve Rogers’s youth is revived and he reclaims the mantle of Captain America, Wilson also continues to keep the Cap identity as well, causing two series to run simultaneously: Steve Rogers: Captain America and Sam Wilson: Captain America. Outside of comics, Falcon has appeared as a regular in the animated series The Avengers: United They Stand (1999–2000), The Super Hero Squad Show (2009– 2011), and Avengers Assemble, which debuted in 2013. On the big screen, Falcon has been played by Anthony Mackie in the films Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Ant-Man (2015) Captain America: Civil War (2016), and Avengers: Infinity War (2018). Falcon’s importance as the first African American superhero and his enduring popularity both on film and the printed page stand as a testament to the diversity that American comic books have attempted to celebrate over most of the last half century of the medium. Richard A. Hall See also: Black Lightning, Black Panther, Blade, the Vampire Hunter, Brother Voodoo, Bucky/Young Allies/Winter Soldier, Captain America: Comics, Captain America: Other Media, Cloak and Dagger, Hydra/AIM, Luke Cage/Power Man, Nick Fury/SHIELD, Red Skull, Spawn; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, Superheroes in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. Costello, Matthew. 2009. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books & The Unmasking of Cold War America. New York: Continuum Press. Howard, Sheena C., and Ronald L. Jackson II, eds. 2013. Black Comics: Politics of Race and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Lee, Stan, Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone. Nama, Adilifu. 2011. Super Black: American Pop Culture and Black Superheroes. Austin: University of Texas Press.

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Raphael, Jordan, and Tom Spurgeon. 2003. Stan Lee and the Rise and Fall of the American Comic Book. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Stevens, J. Richard. 2015. Captain America, Masculinity, and Violence: The Evolution of a National Icon. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of American Youth Culture. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Fantastic Four First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Other Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Fantastic Four #1 (cover date: November 1961) Stan Lee and Jack Kirby Marvel Comics Mister Fantastic—Elasticity, Genius intellect Invisible Girl/Woman—Invisibility, Projecting force fields Human Torch—Flight, Producing/shooting flames The Thing—Enhanced strength, Rocklike skin Various gadgets/Inventions of Reed Richards New York City Black Panther, The Inhumans, She-Hulk, Silver Surfer, Spider-Man, Uatu Doctor Doom, Frightful Four, Galactus, Mole Man, Super Skrull Avengers, Illuminati (Reed Richards only) Mr. Fantastic—Dr. Reed Richards Invisible Girl/Woman—Susan Storm Richards Human Torch—Johnny Storm The Thing—Ben Grimm FF, Freedom Foundation

Since their debut, the Fantastic Four have represented the “First Family” of the Marvel Universe. The origin story of the Fantastic Four has been retold many times since their debut in 1961 but remains relatively unchanged. At the height of the Cold War, scientist Reed Richards; his girlfriend, Sue Storm; her brother, Johnny; and Reed’s test pilot, Ben Grimm steal an experimental rocket in an attempt to beat the Soviet Union into space. The shielding on the rocket is inadequate, and the four crash back to earth, having first been inundated with cosmic rays. On their return, they discover that each has gained super abilities. Reed can stretch his limbs and neck to almost infinite lengths. Sue has gained the power of invisibility. Johnny can, with just a thought, ignite himself on fire, fly, and shoot balls or rays of flame, leading him to call himself “the Human Torch” in an homage to the Golden Age android character of the same name. Ben was the most



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unfortunate. While his teammates maintained their regular, human appearance despite their fantastic powers, Ben’s entire physiology transforms, his flesh taking on a rocklike (originally, more claylike) texture, giving him enhanced strength but at the cost of a monstrous appearance. The new team decides to use their extraordinary powers to help others, and they become the Fantastic Four (Lee and Kirby, Fantastic Four #1, November 1961). This event launches what will soon become known as the “Marvel Comics Universe.” The origin story behind the origin story has become a matter of some debate. For decades, in hundreds of interviews, Marvel editor in chief and writer Stan Lee has maintained that after his employer Martin Goodman learned of the success of Justice Cover for Fantastic Four #1 (November 1961), League at DC Comics, he with cover art by Jack Kirby and Dick Ayers. instructed Lee to come up with a The FF would launch the Marvel Age of comics. (Barcoft Media/Getty Images) team of superheroes that could compete. Julius Schwartz at DC had recently rejuvenated the superhero genre with his successful reboots of Golden Age characters such as Flash and Green Lantern. Lee has stated that at the time, he was considering retiring from comic books after 20 years in the industry. According to Lee, his wife, Joan, suggested that before resigning, he should do the project requested by Goodman but in his own way. Lee then turned to his head artist, Jack Kirby, and the two developed the Fantastic Four. Kirby’s own account has him playing a much more significant role in their creation. The debate has spawned decades of disagreement within the fan community. Unlike previous teams of heroes, the FF constantly argued with each other. Ben Grimm does not want to be the Thing. The romance between Reed and Sue experienced true-to-life problems. In still another difference from traditional superheroes, the FF lived and fought villains in New York City rather than fictional cities such as Metropolis or Gotham. The idea of heroes with depth and personal problems and who lived in the same world as their readers had never been attempted before, but it would become a staple of the Marvel Age of comics. Many of the FF’s adventures would revolve around scientific discovery and exploration, causing them to coin the term “imaginauts.”

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John Byrne John Byrne is one of the most prolific writers/artists in comic book history, responsible for more historic and legendary runs on more titles than perhaps anyone outside of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby. He was born in 1950 in England, moving to Canada in 1958. Soon after joining Marvel Comics as an artist, Byrne was teamed with Chris Claremont on the reboot of the X-Men, and they worked together on that book from 1977 to 1981. During that tenure, Byrne contributed to Claremont’s complex, iconic story lines and personally created characters such as Kitty Pryde and the Canadian mutant group Alpha Flight. From 1981 to 1986, Byrne wrote and drew Fantastic Four, creating, perhaps, the most popular run of the book outside of the original work of Lee and Kirby. In 1986, Byrne was tagged by DC Comics to write and draw the post–Crisis reboot of Superman in the miniseries Man of Steel (October–December 1986). During his run on FF, Byrne introduced She-Hulk as part of the team, featuring her in a solo adventure in the 1985 graphic novel The Sensational SheHulk. In 1989, Byrne returned to Marvel to write and draw a new She-Hulk series (The Sensational She-Hulk #1, May 1989). His 1980s work with She-Hulk removed the character from her “Savage” late 1970s roots and established the character in a way that modern fans are more familiar with. In 1992, Byrne moved to Dark Horse Comics, where he created his own superteam, Next Men, a group of teenagers with superpowers deriving from government experiments. Throughout his career, Byrne frequently worked on multiple books at once. Though often described as contentious and difficult to work with, John Byrne’s runs on Uncanny X-Men, Fantastic Four, Superman, and She-Hulk rank as some of the most iconic of each respective book. Richard A. Hall

Perhaps the most popular story to appear in Fantastic Four is “This Man . . . This Monster,” in issue #51 (Lee and Kirby, June 1966). This story, rather than being a traditional action story, focuses instead on the inner turmoil suffered by Ben Grimm. Though a proven hero, Grimm continues to deal with the curse of his outward appearance. He is feared and laughed at by the very people whom he fights so diligently to protect. When a mad scientist steals Ben’s powers and becomes the Thing himself, the newly humanized Ben must convince his teammates that this new Thing is a fake. Without his powers, Ben discovers what an important member of the FF he is and that, though it is a difficult cross to bear, being the Thing benefits his friends—and the world—more than he had imagined. The pages of FF have introduced several mainstays of the Marvel Universe. In Fantastic Four #4 (Lee and Kirby, May 1962), Lee and Kirby reintroduce the Golden Age Timely Comics hero, Namor, the Sub-Mariner, King of Atlantis. In the legendary “Galactus Trilogy,” Kirby inserts the Silver Surfer, herald to the planet-devouring villain, Galactus. Lee would later develop the character into the philosopher of the Marvel Universe. The trilogy also introduces Uatu, the Watcher, a member of an alien race dedicated to recording all of human history while promising never to interfere . . . except when it does. (Lee and Kirby, Fantastic Four #48–50, March–May 1966). Later, the creative team introduces the Black Panther, King T’Challa of the African kingdom of Wakanda, the first black superhero to appear in American comic books (Lee and Kirby, Fantastic Four #52, July 1966). The popularity of the Fantastic Four—along with the interconnectivity of the Marvel Comics Universe—led to “guest” appearances (both as a team and



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individually) in other Marvel titles. Each of the members, from time to time, gueststarred in the pages of Marvel Team-Up alongside Spider-Man, and the Thing had his own team-up title, Marvel Two-in-One, where the gruff Grimm paired up with various other Marvel heroes. Each of the Four are also backup members of the Avengers. When the Thing decides to leave the team, he is replaced on the FF for over a year with She-Hulk (John Byrne, Fantastic Four #265, April 1984). In 1988, after the return of the Thing, Sharon Ventura—previously Ms. Marvel—joined the team and, after being exposed to cosmic rays, mutates into the She-Thing (Steve Englehart and Keith Pollard, Fantastic Four #310, January 1988). In 1991, the FF become incapacitated by an alien Skrull named De’Lila. She then manipulates four heroes—the more popular Spider-Man, Hulk, Ghost Rider, and Wolverine—to form a new FF and to assist her in conquering the Skrull Empire (Walt Simonson, Arthur Adams, and Art Thibert, Fantastic Four #348, January 1991). This was primarily a sales gimmick brought on by the collectors’ bubble. In 1996, the FF “died” alongside the Avengers fighting the villain Onslaught. They were reborn into a pocket universe from which they would later escape (Lobdell, Waid, Kubert, and Bennett, Onslaught Marvel Universe #1, October 1996). In 2004, as part of a company-wide campaign to attract new readers intimidated by decades of story continuity, Marvel launched Ultimate Fantastic Four, featuring more modernized versions of the characters set in an alternate reality. In this reality, the original FF are much younger and gain their respective superpowers from a failed teleporter accident (Brian Michael Bendis, Mark Millar, and Adam Kubert, Ultimate Fantastic Four #1, February 2004). The UFF engaged with Ultimate Spider-Man, Ultimate-X-Men, and the Ultimates (this alternate universe’s version of the Avengers) to create an alternate reality that was specifically geared toward younger, 21st-century readers. In 2006, the FF would play a major role in the crossover Civil War story line, dividing Marvel’s First Family in half, with Reed Richards supporting superhero registration and his wife, Sue, teaming with Captain America’s resistance. Human Torch spent much of the story in a coma, and the Thing was torn between the two sides. The FF have appeared in numerous animated television series (in 1967, 1978, 1994, and 2005) as well as one short-lived radio program in 1975 featuring a pre– Saturday Night Live Bill Murray as the Human Torch. After a failed attempt at a live-action film in 1994, 20th Century Fox released Fantastic Four in 2005 to some critical and commercial success. Its 2007 sequel, Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer, however, was both a critical and commercial disappointment, causing the studio to examine a reboot of the franchise. A reimagined Fantastic Four (or Fant4stic) in 2015 was a colossal critical and commercial failure, leaving future film projects in doubt. The success of the Disney/Marvel films has led to talks of finding a way of incorporating the FF into the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Richard A. Hall See also: Black Panther, Luke Cage/Power Man, Doctor Doom, Ghost Rider, Hulk, Human Torch (1940s), She-Hulk, Silver Surfer, Spider-Man: Comics, Sub Mariner, Wolverine; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

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Further Reading

Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. Costello, Matthew J. 2009. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books & the Unmasking of Cold War America. New York: Continuum Press. DeFalco, Tom, ed. 2005. Comics Creators on Fantastic Four. London: Titan Books. Evanier, Mark. 2008. Kirby: King of Comics. New York: Abrams Press. Fingeroth, Danny. 2007. Superman on the Couch: What Superheroes Really Tell Us about Ourselves and Our Society. New York: Continuum Press. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Lee, Stan, Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone. McClelland, Jeff. 2007. “From Jimmy Durante to Michael Chiklis: The Thing Comes Full Circle.” In The Amazing Transforming Superhero!: Essays on the Revision of Characters in Comic Books, Film and Television, edited by Terrence R. Wandtke, 70–86. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Raphael, Jordan, and Tom Spurgeon. 2003. Stan Lee and the Rise and Fall of the American Comic Book. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Robinson, Lillian. 2013. “Invisible Girl.” In The Superhero Reader, edited by Charles Hatfield, Jeet Heer, and Kent Worcester, 211–215. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press. Rosenberg, Robin S., and Peter Coogan, eds. 2013. What Is a Superhero? Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Fantomah First Appearance: Jungle Comics #2 (cover date: February 1940) Creators: Fletcher Hanks (under the name “Barclay Flagg”) Publisher: Fiction House Powers: Omnipotence Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Undisclosed Jungle Key Allies: N/A Key Enemies: N/A Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: N/A Nicknames: Mystery Woman of the Jungle Fantomah is widely regarded as the first female comic book superhero, preceding Wonder Woman by nearly two years. Similar to other jungle queens of the period, Fantomah was a blond, white woman living in an undisclosed jungle. In her original incarnation, whenever her jungle was threatened by the outside world,

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Fantomah would alter her appearance to have bluish skin and a skull for a face. She could then apparently do whatever her mind came up with to punish— often gruesomely—her quarry (Hanks, Jungle Comics #2, February 1940). From issue #16 to issue #26, under the creative team of H. B. Hovious (an apparent pseudonym) and artist Robert Pious, Fantomah was reimagined as a normal “jungle queen.” Beginning with issue #27 (March 1942), and continuing through her final appearance in issue #51 (March 1944), Hovious and artist George Appel reimagined the character again as a resurrected ancient Egyptian princess. Though short-lived in comic book history, Fantomah is sigFantomah story from Jungle Comics #27 (March nificant not only for being the 1942). The primary image shows Fantomah ready first superpowered woman in to pounce into action. (Digital Comic Museum) American comic books but also one of the most powerful superheroes in the history of the genre. She is also significant—along with other contemporary superheroines Black Canary, the Woman in Red, and Wonder Woman—for being part of the World War II generation of fictional women who showed that women could be as powerful as men, and contemporaneously with the real world where women were being asked to come out of the kitchen and into the industrial factories through the “Rosie the Riveter” program. Though her powers were quickly reduced, her initial run under the direction of Fletcher Hanks also makes her the first godlike character in comic books, male or female. These facets of the character make her a topic of substantial potential study. Richard A. Hall See also: Black Canary, The Woman in Red, Wonder Woman: Comics; Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955.

Further Reading

Feiffer, Jules. (1965) 2003. The Great Comic Book Heroes. Seattle: Fantagraphics Books. Hanks, Fletcher. 2016. Turn Loose Our Death Rays and Kill Them All!: The Complete Works of Fletcher Hanks, edited by Paul Karasik. New York: Fantagraphics. Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Madrid, Mike. 2013. Divas, Dames & Daredevils: Lost Heroines of Golden Age Comics. Exterminating Angel Press. Online. Accessed September 20, 2018. https://exterminatingangel.com.

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Morris, Jon. 2015. The League of Regrettable Superheroes: Half-Baked Heroes from Comic Book History! Philadelphia: Quirk Books. Robbins, Trina, and Barbara Hall. 2017. Babes in Arms: Women in the Comics During World War Two. New Castle, PA: Hermes Press.

Fighting American First Appearance: Fighting American #1 (cover date: May 1954) Creators: Joe Simon and Jack Kirby Publisher: Prize Comics Powers: Enhanced strength, speed, and agility Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Unknown Key Allies: Speedboy Key Enemies: Peter Piper, Von Feygel Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: Nelson/“Johnny” Flagg Nicknames: N/A The story behind the development of Fighting American has been somewhat blurred over time. It has long been held that original Captain America creators Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, angry at Timely/Atlas Comics over disputes regarding royalties on Captain America, plus anger over Atlas’s decision to revive the character in 1953 under the banner of “Commie Smasher,” led the two to create a copycat character: “Fighting American.” The first “Captain America: Commie Smasher” story appeared in the anthology series Young Men #24 (December 1953), continuing in the next two issues before reviving the Captain America title with #76 (May 1954). Fighting American #1 also possesses the May 1954, cover date. During this time, Simon and Kirby no longer worked for Atlas (previously known as Timely Comics), so it is difficult to know to what degree the two were aware of the revival. Fighting American was actually the amalgamation of two brothers. Johnny Flagg was a disabled war veteran (though it is not made clear whether he was wounded in World War II or the more recent Korean conflict) who worked as a television personality, broadcasting from “Station U.S.A.” He was a radical anticommunist out to protect America from the “Red Menace.” His broadcasts were written by his small, weakling brother, Nelson. When Johnny is murdered by the communist agents of the villain Peter Piper, the U.S. government gives Nelson the option of having his mind and life essence transferred to his brother’s restored and scientifically enhanced body and to work for the government as the hero “Fighting American.” The similarities to Captain America are obvious. By the time the first issue of Fighting American hit newsstands, the armyMcCarthy hearings on television were well underway, and Senator McCarthy, who once had a stellar reputation as a protector of American liberties, was quickly being

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exposed for the vile liar that he was. So, Simon and Kirby decided to change tactics with their new hero, and beginning with issue #2, the comic was changed from dramatic hero story to political satire. While the “Commie Smasher” Captain America ran for only six issues (if you count the three issues of Young Men in which he appeared), Fighting American ran only one more than that, ending with issue #7 (Simon and Kirby, May 1955). In both cases, the decision to cancel the series was related to sales. It is unclear whether the poor sales were the result of the overall fall of superhero comics of the period (though Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman titles would continue throughout the decade), growing disenchantment with the anticommunist movement, or the impact of Fredric Wertham’s Seduction of the Innocent (which had been published in April 1954). Regardless of the reason, Fighting American stands as a valuable window into the period of the mid-1950s and the waning fervor of the Second Red Scare. In 1966, Harvey Comics reteamed Simon and Kirby, who produced a single issue of Fighting American that combined previously released stories along with new material (Simon and Kirby, Fighting American #1, October 1966). Richard A. Hall See also: Captain America: Comics, The Shield; Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955.

Further Reading

Evanier, Mark. 2008. Kirby: King of Comics. New York: Abrams Press. Hajdu, David. 2008. The Ten-Cent Plague: The Great Comic-Book Scare and How It Changed America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Simon, Joe. 2011. My Life in Comics. London: Titan Books. Stevens, J. Richard. 2015. Captain America Masculinity, and Violence: The Evolution of a National Icon. New York: Syracuse University Press. York, Chris, and Rafiel York, eds. 2012. Comic Books and the Cold War: Essays on Graphic Treatment of Communism, the Code and Social Concerns, 1946–1962. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

Flash First Appearance: Creators:

Jay Garrick: Flash Comics #1 (cover date: January 1940) Barry Allen: Showcase #4 (cover date: October 1956) Wally West: The Flash #110 (cover date: December 1959) Bart Allen: The Flash #91 (cover date: June 1994) Jay Garrick: Gardner Fox and Harry Lampert Barry Allen: Robert Kanigher and Carmine Infantino Wally West: John Broome and Carmine Infantino Bart Allen: Mark Waid and Mike Wieringo

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DC Comics Superhuman Speed Ring containing costume, Police radio built into cowl Jay Garrick: Keystone City Barry Allen: Central City Wally West and Bart Allen: Central City and Keystone City Kid Flash, Jesse Quick, Max Mercury, Green Lantern, Batman, Nightwing Rival, Captain Cold, Reverse Flash, Gorilla Grodd Justice Society, Justice League, Teen Titans Jay Garrick, Barry Allen, Wally West, Bart Allen Fastest Man Alive, Scarlet Speedster

The first speedster to call himself the Flash was Jay Garrick, who debuted in Flash Comics #1 in January 1940. With the boom in superheroes during this “Golden Age of Comics,” the Flash was fortunate enough to carve out a piece of the market for himself. As a college student, Garrick would inhale hard water vapors, which granted him his super speed. He donned a red shirt emblazoned with a lightning bolt along with a modified army helmet to battle crime as the Flash. When many heroes of the Golden Age united as the Justice Society of America, the Flash was entrusted with the position of chairman. Later in his crime-fighting career, Jay Garrick would set a Flash precedent by battling an evil speedster with whom he shared personal ties. Flash Comics #104 (Broome and Infantino, February 1949) saw the debut of the Rival, a professor of Garrick’s who also inhaled water vapors to gain super speed. Like most of the other superheroes of his time, the Flash did not last long once World War II ended. In 1951, his Golden Age adventures came to an end. In 1956, when Julius Schwartz took over as an editor at DC Comics, he revived the superhero genre, putting new spins on classic characters and kicking off what we know as the Silver Age of Comics. Leading the way would be a new incarnation of the Flash in Showcase #4. Rather than being a college student who inhaled water vapors, Barry Allen was a crime scene investigator who was struck by lightning and doused with a concoction of chemicals in his lab. Artist Carmine Infantino designed a sleek costume for this new Flash, which has been touted as the first “modern” superhero costume. The paths of the old and new crossed in the story “Flash of Two Worlds.” While attempting a demonstration of his powers, the Flash slips into the parallel earth inhabited by Jay Garrick. The two speedsters forge an alliance to battle a collection of the classic hero’s old enemies, who had all joined together. This story was the beginning of one of the most important alliances in comics and established a Flash legacy. The meeting of these two heroes from different worlds sparked the DC Multiverse, a plot point that remains to this day. (Fox and Infantino, The Flash #123, September 1961).

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Julius Schwartz Julius (or “Julie”) Schwartz (1915–2004) was an editor at DC Comics and most responsible for ushering in what is known as the “Silver Age” of superhero comics. The son of Romanian Jewish parents, Schwartz was born in New York City. Schwartz—along with longtime friend Mort Weisinger—created one of the first science fiction fan magazines, Time Traveler, in 1932, before becoming a literary agent for science fiction authors and organizing the first meeting of the “World Science Fiction Convention” in 1939. He began working as an editor for All-American Publications in 1944, just before the company was incorporated into what would become DC Comics. In 1956, Schwartz was tasked by DC Comics to attempt a revival of its superhero line. His successful reimagining of the Flash (Showcase #4, October 1956), Green Lantern (Showcase #22, October 1959), and the Justice League of America (The Brave and the Bold #28, March 1960) ushered in the Silver Age of Comics. Legend has it that it was the sales figures for Justice League that led rival Timely/ Atlas Comics owner Martin Goodman to order his editor, Stan Lee, to create a new team of superheroes, leading to the creation of the Fantastic Four and the Marvel Comics Universe. In an interview aired posthumously in the documentary Secret Origins: The Story of DC Comics (Warner Home Video, 2010), Schwartz gleefully proclaims that he not only saved DC Comics but Marvel Comics as well. Schwartz officially retired from DC in 1986 but remained active in science fiction fandom for the rest of his life. In 2000, with the help of Brian M. Thomsen, Schwartz wrote his autobiography, Man of Two Worlds: My Life in Science Fiction and Comics. Richard A. Hall

During the events of Crisis on Infinite Earths in 1986, the Flash was called upon to make the ultimate sacrifice and gave his life in order to save the universe. With the mantle vacant, his former sidekick Wally West (a.k.a. “Kid Flash”) donned the red costume to continue the Flash legacy. Making history as the first sidekick to take on the identity of his mentor was not enough for fans; The Flash now struggled to find readers. When writer Mark Waid took over the book, he made it his personal mission to establish West as a hero more than capable of the job rather than a mere substitute for Allen. While Waid was leaving his mark on the character, a short-lived television series based on the Flash premiered on CBS, though it featured Barry Allen as the protagonist rather than Wally West. Many regard “The Return of Barry Allen” as the best story to come from Mark Waid’s tenure on the book. Along with artist Greg LaRocque, the writer shocked readers when a very alive Barry Allen showed up on Wally West’s doorstep. Readers saw the latest Flash tackle his insecurities as many of his superhero colleagues thrilled at the prospect of Barry reclaiming his old mantle. He contemplates retirement while others are concerned with Barry’s newfound aggression. In the climax of this story, it is revealed that the returning Barry Allen is actually the ReverseFlash. Wally reaffirms his place as the Flash by defeating this time-traveling villain. Wally West met his temporary demise in 2005’s Infinite Crisis, leaving his own teenage sidekick, Bart Allen, to become the latest in the line of Flashes. This came courtesy of a science fiction twist that allowed the character to rapidly age into adulthood. Unfortunately, Bart’s time in the red suit was brief; in The Flash: The

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Fastest Man Alive #13 (Marc Guggenheim and Tony S. Daniel, August 2007), a collection of his enemies ambushed and killed the speedster. As with countless other characters from the world of comics, his time in grace did not last long. In the spring of 2009, Geoff Johns and collaborator Ethan Van Sciver made the biggest change to the Flash status quo in years with the miniseries Flash: Rebirth, which saw Barry Allen resurrected. Following his return, Barry reestablished himself as the primary Flash in the DC Universe. Along with the return of Barry came a shift in the character’s backstory thanks to the time traveling of the Reverse-Flash. Now, Barry had grown up with his mother murdered and his father falsely imprisoned for it. Naturally he sought to fix this time line, leading to the events of the miniseries Flashpoint. Johns and artist Andy Kubert had the Flash attempt to save his mother, but his meddling with time had a ripple effect on established continuity. Barry Allen had to join with the Batman of this new world to set things back as closely as he could. The aftermath of this story arc directly led to DC Comics relaunching its entire line of comics under the banner “New 52,” essentially rebooting the entire DC universe. The year 2014 saw the Flash return to the small screen, portrayed by Grant Gustin, to great success. In 2017, the Scarlet Speedster made his big screen debut, played by Ezra Miller, as part of a larger DC cinematic world with aims to feature the character in his own feature film. This kind of attention is only appropriate for a hero who has been so integral to DC Comics for several decades. No matter who is carrying on the legacy of the Flash, he remains a key character for the publisher. Josh Plock See also: Justice League, Justice Society, Teen Titans; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Readings

Bernstein, Abbie. 2016. The Art and Making of the Flash. London, England: Titan Books. Daniels, Les, Chipp Kidd, and Geoff Spears. 2004. The Golden Age of DC Comics. New York: DC Comics. Fingeroth, Danny. 2004. Superman on the Couch: What Superheroes Tell Us about Ourselves and Our Society. New York: The Continuum International. Levitz, Paul. 2010. 75 Years of DC Comics: The Art of Modern Mythmaking. Cologne, Germany: Taschen. Levitz, Paul. 2013. The Silver Age of DC Comics. Cologne, Germany: Taschen. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau.

G Ghost Rider First Appearance: Marvel Spotlight #5 (cover date: August 1972) Creators: Gary Friedrich, Roy Thomas, and Mike Ploog Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers: Penance stare, Superhuman abilities, Invulnerability Weapons: Hellfire chains Base of Operations: Los Angeles Key Allies: N/A Key Enemies: Mephisto Team Affiliations: Defenders, New Fantastic Four, Midnight Sons Secret Identity: Johnny Blaze, Danny Ketch, and Robbie Reyes Nicknames: Spirit of Vengeance

Marvel’s original Ghost Rider was based on a phantom rider named Rex Fury, previously published by Magazine Enterprises and created by Ray Krank and Dick Ayers and appearing in several horror/western stories from 1949–1955 until the Comics Code Authority banned all supernatural stories. Once the character became public domain, Ayers worked with Roy Thomas and Gary Friedrich at Marvel to bring the character back, once more as a western-themed horsebackriding vigilante named Carter Slade who dons a phantom costume to fight crime (The Ghost Rider #1, February 1967). The more widely recognized motorcycleriding Ghost Rider first made his appearance in 1972 under the direction of Friedrich, Thomas, and Mike Ploog. The new Rider was stunt-rider Johnny Blaze. When Blaze’s adopted father, Crash Simpson, is diagnosed with a deadly disease, Blaze makes a deal with the demonic entity, Mephisto, to cure him. Mephisto keeps his word, but then he has Crash die in a motorcycle accident, forcing Blaze to keep his end of the bargain: to be bonded with the vengeance demon Zarathos. Once merged with the demon, Ghost Rider possesses the power of hellfire, even the ability to create a motorcycle from the fire. He also possesses a “Penance Stare” that allows him to look into the eyes of evildoers, forcing them to feel the pain caused by their sins (Friedrich, Thomas, and Ploog, Marvel Spotlight #5, August 1972). The Blaze/Rider series ran until 1983. The second Ghost Rider, Danny Ketch, first appeared in 1990. Ketch becomes the rider when he and his sister, hiding from a band of criminals, take refuge in a

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junkyard, where the sister ultimately dies. With the blood of his innocent sister on his hands, when Ketch touches the gas cap of the enchanted Rider cycle, he becomes the new Ghost Rider. Blaze had obviously separated himself from the spirit (Howard Mackie and Javier Saltares, Ghost Rider #1, May 1990). The Ketch Rider would later be tricked by the alien Skrull villain, De’Lila, to team up with Spider-Man, the gray Hulk, and Wolverine to create the “New” Fantastic Four (Walt Simonson and Arthur Adams, Fantastic Four #348, January 1991). Ketch appeared to die in the final issue of his series but was later revealed to have survived (Ivan Velez Jr. and Saltares, Ghost Rider #93, February 1998; Mackie and Saltares, Spider-Man #93, July 1998). The most recent incarnation of Ghost Rider is Robbie Reyes, created by the team of Felipe Smith and Tradd Moore. Reyes, the first Mexican American to portray a major Marvel superhero, is not possessed by the Spirit of Vengeance but rather by the spirit of a man named Eli Morrow, who had been killed by a street gang (All New Ghost Rider #1, May 2014). It would later be discovered that Morrow had been, in fact, a serial killer and is possessing Reyes to satiate his thirst for murder (Smith and Kris Anka, All-New Ghost Rider #12, May 2015; released digitally March 2015). The Reyes Rider differs from the previous incarnations in three distinct ways: (1) as stated, Reyes is not possessed by the Spirit of Vengeance; (2) unlike his predecessors, the Reyes Rider’s head becomes a skull-shaped helmet rather than a flaming skull; and (3) again unlike past Riders, Reyes drives a customized black 1969 Dodge Charger to which he is psychically bonded. Outside of comics, the Johnny Blaze Ghost Rider appeared in the 2007 film Ghost Rider, directed by Mark Steven Johnson and starring Nicholas Cage as Blaze. The success of this film led to the sequel, Ghost Rider: Spirit of Vengeance, again starring Cage but directed by Mark Neveldine and Brian Taylor. The Robbie Reyes Ghost Rider was featured in the first half of the fourth season of the ABCTV series Marvel’s Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., with Gabriel Luna guest starring as Reyes. Since his inception, Ghost Rider has proven a popular mainstay in Marvel Comics. Representing more the idea of the antihero, Ghost Rider was one of the first in a line of more violent superheroes such as Wolverine, Punisher, and Deadpool. His continued popularity in the more racially and ethnically diverse era of Marvel Comics makes the character’s future, both on page and screen, very likely. Richard A. Hall See also: Cloak and Dagger, Deadpool, Fantastic Four, Hulk, Punisher, Spawn, SpiderMan: Comics, Wolverine; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Aldama, Frederick Luis. 2017. Latinx Superheroes in Mainstream Comics. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Thomas, Roy. 2017. The Marvel Age of Comics: 1961–1978. New York: Taschen.



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Green Arrow First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

More Fun Comics #73 (cover date: November 1941) Mort Weisinger and George Papp DC Comics Expert archery Bow, trick arrows Star City (later, Seattle) Speedy, Black Canary, Green Lantern, Batman Count Vertigo, Red Dart The Seven Soldiers of Victory, Justice League Oliver Queen Emerald Archer

Originally, no origin story was given for Green Arrow and his sidekick, Speedy. Writer Mort Weisinger believed this would give the reader the illusion that the character had already been established rather than being a new commodity (Weisinger and Papp, More Fun Comics #73, November 1941). Weisinger soon joined Green Arrow and Speedy along with the Crimson Avenger, the Shining Knight, the Star-Spangled Kid and Stripesy, and the Vigilante to form “the Seven Soldiers of Victory” (Weisinger and Papp, Leading Comics #1, December 1941). While most superheroes disappeared from the pages of comic books in the early 1950s, Green Arrow’s adventures continued as occasional stories in the pages of various anthology series. In a 1958 origin story, Green Arrow was shown to be millionaire playboy Oliver Queen. While on his yacht, Queen fell overboard and washed up on a deserted island, where he was forced to learn survival skills—including archery. On his return to Star City, Queen donned the mantle of Green Arrow, fighting crime with his arsenal of trick arrows (Jack Kirby and Ed Herron, “The Green Arrow’s First Case,” Adventure Comics #256, January 1959). In 1960, Green Arrow became one of the founding members of the Justice League of America. In 1970, legendary comic book team Dennis (“Denny”) O’Neil and Neal Adams introduced Arrow into the pages of the failing Green Lantern comic as the voice of the New Left. The 13-issue run of Green Lantern/Green Arrow would become one of the most iconic in comic book history. The two heroes embarked on a cross-country tour to examine the problems facing American society: racism, economic and political corruption, poverty, and the plight of Native Americans, to name a few (O’Neil and Adams, Green Lantern/Green Arrow #76, April 1970). The heroes would be joined on their adventures by Black Canary: Dinah Lance. Lance and Queen had begun a decades-long romance earlier that year (O’Neil and Dick Dillin, Justice League of America #78, February 1970). They would finally be married 37 years later (Judd Winick and Amanda Conner, Green Arrow and Black Canary Wedding Special #1, November 2007).

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In the 1971 story “And a Child Shall Destroy Them!,” a private school cook named Grandy—who bears an uncanny resemblance to the then-sitting vice president, Spiro Agnew— utilizes the mind-controlling powers of a young girl—whose face is drawn to look exactly like President Richard Nixon’s— to bring “order” to the school and eventually, presumably, the world (O’Neil and Adams, Green Lantern/Green Arrow #83, July 1971). Casting Nixon and Agnew as villains more than a year before the Watergate scandal (and two years before the separate scandal that led to Agnew’s resignation) now appears to be more than prescient. At the time, however, it shows the disdain that the political left felt for the sitting adminCover for Green Lantern/Green Arrow #85 (Sepistration early on. tember 1971), with cover art by Neal Adams. Perhaps the most iconic story This cover—and corresponding story by writer from the O’Neil/Adams run Denny O’Neil—represents one of the most came in Green Lantern/Green iconic and historic single issues in comic book Arrow #85, in September 1971. history. (Contraband Collection/Alamy Stock Beginning in the story “SnowPhoto) birds Don’t Fly,” it is discovered that Green Arrow’s longtime sidekick, Speedy, is a drug addict. The controversial cover, penciled by Adams, showed the young hero about to consume drugs via injection. Since the mid-1950s, the Comics Code Authority had established that drugs could not be presented in comic books. By 1971, however, the drug epidemic among America’s youth had reached such nightmare proportions that the creative team decided to address the subject directly. Readers’ positive response to this move was a major factor in rewriting the Code in the early 1970s. In June 1986, in the final issue of the limited series Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, (originally titled Batman: The Dark Knight Falls), Frank Miller reintroduces Green Arrow in his apocalyptic alternate-future story line as an older, retired version of the character, his shooting arm having been previously ripped out by government agent Superman. Despite his disability, Arrow proves to be as formidable a hero as ever, assisting the aged Batman in his quest to stand up to Superman and the U.S. government, and later in training a new young army of future crime fighters alongside Bruce Wayne.



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The character was featured in the last five seasons of the CW television series Smallville, played by Justin Hartley. He was originally a love interest for Lois Lane, but he ultimately married and had a son with Lois’s cousin, Chloe Sullivan. Due to the success of that series (and the popularity of the Green Arrow character), the network premiered the series Arrow in 2012, starring Stephen Amell as the Emerald Archer. With no connection to the previous television incarnation, this version dramatically downplays the leftist politics of the character from recent decades, creating a more politically ambiguous character who can be more appealing to a larger audience. After decades in the backdrop of DC superheroes, Green Arrow appears to finally be gaining the limelight. Though not as iconic as fellow Depression-era heroes Superman and Batman, Green Arrow is one of few Golden Age superheroes to be continuously published since his inception in 1941. Richard A. Hall See also: Black Canary, Green Lantern, Justice League; Thematic Essay: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post– 9/11 World.

Further Reading

Barker, Cory, Chris Ryan, and Myc Wiatrowski, eds. 2014. Mapping Smallville: Critical Essays on the Series and Its Characters. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Cronin, Brian. 2016. “Green Arrow and Black Canary: A Rocky Love Affair.” Comic Book Review. Accessed June 1, 2017. http://www.cbr.com/green-arrow-and​-black​ -canary-a-rocky-love-affair/. Iaccino, James F. 2017. Arrow and Superhero Television: Essays on Themes and Characters of the Series. New York: McFarland Press. Kistler, Alan. 2012. “The History of Green Arrow from Golden Age to Arrow.” Comic Book Review. Accessed June 1, 2017. http://www.cbr.com/the-history-of-green​-arrow​ -from-golden-age-to-arrow/. Schwartz, Julius, with Brian M. Thomsen. 2000. Man of Two Worlds: My Life in Science Fiction and Comics. New York: Harper Entertainment.

Green Hornet First Appearance:

The Green Hornet Radio Program (air date: January 31, 1936) Creators: George W. Trendle and Fran Striker Publisher: N/A Powers: Genius intellect, Hand-to-hand combat Weapons: Various gadgets, Black Beauty (car) Base of Operations: UNSPECIFIED CITY Key Allies: Kato Key Enemies: Various organized crime figures

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N/A Britt Reid N/A

Green Hornet is one of the few “superheroes” who predates the origin of the genre in American comic books. Designed originally as a radio program sequel to The Lone Ranger, The Green Hornet features Britt Reid, who is actually a nephew of the famous cowboy hero the Lone Ranger, whose radio show began in 1933. Both characters were created by the same team of Trendle and Striker. By day, Britt Reid is the millionaire publisher of the newspaper The Daily Sentinel. By night, Reid dons a green trench coat, mask, and fedora to fight crime as the vigilante “Green Hornet.” His partner in crime fighting is his personal servant, Kato. Though Kato wears a mask, he uses his actual name—and there appears to be no explanation of why no one seems to notice that Reid and Green Hornet both have Asian assistants named Kato. As a vigilante, Green Hornet is perceived as a criminal by local law enforcement. He utilizes this perception to gain the trust of the underworld, only to turn on its members and hand them over to the police. The Green Hornet radio program ran from 1936 to 1950, with a brief return in 1952. The hero also appeared in two Universal Studios movie serials in the 1940s: The Green Hornet (1940), with Gordon Jones in the titular role with Keye Luke as Kato, and The Green Hornet Strikes Again (1941), with Warren Hull as the Hornet and Luke returning as Kato. Several comic book companies have published Green Hornet comics over the decades, beginning with Holyoke Comics in 1940 and passing on to Harvey Comics, Dell Comics, Gold Key Comics, NOW Comics, and finally Dynamite Comics in 2009. In 1966, ABCTV producer William Dozier— the producer behind the wildly popular Batman series starring Adam West from the same year—brought Green Hornet to TV screens, starring Van Williams as the emerald-clad hero and a young Bruce Lee as Kato. Publicity photo for the live-action ABC television Though canceled after one year, the series would be rerun the folseries The Green Hornet (1966−1967), showing lowing year, and the two actors Van Williams as the Green Hornet and Bruce would portray their characters as Lee as Cato. (ABC/Photofest)



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guest stars on two episodes of Batman. In 2011, Columbia Pictures distributed a theatrical film version of The Green Hornet, directed by Michel Gondry and starring Seth Rogan as Green Hornet and Jay Chou as Kato. In all of his incarnations, a popular mainstay in Hornet adventures was his souped-up car, “Black Beauty,” a precursor to future iconic supercars such as the “Batmobile” and “KITT” from the television series Knight Rider. Though enduring frequent returns in popular culture, Green Hornet has been overshadowed by the similar but more extravagant Batman. His most notable contribution to popular culture has been the early appearance of Bruce Lee as Kato long before the actor became a Hollywood legend in martial arts films. Green Hornet does stand, however, as a permanent reminder of the early pre-“super” days of American pulp heroes. Clearly an inspiration for the later Dark Knight Detective, Green Hornet stood as a symbol in the 1930s for the popular perception of a need for vigilante justice in a quickly modernizing world whose existing system of justice appeared outdated. Richard A. Hall See also: Batman: Other Media, Crimson Avenger, The Shadow; Thematic Essay: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955, The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s.

Further Reading

Gavaler, Chris. 2015. On the Origin of Superheroes: From the Big Bang to Action Comics No. 1. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype.

Green Lantern First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

All-American Comics #16 (cover date: July 1940) Martin Nodell (under the pen name “Mart Dellon”) All-American Publications (DC Comics) Flight, intangibility (originally) Power Ring Coast City (under Hal Jordan) Green Arrow, Kilowog Sinestro Green Lantern Corps, Justice League, Justice Society (Golden Age) Alan Scott, Hal Jordan, John Stewart, Guy Gardner, Kyle Rayner N/A

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The original Golden Age Green Lantern was Alan Scott, a railroad engineer. When a train is derailed by a competing train company, Scott inadvertently grabs a glowing green train lantern, which magically speaks to him. The lantern explains that it was carved from a piece of alien meteor by a lantern maker in ancient China. The flame from the lantern was prophesied to burn three times: the first to kill, the second to bring life, and the third to grant power. By the time the lantern has reached Scott, it is on its third flame, granting him the powers of flight and intangibility. He fashions a portion of the lantern into a ring, becoming the Green Lantern (Bill Finger and “Mart Dellon,” All-American Comics #16, July 1940). Later that year, the Scott Lantern would become one of the founding members of the Justice Society of America (All Star Comics #3, Winter 1940). At the height of World War II, Green Lantern appeared alongside Golden Age Atom, Flash, Hawkman, and Wonder Woman in the special 128-page The Big All-American Comic Book #1 (Alfred Bester and Paul Reinman, “Heroes Are Born . . . Not Made,” December 1944), edited by Sheldon Mayer. The hero remained popular during the Golden Age until he was finally discontinued in 1951. In 1959, as part of the burgeoning Silver Age of comics, DC Comics editor Julius Schwartz created a revamped, more science fiction–oriented take on the classic hero. Hal Jordan is a test pilot who is drawn to the crash site of the alien Abin Sur, the Green Lantern for Space Sector 2814 and part of an elite corps of intergalactic policemen known as the Green Lantern Corps. As he is dying, Abin Sur explains that the ring has chosen Jordan as his successor. Jordan then becomes the first human Green Lantern (in this continuity), his ring manifesting whatever Jordan’s imagination comes up with (e.g., a giant green fist to punch criminals or

Denny O’Neil and Neal Adams Denny O’Neil (May 3, 1939–) and Neal Adams (June 15, 1941–) made up one of the most important writer/artist teams in the history of sequential art. O’Neil started at Marvel Comics in 1966, writing such titles as Daredevil and Millie the Model. In 1968, he started working for DC Comics, writing Green Lantern and Justice League. O’Neal wrote comics with a realistic bent and was a longtime editor of the Batman line of comics. Artist Neal Adams began his career at Archie Comics in 1960. During the 1960s, he worked for DC, Warren, and Marvel Comics. At Marvel, he helped revitalize the fledgling X-Men (although not enough to save the publication from cancellation). Adams brought a humanistic realism to his depictions and became known as one of the best illustrators in the comic industry. He had done cover art for several books that O’Neil worked on, including Batman and Challengers of the Unknown. Adams and O’Neil worked on a handful of Batman books together and brought the character back to the gritty hero that Bill Finger and Bob Kane had created in 1939. It is their collaboration on Green Lantern/Green Arrow, however, for which they are best known. Green Lantern #76 (1970) started their unprecedented run, which lasted through issue #89 (1972); issue 88 did not feature the team. These comics dealt with issues of race, poverty, Native American rights, drug use, slavery, and religious cultism. The African American Green Lantern John Stewart was introduced in this run and would become one of DC’s most popular characters. The 13-issue run remains one of the high points in the history of sequential art storytelling. Robert G. Weiner



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a giant green cage in which to trap them). The new Lantern had to recharge his ring in a Green Lantern battery every 24 hours, simultaneously repeating the Green Lantern oath: In Brightest Day, In Blackest Night, No Evil Shall Escape My Sight; Let Those Who Worship Evil’s Might, Beware My Power . . . Green Lantern’s Light! (Julius Schwartz, John Broome, and Gil Kane, Showcase #22, October 1959)

After the success of a revamped Flash three years earlier, the new Green Lantern cemented the rise of the Silver Age of comics. The following year, Jordan would become a founding member of the Justice League of America (Gardner Fox and Mike Sekowsky, The Brave and the Bold #28, March 1960). In 1970, legendary comic book team Dennis (“Denny”) O’Neil and Neal Adams teamed Jordan up with Green Arrow in the pages of the then-failing Green Lantern comic, with the Lantern representing the voice of the establishment and Arrow as the voice of the New Left. The 13-issue run of Green Lantern/Green Arrow would become one of the most iconic in comic book history. The two heroes embarked on a cross-country tour to examine the problems facing American society: racism, economic and political corruption, poverty, and the plight of Native Americans, to name a few (O’Neil and Adams, Green Lantern/Green Arrow #76, April 1970). Partly in response to the growing “Blaxploitation” film genre, when the original “backup” Green Lantern, Guy Gardner, fell into a years-long coma, John Stewart was named as Jordan’s backup Lantern, becoming DC Comics’ first African American hero (O’Neil and Adams, Green Lantern/Green Arrow #87, January 1972). In 1994, as part of the “Emerald Twilight” story line, a grieving Hal Jordan, mourning the loss of most of his beloved Coast City, embarks on a quest for more power, incapacitating or killing other Lanterns (and the Guardians of the Universe who oversee the Lantern Corps), taking their rings to give him ultimate power to restore his home. After absorbing the full power of the Green Lantern and becoming the godlike Parallax, Jordan sets out to restore Coast City. The last living Guardian then takes the last known power ring and names Kyle Rayner as Earth’s new Green Lantern, tasking him with taking out Parallax, which he appears to do (Ron Marz and Bill Willingham, Fred Haynes, and Darryl Banks, Green Lantern vol. 3, #48–50, January–March 1994). Parallax was finally taken down by Green Lantern in the events of the Zero Hour story line (Dan Jurgens, Zero Hour #4, September 1994). The 1990s would end with the original Green Lantern, Alan Scott, resurrected in the pages of JSA #1 (James Robinson, David S. Goyer, and Stephen Sadowski, August 1999). Hal Jordan’s Lantern would return in the pages of the “Rebirth” story line. In it, it is revealed that Jordan, giving in to the fear that caused his breakdown, had become possessed by the extraterrestrial entity Parallax. Along with reviving Jordan as a Green Lantern, as well as most of the Lantern continuity destroyed in “Twilight,” “Rebirth” also introduced the concept of the “emotional spectrum”: the idea that there are an array of different-colored “Lantern Corps,” each tied to a different emotion—red representing rage, orange for greed, yellow for fear, green for willpower,

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blue for hope, indigo for compassion, sapphire for love, white for life, and black for death (Geoff Johns and Ethan Van Sciver, Green Lantern: Rebirth #1–6, December 2004–May 2005). Aside from restoring Jordan as a Green Lantern, the story line also set the stage for perhaps the most iconic Green Lantern story line ever. “Blackest Night” was a major crossover event, incorporating most of the major DC titles and allowing for the resurrection of several previously “deceased” characters. When a Black Lantern Corps emerges from the awakening of the Black Lantern artifact, all of the ring corps of the “emotional spectrum” must band together to overcome the power of death itself. It would set the stage for the sequel event, “Brightest Day” (Johns and Ivan Reis, Blackest Night #0–8, June 2009–May 2010). Outside of comics, the Hal Jordan Green Lantern first appeared in animated shorts for The Superman/Aquaman Hour of Adventure in 1967. He next appeared sporadically during the 1973–1985 Saturday morning animated series Superfriends. The John Stewart Green Lantern was a regular in the animated series Justice League (2001–2004) and Justice League Unlimited (2004–2006). Jordan returned in Green Lantern: The Animated Series (2012–2013). On the big screen, Ryan Reynolds brought Jordan to life in the 2011 film Green Lantern, directed by Martin Campbell. Though the film was both a critical and commercial failure, the overall popularity of the character remains, and a return to the DC Cinematic Universe seems likely. Since the early years of the Golden Age, Green Lantern has proven to be a stalwart of the DC Comic line of superheroes, with an evolving mythology and strong cast of heroes bearing the name “Green Lantern.” Richard A. Hall See also: Green Arrow, Green Lantern Corps, Justice League, Justice Society; Thematic Essay: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

Dryden, Jane, and Mark D. White. 2011. Green Lantern and Philosophy: No Evil Shall Escape This Book. New York: Wiley Books. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Morrison, Grant. 2011. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Nama, Adilifu. 2011. Super Black: American Pop Culture and Black Superheroes. Austin: University of Texas Press. Schwartz, Julius, with Brian M. Thomsen. 2000. Man of Two Worlds: My Life in Science Fiction and Comics. New York: Harper Entertainment. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Green Lantern Corps First Appearance: Creators: Publisher:

Showcase #22 (cover date: October 1959) Julius Schwartz, John Broome, and Gil Kane DC Comics



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Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies:

Various (through rings) Power rings Oa The Guardians, White Lantern Corps, Blue Lantern Corps, Violent Lantern Corps, Indigo Lantern Corps Key Enemies: Sinestro Corps/Yellow Lantern Corps, Red Lantern Corps, Orange Lantern Corps, Black Lantern Corps, Parallax Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: N/A Nicknames: N/A

The original Golden Age Green Lantern did not answer to the Corps. The Green Lantern Corps was introduced with the revamp of Green Lantern at the beginning of the Silver Age of comics. When Abin Sur, the Green Lantern for Space Sector 2814 (which includes the jurisdiction of Earth), is dying, his ring chooses test pilot Hal Jordan to be Sur’s successor. At that time, Jordan is introduced to the concept of the Green Lantern Corps. It is a universal police force headquartered on the planet Oa and under the leadership of the powerful, nearimmortal Guardians (Broome and Kane, Showcase #22, October 1959). After centuries of evolution, the Guardians had set up on the planet Oa to create the Lantern Corps to provide law and order to the universe. The only weakness of a Green Lantern is the color yellow, which represents the powerful emotion of “fear.” All members of the Green Lantern Corps must remain loyal to the “Green Lantern Oath”: In Brightest Day, In Blackest Night, No Evil Shall Escape My Sight; Let Those Who Worship Evil’s Might, Beware My Power . . . Green Lantern’s Light! (Julius Schwartz, John Broome and Gil Kane, Showcase #22, October 1959)

Aside from prominent Sector 2814 Green Lanterns—Hal Jordan, Guy Gardner, John Stewart, and Kyle Rayner—many other Green Lanterns have represented the Corps throughout the years, including Kilowog, Isamot Kol, and Mogo. In 2006, longtime Green Lantern foe Sinestro created his own corps of villains, called the Sinestro Corps, fulfilling the Oan prophecy that new colored lantern corps would develop, representing all of the emotions of the spectrum (Geoff Johns and Ethan Van Sciver, Green Lantern #10, May 2006). The eventual spectrum of ringpowered corps is as follows: Yellow (fear); Orange (greed); Red (rage); Green (will); Violet (love); Blue (hope); Indigo (compassion); White (life); and Black (death). The Power Rings that every Lantern of every Corps wields is powered by—and limited only by—the bearer’s own imagination (Geoff Johns and Ethan Van Sciver, Green Lantern: Rebirth #3, February 2005).

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The Guardians have been destroyed twice: first, in the story line “Crisis on Infinite Earths,” after which Hal Jordan helped to rebuild them. Then, they were destroyed by Jordan himself while he was possessed by the entity “Parallax,” after which he again sacrificed himself to restore Oa as well as the Guardians. The Green Lantern Corps teamed with all of the other colored corps in the “Blackest Night” story line to take down the Black Lantern Corps. There have been other challenges to the Corps and the Guardians in the 21st century, but the Green Lantern Corps has remained intact throughout many universe reboots and other challenges. Originally, the Green Lantern Corps merely represented the idea of a universal police force. In modern times—due primarily to the work of writer Geoff Johns—the Corps has come to represent but one of a field of emotional spectrums. Prior to DC Comics’ “Rebirth,” the Green Lantern Corps had three runs (or “volumes”) of comic book series: 1986, 2006–2011, and 2011–2015. Outside of comics, they have appeared most prominently in the much-maligned 2011 Warner Bros. film Green Lantern, directed by Martin Campbell, and Green Lantern: The Animated Series (2011–2013). Richard A. Hall See also: Green Lantern; Thematic Essay: The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Dryden, Jane, and Mark D. White. 2011. Green Lantern and Philosophy: No Evil Shall Escape This Book. New York: Wiley Books. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Guardians of the Galaxy First Appearance: Marvel Super-Heroes #18 (cover date: January 1969) Creators: Arnold Drake and Gene Colan Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers (Original Team): Yondu—Archery Starhawk—Flight, energy manipulation, invulnerability Martinex—Projectile laser beams of hot and cold Charlie-27—Super strength Major Victory—Expert hand-to-hand combat Aleta—Solid light construction, flight Nikki—Superhuman endurance, expert marksmanship Weapons: Yondu—Bow and arrow Starhawk—Solar wings Martinex—N/A Charlie-27—N/A Major Victory—Captain America’s shield



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Aleta—N/A Nikki—Various firearms and blasters Base of Operations: Icarus (original team) Knowhere (modern team) Key Allies: Nova, Avengers, Captain Marvel Key Enemies: Badoon, Ronan the Accuser, Korvac, Thanos Other Team Affiliations: N/A In Marvel Super-Heroes #18, creators Arnold Drake and Gene Colan introduced readers to the first team that would call itself the Guardians of the Galaxy. This strange group of heroes came about as Marvel was taking a more cosmic direction with its books. With adventures set in the 31st century, the Guardians seemed to fit the bill perfectly. The original lineup of the Guardians consisted of Yondu, Martinex, T’Naga, Charlie-27, and a human astronaut, Major Victory, to give readers a more relatable character in this crowd of aliens. They were later joined by Starhawk, Aleta, and Nikki. This incarnation of the team would make recurring appearances in various books, occasionally traveling to the past to meet more familiar Marvel characters. Most notably, they played a key role in the famed “Korvac Saga.” Leading up to this acclaimed story arc, the team had battled the galactic threat Korvac and taken him prisoner. The villain’s escape through time led to the Guardians of the Galaxy forming an alliance with the Avengers in order to save the universe. (Jim Shooter, Roger Stern, George Perez, and David Wenzel, Avengers #167–177, January–November 1978) In 1989, the Guardians of the Galaxy were granted their own series courtesy of editor in chief Tom DeFalco. This run lasted 62 issues, primarily under the guidance of Michael Gallagher and Kevin West. The most popular arc of this series, “Into the Belly of the Beast,” featured Guardians member Charlie-27 falsely imprisoned, forcing the rest of the team to break him out of jail. Of course, this was not easy, and they even found themselves battling future Guardians member Drax the Destroyer in the process (Michael Gallagher and Kevin West, Guardians of the Galaxy #52–53, September–October 1994). After its series concluded, the team lay largely dormant until 2007, when Marvel turned a renewed focus onto its cosmic heroes in the story line “Annihilation” and the sequel “Annihilation: Conquest.” During this arc, Keith Giffen, Dan Abnett, and Andy Lanning shined a spotlight on many of Marvel’s more obscure characters beyond Earth. After it concluded, Abnett and Lanning rebooted Guardians of the Galaxy with a team born from the aftermath. The peacekeeping Nova Corps was destroyed, leaving Peter Quill, also known as Star-Lord, taking on the responsibility to build a new team to protect the galaxy. To this end, he recruited those he had fought alongside during “Annihilation” and formed the new Guardians of the Galaxy. Along with Quill, the Guardians now consisted of Gamora, Drax the Destroyer, Rocket Raccoon, Groot, Adam Warlock, and Quasar. This team found support from Mantis, as well as the telepathic dog Cosmo. Given that many of these characters have checkered and often violent pasts, the main draw of this book was readers seeing the dysfunctional nature of their operation.

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The tension between the members of the Guardians led to the team splintering, with each member having their own agenda. Luckily, the team reunited in time for the events of War of Kings (Dan Abnett, Andy Lanning, Wesley Craig, Bong Dazo, Paul Pelletier, Brad Walker, March–August 2009). This saw two prominent extraterrestrial groups, the Shi’ar Empire and the Kree, go to war, drawing various superheroes into the fray. Being the prominent team in space meant the Guardians of the Galaxy were forced to get involved to restore the peace. Over the course of this event, readers got to see Star-Lord finally encounter the Official movie poster for the first Guardians of the original team of Guardians. Galaxy film from Marvel Studios, released in 2014. In 2014, Marvel Studios The film, starring Chris Pratt and directed by announced that the Guardians of James Gunn, proved to be a massive surprise hit. the Galaxy would be receiving (Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures/Photofest) their own feature film. With a property that had only made sporadic appearances in publication and was largely unknown to the general public, many considered this a major risk for the studio. Director James Gunn spearheaded the project, taking inspiration from Abnett and Lanning’s run. The film proved to be successful both critically and commercially, leading to the sequel Guardians of the Galaxy Volume 2, and the team also appeared in the 2018 film Avengers: Infinity War. After years of being largely a cult favorite team, the Guardians of the Galaxy were now more well known than ever before. Capitalizing on the film’s success, the comics allowed elements from the movies to seep in. Writer Brian Michael Bendis, with artists Steve McNiven and Sara Pichelli, revitalized the comic with a team identical to the one seen onscreen. The only exception was the addition of Iron Man, due to his own popularity within the Marvel films. In his own solo series, Star-Lord was given an updated origin in order to blend elements from his on-screen persona into comic continuity to entice new readers (Sam Humphries and Javier Garron, Star-Lord #1–8, November 2015–June 2016). After years under the radar as a ragtag team of intergalactic misfits, the Guardians of the Galaxy have finally gained a massive foothold in popular culture. They are currently featured in multiple comics, movies, a cartoon, theme park rides, and plenty of merchandise. After many years in relative obscurity, the Guardians of the Galaxy are now one of Marvel’s most popular properties. Josh Plock



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See also: Avengers, Silver Surfer; Thematic Essays: The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Lewis, A. David. 2014. Guardians of the Galaxy and the Fall of the Classic Hero. Boston: The Conversation. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Pepper, Mark D. 2015. “Post–Postmodernism and the Market Popularity of Superhero Movies.” Enculturation. Orem: Utah Valley University. Sumerak, Mark. 2017. Guardians of the Galaxy: Creating Marvel’s Spacefaring Super Heroes. San Rafael, CA: Insight Editions.

H Harley Quinn First Appearance:

Batman: The Animated Series: “Joker’s Favor” (air date: September 11, 1992)

First Comics Appearance:

Batman Adventures #12 (cover date: September 1993) Creators: Paul Dini and Bruce Timm Publisher: DC Comics Powers: N/A Weapons: Various bludgeoning instruments and guns Base of Operations: Gotham City Key Allies: Joker, Poison Ivy Key Enemies: Batman, Robin, Batgirl Team Affiliations: Secret Six, Gotham City Sirens, Suicide Squad Secret Identity: Harleen Quinzel Nicknames: N/A The supervillain/antihero Harley Quinn has become one of the most popular characters in comic books. Ironically, her origin was not in comic books. Harley was introduced in the 1992 episode “Joker’s Favor” of the critically acclaimed television show, Batman: The Animated Series. She was first introduced as merely a nameless backup lackey of the Joker’s, voiced by Arleen Sorkin. Fans quickly became fascinated by her—standing out in her full-body harlequin unitard—and demanded more. The character soon developed as the love interest of the Clown Prince of Crime, their relationship ranging from the romantic to the abusive. She has in recent years taken on the role of reluctant antihero with the team Suicide Squad. Her first appearance in comics was in Batman Adventures #12 (Kelley Puckett and Mike Parobeck, September 1993). Dr. Harleen Quinzel was a psychologist assigned to treat various inmates of Arkham Asylum, most notably the Joker. Over numerous sessions with Joker, Quinzel began to fall in love with the sociopathic killer. Her obsession leads her into her own form of madness. On Joker’s escape from Arkham, she devotes herself to him, donning the identity of “Harley Quinn” (Paul Dini and Bruce Timm, Batman: Mad Love, February 1994). This origin story comic received both the Eisner and Harvey Awards for Best Single Comic of 1994. The character finally



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A scene still from one of the later seasons of the iconic Batman: The Animated Series that ran on FOX-TV throughout the 1990s with various title changes. Arleen Sorkin voiced Harley Quinn, the oft-abused love interest for the Joker, voiced by Mark Hamill. (Fox/Warner Brothers/Photofest)

received her own solo title, which ran from 2000 to 2003. This solo series begins with Harley nearly being killed by the Joker, causing her to question her devotion and strike out on her own (Karl Kesel and Terry Dodson, Harley Quinn #1, December 2000). In 2009, Harley joins Poison Ivy and Catwoman to form the “Gotham City Sirens” (Dini and Guillem March, Gotham City Sirens #1, August 2009). The “New 52” relaunch of the DC titles saw a much more sexualized Harley forgoing her harlequin unitard in favor of more revealing clothing. After being captured by Black Canary, Harley is manipulated by the government agent Amanda Waller into joining her most recent band of Suicide Squad (Adam Glass and Federico Dallocchio, Suicide Squad #1, November 2011). This series brought Harley firmly from supervillainess to reluctant antihero. In the “Future’s End” story line—set five years into the “New 52” story line’s future—Harley attempts to mail herself to the Bahamas (figuring it to be cheaper than airfare). Unfortunately, her “package” ends up on a remote island, where the local tribe sees her as a goddess and takes her to meet their god, who happens to be the Joker (Jimmy Palmiotti, Amanda Conner, and Chad Hardin, Harley Quinn: Future’s End, November 2014). As Harley was born outside of comics, her appearances outside the medium have been frequent. Aside from her ongoing appearances in Batman: The Animated Series/The New Batman Adventures, she also made a cameo in the home

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video release Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker (Warner Home Video, 2000). In this animated feature, the character appeared both in a flashback sequence— where she is shown torturing Robin, Tim Drake, along with the Joker—and in one of the final scenes as “Grandma Harley,” the guardian of two young twins who had been arrested with other members of the Jokerz street gang. Though the older character is not specified as Harley Quinn—she is drawn to resemble the “Granny” character from the “Tweety and Sylvester” Warner Bros. cartoons—her voiceover by Arleen Sorkin and the twins’ costumes resembling that of Harley Quinn do strongly imply that she is the Joker’s former paramour. She has also appeared in the Kids-WB animated series The Batman (2004–2008) and Batman: The Brave and the Bold (2008–2011). The character’s live action debut was in the FOX-TV series Birds of Prey (2002), played by Mia Sara. Her big screen debut was in the 2016 film Suicide Squad, written and directed by David Ayer and starring Margot Robbie as Harley Quinn. In this film adaptation, Harley’s insanity is linked to being tortured by the Joker, played by Jared Leto. Though the film was panned by critics, Robbie’s performance was universally hailed as the highlight of the project. Similar in many ways to Marvel’s Deadpool, Harley Quinn remains one of the most popular characters in pop culture today. Her mixture of humor and insanity—with just a touch of heroism—speaks to 21st-century audiences, both on and off the printed page. Richard A. Hall See also: Batgirl/Oracle, Batman: Comics, Batman: Other Media, Batman: Rogues’ Gallery, Joker, Red Robin/Robin III, Robin/Robin IV, Suicide Squad; Thematic Essays: The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Barba, Shelley E., and Joy M. Perrin, eds. 2017. The Ascendance of Harley Quinn: Essays on DC’s Enigmatic Villain. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Cruz, Joe, and Lars Stoltzfus-Brown. 2018. “Harley Quinn, Villain, Vixen, Victim: Exploring Her Origins in Batman: The Animated Series.” In The Dark Side: A Supervillain Reader, edited by Robert Peaslee and Rob Weiner. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press. Langley, Travis. 2012. Batman and Psychology: A Dark and Stormy Knight. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Moseley, Daniel. 2009. “The Joker’s Comedy of Existence.” In Supervillains and Philosophy: Sometimes, Evil Is Its Own Reward, edited by Ben Dyer, 127–136. Popular Culture and Philosophy Series. Chicago: Open Court Press. Weldon, Glen. 2016. The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture. New York: Simon and Schuster.

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Hulk First Appearance: The Incredible Hulk #1 (cover date: May 1962) Creators: Stan Lee and Jack Kirby Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers: Superhuman strength (enhanced by degree of rage) Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: New Mexico (originally), New York City (with Avengers) Key Allies: She-Hulk, Betty Ross-Banner Key Enemies: The Leader, The Abomination, The Wendigo, General “Thunderbolt” Ross/Red Hulk, Maestro, Xemnu, Kluh, The Thing (more of a “frenemy”) Team Affiliations: The Avengers, The Defenders, The Fantastic Four (temporarily) Secret Identity: Bruce Banner, John Eisenhart (2099) Nicknames: Jade-Giant, Green Goliath, Joe Fixit, Maestro Even before sales numbers for Marvel’s Fantastic Four were in, the second hero introduced in the Marvel Age of comics was the Incredible Hulk. Created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, Hulk represented what would later become known as an “antihero”—a hero who was popularly seen as a villain within his own fictional reality. At his core, Hulk is a manifestation of a “Jekyll and Hyde” personality combined with Atomic Age fears. Bruce Banner was a scientist à la Robert Oppenheimer, tasked with creating a new atomic bomb based on gamma radiation. When teenager Rick Jones wanders onto the bomb test site, Banner orders his assistant, Igor (a clear reference to the “Frankenstein’s monster” nature of atomic experimentation) to halt the test, but Igor is a secret communist spy and allows the test to continue once Banner is gone. Though Banner succeeds in getting Jones to safety, he is exposed to the radioactive fallout from the gamma bomb’s explosion. The result is that at nightfall, Banner transforms into the mindless gray brute known as the Hulk, reverting to his Banner persona with the sunrise. Originally, the “monster” was seen as a threat and hunted by the U.S. Army, but since the Comics Code Authority did not allow authority figures (such as the government) to be portrayed in a negative light, it was made clear that the army simply did not understand that the Hulk was not a threat. To add a twist, Banner’s girlfriend, Betty Ross, is the daughter of General “Thunderbolt” Ross, who led the army against the creature. Rick Jones, the teenager saved by Banner, becomes his protector, feeling a sense of indebtedness to Banner for saving his life (Lee and Kirby, The Incredible Hulk #1, May 1962). At the time, Marvel Comics was limited to a very small number of titles that it was allowed to publish each month. As such, The Incredible Hulk was canceled

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after issue #6. The character returned in the pages of Tales to Astonish #60 (Lee and Kirby, October 1964). By that time, the character had already appeared in the pages of Fantastic Four #12 (Lee and Kirby, March 1963), and as a founding member of the superteam “the Avengers” in The Avengers #1 (Lee and Kirby, September 1963). By then, the character had undergone some dramatic—and ultimately iconic—changes: (1) due to coloring issues, Hulk was changed from gray to green; and (2) rather than nightfall triggering the rise of the beast, Banner’s transformation was instead triggered by anger, his strength increasing with the degree of his rage. In 1968, beginning with issue #102, Tales to Astonish was retitled The Incredible Hulk (Volume 2). Throughout the 1970s, the Cover for The Incredible Hulk #199 (May 1976), Hulk would experience transwith cover art by Rick Buckler, John Romita Sr., formations from maintaining his and Danny Crespi. This image shows the Hulk in intellect while in his Hulk form battle against the gamma-irradiated psychiatrist, Doc Samson. The story, by Len Wein, pits "The to completely mindless beast. Green Goliath" against the international spy During this time, Hulk would agency, SHIELD. (Photofest) become a regular in The Defenders, fighting alongside Doctor Strange and the Silver Surfer. In 1974, The Incredible Hulk would introduce one of Marvel’s (and comics’ in general) most popular heroes: Wolverine (Len Wein and Herb Trimpe, #180–181, October–November 1974). After a brief period where Banner and the Hulk existed as separate entities, the two were rejoined (Allen Milgrom, The Incredible Hulk #324, October 1986), creating a third incarnation: a new gray Hulk (a.k.a. “Joe Fixit”). The new Joe Fixit/gray Hulk remained in Hulk form, but his strength was dramatically reduced and no longer increased with rage. Further, the “Fixit” persona was neither as brilliant as Banner nor as mindless as the green Hulk. Instead, Fixit possessed more the mentality of a streetwise mob enforcer. It was this Fixit incarnation that would team up with Ghost Rider, Wolverine, and Spider-Man to temporarily form the “New” Fantastic Four (Walt Simonson, Arthur Adams, and Gracine Tanaka, Fantastic Four #348, January 1991). At the same time—inexplicably—in the pages of The Incredible Hulk, writer Peter David oversaw the most dramatic change to the character in its history. After

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psychological evaluation by psychiatrist/hero Doc Samson, it was discovered that Bruce Banner was the victim of childhood domestic abuse (the source of his inner anger). Samson’s treatment merges the three psyches—Banner, the mindless Green Hulk, and the Joe Fixit persona—to create a new Hulk, green in color and maintaining Banner’s intelligence but also Fixit’s personality and limited (though still significant) strength (David and Dale Keown, The Incredible Hulk #377, January 1991). The following year, this new “Professor Hulk” would meet an alternate future incarnation in the Maestro. Set 100 years in the future, Maestro is a future version of Hulk with Banner’s intelligence and Hulk’s aggressiveness (David and George Perez, The Incredible Hulk: Future Imperfect #1–2, December 1992–January 1993). In the early 1990s, Marvel created the “2099” universe set 100 years in the future of the Marvel Comics Universe. In that future world, John Eisenhart is a reporter investigating a group called the “Knights of Banner,” who hope to create a new Hulk. When his report to police on the matter gets some of the Knights killed, Eisenhart joins the group out of guilt. When one of the Knights sets off a gamma device, Eisenhart is caught in the blast, making him the new Hulk. The 2099 Hulk possessed all of the same attributes of the original except that Eisenhart possessed total control of his transformations and, as the Hulk, had razorsharp teeth and claws (Gerard Jones and Dwayne Turner, 2099 Unlimited #1, September 1993). When the “Ultimate” alternate universe is created in 2001, the original mindless gray Hulk would return in the pages of The Ultimates, his origin tied to an attempt to recreate the Super Soldier Serum that had created Captain America (Mark Millar and Bryan Hitch, Ultimates #3–5, May–July 2002). In 2006, the Hulk was involved in some of his most memorable story lines. Beginning with issue #92 (Volume 3), the Hulk was sent into space due to the machinations of Iron Man Tony Stark. After a rampage that nearly destroyed Las Vegas, Stark and other members of “the Illuminati” (which consisted of Stark, Reed Richards, Doctor Strange, Prince Namor, Black Bolt of the Inhumans, and Professor Charles Xavier) deemed Banner too dangerous and launched him into space, initially aiming him at an uninhabited planet where the Hulk would be a danger to no one. Instead, the spacecraft was diverted to the planet Sakaar, where Hulk would be forced into gladiatorial combat for the entertainment of the Red King. This would launch the “Planet Hulk” story line that would see the Hulk leading a Spartacus-style revolution, finding love, and emerging as a king (Greg Pak and Carlo Pagulayan, The Incredible Hulk #92, April 2006). When Sakaar is destroyed by a ­spacecraft— the source of which leads Hulk back to Stark and Earth and kills Hulk’s wife in the process, the Green Goliath returns to Earth for “World War Hulk” (Pak and John Romita Jr., World War Hulk #1, August 2007). In 2008, the Hulk would first encounter the mysterious “Red Hulk,” who is discovered to be his longtime nemesis, General “Thunderbolt” Ross, who had been transformed into a new, intelligent version of the Hulk (Jeff Loeb and Ed McGuinness, The Hulk #1, March 2008). In 2011, red and green Hulks would be merged to fight the extraterrestrial creation “Kluh,” a powerful monster created from Banner’s DNA (Jeff Parker and Ed McGuinness, Hulk #30, April 2011). Over

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the years, the Hulk has had many iterations. He has been gray and mindless and gray with average intelligence. He has been green and mindless, green with basic intelligence, and green with genius intelligence. There have been times when Banner and the Hulk were split into separate entities. There have been times when he could control his transformations, and times when he could be set off by the simplest of irritations. For most of his history, however, his transformations have been triggered by rage, and the angrier he got, the stronger he got (in theory, then, there would be no limit to his strength). Outside of comics, the Hulk has been one of Marvel’s most successful characters. From 1978 to 1982, the live-action Incredible Hulk television series starred Bill Bixby as “David” Banner and Lou Ferrigno as the Hulk. The series spawned several made-for-TV movies. There were two short-lived animated series (1983–1983; 1996–1998). The character has appeared in all animated Avengers incarnations as well as the direct-to-DVD animated release Hulk Vs., which had two adventures—one pitting Hulk against Thor and the other against Wolverine. In 2010, Hulk was featured in the home video release Planet Hulk, directed by Sam Liu and released by Lionsgate Entertainment. On the big screen, the Green Goliath has had uneven success. In 2003, Director Ang Lee brought Hulk to the big screen, starring Eric Bana as Banner. In 2008, Edward Norton portrayed Banner in the more-successful The Incredible Hulk, directed by Louis Leterrier. The most successful big-screen incarnation, however, has been the one portrayed by Mark Ruffalo in Avengers (2012) and Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), both directed by Joss Whedon; Thor: Ragnarok (2017), directed by Taika Waititi, and Avengers: Infinity War (2018), directed by Anthony and Joe Russo. The character remains one of the most popular in the Marvel Comics and Cinematic Universes. Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Doctor Strange, Fantastic Four, Ghost Rider, Red Hulk/“Thunderbolt” Ross, She-Hulk, Silver Surfer, Spider-Man: Comics, Wolverine; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance— The Bronze and Copper Ages, The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. Costello, Matthew. 2009. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books and the Unmasking of Cold War America. New York: Continuum Press. DiPaolo, Marc. 2011. War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Evanier, Mark. 2008. Kirby: King of Comics. New York: Abrams. Fingeroth, Danny. 2007. Superman on the Couch: What Superheroes Really Tell Us about Ourselves and Our Society. New York: Continuum Press. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Lee, Stan. 1997. Origins of Marvel Comics. New York: Marvel Comics. Lee, Stan, Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone.



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Raphael, Jordan, and Tom Spurgeon. 2003. Stan Lee and the Rise and Fall of the American Comic Book. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. White, Mark D. 2012. The Avengers and Philosophy: Earth’s Mightiest Thinkers. New York: Wiley Press. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Human Torch (1940s) First Appearance: Marvel Comics #1 (October 1939) Creator: Carl Burgos Publisher: Timely Comics, Atlas Comics, Marvel Comics Powers: Heat, fire, flight Weapons: Body of flame Base of Operations: Earth Key Allies: Toro, Captain America, Liberty Legion, Young Allies, Sun Girl, Kid Commandos, Avengers Known Enemies: Mad Thinker, Professor Pandemic, Inhuman Torch, Asbestos Lady, Green Flames, Doctor Manyac Team Affiliations: All-Winners Squad, Invaders, West Coast Avengers, New Invaders; All-New Invaders Secret Identity: Jim Hammond The Golden Age Human Torch first appeared on the cover of Marvel Comics #1 (October 1939), and his origin story appears in that issue. Created by Carl Burgos (born Max Finkelstein, 1916–1984), the original Human Torch was not human but an android who burst into flame when coming into contact with oxygen. When scientist Phineas T. Horton showed off his creation, the Torch was immediately considered a menace. Horton encased him in a concrete vault, but oxygen eventually made its way through the cracks, and the Torch was free. The character proved immensely popular and, along with the Sub-Mariner and Captain America, is considered one of the “big three” of the Timely era of superheroes. The Torch at first could not control his flame but eventually was able to “flame on” at will and adopted the identity of Jim Hammond, working for the New York City Police Department (and fighting crime as civilian as well as in his flaming guise). The Torch gained a sidekick partner, a human boy who could burst into flames as well—“Toro” (in Marvel continuity, Toro is considered an early mutant). Toro, along with Bucky, was a member of the “Young Allies” (Stan Lee, Charles Nicholas, and Jack Kirby, Young Allies #1, Summer 1941) and the “Kid Commandos” (Roy Thomas and Frank Robbins, Invaders #28, May 1978). Human Torch Comics began with issue #2 (Fall 1940) and features the first appearance of Toro. One of the biggest crossover events in the history of comics occurred in Marvel Mystery Comics #8–9 (Bill Everett, June–July 1940) when the Human Torch and the Sub-Mariner (Timely/

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Timely/Atlas/Marvel Comics Timely Comics was the precursor to today’s Marvel Comics. Publisher Martin Goodman (1908–1992) was steeped in the pulp magazine industry. Always eager to cash in on the latest trends, Goodman published Marvel Comics #1 in 1939; but a pulp science fiction magazine, Marvel Science Stories (1938), was the first place where the word “Marvel” was used in Goodman’s publications. Important artists and writers working at Timely included Alan Bellman, Jack Kirby, Joe Simon, Bill Everett, and Otto Binder. Characters to come out of the Timely era include Millie the Model, Captain America, the Golden Age Human Torch, and the Sub-Mariner, among many others. The early 1940s comics often featured superheroes who were fighting the Axis powers during World War II and thus had real-life relevance for soldiers abroad and readers stateside. After the war was over in 1945, superheroes fell out of favor, and Timely published humor, romance, westerns, funny animal, horror, crime, and war comics. Goodman often changed the names of his companies, and some comics in 1949 had a circular logo that said, “Marvel Comic.” By the early 1950s, Atlas Comics was the featured logo, and the company became known for its horror, crime, western, and war titles. Due to the comic book scare and the Comics Code of 1954, many Atlas titles were canceled and personnel fired. Atlas continued to publish more sanitized humor, giant monster/science fiction, and western comics. By 1957, Atlas went from 85 titles to 16. The Atlas implosion further crippled the company when it had to distribute its books through Independent News (owned by rival National Periodical Publications), and it was limited to eight books a month. The company was saved by the Marvel Age of Comics in 1961 with Fantastic Four #1. Robert G. Weiner

Marvel’s first real antihero) came to blows in New York. This established the shared universe of the Timely superheroes. They would fight again in Human Torch #8 (Harry Sahle and Allen Simon, Summer 1942). In addition to fighting typical criminals, the Torch, along with most of the Timely superheroes and heroines, fought Hitler and the Nazis. When the war was over and atomic threats loomed, the Torch joined Captain America, Toro, Bucky, Sub-Mariner, Miss America, and the Whizzer as a member of the All Winner’s Squad (All Winner’s Comics #19–21, September–December 1946). Although the Torch, Captain America, and Sub-Mariner (along with Bucky and Toro) often appeared on the covers of Timely Comics (usually drawn by Alex Schomberg), they did not appear in stories together until the All Winners Squad (See also “What if the Invaders Stayed Together after World War II” in What If #4, August 1977). The Human Torch’s continued popularity did not go unnoticed by other comic companies; Four-Star Comics published a knockoff, “The Blue Flame,” in Captain Flight #11 (February–March 1947). He looks like the Torch except he is made of blue flames rather than red. The Torch even gained a female sidekick, Sun Girl (like Captain America’s Golden Girl). She first appeared in her own comic, Sun Girl #1 (Ken Bald, August 1948), and in The Human Torch #32 (September 1948), lasting until issue #35 (March 1949), the last issue of The Human Torch until the Atlas superhero revival of 1953 (beginning with Young Men #24). The attempted revival of the superheroes in 1950s was not successful. The Human Torch limped along for three more issues: #36–38 (April, June, and August 1954).



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In 1961, Stan Lee and Jack Kirby created the Fantastic Four (which featured a new Human Torch, created through radiation and not an android). The original Human Torch would return in the pages of King Size Fantastic Four Special #4 (Lee and Kirby, November 1966) fighting the new Torch, Johnny Storm, and subsequently dying. It was during 1966 that Carl Burgos tried to sue Marvel for the rights to his creation and version of the Human Torch. He did not obtain the rights and became very bitter over this to the point of wishing he had never created the character. Burgos also threw out his collection of comics. The android Avenger, Vision, had been made from spare parts from the Torch’s original creation (What If #4 and The Avengers #133–135 [May–June 1975]). He joins the West Coast Avengers in Avengers West Coast vol. 2, #50 (November 1989) and becomes a vital member of the team. In the mid-1970s, writer Roy Thomas, who was a fan of the Golden Age heroes, created the Invaders with artist Frank Robbins. Set in World War II, this story has the Torch along with Captain America, Bucky, Toro, and Namor as a team fighting the Nazis together (Thomas and Robbins, Giant Size Invaders #1, June 1975). Thomas returned to the Torch to tell his 50-year history in The Saga of the Original Human Torch #1–4 (Thomas and Rich Buckler, April–July 1990). As acting head of the organization Oracle, Jim Hammond helps facilitate “Heroes for Hire” featuring Iron Fist, White Tiger, and Hercules, with supporting characters Hulk and Luke Cage (Roger Stern, John Ostrander, and Pasqual Ferry, Heroes for Hire vol. 1, #1, July 1997). The Torch joins the New Invaders with U.S.Agent, Union Jack, Spitfire, Thin Man, and the brilliant Blazing Skull (Alan Jacobson, Chuck Austen, Scott Kolins, and C. P. Smith, New Invaders vol. 1, #0, August 2004). The Torch is killed yet again but also raised back to life by the Mad Thinker in The Torch vol. 1, #1–8 (Alex Ross, Jim Krueger, Mike Carey, and Patrick Berkenkotter, November 2009–July 2010). The Thinker uses Toro and the Torch for his own evil machinations, creating the “Inhuman Torch.” The Golden Age Human Torch continues to be a vital part of the Marvel Universe. The Human Torch has the honor of being in one of the earliest fan films (1963), directed by Don Glut (who plays the Torch and is a fan of both the Fantastic Four Torch and the android Torch). In it, he fights against the villain the Raven (Rich Hagopian). This short amateur film can be found in the DVD set I Was a Teenage Movie Maker (2006). Robert G. Weiner See also: Captain America: Comics, Bucky/Young Allies/Winter Soldier, Fantastic Four, Sub-Mariner. Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955.

Further Reading

Amash, Jim, and Susan Burgos. 2005. “The Privacy Act of Carl Burgos.” Alter Ego 3 (49): 3–30. Bell, Blake, and Michael J. Vassallo. 2013. Secret History of Marvel Comics. Seattle: Fantagraphics. Glut, Don. 2007. I Was a Teenage Moviemaker: The Book. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper Collins. Thomas, Roy. 2004. “Young Men’s Adventures,” Alter Ego 3 (35): 3–17. Thomas, Roy. 2005. “Torch Types.” Alter Ego 3 (49): 33–8.

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Hydra/AIM First Appearance:

(Hydra): Strange Tales #135 (cover date: August 1965) (AIM): Strange Tales #146 (cover date: July 1966) Creators: Stan Lee and Jack Kirby Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers: Espionage (Hydra); Scientific advances (AIM) Weapons: Various spy gadgets, terrorism Base of Operations: Global Key Allies: (Hydra): Red Skull, Viper, Baron Strucker, Baron Zemo, Arnim Zola (AIM): Baron Strucker, MODOK Key Enemies: Captain America, Bucky/Winter Soldier, Falcon, Nick Fury/SHIELD, Black Widow, Spider-Woman, Red Hulk Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: N/A Nicknames: N/A Hydra and Advanced Idea Mechanics (AIM) are the primary international terrorist organization antagonists of the Marvel Comics and Cinematic Universes. Both organizations were created by the team of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby in the 1960s, decades before international terrorist organizations were considered a realworld threat to civilization. Hydra, named for the mythical multiheaded beast of ancient Greek lore that would grow additional heads for every one removed, is a standard terrorist group with ambitions of global domination. AIM exists more as a weapons manufacturer for various villains and groups, including Hydra. The two groups often work in tandem or have overlapping agendas, but also, from time to time, they work separately—and even occasionally in opposition to each other. As for Hydra, it originated alongside SHIELD in the pages of Strange Tales and was named as the primary reason that Colonel Nick Fury was needed to head the new international spy agency. Over the years, it has been discovered that Hydra has existed, in one form or another, since the dawn of human civilization. The current incarnation originated during World War II under the leadership of Baron Wolfgang von Strucker. Since the 1960s, leadership has bounced back and forth between Strucker and fellow Nazis Baron Helmut Zemo and the Red Skull, as well as the female terrorist Viper, also known as “Madame Hydra.” Hydra is most successful due to its secrecy. International businesses and even governments from across the globe have been infiltrated by Hydra agents. Jessica Drew, the superhero Spider-Woman, was originally a Hydra agent before rebelling and turning hero (Archie Goodwin, Sal Buscema, and Jim Mooney, Marvel Spotlight #32,

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February 1977). One of Hydra’s most valuable assets is the genetic scientist Arnim Zola, a Nazi scientist who has sustained his life through downloading his essence into multiple bodies over the years (Jack Kirby, Captain America and the Falcon #209, May 1977). In 2009, in the wake of the “Secret Invasion” story line, Nick Fury discovered that Hydra had infiltrated SHIELD and had been manipulating the organization for years (Brian Michael Bendis, Jonathan Hickman, and Stefano Caselli, Secret Warriors #1, February 2009). Advanced Idea Mechanics debuted nearly a year after Hydra. Originally presented as the scientific/technology arm of an international terrorist group called THEM, it was soon discovered that THEM was actually Hydra (Lee and Kirby, Strange Tales #149, October 1966). One of AIM’s earliest achievements—and its most impactful in regard to Marvel Comics continuity—was the Cosmic Cube, a device that allows the individual who holds it to alter reality in any way he or she wishes (Lee and Kirby, Tales of Suspense #79, July 1966). The Cube has been a constant weapon of the Red Skull’s and a cornerstone of much of Captain America continuity since the 1960s. Their second most famous creation was the villain MODOK (Mental—though sometimes “Mobile” or “Mechanized”—Organism Designed Only for Killing). The original MODOK was AIM employee George Tarleton, who underwent experiments designed to dramatically increase his intelligence. The result, however, was a comically oversized head that required a specially equipped floating chair to allow mobility (Lee and Kirby, Tales of Suspense #93–94, September–October 1967). Primarily a weapons manufacturer for other villains or groups (most notably Hydra), AIM occasionally works independently. Outside of comics, Hydra—and, in brief mentions, AIM—has appeared in the Marvel Cinematic Universe as the primary group of villains in the films Captain America: The First Avenger (2011) from director Joe Johnston and Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), directed by Joe and Anthony Russo. In The First Avenger, Hydra was the scientific arm of the Nazi regime during World War II, headed by the Red Skull. In The Winter Soldier, set in the present day, Hydra is exposed as having infiltrated both the U.S. government and SHIELD, directly running the former toward its goal of global domination. The organization has also been key to the second and third seasons of the television series Marvel’s Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (2013–2015). Both organizations (and their primary protagonists, Nick Fury and SHIELD) are a reflection of the popularity of the James Bond films of the 1960s, directly copying the Bond antagonist terrorist organization SPECTRE. In the 21st century, and specifically in the wake of the 9/11 attacks and America’s war on Al-Qaeda, the threat of these fictional organizations has acquired deeper meaning for readers and viewers. The possibilities of the dangers represented by international terrorism and the far-reaching nature of their structure have injected a dose of reality behind the meaning of Marvel comics and films. Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Black Widow, Bucky/Young Allies/Winter Soldier, Captain America: Comics, Captain America: Other Media, Falcon, Nick Fury/SHIELD, Red Skull, SpiderWoman; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

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Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Costello, Matthew. 2009. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books & the Unmasking of Cold War America. New York: Continuum. DiPaolo, Marc. 2011. War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Dyer, Ben, ed. 2009. Supervillains and Philosophy: Sometimes, Evil Is Its Own Reward. Popular Culture and Philosophy Series. Chicago: Open Court Press. Lee, Stan, Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible!: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone. Raphael, Jordan, and Tom Spurgeon. 2003. Stan Lee and the Rise and Fall of the American Comic Book. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Stevens, J. Richard. 2015. Captain America, Masculinity, and Violence: The Evolution of a National Icon. New York: Syracuse University Press. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

I Iron Fist First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers:

Marvel Premier #15 (cover date: May 1974) Roy Thomas and Gil Kane Marvel Comics Martial arts, enhanced abilities due to exposure to dragon’s heart Weapons: Mystical “Iron Fist” Base of Operations: New York City Key Allies: Luke Cage (a.k.a. “Power Man”), Daredevil Key Enemies: Master Khan, Black Dragon Chiantang, The Hand Team Affiliations: Heroes for Hire, Defenders, Thunderbolts, New Avengers Secret Identity: Danny Rand Nicknames: N/A Iron Fist was a direct response to the popularity of martial arts films—and even comics such as Shang Chi: Master of Kung Fu, also by Marvel—in the early 1970s. As a child, Danny Rand accompanied his parents on a trip to Asia to discover the mythical ancient city of K’un-L’un. When his parents are killed, Danny is raised by the monks of K’un-L’un and trained in the martial arts. On reaching adulthood and having toughened his fists after years of punching them into buckets of sand, rocks, and so on, Danny is sent to battle the dragon Shou-Lao. This battle leaves a dragon brand burned into his chest. Afterward, Danny plunges his fist into the heart of the dragon, which grants him the power of the “Iron Fist”—he can now channel his “chi” through it. He soon returns to New York City to fight crime on the streets (Thomas and Kane, Marvel Premier #15, May 1974). Iron Fist received his own title in 1975 under the creative team of Chris Claremont and John Byrne, who would soon earn iconic status with their run on the rebooted Uncanny X-Men series launched that same year. By the end of the decade, the popularity of the martial arts genre had faded, and sales began to decline. Rather than cancel the character, however, Marvel teamed Iron Fist with Luke Cage (whose own title had similarly slipped in sales due in part to the waning popularity of the Blaxploitation film genre). The two appeared in the title Power Man and Iron Fist (beginning with issue #50 of the previously titled Luke Cage, Power Man) in April 1978. Working together as the private detective team “Heroes

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for Hire,” the series continued until its cancellation in 1986. The title would return for a brief run beginning in 1997. Outside of comics, a younger version of the character appeared—along with a young Luke Cage—as part of Spider-Man’s team in the first few seasons of Ultimate Spider-Man (2012–2017). The character finally received a live-action portrayal in the 2017 Netflix series Iron Fist, a television offshoot of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. This appearance was followed with the character’s teaming with fellow Marvel/Netflix heroes Daredevil, Jessica Jones, and Luke Cage in the 2017 series The Defenders. The history of Iron Fist is most directly connected to Luke Cage, but whereas Cage has managed to maintain a fan following on his own, Iron Fist has not been as successful in solo adventures. The initial popularity of the solo series in the 1970s, however, does provide a window into the popularity of the martial arts genre at the time. Richard A. Hall See also: Daredevil, Doctor Strange, Luke Cage/Power Man; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Iron Man First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies:

Tales of Suspense #39 (cover date: March 1963) Stan Lee, Larry Lieber, and Don Heck Marvel Comics Genius intellect Weaponized suit of armor New York City Pepper Potts, Happy Hogan, Captain America, James “Rhodey” Rhodes/War Machine, Jarvis Key Enemies: The Mandarin, Whiplash, Obadiah Stane/Iron Monger, Cobalt Man, Crimson Dynamo, AIM, Justin Hammer Team Affiliations: Avengers, Illuminati, SHIELD Secret Identity: Tony Stark Nicknames: Shell-Head Prior to 2008, Iron Man was not a household name. For 45 years, Iron Man was a B-list hero at Marvel Comics, originating as part of the Marvel Age of the early 1960s. The character represents one of the very few times in the 1960s that Marvel



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Comics addressed the burgeoning war in Vietnam (two years before it escalated beyond the presence of U.S. military “advisers” in the region to a full-blown war). Tony Stark was a genius billionaire industrialist, an arms manufacturer by trade. While visiting Vietnam to see his weapons in action, Stark was captured by communists, who demanded that he create weapons for them. In the melee, his heart was severely damaged. Stark utilized his engineering genius to create a machine to keep him alive and built around it a weaponized suit of armor to help him escape. On returning to New York, Stark decided to become the hero Iron Man. The original armor was more robotic in appearance than that of later incarnations, and it was gray—and eventually yellow (or gold)—in color (Lieber and Heck, Tales of Suspense #39, March 1963). Being an inventor by nature, Stark would continuously upgrade his armor through the years. A few months later, Iron Man would team up with Thor, the Hulk, Ant-Man, and the Wasp to form the Avengers, originally to fight Loki, the Norse god of Evil/ Mischief/Lies (Lee and Jack Kirby, The Avengers #1, September 1963). With limited exceptions, Iron Man would be a leading member of the Avengers throughout their history, most notably six months after their origin when the team discovers the frozen body of Captain America, the hero of World War II (Lee and Kirby, The Avengers #4, March 1964). By that time, Iron Man’s armor was already more formfitting and displaying its iconic red-and-gold coloring. Throughout most of the 1960s—due to the limited publication runs allowed to Marvel at the time— Iron Man would share his solo adventures in the pages of Tales of Suspense with solo adventures of Captain America. Later, as a nod to those who were attempting to imitate Marvel’s success, writer Roy Thomas and artist Werner Roth introduced the villain “Cobalt Man,” a scientist named Ralph Roberts who tried to copy the Iron Man design (The X-Men #31, April 1967). The following year, Iron Man finally received his own title (The Invincible Iron Man #1, May 1968). In 1970, afraid that battle might damage his newly repaired heart, Stark recruited Eddie March to don the Iron Man armor (making him the first African American character to do so). Unfortunately, March suffered a blood clot in his brain during his first adventure, and Stark resumed his mantle (Archie Goodwin and George Tuska, The Invincible Iron Man #21, January 1970). By the end of the decade, Marvel began to address the issue of alcoholism. Beginning around issue #123 (June 1979), the creative team of David Michelinie, Bob Layton, and John Romita Jr. began what would become known as the “Demon in a Bottle” story line. As Stark slowly becomes more and more incapacitated by his addiction, he finally gives up the role of Iron Man to his trusted friend James Rhodes beginning with issue #169 (April 1983). Stark returned to his heroic role in issue #200 (November 1985), with Rhodes continuing in his own, more militarized armor under the moniker of War Machine. By 1992, with the Cold War over, Americans appeared to no longer need superheroes. In 1996, as part of the “Onslaught” story line, Iron Man—along with the rest of the Avengers and the Fantastic Four—appeared to have died (Scott Lobdell, Mark Waid, Andy Kubert, and Joe Bennett, Onslaught Marvel Universe #1, October 1996). His title would be relaunched the following month under the “Heroes Reborn” banner, where “slain” heroes were “reborn” in a pocket universe. The

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failure of this line led to these characters’ return to regular continuity under the “Heroes Return” story line. Comics sales dropped dramatically by mid decade, and by the turn of the century, the future of superheroes was uncertain. That changed on September 11, 2001. In 2006, in a story line that was a direct result of the public reaction to increased security measures put in place after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Marvel Comics launched their Civil War crossover event. The story begins with the young superhero group, the New Warriors—subjects of a new television reality show—battling the villain Nitro, who appears to explode, killing the New Warriors as well as hundreds of innocent civilians, 60 of which are children. The result is a public outcry for more government oversight of so-called “superheroes.” Iron Man—along with Yellowjacket and Reed Richards of the Fantastic Four—publicly supports the Super Hero Registration Act that would force all superheroes to register their identities with the federal government and undergo specialized training in order to continue as heroes. The Act is opposed by Captain America and other heroes who believe that such registration would put their secret identities at risk and therefore the lives of their loved ones (Mark Millar and Steve McNiven, Civil War #1, July 2006). The result of these opposing ideologies is the Marvel Civil War, which would run from 2006 to 2007 across most Marvel titles. The series would end with Tony Stark taking over as director of SHIELD and the death of Captain America. During the story line’s run, a side story was published establishing that for years, Stark had overseen a committee called “the Illuminati,” consisting of Stark, Richards, Black Bolt (king of the Inhumans), Prince Namor (the Sub-Mariner), Doctor Strange, and Professor Charles Xavier of the X-Men. These men, considered the most brilliant minds in the world, would secretly work together to organize against potential future threats. Though divided over the unfolding Civil War, the group was also responsible for the decision to launch Bruce Banner—a.k.a. the Incredible Hulk—into space to prevent him from being a further threat to the world (Brian Michael Bendis and Jim Cheung, The New Avengers: Illuminati #1, December 2006). Outside of comics, Iron Man first appeared on American television screens in a series of animated episodes airing in 1966, under the title The Marvel Super Heroes. The series consisted of 65 half-hour episodes, each consisting of adventures directly taken from the comics. The project was overseen by Stan Lee, and the animation consisted of providing minimal movement to already-produced comic book panels. There were two animated series afterward: Iron Man (1994– 1996) and Iron Man: Armored Adventures (2009–2012). Also, since 2008, Iron Man has appeared in all Avengers-related animated series. In 2007, there was an animated home video release called The Invincible Iron Man and one season of Marvel Anime: Iron Man, which debuted in Japan in 2010 and in the United States in 2011. Also in 2010 was the release of the motion comic Iron Man: Extremis. In 2008, Marvel Studios produced the film Iron Man, directed by Jon Favreau and starring Robert Downey Jr. in what would become the most iconic role of his career. He would reappear just a few months later in an end-credits cameo in the film The Incredible Hulk. Downey’s Stark would appear several more times in



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Scene from the Marvel Studios film Iron Man 2 (2010), directed by Jon Favreau. The image features Robert Downey Jr. in his most iconic film role. Downey’s Iron Man appeared in ten Marvel films from 2008 to 2019. (Paramount Pictures/Photofest)

Iron Man 2 (2010), Marvel’s The Avengers (2012), Iron Man 3 (2013), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2014), Captain America: Civil War (2016), Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017), and Avengers: Infinity War (2018). Throughout his decades-long history, Iron Man has remained one of the most popular heroes in the Marvel Comics Universe. With his big-screen debut in 2008, he has become one of the most popular superheroes in the American zeitgeist. Through the character, many issues have been discussed over the years: the military-industrial complex, addiction, and the issue of security versus liberty. The hero’s admittance into the broader American popular culture opens the door for widening the discussion of these issues through a character that millions of people have come to care about. Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Captain America: Comics, Captain America: Other Media, Doctor Strange, Fantastic Four, Nick Fury/SHIELD, Sub-Mariner, X-Men: Comics; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, Superheroes in the Post– 9/11 World.

Further Reading

Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. Costello, Matthew. 2009. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books & the Unmasking of Cold War America. New York: Continuum.

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DiPaolo, Marc. 2011. War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Lee, Stan, Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone. Moulton, Jeffery. 2012. The Superhero Response: How 9/11 Changed Our Superheroes and Why It Matters. Self-published. Raphael, Jordan, and Tom Spurgeon. 2003. Stan Lee and the Rise and Fall of the American Comic Book. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

J Joker First Appearance: Batman #1 (cover date: Spring 1940) Creators: Bill Finger, Jerry Robinson, and Bob Kane Publisher: DC Comics Powers: N/A Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Gotham City Key Allies: Harley Quinn Key Enemies: Batman, Robin, Batgirl, Red Robin, Red Hood, Commissioner Gordon Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: UNKNOWN Nicknames: The Clown Prince of Crime, The Harlequin of Hate The Joker is the most iconic villain in the history of the comic book superhero genre and is considered the first “supervillain.” The character appeared for a decade without any clear “origin” story, first as a murderous sociopath and later— during the more conservative, conformist 1950s—as a villainous trickster, before returning to his psychopathic roots in the darker, “relevant” age of the 1970s and continuing that role into the present day. The closest that has been presented as a detailed “origin” was in the pages of Alan Moore’s The Killing Joke (July 1988). In that story, it was revealed through flashbacks that the Joker had begun as a failed stand-up comedian with a pregnant wife at home, struggling to make ends meet. He agrees to don the identity of the “Red Hood” (based on the earliest origin story from 1951), an identity borne by many individuals over the years, leading a group of criminals into a chemical factory for the purpose of robbing it. Just prior to the heist, he learns that his wife and unborn child have been killed in a fire in their shoddy apartment building. When Batman appears and foils the caper, the Red Hood falls into a vat of chemicals, washing ashore with bleached skin and green hair. This “one bad day” leads him to become “the Joker.” It is important to note, however, that, though this sequence is presented as a set of the Joker’s memories, he admits that he prefers to keep his past “multiple choice.” As such, the veracity of his memories must be taken with a degree of skepticism (Bill Finger, Lew Sayre Schwartz, and Win Mortimer, Detective Comics #168, February 1951; Moore and Brian Bolland, The Killing Joke, 1988).

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The mystery surrounding the character is doubtless a key factor to his enduring popularity. A second reason is his pure, unadulterated evil. Most other villains in popular culture—such as Doctor Doom, Darth Vader, or even Hannibal Lecter— have been given some degree of pathos explaining their devotion to the dark side. The Joker—like the Red Skull in Marvel Comics—does evil for its own sake. A third factor for his popularity is the odd juxtaposition of the terrifying image of a bat being used to symbolize good and the joyous image of a clown representing the ultimate evil. The Joker has been a frequently recurring character in the Batman titles since his inception in 1940, and the number of Joker stories to date could fill a book all their own. Of the many Joker stories that have been told over the decades, two—outside of the aforementioned The Killing Joke—rise to iconic status, both produced, like Moore’s, in the 1980s. In 1986, writer/artist Frank Miller published his masterwork, Batman: The Dark Knight Returns. In that story, the reader finds Bruce Wayne, roughly in his mid-to-late fifties, in semiretirement, having given up the mantle of Batman 10 years prior. For that period, the Joker has been in an asylum in a catatonic state. When events inspire Wayne to once more don the cape and cowl, television reports of the Dark Knight’s return reawaken the Clown Prince of Crime. After committing mass slaughter at a taping of his televised interview, the Joker lures Batman to a fairground, where the two have their final fight, culminating in Batman breaking the neck of the Joker after considering “how many have I killed by letting you live” (Miller, The Dark Knight Returns, Part 3, 1988). This final act gives the Joker his ultimate victory over his longtime nemesis. Batman has crossed the one line he swore never to cross (though, to be fair, the Joker might not have died at Batman’s hand, appearing to move his own neck to break it—in essence, killing himself). The next most famous Joker story is “A Death in the Family,” published in 1988–1989. From the creative team of writer Jim Starlin and artist Jim Aparo (with cover art by Mike Mignola), the story focuses on the second “Robin,” Jason Todd. Todd’s Robin was an orphan living on the streets when Batman found him trying to steal the wheels from the Batmobile (Max Allan Collins and Chris Warner, Batman #408, June 1987). When Todd discovers that his birth mother is still alive, he goes on a solo quest to find her, only to fall into a carefully laid trap and into the hands of the Joker. After beating the boy nearly to death, the Joker leaves him locked in a warehouse with a bomb set to explode (Starlin and Aparo, Batman #427, January 1989). His fate was left to the hands of readers. If readers called 1-900-720-2660, they were voting for Robin to survive; if they called 1-900-7202666, they were voting for his demise. After more than 10,000 votes were cast, the decision to kill off the Boy Wonder won by a mere 72 votes (K. Sanborn, “Who Killed Jason Todd,” The Graphic Novel). This event shocked the comics world and nearly drove Batman to cross the line and kill the Joker but for the intervention of Superman. Outside of comics, the Joker has had a long and varied history. The Joker first appeared on screens in the classic 1960s Batman television series (and 1966 theatrical release with the same cast), played with comical glee by veteran actor Cesar Romero. The next on-screen version of the character came in the 1989 film

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Batman, directed by Tim Burton and portrayed by Oscar-winning actor Jack Nicholson. This film version showed the Joker’s origin as being that of mob enforcer Jack Napier—who, decades earlier, had killed Bruce Wayne’s parents, thereby “creating” the later Batman. Napier takes the iconic stumble into the chemical vat during a tussle with the Dark Knight, having been set up by his own mob boss. The massive success of the two Burton Batman films led to the production of Batman: The Animated Series. Though the Joker has appeared in all animated adventures of Batman (both on television and home video release), his portrayal in the 1990s animated series has become the most iconic. The voice actor given the job of bringing the Joker to life was Mark Hamill, most famous for his live-action turn as Luke Skywalker in the Star Wars film series. Hamill’s voice-overs provided a maniacal malevolence to the character that could only be imagined by readers in previous decades. Hamill continued to portray the Joker in all of the Paul Dini/Bruce Timm animated series (including the 1993 animated theatrical release Batman: Mask of the Phantasm), as well as the Arkham Asylum video games and the Warner Bros. home video animated releases Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker (2000) and Batman: The Killing Joke (2016). The character also appeared in the 2010 home video animated release Batman: Under the Red Hood, bringing the “Death in the Family” story to film, with Joker voiced by John DiMaggio. The Animated Series also saw the creation of the Joker’s “girlfriend,” Harley Quinn, in 1992. In the decades since, Quinn has gone on to be one of the most popular characters in DC Comics, eventually brought to life on the big screen by actress Margot Robbie in the 2016 film Suicide Squad alongside Jared Leto’s controversial portrayal of the Joker. In 2018,

Scene from the Warner Bros. film The Dark Knight (2008), directed by Christopher Nolan. Heath Ledger’s haunting portrayal of the Joker won him a posthumous Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor in 2009. (Warner Bros./Photofest)

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Warner Bros. announced plans for three future Joker projects: a Suicide Squad sequel and stand-alone film (both starring Leto) and an origin story film starring Joaquin Phoenix. In 2008, the Joker was played by actor Heath Ledger in the film The Dark Knight. This reality-based portrayal would win Ledger (who died just prior to the film’s release) a posthumous Oscar for Best Supporting Actor in 2009. Ledger’s Joker was an anarchist whose only goal was to bring the system—and Batman— to a breaking point. In the television series Gotham (FOX-TV, 2014–2019), examining the teenage years of Bruce Wayne and the rise of Police Commissioner James Gordon, a character named “Jerome” was introduced near the end of the first season. While producers insisted that “Jerome” was not the Joker, fans—and the brilliant portrayal by actor Cameron Monaghan—strongly suggested otherwise. The final demise of Jerome, however, at the end of season 4 (2018) shifted the focus of potential Joker to Jerome’s equally deranged twin brother, Jeremiah. Throughout his long and storied history, the Joker has continuously provided fodder for one of the most important moral questions ever discussed in comics: that of capital punishment. If the Joker is clinically insane and therefore not responsible for his murderous actions, and if it is also a given that he will continue to escape incarceration and murder again and again, at what point is Batman— and society itself—responsible for the murders he will continue to commit? While an answer may continue to be elusive, the enduring popularity of the Joker all but guarantees that his reign of evil will continue. Richard A. Hall See also: Batgirl/Oracle, Batman: Comics, Batman: Other Media, Batman: Rogues’ Gallery, Nightwing/Robin I, Harley Quinn, Red Hood/Robin II, Red Robin/Robin III, Robin/ Robin IV, Suicide Squad; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

Dixon, Chuck. 2010. “ ‘Known Super-Criminals Still at Large’: Villainy in Batman.” In Gotham City 14 Miles: 14 Essays on Why the 1960s Batman TV Series Matters, edited by Jim Beard, 121–142. Edwardsville, IL: Sequart Research & Literacy Organization. Langley, Travis. 2012. Batman and Psychology: A Dark and Stormy Knight. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Moseley, Daniel. 2009. “The Joker’s Comedy of Existence.” In Supervillains and Philosophy: Sometimes, Evil Is Its Own Reward, edited by Ben Dyer, 127–136. Chicago: Open Court Press. Sanborn, K. 2015. “Who Killed Jason Todd: The Joker, Himself, His Writer, or The Fans?” The Graphic Novel, October 18. Accessed September 11, 2018. http://graphicnovel​ .umwblogs.org/2015/10/18/who-killed-jason-todd-the​-joker​-himself​-his​-writer​ -or-the-fans/.



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Weldon, Glen. 2016. The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture. New York: Simon and Schuster. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Justice League First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers (Original Team):

The Brave and the Bold #28 (cover date: March 1960) Julius Schwartz, Gardner Fox, and Mike Sekowsky DC Comics Superman—Super strength, flight and speed, heat vision Batman—Genius intellect, agility, trained martial artist Wonder Woman—Super strength Aquaman—Communication with fish, super strength Martian Manhunter—Shape-shifting, flight, intangibility Green Lantern—Willpower via power ring Flash—Super speed, intangibility Weapons: Superman—N/A Batman—Various gadgets Wonder Woman—Lasso of Truth, bulletproof bracelets Aquaman—Wrist harpoon (temporarily) Martian Manhunter—N/A Green Lantern—Power ring Flash—N/A Base of Operations: Secret Sanctuary (site unknown), originally Hall of Justice (site unknown), on television Orbiting Satellite, the Moon (eventually) Key Allies: Justice Society, Teen Titans, Green Lantern Corps, Legion of Superheroes, Justice League International, Justice League Dark Key Enemies: Crime Champions, Darkseid, Starro, Lex Luthor, Legion of Doom, Vandal Savage, Despero, Crime Syndicate of America Other Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: Superman—Clark Kent Batman—Bruce Wayne Wonder Woman—Princess Diana of Themyscira/ Diana Prince

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Aquaman—Arthur Curry Martian Manhunter—J’onn J’onzz Green Lantern—Hal Jordan/Guy Gardner/Kyle Rayner Flash—Barry Allen/Wally West Nicknames: JLA The Justice League (originally the Justice League of America, later split to include the Justice League International and Justice League Dark) is the culmination of DC Comics’—and editor Julius Schwartz’s—contribution to the creation of the Silver Age of comics. Debuting in 1960, the Justice League was a modern twist on the Golden Age comic team the Justice Society. The JLA brought together the Silver Age versions of the Flash and Green Lantern with already-established heroes Wonder Woman, Aquaman, and Martian Manhunter. Superman and Batman soon joined as regularly appearing characters, and the trio of Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman soon became the “trinity” of JLA leadership much as Captain America, Iron Man, and Thor would for the Avengers over at Marvel Comics. Their premier adventure was against the alien mind-controlling “starfish” known as Starro. Throughout the decades, the JLA would host nearly all DC Comics heroes (again similar to Marvel’s Avengers). The concept was wildly popular with young readers: now they could get several of their favorite characters all in one book. Cover for The Brave and the Bold #28 (March Most of the biggest JLA story 1960), with cover art by Mike Sekowsky, Murphy lines revolved around the idea of Anderson, and Jack Adler. This issue featured the the multiverse and “Crisis.” debut appearance of the Justice League of AmerBeginning in 1963, there was the ica, with founding members Green Lantern, two-part story line “Crisis on Aquaman, Wonder Woman, Flash, and Martian Manhunter featured on the cover. This team rep- Earth-One” and “Crisis on resented the culmination of the Silver Age of DC Earth-Two” (Gardner Fox and Mike Sekowsky, Justice League Comics. (Photofest)



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of America #21–22, August–September 1963). By 1963, there were, of course, people who remembered the Golden Age of comics 20 years prior. Some still read comics, but more were now parents of children who read comics. Either way, it was clear: the DC superheroes were different. Beginning in 1956, DC editor Julius Schwartz began to reimagine some of the Golden Age heroes—most specifically, Flash and Green Lantern—giving them new origins and new secret identities. Now these heroes made up the Justice League, which seemed very similar in tone to the Golden Age “Justice Society.” This first “Crisis” story line addressed the changes. The Golden Age heroes had existed in the DC universe, but their adventures had taken place on an “alternate” earth. Thus, DC introduced the concept of multiple, alternative “earths,” or a “multiverse.” In this story line, the two “earths” are brought together by a group called the “Crime Champions,” a team consisting of supervillains from both realities (Fox and Sekowsky, Justice League of America #21, August 1963). This story line addressed the continuity issues created by the Silver Age reboot. In 1984, to fill in the hole left by Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman leaving the League, DC introduced the first Puerto Rican superhero (and first Hispanic superhero in comics): Vibe. Francisco Ramon possessed the ability to control vibration, from the seismic to the molecular levels (Gerry Conway and Chuck Patton, Justice League of America Annual #2, October 1984). By 1985, DC continuity faced yet another conundrum. After 50 years, the hundreds of story lines had created multiple contradictions, and the aging superhero readership was noticing. Characters had changed, and then they changed again. Some characters had been killed off, and writers and fans wanted them back. Other writers wanted to move in directions that directly contradicted established continuity. As such, the iconic creative team of Marv Wolfman and George Perez came up with “Crisis on Infinite Earths.” By that time, though, the idea of multiple realities had been dramatically overused. Aside from “Earth-1,” housing the exploits of the Justice League, and “Earth-2” for the Justice Society, DC had established an entirely separate earth for Captain Marvel (a.k.a. SHAZAM!) to make use of the Fawcett Publications properties purchased by DC in the early 1970s. There was also an “Earth Prime,” which was “our” earth: a reality where superheroes were simply the purview of comic books. Crisis on Infinite Earths was a 12-part series that cleaned up the discontinuity problems. Some “earths” were destroyed; others were melded together. Some heroes died, and some returned. This “Crisis” story line would continue in the 21st century with the Infinite Crisis story line in 2005 and the Final Crisis story line in 2008. Outside of comics, the Justice League has been a mainstay of popular culture since the early 1970s. Its first appearance was in animated shorts for The Superman/Aquaman Hour of Adventure in 1967. From 1973 to 1985 and enacting some title changes along the way, ABC-TV aired a Saturday-morning cartoon series called Super Friends, created by E. Nelson Bridwell. In 2001, Bruce Timm and Paul Dini (the creative team behind the wildly successful Batman: The Animated Series) developed Justice League, which, in 2004, became Justice League Unlimited and continued until 2006. The team has also been featured in several home video animated releases: Justice League: The New Frontier (2008), Justice

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League: Crisis on Two Earths (2010), and Justice League: War (2014), to name but a few. In 2017, the movie Justice League became the fourth film in the burgeoning DC Cinematic Universe, directed by Zack Snyder and Joss Whedon and starring Henry Cavil as Superman, Ben Affleck as Batman, Gal Gadot as Wonder Woman, Jason Momoa as Aquaman, Ezra Miller as Flash, and Ray Fisher as Cyborg. Though the film was a commercial success, it was panned by many fans and critics. Throughout its history, the Justice League has worked primarily as a way to bring multiple heroes into one title, giving consumers more “bang for the buck.” Richard A. Hall See also: Aquaman, Atom, Avengers, Batman: Comics, Batman: Other Media, Black Canary, Black Lightning, Blue Beetle, Captain Marvel (a.k.a. SHAZAM!), Flash, Green Arrow, Green Lantern, Green Lantern Corps, Justice Society, Legion of Superheroes, Plastic Man, The Question, Supergirl/Power Girl, Superman: Comics, Superman: Other Media, Superman: Rogues’ Gallery, Teen Titans, Wonder Woman: Comics, Wonder Woman: Other Media; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Aldama, Frederick Luis. 2017. Latinx Superheroes in Mainstream Comics. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. Fingeroth, Danny. 2007. Superman on the Couch: What Superheroes Really Tell Us about Ourselves and Our Society. New York: Continuum Press. Hanley, Tim. 2014. Wonder Woman Unbound: The Curious History of the World’s Most Famous Heroine. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Morris, Tom and Matt Morris, eds. 2006. Superheroes and Philosophy: Truth, Justice, and the Socratic Way. Popular Culture and Philosophy Series. Chicago: Open Court Press. Morrison, Grant. 2011. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Schwartz, Julius, with Brian M. Thomsen. 2000. Man of Two Worlds: My Life in Science Fiction and Comics. New York: Harper Collins. Tye, Larry. 2012. Superman: The High-Flying History of America’s Most Enduring Hero. New York: Random House. Weldon, Glen. 2016. The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Justice Society First Appearance: Creators: Publisher:

All Star Comics #3 (cover date: Winter 1940) Gardner Fox, Sheldon Mayer, and Sheldon Moldoff DC Comics



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Powers: Flash—Super speed Atom—Shrinking Doctor Fate—Magic, flight Green Lantern—Flight and intangibility Hawkman—Flight Hourman—Super strength and speed (for an hour) Sandman—N/A Spectre—Supernatural magic Johnny Thunder—Luck Wonder Woman—Super strength and speed Superman [honorary member]—Super strength, speed, flight Batman [honorary member]—N/A Weapons: Flash—N/A Atom—N/A Dr. Fate—Helmet of Fate, Amulet of Anubis, Cloak of Destiny Green Lantern—Power ring Hawkman—Battle mace Hourman—N/A Sandman—Gas gun Spectre—N/A Johnny Thunder—Use of the genie, thunderbolt Wonder Woman—Lasso of Truth, bulletproof bracelets Superman [honorary member]—N/A Batman [honorary member]—Various gadgets Base of Operations: New York City, Gotham City, Civic City Key Allies: Seven Soldiers of Victory, Justice League Key Enemies: The Wizard, Crime Champions, Injustice Society Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: Flash—Jay Garrick Atom—Al Pratt Dr. Fate—Kent Nelson Green Lantern—Alan Scott Hawkman—Carter Hall Sandman—Wesley Dodds Spectre—Jim Corrigan Johnny Thunder—Johnny Thunder Wonder Woman—Diana Prince Superman [honorary member]—Clark Kent Batman [honorary member]—Bruce Wayne Nicknames: JSA

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Early Fan Groups From the very beginning of superhero comic books, readers could join fan groups— national organizations (sponsored by the respective publishers) centered on popular characters. Fan clubs provided a sense of belonging with like-minded individuals, revolving around a topic of joint interest. The three most prominent examples are “Supermen of America,” “Sentinels of Liberty,” and “Junior Justice Society of America.” “Supermen of America” was the first and longest-lasting of the Golden Age fan clubs. It began in 1939 and ran through 1964. Fans of Superman received a welcome letter, membership certificate, a membership card promoting the club’s motto of “StrengthCourage-Justice” (the original kit included a “secret code book,” which was later incorporated into a fold-over membership card), and a pin. Later kits would include a silver and brass ring with the club’s name and an image of Superman inscribed. “Sentinels of Liberty” ran from 1941 to 1945. Fans of Captain America received a membership card, a card for reciting the club’s pledge (“1. In God we trust; 2. Allegiance to the flag and the Constitution of the United States of America; 3. To make myself a better citizen and defend my government forever.”), and a felt badge. By 1943, readers were urged to not spend the 10 cents to join the club but rather to use that money to buy war bonds to support the war effort. “Junior Justice Society of America” ran from 1942 to 1948. During the war years, fans of the Justice Society received a welcome letter, a membership certificate (“signed” by Wonder Woman), a secret decoder dial, a pamphlet called Youth and the War Effort, a comic-style one-sheet explaining the minutemen of the American Revolution, and a “Stamp Album” to collect war stamps in. It is unclear what the kit contained after 1945. Richard A. Hall

The Justice Society was one of comics’ first “super groups.” The idea was to take ancillary characters appearing in DC’s anthology series such as Fun Comics, All-American Comics, and Flash Comics into one series. As it was decided that characters with their own titles would not be involved in the group—Superman and Batman were considered “honorary” members and never appeared with the group in its initial run—Flash and Green Lantern soon left. Wonder Woman, though she had her own series, was allowed to join as the group’s “secretary” beginning with All Star Comics #11 (June 1942). One possibility for Wonder Woman’s status may have been that Wonder Woman creator William Moulton Marston was unavailable to write the Justice Society stories. As such, the JSA writer may have not known how to write a female character, or, due to Marston’s contract, he may have not allowed anyone else to write her stories. It is also possible—as most presume—that it reflects the sexism of the day. It was in that same issue that the JSA began fighting Japanese agents, as the United States had entered World War II six months earlier. The fight against fascist agents became the standard trope for Golden Age comics during the war years. During this time, the JSA renamed itself the “Justice Battalion.” As part of the patriotic fervor, DC Comics issued the “Junior JSA Club Kit Certificate” that same year that allowed members to fill in their names and sign below a pledge to follow the Golden Rule and resist racial prejudice. The certificate was undersigned by “Diana Prince,” as she was the team secretary. The club was active until 1948.



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By that time, Black Canary had joined as the team’s second female member (John Broome and Carmine Infantino, All-Star Comics #41, July 1948). After the war, superhero comics sales slowly began to decline, and the JSA saw its final adventure in All Star Comics #57 (March 1951). The Society would be resurrected in 1963 in an attempt to explain the discontinuity between the Golden and Silver Ages of DC Comics through the two-part story line “Crisis on Earth-One” and “Crisis on Earth-Two” (Gardner Fox and Mike Sekowsky, Justice League of America #21–22, August–September 1963). In 1956, DC editor Julius Schwartz had reimagined some of the Golden Age heroes— most specifically, Flash and Green Lantern—giving them new origins and new secret identities. Now these heroes made up the new “Justice League of America,” which was itself a reboot of the Golden Age Justice Society. This first “Crisis” story line addressed the changes. The Justice Society still existed in the DC universe, but its adventures were taking place on an “alternate” earth. Thus, DC introduced the concept of multiple, alternative “earths,” or a “multiverse.” In this story line, the two “earths” are brought together by a group called the “Crime Champions,” a team consisting of supervillains from both realities (Fox and Sekowsky, Justice League of America #21, August 1963). This story line not only paid homage to the original superteam, it also firmly established the Justice Society as a continuing part of the DC Comics Universe. In the 1970s, the JSA was given its own title once again with All Star Comics #58 (Gerry Conway, February 1976). In that same issue, Power Girl—Superman’s cousin “Supergirl” from an alternate reality—joined the JSA. In the decades since, the Justice Society has continued to play a recurring role in various DC story lines. Beginning in 2010, the JSA made its first appearance on the live-action television series Smallville, which aired on CW-TV. The two-part episode was called “Absolute Justice” and aired as a two-hour episode/TV movie. Today, the JSA exists not only as a prime example of the popularity of the Golden Age superheroes at the time but also of their enduring popularity and the respect that comics creators and fans have for the first generation of superheroes. Richard A. Hall See also: Atom, Black Canary, Doctor Fate, Flash, Green Lantern, Justice League, Sandman, Spectre, Supergirl/Power Girl, Wonder Woman: Comics; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Kantor, Michael, and Laurence Maslon. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Knowles, Christopher. 2007. Our Gods Wear Spandex: The Secret History of Comic Book Superheroes. San Francisco: Weiser Books. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

L Legion of Superheroes First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers:

Adventure Comics #247 (cover date: April 1958) Otto Binder and Al Plastino DC Comics Cosmic Boy—Magnetism Lightning Boy (Lad)—Electricity Saturn Girl—Telepathy Superboy—Super strength and speed, heat vision, freeze breath Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Legion Clubhouse/Outpost Key Allies: Legion of Substitute Heroes, Justice League, Teen Titans Key Enemies: The Fatal Five, The Dark Circle, Mordru Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: Cosmic Boy—Rokk Krinn Lightning Boy (Lad)—Garth Ranzz Saturn Girl—Imra Ardeen Superboy—Clark Kent Nicknames: N/A The Legion of Superheroes was a product of the science fiction boom of the 1950s. Introduced in 1958, the team originally consisted of three heroes: Cosmic Boy, Lightning Boy (soon to be changed to “Lightning Lad”), and Saturn Girl. These three young people formed a super hero “club” in the 30th century. After they successfully saved a wealthy man named R. J. Brande from an assassination plot, he agreed to fund their club, provided they worked to protect the United Planets. They soon decided to go back in time 1,000 years to visit their own hero, Superman, when he was their age. After bringing Superboy to their time and giving him a mock initiation, they invite Superboy to join the Legion (Binder and Plastino, Adventure Comics #247, April 1958). The popularity of the idea would lead to the Legion being a regular series in Adventure Comics for the next decade. Over time, the ranks of the Legion would grow beyond the three founding members. In 1969, Supergirl would replace the Legion in the pages of Adventure. After a successful miniseries of its own in 1973, the Legion took top billing in the



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Superboy series, changing it to Superboy: Starring the Legion of Superheroes (Issue #197, August 1973). The Legion would enjoy a boost of success in the 1980s—along with the series Teen Titans—due to the popularity of youth-based hero teams spawned by Marvel’s Uncanny X-Men. Outside of comics, the Legion appeared in a short-lived animated series from 2006 to 2008, which also featured Superboy. They have also made live-action appearances in the CW-TV series Smallville (2001–2011), The Flash (debuting in 2014), and Supergirl (debuting on CBS-TV in 2015 and moving to CW-TV the following year). Prior to these appearances, they had also appeared in Superman: The Animated Series in the 1990s before receiving their own series—Legion of Superheroes: The Animated Series, airing on The CW on Saturday mornings from 2006 to 2008. The Legion has a special place in comic book history for introducing industry titan Jim Shooter. Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1951, Shooter began writing Legion stories at the age of 13, sending them to DC Superman editor Mort Weisinger. The following year, Weisinger hired him as a full-time writer. After mastering his craft at DC, Shooter would go on to be one of the longest-reigning, most successful, and most controversial editors in chief at Marvel Comics from 1978 to 1987. Despite the Legion members’ continuing status as essentially C-level characters, they continue to be mainstays of the DC Comics Universe. Richard A. Hall See also: Justice League, Supergirl/Power Girl, Superman: Comics, Superman: Other Media, Teen Titans, X-Men: Comics; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s.

Further Reading

Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Sacks, Jason, Eric Hoffman, and Dominick Grace, eds. 2017. Jim Shooter: Conversations. Conversations with Comics Artists Series. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Luke Cage/Power Man First Appearance: Luke Cage: Hero for Hire #1 (cover date: June 1972) Creators: Archie Goodwin, John Romita Sr., George Tuska Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers: Super strength, unbreakable skin Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: New York City, Chicago (briefly) Key Allies: Iron Fist, Jessica Jones, Misty Knight Key Enemies: Bushmaster, Wrecking Crew, Sons of the Serpent

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Heroes for Hire, Avengers, Thunderbolts, Defenders, Fantastic Four (briefly) Carl Lucas Power Man

Luke Cage holds the distinction of being the first black superhero to be introduced in his own ongoing, self-titled series. Cage, or Power Man, as he was also known, was a direct result of the popularity of the Blaxploitaton genre of films in the early 1970s, and he—even more so than other black superheroes Blade and Black Panther—directly reflected the types of heroes in films such as Shaft. His origin is explained in the very first issue. Carl Lucas was imprisoned for a crime he did not commit. After voluntarily taking part in a prison experiment, Lucas discovered that he had achieved super strength and bulletproof skin. He then escaped from prison, changed his name to Luke Cage, and became a “Hero for Hire” (Goodwin, Romita, and Tuska, Luke Cage: Hero for Hire #1, June 1972). The title would be renamed Luke Cage, Power Man two years later, with issue #17. By 1978, the Blaxploitation films were all but gone, and sales of Power Man were similarly in decline. Rather than cancel the series, however, Marvel Comics teamed Cage with Danny Rand, a.k.a. Iron Fist (a martial arts hero inspired by the equally popular martial arts films of the early 1970s, a genre that also saw a dramatic decline by the end of the decade). With the new team-up, the comic was retitled Power Man and Iron Fist beginning with issue #50 (Chris Claremont and John Byrne, April 1978). With these characters working together as the private detective team “Heroes for Hire,” the series would continue as such until its cancellation in 1986. The title would return for a brief run beginning in 1997. There has been some criticism that one of the most prominent African American heroes in comics was frequently portrayed as offering his heroic services only if a fee was paid (something not seen among any white superheroes). Though inspired by Blaxploitation, Luke Cage was written exclusively by white writers throughout his initial run. As such, the character’s speech and appearance represented standard racial stereotypes of the period. This fact was possibly a factor in the eventual decline in sales by the end of the 1970s. Cage would briefly join the Fantastic Four when the Thing—Ben Grimm—lost his powers (beginning in Roy Thomas and Rich Buckler, Fantastic Four #168, March 1976). Though he no longer had his own title, Luke Cage would appear in the pages of numerous comics throughout the 1990s. In 2003, writer Brian Michael Bendis would bring Cage into the pages of his ongoing series Alias, focusing on the exploits of Cage’s on-again, off-again girlfriend, Jessica Jones. Cage and Jones would go on to have a child together. During the crossover event, Civil War, Cage would side with Captain America’s team resisting superhero registration. In 2010, Cage is recruited by Captain America and Iron Man to assemble a new team of Avengers under his leadership (Bendis and Stuart Immonen, The Heroic Age: New Avengers #1, June 2010). Outside of comics, Luke Cage has appeared as a guest character in the animated series Super-Hero Squad (2009–2011) and Avengers: Earth’s Mightiest



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Heroes (2010–2013). A younger version of the character appeared as part of Spider-Man’s team in the first few seasons of Ultimate Spider-Man (2012–2017). The character finally received a live-action portrayal in the 2015 Netflix series Jessica Jones, a television offshoot of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, where Cage was portrayed by Mike Colter. This appearance was followed with his own series, Luke Cage, in 2016, and a teaming with Jones, Daredevil, and Iron Fist in the 2017 series The Defenders, with Colter resuming the role for both series. In the decades since his initial inception in 1972, Luke Cage has consistently proven to be one of the most popular heroes in the Marvel Comics Universe as well as one of the most popular African American superheroes in comic book history. Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Black Lightning, Black Panther, Blade, the Vampire Hunter, Brother Voodoo, Cloak and Dagger, Daredevil, Falcon, Fantastic Four, Iron Fist, Spawn; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

DiPaolo, Marc. 2011. War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Gateward, Frances, and John Jennings, eds. 2015. The Blacker the Ink: Constructions of Black Identity in Comics and Sequential Art. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Howard, Sheena C., and Ronald L. Jackson II, eds. 2013. Black Comics: Race and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Nama, Adilifu. 2011. Super Black: American Pop Culture and Black Superheroes. Austin: University of Texas Press. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

M Ms. Marvel First Appearance:

Carol Danvers: Marvel Super-Heroes #13 (cover date: March 1968) Kamala Khan: Captain Marvel #14 (cover date: August 2013) Creators: Carol Danvers: Roy Thomas and Gene Colan Kamala Khan: Sana Amanat, G. Willow Wilson, and Adrian Alphona Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers: Carol Danvers: Flight, superhuman strength, energy projection Kamala Khan: Polymorph Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Carol Danvers: New York City, outer space Kamala Khan: Jersey City Key Allies: Captain Marvel, Jessica Jones, Iron Man, Spider-Man, Nova Key Enemies: Ronan the Accuser, Mutant Brotherhood, the Inventor, Lockdown Team Affiliations: Avengers, Starjammers, the Champions Secret Identity: Carol Danvers/Kamala Khan The first woman to take on the title of Ms. Marvel made her debut in Marvel Super-Heroes #13 by Roy Thomas and Gene Colan. Carol Danvers was a tenacious fighter pilot assigned to be head of security at a secret government installation. It was here she first encountered Kree soldier-turned-superhero Mar-Vell, otherwise known as Captain Marvel. During a battle with Mar-Vell’s archnemesis, Yon-Rogg, in Captain Marvel #18, Carol was caught in the midst of the clash. An alien device known as the “Psyche-Magnitron” exploded, releasing a wave of radiation that hit the woman and imprinted Mar-Vell’s Kree genetics onto her own, granting her the same powers Captain Marvel possessed (Thomas, Gil Kane, John Buscema, and John Romita Sr., Captain Marvel #18, November 1969). Carol Danvers debuted as Ms. Marvel in her own appropriately titled series, Ms. Marvel. This series gave Danvers room to grow and establish herself within the greater Marvel Universe. Despite having a distinguished career as a pilot, she took on a job for J. Jonah Jameson running Woman Magazine. Two key moments



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of her life occurred in the pages of this series: she would briefly reunite with Captain Marvel and later gain her now distinct costume (Gerry Conway and Buscema, Ms. Marvel #19–20, August and October 1978). Ms. Marvel eventually joined the ranks of the Avengers (Jim Shooter and George Perez, Avengers #171, 1978). While this would normally be the boost to a hero’s status, Carol Danvers would have a difficult time as a member of “Earth’s Mightiest Heroes.” She became the center of an infamous tale that has since been disowned by all involved, including then editor Jim Shooter. In that story, Danvers experiences a strange pregnancy as a result of being violated by Marcus, the son of supervillain Immortus. This was part of a convoluted plan involving brainwashing Carol in another dimension to impregnate her with himself in order to be born on earth to escape that dimension. The disrespectful attitudes with which her teammates treated her during this ordeal infuriated Danvers to the point where she left the team (Shooter, George Perez, Bob Layton, and David Michelinie, Avengers #200, October 1980). The next few years were not kind to Ms. Marvel, as she only made recurring appearances within the comics. She even spent a good amount of time in a coma, courtesy of former X-Men villain Rogue (who would permanently absorb Ms. Marvel’s powers of strength and flight). Danvers battled her personal demons and began taking on alter egos like Binary and Warbird, leaving the Ms. Marvel mantle vacant. At one point during this period, the Fantastic Four character Sharon Ventura took on the Ms. Marvel title briefly, to little fanfare. In 2006, Marvel saw potential in Ms. Marvel to be its greatest female superhero and started building her up to that position. During the event Civil War, Ms. M ­ arvel was given a place of prominence as Iron Man’s top lieutenant. Her military experience made her the ideal hero to lead the attack against the Anti-Registration forces. After this conflict, she was trusted to take on the leadership of the Mighty Avengers. Shortly afterward, however, Norman Osborne took a position of power in the Marvel Universe, forcing Ms. Marvel to become a fugitive. Meanwhile, the villain Moonstone took the Ms. Marvel identity for herself as a member of Osborne’s Dark Avengers. Upon the death of Mar-Vell, Carol Danvers faced a turning point in her career. Urged by his request that she continue his legacy, Danvers became the new Captain Marvel. This left an opening for a new “Ms.” ­Marvel at a time when the publisher was looking to diversify its pantheon of heroes. After toying with who this new Ms. Marvel should be, editor Sana Amana and writer G. Willow Wilson decided to create a Peter Parker–esque character for a new generation in Kamala Khan. In 2014, Kamala Khan was introduced as the teenage daughter of Pakistani Muslims who resided in a diverse suburb of Jersey City. Far from her no-nonsense predecessor, Khan had a tendency to be awkward and geeky. Khan received her new powers via the Terrigen Mist, which was sweeping through the Marvel Universe and empowering new Inhumans (humans imbued with ancient alien DNA). Kamala had a completely different set of powers than Carol Danvers, as the Mist made her a polymorph who could change her body however she desired (G. ­Willow Wilson and Adrian Alphona, Ms. Marvel #1, April 2014) . As Marvel’s newest teenage hero, she often found herself battling hyper-realized versions of issues that youths often face. Regularly assisting Kamala in her endeavors was her best

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friend, Bruno, with whom she shared romantic tension. In 2016, Ms. Marvel fulfilled a dream she had held and gained membership into the Avengers. She and her fellow legacy heroes saw this as their gaining legitimacy in the larger superhero community. Her tenure on the team was short-lived, as Ms. Marvel led her fellow young heroes in rebelling against the team to form a new incarnation of the Champions (Mark Waid and Humberto Ramos, Champions vol. 2, #1, December 2016). Gaining such strong prominence in the Marvel Universe in such a short amount of time is a sure sign that things are bright for the current holder of the Ms. Marvel legacy. Kamala Khan’s Ms. Marvel has appeared in the Disney-XD animated Avengers Assemble series. Carol Danvers’s “Captain” Marvel appears in the selftitled 2019 film starring Brie Larson and directed by Anna Boden and Ryan Fleck. Josh Plock See also: Avengers; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Cocca, Carolyn. 2016. Superwomen: Gender, Power, and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury. Horn, Maurice. 1981. Women in Comics. New York: Chelsea House. Madrid, Mike. 2009. The Supergirls: Fashion, Feminism, Fantasy, and the History of Comic Book Heroines. Minneapolis, MN: Exterminating Angels Press. Nicholson, Hope. 2017. The Spectacular Sisterhood of Superwomen. Philadelphia: Quirk Books. Trattner, Casey L. 2016. “Ms. Marvel: Changing Muslim Representation in the Comic World.” The Cupola. Accessed September 20, 2018. https://cupola.gettysburg.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.co.in/&httpsredir=1&article=10 03&context=islamandwomen. Wilson, G. Willow. 2010. The Butterfly Mosque: A Young Woman’s Journey to Love and Islam. New York: Grove Press.

N Nick Fury/SHIELD First Appearance:

Sgt. Fury and His Howling Commandos #1 (cover date: May 1963) Creators: Stan Lee and Jack Kirby Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers: Espionage, hand-to-hand combat, expert marksmanship Weapons: Various spy gadgets, Life Model Decoy (LMD) robots Base of Operations: England (in World War II), New York City Key Allies: Captain America, Dum-Dum Dugan, Gabriel Jones, Contessa Valentina Allegra de la Fontaine, Black Widow, Maria Hill Key Enemies: Hydra, Baron Wolfgang von Strucker, Madame Hydra I/Contessa Valentina Allegra de la Fontaine, Madame Hydra II/Viper, Advanced Idea Mechanics (AIM), Scorpio/Jack Fury Team Affiliations: [Fury is director of SHIELD] Secret Identity: N/A Acronyms for SHIELD: [Supreme Headquarters, International Espionage, Law-Enforcement Division (1965); Strategic Hazard Intervention Espionage Logistics Directorate (1991); Strategic Homeland Intervention, Enforcement and Logistics Division (Cinematic and Television Universe, 2012)] Nick Fury was initially introduced at the height of the Marvel Age of comics in the 1960s. Sergeant Fury led a team called the Howling Commandos—which included other future SHIELD agents Dum-Dum Dugan and Gabriel Jones, Marvel’s first regularly appearing black hero—conducting dangerous missions during World War II (Lee and Kirby, Sgt. Fury and His Howling Commandos #1, May 1963). These World War II adventures continued until 1981. A few months after his debut, Fury was brought into the modern-day Marvel Comics Universe as a CIA agent; his aging had been slowed due to a serum called the “Infinity Formula” (Lee and Kirby, Fantastic Four #21, December 1963). As a result of the

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Jim Steranko Jim Steranko was born in Reading, Pennsylvania, in 1938. He began his career as a magician and escape artist while working as an advertising designer during the day. In 1966, after a brief stint at Harvey Comics, he began working for Marvel Comics as an inker. In 1967, after brief, two-story runs on X-Men and Captain America, he was given total creative control of the “Nick Fury: Agent of SHIELD” feature in Strange Tales #155. Steranko utilized the title to revolutionize comic book art by introducing both psychedelic and photorealistic artwork—often referred to as “pop art”—and his run on the character is considered one of the most artistic in comic book history. From 1970 to 1972, he published the two-volume The Steranko History of Comics, the most comprehensive history of the comic book medium to that time. In 1973, he became the editor of the new Marvel fan magazine, FOOM. He worked as a conceptual artist on the films Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) and Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1992). His contributions to comics have been featured in the documentaries Comic Book Superheroes Unmasked (The History Channel, 2003), and Superheroes: The Never-Ending Battle (PBS, 2013). Richard A. Hall

growing popularity of spy series such as the James Bond film franchise and television series such as The Man from U.N.C.L.E., Lee and Kirby created the Supreme Headquarters, International Espionage, Law Enforcement Division (SHIELD) and made now-colonel Fury its director, armed with a flying car and an army of robots called Life Model Decoys (LMDs). The division was answerable directly to the United Nations (Lee and Kirby, Strange Tales #135, August 1965). Fury and SHIELD soon became mainstays of the Marvel Comics Universe, frequently appearing in most Marvel titles, most often Captain America, as the Sentinel of Liberty worked throughout the 1960s and 1970s as a de facto agent of the organization. To explain why the modern-day Fury bore an eye patch while his World War II incarnation did not, Stan Lee and artist Dick Ayers created a backstory explaining that Fury had been wounded by a grenade during the war, refusing surgery as it would take him out of the field for too long (Sgt. Fury and His Howling Commandos #27, February 1966). Jim Steranko took over writing and art duties with Strange Tales #155 (April 1967). The following year, Steranko and Fury were given their own title (having shared the Strange Tales title with stories about Doctor Strange). In the first issue, Steranko introduced the villain Scorpio, who is soon discovered to be Fury’s brother, Jack (Nick Fury, Agent of SHIELD #1, June 1968). Steranko’s run on Nick Fury revolutionized comic book art, introducing a psychedelic “pop” art style. Over the decades that followed, Fury continued to appear in both self-titled series and as a guest in many other series. Always several steps ahead of the rest of the Marvel Universe in the area of potential threats, Fury occasionally goes underground, disappearing for months or even years at a time to investigate various threats. The most famous example of this was the 2008 series Secret Invasion, in which Fury resurfaces after a long absence, having been investigating the fact that the aggressive shape-shifting alien race, the Skrulls, had, for years, been kidnaping and replacing Marvel heroes unbeknown to their closest allies and even



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family (Brian Michael Bendis and Leinil Francis Yu, Secret Invasion #1–8, April– December 2008). In the 2014 miniseries Original Sin, the Marvel heroes investigated the murder of the mysterious alien known only as the Watcher, who had been tasked with observing and recording all of human history in all its various realities. When the investigation points to Fury as the murderer, it is discovered that the version of him that the heroes had been dealing with for years was in fact an insane LMD who called himself Max Fury. The true Fury, now severely aged, had continued to pull strings behind the scenes with his own army of lifelike copy of LMDs before apparently dying (Jason Aaron and Mike Deodato, Original Sin #1–8, April–September 2014). In 2001, as part of the alternate-reality “Ultimate” story line, Nick Fury was first introduced in Ultimate Marvel Team-Up #5 (August 2001), drawn by Mike Allred to look very similar to the character’s original 1963 Kirby artwork. The following year, in The Ultimates #1 (March 2002), new artist Bryan Hitch drew the character specifically to look like real-life movie actor Samuel L. Jackson. This new, African American Fury became the official Fury of the “Ultimate Universe” for the remainder of its run. This version would be manifest in the Marvel Cinematic Universe when Jackson signed on to play the role, beginning with a post–credits appearance in the 2008 film Iron Man. Outside of comics, Fury has appeared in nearly all Marvel animated series either in guest or recurring roles. Jackson reprised his role in most of the Marvel Cinematic Universe films: Iron Man 2 (2010); post–credits appearances in Thor, Captain America: The First Avenger (both in 2011), and Avengers: Infinity War (2018); Marvel’s The Avengers (2012); Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014); Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015); and Captain Marvel (2019). Jackson also appeared as Fury in a 2014 episode of the ABC-TV series Marvel’s Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., debuting in 2013, a series designed around Agent Phil Coulson, played by Clark Gregg. Coulson had been introduced in Iron Man and also appeared in Iron Man 2 and Thor before “dying” in Marvel’s The Avengers. The resurrected Coulson and his team of SHIELD agents were the core of the series, which also featured Marvel heroes such as Deathlok, the Inhumans, and Ghost Rider. Since their inception in the 1960s, Nick Fury and SHIELD have proven to be cornerstones of the Marvel Comics and Cinematic Universes. Though possessing no superpowers, Fury has consistently been presented as the most informed and formidable of the Marvel superheroes. His cinematic portrayal by Jackson has made Fury an American icon. Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Black Widow, Captain America: Comics, Captain America: Other Media, Hydra/AIM, Spider-Woman; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Costello, Matthew. 2009. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books & the Unmasking of Cold War America. New York: Continuum. DiPaolo, Marc. 2011. War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

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Evanier, Mark. 2008. Kirby: King of Comics. New York: Abrams. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Lee, Stan, Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Payne, Philip G., and Paul J. Spaeth. 2012. “Agent of Change: The Evolution and Enculturation of Nick Fury.” In Comic Books and American Cultural History: An Anthology, edited by Matthew Pustz, 184–201. New York: Continuum Press. Raphael, Jordan, and Tom Spurgeon. 2003. Stan Lee and the Rise and Fall of the American Comic Book. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Stevens, J. Richard. 2015. Captain America, Masculinity, and Violence: The Evolution of a National Icon. New York: Syracuse University Press. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Nightwing/Robin I First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

AS ROBIN: Detective Comics #38 (cover date: April 1940) AS NIGHTWING: Tales of the Teen Titans #43 (cover date: June 1984) ROBIN: Bill Finger and Bob Kane NIGHTWING: Marv Wolfman and George Perez DC Comics Expert in hand-to-hand combat Various gadgets Gotham City, Bludhaven Batman, Batgirl I and II, Batwoman I and II, Alfred Pennyworth, Commissioner Gordon, Wonder Girl, Starfire, Cyborg, Raven, Beast Boy AS ROBIN: Joker, Penguin, Riddler, Catwoman, Scarecrow, Mr. Freeze, Clayface, Two-Face, The Court of Owls, Bane, Ra’s al Ghul AS NIGHTWING: Trigon, Deathstroke Teen Titans/Titans Dick Grayson The Boy Wonder/The Teen Wonder; The Dynamic Duo (with Batman)

The hero known as Nightwing began many decades before as the original Robin, the Boy Wonder, in the pages of Detective Comics as the original kid sidekick. Dick Grayson was a circus acrobat as part of a family act with his parents.



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When his parents were murdered by the crime boss, Boss Zucco (over the years, his origin story would be retold, with various others being responsible), millionaire Bruce Wayne agrees to take on young Grayson as his ward, eventually training the boy to fight by his side as Robin, the Boy Wonder (Finger and Kane, Detective Comics #38, April 1940). Grayson would continue as Robin for the next 44 years before striking out on his own as Nightwing, a name he drew from an adventure he had with Batman in the bottled Kryptonian city of Kandor, where the Dynamic Duo teamed up with the vigilantes Nightwing and Flamebird—who were actually Superman and Jimmy Olsen in disguise (Edmond Hamilton and Curt Swan, World’s Finest Comics #143, August 1964). Dick Grayson/Robin was central to the controversy surrounding comic books in the early 1950s. In both his 1953 congressional testimony and then in his 1954 book Seduction of the Innocent, psychiatrist Dr. Fredric Wertham suggested that the Batman-Robin relationship in comic books was, in fact, a representation of a gay lifestyle (completely forgoing the notion that if there were a sexual relationship between the two characters, it would not represent “homosexuality” but rather outright pedophilia). As a reaction to the outcry from parents and religious groups stemming from the accusations, DC Comics introduced the first Batwoman (Kathy Kane) as Batman’s love interest, later adding the first “Batgirl,” Betty Kane, in 1961 to play a similar “girlfriend” role for young Robin. From 1975 to 1978, Grayson’s Robin “the Teen Wonder” had adventures alongside Barbara Gordon’s Batgirl in the pages of Batman Family. By the end of the 1970s, with 40 years as a child and teenager, it was decided that it was time for Dick Grayson to move on from Batman’s shadow and to seek out his own identity. In what is considered the pre-“Crisis” (as in Crisis on Infinite Earths) continuity, Grayson’s change to Nightwing takes place when Batman decides to take on a new “Robin” in the form of Jason Todd. His first appearance in his “Nightwing” persona is in Tales of the Teen Titans #43 (June 1984). In the post–“Crisis,” Nightwing actually had a falling out with his mentor, deciding to go his own way in the nearby city of Bludhaven. Throughout his years as Nightwing, however, Grayson worked primarily as the de facto leader of the Teen Titans (later known simply as “the Titans”). From the 1970s through the 1990s, Grayson/Robin/Nightwing had on-and-off-again romantic relationships with the heroes Batgirl, Wonder Girl, and Starfire. Dick Grayson has twice donned the mantle of Batman. First, in 1994, in the wake of the “Knightfall/Knightquest/Knightsend” story line, Bruce Wayne— having first had his back broken and passed the mantle of Batman on to the psychologically unhinged Jean-Paul Valley, only to come back and correct his error—decides to take a respite from his responsibilities to do some inner analysis. For that time, he passes on the role of Batman to his longtime partner (Doug Moench and Mike Gustovich, Batman #512, November 1994). Then, in 2009, after the apparent death of Batman at the hands of Darkseid in the Final Crisis story line, Grayson challenges Jason Todd—the second Robin—for the right to take on the mantle of Batman. Once he’s successful, he continues as the new Dark Knight, with young Damien Wayne—the biological son of Bruce Wayne—as the fourth Robin in official continuity (Tony Daniel, Batman: Battle for the Cowl #3, May 2009).

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Outside of comics, Dick Grayson is most commonly known through his persona as Robin. Having appeared in both movie-serial incarnations of Batman and Robin in the 1940s, Dick Grayson became a household name due to the wildly successful Batman television series, where he was portrayed with youthful glee by actor Burt Ward. Dick Grayson/Robin also appeared in all animated Batman and Super Friends cartoons from the 1960s to the mid-1980s, as well as the final two seasons of the 2004–2008 “Kids-WB” Saturday-morning cartoon series The Batman, the 2003–2006 Cartoon Network series Teen Titans, and, beginning in 2010, in the animated series Young Justice. In the critically acclaimed Batman: The Animated Series of the 1990s, Dick Grayson appeared as both Robin and Nightwing. The most recent portrayal of Dick Grayson as Robin was in the films Batman Forever (1995) and Batman and Robin (1997), both times portrayed by actor Chris O’Donnell. In 2010, Nightwing appeared in the animated home video release Batman: Under the Red Hood, voiced by Neil Patrick Harris. For almost the entire run of the Batman series in comic books and beyond, Dick Grayson has been a vital, central figure, first as the first Robin, and then as Nightwing. Richard A. Hall See also: Batgirl/Oracle, Batman: Comics, Batman: Other Media, Batman: Rogues’ Gallery, Red Hood/Robin II, Red Robin/Robin III, Robin/Robin IV, Teen Titans; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

Beard, Jim, ed. 2010. Gotham City 14 Miles: 14 Essays on Why the 1960s Batman TV Series Matters. Edwardsville, IL: Sequart Research & Literacy Organization. Beaty, Bart. 2005. Fredric Wertham and the Critique of Mass Culture: A Re-Examination of the Critic Whose Congressional Testimony Sparked the Comics Code. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Feiffer, Jules. (1965) 2003. The Great Comic Book Heroes. Seattle: Fantagraphics Books. Hajdu, David. 2008. The Ten-Cent Plague: The Great Comic-Book Scare and How It Changed America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Langley, Travis. 2012. Batman and Psychology: A Dark and Stormy Knight. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Ward, Burt, and Stanley Ralph Ross. 1995. Boy Wonder: My Life in Tights. Los Angeles: Logical Figments. Weldon, Glen. 2016. The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture. New York: Simon and Schuster. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

P The Phantom First Appearance:

Various Newspaper Outlets (initial publication: February 17, 1936) Creators: Lee Falk Publisher: Ace Comics (first comic book reprints of newspaper strips in the 1940s) Powers: N/A (though his enemies believe him to be immortal) Weapons: Standard handguns Base of Operations: Bengalla, Africa Key Allies: Diana Palmer Key Enemies: Rama Singh/Singh (or “Sengh,” or “Sanngh”) Brotherhood Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: Kit Walker (the 21st Phantom) Nicknames: “The Ghost Who Walks”

The Phantom is one of the few “superheroes” who predated the origin of the genre in American comic books. Phantom was first introduced as a syndicated newspaper adventure strip in 1936. He is, however, considered to be the first “costumed” hero, donning a skin-tight purple unitard/cowl combo with a black mask covering his eyes. The popularity of the strip (which would continue through the decades) led to Ace Comics reprinting the original adventures throughout the 1940s. The Phantom adventures begin with Kit Walker, the 21st person to bear the mantle. Though raised primarily in the United States, where he met his future wife, Diana Palmer, Walker returns to his birth country of Bengalla, Africa, to assume the mantle of the Phantom from his dying father. Since the mid-1500s, the Phantom has been the (white) protector of Bengalla and commander of its “Jungle Patrol.” The Phantom possesses no superpowers (though his enemies believe him to be immortal, as the hero appears to have existed for so many centuries), relying instead on his own intellect and physical prowess. He does occasionally carry standard handguns. Over the decades, several comic book companies have published his updated adventures, though his continued adventures have been in the newspaper strips, which Falk wrote until his death in 1999.

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Outside of the comics and newspaper strips, the Phantom was one of the heroes to get his own movie serial in the 1940s. In 1943, Columbia Pictures produced a 15-part serial with Tom Tyler portraying the Phantom. In 1996, Paramount Pictures produced the feature-length film The Phantom, directed by Simon Wincer and starring Billy Zane as the hero. The fact that the hero has survived since his inception during the Great Depression is a testament to the enduring appeal of the original pulp heroes. Richard A. Hall See also: Crimson Avenger, Green Hornet, The Shadow, The Spirit; Thematic Essay: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955.

Poster for the 1943 film serial, The Phantom, directed by Reeves Eason. This live-action adventure series starred Tom Tyler as the Phantom. (Silver Screen Collection/Getty Images)

Further Reading

Gavaler, Chris. 2015. On the Origin of Superheroes: From the Big Bang to Action Comics No. 1. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press.

Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Regalado, Aldo J. 2015. Bending Steel: Modernity and the American Superhero. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press.

Plastic Man First Appearance: Police Comics #1 (cover date: August 1941) Creators: Jack Cole Publisher: Quality Comics (later DC Comics) Powers: Elasticity Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Mammoth City Key Allies: Woozy Winks, Penny (cartoon), Baby Plas (cartoon)



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Key Enemies: Dr. Dratt, Red Herring, Granite Lady Team Affiliations: Justice League (occasionally) Secret Identity: Edward (later “Patrick”) “Eel” O’Brien Nicknames: N/A Though not the first “elastic” superhero (that would be “Thin Man” from Timely Comics in 1940), he has survived as the longest lasting in American comics (even predating Reed Richards of Marvel’s Fantastic Four), continuing today in DC Comics. He was originally Ed “Eel” O’Brien, a small-time criminal. While breaking into a chemical factory with his gang, O’Brien was drenched in unidentified chemicals. Escaping to the mountains, he was nursed to health by local monks. O’Brien discovered that he could now stretch any part of his body and reshape himself into any object imaginable (Cole, Police Comics #1, 1941). After using his new abilities to capture the gang that abandoned him, O’Brien decides to continue to fight crime as Plastic Man. The name “Plastic Man” was the idea of Quality Comics’ editor, Everett M. “Busy” Arnold, who suggested the character should be named after the new substance recently introduced at the 1940 New York World’s Fair—“plastic” (Maslon and Kantor, Superheroes!, 105). In 1944, the character gained his own title (Cole, Plastic Man #1, February 1944). Later, after the character was purchased by DC Comics, Plastic Man became an occasional member of the Justice League. One of the numerous superpowered heroes to hit the market in the wake of the success of Superman in 1938, Plastic Man was originally owned and published by Quality Comics, founded by Arnold in 1939. In 1956, Quality Comics—and all of its characters—was purchased by National Periodical Publications (known today as DC Comics). It would not be until a decade later that Plastic Man would gain his own comic with DC (Arnold Drake and Gil Kane, Plastic Man #1, November 1966). Beginning in 1980, Plastic Man began appearing Cover for Quality Comics’ Plastic Man #1 (Februmonthly in the pages of Adven- ary 1944), with cover art by Jack Cole. The cover ture Comics, originally under image emphasizes the extent of Plastic Man’s the creative team of Len Wein elastic powers. (DIgital Comic Museum)

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and Joe Staton, with Wein quickly replaced by Martin Pasko (Adventure Comics #467 and #475, January and September 1980). Popular for his more comedic bent, from 1979 to 1981, Plastic Man appeared in the animated series The Plastic Man Comedy/Adventure Show on ABC-TV, where the character fought crime with his wife, Penny, and infant son, Baby Plas. Unlike other elastic characters who simply “stretch,” Plastic Man can shape himself into any object, including complex machinery such as a helicopters and radios. Plastic Man was one of the more popular of the Quality Comics characters, appearing in every issue of Police Comics (1941–1950), and his own quarterly title running from 1943 to 1955. Richard A. Hall See also: Fantastic Four, Justice League; Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955.

Further Reading

Feiffer, Jules. (1965) 2003. The Great Comic Book Heroes. Seattle: Fantagraphics. Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Kantor, Michael, and Laurence Maslon. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype.

Punisher First Appearance:

Amazing Spider-Man #129 (cover date: February 1974) Creators: Gerry Conway, Ross Andru, and John Romita Sr. Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers: Advanced soldier skills Weapons: Various guns, explosives, and knives Base of Operations: New York City Key Allies: Microchip, Red Hulk, Deadpool Key Enemies: Kingpin, Jackal Team Affiliations: Thunderbolts Secret Identity: Frank Castle, Jake Gallows (2099) Nicknames: N/A The Punisher is a popular antihero in Marvel Comics. He was a direct result of the popularity of films such as The French Connection and Dirty Harry (both in 1971) and the 1972 novel Death Wish, which would become a major motion picture spawning numerous sequels, just months after the Punisher’s first appearance in Amazing Spider-Man. Like those film antiheroes, the Punisher’s place in popular culture emerged from the dramatically growing crime rate in America in the 1970s and Americans’ frustration with law enforcement’s ability to keep them

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safe. Frank Castle was a U.S. marine (and originally a Vietnam War veteran) who witnessed the murder of his wife and children as a result of a gang gunfight. The trauma leads Castle to don the identity of “the Punisher,” becoming a one-man army to punish the guilty, often by killing them (Gerry Conway and Tony DeZuniga, Marvel Preview #2, August 1975). Punisher’s first appearance pitted him against Spider-Man. Punisher’s “ally,” the Jackal—an established Spider-Man villain—convinced Castle that Spider-Man was a villain. By story’s end, Punisher discovers that he has been duped by Jackal and that Spider-Man is a hero after all (Conway and Andru, Amazing Spider-Man #129, February 1974). Punisher’s popularity reached a peak in the mid-1980s, due in large part no doubt to the popularity of the real-world “subway vigilante” Bernhard Goetz, who shot four alleged muggers on a New York subway in December of 1984. After a five-issue limited series in 1986, Punisher finally received his own ongoing series the following year. A second monthly title, Punisher: War Journal, debuted in 1988, and a third, Punisher: War Zone, in 1992. All three series were discontinued in 1995 (by which time America’s crime rate had dramatically dropped and the violence exhibited by the antihero was no longer as cathartic). Throughout his adventures, Punisher is assisted by his weapons dealer/engineer, Microchip. Though considered a “hero,” his methods are denounced by the other mainstream Marvel heroes, and he exists as a pariah in the Marvel hero world. A future Punisher appeared in the “2099” story line during the early 1990s. In this futuristic world, Jake Gallows is a private policeman working for Public Eye (a corporate police force charging the populace for its services). When his family is killed on the orders of the son of a powerful businessman, Gallows discovers the old “War Journals” of the original Punisher. He then chooses to take on the Punisher’s original mission, exacting justice where the system could not. Gallows is also a member of the “Church of Thor,” a popular religion that had developed around the mythical god and onetime Avenger (Pat Mills, Tony Skinner, and Tom Morgan, Punisher 2099 #1, February 1993). Though the three Punisher titles were canceled in 1995, they were almost immediately replaced a few months later as part of the new “Marvel Edge” books. In this run, Castle becomes a member and eventually the leader of a crime family (Jon Ostrander and Tom Lyle, Punisher #1, November 1995). Lackluster sales of the “Edge” series led to another reboot in 1998 under the banner “Marvel Knights.” This limited series saw a dead Castle resurrected as an agent of vengeance working for supernatural elements (Tom Sniegoski, Christopher Golden, and Bernie Wrightson, The Punisher #1, November 1998). The original incarnation of the character returned under Garth Ennis as part of the “Marvel MAX” imprint, targeted specifically for more mature readers, in 2004. That series would later be renamed Punisher: Frank Castle. In 2013, Punisher became part of a new team of Thunderbolts—teams of supercriminals organized by the government to act as heroes, a concept directly derivative of DC Comics’ “Suicide Squad”—under the leadership of General “Thunderbolt” Ross, who by that time had become the Red Hulk (Daniel Way and Steve Dillon, Thunderbolts #1, February 2013). Outside of comics, the Punisher has appeared in three major motion pictures: The Punisher (1989), starring Dolph Lundgren; The Punisher (2004), starring

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Thomas Jane; and Punisher: War Zone (2008), starring Ray Stevenson. All three were panned by critics and were commercial failures. A comical homage to the character appeared in the 1994–1997 animated series The Tick. Called “Big Shot,” the animated character would frequently shoot up or blow up a crime scene before exploding into tears. In 2015, the character of Frank Castle appeared in the second season of the Netflix series Daredevil, portrayed by Jon Bernthal. This rendition of the character was so successful that it launched a separate series, The Punisher, which debuted on Netflix in 2017 as a major success in the eyes of both critics and fans alike. The violent antihero has been a mainstay of American popular culture since the 1970s. Though many could argue that the Punisher is derivative of previous antiheroes, it can be equally argued that antiheroes since have been derivative of the Punisher. The empathy that audiences feel for a once-heroic character who has suffered horrible and meaningless loss, combined with the cathartic release provided by seeing violent criminals suffer for their crimes, all but ensures that the Punisher—and all similar antiheroes—will continue to be present in all genres and media of popular culture for many years to come. Richard A. Hall See also: Daredevil, Deadpool, Ghost Rider, Red Hulk, Spawn, Spider-Man: Comics, Suicide Squad, The Tick; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

DiPaolo, Marc. 2011. War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Moulton, Jeffery. 2012. The Superhero Response: How 9/11 Changed Our Superheroes and Why It Matters. Self-published. Palmer, Lorrie. 2007. “‘Le Western Noir’: The Punisher as Revisionist Superhero Western.” In The Amazing Transforming Superhero!: Essays on the Revision of Characters in Comic Books, Film and Television, edited by Terrence R. Wandtke, 192–208. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Q The Question First Appearance: Blue Beetle #1 (cover date: June 1967) Creators: Steve Ditko Publisher: Charlton Comics/DC Comics Powers: N/A Weapons: “Pseudoderm” mask (bonded to his face from gas emitted from his belt buckle; the gas also alters the color of his face, hair, and clothes) Base of Operations: Hub City, Gotham City Key Allies: Aristotle Rodor, Myra Fermin, Lady Shiva Key Enemies: Banshee Team Affiliations: Sentinels of Justice, Justice League Secret Identity: Vic Sage, Renee Montoya, Charles Victor Szasz Nicknames: N/A The concept of the superhero was born of more politically liberal principles of social justice (Bradford Wright, Comic Book Nation, 10–11); and comic book creators, in general, are often seen as leaning politically to the left. One example that contradicts that norm is Steve Ditko, half of the creative team behind Spider-Man and Doctor Strange at Marvel Comics in the 1960s. Ditko was a dedicated Objectivist, following a conservative political philosophy created by the novelist Ayn Rand in the 1950s. Rand had grown up through the communist revolutions in Russia before her family moved to the United States in 1926. Due largely to her experiences in the burgeoning Soviet Union, Rand firmly believed in a much more conservative society free of government overreach and more focused on individual liberty. Ditko originally chose to funnel his ideas of Objectivism through a new superhero: the Question. After leaving Marvel Comics in 1966, Ditko went to Charlton Comics, where he was given freedom to write as well as draw his comics. The Question’s tale appeared as an ancillary story in the first issue of Blue Beetle (June 1967). Vic Sage was a television reporter in Hub City. Sage was approached by one of his former college professors, Aristotle Rodor, who told Sage about a mask he had developed that caused the wearer to appear faceless. The mask was made from a special substance called “Pseudoderm” and was bonded to the face by a special gas that was released from a belt buckle. The gas could also alter the color of the

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mask as well as those of the wearer’s hair and clothes. This allowed Sage to go even deeper undercover in the underworld of Hub City and even to fight crime as the Question (Ditko, Blue Beetle #1, June 1967). The Question soon joined the other Charlton heroes in the super group Sentinels of Justice. Unfortunately for Ditko—as well as fans of the Question—Charlton soon went out of business. In 1983, DC Comics bought the Charlton cadre of superheroes, including Blue Beetle, and incorporated them into the DC comics universe. The Question first appeared in DC in the “Crisis on Infinite Earths” story line as well as in the new Blue Beetle title. The first ongoing DC series to feature the character was written by legendary DC writer Denny O’Neil (whose liberal political bonafides are well established). O’Neil establishes the Question as Charles Victor Szasz (who goes by the pseudonym “Vic Sage”). O’Neil’s Question would be a darker, grittier hero more in line with the standards of the late 1980s, focusing more on political corruption than street crime (Denny O’Neil and Denys Cowan, The Question #1, February 1987). In 1990, the Question finally takes a life trying to protect his girlfriend, discovering that he has no problem with killing and is prepared to do so again (O’Neil and Cowan, The Question Quarterly #1, November 1990). In the 2006–2007 DC series 52, Vic Sage dies and passes on the legacy of the Question to former Gotham City police detective (and comics’ first openly lesbian character) Renee Montoya (Geoff Johns, Grant Morrison, Greg Rucka, and Mark Waid, writers, and Keith Giffen and Joe Bennett, artists, 52 #38, January 2007). Multiple versions of the Question appear in the short-lived “New 52” universe of DC comics superheroes that debuted in 2011. Outside of comics, the Question has appeared in the animated series Justice League Unlimited (2004–2006) and Batman: The Brave and the Bold (2008–2011). He has also appeared in the home video release Scooby Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold (Warner Home Video, 2018), with Jeffrey Combs reprising the voice role from the animated series. The Question, though a lower-tier character over the years, is a mainstay of the DC comics universe. The character straddles the line between Batman without the gadgets, and the Punisher without the arsenal. Throughout his/her history, he/she has maintained—to a degree—his/her political philosophy of Objectivism, both as a vigilante working outside an apparently broken system and his/her evolving ideas concerning capital punishment. The faceless mask makes the character easily transitional between male and female alter egos. Richard A. Hall See also: Blue Beetle, Batman: Other Media, Justice League, Punisher; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s.

Further Reading

Bell, Blake. 2008. Strange and Stranger: The World of Steve Ditko. Seattle: Fantagraphics. Ditko, Steve. 2016. Ditko Unleashed! San Diego: IDW Publishing. “The Man Without a Face: The History of the Question.” 2015. Observation Deck, December 29. Accessed January 27, 2018. https://observationdeck.kinja.com/the-man​-without​ -a-face-the-history-of-the-question-1750066687.



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Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Rand, Ayn. (1957) 1996. Atlas Shrugged. New York: Signet Press. Thomas, William. 2010. “What is Objectivism?” The Atlas Society (blog), June 14. Accessed January 27, 2018. https://atlassociety.org/objectivism/atlas-university/what​-is-objec tivism/objectivism-101-blog/3366-what-is-objectivism.

R Red Hood/Robin II First Appearance (Jason Todd): Batman #357 (cover date: March 1983) Creators (Jason Todd): Gerry Conway and Don Newton Publisher: DC Comics Powers: Expert in hand-to-hand combat Weapons: Various gadgets Base of Operations: Gotham City Key Allies (Jason Todd): Batman, Alfred Pennyworth, Scarlet Key Enemies (Jason Todd): Joker, Penguin, Riddler, Catwoman, Scarecrow, Clayface, Two-Face, The Court of Owls, Ra’s al Ghul, Killer Croc Team Affiliations (Jason Todd): Outlaws Secret Identity: Joker (original “Red Hood”), Jason Todd Nicknames (Jason Todd): Robin, The Boy Wonder; The Dynamic Duo (with Batman) The identity of the “Red Hood” originated in the 1950s. In the story “The Man Behind the Red Hood!,” it is discovered that before the Joker became the whitefaced “Clown Prince of Crime,” he was the master criminal Red Hood, wearing a tuxedo, red cape, and metallic red helmet that covered his entire head (Bill Finger, Lew Sayne Schwartz, and Win Mortimer, Detective Comics #168, February 1951). This Joker origin would be given more depth—and the Joker a more tragic connection to the identity—in the iconic “The Killing Joke” one-shot (Alan Moore and Brian Bolland, Batman: The Killing Joke, July 1988). This would be retconned later, however, making the “Red Hood Gang” (sans Joker) the first criminals Bruce Wayne was to face in the early days of being the Batman (Scott Snyder and Greg Capullo, Batman #0, November 2012; Snyder and Capullo, Batman #21, August 2013). Red Hood as a hero, however, would be eerily connected to the Joker by the new bearer of the identity: Jason Todd, the second Robin the Boy Wonder. Jason Todd was first introduced as a replacement for the grown-up Robin, Dick Grayson. Originally, like his predecessor, Jason was a circus acrobat in a family of acrobats. Also like Grayson, his parents were killed, and he was taken in by Bruce Wayne (Conway and Newton, Detective Comics #357, March 1983). The



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originally red-haired boy would wear his circus leotard while fighting alongside the Dark Knight until Dick Grayson donned the identity of “Nightwing,” passing the Robin identity to Todd and leading the boy to dye his hair black in keeping with his new identity. After the “Crisis on Infinite Earths” story line in 1985, Jason Todd was “erased” from Batman continuity. In Frank Miller’s groundbreaking futuristic Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, an elderly Alfred asks Bruce, “Have you forgotten what happened to Jason?”—obviously referring to the Robin costume reverently preserved in glass in the Batcave and suggesting that Jason’s Robin had existed but had met a terrible fate (Frank Miller, Batman: The Dark Knight Returns #2, July 1986). Though this tale was not officially part of the regular Batman continuity, it left fans wondering whatever had happened to Jason Todd. Editor Denny O’Neil decided to return Jason to continuity but with a different backstory not so derivative of the original Robin’s. Two years later, Jason Todd returned as a street orphan (with black hair) that Batman caught attempting to steal the hubcaps from the Batmobile. When Todd assists the Dark Knight in bringing down an orphanage acting as a front for street crime, Wayne takes in the boy as his new ward and soon thereafter, he is the new Robin (Max Allan Collins and Chris Warner, Batman #408, June 1987). However, the new Robin never caught on with fans, so the editors at DC decided to give them the option of getting rid of the new Boy Wonder. In the 1988–1989 story line “A Death in the Family,” Jason Todd discovers that his birth mother is alive. He soon tracks her down in Ethiopia, where she is a corrupt aid worker in hock to the Joker. She delivers Robin to the Joker, and he commences to beat the boy to death with a crowbar (ironic, as Jason had attacked Batman with a crowbar during their first encounter). The boy’s fate was left up to readers, giving them the opportunity to call one of two 1-900 numbers: one to vote for him to “live,” the other to vote for him to “die” (Jim Starlin and Jim Aparo, Batman #426–429, December 1988– January 1989). A total of 10,614 votes were cast, and the decision to kill the Boy Wonder won by a mere 72 votes (Weldon, The Caped Crusade, 148). In 2003, as part of the “Hush” story line, it is revealed that Superboy Prime (a version of Superboy from an alternate reality who possesses no weaknesses) has altered reality, causing Jason Todd to awaken, alive, in his grave. After some wandering, he is taken in by Talia al Ghul, daughter of supervillain Ra’s al Ghul, former lover of Batman, and mother to Bruce Wayne’s son, Damian (who will become the fourth Robin). She places Jason into the rejuvenating “Lazarus Pit,” which causes him to become mentally unhinged. He then returns to Gotham to seek out revenge on the Joker for killing him and on Batman for allowing it to happen. For several issues, he is seen only as a man with a bandaged face, but in an altercation with Batman and new (third) Robin, Tim Drake, Jason grabs Robin and reveals his identity (Jeph Loeb and Jim Lee, Batman #617–618, September–October 2003). Jason returns to Gotham as Red Hood, a gang leader who strong-arms Gotham’s various gangs into working for him, allowing him to control their criminal activities and thus doing more to control crime in Gotham than Batman ever could (Judd Winick, Doug Mahnke, Erik Battle, and Shane Davis, Batman #635– 641, 645–650, and Batman Annual #25, November 2004–February 2006). Jason’s transition to donning the original identity of his murderer—the Red Hood—is

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covered in the miniseries Red Hood: The Lost Days by Judd Winick and Pablo Raimundi (August 2010–January 2011). In the “New 52” reboot of the DC comics universe, Jason’s history is rewritten again. This time, Jason is caught stealing drugs from Dr. Leslie Thompkins (a longtime ally of Batman’s), and that his entire life—from the deaths of his parents to his adoption as the second Robin—have been manipulated by the Joker (Scott Lobdell, Pascal Ferry, and Ig Guara, Red Hood and the Outlaws #0, November 2012). In this reboot of the Red Hood, Jason leads a team of violent—even murderous—antiheroes called “the Outlaws” in a story that continues into the “Rebirth” reboot a few years later. By the time of “Rebirth,” Jason has made amends with his former mentor and partner, Batman, and exists as part of the ever-expanding “Batman Family.” Outside of comics, Jason/Red Hood was featured in the home video release Batman: Under the Red Hood, directed by Brandon Vietti and written by longtime Red Hood scribe Judd Winick, with Jensen Ackles voicing Jason Todd (Warner Home Video, 2010). The animated film follows closely the “Under the Red Hood” story line written by Winick for the comics. Throughout his existence, Jason Todd/Red Hood has represented one of the more melancholy and tortured story lines in the Batman franchise. Richard A. Hall See also: Batgirl/Oracle, Batman: Comics, Batman: Other Media, Batman: Rogues’ Gallery, Joker, Nightwing/Robin I, Red Robin/Robin III, Robin/Robin IV; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Langley, Travis. 2012. Batman and Psychology: A Dark and Stormy Knight. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Weldon, Glen. 2016. The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture. New York: Simon and Schuster. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Red Hulk/“Thunderbolt” Ross First Appearance: Hulk #1 (cover date: March 2008) Creators: Thunderbolt Ross: Stan Lee and Jack Kirby Red Hulk: Jeph Loeb and Ed McGuinness Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers: Superhuman strength Weapons: N/A



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Base of Operations: N/A Key Allies: N/A Key Enemies: The (Green) Hulk, Xemnu, Kluh Team Affiliations: Hulkbusters, The Avengers, The Offenders, The Thunderbolts Secret Identity: General Thaddaeus Ross Nicknames: Thunderbolt (as Ross) General Thaddaeus “Thunderbolt” Ross first appeared in the very first adventure of the Incredible Hulk in 1962. Ross was an air force general overseeing the gamma bomb project headed by scientist Dr. Bruce Banner. When Banner becomes the Hulk, Ross leads the military’s various response teams to contain or destroy the monster (Lee and Kirby, The Incredible Hulk #1, May 1962). Over time, the relationship between Ross and the Hulk would become more complicated when it is discovered that Bruce Banner’s love interest—and later wife— was Ross’s own daughter, Betty. Eventually, Ross’s team to take down the Hulk would come to be known as the Hulkbusters. Throughout the decades of Hulk continuity, Ross would hold this role within the mythology. In 2008, Jeph Loeb and Ed McGuinness introduced the Red Hulk. This Hulk was shrouded in mystery but was quickly deduced to be responsible for the death of longtime Hulk villain the Abomination. SHIELD, under the guidance of new director Tony Stark (a.k.a. Iron Man), was tasked with discovering the identity and agenda of the new crimson monster (Loeb and McGuinness, Hulk #1, March 2008). It would be two years of subtle clues and constantly revolving suspects, during which time the Red Hulk would go toe to toe with heroes Iron Man and Thor, besting both, before his true identity as Ross was exposed (Loeb and McGuinness, Hulk #23, June 2010). His battle with Thor drew some controversy as, during the battle, Red Hulk leaps into the air, pulling Thor along by grabbing Thor’s mystical hammer, Mjolnir. According to the mythology, only one who is “worthy” can lift Mjolnir, and yet, Red Hulk—a clear villain at this point— manages to apparently lift it along with Thor (Loeb and McGuinness, Hulk #5, October 2008). The answer that appears to be agreed upon is that since Thor is still technically holding the hammer, Red Hulk is actually only “lifting” Thor (though that answer still inspires debate). By the time Red Hulk’s true identity is revealed, it has been discovered that famed psychiatrist and superhero Doc Samson, had worked with the groups the Intelligencia (headed by the evil scientist MODOK) and AIM to create the ultimate Super Soldier. Red Hulk was the result, and Ross was the volunteer. It is also discovered that while rage enhances the strength of the original Hulk, it actually accelerates the overheating and exhaustion of the Red Hulk (Loeb and McGuinness, The Incredible Hulk #600, July 2009). When Banner—who had been physically split from the Hulk—is once more merged with the Green Goliath (though maintaining Banner’s intelligence), the new Hulk takes down his crimson counterpart, advising the Red Hulk that, as far as the world is concerned, General Ross is dead. Banner then convinces Captain America, Steve Rogers, to allow the Red

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Hulk to become an Avenger (Jeff Parker and Gabriel Hardman, Hulk #25, September 2010). The following year, the Red and green Hulks were briefly merged into one being by the alien “Impossible Man” in order to fight the evil Banner/Hulk clone known as “Kluh” (Jeff Parker and McGuinness, Hulk #30, April 2011). In 2012, Red Hulk is recruited to form a new team of Thunderbolts. The Thunderbolts was a government-sponsored team made up of incarcerated supervillains (derivative of DC Comics’ “Suicide Squad”) from the 1990s. The new team would consist of: Red Hulk, Punisher, the assassin Elektra, the merceScene from Hulk (2003), directed by Ang Lee. nary Deadpool, and the new This still features Sam Elliott as General “ThunVenom symbiote (now bonded to derbolt” Ross, who, in the comics, would the physically disabled military become the Red Hulk. (Photofest) veteran and former high school classmate of Peter Parker, “Flash” Thompson). Ross’s mandate with this team is to tackle threats with a degree of lethality that the mainstream superheroes would not condone, bypassing due process and the criminal justice system to exact retribution as the team sees fit (Daniel Way and Steve Dillon, Thunderbolts #1, December 2012). The green Hulk (now going by the name “Doc Green”) has a final showdown with Red Hulk, eventually forcing Red Hulk to transform back into Thunderbolt Ross. Once it is publicly discovered that Ross is still alive, he is arrested for desertion from the military (Gerry Duggan and Mark Bagley, Hulk vol. 3, #10, January 2015). In 2017, a second incarnation of the Red Hulk is introduced. General Robert Maverick is enlisted to become a slightly watered-down version of Red Hulk with a new serum developed by American Intelligence Mechanics (a government sponsored program created from the remnants of the criminal Advanced Idea Mechanics, which had assisted in developing the original Red Hulk). The new Red Hulk then joins the new team “U.S. Avengers” (Al Ewing and Paco Medina, U.S. Avengers #1, January 2017). Outside of comics, General Ross has appeared in many animated series, including The Marvel Super Heroes in the 1960s, the two The Incredible Hulk animated series from the 1980s and 1990s, and Fantastic Four: World’s Greatest Heroes in 2007. The Red Hulk has appeared in the animated series Avengers: Earth’s Mightiest Heroes (2010–2013), Avengers Assemble (beginning in 2013 on Disney-XD), and Hulk and the Agents of SMASH (2013–2015). The character of General Ross has



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appeared in the 2003 Universal Studios film Hulk, directed by Ang Lee, with Sam Elliot playing the role; and the Marvel Studios films The Incredible Hulk (2008), directed by Louis Leterrier, and Captain America: Civil War (2016), directed by Joe and Anthony Russo. In both Marvel Studios films, Ross was portrayed by actor ­William Hurt. The Red Hulk is a relatively new antihero in the comic book world. Though possessing the patriotic fervor of his alter ego, Ross’s blind hatred of Bruce Banner and the green Hulk provide an almost insurmountable weakness for the hero. Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Deadpool, Nick Fury/SHIELD, Hulk, Hydra/AIM, Iron Man, Punisher, She-Hulk, Thor; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Costello, Matthew J. 2009. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books & the Unmasking of Cold War America. New York: Continuum Press. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Moulton, Jeffery. 2012. The Superhero Response: How 9/11 Changed Our Superheroes and Why It Matters. Self-published.

Red Robin/Robin III First Appearance (As Robin): Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Batman #422 (cover date: December 1989)   Marv Wolfman, Pat Broderick, George Perez, Jim Aparo, and Tom Grummett DC Comics Expert in hand-to-hand combat Various gadgets Gotham City Batman, Nightwing, Red Hood, Robin IV, Alfred Pennyworth, Batwoman II, Orphan, Spoiler, Clayface Joker, Penguin, Riddler, Scarecrow, Two-Face, The Court of Owls, Ra’s al Ghul Teen Titans, Outsiders Tim Drake Robin, The Boy Wonder; The Dynamic Duo (with Batman)

The first “Red Robin” to appear in DC Comics was in the futuristic “Kingdom Come” story line, where an older Dick Grayson—the original Robin and later Nightwing—now called himself “Red Robin” (Mark Waid and Alex Ross, Kingdom Come, 1996). However, the character to have the most detailed history as Red

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Robin is the “third” Robin the Boy Wonder, Tim Drake. Drake first appeared as part of the “Batman: Year 3” story line in the wake of the death of the second Robin, Jason Todd. In this story, Tim is shown to have been a witness to the deaths of Dick Grayson’s—the first Robin’s—parents (Wolfman and Broderick, Batman #436, August 1989). Though less than a year had passed since the death of the second Robin, Jason Todd, the creative team behind the Batman books felt that Batman needed a Robin to humanize him (part of the original decision to create the original Robin 50 years earlier). As such, Tim Drake figures out that Batman and Nightwing are, in fact, Bruce Wayne and Dick Grayson. His skills of deduction lead Batman to make him the third Robin (Wolfman, Perez, Aparo, and Grummett, Batman #422, December 1989). The new Robin would receive an entirely new costume one year later, maintaining the original coloring motif but with a more combat-capable design (Alan Grant and Norm Breyfogle, Batman #457, December 1990). Unlike the previous two Robins, Drake was not an orphan, providing a new dynamic to the character. While Todd’s Robin had been very unpopular with readers, Batman fans embraced Tim Drake’s Robin perhaps more than any other character to don that mantle. The Tim Drake Robin was the first Boy Wonder to receive his own solo title. The first miniseries launched just a month after the new costume debut, focusing on solo adventures for Robin (Chuck Dixon and Tom Lyle, Robin #1, January 1991). The success of the miniseries would lead to two more before Robin finally got his own monthly title. Drake would act as Robin throughout the 1993–1994 “Knightfall/Knightquest/Knightsend” story lines, where Bruce Wayne was forced to step down as Batman after his back was broken by the supervillain Bane and Wayne passed on the mantle of Batman to the mentally unstable former assassin, Azrael. In 2009, as part of the “Final Crisis” story line, Bruce Wayne is apparently killed by the supervillain Darkseid (Grant Morrison and J. G. Jones, et al., Final Crisis #6, January 2009). Drake, convinced that Batman is still alive, begins a search under a new superhero guise, Red Robin, as “new” Batman, Dick Grayson (the original Robin) has donned the mantle and taken Bruce Wayne’s son, Damian, as his new Robin (Christopher Yost and Ramon Bachs, Red Robin #1, August 2009). With the return of Wayne, Drake continues as Red Robin, allowing young Damian to continue as the Boy Wonder. Outside of comics, Tim Drake has appeared as Robin in The New Batman Adventures (1997–1999), the animated series that was a revamp of the iconic Batman: The Animated Series (1992–1995), where he was voiced by Matthew Valencia. Drake’s Robin also appeared in the 2003 animated home video release, Batman: Mystery of the Batwomen, voiced by Eli Marienthal. He also appeared in the animated series Young Justice, beginning with the second season (2010–2011), voiced by Cameron Bowen. As Red Robin, Drake has appeared in the Batman Unlimited animated home video series beginning in 2015, voiced by Yuri Lowenthal. Perhaps the most impactful use of the Drake character outside of comics, however, has been in the 2000 animated home video release, Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker. In this futuristic story line, Drake (voiced by veteran actor Dean Stockwell as the adult Drake and with Matthew Valencia reprising the role in the



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“young Drake” flashback scenes), has long since retired from being Robin after being captured and tortured by the Joker and Harley Quinn to the point of madness as a child. New Batman Terry McGinnis soon discovers that Drake is actually transforming into the Joker due to a chip implanted by the Clown Prince decades before. The R-rated film provides a dark and unhappy end to Drake’s reign as Robin. As one of the more popular versions of Robin, Tim Drake/Red Robin widens the Batman Family, continuing to provide more grounding to the Batman character as well as leadership to the Teen Titans throughout the years. His roles in the “Knightfall,” “Battle for the Cowl,” and Return of the Joker story lines provide a much more complex Robin than any others who have borne the mantle. Richard A. Hall See also: Batgirl/Oracle, Batman: Comics, Batman: Other Media, Batman: Rogues’ Gallery, Joker, Nightwing/Robin I, Red Hood/Robin II, Robin/Robin IV, Teen Titans; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Langley, Travis. 2012. Batman and Psychology: A Dark and Stormy Knight. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Weldon, Glen. 2016. The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Red Skull First Appearance:

Captain America Comics #7 (cover date: October 1941) Creators: Joe Simon, Jack Kirby, and France Herron Publisher: Timely/Atlas/Marvel Comics Powers: Genius strategist Weapons: Various gadgets (most notably the Cosmic Cube) Base of Operations: N/A Key Allies: Arnim Zola, Professor Faust Key Enemies: Captain America, Bucky/Winter Soldier, Falcon, Nick Fury/SHIELD Team Affiliations: Hydra, AIM Secret Identity: Johann Schmidt Nicknames: N/A The Red Skull was one of the very first “supervillains” in superhero comics. Like the Joker at DC Comics, Red Skull has existed throughout the history of the genre. The original “Red Skull” appeared in the very first issue of Captain America Comics as industrialist George Maxon, who wears a Red Skull mask and attempts to raise money to overthrow the American government (Simon and

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Kirby, March 1941). However, that Skull was killed in the same issue, and fan response to the frightening villain all but demanded a return. The Red Skull that has existed since then first appeared several months later and was established as Nazi agent Johann Schmidt, the red skull being his actual head. It is explained that Maxon had been one of his lackeys (Simon and Kirby, Captain America Comics #7, October 1941). After World War II, superheroes began to wane in popularity. Captain America, as a recurring character, was discontinued by the end of the decade. He faced off against the Red Skull once Scene from the Marvel Studios film Captain ­America: more, this time in the bowels of hell (Stan Lee, editor, Captain The First Avenger (2011). Hugo Weaving’s portrayal America’s Weird Tales #74, of Red Skull was seen by most fans as the best October 1949). Lee attempted to live-action representation of Red Skull to date. revive Timely’s World War II (Paramount Pictures/Photofest) heroes just a few years later, bringing back Captain America as “Captain America: Commie Smasher!” By this time, the Cold War threw a constant shadow on American society, and the McCarthy communist witch hunts were in full swing. It was time for the hero of World War II to return to fight the red menace. The Red Skull—inexplicably back from the dead and now in league with the communists—believes that now he will be successful in bringing down America, because Captain America has been believed dead. Steve Rogers, however, had simply retired to the life of a high school teacher. The return of Red Skull brings the Sentinel of Liberty back to action (Stan Lee, John Romita Sr., and Mort Lawrence, “Back from the Dead!,” Young Men #24, December 1953). Superheroes were not yet ready for a comeback, though, and Cap was once more canceled six months later. Some have argued that it was illogical for Red Skull, a devoted Nazi—who follows a radical conservative philosophy—to suddenly become a communist and follow a radical liberal philosophy. What is important to keep in mind is the historical context of the political realities of both philosophies. The one thing that Hitler’s Nazis and Soviet communists had in common was a devotion to totalitarian government, which is what the Red Skull ultimately represents. When Captain America is reintroduced into the new “Marvel” comics universe, so too is the Red Skull. From this point on, Skull’s primary goal will be the destruction of America—by any means or philosophy necessary. In his return to



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comics continuity, Skull is armed with the “Cosmic Cube,” a device that allows its possessor to shape reality to his or her own will (Lee and Kirby, “The Red Skull Lives!,” Tales of Suspense #79, July 1966). Perhaps Skull’s most successful plan unfolds throughout the late 1980s. Under pressure from the Reagan administration to follow its directives, Steve Rogers resigns as Captain America, paving the way for pro wrestler John Walker—a more violent and conservative “Cap”—to take on the mantle (Mark Gruenwald and Tom Morgan, Captain America #332, August 1987). Eighteen months later—while Rogers has continued as the masked hero “the Captain”—it is discovered that Red Skull has been manipulating the federal government through his corporate empire. Once thwarted, Rogers returns as Captain America, and Walker changes his name to “Jack Daniels” and takes on the identity of “U.S.Agent” (Mark Gruenwald and Kieron Dwyer, Captain America #350, February 1989). Though the Skull would appear throughout the 1990s, perhaps his most frightening—and eerily prescient—story line came in the fall of 2001, literally hitting newsstands just prior to the events of 9/11. In the story arc “America Lost,” the Red Skull puts into motion another plan to destroy America from within. Through mass hypnosis, Skull plays on the prejudices and fears evident across America: liberal versus conservative, American labor versus undocumented immigrants, women versus men, black versus white, rich versus poor, gay versus straight. At the culmination of the story line, Red Skull says: Your nation is a cauldron of hate waiting to erupt a cesspool of violent thoughts looking for release. It’s a fuse extending from one coast to the other, waiting for someone to ignite the flame. (Dan Jurgens, Captain America #46, October 2001)

In the decades following the terrorist attacks of 9/11, America would indeed see itself divided like never before, tearing itself apart from within just as its enemies desired. In 2007, Marvel Comics decided to kill Steve Rogers once and for all, as the hero of World War II was no longer relevant in a post–9/11 world. The mantle of Captain America was taken up by Rogers’s former partner, Bucky Barnes—the recently rehabilitated assassin Winter Soldier. However, with the wave of “hope and change” brought on by the real-world election of Barack Obama as president, Marvel brought back the original Sentinel of Liberty. It was explained that the Red Skull had manipulated Rogers’s “death,” trapping his soul—via the Cosmic Cube—in an astral reality where he constantly relived his triumphs and failures (Ed Brubaker and Brian Hitch, Captain America Reborn #1–6, September 2009– March 2010). When the Skull apparently dies once again, the moniker of “Red Skull” is adopted by Johann Schmidt’s own daughter, Sinthea (going by the name “Sin”), whose face has been permanently scarred by her father. Outside of comics, Red Skull has appeared in several Marvel animated series from The Marvel Super Heroes (1966) to The Super Hero Squad Show (2009– 2011), and The Avengers: Earth’s Mightiest Heroes (2010–2012). He has appeared three times in live-action media—first in the unreleased 1990 film Captain America, played by Scott Paulin; and more prominently in the 2011 theatrical release Captain America: The First Avenger, portrayed by Hugo Weaving; his third appearance was in a brief cameo in the 2018 film Avengers: Infinity War, this time

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portrayed by Ross Marquand. Unlike other iconic Marvel villains such as Doctor Doom or Magneto—who have, from time to time, shown signs of nobility and even heroism—Red Skull, like DC’s Joker, represents pure, unadulterated evil. Richard A. Hall See also: Bucky/Young Allies/Winter Soldier, Captain America: Comics, Captain America: Other Media, Falcon, Joker, Nick Fury/SHIELD, Hydra/AIM; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

Costello, Matthew. 2009. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books & the Unmasking of Cold War America. New York: Continuum. Dittmer, Jason. 2013. Captain America and the Nationalist Superhero: Metaphors, Narratives, and Geopolitics. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Simon, Joe. 2011. My Life in Comics. London: Titan Books. Stevens, J. Richard. 2015. Captain America, Masculinity, and Violence: The Evolution of a National Icon. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. Weiner, Robert G., ed. 2009. Captain America and the Struggle of the Superhero: Critical Essays. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Robin/Robin IV First Appearance (As Robin): Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Batman #655 (cover date: September 2006) Grant Morrison and Any Kubert DC Comics Expert in hand-to-hand combat, strategy Various gadgets Gotham City Batman, Nightwing, Red Hood, Red Robin, Alfred Pennyworth, Batwoman II, Superboy II Joker, Penguin, Riddler, Scarecrow, Two-Face, The Court of Owls, Ra’s al Ghul Teen Titans Damian Wayne Robin, The Boy Wonder; The Dynamic Duo (with Batman)

The sidekick “Robin the Boy Wonder” has a long and storied history. Robin was the very first teenage sidekick in comic book history, first appearing as Dick Grayson in Detective Comics #38 (April 1940), developed by Batman creators Bill Finger and Bob Kane. Jason—Todd—the future Red Hood—became the second



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Robin officially in Batman #368 (February 1984), and Tim Drake emerged as the third Boy Wonder in Batman #457 (December 1990). By that time, the story had already been planted of Bruce Wayne having a child with Talia al Ghul, the daughter of longtime Batman nemesis Ra’s al Ghul (Mike W. Barr and Jerry Bingham, Batman: Son of the Demon, September 1987). The baby would disappear from DC continuity for the next 29 years. There have briefly been two female Robins over the decades. In the alternatereality futuristic story line “The Dark Knight Returns,” Carrie Kelley dons the mantle of Robin (Frank Miller, Batman: The Dark Knight #1–4, Summer 1986). Later, for a short period in 2004, Stephanie Brown—girlfriend to Tim Drake and previously known as the vigilante “Spoiler”—acted as Robin following the temporary resignation of Drake. The later “Flashpoint” story line erased this Robin from DC continuity. Brown’s Robin was derivative of Kelley’s and her role as Robin short-lived. When Damian Wayne emerges as Robin, he is the direct successor to Drake’s. As such, Damian! Wayne should be viewed as the “fourth” Robin. Though Bruce Wayne would learn of his son, roughly 10 years old, in 2006, Damian would not become the Boy Wonder until 2009. Early on, Bruce was concerned about taking Damian as a partner. Though still a child, Damian was already a trained killer, molded by his grandfather, Ra’s al Ghul, and his League of Assassins. Damian also possessed an overinflated sense of importance, having been taught since birth that he was superior to others. This was most noticeable in the dismissive way that Damian treats Bruce’s lifelong trusted butler, Alfred. After the presumed death of Batman/Bruce Wayne at the hands of the supervillain Darkseid, the three men who had served as Robin—Grayson, Todd, and Drake— competed for the mantle of Batman. When Grayson, the original Robin, emerged victorious, he donned the identity of Batman and took on young Damian as his new Boy Wonder (Grant Morrison and Frank Quitely, Batman and Robin #1, August 2009). Over time, due to the tutelage of both Grayson and, later, his resurrected father, Damian soon learned to forgo his lethal training in deference to the tradition and spirit of Robin. Two alternate-reality versions of the Bruce/Talia union had already emerged by the time Morrison introduced Damian. In Brotherhood of the Bat, the son of Bruce and Talia is Tallant Wayne, who dons his deceased father’s mantle to battle his grandfather, who has outfitted his League of Assassins as an army of Batmen (Dough Moench and Jim Aparo, Batman: Brotherhood of the Bat, 1996). Five years later, in a two-part sequel, Tallant Wayne/Batman discovers that Ra’s al Ghul had murdered both his parents, giving the new Batman a history similar to his father’s (Moench and M. D. Bright, Batman: League of Batmen #1–2, 2001). The same year as Moench’s original Tallant Wayne story, Mark Waid and Alex Ross had published their iconic futuristic work Kingdom Come. In that dystopian future, the son of Batman and Talia was named Ibn al Xu’ffasch, a member of Lex Luthor’s organization and secret spy for his father (Waid and Ross, Kingdom Come #1–4, July–August 1996). The story of this version of the junior Wayne would continue in the story line “Son of the Bat” (Waid and Brian Apthorp, The Kingdom #1, February 1999).

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Dick Grayson enlists Damian to join the Teen Titans in 2010, continuing the tradition of a “Robin” being a member of that team (J. T. Krul and Nicola Scott, Teen Titans #88, December 2010). In one of the more controversial Robin stories, Damian Wayne dies at the hands of the villain Heretic, an adult clone that Talia al Ghul had created of her son. Damian dies protecting others while Batman is incapacitated (Grant Morrison, Chris Burnham, and Jason Masters, Batman Incorporated vol. 2, #8, April 2013). Damian’s corpse is soon stolen by his grandfather, leading Batman on an obsessive quest across the planet (and stars), culminating in a trip to the planet Apokolips, the realm of the supervillain Darkseid. There, Batman finally retrieves his son’s corpse and, through a complicated series of events, is able to resurrect his son to full health (Peter Tomasi and Patrick Gleason, Batman and Robin vol. 2, #37, February 2015). Damian soon resumes his role as Robin. Outside of comics, Damian/Robin has appeared most prominently in the animated Warner Bros. home video releases Son of Batman (2014), Batman vs. Robin (2015), and Batman: Bad Blood (2016). He has appeared as part of the Teen Titans in the animated home video releases Justice League vs. Teen Titans (2016), and Teen Titans: The Judas Contract (2017). In all five features, Damian was voiced by actor Stuart Allan. Throughout his long and storied history, Robin the Boy Wonder has been a vital part of the Batman mythos, providing a degree of humanity to the Dark Knight that, absent his partner, might be more difficult to perceive. Though Bruce Wayne has always had a paternal relationship with his young partners, the fact that Damian Wayne is his own flesh and blood adds a new dynamic to an already tried-and-true relationship. Richard A. Hall See also: Batman: Comics, Batman: Other Media, Batman: Rogues’ Gallery, Joker, Nightwing/Robin I, Red Hood/Robin II, Red Robin/Robin III, Teen Titans; Thematic Essays: The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Fingeroth, Danny. 2007. Superman on the Couch: What Superheroes Really Tell Us about Ourselves and Our Society. New York: Continuum Press. Langley, Travis. 2012. Batman and Psychology: A Dark and Stormy Knight. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Moulton, Jeffery. 2012. The Superhero Response: How 9/11 Changed Our Superheroes and Why It Matters. Self-published. Weldon, Glen. 2016. The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture. New York: Simon and Schuster.

S Sandman First Appearance:

Adventure Comics #40 (cover date: July 1939) [originally] Creators: Gardner Fox and Bert Christman [originally] Publisher: National Allied (DC Comics) Powers: Prophecy, intelligence, hand-to-hand combat [originally] Weapons: Gas mask/Gas gun [originally] Base of Operations: N/A Key Allies: Sandy, the Golden Boy [originally] Key Enemies: N/A Team Affiliations: Justice Society of America/All Star Squadron (Golden Age) Secret Identity: Wesley Dodds [originally], Garrett Sanford, Hector Hall, “Dream,” Daniel Hall, Sandy Hawkins, Kieran Marshall, [Flint Marko, supervillain in Marvel Comics of the same name] Nicknames: N/A “Sandman” is a name that has been used across the broad spectrum of comic book history. Perhaps his most popular incarnations have been the Marvel supervillain most connected with the Spider-Man franchise (Stan Lee and Steve Ditko, The Amazing Spider-Man #4, September 1963), and the Neil Gaiman incarnation, also known as “Dream,” published by DC/Vertigo beginning in the late 1980s and more closely resembling the ancient mythological “Sandman” (Gaiman and Sam Keith, The Sandman vol. 2, #1, January 1989). However, the “Sandman” originally began as one of the Golden Age superheroes of the World War II era. Through the decades, the superhero version has had several incarnations, beginning with the Wesley Dodds version in 1939. Like many Golden Age comics creators, Sandman artist Bert Christman joined the U.S. military effort in World War II, where he unfortunately lost his life flying with the “Flying Tiger” unit in Asia. The original Sandman hero began as a nod to such popular radio/pulp heroes as Green Hornet and the Shadow. He wore the traditional detective trench coat and fedora but also was armed with a gas gun (from which he was protected by a gas mask) to use on criminals. In 1940, he became one of the founding members of the

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Justice Society of America (Gardner Fox, All Star Comics #3, Winter 1940). The following year, he gained a teenage sidekick—which by this time was basically mandatory for superheroes—called Sandy, the Golden Boy (Paul Norris and Mort Weisinger, Adventure Comics #69, December 1941). By the end of the 1940s, the original Sandman had been discontinued, along with most of the Golden Age superheroes. Over 25 years later, the iconic creative team of Joe Simon and Jack Kirby brought the Sandman back to DC Comics. The new Sandman was Dr. Garrett Sanford, who becomes master of the “Dream Dimension,” granting him control of—and super powers within—the Dream Dimension. He could only reenter the real world for an hour at a time, armed with special dream dust that allowed him to make individuals fall into a deep sleep (and, therefore, enter the dream dimension where he could deal with them more directly) (Simon and Kirby, The Sandman #1, January 1974). This version would later join the Justice League. Years later, Hector Hall—son of Hawkman and eventually the new Doctor Fate— temporarily succeeded Sanford as Sandman (Roy Thomas, Dann Thomas, and Vince Argondezzi, Infinity Inc. #49, April 1988). The most iconic incarnation of the Sandman has been in the above-mentioned title written by Neil Gaiman. As part of DC’s “Vertigo” imprint, Gaiman’s Sandman originally existed outside established DC superhero continuity. In 1991, the Gaiman Sandman was cemented into the regular DC continuity when Daniel Hall—son of Hector Hall and “Lyta,” the daughter of the Golden Age Wonder Woman—is born to become the new “Dream” (Gaiman and Kelley Jones, Sandman vol. 2, #22, January 1991). Eventually, Sandy Hawkins—the original Sandy, the Golden Boy, sidekick to the original Sandman—emerges as Sandman, donning his mentor’s original costume and bringing the original character full circle (James Robinson, David S. Goyer, and Scott Benefiel, JSA Secret Files and Origins #1, August 1999). In 2007, the Dodds and Hawkins versions of Sandman would appear as flashbacks in the history of the JSA (Geoff Johns and Dale Eaglesham, Justice Society of America vol. 3, #1, February 2007). When the Justice Society is brought back again in 2015, Sandman is not part of the roster. With a long, interconnected history, Sandman is one of the more complex heroes in DC Comics. Though writers over the decades have had widely divergent takes on characters of this name, some have been able to connect all previous Sandmen into one long continuity. Though the Gaiman incarnation has received more publicity—and accolades from fans and critics alike—the interconnectivity of the character leads to an overarching story of the power of dream. Though going for long periods of time between story lines, the character’s resurgent power is worthy of note. Richard A. Hall See also: Doctor Fate, Green Hornet, Justice League, Justice Society, The Shadow; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

Feiffer, Jules. (1965) 2003. The Great Comic Book Heroes. Seattle: Fantagraphics. [For information on origin period, not character].



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Kantor, Michael, and Laurence Maslon. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Morrison, Grant. 2011. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau.

Scarlet Witch/Quicksilver/Vision First Appearance:

Scarlet Witch/Quicksilver: The X-Men #4 (cover date: March 1964) Vision: The Avengers #57 (cover date: October 1968) Creators: Scarlet Witch/Quicksilver: Stan Lee and Jack Kirby Vision: Stan Lee, Roy Thomas, and John Buscema Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers: Scarlet Witch—“Hex” spells, altering reality Quicksilver—Super speed Vision—Flight, intangibility, altering personal density, interaction with computers Weapons: N/A (for all three) Base of Operations: New York City Key Allies: X-Men, Magneto (Scarlet Witch and Quicksilver) Key Enemies: X-Men (Scarlet Witch and Quicksilver, originally), Avengers (Vision, originally), Ultron Team Affiliations: Brotherhood of Evil Mutants (Scarlet Witch and Quicksilver, originally) Avengers (all three) Secret Identity: Scarlet Witch—Wanda Maximoff Quicksilver—Pietro (“Peter”) Maximoff Vision—N/A Nicknames: N/A Scarlet Witch, Quicksilver, and Vision represent a special family dynamic in Marvel Comics and since the 1970s have represented some of the more soapoperatic story lines in all of comic books. Wanda and Peter Maximoff are believed to be the mutant twin children of the X-Men archnemesis/occasional ally, Magneto. Vision is a modern take on a Golden Age hero originally created by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby. The original Vision was an alien from another world (Simon and Kirby, Marvel Mystery Comics #13, November 1940). The modern Vision was conceived primarily by Roy Thomas. Vision is the android creation of the supervillain Ultron, with a body copied from the original (1940s) Human Torch and brain waves copied from the hero Wonder Man (a one-time paramour of Vision’s future wife, Scarlet Witch).

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Scarlet Witch and Quicksilver were originally introduced as villainous members of the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants headed by their father Magneto, though they would not discover their parentage until years later (Mark Gruenwald, Steven Grant, David Michelinie, and John Byrne, The Avengers #185–187, July– September 1979). By that time, the two mutants—and Vision—had been rehabilitated and joined the Avengers, and Wanda had fallen in love with and married the android (Steve Englehart and Don Heck, Giant-Size Avengers #4, June 1975). The year before, Pietro had married one-time Human Torch paramour Crystal, who was a member of the Inhumans (Gerry Conway and Rich Buckler, Fantastic Four #150, September 1974). The three family members become intertwined in numerous dramatic story lines in The Avengers over the years. The most iconic story line involving Scarlet Witch began with “Avengers Disassembled.” Distraught over her desire to have children, Scarlet Witch loses control of her abilities, causing a chain of events that leads to the deaths of several Avengers, including Vision (Brian Michael Bendis and David Finch, Avengers #500, September 2004). After finally being stopped by Doctor Strange, Quicksilver takes his sister to their father, where she uses her powers to alter reality and make mutants the dominant species on earth, with her father as supreme ruler, and making her pregnant by her husband, Vision (Bendis and Olivier Coipel, House of M #1, August 2005). When several heroes—most notably the X-Men—discover that reality has been altered, they declare war on Magneto. After several issues of devastating warfare, Scarlet Witch decides to punish her father by whispering, “No more mutants . . .” causing their reality to disappear. The result was the return of the “actual” Marvel universe with one distinct exception: only 198 mutants remained in the world (Bendis and Coipel, House of M #7–8, November– December 2005). With her mutant powers so closely resembling “magic,” Scarlet Witch often works with other magical heroes Doctor Strange and Brother (“Doctor”) Voodoo. Appearances of these three interlinked characters outside of comics have been tricky. Scarlet Witch and Vision appeared in the short-lived animated series The Avengers: United They Stand (1999–2000), and Vision has appeared in the animated series Avengers Assemble, which began airing on Disney-XD in 2013. In film, Scarlet Witch and Quicksilver are considered the intellectual property of both the Avengers and X-Men franchises. While Marvel Comics owns both franchises, the movie rights are divided, with 20th Century Fox owning the movie rights to X-Men and Marvel Studios/Disney maintaining ownership of the Avengers. In the X-Men “prequel” films, Quicksilver has appeared in X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014), X-Men: Apocalypse (2016), and X-Men: Dark Phoenix (2019), portrayed by Evan Peters in all three. Meanwhile, in Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Quicksilver is played by Aaron Taylor-Johnson, with the character dying in that film. In the same movie, Scarlet Witch is portrayed by Elizabeth Olsen and Vision by Paul Bettany. Both actors resumed those roles in Captain America: Civil War (2016) and Avengers: Infinity War (2018). In the Marvel Cinematic Universe version of Scarlet Witch and Quicksilver, they are identified as “miracles” rather than “mutants” (due to 20th Century Fox ownership of the “mutant” movie rights). Likewise, the MCU version of Vision is actually the creation of Tony Stark



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and Bruce Banner, making use of the JARVIS artificial intelligence (with some assist from Thor’s lightning). Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Brother Voodoo, Doctor Strange, Human Torch (1940s), Iron Man, X-Men: Comics, X-Men: Rogues’ Gallery; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, Superheroes in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s, Superheroes in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Frankel, Valerie Estelle. 2017. Superheroines and the Epic Journey: Mythic Themes in Comics, Film and Television. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Morrison, Grant. 2011. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Masked Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. White, Mark D., ed. 2012. The Avengers and Philosophy: Earth’s Mightiest Thinkers. New York: Wiley Press.

The Shadow First Appearance:

Detective Story Hour radio program (air date: July 31, 1930) Creators: Walter B. Gibson Publisher: N/A Powers: Invisibility, limited hypnosis Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: New York City Key Allies: Moses “Moe” Shrevnitz, Dr. Roy Tam Key Enemies: The Hand, Voodoo Master, Shiwan Khan Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: Lamont Cranston (on radio); Kent Allard (in print) Nicknames: N/A The Shadow is one of the few “superheroes” who predates the origin of the genre in American comic books. The Shadow originated as the mysterious narrator for the radio program Detective Story Hour, which acted as an advertisement for Detective Story Magazine in 1930. The popularity of the character led him to be used to host episodes of the radio program The Blue Coal Radio Review and to appear in commercials during the radio program Love Story Hour. The Shadow was finally fleshed out as a true character in his own radio program, The Shadow, in 1937, originally voiced by the legendary actor Orson Welles. Every episode began with the same line, which became iconic in the American zeitgeist: “Who knows what evil lurks in the hearts of men? The Shadow knows!” On the radio,

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the Shadow was millionaire playboy Lamont Cranston, who possessed the ability to “cloud the minds of men” and render himself invisible to them so that he could more closely hear their plans and sneak up on them. The Cranston version of the Shadow also appeared in several movie shorts and serials throughout the 1930s and 1940s. In print, creator Walter B. Gibson reimagined the character as “Kent Allard,” who went by many aliases, including Lamont Cranston. The Allard version of the character did not possess the supernatural abilities of the Cranston version. From the 1930s through the Publicity still for the radio drama series The 1960s, the Shadow appeared in Shadow (1937–1938), broadcast on the Mutual several newspaper comic strips, Radio Network. Featured in this photo is actor short stories, and novels (most Orson Welles as the Shadow. (CBS Radio/ written by Gibson). In the 1970s, Photofest) the Shadow appeared in a shortlived comic book published by DC Comics, produced by iconic comic book writer Denny O’Neil and artist Mike Kaluta. In 1994, actor Alec Baldwin portrayed Cranston in the film version The Shadow, produced by Universal Pictures and directed by Russell Mulcahy. By that time, the Shadow had been out of the zeitgeist for so long that the movie was a critical and box office failure. It is universally accepted that the Shadow is the prototype for the American superhero. He was a private citizen who fought crime under a mysterious nom de guerre, possessing abilities that were beyond the norm for most people. Future radio heroes such as Green Hornet and comic book heroes such as Batman are direct derivatives of the concept of the Shadow. A close examination of his radio, film, and print adventures provide an excellent window into the Great Depression/ World War II era of American history. Richard A. Hall See also: Batman: Comics, Green Hornet, The Spirit; Thematic Essay: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955.

Further Reading

Gavaler, Chris. 2015. On the Origin of Superheroes: From the Big Bang to Action Comics No. 1. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books.

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She-Hulk First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers:

Savage She-Hulk #1 (cover date: February 1980) Stan Lee and John Buscema Marvel Comics Superhuman strength, speed, agility, stamina, and reflexes; high level of resistance to injury; regenerative healing factor, and body switch Weapons: Jupiter suit Base of Operations: Los Angeles, New York City Key Allies: Zapper, Hellcat Key Enemies: Titania Team Affiliations: Avengers, Fantastic Four, Heroes for Hire, SHIELD, Fantastic Force Secret Identity: Jennifer Susan Walters Nicknames: Hulk, Lady Hulk, Jade Giantess, Shulkie, Glamazonia, Jennifer Jameson, Jennifer Smith She-Hulk as a character was created as an economic move by Marvel to secure the trademark to the female version of the Hulk. She was introduced with her own series of 25 issues, The Savage She-Hulk. She-Hulk is lawyer Jennifer Walters and the cousin of Bruce Banner, the Hulk. Bruce and Jennifer were close growing up and would escape Bruce’s father’s abuse by spending time in the library, reading to each other (Geoff Johns and Scott Kolins, Earth’s Mightiest Heroes The Avengers vol. 3 #72, November 2003). When Bruce was visiting Jennifer, an assassin under the orders of crime boss Nicholas Trask shot her because she was defending a gangster who was going to turn state’s evidence against Trask. Banner, attempting to save her life, gave her a blood transfusion. Due to their similar DNA and her anger when the mobsters tried to finish her off later that day in the hospital, Jennifer transformed into a “green-skinned amazon” referred to by the killers as “some kinda SHE-HULK,” which she immediately owned (Stan Lee, John Buscema, and Chic Stone, The Savage She-Hulk #1, February 1980). Although the transformation was scary and something to get used to, Jennifer did not completely lose herself in anger during her transformation and eventually fully retained her intelligence and analytical mind (David Kraft, Mike Vosburg, and Frank Springer, The Savage She-Hulk #12, January 1981). The development of She-Hulk has exemplified struggles of identity such as strength versus reason

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(The Savage She-Hulk series), justice versus rage (in Fantastic Four, Avengers, Sensational She-Hulk, and She-Hulk/Civil War), and Jennifer versus She-Hulk (all series and side stories). However, in appreciation of the confidence and assertiveness that came with being the She-Hulk, Jennifer eventually retains the She-Hulk form (John Byrne, The Sensational She-Hulk #18 graphic novel also covered this theme, November 1985). Dan Slott and Paul Smith, in She-Hulk #8, covered a story line where a spell by Scarlet Witch stopped She-Hulk from being able to switch between Jennifer and She-Hulk (July 2006). The first sign of her desire to do so was in The Savage She-Hulk #15, after struggling with a double life and being free to be She-Hulk in the presence of Zapper (Daniel Ridge, neighbor and friend of Jennifer’s) (Kraft and Vosburg, April 1981). Zapper was the first person outside of Bruce to know Jennifer’s identity (Kraft and Vosburg, The Savage She-Hulk #4, May 1980). After the series of The Savage She-Hulk ended, She-Hulk moved to the Avengers (Jim Shooter, David Michelinie, and Bob Hall, Avengers vol. 1, #221, July 1982). She was part of the “Secret Wars” story line where she was taken to Battleworld by Beyonder and met her greatest enemy, Titania (Jim Shooter and Michael Zeck, Marvel Super Heroes Secret Wars vol. 1, #3, July 1984). At the end of this story line, She-Hulk replaced the Thing in Fantastic Four (Shooter and Zeck, Marvel Superheroes Secret Wars vol. 1, #12, April 1985). However, this does not fully end her membership with the Avengers, and she appears sporadically in different story lines as lawyer, combat partner, pilot, and/or love interest (Roger Stern and Al Milgrom, The Mighty Avengers #243, May 1984; Stern and John Buscema, The Avengers #278, April 1987). She-Hulk fully rejoins them in Avengers #305 (July 1989). She-Hulk eventually resumed a series of her own in 1989 with The Sensational She-Hulk, which ran for 60 issues. It is during this series that She-Hulk, through John Byrne, develops even more unique characteristics. In the first issue, SheHulk pioneers the breaking of the fourth wall, and throughout the series, she satirizes comic books and continuously tests the Comics Code’s limits. Another characteristic established in this series, now related to She-Hulk’s personality, is fashion. Her ideal female form finds expression through She-Hulk, which not only embraces her muscular physical form but her flirtation, playfulness, and relationship with clothes. The series She-Hulk in 2004 attempted to relaunch her comic book but was canceled after 12 issues. She-Hulk came back in 2005 and ran for 38 issues until April 2009. During the space between solo series and sometimes at the same time, She-Hulk has belonged to different teams: the Avengers, the Fantastic Four, Future Force, Heroes for Hire, SHIELD, Lady Liberators, Hulk Busters, A-Force, and more. At some point, She-Hulk discovers that the strength she has as Jennifer exponentially grows when transformed as She-Hulk, but she eventually feels the need to control her strength, which requires the use of a device called the “Jupiter Suit” (Dan Slott and Paul Smith, She-Hulk #8, July 2006). This got out of hand with radiation exposure, which also resulted in major differences of personality between Jennifer and She-Hulk (John Byrne, The Sensational She-Hulk #18 graphic novel also covered this theme, November 1985).



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Jennifer and She-Hulk have now become one, and each has developed different characteristics of her personality. She had started as a shy but competent lawyer who was strong, violent, and ill-tempered when transformed as She-Hulk. She has developed into a kind, loving, fun superhero who uses force when necessary and tries not to kill once the enemy is subdued. When Jennifer has suffered traumas that might affect her personality, She-Hulk may be transformed as well. “Grey” She-Hulk, which appeared in Hulk vol. 4, #1, is the result of the many experiences Jennifer has during the “Civil War” story line, making her an uncontrollable, violent brute (Mariko Tamaki and Nico Leon, February 2017). She-Hulk has also appeared in several animated TV Series: NBC’s The Incredible Hulk (1982); Fantastic Four: The Animated Series from Marvel’s Entertainment Group in 1995 (airing as part of the “Marvel Action Hour,” and later on FOX-Kids and Disney-XD); The Incredible Hulk, developed by UPN Studios (1996); Fantastic Four: World’s Greatest Heroes by Taffy Entertainment, M6, and Cartoon Network (2007); The Superhero Squad Show by Marvel Animation and Film Roman (2009); Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. by Film Roman (2013); Ultimate Spider-Man from Marvel Animation (2015); a motion comic book from the “Marvel Knights” series, Ultimate Wolverine vs Hulk (2013); the web series Marvel Superheroes: What the—? (2014); and the animated film Marvel Superhero Adventures: Frost Fight! (2015). Maria Antonieta Reyes See also: Avengers, Fantastic Four, Hulk, Nick Fury/SHIELD, Hydra/AIM, Red Hulk; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Chase, Anthony. 1986. “Lawyers and Popular Culture: A Review of Mass Media Portrayals of American Attorneys.” Journal of the American Bar Foundation 11 (2): 281–300. Frankell, Valerie E. 2017. Superheroines and the Epic Journey: Mythic Themes in Comics, Film and Television. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Madrid, Mike. 2009. The Supergirls: Fashion, Feminism, Fantasy, and the History of Comic Book Heroines. Minneapolis, MN: Exterminating Angel Press. Mitchell, Dale. 2015. “Paradoxes and Patriarchy: A Legal Reading of She-Hulk.” Griffith Law Review 24 (3): 446–81. Palumbo, Donald E. 1997. “Metafiction in the Comics: The Sensational She-Hulk.” Journal of the Fantastic Arts 8 (3): 310–30. White, Mark D., ed. 2012. The Avengers and Philosophy: Earth’s Mightiest Thinkers. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

The Shield (1940s) First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers:

Pep Comics #1 (cover date: January 1940) Harry Shorten and Irv Novick MLJ/Archie Comics Enhanced strength and agility

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Weapons: Indestructible costume Base of Operations: Washington, D.C. Key Allies: “FBI Chief” Key Enemies: Various threats to the United States Team Affiliations: Mighty Crusaders (as Bill Higgins) Secret Identity: Joe Higgins/Bill Higgins Nicknames: N/A Not to be confused with the Marvel spy organization (SHIELD), the Shield was the first patriotically themed superhero, predating the comics version of “Uncle Sam” by six months and Captain America by more than a year. The original Shield was Joe Higgins, FBI agent, and his adventures were all titled “The Shield: G-Man Extraordinary.” Higgins would receive his assignments from the nameless “Chief” of the FBI (though even the most casual reader would immediately recognize him as real-world FBI director J. Edgar Hoover). As the Shield, Higgins wore an indestructible red, white, and blue costume with the torso shaped like a large shield. The costume was designed to bond a special chemical to his body that would enhance his natural abilities. The compound was called S.H.I.E.L.D., which stood for: Sacrum (“the spinal center of the body, thought by the ancients to be the seat of the soul”); Heart; Innervation (basically enhancing his stamina); Eyes; Lungs; and Derma (making his skin invulnerable) (Shorten and Novick, Shield-Wizard Comics #1, Summer 1940). The Shield was one of MLJ Comics’ most popular heroes, appearing in Pep Comics, Shield-Wizard Comics, and TopNotch Comics throughout the 1940s and spawning a fan club called the “Shield G-Man Club,” membership perks of which included a badge showing the Shield bending a metal beam and expressing the motto “Shield G-Man Club: Truth, Justice, Patriotism, Courage.” By decade’s end, superheroes were out of vogue, and the Shield was discontinued. In the Silver Age of comics—when superheroes made their dramatic return— Cover for Pep Comics #1 (January 1940). This Archie Comics brought the issue featured the debut of the Shield. (Digital Shield back as Bill Higgins, son Comic Museum)



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of the original Shield, as part of a Justice League–style team called the Mighty Crusaders, alongside fellow heroes Fly Man, the Comet, and the Black Hood (Jerry Siegel and Paul Reinman, Fly Man #31, May 1965). Impact Comics (an imprint of DC Comics) attempted a revamp of the character in 1991, with the new Shield being Michael Barnes. However, the new Legend of the Shield only lasted for 16 issues. Not only does the Shield hold the distinction of being the first patriotic superhero, he also represents a much more conservative view of patriotism, with a focus more on national security than the more liberty/freedom message of Captain America. Had superheroes maintained their popularity into the 1950s, the political climate of the day suggests that the Shield might have proven a more durable character than Captain America. The emergence of Cap as the more iconic patriotic hero, then, may have had more to do with his connection to the wildly popular Marvel Comics Universe and its arrival in the more politically liberal 1960s than with anything else. Richard A. Hall See also: Captain America: Comics, Fighting American, Uncle Sam, Wonder Woman: Comics; Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955.

Further Reading

Stevens, J. Richard. 2015. Captain America Masculinity, and Violence: The Evolution of a National Icon. New York: Syracuse University Press. York, Chris, and Rafiel York, eds. 2012. Comic Books and the Cold War: Essays on Graphic Treatment of Communism, the Code and Social Concerns, 1946–1962. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

Silver Surfer First Appearance: Fantastic Four #49 (cover date: April 1966) Creators: Stan Lee and Jack Kirby Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers: Power cosmic (harnessed through his arms) Weapons: Surfboard Base of Operations: Earth, the Spaceways Key Allies: Fantastic Four, Doctor Strange, Avengers, SpiderMan, Thor, Watcher, Alicia Masters Known Enemies: Galactus, Mephisto, Thanos Team Affiliations: Defenders, God Squad, Annihilators Secret Identify: Norrin Radd Nicknames: N/A The Silver Surfer first appeared as the herald of the planet-eating Galactus in Fantastic Four #49–51 (1966), which became known as the “Galactus Trilogy.” It

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Stan Lee Stan Lee (born Stanley Martin Lieber, December 28, 1922) is synonymous with Marvel Comics and is perhaps the most well-known comic creator in the world. As a teenager, he began working at Timely Comics in 1940. Lee was distantly related to publisher Martin Goodman. Beginning as a general gofer, Lee eventually started writing text stories in the comics and then backup features. He became editor at 18 years old when Joe Simon quit in 1941. Lee enlisted in the army in 1941 and wrote scripts for instructional manuals, training films, and posters (which featured his art). After the war, in 1945, he returned to Timely as editor and feature writer. By the early 1960s, Lee had worked in the industry for 20 years and was ready to give up comics to write the “great American novel.” In 1961, Goodman asked Lee to write a team superhero book (as DC was having success with its rebooted superheroes). Lee’s wife purportedly told him to write the type of book he would like to read, so he, with artist Jack Kirby, created the Fantastic Four. Lee, along with his artistic team, created what became the Marvel Universe. Some of Lee’s cocreations include X-Men, Spider-Man, the Hulk, Iron Man, Black Panther, the Avengers, Daredevil, and so many others. Lee continued to write throughout the 1960s and into the 1970s; during that time, he also wrote editorials in a column called Stan’s Soapbox, published in each Marvel Comic and often expressing Lee’s own philosophy on equality and inclusiveness. He became publisher and worked for Marvel in various guises until the late 1990s, when he experimented with other writing and media ventures (including writing for DC). In 2008, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts and the National Humanities Medal by President George W. Bush. Robert G. Weiner

was one of Lee’s and Kirby’s early multi-issue story arcs. The Surfer’s job was to find planets that had sustainable energy for Galactus to consume as food. The issues feature the Watcher and a robot to fight the FF called the “Punisher.” Even Lee acknowledges that the Silver Surfer was Jack Kirby’s creation. When they were putting together the Galactus story, Lee noticed this character flying around on a surfboard. Kirby reasoned that a being as godlike as Galactus would have a herald to find worlds for him. Although Kirby may have created the concept of the Silver Surfer, it was Lee who gave the character an almost Christlike kindness and demeanor. Through finding goodness and honor in Alicia Masters, the Silver Surfer concludes that humanity is worth saving and rebels against his master, Galactus. Galactus then banishes the Surfer to Earth, forbidding him from the spaceways. The Surfer received his own book in August 1968 written by Lee with art by John Buscema. The series lasted 18 issues and is often considered Stan Lee’s masterwork. Buscema’s art with Lee’s dialogue made the Surfer a tragic figure who is just trying to figure out how to live his life, but because of his alien appearance, he is regarded with suspicion by most of humanity. Lee gave the Surfer an origin story where he is from the native planet of Zenn-La, which was about to be consumed by Galactus. Norrin Radd offers himself up to Galactus in exchange for saving his home world and is transformed into the Silver Surfer and also given the power cosmic. Mephisto, a Satan-like character, tries to tempt the Surfer into committing selfish and evil acts as well as breaking his spirit, but to no avail (Lee and Buscema, Silver Surfer #3, December 1968).



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The Silver Surfer joined in a loose alliance with the Hulk, Doctor Strange, and the SubMariner in “The Defenders” (Steve Englehart and Buscema, Defenders #2, October 1972). In 1978, Lee and Kirby would publish a stand-alone graphic novel, The Silver Surfer, which reimagines the character’s origin and the Galactus trilogy. This book is notable for being the last published collaboration between Lee and Kirby. In this book, the Surfer finds something honorable in humanity and rebels against Galactus, who tries to bend the Surfer to his will. The Surfer is used as a metaphor in questions of racism, free will, and selflessness. A special oneshot in 1982 by Lee and John Byrne is considered “Volume 2,” but in 1987, the Surfer received a Cover for The Silver Surfer #2 (October 1968), “third” ongoing series, which with cover art by John Buscema. Stan Lee has lasted 146 issues. The first issue long said that the Silver Surfer (originally enviwas by Englehart and Marshall sioned by longtime collaborator Jack Kirby) was Rogers and firmly established his favorite Marvel character. (Marvel Comics the Surfer as a character who Group/Photofest) would interact with the whole of the Marvel Universe. The first issue also featured the Fantastic Four, with new member She-Hulk. Lee would continually come back to the character. As part of the more adult-oriented “Epic” line, Lee teamed up with French surrealist Moebius for a two-issue miniseries, Parable, in 1988, later released as a hardcover. Like all of Lee’s other Surfer tales, this one deals with issues of belief and narcissism. In 2007, the one-shot Stan Lee Meets the Silver Surfer came out. The Silver Surfer continues to be a vital Marvel property that has appeared in the “Ultimate” Universe, Marvel Now, and Jim Starlin’s various Infinity series (featuring Thanos). The character has worked with nearly all the major figures in the Marvel Universe as well as minor ones. Outside of comics, the Silver Surfer has appeared in various animated television shows as well as movies. The Surfer first appeared on the small screen in the 1967 Hanna-Barbera Fantastic Four cartoon and later in Fox’s 1994 FF series, both of which follow the original Galactus trilogy story line. A five-minute fan film, The Silver Surfer, directed by Erik Fleming, was released in 1992 (a time when fan films were quite unusual). In 1998, Fox produced 13 episodes of a solo

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Surfer animated series (voiced by Paul Essiembre), which featured traditional cel animation combined with computer animation. The series featured many of the cosmic characters, including Pip the Troll, Galactus, the Watcher, Thanos, Nova, and Drax the Destroyer. The series ended abruptly without tying up the story line. It is notable for being one of the better Marvel adaptations in the 1990s. The Surfer has also appeared in The Super Hero Squad Show (2009–2011) and Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. (2013–2015). There was talk of a Silver Surfer live action film starring Beach Boy Dennis Wilson in the 1970s. Actor Richard Gere played a vagabond obsessed with the Silver Surfer in the 1983 film Breathless. In 2007, 20th Century Fox released Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer, directed by Tim Story. The character was voiced by Laurence Fishburne and played by Doug Jones. The Surfer was a computer-generated character, and the film loosely followed the Galactus Trilogy but was marred by mediocre reviews saying that it did not stay true to the essence of the story and had Galactus as a cloud-like being. Robert G. Weiner See also: Fantastic Four, Hulk, Doctor Strange, Guardians of the Galaxy, Sub-Mariner; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s.

Further Reading

Fingeroth, Danny. 2011. “The Saga the Silver Surfer Graphic Novel.” In The Stan Lee Universe, edited by Danny Fingeroth and Roy Thomas, 150–155. Raleigh: TwoMorrows. Gabilliet, Jean-Paul. 1994. “Cultural and Mythical Aspects of a Superhero: The Silver Surfer 1968–1970.” Journal of Popular Culture 28 (2): 203–13. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper. McLaughlin, Jeff, ed. 2007. Stan Lee: Conversations. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi.

Spawn First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers:

Spawn #1 (cover date: May 1992) Todd McFarlane Image Comics Indestructible; superhuman strength, agility, speed, endurance, and tactical thinking; teleportation; hell-spawned blasts and powers Weapons: Symbiotic costume Base of Operations: N/A Key Allies: Cogliostro Key Enemies: Malebolgia, Violator/Clown, Jason Wynn/AntiSpawn/Redeemer Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: Al Simmons Nicknames: Hellspawn

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Image Comics Image Comics was created in 1992 as the result of a revolt by Marvel Comics writer/ artist Todd McFarlane along with fellow young creators Jim Lee, Whilce Portacio, Marc Silvestri, Erik Larsen, Jim Valentino, and Rob Liefeld, as well as veteran Marvel writer Chris Claremont. The purpose of the company was to give comic book creators total control— and ownership—of the properties they developed. Due to the popularity of everyone involved, Image was an immediate success, producing such comics as Spawn, Savage Dragon, Witchblade, and The Darkness. Several of the partners developed their own studios under the Image umbrella. McFarlane created Todd McFarlane Productions. Liefeld created Extreme Studios. Lee created Wildstorm, and Silvestri created Top Cow. Disagreements between the partners led most of these companies either to go independent or to sell out to larger companies. In the 21st century, the most successful Image title by far has been The Walking Dead, created by Robert Kirkman and Tony Moore in 2003; it spawned an equally successful television series on AMC in 2010. Image has been featured in the 2013 PBS documentary Superheroes: A Never-Ending Battle, the 2003 History Channel documentary Comic Book Superheroes Unmasked, and an episode of the first season of Robert Kirkman’s Secret History of Comics, which aired on AMC in 2018. Richard A. Hall

Spawn is the most successful comic book superhero (or antihero) outside of the “Big Two” publishers of Marvel and DC. In 1992, several disgruntled comic book writers and artists—including famed former Spider-Man writer and artist Todd McFarlane—left Marvel and DC and formed their own, creator-owned company, Image Comics. One of the first offerings from the new company was McFarlane’s Spawn. It would go on to be Image’s most popular superhero book as well as the basis of the first line of artfully crafted action figures from McFarlane Toys. Spawn was originally Al Simmons, a CIA assassin and former U.S. marine. When Simmons begins to question some of the activities of the CIA, Jason Wynn, the director of United States Security Group (a precursor to the real-world Homeland Security Bureau), orders Simmons’s partner to kill Simmons. On dying, Simmons descends into hell—due to his actions as an assassin—where he makes a deal with the demon Malebolgia, offering his soul in exchange for a chance to see his wife one more time (McFarlane, Spawn #1, May 1992). Simmons soon learns he has been tricked when he reappears on earth five years later, by which time his wife has been remarried to Simmons’s own best friend; the two also have a child. Simmons also notices that he himself is severely disfigured and in possession of strange powers, with which he dispatches several criminals. He is also being followed by a clown (McFarlane, Spawn #3, August 1992). After he fights the clown, it shows its true form as the Violator. Their fight is broken up by Malebolgia, who informs them that they are part of his army in his war with heaven and that their mission is to lead humans to sin and then kill them, bonding them into Malebolgia’s service as well (McFarlane, Spawn #4, September 1992). Spawn goes on to resist his mission, using his evolving powers to help people, learning more about what he is from the mysterious Cogliostro. It is soon revealed to Spawn that there is a caveat to his supernatural powers: they are finite, and every time he uses them, he comes one step closer to being powerless—at

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which point he will be returned to hell. Throughout the series, Spawn battles angels and demons and even has a face-to-face (in a way) with God. Outside of comics, as stated above, Spawn became the subject of a hugely commercially successful toy line. From 1997 to 1999, cable outlet HBO produced an animated series, Todd McFarlane’s Spawn, with Keith David voicing Al Simmons/ Spawn. Though short-lived, the series was a huge success with fans and critics alike. Less successful was the 1997 film Spawn, produced by New Line Cinema, directed by Mark A. Z. Dippe and starring Michael Jai White. Scene from the HBO animated series Spawn The film lacked the level of spe(1997–1999). The series received far more critcial effects necessary to bring ical acclaim than the live-action film from the the character truly to life and same year. Spawn was voiced by Keith David. was released shortly after the (HBO/Photofest) critically panned Batman and Robin. The two films nearly succeeded in ending the superhero genre at the box office. In 2018, a new Spawn film was announced for 2019 release, starring Jamie Foxx and directed by Spawn creator McFarlane. Though this is only noticeable in flashback scenes, Al Simmons is African American, making Spawn the most commercially successful black superhero in comic books. Though similar in many respects to Marvel’s Ghost Rider, Spawn possesses a level of pathos that Ghost Rider has, to date, not achieved. The continued success of the character in comics and toys—along with the ever-growing success of antiheroes in television and film—all but assure that this dark hero will continue to be a source of entertainment within the overall zeitgeist. Spawn speaks to the hope that humanity will be good, regardless of circumstances, and can overcome any adversity in the name of what is right. Though a darker hero than most, Spawn exposes a glimmer of light in the darkness, very much adhering to the comic book tradition of inspiring while also holding up a mirror to society. Richard A. Hall See also: Black Lightning, Black Panther, Blade, the Vampire Hunter, Cloak and Dagger, Ghost Rider, Luke Cage/Power Man, Punisher, Spider-Man: Comics; Thematic Essay: The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s.

Further Reading

Gateward, Frances, and John Jennings, eds. 2015. The Blacker the Ink: Constructions of Black Identity in Comics and Sequential Art. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.



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Howard, Sheena C., and Ronald L. Jackson II, eds. 2013. Black Comics: Race and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Nama, Adilifu. 2011. Super Black: American Pop Culture and Black Superheroes. Austin: University of Texas Press.

The Spectre First Appearance: More Fun Comics #52 (cover date: February 1940) Creators: Jerry Siegel Publisher: National Allied/DC Comics Powers: Omnipresence, omniscience, ability to alter reality Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: All of Time and Space Key Allies: The Radiant Key Enemies: Azmodus, Eclipso Team Affiliations: All Star Squadron, Justice Society Secret Identity: Jim Corrigan (Originally; the identity has been assumed by several others over the years); Aztar (the original Spirit of Wrath) Nicknames: Spirit of Vengeance, Astral Avenger The Spectre has evolved as one of the most powerful superheroes of the DC comics universe, though he is widely unknown outside of the medium. In his original incarnation as one of the first generation of Golden Age superheroes, the Spectre had been police detective Jim Corrigan, who was murdered by a local crime lord. After death, Corrigan was allowed to return to the world of the living as the Spectre, an omniscient being with the ability to avenge against all wrongdoers (Siegel and Bernard Baily, More Fun Comics #52, February 1940). That summer, the Spectre joined the Flash, Hawkman, Hourman, and Sandman in the pages of All Star Comics #1 (Summer 1940). These heroes would eventually join Atom, Doctor Fate, and Green Lantern to form the Justice Society of America (Gardner Fox and Everett E. Hibbard, All Star Comics #3, Winter 1940). By decade’s end, the JSA would be joined by female members Wonder Woman and Black Canary. Soon after his introduction, Spectre’s Corrigan alter ego was returned to full life and joined the World War II effort. With the popularity of superheroes in the Silver Age, DC Comics editor Julius Schwartz called on All Star scribe Gardner Fox to bring the Spectre back into the new DC universe. The Silver Age Spectre would be even more powerful than his original incarnation. Corrigan, once more a police detective, is reconnected with his all-powerful alter ego after discovering that “the Spectre” had been

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imprisoned by his archnemesis, the equally powerful but evil Azmodus. Azmodus’s control over Spectre had ended when his own physical alter ego was killed (Fox and Murphy Anderson, Showcase #60, February 1966). The Spectre would be most visible in the Justice League/Justice Society crossover events of the late 1960s and early 1970s before once more having his own adventures. The character’s return in the Silver Age was met with some resistance from the Comics Code Authority. However, when the Code was severely watered down in the early 1970s, reopening the door for more graphic horror and supernatural elements in comics, DC’s “Spectre” was a perfect counterbalance for Marvel books such as Doctor Strange. Beginning a 10-issue run in 1974, the Spectre imposed graphically horrific, torturous judgments on wrongdoers (Michael Fleisher and Jim Aparo, Adventure Comics #431, February 1974). In the iconic 1996 miniseries Kingdom Come, Mark Waid and Alex Ross present a dystopian future where classic superheroes have long since retired, replaced by a generation of more violent heroes more concerned with order than justice. In this story, Corrigan’s Spectre returns, having long forgotten what it was to be human. He therefore enlists the assistance of a priest named Norman McCay to assist him in uncovering the mystery of how the world has become as it is and how to alter its course (Waid and Ross, Kingdom Come #1–4, July–August 1996). By the turn of the century, Jim Corrigan has released the Spectre and gone on to heaven. The mantle is then passed to former Green Lantern Hal Jordan, who is seeking to redeem himself after his villainous turn as Parallax (J. M. DeMatteis and Ryan Sock, Spectre vol. 4, #1, March 2001). Over time, Spectre goes on to inhabit another murdered policeman, Crispus Allen, before—in the “New 52” reboot—once more inhabiting the new reality’s Jim Corrigan. Outside of comics, the Spectre has made only a couple of appearances—one in Superman: The Animated Series, and the second in Batman: The Brave and the Bold. In the story line of the DC Comic Constantine, the Spectre is connected to a redeemed demon from the dawn of time named Aztar, who became the original Spirit of Wrath. The Jim Corrigan character has appeared in the short-lived NBCTV series Constantine (2014–2015). Similar in many respects to the later Marvel antihero Ghost Rider and the future Image Comics antihero, Spawn, the Spectre responds to that cathartic desire for comeuppance that rides the line between justice and vengeance. Richard A. Hall See also: Ghost Rider, Justice Society, Punisher, Spawn; Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955, The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s.

Further Reading

Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Kantor, Michael, and Laurence Maslon. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Knowles, Christopher. 2007. Our Gods Wear Spandex: The Secret History of Comic Book Superheroes. San Francisco: Weiser Books. Morris, Tom, and Matt Morris, eds. 2006. Superheroes and Philosophy: Truth, Justice, and the Socratic Way. Chicago: Open Court Press.



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Spider-Man: Comics First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies:

Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Amazing Fantasy #15 (cover date: August 1962) Stan Lee and Steve Ditko Marvel Comics Super strength and agility; adhesion to most surfaces; precognitive sense of danger (“Spider Sense”) Web shooters New York City Aunt May, Mary Jane Watson, Harry Osborn, Human Torch (FF), Gwen Stacy, “Robbie” Robertson, Betty Brandt J. Jonah Jameson, Morbius, Green Goblin/Norman Osborn, Doctor Octopus, Electro, Venom/Eddie Brock, Carnage, Scorpion, Lizard, Hobgoblin, Shocker, Rhino, Sandman, Kraven the Hunter, Mysterio Avengers, Fantastic Four (briefly) Peter Parker, Miguel O’Hara (2099), Miles Morales (Ultimate Universe) Spidey, Web-Head, Web Slinger, Wall Crawler, “Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man”

Long before his 2002 film debut, Spider-Man was already one of the most iconic and recognizable superheroes in the American pantheon. Introduced in the final issue of the fantasy anthology series Amazing Fantasy in 1962, Spider-Man was originally high school student Peter Parker, orphaned and living with his Uncle Ben and Aunt May. After being bitten by a radioactive spider during a school field trip, Peter discovers that he possesses super strength and agility as well as the ability to stick to surfaces. He decides to use these abilities to make money, sewing himself a red-and-blue spider-themed costume and signing up for an amateur wrestling challenge as “Spider-Man.” When the owner of the show cheats Peter out of money, Peter does nothing to stop a burglar who robs the owner. His failure to stop the criminal comes back to haunt Peter, as the burglar goes on to kill Peter’s Uncle Ben later that night. Peter learns the harsh lesson that “with great power there must also come—great responsibility” (Lee and Ditko, Amazing Fantasy #15, August 1962). And so, “the Amazing Spider-Man” was born. As Peter is still a high school student being raised by a widowed aunt, he soon begins working for the newspaper The Daily Bugle as a freelance photographer. Bugle editor J. Jonah Jameson is dedicated to bringing down the Wall Crawler, whom he sees as a menace to society. Peter makes money providing action photos of Spider-Man that Jameson then uses to discredit the hero (Lee and Ditko, The Amazing Spider-Man #1, March 1963). This relationship remains through the majority of the character’s run.

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The idea of Spider-Man was revolutionary. Up to that point, superheroes had been adults exclusively (even though Billy Batson was a boy, he became an adult when he was Captain Marvel). Teenagers had always been sidekicks. Making Spider-Man a teenager, with all the problems and insecurities that come with that, allowed the character to speak to readers in a way no other superhero ever had. Due to the massive appeal of the character, Spider-Man has been featured in many Marvel titles over the decades, most prominently The Amazing Spider-Man; Marvel Team-Up; Peter Parker, the Sensational Spider-Man; Web of Spider-Man; and Spider-Man, which was launched by Todd Cover for The Amazing Spider-Man #1 (March McFarlane in 1990, the first 1963), with cover art by Jack Kirby, Steve Ditko, issue of which is one of the bestStan Goldberg, and Artie Simek. Spider-Man selling single issues in comic quickly became the premier character in the Mar- book history. Spidey was also vel Comics Universe. (Mario Tama/Getty Images) featured in the first Marvel/DC crossover event, Superman vs. the Amazing Spider-Man (Gerry Conway and Ross Andru, January 1976). There have been many iconic Spidey stories over the years. First, in 1971, at the request of the U.S. government, Stan Lee produced a story focusing on the dangers of drugs. The Comics Code Authority would not approve the story line, as any mention of drugs went against the Code established in the 1950s, so Marvel Comics broke with tradition and issued the two-part story without Code approval (Stan Lee, John Romita Sr., and Gil Kane, Amazing Spider-Man #96–97, May– June 1971). Two years later, Marvel took the bold move of killing a major character—Peter Parker’s longtime girlfriend, Gwen Stacy. After the Green Goblin throws Stacy from the Brooklyn Bridge, Spider-Man shoots a web in an effort to save her, but the whiplash of the web catching her breaks the girl’s neck. In the following issue, Spider-Man is faced with the temptation of killing his nemesis, but the Goblin appears to die instead by his own glider impaling him (Conway and Kane, Amazing Spider-Man #121–122, June–July 1973). In the 1980s, Spider-Man would have one of his most iconic adventures. In 1984, Spidey received a new costume, which debuted in all Spider-Man titles that month (Roger Stern, Tom DeFalco, Ron Frenz, and Brett Breeding, Amazing Spider-Man #252, May 1984; Al Milgrom, Peter Parker: The Spectacular



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Todd McFarlane Todd McFarlane was born in 1961 in Canada. He began working as an artist for both DC and Marvel comics in the mid-1980s. His first major work was a two-year run on Infinity, Inc. for DC Comics. He then drew for both Detective Comics at DC and The Incredible Hulk at Marvel. His big break came in 1988, when he was given full-time art duties on The Amazing Spider-Man with writer David Michelinie. Despite the displeasure of the editors at Marvel over what they described as McFarlane’s “spaghetti webbing,” sales for The Amazing Spider-Man surged under McFarlane’s artwork, leading Marvel to grant him full storytelling and artistic control of a new Spider-Man title, Spider-Man #1 (August 1990). The first issue became one of the highest-selling single comics of all time. Due to continued tension with Marvel administration, McFarlane led a revolt along with other disgruntled writers and artists to create a new creator-owned company, Image Comics. McFarlane’s primary contribution to Image was his creation Spawn (Spawn #1, May 1992), selling nearly 2 million copies of the first issue. Spawn would become Image’s best-selling comic, leading to a major motion picture in 1997 and an animated HBO series from 1997 to 1999 (both produced by McFarlane’s own Todd McFarlane Entertainment). He also founded McFarlane Toys in 1994, creating extremely detailed action figures. McFarlane has been featured in the 2013 PBS documentary Superheroes: A Never-Ending Battle, the 2003 History Channel documentary Comic Book Superheroes Unmasked, and the 2000 Canadian documentary Devil You Know: Inside the Mind of Todd McFarlane. In 2018, it was announced that McFarlane would write and direct a new Spawn feature film starring Jamie Foxx. Richard A. Hall

Spider-Man #90, May 1984; DeFalco, Jim Owsley, and Greg LaRocque, Marvel Team-Up #141, May 1984). The origin of the costume would come later. The heroes of the Marvel Universe were transported to the mysterious “Battleworld” by the enigmatic Beyonder. As the heroes underwent their trials, Spider-Man’s costume became severely ripped, but he found another one—a sleek black costume with a large white spider emblem (Jim Shooter and Mike Zeck, Secret Wars #8, December 1984). Spidey soon discovered that the new costume responded to his will, removing itself when he wished and even producing its own webbing. After a while, he noticed that the suit appeared to draw on his negative emotions. Learning that the suit is actually an alien symbiote, Spidey removes it in a bell tower (loud noises being its only weakness) where he means for it to remain, but it finds its way to Eddie Brock, who already holds a grudge against Peter Parker. In Brock’s merge with the suit—which now hates Spider-Man—the two become Venom, one of Spider-Man’s most dangerous foes (David Michelinie and Todd McFarlane, Amazing Spider-Man #300, 1988). One year earlier, Peter Parker married longtime girlfriend Mary Jane Watson. MJ—as Peter would refer to her—was first introduced in The Amazing SpiderMan #42 (November 1966) as Peter’s blind date. The two were close friends and had been romantically involved since the late 1970s. They finally marry in The Amazing Spider-Man Annual #21 (Jim Shooter, David Michelinie, and Paul Ryan, October 1987). Though happy for many years, their marriage would be “erased” due to the events of the “One More Day” story line in 2007–2008.

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A futuristic version of Spider-Man was introduced as part of Marvel’s “2099” line of comics, establishing future versions of Spider-Man, Punisher, Hulk, and the X-Men. The future Spider-Man is Miguel O’Hara. Miguel’s DNA was spliced with that of a spider, giving him the same strength and agility as the original Spider-Man. While not possessing a “spider-sense,” O’Hara does have heightened senses. His ability to climb walls is more limited, as he can only climb due to tiny gripping talons in his fingers and toes (Peter David and Rick Leonardi, SpiderMan 2099, November 1992). The 2099 Spidey was the first Hispanic character to star in his own comic book. Coming into the 1990s, Spider-Man would team up with Ghost Rider, Wolverine, and the Hulk to temporarily form the “New” Fantastic Four (Walt Simonson, Arthur Adams, and Gracine Tanaka, Fantastic Four #348, January 1991). Perhaps the most controversial Spider-Man story line in the character’s history dominated the mid-1990s. Seen as a gimmick at the height of the comics collectors’ bubble of the early 1990s, the “Clone Saga” proved to be a constant shift of smoke and mirrors. Spider-Man had recently been joined by a new hero calling himself the Scarlet Spider and possessing all of Spider-Man’s abilities. The actual saga begins when Peter discovers that the Scarlet Spider—who goes by the name Ben Reilly (the name of Peter’s Uncle Ben)—is actually . . . Peter Parker. Decades earlier, in a fight against the villain Jackal, Spider-Man had thrown a clone of himself— created by Jackal—down a smokestack. Now it appeared that it was the real Spider-Man who had been thrown and that the Spider-Man of recent decades was, in fact, the original clone (Terry Kavanagh and Steven Butler, Web of Spider-Man #117, October 1994). Dragging on for two years, the saga introduced more clones, casting constant doubt on who the real Peter Parker was, only to reveal in the end that the Peter Parker with whom the saga had begun was, in fact, the real Peter Parker all along. The predictable ending—along with the collapse of the collectors’ bubble—led to a dramatic decline in Spider-Man sales. In 2000, in an effort to draw new readers intimidated by decades of continuity, Marvel launched its “Ultimate” universe: beginning its main titles again but in an alternate universe. Peter’s story is retold in Ultimate Spider-Man #1 (Brian Michael Bendis, Bill Jemas, and Mark Bagley, October 2000). In 2011, in order to bring more diversity to comic book superheroes, the Ultimate Peter Parker is killed, and a new Spider-Man takes his place: Miles Morales, a half-black, halfHispanic teenager. Also bitten by a radioactive spider, Morales possesses all of the same powers as Parker, with the addition of the abilities to camouflage himself and stun people with a touch (Bendis and Sarah Pichelli, Ultimate Fallout #4, August 2011). The Morales Spider-Man has proven so popular that when Marvel collapsed the “Ultimate” universe in the wake of the second “Secret Wars” (2015), Morales was incorporated into the standard Marvel continuity, giving that universe two “Spider-Men.” Since his inception, Spider-Man has been one of the most popular superheroes in comic book history and by far the most recognized hero in the Marvel pantheon. In 2004, Marvel published Spider-Man: India (in India), giving the hero an Indian origin and spin. Instead of “Peter Parker,” his name was “Pavitr Prabhakar” (Sharad Devarajan, Jeevan Kang, and Suresh Seetharaman, Spider-Man:



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India #1–4, November 2004–February 2005). In 2009, Spider-Man met the newly elected U.S. president Barack Obama (Zeb Wells and Todd Nauk, “Spidey Meets the President!” The Amazing Spider-Man #583, March 2009). The “everyman” nature of the Spider-Man character in all of his incarnations is one that speaks to anyone, from anywhere. He is a hero for everyone. Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Cloak and Dagger, Daredevil, Fantastic Four, Spider-Man: Other Media, Spider-Man: Rogues’ Gallery, Superman: Comics; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, Superheroes in the Post–Cold War, Superheroes in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. DeFalco, Tom. 2004. Comics Creators on Spider-Man. London: Titan Books. DiPaolo, Marc. 2011. War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Fingeroth, Danny. 2004. Superman on the Couch: What Superheroes Really Tell Us about Ourselves and Our Society. New York: Continuum Press. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Lee, Stan, Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone. Morris, Tom, and Matt Morris, eds. 2006. Superheroes and Philosophy: Truth, Justice, and the Socratic Way. Chicago: Open Court Press. Moulton, Jeffery. 2012. The Superhero Response: How 9/11 Changed Our Superheroes and Why It Matters. Self-published. O’Rourke, Dan, and Pravin A. Rodrigues. 2007. “The ‘Transcreation’ of a Mediated Myth: Spider-Man in India.” In The Amazing Transforming Superhero!: Essays on the Revision of Characters in Comic Books, Film and Television, edited by Terrence R. Wandtke, 112–128. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Raphael, Jordan, and Tom Spurgeon. 2003. Stan Lee and the Rise and Fall of the American Comic Book. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Regalado, Aldo J. 2015. Bending Steel: Modernity and the American Superhero. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press. Rosenberg, Robin S., and Peter Coogan, eds. 2013. What Is a Superhero? Oxford: Oxford University Press. Thomas, Roy. 2017. The Marvel Age of Comics: 1961–1978. Los Angeles: Taschen. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Spider-Man: Other Media First Appearance: Creators: Publisher:

Amazing Fantasy #15 (cover date: August 1962) Stan Lee and Steve Ditko Marvel Comics

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Powers:

Super strength and agility; adhesion to most surfaces; precognitive sense of danger (“Spider Sense”) Weapons: Web shooters Base of Operations: New York City Key Allies: Aunt May, Mary Jane Watson, Harry Osborn, Human Torch (FF), Gwen Stacy, “Robbie” Robertson, Betty Brandt, Firestar, Iceman. Key Enemies: J. Jonah Jameson, Morbius, Green Goblin/Norman Osborn, Doctor Octopus, Electro, Venom/Eddie Brock, Carnage, Scorpion, Lizard, Hobgoblin, Shocker, Rhino, Sandman, Kraven the Hunter, Mysterio Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: Peter Parker Nicknames: Spidey, Web-Head, Web Slinger, Wall Crawler, “Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man” In addition to being represented in merchandising and toys, novels, comics, video games, children’s books, and board games, Spider-Man’s biggest appearances in other media include those on the small and big screens in both animated and live-action iterations. The webslinger received his first media appearance in animation (Spider-Man, 1967–1970) and was originally produced by GrantrayLawrence (the company that produced those early motion comics of Hulk, Thor, Sub-Mariner, Iron Man and Captain America in the anthology series The Marvel Super Heroes) for the ABC Network. The animation was still a bit crude, and after Grantray-Lawrence went bankrupt, the animation fell to Ralph Bakshi (Lord of the Rings, Wizards). Bakshi’s work on the series made it more fluid and less crude (and he worked with artists like Jim Steranko, Wally Wood, Gray Morrow, and Joe Kubert). In total, there were 52 episodes. In 1974, Spider-Man had his first live-action incarnation on the PBS children’s show The Electric Company. In this version, Spider-Man does not speak, but through thought bubbles, Spidey would try to teach vocabulary through stopping various villains like the Spoiler, the Prankster, and the Sack. His appearances lasted until 1976 and consisted of 18 episodes (although the comic based on the series Spidey Super Stories lasted from 1974 to 1982 with 57 issues). A primetime CBS live action series, The Amazing Spider-Man (1977–1978), featuring Nicholas Hammond as the title character, had a television movie and 12 episodes. Despite the lack of believable special effects, the story lines were decent for an early superhero television show (other shows related to Marvel included The Incredible Hulk and the Captain America and Doctor Strange television movies). Several of the episodes were combined for release overseas as features. Spider-Man was the star of several record albums featuring both narration (usually featuring Spidey stories) and music. These included Spider-Man (1966), The Amazing Spider-Man: From Beyond the Grave (1972), Spider-Man: Reflections of



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a Superhero Hero (1976), Spider-Man: A BBC Radio Play (1995), and many others have been released over the years. There was also a book and record kit from Power Records and Peter Pan records including The Amazing Spider-Man and Friends and The Amazing Spider-Man Vol II (1974). Spider-Man was one of the first Marvel characters to be developed overseas. In 1973, an unauthorized film from Turkey, 3 Dev Adam (also known as the Turkish Spider-Man), featuring Spider-Man (in a green costume and as a villain), Captain America, and Santo came out. In 1978, with Marvel’s cooperation, a Spider-Man series was adapted for Japanese audiences for 41 episodes. It featured a live-action Spidey going up against giant monsters and was geared toward Mecha and Kaiju fans. Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends (1981–1983), an animated series geared toward young children, featured Spidey in adventures with Firestar and Iceman and lasted 24 episodes. 1981 also saw the release of a companion series called just Spider-Man, featuring his battles against various regular Spidey villains (the show had 26 episodes and lasted until 1982). In 1987, to promote the marriage of Peter Parker and longtime girlfriend Mary Jane in the comics, a public ceremony was performed at Shea Stadium in New York, with actors portraying Spider-Man, Mary Jane, and other heroes; it was officiated by Stan Lee. Perhaps the most important animated series is Spider-Man: The Animated Series (1994–1998; 65 episodes) for Fox. The series is known for its excellent adaptations of the trials and tribulations of Peter Parker and Spider-Man. Along with The X-Men, Spider-Man: The Animated Series continues to be a benchmark in Marvel animated storytelling. From 1991 to 2001, the Spider-Man Unlimited animated series featured Spidey in a counter-Earth when Carnage and Venom decide to stow away on John Jameson’s space shuttle. Characters like the Green Goblin are heroes in this universe. Dan Poole released his fan film The Green Goblin’s Last Stand in 1992. This is notable for being an early fan effort, and it received notoriety among the general populace. The movie revolved around the “Death of Gwen Stacy” story line. Efforts to bring Spidey to the big screen date back to 1985, with numerous script iterations that went through “development hell”—with James Cameron, at one time, being tapped to direct. The big-screen adaptation finally was released in 2002 and was directed by Sam Raimi; it featured Tobey Maguire as Peter Parker/ Spidey. The film was an instant hit. Its story revolved around Spidey’s origin and his relationship to Mary Jane (Kirsten Dunst). Although much of Spidey’s adventures through the city were computer-generated imagery (CGI), the animation was seamlessly integrated. Spider-Man 2 (2004), featuring Alfred Molina as Dr. ­Octopus, is still considered one of the greatest superhero films of all time; the video game of the same title was also a critical and commercial success. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said of Spider-Man 3 (2007), which, although it did great box office business and featured fan favorite Venom, was a critical disaster (and was Sam Raimi’s last Spider-Man film as director). The series was rebooted with a new cast for The Amazing Spider-Man (2012) and The Amazing Spider-Man 2 (2014), directed by Marc Webb and featuring Andrew Garfield as Spidey/Peter and Emma Stone as Gwen Stacy. Both films, while modestly successful at the box office, are now considered critical failures

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Scene from Spider-Man 2 (2004), directed by Sam Raimi. This scene pits Spider-Man (Tobey Maguire) against iconic villain, Doctor Octopus (Alfred Molina). (Sony/ Photofest)

(despite Garfield and Stone’s fine acting). Spidey was again rebooted when Sony and Marvel Studios came to an agreement. For the third reboot, Spidey, played by Tom Holland, was featured in Captain America: Civil War (2016). Spidey’s appearance in this film is considered one of the high points of this third Captain America film. Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017) was both a critical and box office success and brought Peter Parker back to his high school roots. In addition, it featured Iron Man (Robert Downey Jr.) and the Vulture (Michael Keaton), Homecoming was directed by Jon Watts (it did not retell the Uncle Ben death story as Amazing Spider-Man had, which was a wise decision on the part of the producers, screenwriters, and filmmakers). Spider-Man also appeared in Avengers: Infinity War (2018) and the sequel to Homecoming in 2019. Spider-Man is now firmly entrenched in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, which makes many fans very happy. In 2011, the Broadway play Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark premiered. It was based on written material by Julie Taymor (director), Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa, and Glen Berger, with music by U2’s Bono and the Edge. The multimillion-dollar production had a tough start, was not critically well received, and is considered the most expensive Broadway flop in history. Other animated series include Spider-Man: New Animated Series (2003), which aired on MTV for 13 episodes and featured Neal Patrick Harris as the voice of Peter/Spidey. The Spectacular Spider-Man (2008–2009) aired on the CW Network for 26 episodes. Ultimate Spider-Man (2012–2017) aired on Disney XD for 104 episodes, and Marvel’s Spider-Man (which debuted in 2017 with 25 episodes)



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airing on Disney XD. Spider-Man continues to be one of the most popular transmedia characters of all time. Robert G. Weiner See also: Avengers, Captain America: Other Media, Iron Man, Spider-Man: Comics, Spider-Man: Rogues’ Gallery; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Bono, and the Edge. 2012. Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard. Gross, Howard. 2002. Spider-Man Confidential: From Comics Icon to Hollywood Hero. New York: Hyperion. McDermott, Mark. 2012. “Finding the Milieu of the Spider-Man Music LPs.” In WebSpinning Heroics, edited by Robert M. Peaslee and Robert G. Weiner, 222–223. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Sanford, Jonathan J., ed. 2012. Spider-Man and Philosophy. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. Yezbick, David. 2013. “Spider-Man.” In Icons of the American Comic Book: From Captain America to Wonder Woman, edited by Randy Duncan and Matthew Smith, 683–696. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood.

Spider-Man: Rogues’ Gallery

Villain Dr. Octopus

Lizard

Electro

Green Goblin

Kraven

Venom

First Appearance Amazing SpiderMan #3 (July 1963) Amazing SpiderMan #4 (November 1963) Amazing SpiderMan #9 (February 1964) Amazing SpiderMan #14 (July 1964) Amazing SpiderMan #15 (August 1964) Amazing SpiderMan #300 (May 1988)

Creators Stan Lee and Steve Ditko

Secret Identity Otto Octavius

Stan Lee and Steve Ditko

Curt Connors

Stan Lee and Steve Ditko

Max Dillon

Stan Lee and Steve Ditko

Norman Osborn

Stan Lee and Steve Ditko

Sergei Kravinoff

David Michelinie and Eddie Brock Todd McFarlane

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Amazing SpiderMan #360 (March 1992)

David Michelinie, Erik Larsen, and Mark Bagley

Cletus Kasaday

Publisher: Marvel Comics Base of Operations: New York City Key Enemies: Spider-Man

In all of comics, only Batman and the X-Men have as large a cadre of supervillain opponents as does Spider-Man. Though the concept of the supervillain is as old as superhero comics, originating with the introduction of the Joker in Batman #1 (Bill Finger and Jerry Robinson, June 1940), it was not until the Silver Age that the concept of a massive rogues’ gallery emerged. Spider-Man was one of the first to have a fully realized rogues’ gallery—it showed up within his first year of publication. As with all supervillains, Spider-Man’s rogues’ gallery defines the hero as well as enhancing his mythology. In keeping with the motif of Spider-Man’s science-based origin, many of his early—and longest-lasting—opponents have been scientists and engineers. Unlike in other rogues’ galleries, however, some of Spider-Man’s opponents—Green Goblin and Venom specifically—have had multiple secret identities over the years. Only the most iconic Spider-villains appear in this entry. Doctor Octopus (or “Doc Oc”) first appeared in the third issue of The Amazing Spider-Man and has proven to be one of Spider-Man’s most dangerous villains over the decades. At first glance, Doc Oc appears to be an older, dark mirror of Peter Parker. Like Peter, Dr. Octavius was a shy scientist who was dismissed by most of his peers. Also like Peter, he becomes a victim of science. While working for the U.S. Atomic Research Center, Octavius creates a set of four mechanical arms to assist him in dealing with radioactive materials. A lab accident causes the arms to fuse to Octavius, and the exposure to radiation affects his mind and personality (Lee and Ditko, The Amazing Spider-Man #3, July 1963). Perhaps the most iconic Doc Oc story came five decades later. Knowing that he is dying, Doc Oc manages to swap bodies with Peter Parker. While Peter’s subconscious exists between life and death, Octavius takes over his life, finishing Parker’s PhD and developing several patented inventions in Peter’s name. During that time, Octavius begins to see the appeal of being a hero (Superior Spider-Man #1–33, March 2013–November 2014). Perhaps Spider-Man’s most sympathetic foe has been the Lizard. While on assignment in Florida for The Daily Bugle to investigate a human/lizard hybrid sparking terror in the area, Peter Parker decides to interview Dr. Curt Connors, a local expert on lizards. Connors, a World War II veteran, had lost his arm in combat. Utilizing his research on the regenerative aspects of lizard DNA, Connors injects himself in an attempt to initiate limb regeneration in himself. This turns Connors into the Lizard, a near-mindless beast intent on purifying the world of



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humanity so that reptiles may one day rule again (Lee and Ditko, The Amazing Spider-Man #6, November 1963). In this regard, the character is almost directly copied less than a decade later in the Batman books at DC Comics with the villain “Man-Bat.” Another sympathetic villain in Spidey’s rogues’ gallery is Electro. The original Electro was Max Dillon. Dillon was an electrical engineer who also worked directly as a line worker. While on a repair job, a lightning strike transforms Dillon into a living electrical conduit (Lee and Ditko, The Amazing Spider-Man #9, February 1964). Over time, his manipulation of electricity becomes so powerful that he can transform completely into electricity and travel through electrical lines. In this regard, Electro is very similar to Hydro-Man (who can manipulate and turn into water) and Sandman (who can manipulate and turn into sand). In 2016, a second Electro emerged when a clone of Francine Frye (the original having died from kissing Electro) absorbed Dillon’s powers by kissing him again (Dan Slott and Humberto Ramos, The Amazing Spider-Man vol. 4, #17, October 2016). Spidey’s deadliest foe, however, has been the Green Goblin. Though several have worn the Goblin costume over the years (most surprisingly Peter’s own best friend, Harry Osborn), the most iconic Goblin has been Norman Osborn, Harry’s father. For two years, the mystery built as to whom the Goblin was. Finally, it was discovered that the Green Goblin was scientific industrialist Norman Osborn, who had ingested an experimental chemical designed to increase his strength. The formula, however, also severely warped Osborn’s mind (Lee and Ditko, The Amazing Spider-Man #40, September 1966). In one of the most controversial story lines in all of comics, Green Goblin was responsible for the death of Peter Parker’s girlfriend, Gwen Stacy. Throwing her from the Brooklyn Bridge, Spidey attempts to save her, but the whiplash effect of being caught by his web ultimately snaps Gwen’s neck, making her the first recurring character in comic books to be killed (Gerry Conway and John Romita Sr., The Amazing Spider-Man #121, June 1973). Kraven the Hunter was introduced the month after Green Goblin, proving to be yet another challenging foe for the Webslinger. World-renowned hunter Sergei Kravinoff seeks to hunt the ultimate prey: Spider-Man (Lee and Ditko, The Amazing Spider-Man #15, August 1964). His most iconic Spider-Man story came in “Kraven’s Last Hunt.” Kraven buries Spider-Man alive and takes on the mantle of “Spider-Man” for a brief time. The story culminates with Kraven peacefully leaving Spider-Man and going home to commit suicide (J. M. DeMatteis and Mike Zeck, Web of Spider-Man #31–32; Amazing Spider-Man #293–294; Peter Parker: The Spectacular Spider-Man #131–132; October–November 1987). Later, the voodoo priestess Calypso, who had been close to Kraven, casts a spell on the Lizard in an attempt at revenge on Spider-Man for what she sees as his role in Kraven’s death (Todd McFarlane, Spider-Man #1–5, August–December 1990). Early on, Kraven teamed with fellow Spider-villains Doctor Octopus, Electro, Sandman, Vulture, and Mysterio to form the “Sinister Six” (Lee and Ditko, The Amazing Spider-Man Annual #1, October 1964). Over the decades, many combinations of villains have returned to the idea of the Sinister Six. Todd McFarlane assisted in bringing to life perhaps Spider-Man’s most daunting foe: Venom. After discovering that the black costume he has been wearing for

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years is actually an alien symbiote feeding off of his negative emotions, Spidey finally rids himself of the costume in a church bell tower (Louise Simonson and Greg LaRocque, Web of Spider-Man #1, April 1985). Three years later, a mysterious presence begins to clearly pose a threat to Peter Parker and Mary Jane. The presence is finally revealed to be the symbiote, now connected to Eddie Brock, a discredited reporter with a grudge against Spider-Man. The two now form the new villain Venom, who possesses all of Spider-Man’s abilities and is invisible to Spidey’s “spider-sense” (David Michelinie and Todd McFarlane, The Amazing Spider-Man #298–300, March–May 1988). Eventually, while the symbiote assists Brock’s escape from prison, a small piece of symbiote remains, bonding with serial killer Cletus Kasady and forming a new symbiotic villain—Carnage, a deadlier, more psychotic, and sadistic enemy (Michelinie, Larsen and Bagley, The Amazing Spider-Man #360–361, March–April 1992). In recent years, the original symbiote has made a new Venom, bonding with former Peter Parker classmate and disabled U.S. veteran “Flash” Thompson, leading to a more heroic symbiotic character. Spider-Man has had literally dozens of other foes over the decades—most notably Vulture, Scorpion, Sandman, Rhino, and Spoiler, to name but a few—with perhaps the most diverse and fascinating rogues’ gallery in all of superhero comics. They have directly affected the personal life of Peter Parker at a much deeper level than experienced by really any other superheroes other than perhaps the X-Men. Several of those named above actually know that Parker and Spider-Man are one and the same. Outside of comics, all of Spidey’s villains have appeared in his numerous animated series over the decades. In film, Green Goblin, Doc Oc, Venom, Lizard, Electro, Rhino, and Vulture have been portrayed. Through them all, Spider-Man has remained dedicated to his oath that “with great power there must also come—great responsibility” (Lee and Ditko, Amazing Fantasy #15, August 1962). Richard A. Hall See also: Batman: Rogues’ Gallery, Doctor Doom, Joker, Red Skull, Spider-Man: Comics, Spider-Man: Other Media; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

DeFalco, Tom. 2004. Comics Creators on Spider-Man. London: Titan Books. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Matthewson, John, and David Wall. 2009. “What’s Venom’s Poison?” In Supervillains and Philosophy: Sometimes, Evil Is Its Own Reward, edited by Ben Dyer, 169–178. Chicago: Open Court Press.. Pickavance, Tim. 2009. “Drawing a Line in the Sandman.” In Supervillains and Philosophy: Sometimes, Evil Is Its Own Reward, edited by Ben Dyer, 179–188. Chicago: Open Court Press. Thomas, Roy. 2017. The Marvel Age of Comics: 1961–1978. Los Angeles: Taschen. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

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Spider-Woman First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers:

Weapons: Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations:

Secret Identity: Nicknames:

Marvel Spotlight #32 (cover date: Feb. 1977) Archie Goodwin and Marie Severin Marvel Comics Superhuman strength, speed, stamina, reflexes, hearing, and sense of smell; resistance to injury, pain, poisons, toxins, and radiation; bio-energy blasts; adheres to objects and surfaces, pheromone secretion; ability to self-propel/glide. Walther PPK London, Los Angeles, San Francisco, New York City, Manhattan, Madripoor Charles Magnus, Jessica McCabe, Nick Fury Morgan Le Fay Hydra, SHIELD, Avengers, New Avengers, Secret Avengers, Mighty Avengers, Lady Liberators, and SWORD (Sentient World Observation and Response Department) Jessica Miriam Drew (and various others temporarily over the years) Arachne, Ariadne Hyde, Hunter, Dark Angel and Dark Angel of San Francisco

Spider-Woman as a character was first used by Dynamic Comics, Major Victory #1, in 1944. Helen Goddard was not a “superhero” but a crime fighter. However, the official creation of the modern Spider-Woman—an economic strategy from Marvel to secure trademark rights to the superhero name—took place in Marvel Spotlight #32 in February 1977. Since then, Spider-Woman has had different personifications: Jessica Drew (the original), Julia Carpenter (second SpiderWoman), Mattie Franklin (third Spider-Woman after impersonating Spider-Man), Charlotte Witter (supervillain created by Dr. Octopus to destroy Spider-Man), and Veranka (Skrull queen who impersonated Jessica Drew). Jessica Drew is the daughter of Jonathan and Meriem Drew, scientists experimenting on genetic manipulation (spelled “Miriam” in Brian Michael Bendis and Brian Reed, Spider Woman Origin #1, 2006). There are two comic book origin stories for Spider-Woman. In the first one, Jessica receives from her father an experimental serum of irradiated blood from different spiders in an attempt to cure her of uranium poisoning, but it has no effect (Marv Wolfman and Carmine Infantino, Spider-Woman vol. 1, #1, April 1978). Wyndham—Jonathan’s colleague—“the High Evolutionary,” proposed placing her in the genetic accelerator, which required keeping Jessica in hibernation. Jessica awoke as a 17-year-old with the mind of a child, her father missing, and superhuman abilities. In the second

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origin, Jessica is born with superhuman abilities after a laser containing DNA of various species of spiders hits her mother’s womb. She is placed in hibernation after she collapses from shooting a “venom blast” at her father while defending her mother in a fight about her father’s experimenting on her abilities in secret. She awakens years later, and her mother is missing (Brian Michael Bendis, Brian Reed, Jonathan Luna and Joshua Luna, Spider-Woman: Origin #1–5, February 2006). Hydra recruits Jessica shortly after she awakens in both stories and provides the training that ultimately allows her to be a hero. In the first story, Count Otto Vermis erases her memories and brainwashes her into becoming an agent, code name: Arachne (Goodwin and Sal Buscema, Marvel Spotlight #32, February 1977). Her combat and espionage trainer, Jared, seduces Jessica and has himself captured by SHIELD to manipulate Jessica into killing Nick Fury. During the rescue, Jessica accidently kills Jared and discovers the true nature of Hydra. In retaliation, Jessica kills Vermis, who, before he dies, makes Jessica believe she was originally an evolved killer spider (Wolfman’s original desired origin story) (Goodwin and Sal Buscema, Marvel Spotlight #32, February 1977). In the second story, her training is under the Taskmaster, and it is rigorous, abusive, and wide ranging in fighting techniques. Vermis is now an old retired Hydra agent whom Jessica seduces to get information that may lead to her mother (Bendis, Reed, Jonathan Luna and Joshua Luna, Spider-Woman: Origin #1–5, February 2006). Both stories establish Jessica’s conflict with her reality, herself, and her inability to connect with others. Modred the Mystic is the first to aid Jessica by revealing her human origin (Marv Wolfman and Ron Wilson, Marvel Two-in-One, #33, November 1977). Later, her mentor and biggest ally, Charles Magnus, helps her find her father’s killer (Marv Wolfman and Carvine Infantino, Spider-Woman #2, May 1978), and socially adapt until her death in Spider-Woman #50, where she believed she had defeated her archenemy Morgan Le Fay (Ann Nocenti and Brian Postman, June 1983). Jessica’s inability to connect with others is established to be caused by secreted pheromones that incite certain emotions in people until she either suppresses them with medicine or perfume—or learns to control them (Mark Gruenwald and Carmine, Spider-Woman #16, July 1979). Her iconic costume has been established since the beginning, and her black hair emerges in Spider-Woman #1 after she dyes it to avoid being identified once Jerry Hunt (a London cop who later helps her find her father’s killer in Spider-Woman #7) unmasks her (Wolfman and Infantino, 1978). In Avengers #240–242, Jessica was revived by Mark Gruenwald (the editor who killed her in Spider-Woman #50) due to fan outcry over her death. Tigra and the Shroud have discovered her body and, with the Avengers and Doctor Strange, they rescue her from an astral plane (Roger Stern, Noceti, Al Milgrom, and Brett Breeding, February–April 1984). She was revived without powers, appearing sporadically in several comic book series without her costume. Jessica Drew returned as Spider-Woman in the New Avengers (Bendis and David Finch, January 2005). She is then recruited as a Hydra spy in exchange for complete stabilization of her powers (Bendis, and Rick Mays Giant-Spider Spider-Woman #1,

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2005). Under the approval of Nick Fury, she agrees to become a double agent. However, in 2008’s “Secret Invasion” story line, we discover that soon after she regains her full and stable powers, she has been replaced by the Skrull queen (Bendis and Jim Cheung, New Avengers #40) during a breakout at the Raft, a supervillain prison (Bendis and David Finch New Avengers #1, December 2004). This made Spider-Woman a key player of the “Secret Invasion” and “Civil War” story lines; in both, she spies for both sides and in many cases sets the stage for key battles. Spider-Woman is officially an Avenger in New Avengers #48, where Captain America, reuniting the Avengers after the battle with the Skrulls, invites Jessica to be part of the team (Bendis and Billy Tan, February 2009). Jessica Drew as Spider-Woman has also appeared in other media. DePatieFreleng Enterprises and Marvel Comics Animation produced a Cartoon TV series of 16 episodes. It aired on Saturday mornings on ABC-TV from 1979 to 1980. The title sequence to this series described the origin of Jessica’s superpowers: they were the result of a spider serum her father gave her in response to a venomous spider bite. In the cartoon, Jessica would spin to transform into Spider-Woman. There was also a motion-comic Spider-Woman: Agent of S.W.O.R.D., where she joins S.W.O.R.D. [Sentient World Observation and Response Department] to hunt Skrulls in an attempt to regain the trust of the Avengers—which had been lost in the “Skrull Invasion” story line—only to discover the Avengers coming to her aid (Bendis and Alex Maleev, Marvel Knights Animated, June 2011). Spider-Woman, with an unclear beginning and flickering identity as human and spider, hero and spy, has now become an important member of the Marvel Universe. Maria Antonieta Reyes See also: Avengers, Nick Fury/SHIELD, Hydra/AIM; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Cocca, Carolyn. 2016. Superwomen: Gender, Power, and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury Press. Curtis, Neal, and Valentina Cardo. 2017. “Superheroes and Third-Wave Feminism.” Feminist Media Studies 18 (3): 1–16. Da-Silva, Elidiomar, Luci Coelho, Thiago Müller de Campos, Allan Carelli, Gustavo de Miranda, Edson Luiz dos Santos, Tainá Ribeiro Silva, and Maria Inês dos Passos. 2014. “Marvel and DC Characters Inspired by Arachnids.” The Comics Grid: Journal of Comics Scholarship 4 (1): Art. 1. http://doi.org/10.5334/cg.aw. Frankell, Valerie E. 2017. Superheroines and the Epic Journey: Mythic Themes in Comics, Film and Television. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Madrid, Mike. 2009. The Supergirls: Fashion, Feminism, Fantasy, and the History of Comic Book Heroines. Minneapolis, MN: Exterminating Angel Press. Torregrosa, Michael. 1999. “Camelot 3000 and Beyond: An Annotated Listing of Arthurian Comic Books Published in the United States c. 1980–1998.” Arthurian 9 (1): 67–109. Whitlark, James. 1988. Illuminating Fantasy: From Blake’s Vision to Recent Graphic Fiction. Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses.

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The Spirit First Appearance:

[Originally all newspapers belonging to the Register and Tribune Syndicate] (release date: June 2, 1940) Creators: Will Eisner Publisher: Register and Tribune Syndicate Powers: Near immortality Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Central City Key Allies: Ebony White, Detective Grey Key Enemies: Dr. Cobra, The Octopus Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: Denny Colt Nicknames: N/A

Cover for The Spirit #3 (1944). This cover features the Spirit’s ward and sidekick Ebony White. Often pointed to as an example of the racial stereotypes of African Americans in comics, Ebony often proved to be a valuable ally to the Spirit. (Digital Comic Museum)

Though one of the earliest examples of comic book “superheroes,” the Spirit had a very different publication origin from most. On the heels of the successes of Superman and Batman, cartoonist Will Eisner was approached by his friend and Quality Comics publisher Everett “Busy” Arnold to produce a superhero-style comic that could be sold to newspapers as inserts for their Sunday editions. Eisner quickly developed “the Spirit.” His tale would eventually run as a comic book insert as well as a daily comic strip in 20 national newspapers. Arnold’s Quality Comics would eventually publish the first official commercial comics on the character, and several companies—including DC Comics—have published limited runs on the character through the years. Though the Spirit appears to be immortal, he actually possesses no superpowers, but his mask



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Frank Miller Frank Miller is one of the most legendary names in the history of comic books. He was born in 1957 in Maryland. From an early age, Miller knew he wanted to work in comic books. Soon after being hired as an artist for Marvel Comics, Miller was given full-time art duties on Daredevil, taking over complete writing and art duties in 1981. For the next two years, Miller took the failing title and rejuvenated it, creating—and controversially killing— the femme fatale assassin Elektra. In 1982, Miller worked with X-Men scribe Chris Claremont, to produce the first Wolverine miniseries. Due to his success at Marvel, DC Comics’ publisher, Jenette Kahn, agreed to allow him to publish his own series, Ronin, from 1983 to 1984. In the early 1990s, Miller produced his film noir series Sin City, and in 1998, he wrote and drew the miniseries 300, based on the historic Battle of Thermopylae in Ancient Greece—both for Dark Horse Comics. In the 21st century, he turned to movies, directing portions of the film versions of Sin City and Sin City: A Dame to Kill For and writing and directing the film version of Will Eisner’s The Spirit. Miller’s most iconic work is his 1986 miniseries Batman: The Dark Knight Returns. Miller revolutionized comic book storytelling with this noncanonical story of a middle-aged Bruce Wayne who had retired from being Batman for 10 years. Seeing that his war on crime had done nothing to make Gotham City a better place, Batman comes out of retirement into a world that no longer has patience for vigilantism. The story succeeds in being a criticism of both Reagan America and the idea of superheroes as a whole. The Dark Knight Returns remains one of the most important works in comic book history. Richard A. Hall

places him in the pantheon of Golden Age superheroes alongside Green Hornet and Batman. The Spirit was police detective Denny Colt, who was believed killed in the line of duty but was, in fact, exposed to an experiment that placed him in a state of suspended animation. Once able to move about, Colt dons a mask and fedora and continues to fight crime as “the Spirit” with the aid of his sidekick, Ebony White. Though physically portrayed in the traditionally racist manner (round eyed and thick lipped), Ebony White eventually represents one of the first portrayals of an African American as an intelligent, vital character, very dissimilar to “Whitewash Jones” from the Young Allied comics of the 1940s. Later, Eisner would introduce the character of police Detective Grey, who was a strong black character. Several comic book companies have “borrowed” the Spirit over the decades. In 1987, ABC-TV produced a movie starring Sam Jones as the Spirit. In 2008, Lionsgate Pictures finally released a feature film of the character, written and directed by comic book legend—and personal friend to Eisner—Frank Miller. The film starred Gabriel Macht as the title character, with Samuel L. Jackson playing archnemesis the Octopus. The film was a critical and commercial disaster. The Spirit is, however, an important part of the earliest years of comic book superheroes, representing really the last of the “detective hero” genre and bridging into the superhero format, as well as a prime example of the legendary Eisner’s contribution to the superhero genre. Richard A. Hall See also: Batman: Comics, Green Hornet, The Shadow, Uncle Sam; Thematic Essay: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955.

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Further Reading

Feiffer, Jules. (1965) 2003. The Great Comic Book Heroes. Seattle: Fantagraphics. Gavaler, Chris. 2015. On the Origin of Superheroes: From the Big Bang to Action Comics No. 1. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Schumacher, Michael. 2010. Will Eisner: A Dreamer’s Life in Comics. New York: Bloomsbury. Weinstein, Simcha. 2006. Up, Up, and Oy Vey!: How Jewish History, Culture, and Values Shaped the Comic Book Superhero. Baltimore: Leviathan Press.

Sub-Mariner First Appearance: Marvel Comics #1 (cover date: October 1939) Creators: Bill Everett Publisher: Timely/Atlas/Marvel Comics Powers: Enhanced strength, speed, and agility; flight Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Atlantis Key Allies: Captain America, Bucky Barnes, Human Torch (original), Fantastic Four, Doctor Doom, Namora, Namorita Key Enemies: Tiger Shark Team Affiliations: All Winners Squad, Invaders, Illuminati, The Cabal Secret Identity: Prince Namor Nicknames: Imperius Rex The seeds of what would become the Marvel Comics Universe were actually planted decades earlier, at the dawn of the Golden Age. Predating Aquaman by two years, Namor, the Sub-Mariner, was the first underwater superhero. Everett’s original Sub-Mariner story first appeared in Motion Pictures Funnies Weekly #1, which was a black-and-white magazine intended to be passed out in movie theaters, but the plan did not pan out. Published by Timely Comics (which would one day become Marvel), Sub-Mariner’s tale appeared in Timely’s first superhero offering: Marvel Comics #1 (October 1939). Introduced as Namor of the species “sub-mariners,” the character first represented an underwater empire located in the Antarctic, and his species consisted of blue-skinned, pointy-eared underwater dwellers. Namor, however, was white, being the half-human son of a sea captain, Leonard McKenzie, and the sub-mariner Princess Fen. Namor possessed the pointed ears and winged feet of his mother’s people, and he was the heir to the throne of his grandfather, Thakorr. Namor first makes contact with the surface

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world when his grandfather sees America as a threat (Everett, Marvel Comics #1, October 1939). As early as February 1941, Namor encounters the Nazis and discovers that America is the lesser of the two evils. Throughout World War II, Namor fights alongside the original Human Torch, his sidekick Toro, and Captain America and Bucky as part of the All Winners Squad. He will also take part—alongside Torch and Cap—in Atlas Comics’ failed attempt to revive its superhero brand in 1953. When Stan Lee and Jack Kirby introduce the “Marvel Age” of comics in 1961, Namor is the first Golden Age character that they revive. When Johnny Storm—the new Human Torch—decides to leave the Fantastic Four, he comes across a bearded amnesiac man. After he is shaven, Storm recognizes him as the Sub-Mariner from the old comic books. With his memory restored, Namor returns to his underwater home (now referred to as “Atlantis”), only to discover it has been destroyed. He then decides to take out his vengeance on the surface world. It is only the calming words of Susan Storm (a.k.a. the Invisible Girl)—with whom he shares an obvious mutual attraction—that convinces him to change his mind (Lee and Kirby, Fantastic Four #4, May 1962). In the 1970s, readers are introduced to Namor’s cousin, Namora (“mother” of the future mutant clone Namorita) in the Sub-Mariner’s first Marvel Age solo title (Roy Thomas and Sal Buscema, Sub-Mariner #33, January 1971). Going into the bicentennial, Marvel revived its Golden Age heroes against their original background: World War II. Namor once more fought alongside the original Human Torch and Captain America, with Marvel in essence rewriting—or retconning— their original adventures (Thomas and Frank Robbins, Giant-Size Invaders #1, June 1975). As Namor, both in the past and present, had always skirted the line between hero and villain, later that same year, Marvel teamed the Sub-Mariner up with its premier supervillain, Doctor Doom (Tony Isabella, George Tuska, and Bill Everett, Super-Villain Team-Up #1, August 1975). In the 21st century, as a prequel to the Civil War event, it is shown that Tony Stark (a.k.a. Iron Man) has called together a secret meeting of the world’s most intelligent and/or influential heroes: Black Bolt of the Inhumans, Professor Charles Xavier of the X-Men, Doctor Strange, Reed Richards of the Fantastic Four, and Namor. They formed the Illuminati and first appeared in New Avengers #7 (Brian Michael Bendis and Steve McNiven, July 2005). This group charged itself with foreseeing and preventing catastrophic events. It would eventually conspire to launch the Hulk into outer space before disbanding over the events of “Civil War.” Namor has also served as a member of the Cabal, a dark version of the Illuminati consisting of Norman Osborn, Doctor Doom, Loki (the Asgardian god of mischief and lies), Emma Frost (white queen of the Hellfire Club and on-again, off-again member of the X-Men), the Hood (a dark version of Doctor Strange), and Namor (Bendis and Leinil Francis Yu, Secret Invasion #8, January 2009). This group would eventually take part in the “Doomwar” story line against the Black Panther. Sub-Mariner has been largely absent outside of comics. Though part of the motion-comic-style animated series The Marvel Super Heroes (1966), he has yet to appear as part of the 21st-century Marvel Cinematic Universe. He has appeared in episodes of the various Fantastic Four animated series over the years. Whether hero or villain, Namor, the Sub-Mariner, has been a mainstay of the Marvel

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Comics Universe since long before its official inception. He is the mirror to DC Comics’ Aquaman as Marvel’s only underwater hero. Neither hero, villain, nor antihero, Namor is out for his own people, with his allegiance to whatever side benefits Atlantis most. This has allowed for a degree of depth and character development often absent in mainstream superhero titles. Richard A. Hall See also: Aquaman, Avengers, Black Panther, Bucky/Young Allies/Winter Soldier, Captain America: Comics, Doctor Doom, Fantastic Four, Human Torch (1940s), Iron Man; Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955, The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Lee, Stan. 1998. Grandson of Origins. New York: Marvel Comics. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Suicide Squad First (Modern) Appearance: Legends #3 (cover date: January 1987) Creators: John Ostrander, Len Wein, and John Byrne Publisher: DC Comics Powers (Original Team): Amanda Waller—N/A Rick Flag Jr.—N/A Blockbuster—Enhanced strength Bronze Tiger—Martial arts Captain Boomerang—Skilled marksmanship Deadshot—Expert marksmanship Enchantress—Magic Nightshade—Control of darkness Plastique—Projected explosions El Diablo (later)—Production of fire Harley Quinn (later)—N/A Killer Croc (later)—Enhanced strength and durability Weapons: Amanda Waller—N/A Rick Flag Jr.—Standard military weaponry Blockbuster—N/A Bronze Tiger—N/A Captain Boomerang—Weaponized boomerangs



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Deadshot—Advanced military weaponry Enchantress—N/A Nightshade—N/A Plastique—N/A El Diablo—N/A Harley Quinn—Various weapons Killer Croc—N/A Base of Operations: Belle Reve Penitentiary, Louisiana Key Allies: Oracle Key Enemies: [Various] Other Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: Amanda Waller—N/A Rick Flag Jr.—N/A Blockbuster—Mark Desmond Bronze Tiger—Ben Turner Captain Boomerang—George Harkness Deadshot—Floyd Lawton Enchantress—June Moone Nightshade—Eve Eden Plastique—Bette Sans Souci El Diablo—Chato Santana Harley Quinn—Harleen Quinzel Killer Croc—Waylon Jones Nicknames: Task Force X The original “Suicide Squad” in DC Comics was not the band of criminals it would later become. Originally, it was a band of World War II veterans under the command of Rick Flag, sent to handle missions that were too dangerous to risk standard military personnel (Robert Kanigher and Ross Andru, The Brave and the Bold #25, September 1959). The modern criminal-themed team was first introduced in Legends #3 before being launched in its own series a few months later (Ostrander and Luke McDonnell, Suicide Squad #1, May 1987). The new basic premise was that government agent Amanda Waller would put together a team of supercriminals to perform life-threatening missions for the U.S. government under the direction of Rick Flag Jr. (son of the original team leader) in exchange for possible time off of their respective jail sentences. Attempted escape would result in micro explosive implants being detonated (Ostrander, Wein, and Byrne, Legends #3, January 1987). Early on, Suicide Squad was assisted on its missions by the mysterious computer hacker Oracle (later discovered to be former Batgirl Barbara Gordon), who made her debut in the series (Ostrander, Kim Yale, and Luke McDonnell, Suicide Squad #23, January 1989). As most of the team members have been third-tier villains at best, the possibility of them being killed on their missions added a sense of tension to the series (for example, Blockbuster is killed on the first mission). The series has had numerous, mostly unsuccessful runs over the years, with a wide

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array of villains taking part in various “Suicide Squads.” The most successful run of the series has been since the “New 52” reboot in 2011, where fan favorite Harley Quinn was added to the team. Outside of comics, Suicide Squad has appeared in an episode of the animated series Justice League Unlimited and the live action CW-TV series Arrow. It also featured prominently in the animated home video release Batman: Assault on Arkham (Warner Home Video, 2014). Its most significant portrayal outside of comics has been in the 2016 Warner Bros. film Suicide Squad, starring Will Smith as Deadshot, Margot Robbie as Harley Quinn, and Viola Davis as Amanda Waller. It was directed by David Ayer. Though fan reaction was mixed, the film was a box office success, and Robbie’s portrayal of Harley was given high praise across the board, leading many to demand further Harley films starring Robbie. In the 1990s, Marvel Comics introduced “the Thunderbolts,” a similar team of supercriminals working for the U.S. government. The idea of the government sending hardened criminals on suicide missions dates back to the 1967 film The Dirty Dozen. The significant success of Suicide Squad in recent years is most likely connected to the growing popularity of antiheroes and their various quests for redemption. The financial success of the film—and the ever-increasing popularity of Harley Quinn in particular—all but guarantee that Suicide Squad will continue to be a presence in the DC Comics and Cinematic Universes for many years to come. Richard A. Hall See also: Batgirl/Oracle, Harley Quinn, Joker; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Ostrander, John. 2009. “New Wars, New Boundaries.” In Supervillains and Philosophy: Sometimes, Evil Is Its Own Reward, edited by Ben Dyer, 113–124. Chicago: Open Court Press.

Supergirl/Power Girl First Appearance:

Supergirl: Action Comics #252 (cover date: May 1959) Power Girl: All Star Comics #58 (cover date: February 1976) Creators: Supergirl: Otto Binder and Al Plastino Power Girl: Gerry Conway and Ric Estrada Publisher: DC Comics Powers: Super strength and speed, flight, x-ray vision, heat vision, telescopic vision, freezing breath Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Metropolis, Midvale (“Supergirl” only)



Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

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Superman, Batgirl Anti-Monitor, Bizarro-Supergirl, Dollmaker, Granny Goodness, Darkseid, Lex Luthor, Poison Ivy, Harley Quinn Justice League, Justice Society (“Power Girl” only) Kara Zor-El (or Kara Zor-L) The Girl of Steel (“Supergirl” only)

In the 1950s, the Superman franchise was at its peak. The Adventures of Superman was a highly popular television series throughout most of the decade, and Superman appeared in nine different comic book series through the same period. DC editor Mort Weisinger broadened the franchise to heights never seen before or since. By the end of the decade, readers were introduced to Superman’s teenage cousin, Kara Zor-El (a.k.a. Supergirl). To that point, readers had been led to believe that the only survivors of the planet Krypton had been Superman and the residents of the bottled city of Kandor. In 1959, it was revealed that Superman’s uncle had also saved Argo City, but when it was eventually also on the verge of destruction, he had placed his teenage daughter in a rocket and sent her to Earth as well (Binder and Plastino, “The Supergirl from Krypton,” Action Comics #252, May 1959). To that point, there had been a handful of attempts to suggest the possibility of a “Supergirl,” and fan reaction led DC to create a recurring character. Supergirl continued to appear in Action Comics, later occasionally teaming up with Batgirl. In 1976, readers were introduced to “Power Girl.” This was an alternate-reality version of Kara Zor-El (now read “Kara Zor-L”) set in DC’s “Earth-2” continuity. Like her original counterpart, Kara Zor-L was one of the last survivors of Krypton; the only difference was that instead of being sent to Earth later, she was sent at the same time as Superman—but her ship took longer to arrive. She is, therefore, an older, more mature, and more militant take on the original character. She was introduced as a new member of the Earth-2 Justice Society of America (Conway and Estrada, All Star Comics #58, February 1976). The two heroes (Supergirl and Power Girl) would see their fates intertwined in the massive DC crossover event Crisis on Infinite Earths. In 1985, DC Comics took a bold move to clean up its complicated—and often contradictory—decades-long continuity. The result was Crisis on Infinite Earths (Marv Wolfman and George Perez, April 1985–March 1986). In this universeshattering event, the original Supergirl sacrifices her life as part of the overall plan to save reality (Wolfman and Perez, Crisis on Infinite Earths #7, October 1985). In the post–“Crisis” reality, Power Girl’s history was retconned, and it was explained that she was, in fact, from Atlantis and the granddaughter of its greatest hero, Arion, who had manipulated her genes to give her superpowers (Paul Kupperberg and Mary Wilshire, “Power Girl: ‘Ancient Histories’,” Secret Origins vol. 2, #11, February 1987). A post–Crisis “Supergirl” did exist, but as “Matrix.” She was, in essence, an android, created by a heroic version of Lex Luthor in a “pocket” universe (John Byrne, Superman vol. 2, #16, April 1988). The thinking behind these

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Mort Weisinger Mortimer (or “Mort”) Weisinger (1915–1978) was one of the most important creators/ editors in the history of American superhero comics. Born in New York City, Weisinger— along with longtime friend Julius Schwartz—created one of the first science fiction fan magazines, Time Traveler, in 1932, before becoming a literary agent for science fiction authors. In 1941, he began working for National Allied/Detective Comics, where he was responsible for creating or cocreating several iconic superheroes, most notably Aquaman and Green Arrow. After serving in World War II, Weisinger returned to National Comics Publications (the merger of National Allied, Detective Comics, and All-American Publications), where he was once more reunited with his friend Schwartz. For over 20 years, Weisinger was one of the key writers and later primary editor of all of the Superman titles at DC Comics, responsible for many of the mainstays of the Superman franchise that remain canon today: (1) the fact that Superman derives his powers from the yellow sun, (2) the other surviving Kryptonians such as Supergirl and the residents of the bottled city of Kandor and the Phantom Zone, and (3) the many different colors and forms of kryptonite and their various effects on the Man of Steel. From 1955 to 1975, Weisinger wrote and continuously updated his most famous noncomics work: 1001 Valuable Things You Can Get For Free. Though his contributions—particularly to the Superman brand—are respected and beloved by fans, those who worked directly with Weisinger frequently commented on his brusque and even abrasive style of management. Richard A. Hall

two retcons was that Superman should be the only survivor of Krypton. After the events of Infinite Crisis (Geoff Johns, Phil Jimenez, George Perez, Ivan Reis, and Jerry Ordway, December 2005–June 2006), the original backstories of Supergirl and Power Girl were restored to their pre-Crisis origins. Outside of comics, both Supergirl and Power Girl have appeared in episodes of Justice League Unlimited (Cartoon Network, 2004–2006). Power Girl appeared in the animated movie Superman/Batman: Public Enemies (Warner Home Video, 2009). Supergirl was the primary character in the animated movie Superman/Batman: Apocalypse (Warner Home Video, 2010). After the success of the first three Christopher Reeve Superman films, a Supergirl feature film was released in 1984, directed by Jeannot Szwarc and starring Helen Slater as “the Girl of Steel.” The film was a disaster both critically and commercially. In the popular live-action series Smallville (CW-TV, 2001–2011), Kara Zor-El was portrayed by Laura Vandervoort and debuted in the series’ seventh season. Though never officially “Supergirl,” she does assist Clark Kent in his years-long transition into Superman. More recently, Supergirl has appeared as part of the high school–themed Cartoon Network series DC Super Hero Girls, which debuted in 2015. That same year, a very successful live-action series, Supergirl, debuted on CBS-TV before moving to the more DC-friendly CW Network beginning with the second season, where it could more easily cross over with other CW hits Arrow, Flash, and Legends of Tomorrow. Richard A. Hall



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See also: Batgirl/Oracle, Black Lightning, Flash, Green Arrow, Justice League, Justice Society, Superman: Comics, Superman: Other Media, Superman: Rogues’ Gallery; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Barker, Cory, Chris Ryan, and Myc Wiatrowski, eds. 2014. Mapping Smallville: Critical Essays on the Series and Its Characters. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Beritela, Gerard F. 2007. “Super-Girls and Mild Mannered Men: Gender Trouble in Metropolis.” In The Amazing Transforming Superhero!: Essays on the Revision of Characters in Comic Books, Film and Television, edited by Terrence R. Wandtke, 52–69. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Cocca, Carolyn. 2016. Superwomen: Gender, Power, and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury. Frankel, Valerie Estelle. 2017. Superheroines and the Epic Journey: Mythic Themes in Comics, Film and Television. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Madrid, Mike. 2009. The Supergirls: Fashion, Feminism, Fantasy, and the History of Comic Book Heroines. Minneapolis, MN: Exterminating Angel Press. Nicholson, Hope. 2017. The Spectacular Sisterhood of Superwomen: Awesome Female Characters from Comic Book History. Philadelphia: Quirk Books. Tye, Larry. 2012. Superman: The High-Flying History of America’s Most Enduring Hero. New York: Random House.

Superman: Comics First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers:

Action Comics #1 (cover date: June 1938) Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster National Allied/DC Comics Super strength and speed, flight, x-ray vision, heat vision, telescopic vision, freezing breath Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Metropolis, Smallville Key Allies: Batman, Supergirl, Wonder Woman, Lois Lane, Jimmy Olsen, Perry White, Jonathan and Martha Kent Key Enemies: Lex Luthor, Darkseid, Doomsday, Metallo, Bizarro, Brainiac, Zod Team Affiliations: Justice League, Justice Society (honorary member) Secret Identity: Kal-El/Clark Kent Nicknames: The Man of Steel, Big Blue Boy Scout, Last Son of Krypton, The Man of Tomorrow

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Superman is considered the very first American comic book superhero, though preliminary experiments in the genre had been accomplished on radio in the preceding years. Introduced in Action Comics #1 (June 1938), Superman was born Kal-El of Krypton. When his planet exploded, his father, Jor-El, sent him to Earth in a specially designed rocket ship. He landed in Smallville, Kansas, where he was found and raised by Jonathan and Martha (originally “Mary”) Kent. As he grew up, his parents discovered that he had “powers and abilities far beyond those of mortal men” (Adventures of Superman radio and television series). As an adult, he decided to use his powCover for Action Comics #1 (June 1938), with cover ers to help the powerless as art by Joe Shuster and Jack Adler. This comic book Superman. To hide his identity, launched the superheroes genre with the first Superman lives his daily life as appearance of Superman, created by Jerry Siegel Clark Kent, “mild-mannered and Joe Shuster. (DC Comics/Photofest) reporter.” (Siegel and Shuster, Action Comics #1, June 1938). In his early adventures, Superman faced everyday villains: corrupt politicians and landlords, simple street criminals, etc. From the beginning, ace reporter Lois Lane was Clark’s coworker and love interest for Superman. At first, however, Superman could not fly. Instead, he would “leap tall buildings in a single bound” (Adventures of Superman radio and television series). Superman’s only major weakness, kryptonite—meteor remnants of his home world—was first introduced in a 1943 episode of the radio program. A year after his first appearance, Superman became the first superhero to star in his own self-titled comic book. In that issue, Superman’s backstory and childhood were featured (Siegel and Shuster, Superman #1, June 1939). Superman also appeared in New York World’s Fair Comics, sold at the New York City World’s Fair in 1939 and 1940. At first, Clark Kent worked for the newspaper The Daily Star before the paper eventually became the iconic Daily Planet in issue #23. Clark’s original boss, George Taylor, was soon replaced with Perry White, who would become a mainstay of Superman lore (the character originated on The Adventures of Superman radio program before finally appearing in the comics beginning with Superman #7, October 1940). As early as 1941, National Allied sued competitor Fawcett Publications, arguing that its character Captain Marvel (a.k.a. “SHAZAM!”) was a copyright



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Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster Jerry Siegel (1914–1996) and Joe Shuster (1914–1992) are considered the fathers of the American superhero. Sons of Jewish immigrants, the two met at age 16 when Shuster’s family moved to Siegel’s hometown of Cleveland, Ohio, from their original home in Toronto, Canada. The two boys quickly bonded over their love of science fiction and almost immediately began collaborating, with Siegel writing and Shuster doing the artwork. As adults, they began writing and drawing for National Allied Publications, where they created original characters such as “Slam Bradley.” Since high school, however, the two had been working on an idea they called “Superman.” Originally a bald, telepathic villain, Superman eventually developed into the cape-wearing hero that the world soon came to know. The debut of Superman in Action Comics #1 (June 1938) was an instant hit. As was standard practice in the day, Siegel and Shuster signed away their rights to get published. Their compensation was $130 (to be split between them) and a 10-year contract to produce Superman stories. As their contract came up for renewal, Siegel and Shuster sued for the rights to their character. They lost their case—and their jobs. After another failed lawsuit and decades of financial hardship (Siegel would continue to write comics sporadically, even doing an uncredited run on Superman in the 1950s), their case was taken up by artist Neal Adams in the late 1970s. Warner (and DC) agreed to $20,000 a year for each and the return of their byline on all Superman-related materials (including comics, television projects, and films). Their story is told in an episode of the first season of Robert Kirkman’s Secret History of Comics, which aired on AMC in 2018. Richard A. Hall

infringement on Superman, as Marvel was a superhero with a cape and dark hair who could fly and had super strength. The lawsuit continued for more than a decade, while Captain Marvel often outsold Superman on newsstands. The lawsuit was frivolous, driven mostly by competition in the market; the differences between the two characters outweighed their few similarities (for example, Captain Marvel could fly before Superman could). Finally, in 1952, the court ruled that Captain Marvel was copyright infringement, and Fawcett was forced to cancel the character. Like other World War II–era heroes, Superman would take a stand on the realworld crisis. As early as 1940, nearly two years before the United States entered the war, Superman was shown bringing German chancellor Adolf Hitler and Soviet premier Josef Stalin (who were still allies at the time) to the League of Nations to answer for their aggressions (Siegel and Shuster, “Superman,” Look magazine, February 1940). The success of World’s Fair Comics, which suggested that the National Allied/DC characters Superman and Batman existed in the same universe, led to World’s Best Comics #1 (renamed World’s Finest Comics with issue #2). After World War II, superhero comics began to decline in sales, and by 1950, only Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman remained as regulars on newsstands. Dr. Fredric Wertham’s 1954 criticism of comic books, Seduction of the Innocent, had labeled Superman as a fascist. To save its premier character, the editors at DC Comics were forced to make a more blatantly “American” (read “conservative”) Superman, soon giving him the reputation of the “Big Blue Boy Scout,” as

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many would refer to him for decades to come. DC editor Mort Weisinger would oversee the new “family-friendly” Superman that would dominate newsstands throughout the decade and appear in nine regular titles: Action Comics, Superman, World’s Finest (with Batman), Adventure Comics, Superboy, Legion of Superheroes, Superman Family, Superman’s Girlfriend Lois Lane, and Superman’s Pal Jimmy Olson. Under Weisinger’s guidance, many new elements were added to the Superman mythos: Supergirl; Krypto, the Super-Dog; Comet, the Super-Horse; Beppo, the Super-Monkey; various different forms of “kryptonite” (each with distinct effects on Superman); and the residents of Bizarro World. Following the strictures of the new Comics Code Authority, Superman no longer stood as a social warrior for the oppressed. Instead, he represented the very system to which he once stood in opposition. With the advent of the Silver Age, sales of the Superman titles began to wane. The new generation of readers appeared to be drawn more to the flawed, hesitant, and neurotic superheroes published by rival Marvel Comics. In an attempt to appear more “relevant,” the writers at Superman developed a story line where Lois Lane utilizes a device to turn her into an African American woman in order to better investigate daily life in “Little Africa,” a black ghetto of Metropolis. The issue—though heavy with racial stereotypes—attempted to show young readers how differently people of color were being treated (Robert Kanigher and Werner Roth, Superman’s Girlfriend, Lois Lane #106, November 1970). By the mid-1970s, the rivalry between DC and Marvel began to call for desperate measures. Superman was featured in the first DC/Marvel superhero crossover event, Superman vs. the Amazing Spider-Man (Gerry Conway and Ross Andru, January 1976). Like most hero-versus-hero bouts, the fight was a draw, and the gimmick—selling only around 200,000 copies—did little to boost sales for either title. Another powerful crossover event happened two years later when a depowered Superman fought real-life boxing champion Muhammad Ali for the honor of being earth’s champion against an alien challenge. Ali won (Denny O’Neil and Neal Adams, Superman vs. Muhammad Ali, March 1978). After the events of the company-wide Crisis on Infinite Earths (Marv Wolfman and George Perez, 1985–1986), all of the DC characters were given a reboot. Superman was relaunched in the miniseries Man of Steel, which was a big seller, and reestablished Superman as the sole survivor of Krypton. Some alterations were made to the mythos: whereas in the Golden Age, Clark Kent’s adopted parents were both dead by the time he became Superman (this was eventually retconned as only “Pa” Kent dying, leaving “Ma” Kent alive—a more-than-obvious nod to Spider-Man’s dead “Uncle Ben” and living “Aunt May”), both parents now lived to see their son become Superman; and “Supergirl” was retconned as an android rather than Kal-El’s Kryptonian cousin (John Byrne and Dick Giordano, Man of Steel #1–6, October–December 1986). The boost in sales was brief, however, leading to the biggest event in comic book history and one of the most controversial. Beginning with Superman: Man of Steel #18 (Louise Simonson and Jon Bogdanove, December 1992), readers were introduced to Doomsday, the supervillain who would ultimately kill the Man of Steel (Dan Jurgens and Brett Breeding,



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Superman #75, January 1993). The death issue would become one of the highestselling comic books of all time, rivaling Marvel’s Spider-Man #1 and X-Men #1 from two years earlier. The death of Superman was covered in national news media, and millions ran out to buy the copy that they were sure would become highly valuable. The story was followed by the “Funeral for a Friend” story line before launching the next chapter: “Reign of the Supermen.” A nod to Siegel and Shuster’s original title for their creation and running through all four Superman titles (as had the two previous stories, “Doomsday” and “Funeral for a Friend”)—Action Comics, Superman, Superman: Man of Steel, and Adventures of Superman—the new story line introduced four possible successors to the mantle of Superman, each alluding to the possibility that he was the real, reincarnated Man of Steel. Action Comics introduced “The Last Son of Krypton,” who turned out to be the insane Kryptonian “Eradicator.” Superman introduced a cyborg that appeared to be the real Superman but was, in fact, Hank Henshaw, the evil villain Cyborg. Superman: Man of Steel introduced African American steel worker John Henry Irons, who is touched by a spark from Superman’s dead body and inspired to create a suit of armor and fight as “Steel.” Finally, Adventures of Superman introduced a new Superboy, a clone of Superman who eventually dons the identity of Kon-El/Connor Kent. Ultimately, readers would learn that none of the usurpers was the real Superman. The original Man of Steel would fight his way back from death and return to his red and blue (though he originally returned dressed all in black and with a silver S) just 10 months after his death (Karl Kesel and Tom Grummett, Adventures of Superman #505, October 1993). New collectors felt cheated, and the gimmick would be a contributing factor in the collapse of the collectors’ bubble. Superman featured prominently in the 1996 miniseries Kingdom Come. In this “Elseworlds” (alternate reality) event, Superman and the Silver Age heroes had long since retired, leaving a new, more violent generation of heroes to protect the world. Eventually, Superman would team with Wonder Woman, an aged Batman, and the rest of the old Justice League to instill order in the world before realizing that in doing so, he was no better than the violent superheroes he had sought to replace. The miniseries also finally saw the physical showdown between Superman and Golden Age rival Captain Marvel (Mark Waid and Alex Ross, Kingdom Come #1–4, May–August 1996). This series, coming as it did in the immediate post–Cold War period, set out to answer the primary question of the decade: in a world of peace, where do superheroes belong? Immediately following the Kingdom Come story, in the regular Superman titles, Clark Kent finally married longtime girlfriend Lois Lane in a special comic put together by a mountain of Superman contributors (Superman: The Wedding Album, December 1996). As a nod to a cheesy 1960s story line, Superman was briefly “split” into two entities—“Superman Red” and “Superman Blue,” with energy-based, rather than solar-based, superpowers. The “Blue” Superman relied more on careful thought, while the “Red” incarnation relied more on immediate action (Jurgens and Stuart Immonen, Superman Red/Superman Blue #1, February 1998). In 2003, DC published an “Elseworlds” alternate Superman story: Red Son. In this story, baby KalEl’s spaceship lands in the Soviet Ukraine rather than America’s Kansas. As such,

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Superman is raised as a dedicated communist, standing for “Stalin, Socialism, and the international expansion of the Warsaw Pact” (Mark Millar, Dave Johnson, and Kilian Plunkett, Superman: Red Son #1, June 2003). In the 21st century, Superman has experienced numerous reboots in a seemingly “never-ending battle” to attract readers old and new. Throughout the decades, however, Superman has been America’s premier superhero. Despite decades of publication and numerous reboots, Superman has remained one of the most unchanged of any superhero. Richard A. Hall See also: Batman: Comics, Batman: Other Media, Captain Marvel, Justice League, Justice Society, Legion of Superheroes, Spider-Man: Comics, Supergirl, Superman: Other Media, Superman: Rogues’ Gallery, Wonder Woman: Comics; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

Beritela, Gerard F. 2007. “Super-Girls and Mild Mannered Men: Gender Trouble in Metropolis.” In The Amazing Transforming Superhero!: Essays on the Revision of Characters in Comic Books, Film and Television, edited by Terrence R. Wandtke, 52–69. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. DiPaolo, Marc. 2011. War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Duncan, Randy, and Matthew J. Smith. 2009. The Power of Comics: History, Form & Culture. New York: Continuum Press. Feiffer, Jules. (1965) 2003. The Great Comic Book Heroes. Seattle: Fantagraphics Books. Fingeroth, Danny. 2007. Superman on the Couch: What Superheroes Really Tell Us about Ourselves and Our Society. New York: Continuum Press. Gavaler, Chris. 2015. On the Origin of Superheroes: From the Big Bang to Action Comics No. 1. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. Gordon, Ian. 2017. Superman: The Persistence of an American Icon. Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Hatfield, Charles, Jeet Heer, and Kent Worcester, eds. 2013. The Superhero Reader. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Heer, Jeet, and Kent Worcester, eds. 2009. A Comics Studies Reader. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Lopes, Paul. 2009. Demanding Respect: The Evolution of the American Comic Book. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Morris, Tom, and Matt Morris, eds. 2006. Superheroes and Philosophy: Truth, Justice, and the Socratic Way. Chicago: Open Court Press. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Pustz, Matthew, ed. 2012. Comic Books and American Cultural History: An Anthology. New York: Continuum Press. Regalado, Aldo J. 2015. Bending Steel: Modernity and the American Superhero. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Rosenberg, Robin S., and Peter Coogan. 2013. What Is a Superhero? New York: Oxford University Press. Tye, Larry. 2012. Superman: The High-Flying History of America’s Most Enduring Hero. New York: Random House.



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Weinstein, Simcha. 2006. Up, Up, and Oy Vey!: How Jewish History, Culture, and Values Shaped the Comic Book Superhero. Baltimore: Leviathan Press. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Superman: Other Media First Appearance: Creators: Producers: Powers:

Action Comics #1 (cover date: June 1938) Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster Columbia Pictures, Warner Bros., Canon Films Super strength and speed, flight, x-ray vision, heat vision, telescopic vision, freezing breath Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Metropolis, Smallville Key Allies: Batman, Supergirl, Wonder Woman, Lois Lane, Jimmy Olsen, Perry White, Jonathan and Martha Kent Key Enemies: Lex Luthor, Darkseid, Doomsday, Metallo, Bizarro, Braniac, Zod Team Affiliations: Justice League, Justice Society (Honorary Member) Secret Identity: Kal-El/Clark Kent Nicknames: The Man of Steel, Big Blue Boy Scout, Last Son of Krypton, The Man of Tomorrow Superman has had more of a presence in American culture outside of comics than any other superhero. His presence has literally been continuous through the decades since his inception. First appearing in comic books in June 1938, Superman already had his own radio program as early as 1940. The Adventures of Superman radio program ran from February 12, 1940 through March 1, 1951, with Bud Collyer voicing Clark Kent/Superman. The radio program is important as the medium in which the concept of kryptonite, the radioactive meteor rock from Superman’s home planet of Krypton and the hero’s only real weakness, was introduced (“The Meteor from Krypton, Part 3,” The Adventures of Superman, June 7, 1943). The cast of the program soon began to demand one week off per year, leading the show’s producers to dedicate that week to stories about Batman and Robin (Superman’s allies in the pages of World’s Finest Comics). On July 3, 1940, the directors of the New York City World’s Fair declared “Superman Day,” hiring actor Ray Middleton to portray the Man of Steel in that day’s parade. The earliest Superman cartoons appeared as shorts in movie theaters from 1941 to 1943, produced by Max Fleischer’s Famous Studios. The first live-action Superman adventures appeared after World War II. In 1948, Columbia Pictures released the 15-part movie serial Superman, starring Kirk Alyn as the Man of Steel. The success of the serial led to a “sequel,” Atom

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Man vs. Superman, once more starring Alyn as the superhero. The first theatrical release, Superman and the Mole Men, was released in 1951 and starred George Reeves as Superman; it was directed by Lee Sholem from a story written by Superman creators Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster. Unlike the serials, it was released by Lippert Pictures. The film acted as an introduction for The Adventures of Superman, one of America’s earliest television series. Also starring Reeves as the Last Son of Krypton, the series ran from 1952 to 1958. The series was highly successful, fully embedding Superman as an American icon. The only reason for the show’s cancellation was the untimely death of its star, Reeves. Though officially reported as a suicide, the circumstances surrounding Reeves’s death remain a mystery to this day. Superman returned to the world of animation in the late 1960s. The New Adventures of Superman consisted of 68 episodes airing from 1966 to 1970 on CBS-TV, produced by Filmation and with Bud Collyer returning to the voicing role. Most episodes also featured The Adventures of Superboy, with actor Bob Hastings voicing the “Boy of Steel.” Beginning in 1973 and running through 1985, Superman was featured in the ABC-TV Saturday-morning cartoon Super Friends (though the title would change throughout its run, the series is best known by its original title), this time produced by HannaBarbera. Super Friends placed Superman alongside the other members of the Justice League of America, most notably Batman and Wonder Woman. In 1975, ABC-TV aired the musical It’s a Bird . . . It’s a Plane . . . It’s Superman!, starring David Wilson as Superman. The special, which was panned by critics, was a shortened version of an unsuccessful Broadway play of the same name from 1966. In the mid-1970s, DC Comics publisher Jenette Kahn convinced parent company Warner Bros. to gamble $55 million on turning Superman into a major big-budget motion picture (to put that in perspective, the oriScene from the Warner Bros. film Superman II ginal Star Wars was made for (1980), directed by Richard Lester. Christopher just over $10 million just the year Reeve’s portrayal of “The Man of Steel” remains before). Superman: The Movie to many the most iconic live-action representa(1978), focusing on the hero’s tion of the superhero. (Warner Bros. Pictures/ origin story, starred Christopher Photofest)



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Reeve (no relation to George Reeves) as Superman and was directed by Richard Donner. Its massive success was followed by three immediate sequels: Superman II (1980), directed by Richard Lester (with some footage already shot by Donner); Superman III (1983), again directed by Lester and pairing Reeve’s Superman with comedian Richard Pryor; and Superman IV: The Quest for Peace (1987), directed by Sidney J. Furie. The last film was produced by Canon Films, Warner Bros. having given up the film rights rather than gamble on a third sequel. The first three films were box office successes, while the fourth was panned by both critics and fans. By the end of the 1980s, in an attempt to save the character from the fourth theatrical release, Superman returned to television in the syndicated series Superboy (later called The Adventures of Superboy), running from 1988 to 1992 and starring John Haymes Newton (in season one) and Gerard Christopher (seasons two through four) as Superboy/Clark Kent. There was also another short-lived solo animated series from 1988 to 1989. Despite the campiness and cheap production values of Superman IV and Superboy, Superman continued to thrive in the 1990s. From 1993 to 1997, ABC-TV aired a new twist on the aging character in Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman. The successful series starred Teri Hatcher and Dean Cain in the starring roles and culminated—alongside a story in the comics—with the marriage of Lois and Clark. From 1996 to 2000, on Kids-WB-TV, producers Bruce Timm and Paul Dini (of Batman: The Animated Series fame) aired Superman: The Animated Series, with Tim Daly providing the voice of Clark/Superman. The production team and actor would continue the character in the Cartoon Network series Justice League (2001–2002) and Justice League Unlimited (2004–2006). In the immediate aftermath of 9/11, the WB Network (later dubbed “The CW”) took a chance on an even newer twist on the character: Smallville (2001–2011). Starring Tom Welling as Clark Kent, the live-action series covered the hero’s younger years, but it portrayed “Superboy” much differently than he had ever been before: he had no suit and did no flying, and his powers developed slowly over the run of the first few seasons. The success of Smallville led parent company Warner Bros. to bring the Man of Steel back to the silver screen. In 2006, Superman Returns debuted in theaters. Starring Brandon Routh and directed by Bryan Singer, the film had the look and feel of a direct sequel to 1980s Superman II, but despite fine performances and impressive special effects, fans and critics rejected the film outright. Following the example of the successful Marvel Cinematic Universe, Warner Bros. and DC decided to launch their own cinematic universe beginning with Man of Steel in 2013, starring Henry Cavill as Clark/Superman and directed by Zack Snyder. Cavill and Snyder would continue their vision with Batman v. Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) and Justice League (2017). Though all three films were box office successes, critics and fans alike expressed disappointment at the attempt to make the character darker (though only by a small degree). In recent years, Superman has appeared in guest spots on the Saturday-morning cartoon The Batman (2004–2008) and the live-action CBS/CW-TV series Supergirl, which debuted in 2015, with Tyler Hoechlin playing Supergirl’s more famous cousin. Superman played the role of the reluctant “villain” in the animated version of Frank Miller’s iconic Batman: The Dark Knight Returns (2012), directed by Jay Oliva.

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Superman has also been featured on several animated home video releases: The Batman/Superman Movie: World’s Finest (1993), Superman: Doomsday (2007), Superman/Batman: Public Enemies (2009), Superman/Batman: Apocalypse (2010), and All-Star Superman (2011), as well as numerous animated films revolving around the Justice League. In 2018, the SyFy cable network debuted the live-action series Krypton. Though the Man of Steel does not appear in the series, the premise revolves around him. The hero, Adam Strange, travels back through time to meet Kal-El’s grandfather, Seg-El. Strange urgently requests the elder El’s help in correcting the past, as it has been altered to prevent Superman from ever reaching Earth. To connect the series to Superman, Strange gives Seg-El Superman’s iconic cape, which is disintegrating due to the time alteration. The series has proved a success for SyFy. Throughout the decades, Superman has been a mainstay of American popular culture, dominating all media. Richard A. Hall See also: Batman: Other Media, Justice League, Supergirl, Superman: Comics, Superman: Rogues’ Gallery, Wonder Woman: Other Media; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

Barker, Cory, Chris Ryan, and Myc Wiatrowski. 2014. Mapping Smallville: Critical Essays on the Series and Its Characters. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Bowers, Rick. 2012. Superman Versus the Ku Klux Klan: The True Story of How the Iconic Superhero Battled the Men of Hate. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic. Gordon, Ian. 2017. Superman: The Persistence of an American Icon. Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. McManus, Robert M., and Grace R. Waitman. 2007. “Smallville: A Rhetorical Means of Moral Value Education.” In The Amazing Transforming Superhero!: Essays on the Revision of Characters in Comic Books, Film and Television, edited by Terrence R. Wandtke, 174–191. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Rossen, Jake. 2008. Superman vs. Hollywood: How Fiendish Producers, Devious Directors, and Warring Writers Grounded an American Icon. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Tucker, Reed. 2017. Slugfest: Inside the Epic 50-Year Battle Between Marvel and DC. New York: Da Capo Press. Tye, Larry. 2012. Superman: The High-Flying History of America’s Most Enduring Hero. New York: Random House.

Superman: Rogues’ Gallery

Villain Lex Luthor

First Appearance Action Comics #23 (April 1940)

Creators

Secret Identity

Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster

N/A



Brainiac

Bizarro Metallo

General Zod

Darkseid Doomsday

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Action Comics #242 (July 1958) Superboy #68 (October 1958) Action Comics #252 (May 1959) Adventure Comics #283 (April 1961) Forever People #1 (February 1971) The Man of Steel #18 (December 1992)

Otto Binder and Al Plastino

N/A

Otto Binder and George Papp Robert Bernstein and Al Plastino

N/A

Robert Bernstein and George Papp

Dru-Zod

Jack Kirby

Uxas

Dan Jurgens and Louise Simonson

N/A

John Corben

Publisher: DC Comics Base of Operations: Various Key Enemies: Superman, Supergirl, Power Girl, Superboy

As Superman is one of the most powerful superheroes in the history of the genre, the ability of comics creators to create villains of equal power has proven challenging. In the beginning, Superman merely fought common criminals: street gangs, mafia leaders, corrupt landlords, and politicians. As such, Superman’s rogues’ gallery is not as populated or complex as, say, Batman’s or Spider-Man’s. His litany of villains, however, is powerful and more than a threat to the Man of Steel. As with all rogues’ galleries, the villains have come to define the hero, to focus his mission, and provide conflict for the protagonist. Superman’s archnemesis is Lex Luthor. Originally, in 1940, the character was known only as “Luthor” and had red hair (Siegel and Shuster, Action Comics #23, April 1940). For decades, Luthor was simply a mad scientist bent on global destruction (though he often utilized weapons stolen from others); he had no real issue with Superman personally. In 1960—by which time Luthor had already become bald—Lex was shown to be a young scientist in Smallville and a fan of Superboy’s, even going so far as to try to develop an antidote to Superboy’s reaction to kryptonite. Due to a lab accident that Lex associates with Superboy, Luthor becomes bald and swears eternal hatred for the hero (Siegel and Plastino, Adventure Comics #271, April 1960). In the Superman films of the late 1970s and 1980s, Luthor—portrayed by Gene Hackman—is presented more as a bumbling “criminal genius” with delusions of grandeur. The modern portrayal of Lex Luthor as a

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megalomaniacal businessman who hates Superman began in the post–Crisis on Infinite Earths continuity (John Byrne, The Man of Steel #4, November 1986). That portrayal has been consistent in the decades since. Perhaps the most iconic portrayal of the character outside of comics has been in the popular television series Smallville (2001–2011), as played by Michael Rosenbaum and combining the 1960 and post–1986 incarnations of the character. Rosenbaum portrayed Lex as a friend to teenage Clark and who, due in large part to the machinations of his evil father, devolved into villainy. Over the years, there have been story lines and universes where Luthor has been a heroic character. Many of Superman’s most memorable villains were introduced in the 1950s and early 1960s under the editorship of Mort Weisinger. In 1958, readers were introduced to Brainiac. Though the character has gone through multiple reincarnations over the decades, Brainiac is, in essence, a cyborg/synthetic life form from the planet Bryak—though some incarnations have him as Kryptonian; he travels the universe and miniaturizes cities from planets, placing them in bottles and preserving them in order to rule them. Most famously, he bottled the Kryptonian city of Kandor before the planet’s destruction, essentially making Superman no longer the lone survivor of the doomed planet (Binder and Plastino, Action Comics #242, July 1958). The character has been portrayed in numerous animated and liveaction filmed adventures, perhaps most brilliantly in the live action series Krypton, which began airing on the SyFy network in 2018. Just a few months after Brainiac’s first appearance, the villain Bizarro was introduced, created by a Professor Dalton—originally as a duplicate of the teenage Superboy. The duplicate is imperfect and soon destroys itself (Binder and Papp, Superboy #68, October 1958). The popularity of the concept, however, called for a return the following year. Now, Luthor—making use of Dalton’s duplication ray—tricks Superman into being hit with the device, creating Bizarro Superman. Lois Lane uses the device to create a Bizarro Lois, and the two Bizarros leave Earth together (Binder and Plastino, Action Comics #254–255, July– August 1959). Because the Bizarro duplicates are flawed, Bizarro Superman is the opposite of Superman in every way (i.e., he says “good-bye” when greeting someone, and he produces ice rays from his eyes and flame breath as opposed to Superman’s heat vision and freezing breath). Over time, an entire “Bizarro World” is developed, with Bizarro opposites of every character in the “normal” DC universe. Unlike other Superman villains, Bizarro is often shown as being kind and misunderstood, a modern-day Frankenstein’s monster. Metallo was first introduced just prior to the adult Bizarro. Originally, John Corben was a common criminal who became involved in a tragic accident. Professor Vale—yet another mad scientist character—transmits Corben’s consciousness into a robot body. Corben soon learns that only kryptonite can permanently power his robot form, making him a dangerous foe for Superman (Bernstein and Plastino, Action Comics #252, May 1959). Metallo’s debut happens in the same issue as that of Supergirl. In post–Crisis continuity, Metallo’s origin was slightly altered, with Vale’s experiment due to his fear that Superman was the first of an overall Kryptonian invasion force, and Corben/Metallo is meant as a protector of the human race (Byrne, Superman vol. 2, #1, January 1987).



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The first Superman villain to be a true equal to the Man of Steel was General Zod. Once more introduced in a Superboy adventure, Zod was a Kryptonian criminal and military leader who was banished to the Phantom Zone, an interdimensional prison for Kryptonians. When Superboy is inadvertently trapped in the Zone, he meets Zod. As Zod had met—and surpassed—his original 40-year sentence, Superboy released him (Bernstein and Papp, Adventure Comics #283, April 1961). Once exposed to Earth’s yellow sun, Zod soon develops the same powers as Superman and sets out on yet another attempted conquest. As an equal to Superman in power, with the added advantage of military training, Zod has proven to be more than a match for Superman over the decades. He was portrayed by Terrence Stamp in the films Superman (1978) and Superman II (1980). More recently, he was played by Michael Shannon in Man of Steel (2013), where controversy developed when Superman (Henry Cavill) kills Zod in his attempt to stop him. The character has also appeared in the live-action series Smallville, Supergirl, and Krypton. One of Superman’s more powerful enemies was not even designed for the Superman universe. When famed comics artist Jack Kirby defected to DC Comics, it was under the agreement that he would be able to create his own comics. He first introduced Darkseid in the pages of Superman’s Pal, Jimmy Olsen #134 (November 1970). The cameo was designed to set up Kirby’s own “Fourth World” epics to be depicted in the comics Forever People, New Gods, and Mister Miracle. The failure of the Fourth World series led DC to return Darkseid to his Superman roots. Darkseid is the lord of the planet Apokolips, a dystopian world of slaves in service to the all-powerful Darkseid. Darkseid possesses godlike powers, not the least of which are his “Omega Beams,” which shoot from his eyes and can either incapacitate, kill, or resurrect those caught in their gaze. Darkseid is a recurring threat to not only Superman but the entire Justice League. He was also the last villain faced by Clark Kent—and his first as Superman—in the television series Smallville. To date, however, only one villain has been successful in killing the Last Son of Krypton: Doomsday. Introduced as a genetically engineered monster designed specifically to kill Kryptonians, Doomsday is first released in 1992 (Louise Simonson and Jon Bogdanove, Superman: The Man of Steel #17–18, November– December 1992). Finding his way to Earth, Doomsday inevitably faces off against Superman, killing the hero (Jurgens and Brett Breeding, Superman vol. 2, #75, January 1993). The “Death of Superman” issue would become one of the highestselling comics in history. Outside of comics, Doomsday has appeared in the television series Smallville, the home video animated release Superman: Doomsday (Warner Bros., 2007), and—in an altered form—in the major motion picture Batman vs. Superman: Dawn of Justice (Warner Bros., 2016). Only in Smallville did Doomsday fail to kill the Man of Steel. The character also had a cameo appearance in the first season of Krypton. Throughout his storied history, Superman has faced many powerful beings, each with the ability to take down the Man of Steel. Each has brought a sense of conflict that shaped the character to one degree or another. Among the most powerful villains in superhero comics, only Superman can stand in opposition to their

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destructive goals. Though all have tried, none have definitively defeated Earth’s protector. Richard A. Hall See also: Supergirl, Superman: Comics, Superman: Other Media; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

Barker, Cory, Chris Ryan, and Myc Wiatrowski, eds. 2014. Mapping Smallville: Critical Essays on the Series and Its Characters. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Dyer, Ben, ed. 2009. Supervillains and Philosophy: Sometimes, Evil Is Its Own Reward. Chicago: Open Court Press. Tye, Larry. 2012. Superman: The High-Flying History of America’s Most Enduring Hero. New York: Random House. Vena, Dan. 2019. “The Outing of Superman; or, How I Learned to Love Bizarro as a Trans Monster.” In The Dark Side: A Supervillain Reader, edited by Robert Peaslee and Rob Weiner. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Swamp Thing First Appearance: The House of Secrets #92 (cover date: July 1971) Creators: Len Wein and Bernie Wrightson (and Alan Moore) Publisher: DC Comics Powers: Super strength and durability, control of plants Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Louisiana Key Allies: N/A Key Enemies: Karen Clancy, Anton Arcane, General Sunderland, Floronic Man Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: Alec Holland/Albert Hollerer (Alan Moore version) Nicknames: N/A Originally, “Swamp Thing” was designed as an early-1900s period piece for the anthology series The House of Secrets. Alex Olsen was a scientist who was murdered by his best friend, Damien, who had set sights on Olsen’s wife, Linda. Placing his friend’s body in a nearby swamp, Damien goes on to marry Linda. The mixture of chemicals from the lab with the waters of the swamp revive Olsen as a plantlike swamp creature. When Damien then plans to murder Linda for her suspicions surrounding her late husband’s death, the Swamp Thing arrives to kill Damien but is physically unable to speak to Linda, returning to the muck and mire of the swamp (Wein and Wrightson, The House of Secrets #92, July 1971).



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The Swamp Thing story was wildly popular, and editors at DC soon called for a series. The new series, set in the present, centered around Dr. Alec ­Holland and his wife, ­ Dr. Linda Holland. Alec had discovered a “bio-restorative” formula that could restore fauna. When a group called “Conclave” sends agents to force the Hollands to give up their formula, Alec refuses. The agents blow up the lab, killing Alec, whose body—doused with his restorative formula—is blown into the nearby swamp. Alec emerges as the Swamp Thing but soon discovers that the agents have killed his wife (Wein and Wrightson, Swamp Thing #1, November 1972). The initial series, though popular, Movie poster for the Embassy Pictures film would run for only 10 issues Swamp Thing (1982), directed by Wes Craven. The film starred Dick Durock as Swamp Thing over the next two years. When famed horror director and spawned a 1989 sequel. (Silver Screen Wes Craven directed a film ver- Collection/Getty Images) sion of Swamp Thing through Embassy Pictures in 1982, DC Comics set out to create a new series. Called The Saga of the Swamp Thing, it continued the plot from the first series, with Swamp Thing traveling the world to stop a young girl, Karen Clancy, whom the hero believed to be the Antichrist (Martin Pasko and Tom Yeates, The Saga of the Swamp Thing #1, May 1982). Legendary comic book writer Alan Moore began writing the series with issue #20. Moore reimagined the concept. Moore immediately killed off Swamp Thing at the hands of General Sunderland, who turns to the Floronic Man to investigate the transformation of Holland. Floronic Man deduces that Swamp Thing is not “Holland” but instead a plant creature that has assumed the face and memories of Holland (Alan Moore and Steve Bissett, The Saga of the Swamp Thing #20–21, January–February 1984). In the documentary Secret Origins, narrator Ryan Reynolds describes Moore’s Swamp Thing as a plant “with delusions of grandeur” (Secret Origins: The Story of DC Comics, Warner Home Video DVD, 2010). Outside of comics, Swamp Thing would appear in guest spots in numerous animated series and home video releases from DC, including the company’s Injustice series and corresponding video games. The 1982 Wes Craven film would be followed up with a cheaply made sequel, The Return of Swamp Thing, in 1989 and a television series airing on the USA cable network from 1990 to 1993. All three projects starred Dick Durock as Swamp Thing. Swamp Thing would be

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reimagined and restarted numerous times over the decades, but it is the Moore take on the character that has remained the most popular among readers and academics alike. Some have suggested that DC Comics’ Swamp Thing was a direct rip-off of Marvel Comics’ “Man-Thing,” which had debuted just two months earlier, and many not familiar with the two characters often confuse them. They have very similar origin stories and powers, but only Swamp Thing was able to move beyond comics into the larger zeitgeist. Man-Thing was originally Dr. Ted Sallis, a scientist working on a top secret project in the Everglades to recreate the original Super Soldier Serum that had created Captain America. When he is betrayed by his girlfriend, who was a secret agent of Advanced Idea Mechanics (AIM), Sallis destroys his notes and injects himself with the only sample of the serum. When he crashes his car in a nearby swamp, the mixture of the serum and swamp water mysteriously turn him into a speechless—and increasingly seemingly mindless— plantlike creature with the ability to secrete acid from his hands (Stan Lee, Roy Thomas, Gerry Conway, and Gray Morrow, Savage Tales #1, May 1971). Both are considered by many to belong more to the “horror” genre than that of superheroes. They were, in fact, the product of the upsurge in the popularity of horror comics in the early 1970s. Richard A. Hall See also: V/Vendetta, Watchmen; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s.

Further Reading

Rosenberg, Robin S., and Peter Coogan. 2013. What Is a Superhero? New York: Oxford University Press. Tucker, Reed. 2017. Slugfest: Inside the Epic 50-Year Battle Between Marvel and DC. New York: Da Capo Press.

T Teen Titans First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers:

The Brave and the Bold #54 (cover date: July 1964) Bob Haney and Bruno Premiani DC Comics Robin/Nightwing—Skilled hand-to-hand combat, acrobatics Kid Flash—Speed Aqualad—Super speed and strength (while underwater) Speedy/Red Arrow—Marksmanship Wonder Girl—Super strength Hawk—Super strength, speed, stamina (enhanced by rage) Dove—Heightened senses and agility, ability to temper Hawk’s rage Cyborg—Super strength, flight, Interaction with computers Starfire—Super strength, speed, and agility; Invulnerable Beast Boy—Transfiguration into animal forms Raven—Telepathy, teleportation, telekinesis Superboy—Super strength and speed, flight, heat vision Weapons: Robin/Nightwing—Various gadgets Kid Flash—N/A Aqualad—N/A Speedy/Red Arrow—Trick arrows Wonder Girl—Bulletproof bracelets, Lasso of Truth Hawk—N/A Dove—N/A Cyborg—Various gadgets Starfire—N/A Beast Boy—N/A Raven—N/A Superboy—N/A

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Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Other Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Offshoot Team:

Titans Tower (various cities) Justice League Deathstroke, Brother Blood, Blackfire, Trigon S.T.A.R. Labs Robin/Nightwing—Dick Grayson, Tim Drake (“Robin”/“Red Robin”) Kid Flash—Wally West, Bart Allen (also called “Impulse”) Aqualad—Garth, Jackson Hyde Speedy/Red Arrow—Roy Harper, Mia Dearden Wonder Girl—Donna Troy, Cassandra Sandsmark Hawk—Hank Hall Dove—Don Hall (Dove II—Dawn Granger) Cyborg—Victor Stone Starfire—Koriand’r Beast Boy—Mark Logan Raven—Rachel Roth Superboy—Kon-El/Connor Kent Young Justice

The Teen Titans—later just known as “the Titans”—began as a sort of “junior” Justice League, a team made up of the teenage sidekicks of the Justice League members. Like the Justice League’s, the membership roll of the Teen Titans/Titans changes from time to time, with a few core characters—most notably Robin— remaining throughout the various runs. In its first adventure, the team consisted of only Robin, Kid Flash, and Aqualad. By the time it receives its first ongoing title, Wonder Girl has joined the team (Haney and Nick Cardy, Teen Titans #1, February 1966). In the 1970s, the Teen Titans—sans Robin—forego their superpowers and costumes and begin to fight crime as simple teenagers under the leadership of their benefactor, Mr. Jupiter (Robert Kanigher and Cardy, Teen Titans #25–26, February and April 1970). This story line coincides with the period in which Wonder Woman likewise gives up her powers and costume to fight crime as a “normal” woman. Lackluster sales had led to Teen Titans being canceled twice in the course of 15 years. Finally—due in large part to the success of Marvel’s own team of young people, The Uncanny X-Men—the Teen Titan were launched again, following more closely the X-Men model of more soap-operatic stories (Marv Wolfman and George Perez, The New Teen Titans #1, November 1980). By that time, the Teen Titans had been joined by new hero Cyborg, DC Comics’ third African American hero. Debuting in DC Comics Presents #26 (October 1980) and created by Titans creative team, Wolfman and Perez, Cyborg becomes one of the most iconic and lasting members of the team. In the 21st century, Cyborg goes on to become a major member of the Justice League, even appearing in the 2017 film and portrayed by Ray Fisher.



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Under Wolfman and Perez, romantic plots ensued, including romances between Robin/ Nightwing and Wonder Girl, and later with the alien Starfire. This new—and most iconic— incarnation of the team would include all of the above-mentioned team members with the exceptions of Speedy, Superboy, Hawk, and Dove. The new Titans soon dominated DC sales charts, leading to the inevitable teamup with the fourth Marvel/DC crossover event (Chris Claremont and Walt Simonson, Marvel and DC Present: The Uncanny X-Men and the New Teen Titans #1, November 1982). It would be in the pages of Teen Titans that longtime Robin, Dick Grayson, first donned his new identity: Nightwing (Wolfman and Perez, Tales of the Teen Titans #43, June 1984). By 1990, Cover for The New Teen Titans #1 (November the team members had grown up 1980), with cover art by George Perez and Dick and were now calling themselves Giordano. This relaunch of the series from the simply “the Titans.” A second 1960s quickly became the top-selling book at generation of teenage sidekicks DC. (Rodin Eckenroth/Getty Images) coming together happened in 1998. Third Robin, Tim Drake, teamed up with Impulse and the new Superboy to create “Young Justice” (Peter David and Todd Nauck, Young Justice #1, September 1998). Beginning in 2003, Young Justice would retake the name Teen Titans. Outside of comics, the Teen Titans have appeared prominently in animation, beginning with guest spots on The Superman/Aquaman Hour of Adventure in 1967. They have had two successful runs on the Cartoon Network: Teen Titans (2003–2006); and the shorter, more kid-friendly Teen Titans Go!, which began in 2006. Perhaps their most popular incarnation, however, has been in the animated series Young Justice (original run: 2010–2013). In 2018, DC announced the upcoming launch of a new online streaming service tentatively titled “DC Universe.” Announced programming includes new seasons of Young Justice as well as a new live-action series, Titans, featuring the pre-Nightwing Dick Grayson. The Titans brand continues to be popular in DC Comics, as the idea of younger heroes working on their own is an appealing idea for younger readers. Richard A. Hall

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See also: Justice League, Nightwing/Robin I, Red Robin/Robin III, X-Men: Comics; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Daniels, Les. 2003. DC Comics: A Celebration of the World’s Favorite Comic Book Heroes. New York: Watson-Guptill. Smith, Matthew. 1999. “Stands in the Web: Community-Building Strategies in Online Fanzines.” The Journal of Popular Culture 33 (2): 87–99. Tucker, Reed. 2017. Slugfest: Inside the Epic 50-Year Battle Between Marvel and DC. New York: Da Capo Press.

Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles First Appearance: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles #1 (cover date: May 1984) Creators: Kevin Eastman and Peter Laird Publisher: Mirage Studios Powers: Ninja skills Weapons: Leonardo—Katana swords Donatello—Staff Michelangelo—Nunchucks Raphael—Fighting sai Base of Operations: New York City sewers Key Allies: Splinter, April O’Neil, Casey Jones Key Enemies: Shredder, Foot Clan, Bee-bop, Rock Steady Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: N/A Nicknames: TMNT, “Heroes on the Half-Shell” The creators of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles were clearly inspired heavily by the various popular ninja comic book characters of the early 1980s. The influence of Marvel’s Daredevil and Elektra, and DC’s Ronin, are evident throughout the comic’s early run. The premise, though ridiculous to some, is simple: four small turtles in New York City’s sewer system are exposed to mysterious radioactive “ooze” that anthropomorphizes them, also granting them speech and thought. They are taught by the similarly transformed sewer rat, Splinter, who teaches them ninja skills in order to protect the world from the evil Shredder. When their vigilante actions are noticed by the press, reporter April O’Neil discovers their secret and becomes their closest ally (Eastman and Laird, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles #1, May 1984). They are later joined by fellow street vigilante Casey Jones (a hockey-mask-wearing human). The comic originated as a black-and-white book like fellow 1980s creation The Tick and the popular 21st-century book The Walking Dead. The comic gained

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notoriety when toy companies began producing toy lines with story connections to the comics (very similar to other 1980s cartoon hits G.I. Joe, He-Man, and Transformers). The Turtles have been most prominent outside of comics. They have featured in several animated series, all titled Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: 1987–1996, 2003–2009, and 2012–2017. A less successful live-action series was attempted in 1997, called Ninja Turtles: The Next Mutation, adding a female ninja turtle: Venus de Milo. Outside of the original animated series—with its widely popular theme song—the most iconic presentation of the TMNT was in their original trilogy of live-action feature films from New Line Cinemas: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (1990), Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: The Secret of the Ooze (1991), and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III (1993). In recent years, CGI has played a more important role, especially in animating the TMNT in films released in 2007, 2014, and 2016. Though commercially successful, newer films have failed to catch the zeitgeist the way the earlier trilogy did. Though developed in the early 1980s and very much part of the cartoon-toy frenzy of the 1990s, the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles really came to national prominence in the waning months of the Cold War. As such, they speak a great deal to the conundrum of the changing role of superheroes in the 1990s. Richard A. Hall See also: Daredevil, The Tick; Thematic Essay: The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s.

Further Reading

Kinder, Marsha. 1993. Playing with Power in Movies, Television, and Video Games: From Muppet Babies to Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. Berkeley: University of California Press. Lammle, Rob. 2015. “The Complete History of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles.” Mental Floss, June 27, 2015. Accessed March 14, 2018. http://mentalfloss.com/article​/30862​ /complete-history-teenage-mutant-ninja-turtles. Masters, Ardyce L. 1990. “Some Thoughts on Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: War Toys and Post–Reagan America.” The Journal of Psychohistory 17 (3): 319.

Thor First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations:

Journey Into Mystery #83 (cover date: August 1962) Stan Lee, Larry Lieber, and Jack Kirby Marvel Comics Super strength and stamina, control of lightning (and, therefore, thunder) Mjolnir (commonly pronounced “MIL-neer”; Uru hammer providing ability to focus lightning and assist in flight), belt of strength Asgard, New York City (with Avengers), the Nine Realms

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Key Allies:

Odin All-Father, Balder the Brave, the Warriors Three (Fandral the Dashing, Hogun the Grim, and Volstagg the Voluminous), Lady Sif, Heimdall, Jane Foster (later “Thor”), Beta Ray Bill, Hercules, Thunderstrike, Valkyrie Key Enemies: Loki, Hela, the Destroyer, Surtur, Enchantress, Executioner, Absorbing Man, Wrecking Crew, Mephisto, Galactus, Thanos, Ragnarok Team Affiliations: Avengers Secret Identity: Thor Odinson/Dr. Donald Blake/Eric Masterson/ Jane Foster Nicknames: “God of Thunder,” Goldilocks, Odinson, Prince of Asgard There have been many comic book superheroes that have been based, either directly or indirectly, on mythical figures (i.e., Marvel’s Hercules or DC’s Captain Marvel, Isis, and even Wonder Woman); but the Mighty Thor is perhaps the most paradigmatic direct translation of an ancient mythical god. Indeed, the gods of ancient mythology were humanity’s first “superheroes.” According to Stan Lee, after the success of the Fantastic Four, the Hulk, and Spider-Man, he was giving a radio interview where the interviewer suggested that these new heroes represented a modern mythology. From there was planted the seed that would bring the ancient Norse god of thunder back to life (Lee, Origins of Marvel Comics, 165). In Marvel Comics, Thor—and his fellow Asgardians—represent the Marvel “Cosmic” Universe (which involves characters whose adventures usually, or entirely, take place off of Earth): Nova, Thanos, Guardians of the Galaxy, Galactus, the Watchers, Silver Surfer, etc. Early issues of Journey Into Mystery also featured “Tales of Asgard,” which showed Thor and the other denizens of Asgard in various adventures, adding depth and background to the mythology. In recent years, Thor has simply been Thor, Norse god and son of Odin AllFather, but in the beginning, he had a much more superhero-themed origin. Thor’s 20th-century return begins with Dr. Donald Blake, a thin, disabled American on vacation in Norway. When he witnesses a team of aliens bent on destruction, he hides in a nearby cave, losing his cane in the process. He finds a gnarled wooden cane. After striking the cane in a fit of frustration, a “blinding light” transforms the frail doctor into the Norse warrior Thor, and the cane transforms into a large battle hammer bearing the inscription “Whosoever Holds This Hammer, If He Be Worthy, Shall Possess the Power of Thor.” He soon discovers that when he throws the hammer, it always returns to his hand. Likewise, he could create rain and even snow. Striking the hammer on the ground would return him to his mortal state (Lee, Lieber, and Kirby, Journey Into Mystery #83, August 1962). The question, however, could then be posed: Is Donald Blake really Thor? Or, by virtue of his “worthiness,” did he merely possess the “power” of Thor? Years later, the question was settled. Blake had always been Thor. Odin had placed Thor in the form of a lame human doctor in order to teach “humility” to the immortal

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prince (Lee and Kirby, The Mighty Thor #159, December 1968). By that time, Thor had helped to establish the Avengers, originally to assist in stopping his half brother (though sometimes simply referred to as “brother,” other times “stepbrother” and later “adopted brother”), Loki, god of mischief (though he is sometimes referred to as god of “lies” or “evil”) (Lee and Kirby, The Avengers #1, September 1963). Over the years, Thor frequently disobeys his father, often choosing Earth—and his human love, Jane Foster—over his Asgardian responsibilities. It is finally revealed that Thor’s mother was, in fact, Gaea—who is, in essence, the living spirit of Earth (Mark Gruenwald, Ralph Macchio, and Keith Pollard, The Mighty Thor #300, October 1980). Many consider Walt Simonson’s run as both writer and artist for Thor as the character’s greatest, beginning with the introduction of Beta Ray Bill, an alien who battles Thor and ultimately proves him worthy of lifting Mjolnir, causing Odin to give Beta Ray Bill his own hammer, Stormbreaker (Simonson, The Mighty Thor #337–354, November 1983–April 1985). Simonson would continue as writer until 1986. After some time, Thor is released from his Blake alter ego but later is connected to the human Eric Masterson, at Thor’s own request, to save the human’s life (Tom DeFalco and Ron Frenz, The Mighty Thor #408, October 1989). Masterson is later disconnected from Thor but is allowed to continue as the hero Thunderstrike, named for the enchanted mace given to him by Odin (DeFalco and Frenz, The Mighty Thor #459, February 1993; DeFalco and Frenz, Thunderstrike #1, June 1993). In the alternate “Ultimate” universe, Thor is presented as Thorleif Goleman, an antiestablishment eco-warrior who believes himself to be the reincarnation of the ancient thunder god. In this reality, Mjolnir is presented more as a battle-ax than a traditional hammer (Mark Millar and Bryan Hitch, Ultimates #4, June 2002). By that time, in the regular Marvel continuity, in his attempt to rid Asgard of endless “Ragnaroks” (mythological ends of the gods), Thor manages to essentially erase Asgard and all of its inhabitants from reality (basically, the final Ragnarok). All that remained was Mjolnir, which fell to Earth. When the hammer is discovered by Donald Blake, the doctor uses it to visit Thor’s spirit, eventually convincing the god to return to Earth and revive Asgard (inexplicably now hovering in the skies over Oklahoma) (J. Michael Straczynski and Olivier Coipel, Thor #1, September 2007). On Thor’s return, he learns of the recent “Civil War” between the heroes and the creation of the android/clone Thor created by Tony Stark. The creature lives, now calling himself “Ragnarok.” In recent years, believing that he is unworthy to possess Mjolnir, Thor (now calling himself simply “Odinson”) sets out to reclaim his worthiness. Meanwhile, Thor’s human paramour, Jane Foster, now dying of cancer, has successfully picked up the hammer and dons the mantle of Thor (sometimes referred to by fans as “Lady Thor”). Outside of comics, Thor has had primarily guest appearances in nearly every Marvel animated series. He was featured in the 1966 animated series The Marvel Super Heroes. In recent years, he has been a major character in The Avengers: Earth’s Mightiest Heroes (2010–2013) and Avengers: Assemble, which debuted on Disney-XD in 2013, designed to be more in line with the recently released film. The Ultimate version of Thor appeared in two home video animated releases: Ultimate

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Still from the Marvel Studios film Thor: The Dark World (2013), directed by Alan Taylor. Chris Hemsworth masterfully portrayed the God of Thunder, appearing in eight Marvel films from 2011 to 2019. (Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures/Photofest)

Avengers and Ultimate Avengers 2 (both in 2006). In 2009, Thor battles the Hulk as half of the Hulk vs. animated release. A younger, pre-Mjolnir Thor appeared in the animated home video release Thor: Tales of Asgard (2011). The first live-action portrayal of Thor was in the made-for-TV movie The Incredible Hulk Returns, with Erik Allan Kramer playing Thor and Steve Levitt playing Blake. The most beloved live-action portrayal of the god of thunder, however, came in the 2011 film Thor, directed by Kenneth Branagh and starring Chris Hemsworth. Hemsworth would continue his role in the Marvel Studios films Marvel’s The Avengers (2012), Thor: The Dark World (2013), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Thor: Ragnarok (2017), and Avengers: Infinity War (2018). Thor remains one of the most popular—and powerful—superheroes in American comics. His roots in ancient mythology only solidify the claim that comic book superheroes are, indeed, modern mythology. Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Captain Marvel, Guardians of the Galaxy, Silver Surfer, Wonder Woman: Comics, Wonder Woman: Other Media; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Batchelor, Bob. 2017. Stan Lee: The Man Behind Marvel. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. Costello, Matthew J. 2009. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books & the Unmasking of Cold War America. New York: Continuum Press. Evanier, Mark. 2008. Kirby: King of Comics. New York: Abrams.

Tick 293 Frankel, Valerie Estelle. 2017. Superheroines and the Epic Journey: Mythic Themes in Comics, Film and Television. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Knowles, Christopher. 2007. Our Gods Wear Spandex: The Secret History of Comic Book Heroes. San Francisco: Weiser Books. Lee, Stan. 1997. Origins of Marvel Comics. New York: Marvel Comics. Lee, Stan, Peter David, and Colleen Doran. 2015. Amazing Fantastic Incredible: A Marvelous Memoir. New York: Touchstone. Pustz, Matthew, ed. Comic Books and American Cultural History: An Anthology. New York: Continuum Press. Raphael, Jordan, and Tom Spurgeon. 2003. Stan Lee and the Rise and Fall of the American Comic Book. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Thomas, Roy. 2017. The Marvel Age of Comics: 1961–1978. New York: Taschen.

Tick First Appearance:

New England Comics Newsletter #14 (cover date: July/August 1986) Creators: Ben Edlund Publisher: New England Comics Powers: Super strength, invulnerability Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: The City Key Allies: Arthur, Big Shot, American Maid (1990s animated series only), Die Fledermaus (1990s animated series only) Key Enemies: Chairface Chippendale, El Seed, Dinosaur Neal, Barry (a.k.a. “The Tick”; 1990s animated series only), The Evil-Midnight-Bomber-What-Bombs-AtMidnight (1990s animated series only) Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: N/A Nicknames: N/A The Tick is a parody of comic book superheroes but has gained a substantial audience over the decades. The product of artist Ben Edlund, the Tick was the winning entry in a contest sponsored by New England Comics, a chain of comic book stores in the Boston, Massachusetts, area. The chain was looking for a mascot for their stores in 1986. The immediate popularity of the character led the chain to begin publishing black-and-white comics by Edlund beginning in 1988. The Tick was a hero who escaped from a mental institution, ending up in The City (Edlund, The Tick #1, June 1988). Tick soon met his sidekick, Arthur, a frustrated

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accountant who had begun wearing a moth costume, complete with expandable wings, to work—until he was fired. He soon meets, befriends, and becomes the trusted sidekick of the Tick (Edlund, The Tick #4, April 1989). The comic quickly gained a cult following. One of Tick’s allies is Big Shot, a clear parody of the Marvel antihero the Punisher. Big Shot arrives at crime scenes, shooting up the place and setting off explosives before bursting into tears. In 1994, FOX-TV sponsored a Saturday-morning cartoon that ran for three seasons. This series has become the most iconic version of the character. The series introduced other parodic characters: American Maid (a satiric twist on Wonder Woman who uses her high-heel shoes as weapons); and Die Fledermaus (a cowardly and sexually aggressive version of Batman [“die Fledermaus” being German for “the bat”]). In the season 1 episode “The Tick vs. The Tick,” Tick, spending the evening at an exclusive club for superheroes along with his friends, is forced to fight a guy named “Barry” who claims that he is, in fact, the Tick. As the two fight, the villainous Evil-Midnight-Bomber-What-Bombs-AtMidnight covers the interior of the club with bombs. The Tick predictably defeats both opponents (Edlund, “The Tick vs. The Tick,” The Tick, Season 1, Episode 7, October 22, 1994). In the animated series, the Tick was voiced by Townsend Coleman. A liveaction series aired on FOX-TV from 2001 to 2002, starring Patrick Warburton in the title role. A second live-action series was launched on Amazon Prime in 2016, starring Peter Serafinowicz. That he went from a drawing for a contest to spawning three television series underscores the appeal of the character. His widespread popularity in the 1990s further exemplifies the status of superheroes in the post– Cold War era. With no clear mission and no apparent enemies, superheroes had become little more than amusements, and the Tick was the most amusing of all. Richard A. Hall See also: Punisher, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles; Thematic Essay: The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s.

Further Reading

Hyland, Greg. 1997. The Tick: Mighty Blue Justice. New York: Berkley Books.

TNT and Dan the Dyna-Mite First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers:

Star Spangled Comics #7 (cover date: April 1942) Mort Weisinger and Hal Sharp DC Comics Enhanced speed, strength, and durability (when together); TNT generates heat, Dyna-Mite generates electricity Weapons: Rings that, when brought together, generate their powers Base of Operations: UNKNOWN



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Key Allies:

Liberty Belle and Iron Munro (modern incarnations only) Key Enemies: Gudra the Valkyrie, Cassandra Craft (modern incarnations only) Team Affiliations: All-Star Squadron and Seven Soldiers (modern incarnations only) Secret Identity: Thomas N. Thomas (TNT) and Daniel Dunbar (Dan the Dyna-Mite) Nicknames: N/A TNT and Dan the Dyna-Mite represent the earliest attempts at comic book superheroes in the Golden Age. Originally, Thomas “Tex” Thomas was a high school chemistry teacher, and Dan Dunbar was his student. Through a lab accident, they are imbued with atomic energy (Thomas with positive energy, Dan with negative). Thomas develops two rings to keep their powers in check. When brought together, Thomas (TNT) can generate heat, while Dan (Dyna-Mite) generates electricity—and both exhibit enhanced speed, strength, and durability (Weisinger, Sharp, and Paul Norris, “TNT and Dyna-Mite: ‘The Dwarf,’” Star Spangled Comics #7, April, 1942). The duo’s adventures were originally shortlived, only lasting 16 issues from 1942 to 1943. After the 1985 to 1986 DC Comics event Crisis on Infinite Earths, writer Roy Thomas returned the two to the modern DC continuity. Their story set in 1942, TNT and Dyna-Mite are invited to join the All-Star Squadron and are sent on a mission to investigate Nazis. During the mission, TNT is killed, and Dyna-Mite discovers that he can generate his powers by bringing the two rings together (Roy Thomas, Dann Thomas, Vince Argondezzi, Michael Bair, and Brian Murray, Young All-Stars #1, June 1987). Though among the most obscure of comic book superheroes, TNT and Dan the Dyna-Mite represent the massively popular wave of heroes and sidekicks that dominated American comic books in the early years of the Golden Age. Their incorporation into modern continuity is a nod to their importance to the early years of the genre. Richard A. Hall See also: Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955.

Further Reading

Gavaler, Chris. 2015. On the Origin of Superheroes: From the Big Bang to Action Comics No. 1. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Weinstein, Simcha. 2006. Up, Up, and Oy Vey!: How Jewish History, Culture, and Values Shaped the Comic Book Superhero. Baltimore: Leviathan Press.

U Uncle Sam First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers:

National Comics #1 (cover date: July 1940) Will Eisner Quality Comics, DC Comics Super strength, speed, and stamina; precognition; increasing size Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: United States Key Allies: Buddy Smith Key Enemies: Nazis (in Justice League), “Dark U.S.” (in U.S.) Team Affiliations: Freedom Fighters, All-Star Squadron Secret Identity: Samuel Hawke, Samuel Adams, Samuel Wilson Nicknames: Spirit of America Uncle Sam was actually the second patriotic-themed superhero of the Golden Age, preceded by the Shield six months earlier. The identity of “Uncle Sam” is as old as the country he represents, with mention of him in a stanza of the original “Yankee Doodle” song during the American Revolution. The iconic bearded image recognizable to most today was established by the artist James M. Flagg in a recruitment poster for World War I. As World War II raged around the world and the American comic book superhero burgeoned at home, Uncle Sam made his way into the superhero pantheon. Adapted for comics by the legendary artist Will Eisner, the new Uncle Sam looked like the character from the famous poster but existed as the soul of a fallen soldier from the American Revolution who had been imbued with the “Spirit of Liberty” (Eisner, National Comics #1, July 1940). The character would appear in his own title, Uncle Sam Quarterly, from 1941–1943. When DC Comics bought the Quality Comics characters, Uncle Sam was brought into the present in the 1970s. In the story line “Crisis on Earth X,” Uncle Sam is portrayed as a member of the Freedom Fighters, an alternate-reality group of superheroes still fighting World War II in the 1970s (Len Wein and Dick Dillin, Justice League of America #107–108, October–November 1973). More than 20 years later, Uncle Sam would appear in the standard DC continuity. He is presented as the “Spirit of America,” created by the alchemist Taylor Hawke during the American Revolution upon the order of the Founding Fathers. Hawke embedded the Spirit in a talisman and, on Hawke’s death, bonded with it. The Hawke/



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Spirit combination continued through the Revolution as “Minuteman.” During the American Civil War, the talisman was broken in two, and the Spirit of America was split into “Johnny Reb” and “Billy Yank.” After the war, a political cartoonist named Samuel Adams bonded with the talisman after being killed by corrupt politicians, creating the identity of “Uncle Sam.” This incarnation existed through both World Wars, but shattered afterward as America itself fragmented (John Ostrander and Tom Mandrake, The Spectre #38, February 1996). In 1997, a two-part prestige format story called Uncle Sam (or U.S.) was released by DC’s Vertigo imprint. In this story, Cover for National Comics #1 (July 1940), with “Sam” is a seemingly insane cover art by Lou Fine. With an entire world at homeless man suffering from war, the iconic image from World War I recruitvisions of the crimes of Ameri- ment posters was naturally brought into the ca’s past—violence, racism, realm of superhero comics. (Digital Comic slavery, corruption, and greed— Museum) before being shown some of America’s great achievements. The story ends with homeless “Sam” now happy and hopeful for America’s future (Steve Darnall and Alex Ross, Uncle Sam #1–2, 1997). In the 21st century, Uncle Sam made appearances in the “Infinite Crisis,” “Final Crisis,” and “Blackest Night” story lines. As part of the “New 52,” the character appeared in the series Human Bomb (based on another Quality Comics character from the Golden Age), where a now African American Uncle Sam is ordered to capture the Human Bomb for the government organization Super-Human Advanced Defense Executive (SHADE) (Justin Gray, Jimmy Palmiotti, and Jerry Ordway, Human Bomb #1, February 2013). To date, the Quality/DC character of Uncle Sam has not been used in media outside of comics, but his representation of America from World War II to the present is a testament to the continuing usefulness of the American superhero. Richard A. Hall See also: Captain America: Comics, Plastic Man, The Shield, The Spectre, The Spirit, Wonder Woman: Comics; Thematic Essay: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955, The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s.

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Feiffer, Jules. (1965) 2003. The Great Comic Book Heroes. Seattle: Fantagraphics. Gavaler, Chris. 2015. On the Origin of Superheroes: From the Big Bang to Action Comics No. 1. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Maslon, Laurence, and Michael Kantor. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Weinstein, Simcha. 2006. Up, Up, and Oy Vey!: How Jewish History, Culture, and Values Shaped the Comic Book Superhero. Baltimore: Leviathan Press.

V V/Vendetta First Appearance: Creators: Publisher:

Warrior #1 (cover date: March 1982) Alan Moore and David Lloyd Quality Communications (UK)/Vertigo (DC) Comics (US) Powers: Genius intellect; enhanced strength, agility, and durability Weapons: Various explosives, bladed weapons Base of Operations: London Key Allies: Evey Hammond Key Enemies: Fingermen, the Norsefire (“The Finger,” “The Head,” “The Eye,” “The Ear,” “The Nose,” and “The Mouth”), Adam Susan, Bishop Anthony Lilliman Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: UNKNOWN Nicknames: N/A Few comic book creators have utilized the concept of the superhero/antihero for the purpose of social commentary more vividly than Alan Moore. Before his run on The Saga of the Swamp Thing, or his own masterpiece Watchmen, Alan Moore published several “episodes” of what would become one of his most seminal works: V for Vendetta, published in England’s Warrior magazine in the early 1980s. Originally published in black and white, the final collected work would be published as a graphic novel by DC Comics’ Vertigo imprint in 1988. Clad as the real-life terrorist Guy Fawkes, who had attempted to blow up the British Parliament in 1605, V was a modern-day terrorist living in a dystopian near future. He stood in opposition to the tyrannical fascist government established out of democracy’s desire for security. It was a poke at the conservative Thatcher/Reagan coalition that had come to power in the United Kingdom and United States, respectively, in the early 1980s. Set in a futuristic 1997 England, a global nuclear war in the late 1980s had led to the rise of the neofascist Norsefire government. On Guy Fawkes Night (November 5), the costumed vigilante V rescues would-be prostitute Evey from the government police agents known as “the Fingermen” before detonating explosives in

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Alan Moore/Vertigo Alan Moore is one of the most popular and revolutionary writers in comic book history. He was born in 1953 in England. Moore began writing professionally in 1980, producing short stories for British magazines such as 2000AD, Warrior, and Doctor Who Weekly. He also wrote the strip “Captain Britain” for MarvelUK. It was for the first issue of Warrior that Moore introduced his ground-breaking work V for Vendetta (March 1982). In 1983, he was tagged by Len Wein at DC Comics to write The Saga of the Swamp Thing, a book that he redefined and revolutionized. In 1986, he produced Watchmen for DC Comics, a book that revolutionized the entire industry and gained the attention of mainstream literary critics. In 1988, Moore wrote the one-shot story Batman: The Killing Joke, cementing an origin story for the Joker that many consider canon to this day. From 1989 to 1992, Moore published his Jack the Ripper story, From Hell, in the comic anthology series Taboo. In 1999, Moore produced The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen for DC’s Wildstorm imprint. The comic revolved around a secret British superteam made up of legendary heroes of Victorian fiction. Many of Moore’s works have been translated into film, but Moore’s artistic integrity forbids him from connecting his name to those projects. His first major project, V for Vendetta, was collected and published by the DC Comics imprint Vertigo. In 1993, DC editor Karen Berger launched Vertigo as a platform to publish material that normally would not pass the scrutiny of the Comics Code Authority. The imprint has gained notoriety and won awards for works such as Sandman, Preacher, Constantine, Lucifer, and Y: The Last Man, creating platforms for such iconic writers as Neil Gaiman, Grant Morrison, Garth Ennis, and Warren Ellis. Richard A. Hall

both houses of Parliament (Moore and Lloyd, V for Vendetta, “Book One: Europe After the Reign,” 1988). V is later suspected of being an escaped inmate from Larkhill prison. Meanwhile, Evey is arrested and given the choice between submission to the state or death, but in her cell, Evey discovers a letter written by a former prisoner, a lesbian named Valerie, and is inspired by her story to resist authority. Evey is finally freed and learns that her incarceration has been a ruse overseen by V to educate the girl as to what V (and Valerie) had experienced at the hands of the government (Moore and Lloyd, V for Vendetta, “Book Two: The Vicious Cabaret,” 1988). The following Guy Fawkes Day, V blows up two more government towers, and the people of London—as per V’s earlier request— rise up against the authorities. It is V’s plan for an anarchical state to rise from the ashes of fascism. After V is mortally wounded in battle with police detective Finch, Evey dons the mantle of V, blowing up 10 Downing Street (the home of the British prime minister) and calling on the people to create their own future (Moore and Lloyd, V for Vendetta, “Book Three: The Land of Do-As-You-Please,” 1988). As with his later work, Watchmen, Moore utilizes V for Vendetta to deconstruct the idea of superheroes while commenting on the state of Anglo American sociopolitical structures of the day. In 2006, nearing the fifth anniversary of 9/11, Warner Bros. studios released a film version of V for Vendetta, directed by James McTeigue and starring Hugo Weaving as the masked vigilante. The film, while even more relevant in a post– 9/11 world, was perhaps released too soon after the event to fully convey its

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warnings. As with all film adaptations of his work, Moore refused to allow his name to be attached to the project—even as the author of the original piece—and waived any financial gain from the film. Regardless of the public reaction, both the original comic and the later film possess powerful messages and warnings that, 30 years after the release of the complete graphic novel, remain as relevant as ever. His role as a punishing antihero intent on bringing justice to the guilty places V in good company with more mainstream antiheroes such as the Punisher. Richard A. Hall See also: Punisher, Swamp Thing, Watchmen; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Arp, Robert. 2009. “V for Villain.” In Supervillains and Philosophy: Sometimes, Evil Is Its Own Reward, edited by Ben Dyer, 43–52. Chicago: Open Court Press. Gray, Maggie. 2010. “‘A Fistful of Dead Roses . . .’ Comics as Cultural Resistance: Alan Moore and David Lloyd’s V for Vendetta.” Journal of Graphic Novels and Comics 1 (1): 31–49. Accessed September 12, 2018. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs​ /10.1080/21504851003798579. Ott, Brian L. 2010. “The Visceral Politics of V for Vendetta: On Political Affect in Cinema.” Critical Studies in Media Communication, 27 (1): 39–54. Accessed September 12, 2018. https://nca.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15295030903554359.

W Watchmen First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers:

Watchmen #1 (cover date: September 1986) Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons DC Comics Doctor Manhattan—Omnipotence Ozymandias—Genius intellect, super strength and speed Comedian—Expert assassin, hand-to-hand combat Nite Owl (II)—Expert hand-to-hand combat Rorschach—Expert hand-to-hand combat Silk Spectre (II)—Expert hand-to-hand combat Weapons: Doctor Manhattan—N/A Ozymandias—N/A Comedian—Various guns and knives Nite Owl (II)—Various gadgets Rorschach—Various gadgets Silk Spectre—N/A Base of Operations: New York City Key Allies: N/A Key Enemies: Moloch Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: Doctor Manhattan—Dr. Jon Osterman Ozymandias—Adrian Veidt Comedian—Edward Blake Nite Owl (II)—Daniel Dreiberg Rorschach—Walter Kovacs Silk Spectre—Laurie Juspeczyk Nicknames: N/A

The year 1986 was a game changer for American superhero comic books due to the release of two miniseries, both by DC Comics: Frank Miller’s Batman: The Dark Knight Returns and Alan Moore’s Watchmen. Watchmen won a 1987 Hugo Award in the category of “Other Forms” and was listed as one of Time magazine’s “100 Best Novels.” Set in an alternate-reality 1985 United States, Richard Nixon has just started his fifth term of office, the United States and the Soviet Union are

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on the verge of nuclear war, and superheroes have been outlawed. The story opens in the wake of the murder of former superhero and government assassin Eddie Blake, a.k.a. “the Comedian.” With flashbacks of the murder as it happened, the case is soon taken up by Blake’s fellow former Watchman Rorschach (Moore and Gibbons, Watchmen #1, September 1986). As the 12-issue miniseries—and the investigation into Blake’s murder—unfolds, the reader is introduced to the retired Watchmen and, through flashbacks, learns of the history of superheroes in this alternate reality. Moore also interweaves two stories within the main story: the “comic book within a comic book” story Tales of the Black Freighter and prose excerpts from Under the Hood—the Cover for Watchmen #1 (September 1986), with memoirs of retired superhero cover art by Dave Gibbons. Watchmen was a Hollis Mason, the first “Nite game changer. It reinvigorated superhero comic Owl” and member of the World book sales, which is ironic, since much of the War II–era group of masked vig- comic’s message was that we should not depend ilantes the Minutemen. What on or give too much power to these “heroes” results is a multilayered story who are answerable to no one (hence the meswith far more depth than had sage that appears throughout, “Who Watches ever been created in comic book the Watchmen?”), and are often morally or psysuperhero narratives to date. chologically flawed. (DC/Photofest) Through primarily the characters of Doctor Manhattan, Rorschach, Silk Spectre, and Ozymandias, Moore takes the concept of “flawed” heroes first explored by Stan Lee in the 1960s to entirely new levels. Through Manhattan, Moore explores that absolute power does not necessarily “corrupt” but removes one so far from humanity as to make the whole idea of corruption itself a moot point. Rorschach and Silk Spectre Laurie Juspeczyk, daughter of Sally Juspeczyk (the first Silk Spectre, a.k.a. “Sally Jupiter”), are individuals who experienced different levels of psychological abuse growing up. Ozymandias, though nowhere as powerful as Manhattan, is the perfect example of “absolute” power corrupting absolutely, with his super strength, speed, and intellect enhanced further with near-unlimited financial wealth. Unlike the godlike Manhattan, Ozymandias still possesses all the human frailties of ego and ambition. The Comedian is a rapist and murderer,

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“Collectors’ Bubble” The “collectors’ bubble”—also referred to as the “speculators’ bubble,” “speculators’ boom,” or “comic book boom”—occurred roughly from 1988 to 1995 (dates vary according to interpretation of sales and motives behind sales). During this period, speculators, many of whom had no history of interest in comic books, began to invest heavily in the medium, viewing it as an investment with the potential for quick-turnover profit. Many have associated the beginning of the boom with various newspaper editorials following the October 1987 stock market crash suggesting that comic books were better investments than stocks. By this time, works such as Alan Moore’s Watchmen and Frank Miller’s Batman: The Dark Knight Returns had gained the attention of mainstream literary critics. Regardless of its origin, the boom led to a massive upsurge of comic book sales. Taking advantage of the situation, the major publishers—DC and Marvel—began to publish new “#1” issues of most titles as well as major “event” story lines including “The Death of Superman,” “Batman: Knightfall,” and “Spider-Man: Clone Saga.” During this boom, more focus was given to artwork than storytelling, leading to the popularization of such artists as Todd McFarlane, Rob Liefeld, and Jim Lee, who would utilize their newfound celebrity to launch Image Comics. By 1995 to 1996, the stock market had stabilized, and investors— realizing that their comics investments were not seeing high returns—began looking more toward the future of the Internet. As the American economy reached unprecedented heights, however, the comic book collector market crashed, leading smaller companies such as Wildstorm to sell out to DC, and Marvel Comics sought bankruptcy protection in 1996. This crash nearly destroyed the comic book industry. Richard A. Hall

traits that his government is willing to overlook in favor of making use of his skills as an assassin. In fact, the closest to a “stable” Watchmen member is Daniel Dreiberg, the second Nite Owl. Rorschach’s former partner and Laurie’s new love interest, Dreiberg is the moral center of the Watchmen. By the time the story begins, the Watchmen have been disbanded for years. In 1977, Congress had passed the Keene Act, making costumed vigilantes illegal. Doctor Manhattan and the Comedian continued to work for the government in their various capacities, but the rest had retired except for Rorschach, who continued not only to fight crime but to execute criminals whenever he felt it was justified. Through the investigation into the death of the Comedian, Moore explores issues of “right” and “wrong” on both grander and smaller scales, posing questions such as: If lies and murder serve a greater good, are they wrong? Is peace for billions worth the senseless slaughter of millions? Moore even explores the concept of superheroes. Is vigilantism justified alongside a broken legal system? If the guilty can walk free, at what point does the individual owe it to society to set right what the system got wrong? These last two questions go to the very heart of the superhero, deconstructing the concept more meaningfully than had ever been done before or since. The importance of Watchmen cannot be overstated. The enduring popularity of the work—and more specifically, Moore’s characters—have led DC Comics, over the years, to produce not only “prequel” series for each Watchmen character but to begin incorporating them into regular DC comics continuity in 2018. In 2009,

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Warner Bros. released the live-action film version of Watchmen, directed by Zack Snyder. The film, though a moderate success at the box office, was met with mixed reviews. Later that year, Warner Home Video released the “Ultimate Cut” of the film with the animated feature Watchmen: Tales of the Black Freighter edited into the original film (as it had not been in theaters). The home video release also featured the animated motion comic that had been produced the previous year as well as a “mockumentary” of the “Under the Hood” segments from the original comic. In 2018, HBO announced plans for a Watchmen pilot movie for a potential series run. As is Moore’s standing policy, his name was in no way connected to the noncomic media versions of his work. Commerciality aside, however, Watchmen remains a pivotal part of comic book superhero history, having both deconstructed and saved the genre simultaneously. Richard A. Hall See also: Batman: Comics, Swamp Thing, V/Vendetta; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—the 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Bukatman, Scott. 2013. “A Song of the Urban Superhero.” In The Superhero Reader, edited by Charles Hatfield, Jeet Heer, and Kent Worcester, 170–98. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Hillerbrand, Rafaela, and Anders Sandburg. 2009. “Who Trusts the Watchmen?” In Supervillains and Philosophy: Sometimes, Evil Is Its Own Reward, edited by Ben Dyer, 103–112. Chicago: Open Court Press. Kantor, Michael, and Laurence Maslon. 2013. Superheroes!: Capes, Cowls, and the Creation of Comic Book Culture. New York: Crown/Archetype. Knowles, Christopher. 2007. Our Gods Wear Spandex: The Secret History of Comic Book Superheroes. San Francisco: Weiser Books. Moore, Alan, and Dave Gibbons. 1987. Watchmen. New York: DC Comics. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Wolverine First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers: Weapons: Base of Operations:

The Incredible Hulk #180 (cover date: October 1974) Roy Thomas, Len Wein, John Romita Sr. (Honorable Mention: Chris Claremont) Marvel Comics Enhanced senses, super-enhanced healing factor, retractable bone (originally) claws, “berserker” rage Adamantium-laced skeleton (including claws) Salem Center, Westchester, New York/Madripoor/ Canada/Japan

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Psylocke, Jubilee, X-23, Deadpool Weapon-X Program, Sabretooth, Omega Red, Magneto, Hellfire Club, Brotherhood of Mutants, Reavers, Apocalypse, Mystique, Lady Deathstrike, Daken Department-H, Weapon-X Program, Alpha Flight, X-Men, X-Force, Avengers, Fantastic Four (briefly) Logan, James Howlett Weapon-X, Patch, Wolvie

In the Marvel Comics Universe, Wolverine is what is referred to as a “mutant”: an individual born with a mutated X gene granting the individual special “powers” that usually emerge during puberty. Mutants make up the fictional species Homosuperior and are considered the next step in human evolution. Prior to 2000, few people outside of comic book fandom knew the name “Wolverine.” The 20th Century Fox film X-Men changed that with the iconic screen performance of Hugh Jackman as the indestructible mutant hero. Within fandom, however, Wolverine has been one of the most—arguably the most—popular comic book superhero since the 1970s. Wolverine originated at the height of the antihero craze of the early 1970s. Due to the success of film heroes such as Clint Eastwood’s Dirty Harry and Charles Bronson of Death Wish fame, comic books began to reflect the growing trend with antiheroes such as Punisher and Luke Cage. Wolverine emerged during this trend. However, the mystery that shrouded the character’s past for the first few decades of his publications caused Wolverine to evolve beyond the simple antihero trope to a mythic status all his own. At first, Wolverine appears to have been a simple “foe of the month” for the Hulk. All that was originally known was that his name was Wolverine, he was an agent for the Canadian government (not yet identified as a mutant), and that he had metal claws mounted into his gauntlets (in his original appearance, the claws never retracted). He confronts the Hulk as the Green Goliath battles the mindless Wendigo (Wein and Herb Trimpe, The Incredible Hulk #180–182, October– December 1974). The character next appeared in the reboot of the X-Men comic, which had been canceled in 1970 (it appeared only in reprints for the next five years). In 1975, Wein and artist Dave Cockrum introduced a new team of mutants, and Wolverine became a member (Wein and Cockrum, Giant-Size X-Men #1, May 1975). The new X-Men soon came under the direction of writer Chris Claremont, who would take the title and its characters to the top of sales charts for the next 16 years. Most of what has been developed concerning Wolverine—including the fact that his claws are part of his body rather than his costume—came from the pen of Claremont. The popularity of the character led to his own four-issue miniseries in 1982, with a regular series finally in 1988. For 17 years, most of Wolverine’s past was shrouded in mystery. His memories were buried so deeply that even the powerful mind of Professor Charles Xavier could not retrieve them. All Wolverine knew was that at some point in his life, his skeleton had been laced with adamantium

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Jim Lee Jim Lee was born in South Korea in 1964. At a young age, Lee’s family moved to St. Louis, Missouri, in the United States. Feeling like an outsider, Lee was quickly drawn to superhero comic books, most notably, Marvel’s X-Men. In 1989, soon after joining Marvel Comics, Lee was assigned as permanent artist for The Uncanny X-Men. His wildly popular art—enhanced by the burgeoning “collectors’ bubble”—led Marvel to create a second X-Men title under the direction of Chris Claremont and Lee, simply titled X-Men. On this title, Lee cocreated the popular mutant hero Gambit. In 1992, Lee joined other disgruntled Marvel collaborators to create Image Comics. Lee’s collection of work under Image fell under his own studio, Wildstorm Productions (originally called Aegis Entertainment). Under the Wildstorm banner, Lee worked on several projects, most notably WildC.A.T.s and Gen-13. In 1996, Lee—along with fellow Image founder Rob Liefeld—was invited to return to Marvel to relaunch The Fantastic Four as part of Marvel’s “Heroes Reborn” experiment. In 1998, Lee sold Wildstorm to DC Comics, where he began iconic runs on various Superman and Batman projects. In 2010, Lee was promoted to copublisher of DC Comics along with Dan DiDio. One of his first projects in this new capacity was working with DC chief creative officer Geoff Johns to create the “New 52” reboot of the DC titles. He has become not only one of the most popular artists in the history of superhero comics but one of the most powerful voices in the medium as well. In 2018, Lee was promoted to DC entertainment president, replacing Johns. Richard A. Hall

(he even believed that his retractable claws had been implanted at the same time). Finally, in 1991, in a 13-part story line in the pages of Marvel Comics Presents, Barry Windsor-Smith told the story of “Weapon-X,” explaining how Wolverine had received his adamantium skeleton and even suggesting in a very subtle aside that his claws had already been part of it prior to the enhancements (WindsorSmith, “Weapon-X,” Marvel Comics Presents #72–84, March–September 1991). In an unrelated story line, Wolverine temporarily formed a “New” Fantastic Four alongside Spider-Man, Ghost Rider, and the gray Hulk. Wolverine’s post–Weapon-X adventures would continue in the title for some time. As part of the “Fatal Attractions” story line in X-Men, Magneto utilizes his power of magnetism to remove all of the adamantium from Wolverine’s body, literally ripping the metal through the mutant’s pores (Fabian Nicieza and Andy Kubert, X-Men vol. 2, #25, October 1993). Only Wolverine’s massively enhanced healing factor allowed him to survive. The following month, with his body free from adamantium for the first time in decades, Wolverine discovers that he had, in fact, bone claws under the adamantium ones, explaining the aside comment from the “Weapon-X” story that noted that more adamantium than expected was drawn to his wrists (Larry Hama and Kubert, Wolverine #75, November 1993). Wolverine would then spend most of the 1990s with bone claws only. After briefly reverting to a near-mindless, bestial state, Wolverine’s adamantium is finally returned by the X-villain Apocalypse (Erik Larsen and Leinil Francis Yu, Wolverine vol. 2, #145, December 1999). Due to his powerful healing factor, it had long been believed that Wolverine was much older than he appeared. In the early 1990s, it was revealed that

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Wolverine—then known only as “Logan”—had fought alongside Captain America in World War II (Chris Claremont and Jim Lee, Uncanny X-Men #268, September 1990). This mystery was finally solved in the six-issue miniseries Origin. In this story, the man we know as Wolverine began in the late 1800s as James Howlett, the son of a wealthy landowner. Young James spends his days with his friends Rose and “Dog,” the son of the Howlett’s groundskeeper. When the groundskeeper, Thomas Logan, kills young James’s father, James kills Thomas with heretofore unknown bone claws. James escapes with Rose, changing his name to “Logan.” Dog later hunts down Logan, and in the ensuing fight, Rose is accidentally impaled on James’s claws, causing him to wander off into the woods and eventually become “Wolverine” (Paul Jenkins, Bill Jemas, Joe Quesada, and Andy Kubert, Origin #1–6, October 2001–April 2002). Several new mysteries remained, however: first, the suggestion that James’s mother, Elizabeth, might have had an affair with Thomas Logan, making James and Dog possibly brothers; and second, the suggestion that “Dog” was the future Sabretooth. In 2008, an alternate-reality version of Logan was presented in the story line “Old Man Logan,” where in the future, the supervillains have taken over the United States, and Wolverine lives the peaceful life of a farmer, renting land from the inbred offspring of the Hulk and She-Hulk. During a cross-country job with the blind retired Avenger Hawkeye, it is revealed that years earlier, Wolverine had killed all of the X-Men while under the influence of the mind-altering villain Mysterio (Mark Millar and Steve McNiven, Wolverine vol. 3, #66–71; Giant-Size Old Man Logan, August 2008–September 2009). After the “Death of Wolverine” story line in 2014, the “Old Man Logan” character would be temporarily pulled into the mainstream Marvel Comics continuity. In the 21st century, readers were introduced to two “offspring” of Wolverine’s. The first was Laura Kinney, better known as “X-23.” She is the cloned daughter of Wolverine and first appeared in NYX #3 (February 2004). The second was Akihiro, better known as “Daken.” He is the biological mutant son of Wolverine and first appeared in Wolverine Origins #10–11 (March–April 2007). Whereas Daken becomes one of Wolverine’s most dedicated and vicious enemies, X-23 becomes one of his closest allies, eventually donning the mantle of “Wolverine” when the original dies in 2014 after his healing factor is nullified and he suffocates after being covered in liquid/hardening adamantium. The original Logan Wolverine, however, returned to the Marvel Comics Universe in 2018. Outside of comics, Wolverine first appeared with the rest of the X-Men in the Saturday-morning cartoon Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends (Season 3, Episode 7, October 29, 1983). He next appeared in the iconic 1990s animated series X-Men (1992–1997), X-Men: Evolution (2000–2003), Wolverine and the X-Men (2008–2009), and The Super Hero Squad Show (2009–2011). In 2009, Wolverine appeared in the animated home video release Hulk vs.; and in 2011, the character was also featured in two animated miniseries from the “Marvel Anime” run: Wolverine and X-Men. The most iconic version of Wolverine outside of comics, however, has been the film incarnation by 20th Century Fox, where the character was brought to life by actor Hugh Jackman. Jackman appeared as Logan in the following films: X-Men (2000), X2: X-Men United (2003), X-Men: The Last Stand (2006),

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Scene from the 20th Century Fox film X-Men: The Last Stand (2006), directed by Brett Ratner. Hugh Jackman personified Wolverine, portraying the popular superhero in nine X-Men films from 2000 to 2017. (Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp./Photofest)

X-Men Origins: Wolverine (2009), X-Men: First Class (2011), The Wolverine (2013), X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014), X-Men: Apocalypse (2016), and Logan (2017). His appearances in animation and film have only added to his popularity, expanding the character to iconic status in American pop culture. The allure of the antihero with the addition of a mysterious past makes the character a rich one for constant development. Richard A. Hall See also: Deadpool, Fantastic Four, Ghost Rider, Hulk, Spider-Man: Comics, X-23, X-Men: Comics, X-Men: Other Media, X-Men: Other X-Groups, X-Men: Rogues’ Gallery; Thematic Essays: From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages— The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Darowski, Joseph J. 2014. X-Men and the Mutant Metaphor: Race and Gender in the Comic Books. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. DeFalco, Tom. 2006. Comics Creators on X-Men. London: Titan Books. DiPaolo, Marc. 2011. War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial.

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Irwin, William, Rebecca Housel, and J. Jeremy Wisnewski, eds. 2009. X-Men and Philosophy: Astonishing Insight and Uncanny Argument in the Mutant X-Verse. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Lewald, Eric. 2017. Previously on X-Men: The Making of an Animated Series. Clarksville, TN: Jacobs Brown Press. Mallory, Michael. 2014. X-Men: The Characters and Their Universe. New York: Chartwell Books. Manning, Matthew K. 2009. Wolverine: Inside the World of the Living Weapon. London: DK. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Moulton, Jeffery. 2012. The Superhero Response: How 9/11 Changed Our Superheroes and Why It Matters. Self-published. Powell, Jason. 2016. The Best There Is at What He Does: Examining Chris Claremont’s X-Men. Edwardsville, IL: Sequart Organization. Wright, Bradford W. 2003. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

The Woman in Red First Appearance: Creators: Publisher:

Thrilling Comics #2 (cover date: March 1940) Richard E. Hughes and George Mandel Nedor Comics (originally)/America’s Best Comics (modern) Powers: Hand-to-hand combat Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: N/A Key Allies: Tom Strong (modern only) Key Enemies: N/A Team Affiliations: SMASH (Society of Modern American Science Heroes [modern only]) Secret Identity: Peggy Allen Nicknames: N/A Though Wonder Woman may be the most iconic superheroine from the Golden Age of comics, she was not the first. Fantomah was the first superpowered female character in comics, and the Woman in Red was the first female masked vigilante in comics. Originally, the Woman in Red was police detective Peggy Allen from an unspecified “metropolitan” area. In her first case, she is assigned to investigate strange deaths at the local hospital. She goes undercover in a red trench coat, hood, gloves, and mask, though no one in the first story refers to her as “the Woman in Red,” and once the case is solved, it is clear that the police commissioner is aware



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that it was Peggy who solved the crime (Hughes and Mandel, Thrilling Comics #2, March 1940). She will, however, go on to investigate crimes in this red disguise over the course of the next five years. In 1999, legendary comic book writer Alan Moore created “America’s Best Comics,” an imprint of Jim Lee’s Wildstorm Comics (which originally was an imprint of Image Comics). In 2001, Moore revived the Woman in Red along with other Nedor Comics characters for the new imprint. In the updated version, Peggy Allen and the other Golden Age Nedor heroes are members of SMASH, a group of heroes that had been placed in suspended animation during the Cold War. This new twist on the character gave her the abilities of flight and exerting energy blasts due to exposure to a mysterious red crystal that also altered her skin color (Moore and Chris Sprouse, Tom Strong #11, January 2001). The short-lived Marvel Studios/ABC-TV live-action series Agent Carter (2015–2016) appears to have been at least somewhat influenced by the Woman in Red. Though based on a character introduced in Marvel Comics and brought to life in the 2011 film Captain America: The First Avenger, Peggy Carter’s post–World War II adventures certainly have the feel and look of Peggy Allen’s actual World War II comics adventures (Agent Carter even dons a red wide-brimmed hat in some publicity stills). Though not as commercially successful as her contemporary Wonder Woman, the Woman in Red is significant as comics’ first masked female hero. Still years before the “Rosie the Riveter” campaign of World War II that told women that they “[could] do it,” Peggy Allen was a hero at a time when women were still primarily supporting characters usually needing rescue by male heroes. Not only is the Woman in Red a capable crime fighter, but her alter ego is, likewise, a respected law enforcement agent in her own right. This provides a window into the thinking of the day. Some did view women as valuable contributors to professions that were still dominated by men, and children were being exposed to this idea as early as 1940. Richard A. Hall See also: Black Canary, Captain America: Other Media, Fantomah, Wonder Woman: Comics; Thematic Essays: The Golden Age of Comics and the Quest for American Identity: 1938–1955.

Further Reading

Eckard, Sandra. 2018. Comic Connections: Reflecting on Women in Popular Culture. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Feiffer, Jules. (1965) 2003. The Great Comic Book Heroes. Seattle: Fantagraphics Books. Hanley, Tim. 2014. Wonder Woman Unbound: The Curious History of the World’s Most Famous Heroine. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Jones, Gerard. 2005. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the Birth of the Comic Book. New York: Basic Books. Madrid, Mike. 2013. Divas, Dames & Daredevils: Lost Heroines of Golden Age Comics. Exterminating Angel Press. Online. Accessed September 20, 2018. https://exterminatingangel.com. Robbins, Trina, and Barbara Hall. 2017. Babes in Arms: Women in the Comics During World War II. New Castle, PA: Hermes Press.

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Wonder Woman: Comics First Appearance: Creators: Publisher: Powers:

Weapons:

Base of Operations: Key Allies: Key Enemies: Team Affiliations: Secret Identity: Nicknames:

All Star Comics #8 (cover date: December 1941) William Moulton Marston and Harry G. Peter DC Comics Superhuman strength, speed, reflexes, agility; glide (flight/levitation); accelerated healing; telepathy; electrokinesis (the generation of electrical forces); atmokinesis (weather manipulation); omnilingualism (including ability to communicate with animals); immunity to poisons; immortality Amazon warrior armor, Amazon shield, Lasso of Hestia (Lasso of Truth), bracelets of submission (magic gauntlets/indestructible bracelets), tiara (Antiopes Tiara), god killer, Sword of Athens, and invisible airplane (jet). Washington, D.C.; Themyscira; JLA Watchtower; Hall of Justice; Boston Steve Trevor, Etta Candy, Wonder Girl, I Ching Ares, Cheetah, Doctor Poison, Circe, Doctor Psycho, Giganta, Veronica Cale, First Born Justice Society, Justice League, Star Sapphire Corps (Wonder Woman Annual #2), Female Furies (during the final crisis), White Lantern Corps Diana Prince God Killer, Amazing Amazon, Spirit of Truth, Themyscira’s Champion, Goddess of Love and War, Warrior Princess, and Princess Diana

Wonder Woman is a character created by William Moulton Marston during the Golden Age of Comic Books (1930s–1950s). He believed comic books were a good educational tool that were not living up to their potential. Hired by Max Gaines as an education consultant to All-American Publishers, Marston, in collaboration with Harry G. Peter and inspired by Elizabeth Marston and Olive Byrnes, gave life to one of the most powerful superheroes in the DC Universe. Wonder Woman was the expression of his belief in women’s superiority. His personal experiences, professional work, and experiments on psychology and early versions of the lie detector led to his characterization of Wonder Woman. He noted in an article in American Scholar that women needed to be represented with strength and power in balance with their archetype, because to make weak that which is “tender, loving, affectionate, and alluring” results in “not even girls, want[ing] to be girls” (“Why 100,000,000 Americans Read Comic Books,” American Scholar, Winter 1943). This established the intent behind the creation of



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William Moulton Marston William Moulton Marston (1893–1947) was born in Saugus, Massachusetts. He is most credited for the creation of Wonder Woman under the pen name of “Charles Moulton.” Since their inception, comic books had been dominated by male superheroes. However, on October 25, 1940, Family Circle magazine published an interview titled “Don’t Laugh at Comic Books” by Olive Richard (a.k.a. Olive Byrnes [1904–1990]—Marston’s student and later partner) with Marston, where they noted that comic books were a good educational tool for society but were not living up to their potential. This caught the attention of Max Gaines, publisher at All-American Publishers, who hired Marston as an educational consultant. As a consultant, Marston proposed the creation of a woman superhero, a “superwoman”: Wonder Woman. Marston was a Harvard-educated psychologist who invented a way to measure systolic pressure. He was married to Elizabeth Holloway Marston (1893– 1993), an attorney and psychologist, who suggested the connection between blood pressure and emotion. This led to an early version of the lie detector. William’s work, however, often focused on women and their superiority over males in connection to psychology. On November 11, 1937, the article “Neglected Amazons to Rule Men in 1000 yrs. Says Psychologist” in The Washington Post reported on a press conference by Marston, where he stated that America would be ruled by a matriarchy in 1,000 years. This statement represented Marston’s life work, which focused on the idea that women need to be allowed to be strong, free, and super, or they themselves would reject those attributes. Although the idea of Wonder Woman is said to have originated with Elizabeth, it is quite evident that Marston’s personal life, beliefs, and professional and intellectual eruditions very much influenced the characterization of Wonder Woman. Maria Antonieta Reyes

Wonder Woman: the provision of a role model or a reflection of the potential of women. Wonder Woman is an Amazon demigoddess, a warrior princess from Paradise Island (called “Themyscira” by George Perez in Wonder Woman vol. 2, #1, February 1987) and daughter of Hippolyta (queen of Themyscira/a reincarnation of the first woman killed by men, also established by George Perez in Wonder Woman vol. 2, #1, February 1987). Themyscira is an island of Amazons where no men were present or allowed; Perez later described it as created from souls of women who were killed by men. Wonder Woman was the first born on the island; she was the reincarnation of the unborn of the first woman killed by men (Greg Potter and Perez, Wonder Woman vol. 2, #1, February 1987). In Wonder Woman #1 is the first of four origin stories: Hippolyta wants a daughter and carves one out of clay. Aphrodite, the goddess of love, grants her life. She has been born with great strength, speed, and beauty (William Moulton Marston and Harry G. Peter, June 1942). “Wisdom” is granted in Wonder Woman vol. 1, #105 by Athena’s visit (Robert Kanigher and Ross Andru, April 1959). The second origin story notes that Hippolyta was instructed by her deities to craft Diana out of clay from the shores of Paradise Island; six members of the Greek pantheon bonded the soul to the clay to grant not only life but great strength (by Demeter), wisdom and courage (by Athena), a hunter’s heart and communion with animals (by Artemis), beauty and a loving heart (by Aphrodite), sisterhood with fire (by Hestia), and the speed and

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power of flight (by Hermes) (Potter and Perez, Wonder Woman vol. 2, #1, February 1987). The third origin story was created to relaunch DC’s entire lineup of heroes, and it said that Diana was the daughter of Hippolyta and Zeus and born a demigoddess (Brian Azzarello, Cliff Chiang, and Tony Atkins, Wonder Woman: The New 52 vol. 4, #2–3, November 2011). The fourth story brought Wonder Woman back to her classic roots with an origin that included the pantheon of Greek gods granting life and gifts to Diana (Greg Rucka, Nicola Scott, and Bilquis Evely, DC Universe Rebirth: Wonder Woman, Year One Collection vol. 5, #2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14, launched May 2017). There have been major story Cover for Wonder Woman #1 (June 1942), with arcs that in the long running of cover art by Harry G. Peter. This comic retold this comic book have conthe origin story of Wonder Woman. (DC Comics/Photofest) structed the symbol of warrior and ambassador of love and peace that is Wonder Woman. Wonder Woman was introduced and her series initiated during the Golden Age (Charles Moulton, All Star Comics #8, December 1941; Sensation Comics #1, January 1942; Wonder Woman #1, June 1942). During this period, the major influence was her creator William Moulton Marston (under the pen name of “Charles Moulton”) and Harry G. Peter. They established her general look and the major elements of the characterization of Wonder Woman: the lasso of truth (a.k.a. the “Magic Lasso” or “Lasso of Hestia”) that compels individuals to tell the truth (first appearing in Sensation Comics #6, June 1942), the tiara (a symbol of her princess status that also serves as a weapon beginning in Wonder Woman vol. 1, #95, January 1958), the submission bracelets (defensive weapons—and, in some story lines, a weakness if forcibly brought together; they first appeared in Wonder Woman vol. 1, #1, June 1942), the invisible airplane (first appearing in Sensation Comics #1, January 1942). Her secret identity of “Diana Prince” is also established in Sensation Comics #1. Wonder Woman debuted in 1941 with Captain Steve Trevor, an army intelligence officer, crashing on Paradise Island. Diana is selected, after a tournament of trials, to accompany Captain Trevor to the “world of man,” which is at war, to aid in his fight against “the forces of hate and oppression”; “to fight for liberty and



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freedom and all womankind” (Moulton, All Star Comics #8, December 1941). Her duty of protection is also symbolized in her clothes with the colors and symbols of America. Around this time, Wonder Woman was also invited to be a member of the Justice Society as their secretary (Garner Fox, All-Star Comics #13, October 1942). It is this beginning that establishes the characterization and many challenges and struggles this superhero will continue to face: justice versus injustice; peace (love) versus war; and Amazon versus human. During the Silver Age (1956–1970), all reference to World War II was removed. It was during this peacetime period that the greatest influence on the comic was Robert Kanigher. He introduces gliding (Wonder Woman vol. 1, #98, May 1958), and gives Wonder Woman a family personification with Wonder Girl, a younger version of Wonder Woman on Paradise Island (Harry G. Peter, Wonder Woman #23, May 1947) as well as Wonder Tot, a toddler version of Wonder Woman (Kanigher and Ross Andru, Wonder Woman #122, May 1961); she was also teamed with her mother, “Wonder Queen.” It was also during this time that she became one of the founding members of the Justice League (Gardner Fox and Mike Sekowsky, Brave and the Bold vol. 1, #28, March 1960). During the Bronze Age (1970–1985), a debate on feminism came from the story line of Denny O’Neil and Mike Sekowsky. During this period, Wonder Woman surrenders her powers to be able to remain in “man’s world” with Captain Trevor (Wonder Woman #179, December 1968). This angered some Wonder Woman comic book followers, especially women, who demanded that Wonder Woman remain a “super” hero. Her powers were restored in issue #204 (Robert Kanigher and Don Heck, February 1973). This was made possible in part because of Gloria Steinem, Joanne Edgar, and members of Ms. Magazine lobbying DC Comics and directly pressuring Dick Giordano (editor and artist of DC Comics) to restore Wonder Woman to her powerful origin (Yohana Desta, “How Gloria Steinem Saved Wonder Woman,” October 2017). They even printed Wonder Woman as her superhero self in the premier issue of Ms. Magazine in 1972. This brought to light that Wonder Woman was more than a character in a comic book and had cemented a connection between ideal personification and the feminist perspective of the times within the characterization of Wonder Woman. During this period, a story line of readmittance to the Justice League was also presented, and Wonder Woman came back without memory of her powerless period. However, she had self-doubts and recommended putting herself through “Twelve Labors” (as Hercules had done at some point). If successful, she could rejoin the Justice League (Len Wein and Curt Swan, Wonder Woman vol. 1, #212–222; July 1974–March 1976). The Bronze Age closes with splintering stories. For example, in February 1977, in issue #228, readers were introduced to Wonder Woman from “Earth One” and Wonder Woman from “Earth Two.” This is a multiverse concept that allows for divergent story lines to unfold. Wonder Woman of Earth One was then the one who experienced the period of powerlessness (i.e., O’Neal’s story line), while Wonder Woman from Earth Two marries Steve Trevor and has a daughter, Hippolyta Trevor (Roy Thomas, and Dann Thomas, Wonder Woman vol. 1 #300, February 1983). By 1985, Marv Wolfman and George Perez, attempting to collapse all the alternate universes, restarted all the major characters to update them for new

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generations in the story arc of the 12-issue Crisis of Infinite Earths (Marv Wolfman, and George Perez, April 1985–March 1986). Wonder Woman’s time line was restarted with a new origin story that brought her back as a feminist role model, leaving the romance with Trevor out of things (Perez and Potter, Wonder Woman vol. 2, #1–7, February–August 1987). However, after issue #62, other writers took over, creating once more different stories that now included others carrying the mantle of “Wonder Woman.” In “The Contest,” Artemis takes the mantle of Wonder Woman (William Messer-Loebs, Wonder Woman vol. 2, #90–92 and #0, September 1994–January 1995). Hippolyta works alongside the Justice Society, traveling back in time to correct time line errors affecting the present under the mantle of Wonder Woman in the past (John Byrne, Wonder Woman vol. 2, #131–136, March–September 1998). One major story arc that came to symbolize the conflict between Wonder Woman and her mother, Hippolyta, was “Paradise Island Lost,” in which a civil war breaks out on the island and results in the giving up of royal titles (Phil Jimenez, Wonder Woman vol. 2, #168–169, May–June 2001). It is this devastating reality that occupies Wonder Woman with the rebuilding of Paradise Island and allows for the rise of Circe in the story line “Paradise Found” (Phil Jimenez, Wonder Woman vol. 2, #171–177, August 2001–February 2002). Circe transforms all male heroes into creatures that will be hunted by women supervillains. The Amazons have to step in and help, and Wonder Woman is triumphant with mercy and love, which brings her back as an ambassador of peace. This era ends with another attempt to settle story line discrepancies, specifically those having to do with character identities. Infinite Crisis is a seven-issue comic book by Geoff Johns and Phil Jimenez in which Wonder Woman kills a man and ends the story line by walking away to recover (December 2005–June 2006). This kicks off a rebuilding of Wonder Woman in the story line “Who is Wonder Woman?” (Alan Heinberg and Terry Dodson, Wonder Woman vol. 3, #1–4, August 2006–February 2007 and Wonder Woman Annual #3, November 2007). Here, the mantle of “Wonder Woman” is temporarily held by Donna Troy (the original Wonder Girl), and Diana is an agent for the Department of Metahuman Affairs. By issue #4, Diana is once more Wonder Woman but maintaining a double life with no superpowers as Diana, a gift from Circe (Alan Heinbergh and Terry Dodson, Wonder Woman Annual #3, #1, November 2007). This identity crisis comes to a climax in the Final Crisis story line (Grant Morrison, Final Crisis #1–7, July 2008–March 2009). In this story line, Wonder Woman is infected by a virus and joins the Female Furies under the command of Darkseid. The “New 52” relaunch established a new origin for the Amazon (Brian Azzarello and Clif Chiang, Wonder Woman vol. 4, #1–6, November 2011–April 2012). Regardless of the different story lines, universes, and anachronisms, however, Wonder Woman has remained an Amazon warrior with superhuman strength and abilities who represents strength, wisdom, peace, and love—an ambassador of the feminine archetype. It is important to note that in Wonder Woman’s long run, there has been one female writer: Gail Simone. She has authored several story lines and partnered with artists who have helped to nurture the characterization of Wonder Woman as a symbol of feminism. Maria Antonieta Reyes



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See also: Black Canary, Fantomah, Justice League, Justice Society, Woman in Red, Wonder Woman: Other Media; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

Abad-Santos, Alex. 2017. “Wonder Woman’s Dueling Origin Stories and Their Effect on the Hero’s Feminism Explained.” VOX. Accessed September 12, 2018. https:// www​.vox.com/culture/2017/6/7/15740202/wonder-woman-origin​-story-amazons​ -marston-explained. Cocca, Carolyn. 2016. Superwomen: Gender, Power, and Representation. New York: Bloomsbury Press. Curtis, Neal, and Valentina Cardo. 2017. “Superheroes and Third-Wave Feminism.” Feminist Media Studies 18 (3): 381–96. Daniels, Les. 2000. Wonder Woman: The Complete History; The Life and Times of the Amazon Princess. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. Desta, Yohana. October 10, 2017. “How Gloria Steinem Saved Wonder Woman.” Vanity Fair, October. Accessed September 12, 2018. https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood​ /2017/10/gloria-steinem-wonder-woman. Feiffer, Jules. (1965) 2003. The Great Comic Book Heroes. Seattle: Fantagraphics. Frankel, V. Estelle. 2017. Superheroines and the Epic Journey: Mythic Themes in Comics, Film and Television. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Hanley, Tim. 2014. Wonder Woman Unbound: The Curious History of the World’s Most Famous Heroine. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Hatfield, Charles, Jeet Heer, and Kent Worcester, eds. 2013. The Superhero Reader. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Jackson, Matthew. 2013. “Little Known SCI-FI Fact: Originally, Wonder Woman was the JSA’s Secretary.” SYFY WIRE, June. Accessed September 12, 2018. http://www​ .syfy.com/syfywire/little-known-sci-fi-fact-originally​-wonder-woman​-was-jsas​ -secretary. Knowles, Christopher. 2007. Our Gods Wear Spandex: The Secret History of Comic book heroes. San Francisco, CA: Weiser Book. LePore, Jill. 2014. The Secret History of Wonder Woman. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Madrid, Mike. 2009. The Supergirls: Fashion, Feminism, Fantasy, and the History of Comic Book Heroines. Minneapolis, MN: Exterminating Angel Press. Marston, William Moulton. 1943. “Why 100,000,000 Americans Read Comic Books.” American Scholar, Winter. Accessed September 12, 2018. https://theamericanscholar​ .org/wonder-woman/. Munford, Rebecca, and Melanie Waters. 2014. Feminism and Popular Culture: Investigating the Postfeminist Mystique. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Nicholson, Hope. 2017. The Spectacular Sisterhood of Superwomen: A Wisdom Female Characters from Comic Book History. Philadelphia: Quirk Books. O’Reilly, Julie D. 2005. “The Wonder Woman Precedent: Female (Super)Heroism on Trial.” The Journal of American Culture 28 (3): 273–83. Steer, Cassandra. 2017. “Why Wonder Woman Matters.” IntLawGrrls, June. Accessed September 12, 2018. https://ilg2.org/2017/06/05/why-wonder-woman-matters/. Stuller, Jennifer. 2010. Ink Stained Amazons and Cinematic Warriors: SuperWoman in Modern Mythology. London: I. B. Tauris. Valcour, Francinne. 2006. Manipulating the Messenger: American: Wonder Woman as an American Female Icon. PhD dissertation, Arizona State University.

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Wonder Woman: Other Media First Appearance: Creators: Producers:

All Star Comics #8 (cover date: December 1941) William Moulton Marston and Harry G. Peter Warner Bros./Warner Bros. Television/Warner Animation/Warner Home Video Powers: Superhuman strength, speed, durability, reflexes, and immortality/accelerated healing factor/flight/ ability to communicate with animals Weapons: Lasso of Truth, indestructible/Bullet-deflecting bracelets/Projectile tiara/Sword/Shield Base of Operations: Themyscira Key Allies: Steve Trevor, Batman, Superman, Wonder Girl, Queen Hippolyta Key Enemies: Ares, Cheetah, Doctor Poison, Circe, Doctor Psycho, Giganta, Veronica Cale, First Born Team Affiliations: Justice Society, Justice League Secret Identity: Diana Prince, Princess Diana of Themyscira Nicknames: Amazonian Princess

Interestingly enough, although Wonder Woman was extraordinarily popular with comic book fans and especially young women and girls from her very first appearance in All Star Comics #8 in late 1941, the character inspired very little in the way of appearances outside of the pages of her comic universe during her first three decades. Beginning with her appearance on the cover of the 1972 launch of Ms. Magazine, however, Wonder Woman became emblematic of the struggle for gender equality in the late 20th and early 21st centuries for many feminists. Far more than most other comic book characters, Wonder Woman’s presence in popular culture beyond the comic book realm has carried major significance for her fans and for social justice causes. In 1972, a group of feminist journalists headed up by Gloria Steinem decided that a panel from Wonder Woman’s past, which depicted the heroine running for president some 1,000 years in the future, made the perfect opening statement for the first issue of Ms. Magazine. At the height of so-called “second wave” feminism, Wonder Woman’s superhuman strength and her commitment to women’s rights and women’s equality seemed to the editors to perfectly sum up their hopes for a more egalitarian future. Arguably, the character’s most famous embodiment arrived shortly thereafter in the form of actress and singer Lynda Carter in the 1975–1979 television series Wonder Woman. Although a television pilot starring Cathy Lee Crosby as a present-day version of the character had debuted in 1974, it was the World War II version with Carter and costar Lyle Waggoner as Steve Trevor that held TV audiences’ imaginations. Moving from ABC to CBS for



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seasons 2 and 3 and from the 1940s to the 1970s, Diana Prince/Wonder Woman and Steve Trevor (the 1970s version was the son and namesake of the World War II version) went from working in military intelligence and fighting the Nazis to government agents in an NSA/CIA-type agency dealing with threats to American hegemony. The CBS version of Wonder Woman came closer to a character that lived up to the feminist ideals of the Ms. 1972 cover story than did the season 1 version: independent, secure in her intelligence, and unapologetic for her abilities, even as she is complicit in her own sexual objectification. One of the most puzzling questions about Wonder Woman is about her relative lack of substantive appearances outside of her own comics despite her overwhelming popularity. The character was embraced by girls and women as a symbol of female empowerment from her earliest creation by William Moulton Marston in 1941. The irony, however, is that the character herself has often lacked power and/ or has explicitly been relegated to stereotypically “female” roles, such as the mixed message of DC Comics including her in the early Justice Society as the secretary for the group; her role was to appear briefly, worry that the guys were OK, and then disappear from the rest of the plot. Given Marston’s original intention of wanting Wonder Woman to demonstrate the power and potential of women (both intellectually and sexually), her depowering is a particularly telling example of America’s mid-20th-century discomfort with female power and may help explain both her persistence with her female fan base and her merely tokenistic presence in animation and movies during most of the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. Even the great Amazonian princess’s lack of substantive story lines in other media fits the complaints by Gail Simone and her supporters in the famous 1999 Women in Refrigerators manifesto, which accused male comics writers of too often defaulting to the use of female characters merely to advance male characters’ story lines—and frequently in violent and overly gruesome ways. In the new millennium, new writers—and especially more women writers— revived interest in Wonder Woman story lines in the comics. At the same time, discussions about bringing the character to life in a live-action movie heated up once again. With the success of innumerable comic book–based movies, including multiple entries for Batman, Superman, Spider-Man, and the X-Men, it seemed only logical to think that Wonder Woman was on the horizon. Somehow, though, the struggle to define who Wonder Woman is—how feminine, how sexy, how violent, how powerful, how triumphant over men—continued to plague the project through multiple directors and rumored stars. Warner Bros. finally agreed upon actress Gal Gadot and then introduced her in 2016’s Batman vs. Superman: Dawn of Justice as a sort of trial run to see how audiences reacted to this new, more powerful and straightforward version of the character. Audiences loved their new superheroine, and when Wonder Woman was released in 2017, it was a spectacular success with fans. Women went en masse with their friends and reported crying over director Patty Jenkins’s unequivocal depiction of the character as one with a full array of human emotion, a strong sense of social justice, and a willingness to use force when necessary. Set against the background of World War I, a conflict that ushered the West into modernity and its moral dilemmas, Jenkins and

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Scene from the Warner Bros. film Wonder Woman (2017), directed by Patty Jenkins. Gal Gadot not only met, but surpassed, all expectations for her iconic performance as the Amazonian princess. (Warner Bros./Photofest)

Gadot managed to create a fully realized Wonder Woman in ways that previous characterizations often struggled to do. Both director and star have signed on for a sequel entitled Wonder Woman 1984, scheduled for release in 2019. Wonder Woman has also appeared in a number of animated features: on television, straight-to-DVD releases, and most recently, in a web series called DC Super Hero Girls. In most cases, these versions of the character interact with several other superheroes (and in some cases, superheroines) within a group, and the themes vary accordingly—such as in the animated Justice League cartoons Super Friends (1973–1985), Justice League: (2001–2004), and Justice League Unlimited (2004–2006). In DC Super Hero Girls, the emphasis is on the cooperation and friendship that develops between several of the young teen versions of DC’s female comic stars, including Batgirl and Supergirl. However, in the 2016 TV version of Justice League Action, Superman and Wonder Woman are secretly dating and trying to keep it from the other characters. Wonder Woman, by far the most famous and most popular female comic book character ever created, continues to be a character through which the many mixed messages about American women’s lives are filtered. Her popularity with so many women demonstrates that those mixed messages endure, but just as Ms. Magazine predicted in 1972, Wonder Woman is a uniquely insightful and complex icon through which to try to make sense of our culture. Deborah L. Blackwell



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See also: Batman: Other Media, Justice Society, Justice League, Superman: Other Media; Thematic Essays: ALL ESSAYS.

Further Reading

Bergstrom, Signe. 2017. Wonder Woman: Ambassador of Truth. New York: Harper Design. Daniels, Les. 2004. Wonder Woman: The Complete History. New York: Chronicle Books. Hanley, Tim. 2014. Wonder Woman Unbound: The Curious History of the World’s Most Famous Heroine. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Held, Jacob M., ed. 2017. Wonder Woman and Philosophy: The Amazonian Mystique. New York: Wiley-Blackwell. Langley, Travis and Mara Wood, eds. 2017. Wonder Woman and Psychology: Lassoing the Truth. New York: Sterling. Lepore, Jill. 2014. The Secret History of Wonder Woman. New York: Scribe.

X X-Men: Comics First Appearance: Creators:

X-Men #1 (cover date: September 1963) Stan Lee, Jack Kirby, Len Wein, Dave Cockrum, Chris Claremont Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers (Original Teams): Professor X—Telepathy, considered most powerful mind Cyclops—Energy blasts from eyes Marvel Girl/Phoenix (I)/Dark Phoenix—Telepathy Beast—Agility Iceman—Creating ice Angel—Flight Storm—Weather manipulation Colossus—Organic steel skin, enhanced strength Nightcrawler—Agility, teleportation Banshee—Sonic scream Thunderbird—Enhanced strength and speed Wolverine—Enhanced healing factor, adamantium skeleton and retractable claws Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Salem Center, Westchester, New York Key Allies: X-Factor, New Mutants, X-Force, EX-Caliber, Generation-X, Alpha Flight, Moira MacTaggert, Empress Lilandra of the Shi’Ar Key Enemies: Magneto, Brotherhood of (Evil) Mutants, Sentinels, Reverend William Stryker, Hellfire Club, Reavers, Cameron Hodge, Phoenix Force, Apocalypse, Mystique, Sabretooth, Senator Robert Kelly, the Brood, Mister Sinister Other Team Affiliations: [Team members often join other X-Teams] Secret Identity: Professor X—Charles Xavier Cyclops—Scott Summers Marvel Girl/Phoenix (I)/Dark Phoenix—Jean Grey Beast—Hank McCoy Iceman—Bobby Drake Angel—Warren Worthington III Storm—Ororo Munroe



Nicknames:

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Colossus—Piotr (Peter) Rasputin Nightcrawler—Kurt Wagner Banshee—Sean Cassidy Thunderbird—John Proudstar Wolverine—Logan/James Howlett Children of the Atom, “Muties” (derogatory term for mutants)

The X-Men represent one of the largest and richest tapestries in American superhero comic books. They may also be one of the most important. Their ongoing message of inclusiveness continues to play a role in the evolution of American society and the never-ending discussion of societal “norms.” In the Marvel Comics Universe, the X-Men are referred to as a “mutants”: individuals born with a mutated X gene that grants them special “powers” that usually emerge during puberty; they make up the fictional species Homo-­superior and are considered the next step in human evolution. Lee and Kirby introduced the X-Men in 1963, and the book hit newsstands between Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s “Letter from Birmingham Jail” and his “I Have a Dream” speech. As such, numerous readers, even early on, were able to draw comparisons between the plights of the minority mutants in X-Men and African Americans in the United States. Additionally, many have drawn comparisons between the benevolent Professor X and the more militant ­Magneto— and their respective ideologies of social inclusiveness—with real-life Civil Rights icons King and Malcolm X. The X-Men were introduced as teenage students at Xavier’s School for Gifted Youngsters. The school, founded and headed by Professor Charles Xavier, identifies young mutants and provides them with both a conventional education and training on how to control their manifesting powers. The original team consisted of Cyclops, Marvel Girl, Beast, Iceman, and Angel. Their mission was to act as examples to the Homo sapien population and show that mutants are not a danger to it—and often to protect the “normal” human population from the mutants who are dangerous and who do not seek peaceful coexistence between the species. Most notable among such threats are Magneto and his Brotherhood of Evil Mutants (Lee and Kirby, X-Men #1 and #4 respectively, September 1963 and March 1964). However, although promoting a message of inclusiveness, the original team consisted entirely of Caucasian Americans. The initial run of X-Men was never a big seller for Marvel. Beginning with issue #67 (December 1970) and running through issue #93 (April 1975), original stories were discontinued, and Marvel merely published reprints of earlier stories. However, the importance of the X-Men in comic books forever changed with Giant-Size X-Men #1 (May 1975). In this issue, the creative team of Len Wein and Dave Cockrum introduced a new, interracial and international team of mutants. With the original team missing, Professor X and Cyclops draft a new team consisting of: the African “weather goddess,” Storm; the steel-skinned Soviet Russian, Colossus; the blue-skinned German teleporter, Nightcrawler; the Irishman, Banshee; the Native American Thunderbird; and the Canadian government agent

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­ olverine. After rescuing the W original X-Men, Beast, Iceman, and Angel decide to leave the team, and Jean Grey joins Cyclops as part of the new team (Wein and Cockrum, Giant-Size X-Men #1, May 1975). Beginning with GSXM #1, Chris Claremont joined the creative team, assisting with plotting before taking over as head writer with issue #97 (February 1976). Claremont would have total control of the entire X-Men universe for the next 16 years—one of the longest creative runs in comic book history. Most of what comic book fans today recognize as “the X-Men” derived from the pen of Chris Claremont. No single contributor—including Lee and Kirby— has been more responsible for the skyrocketing and enduring Cover for The X-Men #1 (September 1963), with popularity of the franchise. cover art by Jack Kirby and Sol Brodsky. At the Beginning with issue #94 (the height of the civil rights movement, The X-Men first issue after GSXM #1), the spoke more directly to prejudice and injustice book would be titled The Allthan any other comic on the market at the time. New, All-Different X-Men (Barcroft Media/Getty Images) through issue #111. In 1978, starting with issue #114, the comic would receive the name that would become iconic: The Uncanny X-Men. Under Claremont’s direction, the X-Men broke even more new ground. Aside from addressing the inclusiveness issue more than ever, Claremont also created a more “soap-operatic” theme to the book—something that would influence books from both major companies across the board in the coming decades. Claremont explored personal issues and romantic story lines to a degree never seen before. Often, a small nugget of a story would be introduced in a single panel, only to finally be explored to fruition a year or more later. Among the many story lines of the Claremont era, some would go on to become some of the most iconic in comic book history. The “Phoenix Saga” changes Jean Grey’s story forever when the telepathic mutant is imbued with the intergalactic “Phoenix Force” (Claremont and Cockrum, The All-New, All-Different X-Men #101, October 1976). When Jason Wyngarde (a.k.a. Mastermind) seduces Jean Grey into becoming the Black Queen of the Hellfire Club in order to gain control of the Phoenix Force, the X-Men come to



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her rescue. The trauma of seeing her teammates—and love interest, Cyclops—fall causes the “Dark Phoenix” to rise and exact revenge on Mastermind and his club (Claremont and John Byrne, The Uncanny X-Men #134–135, June–July 1980). When it becomes clear that Jean cannot control the Dark Phoenix, she commits suicide to kill the creature within (Claremont and Byrne, The Uncanny X-Men #137, September 1980). This major event would launch a decade of groundbreaking story lines that would launch the X-Men to the top of their genre. By this time, more mutants had been added to the book. Dazzler, a rock star mutant, possessed the power to turn sound into dazzling light shows (Claremont and Byrne, The Uncanny X-Men #130, February 1980). More important to the book overall, however, was the introduction of Kitty Pryde (at various times known as “Ariel,” “Sprite,” and, more famously, “Shadowcat”), who had the power of “phasing” through solid objects (Claremont and Byrne, The Uncanny X-Men #129, January 1980). Kitty would be the primary character in one of the X-Men’s most famous story lines, “Days of Future Past,” where Kitty transports from a dystopian future where mutants are hunted to the brink of extinction to warn her past self and prevent that future from happening (Claremont and Byrne, The Uncanny X-Men #141–142, January–February 1981). Another important mutant is introduced that same year: Rogue, a mysterious villain-turned-hero originally with the mutant power of “stealing” the powers and memories of anyone she touches (Claremont and Michael Golden, Avengers Annual #10, November 1981). The explosive popularity of the X-Men in the early 1980s led to publication of a one-shot graphic novel in 1982. Its out-of-continuity story line focused on the campaign by television preacher Reverend William Stryker to rid the world of mutants, whom he sees as an abomination to God’s creation. The message was a powerful one critical of the hatred and bigotry of the radical right wing toward minorities (be they racial minorities or the LGBTQ community, which, at the time, was being even more ostracized due to the stigma of its connection to the burgeoning AIDS epidemic). Claremont utilizes these beloved characters to present a message of tolerance and acceptance of the “different” in society. It is considered one of the most important comics in the history of the medium (Claremont and Brent Anderson, X-Men: God Loves, Man Kills, 1982). By mid decade, Claremont presents the “Fall of the Mutants” story line, where the X-Men (sans Cyclops and Professor X) fake their deaths to hide better from the growing number of enemies that seek to kill them. In the wake of this, the original X-Men (including the resurrected Jean Grey) sign on with the federal government to create a new group, “X-Factor,” tasked with identifying and locating new mutants. The two teams are reunited for the “Inferno” crossover event in 1988 to 1989. The growing popularity of the various X-groups led to a second “X-Men” title in 1991, simply titled X-Men, written originally by Claremont and drawn by new comics superstar Jim Lee. The 1990s saw several popular crossover X-Events, even after the departure of Claremont as the sole X-writer. “The X-Tinction Agenda” in 1990 saw the various X-teams struggling to free the island nation of Genosha, which had enslaved its mutant populations under the brutal leadership of Cameron Hodge and the

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Chris Claremont Chris Claremont was born on November 25, 1950, in London, England, and began working at Marvel Comics in 1969 as a gofer. He is famous as the writer of the X-Men titles, on which he had an unprecedented 16-year run on Uncanny X-Men from 1975 to 1991. His writing skill (along with art from Dave Cockrum and John Byrne) helped make the X-Men characters (and their comics) go from C-listers to the most popular superhero team of all time. Claremont is often credited with writing strong female characters. Some of the most important story lines in comic book history were scripted by Claremont, including “Days of Future Past” (1981), “God Loves, Man Kills” (1982), and the “Dark Phoenix Saga” (1980). He also, with artist Frank Miller, began Wolverine’s solo adventures. Some of his own mutant X-Men cocreations include Kitty Pryde, Sabretooth, New Mutants, Rogue, and Gambit. Claremont also created the U.K. Captain America equivalent, Captain Britain. The first issue of a companion series just titled X-Men (1991), written by Claremont with art by Jim Lee, became one of the biggest-selling comics of all time (over 7.6 million copies). Other series he has worked on include Iron Fist, Daredevil and Black Widow, Spider-Woman, Marvel Team-Up, Star Wars, and John Carter. He has written most of Marvel’s core characters. Claremont has also occasionally written creator-owned properties like Black Dragon (1985), originally published by Marvel’s Epic line. Claremont’s papers are now collected in the Rare Book and Manuscript Library of Columbia University. He is the subject of the documentary Chris Claremont’s X-Men: Meet the Man Behind the Mutants, and he had a cameo in the film X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014). Robert G. Weiner

Genegenere. The “Fatal Attractions” story line of 1993 saw the X-Men once more battling Magneto, who sought to destroy the world if mutantkind was not accepted and left alone. This story line also saw the extraction of Wolverine’s adamantium through the very pores of his skin, exposing for the first time that the mutant hero’s claws were biological and not, as previously believed, implanted. The “Age of Apocalypse” story line in 1995 sees a very different world when Legion— the insane son of Professor X—travels back in time and accidentally kills his father. This results in Apocalypse taking over the world and Magneto arising as the hero for mutantkind. In 1996, the “Onslaught” story line introduced a new hero emerging from the psychic connection between Professor X and Magneto during the finale to “Fatal Attractions.” The destruction of Onslaught would require the sacrifice of most of the nonmutant Marvel heroes, most notably the Avengers and the Fantastic Four. Throughout the decade, the X-groups were forced to deal with the “Legacy” virus, which killed mutants, most notably Colossus’s sister, Ilyana. In the early 1990s, a new generation of X-Men were introduced in Marvel’s “2099” story line. Developed by John Francis Moore and Ron Lim, X-Men 2099 ran, under occasionally changing titles, throughout most of the 1990s. Led by Desert Ghost and Skullfire, the future X-Men share much in common with their predecessors: a frequently changing roster of teammates, a fight for acceptance and inclusiveness, and soap-operatic story lines. In the 21st century, the X-Men titles and story lines have been more disjointed. Perhaps the most important story



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line would be the 2005 saga “House of M,” where a distraught Scarlet Witch—the daughter of Magneto—alters reality, ultimately decimating the mutant population. The enduring popularity of the X-brand for Marvel Comics, despite the chaotic and problematic continuity of recent years, continues to allow the various titles to be a platform for the message of inclusiveness in a society that desperately needs it. Richard A. Hall See also: Avengers, Deadpool, Fantastic Four, Scarlet Witch/Quicksilver/Vision, Wolverine, X-23, X-Men: Other Media, X-Men: Other X-Groups, X-Men: Rogues’ Gallery; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Darowski, Joseph J. 2014. X-Men and the Mutant Metaphor: Race and Gender in the Comic Books. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. DeFalco, Tom. 2006. Comics Creators on X-Men. London: Titan Books. DiPaolo, Marc. 2011. War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Irwin, William, Rebecca Housel, and J. Jeremy Wisnewski, eds. 2009. X-Men and Philosophy: Astonishing Insight and Uncanny Argument in the Mutant X-Verse. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Mallory, Michael. 2014. X-Men: The Characters and Their Universe. New York: Chartwell Books. Morrison, Grant. 2012. Supergods: What Masked Vigilantes, Miraculous Mutants, and a Sun God from Smallville Can Teach Us About Being Human. New York: Spiegel & Grau. Powell, Jason. 2016. The Best There Is at What He Does: Examining Chris Claremont’s X-Men. Edwardsville, IL: Sequart Organization.

X-Men: Other Media First Appearance: Creators:

X-Men #1 (cover date: September 1963) Stan Lee and Jack Kirby (Honorable Mention: Len Wein, Dave Cockrum, Chris Claremont) Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers (Original Teams): Professor X—Telepathy, “Most Powerful Mind on Earth” Cyclops—Energy blasts from eyes Marvel Girl/Phoenix/Dark Phoenix—Telepathy Beast—Agility Iceman—Creating ice Storm—Weather manipulation

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Nightcrawler—Agility, teleportation Wolverine—Enhanced healing factor, adamantium skeleton and retractable claws Rogue—Super strength, flight, absorbing powers and memories Gambit—Charging objects with energy Shadowcat—Phasing through objects Quicksilver—Super speed Mystique—Transfiguration into any person, voice manipulation Weapons: N/A Base of Operations: Salem Center, Westchester, New York Key Allies: Moira MacTaggert Key Enemies: Magneto, Brotherhood of (Evil) Mutants, Sentinels, William Stryker, Reavers, Apocalypse, Mystique, Sabretooth, Senator Robert Kelly Other Team Affiliations: N/A Secret Identity: Professor X—Charles Xavier Cyclops—Scott Summers Marvel Girl/Phoenix (I)/Dark Phoenix—Jean Grey Beast—Hank McCoy Iceman—Bobby Drake Storm—Ororo Munroe Nightcrawler—Kurt Wagner Wolverine—Logan/James Howlett Rogue—Anna Marie Gambit—Remmy Lebeau Shadowcat—Kitty Pryde Quicksilver—Peter Maximoff Mystique—Raven Darkholm Nicknames: N/A The X-Men are one of the most popular franchises in the Marvel Comics Universe. Led by Professor Charles Xavier, the X-Men are a group of mutants— individuals born with a mutated X gene that grants them extraordinary powers— who fight for inclusiveness in a society that rejects them. Though they have dominated cinema in the 21st century, their portrayals outside of comics has been a slow, steady progress. Their first appearance outside of comics was in an episode of the Saturday-morning cartoon Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends (“The X-Men Adventure,” October 29, 1983). By the end of the 1980s, their popularity in comic books had risen so high that a more prominent appearance elsewhere became fiscally mandatory. In 1989, a pilot episode of X-Men: Pryde of the X-Men aired but was not picked up for a full series. The most iconic X-Men series was the FOX-KIDS Saturdaymorning series X-Men (1992–1997). Hailed by fans and critics alike, X-Men



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reimagined many of the iconic comics stories of the 1980s. After the success of the first live-action X-Men film (see below), a second animated series, X-Men: Evolution (2000–2003), was launched. In 2009, Nicktoons aired Wolverine and the X-Men, which ran for 26 episodes. As part of the “Marvel: Anime” series, a 12-episode run of X-Men aired on the G4 cable network—after previously airing in Japan—in 2011. In 2017, two live-action television series, produced by 20th Century Fox, began airing: The Gifted (FOX-TV), revolving around young mutants hiding from the government, and Legion (FX Cable Network), centering on David Haller, a mentally disturbed mutant who, in the comics, is the son of Professor Charles Xavier. Outside of the 1990s animated series, the most prominent portrayals of the X-Men outside of comics has been in the medium of motion pictures. In 2000, 20th Century Fox released X-Men, directed by Bryan Singer and starring Sir Patrick Stewart as Professor X, Sir Ian McKellen as Magneto, and Hugh Jackman as Wolverine. The huge success of this first film led to two immediate sequels: X2: X-Men United (2003), also directed by Singer, and X-Men: The Last Stand (2006), directed by Brett Ratner. Jackman’s popularity as Wolverine led to the character having his own trilogy: X-Men Origins: Wolverine (2009), directed by Gavin Hood, The Wolverine (2013), and Logan (2017), both directed by James Mangold. In 2011, 20th Century Fox moved to “reboot” the X-franchise with X-Men: First Class, directed by Matthew Vaughn and starring James McAvoy as a young Professor X, Michael Fassbender as the young Magneto, and Jennifer Lawrence as Mystique. The critical success of this venture led to a new series of X-films: X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014), once more directed by Singer, and incorporating the cast from the original trilogy; X-Men: Apocalypse (2016), directed by Singer; and X-Men: Dark Phoenix (2019), directed by Simon Kinberg. Tangential to the X-Men franchise, 20th Century Fox took a chance on an R-rated superhero film with Deadpool (2016), directed by Tim Miller and starring Ryan Reynolds as the notorious “merc with a mouth” (reprising his role from the much-derided X-Men Origins: Wolverine). The film was a massive success, breaking records for R-rated films and for films released in February. This success led to the sequel, Deadpool 2 (2018), directed by David Leitch. Another film, New Mutants (2019), directed by Josh Boone, centers on the “next generation” of students from Xavier’s School for Gifted Youngsters. Separated from the Marvel Cinematic Universe due to 20th Century Fox’s purchasing of the X-Men movie rights in the late 1990s, the possibility of merging the two cinematic universes with the 2018 proposed purchase of 20th Century Fox Entertainment by the Walt Disney Company has excited many comics fans. However it turns out, the future of the X-Men film franchise looks promising for Marvel fans. As with the group’s comics origins, the X-Men film franchise promotes an agenda of inclusion that speaks to many across the social spectrum. Richard A. Hall See also: Deadpool, Scarlet Witch/Quicksilver/Vision, Wolverine, X-23, X-Men: Comics, X-Men: Other X-Groups, X-Men: Rogues’ Gallery; Thematic Essays: The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

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Further Reading

Darowski, Joseph J. 2014. X-Men and the Mutant Metaphor: Race and Gender in the Comic Books. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. DiPaolo, Marc. 2011. War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial. Irwin, William, Rebecca Housel, and J. Jeremy Wisnewski, eds. 2009. X-Men and Philosophy: Astonishing Insight and Uncanny Argument in the Mutant X-Verse. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Lewald, Eric. 2017. Previously on X-Men: The Making of an Animated Series. San Diego: Jacobs Brown Media Group. Mallory, Michael. 2014. X-Men: The Characters and Their Universe. New York: Chartwell Books. Moulton, Jeffery. 2012. The Superhero Response: How 9/11 Changed Our Superheroes and Why It Matters. Self-published.

X-Men: Other X-Groups Group Alpha Flight

First Appearance Uncanny X-Men #120–121 (April–May 1979) New Mutants Marvel Graphic Novel #4 (December 1982) X-Factor X-Factor #1 (February 1986) EXcalibur EXcalibur Special Edition (April 1988) X-Force New Mutants #100 (April 1991) Generation-X Uncanny X-Men #318 (November 1994)

Creators Chris Claremont and John Byrne Chris Claremont and Bob McLeod Bob Layton and Jackson Guice Chris Claremont and Alan Davis Fabian Nicieza and Rob Liefeld Scott Lobdell and Chris Bachalo

Leader Guardian Professor X/ Magneto Cyclops Cpt. Britain Cable Banshee and Emma Frost

Publisher: Marvel Comics Base of Operations: Various Key Enemies: Magneto, Brotherhood of (Evil) Mutants, Sentinels, Reverend William Stryker, Hellfire Club, Reavers, Cameron Hodge, Phoenix Force, Apocalypse, Mystique, Sabretooth, Senator Robert Kelly, the Brood, Mister Sinister



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The explosive popularity of the X-Men franchise under the 16-year direction of writer Chris Claremont beginning in 1975 led to a rich expanded universe of mutant heroes. As early as 1979, additional mutant hero teams emerged. Over the years, many popular X-characters have joined and left these various teams, and each team has carried with it its own distinct flavor and take on the mutant experience. From the Canadian Alpha Flight to the younger-based New Mutants and Generation-X, the growing number of mutant characters has continued the message of inclusiveness that made Claremont’s X-universe so important. Alpha Flight first appeared in the pages of Uncanny X-Men as Canada’s premier superhero team, bent on returning the X-Man Wolverine to their fold. The original team members consisted of Guardian, Aurora, Northstar, Snowbird, Sasquatch, Puck, and Marrina. In the 1990s, Northstar emerged as the first openly gay superhero in Marvel Comics (Lobdell and Mark Pacella, Alpha Flight #106, March 1992). In 2012, Northstar married Kyle Jinadu, representing the first samesex marriage in American comics (Marjorie Liu and Mike Perkins, Astonishing X-Men vol. 3, #51, June 2012). In 1982, the New Mutants emerged as the first sequel title to the X-franchise. Believing the X-Men to be dead, Professor Xavier is urged by longtime X-ally Moira MacTaggert to begin training a new generation of X-Men. The original team consisted of Cannonball and Mirage (co–team leaders), Karma, Sunspot (the first regularly appearing Hispanic superhero in comics), and Wolfsbane. Before the end of the 1980s, the team would include Cypher, Magik (a.k.a. Illyana Rasputin, sister to the X-Man Colossus), Magma, and the computer-based alien life-form Warlock. In the early 1990s, the team would transform into X-Force under the leadership of Cable (son of the X-Man Cyclops). In 2019, 20th Century Fox is scheduled to release the feature film New Mutants, directed by Josh Boone. X-Factor was the first X-team since the original that was not designed by Claremont. Ironically, the team was basically a reboot of the original X-Men. The team consisted of Cyclops (team leader), Jean Grey (retconned to no longer be dead), Beast, Iceman, and Angel. The original team protests Professor Xavier’s recent decision to leave it under the leadership of longtime foe Magneto. Angel’s return introduces him as “Death,” one of the “Four Horsemen” of the villain Apocalypse, his original angelic wings having been replaced with razor-sharp metallic wings (Louise and Walter Simonson, X-Factor #18, July 1987). Once the original team members reunite with the main X-Men team, a second X-Factor would develop as a government-sponsored mutant group under the leadership of Cyclops’s brother Havok. The next Claremont-created X-Group would be EXcalibur. Based in England, the team emerged when main X-Men characters Nightcrawler and Shadowcat believed their teammates to be dead. The original EXcalibur consisted of Captain Britain (team leader), Meggan, Nightcrawler, Shadowcat, and Phoenix (a.k.a. Rachel Summers, the offspring of Cyclops and Jean Grey from an alternate, dystopian future). The original run of the series ended in 1998 with the marriage of longtime paramours Captain Britain and Meggan.

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X-Force emerged in the early 1990s, basically as a retooling of the longtime New Mutants series. Under the leadership of the mysterious Cable (eventually discovered to be the long-lost son of Cyclops and his wife, Madelyn Pryor, and raised in a war-torn dystopian future), the original team consisted of Domino (Cable’s longtime partner), Cannonball, Boom-Boom, Feral, Shatterstar, Warpath (brother of deceased X-Man Thunderbird), Siryn (daughter of believed-deceased X-Man Banshee), Rictor, and original New Mutant Sunspot. The team would take a more aggressive approach, attacking threats to mutants before those threats could attack them. One of their earliest adversaries was the mercenary Deadpool. A later incarnation of X-Force would be developed by X-Men leader Cyclops, once more designed as a deadly attack force against potential threats, led by Wolverine and including Angel and X-23. Cable and Domino were introduced to the X-Men Cinematic Universe in 20th Century Fox feature film Deadpool 2 (2018), with Cable played by Josh Brolin and Domino portrayed by Zazie Beetz. Generation-X is the most recent original X-team to be developed. After the departure of Claremont from the franchise, Generation-X was developed by Scott Lobdell and Chris Bachalo. Under the coleadership of longtime X-Men ally (and occasional member) Banshee and former X-Men foe (and White Queen of the Hellfire Club) Emma Frost, the original team consisted of Jubilee, Chamber, M, Husk, Gaia, Mondo, Synch, Skin, and Penance. Essentially a “next generation” of the New Mutants, a failed TV pilot for them was aired on FOX-TV as a movie in 1996. In 2017, a new iteration of Gen-X debuted with the now-grown Jubilee as the new group leader/mentor. The various X-groups are a continuing testament to the enduring popularity of the mutant universe in Marvel Comics. The ever-expanding roster of characters occasionally requires more groups to keep characters in small-enough ensembles to allow full realization in the comic book format. As with the original X-Men, all of the X-groups continue the message of inclusion and respect for those who feel—or are made to feel—as if they are outside of society’s “norms,” as well as for those who—intentionally or inadvertently—make others feel that way. They represent a vitally important example for an increasingly diverse world. Richard A. Hall See also: Deadpool, Wolverine, X-23, X-Men: Comics, X-Men: Other Media, X-Men: Rogues’ Gallery; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s, The Superhero in the Post– 9/11 World.

Further Reading

Aldama, Frederick Luis. 2017. Latinx Superheroes in Mainstream Comics. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. Darowski, Joseph J. 2014. X-Men and the Mutant Metaphor: Race and Gender in the Comic Books. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. DeFalco, Tom. 2006. Comics Creators on X-Men. London: Titan Books. DiPaolo, Marc. 2011. War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Howe, Sean. 2012. Marvel Comics: The Untold Story. New York: Harper/Perennial.



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Irwin, William, Rebecca Housel, and J. Jeremy Wisnewski, eds. 2009. X-Men and Philosophy: Astonishing Insight and Uncanny Argument in the Mutant X-Verse. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Mallory, Michael. 2014. X-Men: The Characters and Their Universe. New York: Chartwell Books. Powell, Jason. 2016. The Best There Is at What He Does: Examining Chris Claremont’s X-Men. Edwardsville, IL: Sequart Organization.

X-Men: Rogues’ Gallery

Villain Magneto

First Appearance The X-Men #1 (September 1963) Sentinels The X-Men #14 (November 1965) Shadow King Uncanny X-Men #117 (January 1979) Hellfire Club Uncanny X-Men #129 (January 1980) Sen. Kelly Uncanny X-Men #135 (July 1980) Rev. Stryker X-Men: God Loves, Man Kills (1982) Apocalypse X-Factor #6 (June 1986) Mr. Sinister Uncanny X-Men #221 (September 1987)

Creators Secret Identity Stan Lee and Jack Kirby Max Eisenhardt/ Eric Lehnsherr Stan Lee and Jack Kirby N/A Chris Claremont and John Byrne Chris Claremont and John Byrne Chris Claremont and John Byrne Chris Claremont and Brent Anderson Louise Simonson and Jackson Guice Chris Claremont

Amahl Farouk N/A Robert Kelly

William Stryker En Sabah Nur Nathaniel Essex

Publisher: Marvel Comics Base of Operations: Various Key Enemies: X-Men, New Mutants, X-Factor, X-Force, Generation-X As the primary goal of the X-Men and the other mutant-based hero groups is to prove to the human world that mutants are not a threat and can coexist with it peacefully, most of the X-Men’s villains over the decades have fallen into one of two main categories: “evil” mutants who do not wish peace with humans, and humans who refuse to see mutants as anything but a threat. In the comics, there

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have been villains who became heroes, such as Rogue and Emma Frost. In the movies, there have been villains who were once heroes, such as Magneto and Mystique. The depth and complexity of the X-Men narrative has, by design, developed villains of equal depth and complexity. The very first opponent for the X-Men was Magneto, the “Master of Magnetism.” Magneto was one of the first generation of modern mutants. Magneto experienced human cruelty as a child and a European Jew during the Nazi occupation. As such, he sees the hatred toward mutants in the same way as the Nazi hatred for the Jewish people. He soon heads the Brotherhood of (Evil) Mutants, which consists of, among others, the Scarlet Witch and Quicksilver, who are later discovered to be his biological children (Lee and Kirby, X-Men #4, March 1964). When Professor X is forced to leave the team to recuperate from injuries, a reformed Magneto is asked to take his place as head of the X-Men, causing Cyclops to leave the team (Claremont and John Romita Jr., Uncanny X-Men #200, December 1985). Magneto’s redemption, however, does not take, and he soon returns to his villainous ways. In the X-Men films, Magneto is portrayed as an original member of Xavier’s team. The earliest example of humanity’s fear of mutants is manifest in the creation of the Sentinels. Built by Bolivar Trask for the United States government, Sentinels are giant robots specifically designed to seek out and capture mutants. When one Sentinel achieves sentience, calling himself Master Mold, Trask gives his life to stop the aberration (Lee and Kirby, The X-Men #14, November 1965). Over the decades, the Sentinels—and even a “Super” Sentinel named Nimrod/Bastion— return to plague the X-Men. In the dystopian future presented in the story line “Days of Future Past,” the Sentinels have nearly wiped out the mutant population (Claremont and Byrne, Uncanny X-Men #141–142, January–February 1981). The Super Sentinels are portrayed in the 2014 film X-Men: Days of Future Past. Two more mutant threats appeared in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The Shadow King emerged as a dark mirror of Professor X, one of the most powerful minds in the X-Men universe. The character was introduced into the live-action FX-TV series Legion in 2018. The Hellfire Club emerged the following year. Hellfire is an elite club whose governing body consists of powerful mutants, headed by the “Black King” Sebastian Shaw. The Hellfire Club is at the center of perhaps the most iconic X-Men story line of all time, the “Dark Phoenix Saga,” where club member Mastermind (disguising himself as the charming Jason Wyngarde) seduces Jean Grey to have her become the “Black Queen,” ultimately unleashing the Dark Phoenix within her (Claremont and Byrne, Uncanny X-Men #131–137, March–September 1980). The Hellfire’s “White Queen,” Emma Frost, ultimately teams with the X-Man Banshee as coleaders of “Generation-X” and later joins the X-Men in the 21st century. Directly on the heels of these mutant threats, the X-Men are faced with their most ardent human enemies: Senator Robert Kelly and Reverend William Stryker. Senator Kelly is the person responsible for setting off the “Days of Future Past” story line. He supports the “Mutant Registration Act” requiring all mutants to register their identities and powers with the federal government. He is a central character in the first X-Men feature film in 2000. Reverend Stryker is a fanatical evangelist, convinced that mutants are the spawn of Satan and utilizing religious



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fervor to eradicate the mutant “threat.” He and his gang of “Purifiers” are the central antagonists of the graphic novel God Loves, Man Kills (1982). The story line is a direct reflection of the real-world crusades of television evangelists against the gay community at the height of the AIDS epidemic. An altered version of Stryker emerges as the primary villain in the films X2: X-Men United (2003), X-Men Origins: Wolverine (2009), and X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014). Perhaps the X-Men’s most mysterious foes arrived in the mid-1980s. Apocalypse is considered the world’s first mutant, tracing his origins to ancient Egypt. His powers are near omnipotent. His goal is mutant rule of the earth. Whereas Magneto seeks to “lead” mutant control of the world, Apocalypse seeks to “rule” as a living god. His origin is finally revealed in the 1996 miniseries The Rise of Apocalypse, by Terry Kavanagh and Adam Pollina. The character was brought to life by actor Oscar Isaacs in the 2016 film X-Men: Apocalypse. Once allied to Apocalypse, the mysterious Mister Sinister has been a constant threat to the mutants since his arrival in 1987. Sinister is not a mutant, but he has genetically altered himself to have prolonged life and telepathic abilities. Originally a geneticist from the 1800s, Sinister is obsessed with genetic mutation, and the bloodline of Scott Summers (a.k.a. Cyclops) specifically. After the apparent death of Jean Grey, Sinister sends a clone of Jean—named Madelyne Pryor—for Scott to fall in love with. The two have a child, whom Scott sends to the future to protect him from Sinister (Claremont and Marc Silvestri, “Inferno,” Uncanny X-Men #239– 243, December 1988–April 1989). That child returns as the adult mutant hero Cable. Sinister’s origin is finally told of in the miniseries The Further Adventures of Cyclops and Phoenix (Peter Milligan and John Paul Leon, 1996). While these do not represent the entirety of the X-Men’s rogues’ gallery, they do provide an insight into the more powerful foes fought by the X-Men over the decades. All of the above-mentioned villains have been recurring threats to the X-Men and their related teams. They represent both the frustration of the minority and their hatred by the majority in society. They are, like all villains, reflections of the darker side of humanity (and mutantkind). Richard A. Hall See also: Deadpool, Scarlet Witch/Quicksilver/Vision, Wolverine, X-23, X-Men: Comics, X-Men: Other Media, X-Men: Other X-Groups; Thematic Essays: The Nonconformist Hero and the Silver Age: The 1960s, From Relevance to Acceptance: The Bronze and Copper Ages—The 1970s and 1980s, The Superhero in the Post–Cold War Era: The 1990s, The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Darowski, Joseph J. 2014. X-Men and the Mutant Metaphor: Race and Gender in the Comic Books. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. DeFalco, Tom. 2006. Comics Creators on X-Men. London: Titan Books. Irwin, William, Rebecca Housel, and J. Jeremy Wisnewski, eds. 2009. X-Men and Philosophy: Astonishing Insight and Uncanny Argument in the Mutant X-Verse. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Mallory, Michael. 2014. X-Men: The Characters and Their Universe. New York: Chartwell Books. Powell, Jason. 2016. The Best There Is at What He Does: Examining Chris Claremont’s X-Men. Edwardsville, IL: Sequart Organization.

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X-23/Wolverine II First Appearance:

X-Men: Evolution, Season 3, Episode 10, “X23” (air date: August 2, 2003) First Comics Appearance: NYX #3 (cover date: February 2004) Creators: Craig Kyle Publisher: Marvel Comics Powers: Enhanced senses, super-enhanced healing factor, retractable bone (originally) claws (two in each hand, one in each foot), “berserker” rage Weapons: Adamantium-laced claws Base of Operations: Salem Center, Westchester, New York Key Allies: Wolverine Key Enemies: Zebra Daddy, the Facility, Daken, AIM, Reverend William Stryker and the Purifiers Team Affiliations: The Facility, X-Men, X-Force Secret Identity: Laura Kinney Nicknames: Wolverine (briefly) Laura Kinney, better known as X-23, is a mutant in the Marvel Comics and X-Men Cinematic Universes. Like DC Comics’ Harley Quinn, X-23 first appeared in animation, in the series X-Men: Evolution in 2003. Her immediate popularity led to her transition into the comics universe just a few months later. An organization known only as “the Facility” is tasked with creating a clone of the mutant Wolverine. When Dr. Sarah Kinney discovers that a male mutant is not possible, her 23rd attempt yields a sample that will ultimately produce a female clone. As this went against the orders of her superior, Dr. Zander Rice, Kinney is forced to act as the surrogate, carrying the embryo to term. X-23 is raised and trained to be a deadly assassin, her hand and foot claws covered with adamantium. She is also psychologically programmed to respond with a berserker rage like her “father’s.” Rice later utilizes this programming to trigger X-23 to kill Kinney. As she lies dying, Sarah Kinney explains to the girl that her name is “Laura” and gives her photographs of Wolverine, Professor Charles Xavier, and the Xavier Institute for Gifted Youngsters (Craig Kyle, Christopher Yost, and Billy Tan, “Innocence Lost,” X-23 #1–6, March–July 2005). Prior to her origin story, X-23’s first appearance in comics was in the miniseries NYX. In this debut, Laura is a teenage prostitute in New York City, working for a pimp named Zebra Daddy. After meeting other lost mutants, Laura liberates them—and herself—from Zebra Daddy (Joe Quesada and Joshua Middleton, NYX #3, February 2004). X-23 soon comes to the attention of the X-Men, and Wolverine discovers quickly that the girl is a clone of him. Shortly thereafter, X-23 joins the Xavier Institute and becomes a member of the X-Men (Chris Claremont and Salvador Larroca, X-Men vol. 2, #165, February 2005). In 2007, X-Men leader



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Cyclops organizes a new “X-Force” headed by Wolverine and including, among others, X-23. The purpose of this team is to take a more violently militant approach to the enemies of the X-Men. After the death of Wolverine in 2015, Laura donned his mantle in the pages of the various X-Men titles as well as her own All New Wolverine. With the return of Wolverine to the Marvel Comics Universe in 2018, Laura is expected to return to her original X-23 moniker. Aside from her debut in X-Men Evolution, X-23 also appeared in two episodes of the animated series Wolverine and the X-Men (2009). Her most prominent appearance outside of comics has been in the 20th Century Fox film Logan (2017), directed by James Mangold. Actress Dafne Keen’s portrayal was hailed by fans and critics. The film was one of the most successful of the X-Men franchise, earning Keen an Empire Award for “Best Female Newcomer” and an MTV Movie Award; she shared the award for “Best Onscreen Duo” with Hugh Jackman. X-23 continues to be one of the most popular characters in both her comics and film incarnations. Also, and most important, unlike other “female versions” of popular male characters (such as Batgirl and Supergirl), X-23 is never portrayed as in any way less powerful than her male counterpart. X-23 is not a watered-down version of Wolverine. She is as powerful in every way—and quite possibly even more powerful. Richard A. Hall See also: Harley Quinn, Hydra/AIM, Wolverine, X-Men: Comics, X-Men: Other Media, X-Men: Other X-Groups, X-Men: Rogues’ Gallery; Thematic Essays: The Superhero in the Post–9/11 World.

Further Reading

Darowski, Joseph J. 2014. X-Men and the Mutant Metaphor: Race and Gender in the Comic Books. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Frankel, Valerie Estelle. 2017. Superheroines and the Epic Journey: Mythic Themes in Comics, Film and Television. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Irwin, William, Rebecca Housel, and J. Jeremy Wisnewski, eds. 2009. X-Men and Philosophy: Astonishing Insight and Uncanny Argument in the Mutant X-Verse. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Mallory, Michael. 2014. X-Men: The Characters and Their Universe. New York: Chartwell Books. Manning, Matthew K. 2009. Wolverine: Inside the World of the Living Weapon. London: DK. Moulton, Jeffery. 2012. The Superhero Response: How 9/11 Changed Our Superheroes and Why It Matters. Self-published.

Glossary

Alternate Time Line/Universe Story line or series of story lines existing outside the parameters of previously established continuity. Bullpen Jargon for the collection of writers, artists, colorists, and inkers that produce comic books. Collectors’ Bubble Period of time when speculators invest heavily in comic books due to a perception of increased value of the comics over time, which eventually collapses when value does not increase as expected. Colorist Individual responsible for coloring the penciled art of a comic book. The colorist can alter or enhance intended moods for the text with the use of colors and tints of colors. Con Short for “Convention,” a meeting of fans to celebrate their fandom, engage in cosplay, and meet industry insiders. Continuity The established, uninterrupted time line of a character’s continuing story. Cosplay Dressing in costumes related to a particular fandom, occasionally in competition with fellow cosplayers. Fandom Collection of fans of a specific genre, medium, or franchise. Fanzine Magazine privately published by fans, focusing on a specific genre, medium, or franchise. Genre Subsection of a medium (i.e., superheroes are a genre of the comic book medium).

340 Glossary

Graphic Novel Stand-alone comic book story with a higher page count than a standard comic book. Inker Individual(s) responsible for tracing the penciled art for a comic book. Also responsible for adding tone through shading and shadowing. Internal Monologue Unspoken thoughts of a comic book character. Presented to the reader through Thought Bubbles or Narration Boxes. Letters Column Section of a comic book where the editor publishes selected letters from fans. Often used as a communication medium for fans. Motion Comic Video-driven platform created by providing slight movement to established comic book Panels with voice-over for the dialogue, narration, and monologue. Multiverse Popular concept in superhero comic books utilizing the idea that there exist multiple realities and that major decision points in characters’ existence cause separate, new realities that flow from their opposing decisions. Narration Box Small section of a comic book Panel where narration outside of dialogue is presented for the reader. Panel Frame of comic book storytelling. Penciler Individual responsible for drawing the initial art of a comic book. Pulp Paper Cheap form of paper made from wood by-products and recycled paper, used in printing comic books for the industry’s first several decades. Reboot The relaunch of a comic book with a new direction and occasionally altered origin story, often starting with a new #1 issue. Retcon (Ret-con) Short for “retroactive continuity.” A change to established Continuity outside of a complete Reboot. Rogues’ Gallery Collection of villains connected to a specific Superhero. Scripter Primary author of a comic book.

Glossary 341

Speculator Individual who gambles on the potential future value of a comic book. Speech Bubble Area of a comic book Panel presenting spoken words of characters. Recognizable for the pointed, unbroken portion pointing to the character who is speaking. Static Character Fictional character that, due to its long term utilization, is unable to be fully realized or show signs of substantial character growth. Story Arc Story line that spans numerous issues of a comic book. Storyboard Rough draft of a comic book utilized for planning and organization purposes. Thought Bubble Area of a comic book Panel presenting the internal thoughts of a character. Recognizable for the series of broken circles leading in the direction of the character who is thinking. Universe The totality of interconnected characters in comic book storytelling, involving multiple books. Volume Complete, unbroken run of comic book issues revolving around one character or a group of characters.

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About the Editor and Contributors

EDITOR RICHARD A. HALL is an adjunct professor of history at Texas A&M International University. He received his PhD from Auburn University in 2011, specializing in the politics and culture of the Cold War era in the United States. His dissertation focused on issues of race, gender, and patriotism in Captain America comic books from 1941 to 2001. He has been a contributing author to Movies in American History (ABC-CLIO) and is an advisory board member for ABCCLIO’s Pop Culture Universe database. He is also a contributing author to The Dark Side, a collection of essays on villains in popular culture coming soon from University of Mississippi Press. He has taught courses on television and films during the Cold War and on examining American intellectual history through comic book superhero narratives. CONTRIBUTORS DEBORAH L. BLACKWELL is associate professor of history and director of the University Honors Program at Texas A&M International University in Laredo. She received her BA in history and government from the College of William and Mary, her MA in history from North Carolina University, and her PhD from the University of Kentucky. Her research focuses primarily on issues of gender in the U.S. South/Appalachia and in U.S. popular culture. JOSH PLOCK studied American history with a focus in popular culture at Columbus State University. He is currently a staff writer covering comics, films, and literature for the Web site House of Geekery. On Friday nights, he has a regular segment on the podcast The Aymerich Show. Josh Plock currently resides in Memphis, Tennessee. MARIA ANTONIETA REYES is an assistant professor of public administration at Texas A&M International University. Her scholastic interests are interdisciplinary and include the study of local organizations, political theology, public administration

354

About the Editor and Contributors

theory, popular culture, and interdependence and interrelation beyond economic bases. She received her PhD from Auburn University in 2012, served in the U.S. Army, and lives in Laredo, Texas, with her husband and children. ROBERT G. WEINER is popular culture librarian at Texas Tech University and teaches courses on popular culture for the Honors College. He has published on pop culture topics including Spider-Man, Captain America, comics in education, Marvel Comics and film, Monty Python, Batman, the Joker, comics in libraries, Mystery Science Theater 3000, transgressive film, the Grateful Dead, and James Bond. His works have been published in the International Journal of Comic Art, Journal of Pan African Studies, Routledge History of the Holocaust, Gospel According to Superheroes, Race in American Film, Routledge History of Social Protest in Music, Secret History of Comic Studies, Routledge Companion to Comics, Too Bold for the Box Office, and many others. He is the author of Marvel Graphic Novels and editor/coeditor of Captain America: The Struggle of the Superhero, The Joker: A Serious Study of the Clown Prince of Crime, Web-Spinning Heroics: Critical Essays on the History and Meaning of Spider-Man, Python Beyond Python: Critical Engagements with Culture, and Marvel Comics into Film: Essays on Adaptations Since the 1940s, among other books. He lives in Lubbock, Texas, with an assortment of magical creatures known as prairie dogs.

Index

Page numbers in bold indicate main entries; page numbers in italic indicate figures. Adams, Neal, 26–29, 86, 155, 271; Batman and, 39, 73, 81; collaboration with Denny O’Neill, 154; Green Lantern/Green Arrow, 26–29, 85, 149–151, 155; Man-Bat cocreator, 79; Ra’s al Ghul cocreator, 79 Agnew, Spiro, 150 Al-Qaeda, 41, 46–48, 50, 173 Alpha Flight (X-Men group), 138, 306, 322, 330, 331 Alphona, Adrian, 196 Amanat, Sana, 196 “America First” movement, 4, 5, 113 American Nazi Bund/Party, 5, 113. See also Nazism Anderson, Brent, 186; Rev. Stryker cocreator, 333; X-Men: God Loves, Man Kills, 30–31 Andru, Ross, 208 Angel, 131, 322–324, 331, 332 Anti-communism: Captain America’s “Commie Smasher!” story line, 102– 103, 108, 113, 133, 135, 142–143, 222; McCarthyism, 102–103, 113, 142–143, 222 Anti-Semitism, 4. See also Nazism Ant-Man/Giant-Man/Goliath/ Yellowjacket, 57–59; in animated series, 58; Ant-Man (2016 film), 52, 135; Avengers members, 57–58, 63, 65, 177; Black Goliath and, 28, 57, 58; Bronze Age of Comics and, 28; in film, 58–59; genius scientist-turned-hero trope, 59; Silver Age of Comics and, 15–16 Aparo, Jim: Aquaman, Bronze Age revival of, 60; “Death in the Family, A” story line, 182; “Knightfall” story line, 38

Apocalypse, 306, 307, 322, 326, 328, 330, 331, 333, 335 Aquaman, 59–61, 268; in Justice League (2017 film), 61, 188; Namor, the Sub-Mariner, and, 262, 264; origin story, 59–60; original Justice League member, 59, 185–188; powers, 59–60; Silver Age of Comics and, 3, 14, 186, 186; solo series, 60; Superman/ Aquaman Hour of Adventure, The, 60–62, 156, 187, 287 Atom, 61–62, 154, 243; origin story, 62; in other media, 62; Silver Age reimagining of, 62 Avengers, 15, 16, 28, 37, 63–66; Atom and, 57–59; Avengers, The (2012 film), 66; Avengers: Earth’s Mightiest Heroes (2010–2103 animated series), 58, 91, 103, 218, 223, 291; Civil War story line and, 65; Marvel’s “Ultimate” universe story line and, 64; origin story, 63–64; in other media, 66; Post–9/11 Era and, 49-51; X-Men “Onslaught” story line and, 64 Bachalo, Chris, 330, 332 Bane, 38, 71, 74, 76, 80, 81, 202, 220 Banshee, 29, 211, 131, 322, 323, 330, 332, 334 Barnes, Bucky. See Bucky/Young Allies/ Winter Soldier Batgirl/Oracle, 67–71; in Batman (1966–1968 live-action television series), 68; emergence of Oracle, 69; “The Last Batgirl Story,” 68–69; “No Man’s Land” story line, 69–70

356 Index Batman: comics, 71–76; Batman: The Dark Knight Returns (1986 miniseries), xxi, 23, 31–32, 39, 47, 73, 150, 182, 215, 277, 302, 304; Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again, 47, 62; “Cataclysm” story line, 75; Detective Comics #27, 72; in Kingdom Come (1996 miniseries), 40–42, 72, 116, 219, 225, 244, 273; Wertham crusade on Batman-Robin relationship, 3, 10, 72, 83, 203 Batman: other media, 76–79; animated series, 77–78; Batman (1967–1968 television series), 17, 77, 78, 86; Batman (1989 film), 77; Batman: The Animated Series (1992–1999), 39, 70, 74, 77–78, 81, 162, 163, 183, 187, 204, 220, 277; Batman and Robin (1997 film), 43, 51; Batman Begins (2005 film), 51, 77; Batman Forever (1995 film), 77; Batman Returns (1992 film), 77; Batman v. Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016 film), 77; Dark Knight, The (2008 film), 51, 77; Dark Knight Rises, The (2012 film), 51, 77; Gotham (2014–2019 live-action series), 78, 184; movie serials (1940s), 76–77 Batman: rogues’ gallery, 79–82; Bane, 38, 71, 74, 76, 80, 81, 202, 220; Catwoman, 19, 28, 71, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 163, 202, 214; Court of Owls, 71, 76, 80, 81–82, 202, 214, 219, 224; Harley Quinn, 81, 162–164, 183, 221, 264, 265, 266, 267, 336; Joker, 31, 67, 69, 70, 71–73, 76, 77–78, 79, 80, 162–164, 181–184, 202, 214–216, 219–221, 224, 226, 254, 300; Man-Bat, 71, 73, 76, 79, 81, 255; Mr. Freeze, 71, 76, 79, 81, 202; Penguin, 71, 76, 78, 79, 80, 82, 84, 202, 214, 219, 224; Poison Ivy, 79, 81, 162, 163, 267; Ra’s al Ghul, 71, 73, 76, 79, 81, 202, 214, 215, 219, 224, 225; Riddler, 71, 76, 78, 79, 81, 82, 86, 202, 214, 219, 224; Scarecrow, 71, 76, 79, 80, 202, 214, 219, 224; supervillain, origin of concept, 80; Two-Face, 71, 74, 76–77, 79–80, 79, 80, 202, 214, 219, 224. See also Harley Quinn; Joker Battlestar Galactica (franchise), 24 Batwoman, 67, 72, 82–85; most prominent LGBTQ character in comic book history, 84; retcons, 83–84; in other media, 84; Wertham crusade and, 83 Beast, 131, 322–324, 327, 328, 331

Beck, C. C, 114, 116 Berman, William, 41 Bernstein, Robert: Aquaman and, 60; General Zod creator, 279; Metallo cocreator, 279 Bin Laden, Osama, 42, 46, 48, 52 Binder, Otto, 170; Bizarro cocreator, 279; Brainiac cocreator, 279; Legion of Superheroes cocreator, 192; Supergirl cocreator, 266 Bizarro, 267, 269, 272, 275, 279, 280 Black Canary, 19, 27, 85–87, 141, 149, 163; Birds of Prey (2002 television series), 86; Justice Society member, 85–86, 191, 243; in other media; 86; Silver Age reboot, 85 Black Lightning, 29, 87–89, 268; origin story, 88; in other media, 88 Black Panther, 89–92; 87, 88, 97, 194; of African descent (as distinct from African American) 89, 97, 100, 134; in animated series, 91; Black Panther #1, 90; All-Negro Comics and, 7; in Avengers: Infinity War (2018 film), 91; anti-racism and, 17–18, 90; becomes Avengers member (Avengers #52), 90; Black Panther (2018 film), 52, 91; Captain America and, 90–91; in Captain America: Civil War (2106 film), 91; cocreators Lee and Kirby, 7, 17–18, 28, 89–90, 238; design of, 89; Doctor Doom (enemy) and, 128, 263; inventor of Falcon’s wings, 90, 134; Lee’s message on racism and, 17–18 Black Panther Party, 17, 89 Black Power movement, 17, 88–89 Black Terror and Tim, 92–94; Black Terror #1, 93; origin story, 93; in public domain, 93 Black Widow, 27, 64, 94–96, 102, 112, 122, 172, 199; in Marvel Cinematic Universe, 95; origin story, 95; in other media, 95–96 Blade, the Vampire Hunter, 28, 96–98, 135, 194, 241; Blade (1988 film), 43, 97; origin story, 96–97; in other media, 97–98 Blue Beetle, 98–100; Blue Beetle #1, 99; Crisis on Infinite Earths story line and, 99; origin story, 99; in other media, 99–100; Question and, 21, 211–212 Brainiac, 269, 279, 280 Broderick, Pat, 219

Index 357 Bronze and Copper Ages of Comics (1970s and 1980s), 23–33; Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, 23, 31–32; Black Monday (stock market crash of October 19, 1987), xxii, 32; black superheroes and blaxploitation, 28–29; Captain America, 25–26, 28, 109–110; collectors’ bubble, 32; definitions, xxiii; feminism, 27–28; gay rights movement, 29–30; Green Lantern, 26–27, 29; Overstreet Price Guide introduced (1970), 24; San Diego comic book convention debut (1970), 24; social relevance in Bronze Age, 24–27, 29–33; social relevance in Copper Age, 29–33; Spider-Man, 24–25; Watchmen, 23, 32; X-Men, 24, 27–31 Broome, John: Flash, Silver Age reimagining of, 14, 143, 144; Green Lantern Corps cocreator, 156 Brother Voodoo, 87, 97, 100–101, 132, 135, 230; Blaxploitation era and, 28, 100; origin story, 100–101 Bubba, 7 Buchanan, Pat, 45 Bucky/Young Allies/Winter Soldier, 102–104; Bucky as Young Allies member, 102, 169; as Captain America, 103, 110, 223; “Commie Smasher!” story line, 102–103, 108, 113, 133, 135, 142–143, 222; in Marvel Super Heroes, The (animated series), 103; Nomad (Jack Monroe/Captain America) killed by, 103; in other media, 103; presumed death of, 15, 16, 102–103; rehabilitation of Winter Soldier, 95, 103, 223; team affiliations, 102; “Two Americas” story line, 103; as Winter Soldier, 51, 103, 223;Winter Soldier’s name origins, 103; Young Allies, 6–7, 102, 169, 261. See also Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014 film) Bulletman and Bulletgirl, 104–106; origin story, 104–105; in other media 105 Bullpen Bulletins, 17–18 Burgos, Carl, 102; Human Torch creator, 169, 171 Buscema, John, 58, 90, 95, 127, 238, 239; She-Hulk cocreator, 233; Vision cocreator, 229; Bush, George H. W., 35–36, 43, 45 Bush, George W., 46–48, 50–51, 110, 238; Bush Doctrine, 47–48

Busiek, Kurt, 39 Byrne, John, 29, 127, 175, 234, 239, 326; Alpha Flight cocreator, 330; career of, 138; Hellfire Club cocreator, 333; Senator Kelly cocreator, 333; Shadow King cocreator, 333; She-Hulk and, 28; Suicide Squad cocreator, 264 Byrnes, Olive, 312, 313 Captain America: comics, 107–112; allies, 107, 169, 176–178, 199, 200, 262–263; as anti-Nazi hero, 5, 107, 108, 112, 113; “big three” of Timely era of Superheroes, 169; Captain America and the Falcon, 25–26, 28, 108, 134–135; Captain America Comics #1, 108; Bronze and Copper Ages of Comics, 25–26, 28, 109–110, Civil War story line and, 110, 123, 139, 194;“Commie Smasher!” story line, 102–103, 108, 113, 133, 135, 142–143, 222; “Death of Captain America” story line, 109, 178; enemies, 107, 172, 173, 221–223; fan club (Sentinels of Liberty), 102, 190; Fighting American created in reaction to, 142; first gay character in American comic books (Arnie Roth), 109; Golden Age of Comics, 3–7, 107–108; “Heroes Reborn” and Heroes Return” story lines, 110; Human Torch and, 169–171; “man out of time” retcon, xxi, 16, 108; Marvel’s “Ultimate” universe and, 110; as Nomad: The Man Without a Country, 26, 133; origin story, 107–108; Post–Cold War Era, 37, 39, 110; in Post–9/11 Era, 46–47, 49–52, 110; Red Hulk and, 217–218; Shield compared with, 236, 237; Silver Age of Comics, 15–17, 108; Super Soldier Serum, 52, 107, 110, 135, 167, 284 Captain America: other media, 112–114; animated series, 114; Captain America: Civil War (2016 film), 91, 95, 103, 114, 135, 219, 230, 252; Captain America: The First Avenger (2011 film), 103, 113, 173, 201, 222, 223, 311; Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014 film), 103, 114, 135, 173, 201; Marvel Cinematic Universe films, 113–114; Marvel Super Heroes, The (1966 animated series), 112; television movies, 113, 250

358 Index Captain Marvel (a.k.a. SHAZAM!), 114–117; Adventures of Captain Marvel, The (1941 film), 116; allies, 104, 159, 196; Captain Marvel (2019 film), 201; crossover DC story lines, 116; in Justice League reboot, 116; Kid Super Power Hour with Shazam! (1981–1982 animated series), 117; in Kingdom Come (1966 graphic novel), 116, 273; legal and copyright issues, 115–116, 187, 270–271; Ms. Marvel and, 196–197; origin story, 115; popularity of, 105, 271; sidekicks (Captain Marvel Jr. and Mary Marvel), 115; Superman/Shazam!: The Return of Black Adam (2010 anthology DVD), 117; uniqueness of, 115, 246 Capullo, Greg, 80 Cassaday, John, 47 Catwoman, 19, 28, 71, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 163, 202, 214 Chambers, Jim, 120 Christman, Bert, 227 Chromium Age. See Post–Cold War Era Claremont, Chris, 97, 127, 175; Alpha Flight cocreator, 330; career of, 326; EXcalibur cocreator, 330; Hellfire Club cocreator, 333; Image Comics and, 241; Mr. Sinister creator, 333; New Mutants cocreator, 330; Rev. Stryker cocreator, 333; Sen. Kelly cocreator, 333; Shadow King cocreator, 333; Uncanny X-Men, 29, 275, 324–326, 330, 333; Wolverine and, 261, 305, 306; X-Men (reboot), 138, 307; X-Men: God Loves, Man Kills, 30–31, 325; X-Men cocreator, 39, 306, 307, 322, 324; X-Men groups and, 331–332; X-Men universe and, 29, 306, 324–326, 327, 330–332 Civil rights movement, 6, 14, 16–17, 20, 31; X-Men and, 323, 324. See also King, Martin Luther, Jr.; Malcolm X Clinton, Bill, 41–42 Clinton, Hillary, 52 Cloak and Dagger, 117–119; Cloak & Dagger (2018 live-action series), 119; drug crisis of 1980 and, 118–119; origin story, 118; in other comics, 118; in Ultimate Spider-Man (2014 film), 118 Cockrum, Dave, 306, 322–324, 326, 327 Cohen, Elizabeth, 41 Colan, Gene: Blade, the Vampire Hunter cocreator, 96, 97; Brother Voodoo

cocreator, 28, 100; Falcon cocreator, 108, 134; Guardians of the Galaxy cocreator, 158, 159; Ms. Marvel (Carol Danvers) cocreator, 196 Cold War era, 7–11. See also Wertham, Fredric Cole, Jack, 206, 207 Collectors’ bubble, 32, 35, 36–40, 74, 91, 139, 248, 273, 304, 307 Colossus, 29, 322, 323, 326, 331 Comics Code Authority: amendments to (1971), 100, 132, 150, 244; Batman and, 11; creation and history of, 10–11, 83; Ghost Rider and, 147; Green Arrow and, 27, 150; Hulk and, 165; selected mandates, 10–11; Spectre and, 244; Spider-Man and, 24, 27, 246; Superman and, 11, 272; Vertigo (DC Comics imprint) and, 300; Wonder Woman and, 11 Conway, Gerry: Power Girl cocreator, 266; Punisher cocreator, 208; Red Hood/ Robin II cocreator, 214 Copper Age of Comics. See Bronze and Copper Ages of Comics Coughlin, Charles, 4 Court of Owls, 71, 76, 80, 81–82, 202, 214, 219, 224 Craven, Wes, 283 Crimson Avenger, 120–121; Jill Carlyle/“Spirit of Vengeance” reimagining (2000), 120; legacy of, 121; origin story, 120; Seven Soldiers of Victory member, 120, 149 Crisis on Infinite Earths (DC story line), 65, 84, 99, 116, 130, 145, 158, 187, 203, 212, 215, 267, 272, 280, 295, 315–316 Cuban Missile Crisis, 14, 53 Cyclops, 29, 31, 322–325, 327, 330, 331–332, 334, 335, 337 Daredevil, 15, 16, 52, 122–124, 154, 176, 195, 238, 261; Black Widow and, 95, 122–123; Cox, Charlie, as, 123; Daredevil (2003 film), 123–124; Daredevil (2015 Netflix series), 210; origin story, 122 Darkseid, 185, 203, 220, 225–226, 267, 275, 279, 281, 316 Davis, Alan, 330 Deadpool, 124–126, 218; breaking the fourth wall, 125–126; Deadpool (2016 film), 52, 126, 329; Deadpool 2 (2018 film), 126, 329, 332; Deadpool Kills the

Index 359 Marvel Universe story line, 126; New Mutants, The, #98, 125; origin story, 125 DeMatteis, J. M., 29–30, 109 Dini, Paul: Batman: The Animated Series, 39, 70, 183; Batman Beyond, 39; Harley Quinn cocreator, 162; Justice League, 39, 187; Justice League Unlimited, 39, 187; Superman: The Animated Series, 39, 277 Ditko, Steve: Doctor Strange cocreator, 20, 131, 132, 133; Dr. Octopus cocreator, 253; Electro cocreator, 253; Green Goblin cocreator, 253; Kraven cocreator, 253; Lizard cocreator, 253; Marvel Method and, 17; politics of, 20–21; Question, The, cocreator, 21, 211–212; Silver Age of Comics and, 15, 17, 20–21; Spider Man cocreator, 20, 245, 246, 249; Spider Man’s rogues’ gallery cocreator, 253 Dixon, Chuck, 69; Bane cocreator, 80 Doctor Doom, 127–129, 136, 182, 224, 263; “2099” story line, 127–128; Avengers and, 65; Black Panther and, 91; Brother Voodoo and, 101; Fantastic Four and, 128; in other media, 128; as premier Marvel Comics supervillain, 127 Doctor Fate, 129–130, 228, 243; origin story, 129; in other media, 130 Doctor Strange, 131–133; Brother Voodoo and, 101; Defenders and, 166, 239; Doctor Strange, Vol. 2, #1, 132; in other media, 132; Quicksilver and, 230; Silver Age of Comics and, 15, 16, 20 Doomsday, 38, 269, 272, 273, 275, 278, 279, 281 Douglas, Michael, 58 Drake, Arnold, 158, 159 Driscoll, Bill, 7 Eastman, Kevin, 288 Edlund, Ben, 293–294 Eisner, Will: Blue Beetle cocreator, 98, 99; Golden Age of Comics and, 4; Spirit creator, 260–261; Uncle Sam creator, 4, 296 Englehart, Steve, 65, 239; “Avengers/ Defenders War” story line, 133; Captain American “Commie Smashe” retcon, 103, 133; career of, 133; Doctor Strange, Bronze and Copper Ages, 131, 132; social relevance and, 25–26 Estrada, Ric, 266 Evans, Chris, 113–114 Evans, George J., Jr., 7

Evans, Orrin C., 7 Everett, Bill, 170; Daredevil cocreator, 122; Marvel Method and, 17; SubMariner creator, 262 Evers, Medgar, 14 EXcalibur (X-Men group), 330, 331 Falcon, 7, 17–18, 25–26, 30, 52, 88, 134–136; Blaxploitation era and, 28; in Captain America: Civil War (2016 film), 135; Captain America and the Falcon, 25–26, 28, 108, 134–135; costume created by Black Panther, 90; origin story; in other media, 135 Falk, Lee, 205 Famous Funnies (first American comic book), 3 Fan groups and clubs, 190 Fantastic Four, 136–140; creation of, 137, 145; Fantastic Four #1, 137; Human Torch, 108–109, 136, 139, 169–171, 229–230, 263; Invisible Girl/Woman, 18–29, 27, 263; Marvel interconnectivity, 138–139; Mister Fantastic, 18; “New” Fantastic Four, 148, 166; origin story, 136–137; in other media, 139; Thing, The, 15–16, 101, 139, 194, 234; “This Man . . . This Monster” story line, 138 Fantomah, 140–142; first superpowered female comic character, 140, 310; Jungle Comics #27, 141; origin story, 141 Fighting American, 113, 142–143 Finger, Bill: Batgirl cocreator, 67; Batman cocreator, 71–73, 76, 154; career of, 73; Catwoman cocreator, 79; collaboration with Kane, Bob, 73; Golden Age of Comics and, 4; Joker cocreator, 79, 181, 254; Mr. Freeze cocreator, 79; Nightwing cocreator, 202–203, 224; Penguin cocreator, 79; Riddler cocreator, 79; Scarecrow cocreator, 79; on social injustice (Batman #5), 4; Two-Face cocreator, 79 Finger, The, 299 Fingermen, 299–300 Finton, Ben, 61 Flagg, James M., 296 Flash, 14, 37, 143–146; Crisis on Infinite Earths sacrifice of, 145; Flash (television series), 52, 86; origin story, 144; in other media, 146; Silver Age reimagining of, 62, 137, 144

360 Index Ford, Henry, 4 Fox, Gardner, 19; Atom, Silver Age reimagining of, 61, 62; Batgirl cocreator, 67; Doctor Fate cocreator, 129; Flash cocreator, 143; Justice League cocreator, 185; Justice Society cocreator, 188; Sandman cocreator, 227; Spectre (Silver Age) and, 243–244 Fox Comics, 98 Foxx, Jamie, 242, 247 Friedan, Betty, 10 Friedrich, Gary, 95; Ghost Rider cocreator, 147 Funnies on Parade (precursor to American comic books), 3 Gabrielson, Don, 92 Gaines, Maxwell, 3 General Zod, 269, 275, 279, 281 Generation-X (X-Men group), 330, 331, 332, 333, 334 Ghost Rider, 147–148; first Ghost Rider (Rex Fury), 147; origin story, 147; in other media, 148; recent Ghost rider (Robbie Reyes) 148; second Ghost Rider (Danny Ketch), 147–148 Giant-Man. See Ant-Man/Giant-Man/ Goliath/Yellowjacket Gibbons, Dave, 32, 302, 302 Gibson, Walter B., 231–232 Goetz, Bernhard, 32, 209 Golden Age of comics, 3–11; Batman, 3–4, 8, 10; Captain America, 3–7; Cold War era, 7–11; Comic Code Authority, 10–11; definition, xxiii; Great Depression era, 3–4; origins of American comic books, 3–5; race and, 6–7; Superman, 3–6, 9–11; Wertham crusade, 7–11; Wonder Woman, 3, 5–6, 10–11; World War II era, 5–7 Goliath. See Ant-Man/Giant-Man/Goliath /Yellowjacket Goodman, Martin: career of, 170; pushback on CCA with publication of Amazing Spider-Man, The, 24; creation of Fantastic Four and, 15, 137, 145, 238 Goodwin, Archie: Luke Cage/Power Man cocreator, 193; Spider-Woman cocreator, 257 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 35 Great Depression: Batman and, 4, 73; comic book as product of, 3–4; Crimson Avenger and, 120–121; Green Arrow and, 151; inequitable effect on

minorities, 4; Phantom and, 206; Shadow and, 232; superheroes fighting for social justice and, 4, 120; Superman and, 4; urbanization and, 4 Green Arrow, 3, 14, 26–27, 29, 149–151, 154–155, 268; Black Canary and, 86; Green Lantern/Green Arrow, 149, 150; origin story, 149; in other media; “Snowbirds Don’t Fly” story line, 150 Green Hornet, 120, 151–153, 227, 232, 261; Green Hornet, The (1966–1967 live-action television series), 152; movie serials (1950s), 152; origin story, 152; radio program (1936–1950), 152; Green Lantern, 73, 86, 153–156; origin story, 154; Silver Age reboot, 14, 137; social relevance, 26–27 Green Lantern Corps, 28, 88, 133, 156–158 Grummett, Tom, 219 Guardians of the Galaxy, 51, 155, 158–161, 290; Guardians of the Galaxy (2014 film), 160; origin story, 159 Guice, Jackson: Apocalypse cocreator, 333; X-Factor cocreator, 330 Hamilton, Craig, 60 Hamilton, Edmond, 82, 83 Haney, Bob, 285 Hanks, Fletcher (as Barclay Flagg), 140, 141 Hannigan, Ed, 117–118 Harley Quinn, 81, 162–164, 183, 221, 264, 265, 266, 267, 336; in Batman: The Animated Series, 162, 163; origin story, 162; in other media, 163–164 Heck, Don, 17, 58; Black Widow cocreator, 94; Iron Man cocreator, 176; Marvel Method and, 17 Hellfire Club, 263, 306, 322, 324, 330, 332, 333, 334 Hendrickson, Robert, 10, 83 Hitler, Adolf, 5, 107, 108, 170, 222, 217 Hoover, J. Edgar, 5, 236 Hulk, 165–169; “2099” story line and, 167; Comics Code Authority and, 165; Incredible Hulk (1978–1982 live-action television series), 168; Incredible Hulk, The (2008 film), 168; Incredible Hulk, The, #199, 166; in other media, 168; “Ultimate” alternate universe and, 167 Hughes, Richard E., Black Terror and Tim cocreator, 92; Woman in Red cocreator, 310

Index 361 Human Torch (1940s), 108–109, 169–171, 229–230, 263; All Winner’s Squad member, 170; “big three” of Timely era of Superheroes, 169; Fantastic Four member, 136, 139, 171; origin story Hussein, Saddam, 48 Hydra/AIM, 52, 103, 110, 172–174, 258–259; origin story, 173; in other media, 173 Iceman, 250, 251, 322, 323–324, 327, 328, 331 Image Comics, 241 Infantino, Carmine: Batgirl cocreator, 67; Black Canary cocreator, 85: Flash, Silver Age reimagining, 14, 143, 144 Iran hostage crisis, 23 Iron Fist, 28, 124, 171, 175–176, 194–195, 326; Downey, Robert, Jr., as, 178–179, 179, origin story, 175; in other media, 176 Iron Man, 176–180; Civil War event and, 178; Iron Man (2008 film), 178; “Onslaught” story line and, 177; origin story, 177; in other media, 178 Jackman, Hugh, 43, 306, 308, 309, 329, 337 Johns, Geoff: Crimson Avenger (Jill Carlyle) and, 120; Flash: Rebirth, 146; Green Lantern Corps and, 158; Infinite Crisis, 316; “New 52” reboot of DC titles, 307 Johnston, Joe, 103, 113, 173 Joker, 31, 67, 181–185; “A Death in the Family” story line, 73, 182, 183, 215; first supervillain, 181; Dark Knight Returns and, 182; Killing Joke, The, 69–70, 74, 181, 182, 214, 300; Ledger, Heath, as, 183; origin story, 181; in other media, 182–183 Jones, Jessica, 52 Jones, Kirk, 97 Jones, Washington “Whitewash.” See Whitewash Jones Jurgens, Dan, 38, 46, 279 Justice League, 185–188; Brave and the Bold, The, 186; “Crisis on Earth-One” and “Crisis on Earth-Two” story lines, 186–187; first Puerto Rican superhero introduced through, 187; origin story, 186; in other media, 187; and Silver Age of Comics, xx–xxi, 15–16

Justice Society, 62, 85–86, 105, 129–130, 144, 154, 186–187, 188–191, 227–228, 243–244, 267 Kahn, Jenette, 261, 276; career of, 25 Kane, Bob: Batman cocreator, 71–73, 76, 154; Batman’s rogue gallery cocreator, 79, 181; career of, 73; Catwoman cocreator, 79; collaboration with Kane, Bob, 73; Golden Age of Comics and, 4; Joker cocreator, 181; Mr. Freeze cocreator, 79; Penguin cocreator, 79; Nightwing cocreator, 202–203, 224; Scarecrow cocreator, 79; Two-Face cocreator, 79 Kane, Gil: Atom, Silver Age reimagining of, 61; Green Lantern Corps cocreator, 156; Iron Fist cocreator, 175 Kanigher, Rob: Black Canary cocreator, 85; Flash, Silver Age reimagining of, 14, 85; Poison Ivy cocreator, 79; Wonder Woman, Silver Age reimagining of, 315 Keen, Dafne, 337 Kefauver, Estes, 10, 83 Kennedy, John F., 14, 16 Kennedy, Joseph, Sr., 4 Kennedy, Robert F., 14, 21 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 6, 14, 21, 29, 108, 323 Kingdom Come, 40–42, 72, 116, 219, 225, 244, 273 Kingpin of Crime, 122–123, 208 Kirby, Jack, 4, 5, 7, 15–17, 20; Ant-Man/ Giant-Man/Goliath/Yellowjacket cocreator, 57; Avengers cocreator, 63; Black Panther cocreator, 89; Bucky/ Young Allies cocreator, 102; Captain America cocreator, 4–5, 107, 108, 112–113; collaboration with Jack Kirby, 113; Doctor Doom cocreator, 127; Fantastic Four cocreator, 136, 171; Fighting American cocreator, 142; Hulk cocreator, 165; Hydra/AIM cocreator, 172; as “King of Comics,” 113; Magneto cocreator, 333; Marvel Method and, 17; Nick Fury/SHIELD cocreator, 199; Red Skull cocreator, 221; Scarlet Witch/ Quicksilver cocreator, 229; Sentinels cocreator, 333; Silver Surfer cocreator, 237; Thor cocreator, 289; X-Men cocreator, 322–324, 327; Thunderbolt Ross cocreator, 216; Vision cocreator, 229 Kolins, Scott, 120

362 Index Kubert, Andy, 128, 146: Robin/Robin IV cocreator, 224 Kyle, Craig, 336 La Guardia, Fiorello, 5 Laird, Peter, 288 Lampert, Harry, 143 Larson, Erik, 241; Carnage cocreator, 254 Layton: Iron Man’s “Demon in a Bottle” story line,” 177; X-Factor cocreator, 330 Lee, Jim, 39, 86, 215, 241, 325; career of, 307; launch of Image Comics and, 39–40, 241, 304; Wildstorm Comics created by, 40, 241, 304, 307, 311; X-Men, 39–40, 307, 326 Lee, Stan: Ant-Man/Giant-Man/Goliath/ Yellowjacket cocreator, 57; Avengers cocreator, 63; Black Panther cocreator, 17, 28, 89; Black Widow cocreator, 94; Bucky/Young Allies/Winter Soldier cocreator, 102; career of, 238; Daredevil cocreator, 122; Doctor Doom cocreator, 127; Doctor Strange cocreator, 131; Dr. Octopus cocreator, 253; Electro cocreator, 253; Falcon cocreator, 28, 108, 134; Fantastic Four cocreator, 15, 136, 171; Golden Age of Comics and, 7; Green Goblin cocreator, 253; Hulk cocreator, 165; Hydra/AIM cocreator, 172; Image Comics and, 39–40; Iron Man cocreator, 176; raven cocreator, 253; Lizard cocreator, 253; Magneto cocreator, 333; Marvel method created by, 15, 17; Nick Fury/SHIELD cocreator, 199; Scarlet Witch/ Quicksilver cocreator, 229; Sentinels cocreator, 333; Silver Age of Comics and, 15–21; Silver Surfer cocreator, 237; Spider-Man cocreator, 245; Stan’s Soapbox, 16–21; Thor cocreator, 289; X-Men cocreator, 31, 322–324, 327; Thunderbolt Ross cocreator, 216; Vision cocreator, 229; Wildstorm Comics launched by, 4 Legion of Superheroes, 192–193; backstory, 192; Shooter, Jim, and, 193 Legman, Gershon, 8 Lex Luthor, 88, 116, 185, 225, 267, 269, 275, 278–280 Lieber, Larry: Ant man/Giant-Man/ Goliath/Yellowjacket cocreator, 57;

Iron Man cocreator, 176; Marvel Method and, 17; Thor cocreator, 289 Liefeld, Rob: Deadpool cocreator, 124, 125, 125, Event Comics founder, 40; Extreme Studios founder, 241; Image Comics cofounder, 40, 304, 307; X-Force cocreator, 330 Lloyd, David, 299 Lobdell, Scott: “Don’t Do That Voodoo You Do So Well” story line, 101; Generation-X cocreator, 330, 332; “Onslaught” story line, 64 Loeb, Jeph: Batman: Daredevil: Yellow, 123; Long Halloween, The, 74; Red Hulk cocreator, 216–217 Luke Cage/Power Man, 28, 52, 87, 88, 124, 171, 193–195, 306; Blaxploitation and, 194; first black superhero introduced in own ongoing, self-titled series, 194; in other media, 194 Magneto, 64–65, 128, 224, 229–230, 306, 307, 322, 323, 326–327, 328–331, 333, 334–335 Malcolm X, 14, 89, 323 Man-Bat, 71, 73, 76, 79, 81, 255 Mandel, George, 310 Mantlo, Gill, 117–118 Marston, William Moulton (pen name Charles Moulton), 5, 14, 190, 312–314, 319; career of, 313 Marvel Girl/Phoenix, 19, 27, 322–326, 327, 331, 334–335 Marvel Method, 15, 17 Marvel Super Heroes, The (animated series), 58, 103, 112, 178, 218, 223, 250, 263, 291 Marvel Super Heroes, The (1966 motion comic), 250, 263 Mayer, Sheldon, 62, 154; Justice Society cocreator, 188 McDonnell, Luke, 67 McFarlane, Todd: career of, 247; collectors’ bubble and, 304; Image Comics cofounder, 39–40, 241, 247; Spawn creator, 40, 240–242, 247; Spider-Man, 246, 247; Venom cocreator, 253, 255–256 McGuinness, Ed: Deadpool and, 215; Red Hulk cocreator, 216–218 McLeod, Bob, 330

Index 363 McNiven, Steve, 49–51, 65, 160 Metallo, 269, 275, 279, 280 Michelinie, David, 60, 247; Carnage cocreator, 254; Iron Man’s “Demon in a Bottle story line, 177; Venom cocreator, 253 Millar, Mark, 49–51, 58, 64–65, 110, 128 Miller, Ezra, 146, 188 Miller, Frank, 62, 73–74, 86, 123, 326; Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, 31–32, 39, 47, 73, 150, 182, 215, 277, 302, 304; career of, 261 Miller, Tim, 126, 329 Misogyny, 5–6, 18–19 Mister Fantastic, 18, 49, 127, 136 Mister Sinister, 322, 330, 333, 335 Moench, Doug, 225; Bane cocreator, 38, 80 Moldoff, Sheldon: Bat-Girl (Betty Kane) cocreator, 67; Batwoman cocreator, 82, 83; Justice Society cocreator, 188; Mr. Freeze cocreator, 79; Poison Ivy cocreator, 79 Moore, Alan, 48, 51; “America’s Best Comics” creator, 311; Batman: The Killing Joke, 69, 70, 181, 182, 214; career of, 300; Swamp Thing cocreator, 282, 283–284; V/Vendetta cocreator, 299; V for Vendetta, 48, 51, 299–301; Watchmen cocreator, 32, 73, 302–305 Moore, John Francis, 326 Moore, Tony, 241 Moore, Tradd, 148 Morrison, Grant, 84, 300; Robin/Robin IV cocreator, 224–225 Mr. Freeze, 71, 76, 79, 81, 202 Ms. Marvel, 27, 196–198; Avengers member, 198; Civil War event and, 197; Fantastic Four member, 139 National Organization for Women, 16 Nazism, 4–6, 30, 50; Captain America against, 5, 107, 112, 113; Human Torch against, 170–171; real-life villains, 60, 120, 222 New Fun: The Big Comics Magazine, 8 New Mutants (X-Men group), 330, 331 Newton, Don, 84; Red Hood/Robin II cocreator, 214 Nicholas (Wojtkoski), Charles, 98, 99

Nicieza, Fabian: Deadpool cocreator, 124, 125; X-Force cocreator, 330 Nick Fury/SHIELD, 199–202, 258–259; in other media, 201; Steranko, Jim, and, 200; “Ultimate” story line and, 201 Nightcrawler, 29, 322, 323, 328, 331 Nightwing/Robin I, 202–204; as Batman, 203; origin story, 202–203; in other media, 204; Wertham crusade and controversy, 203 Nixon, Richard, 21, 25–27, 32, 133, 150, 302 Nodell, Martin (pen name Mart Dellon), 153 Nolan, Christopher, 51, 77, 183 Nolan, Graham, 80 Nomad: The Man Without a Country, 26, 133 Norris, Paul, 59 Novick, Irv, 235–236 Obama, Barack, 52, 110, 223, 249 Objectivism, 21, 211–212 O’Connor, Bill, 61 Official Overstreet Comic Book Price Guide, 24, 36 O’Neil, Dennis (“Denny”), 109, 215, 232; Batman and, 39, 73, 81; Batwoman and, 84; Black Canary and, 86; collaboration with Neal Adams, 154; Green Lantern/ Green Arrow, 26–29, 85, 149–151, 155; the Question and, 212; Ra’s al Ghul cocreator, 79;Wonder Woman and, 19–21, 27, 315 Ostrander, John: Oracle cocreator, 67; Suicide Squad cocreator, 264–265 Othering, 11 Overstreet, Robert M., 36; Official Overstreet Comic Book Price Guide, 24, 36 Paine, Thomas, 103 Papp, George: Bizarro cocreator, 279; General Zod cocreator, 279; Green Arrow cocreator, 149 Parker, Bill: Bulletman and Bulletgirl cocreator, 104; Captain Marvel (a.k.a. SHAZAM!) cocreator, 114 Penguin, 71, 76, 78, 79, 80, 82, 84, 202, 214, 219, 224

364 Index Perez, George: Crisis on Infinite Earths, 65, 84, 99, 116, 130, 145, 158, 187, 203, 212, 215, 267, 272, 280, 295, 315–316; Cyborg cocreator, 286; Nightwing cocreator, 202; Red Robin/Robin III cocreator, 219 Peter, Harry G., 312–314, 314, 318 Phantom, The, 205–206; first costumed hero, 295; movie serial (1943), 206; origin story, 205; in other media, 205; Phantom, The (1966 film), 206 Plastic Man, 206–208; origin story, 207; in other media, 208 Plastino, Al: Brainiac cocreator, 279; Legion of Superheroes cocreator, 192; Supergirl cocreator, 266 Ploog, Mike, 147 Poison Ivy, 79, 81, 162, 163, 267 Post–Cold War Era (1990s), 35–43; Batman, 37–39, 42; Batman: The Animated Series, 39; Captain America, 37, 39; as “Chromium Age,” 35; Cold war’s end; collectors’ bubble, 37–39; definition, xxiii; film trends, 43; gimmicks in comics, 37–38; Kingdom Come (miniseries), 40–43; “new world order,” 36, 41, 43; Overstreet Price Guide/Wizard Magazine, 36; SpiderMan, 37, 39; Superman, 37–38, 42; television trends, 37; Wonder Woman, 42; X-Men, 37, 39, 43 Post–9/11 Era, 45–54; Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again, 47; Captain America, 46–47, 49–52; definition, xxiii; film trends, 49; 51–53; gay rights movement, 45–46; Marvel’s Civil War, 49–51; 9/11: The World’s Finest Comic Book Writers & Artists Tell Stories to Remember, 47; Red Skull, 46; San Diego Comic Con (SDCC), 45; SpiderMan, 47, 49, 51, 53; Superman, 47, 49; television trends, 49, 51–52; USA PATRIOT Act, 48–50; V for Vendetta (2006 film), 48, 51 Premiani, Bruno, 285 Professor X, 16, 29, 31, 322, 323, 325–331, 334 Punisher, 39, 52, 75, 93, 148, 208–210; antihero, 208, 210, 294, 301, 306; origin story, 208–209; Spider-Man and, 209; “2099” story line, 209, 248

Quesada, Joe, 49, 109, 123, 308, 336 Question, The, 211–213 Quicksilver. See Scarlet Witch/ Quicksilver/Vision Rand, Ayn, 21, 211 Randolph, A. Philip, 6 Ra’s al Ghul, 71, 73, 76, 79, 81, 202, 214, 215, 219, 224, 225 Reagan, Nancy, 118 Reagan, Ronald, 29, 31, 32, 42, 223, 261, 299 Red Hood/Robin II, 214–216, 224, 226; “Death in the Family” story line, 215; “Hush” story line, 215; “New 25” DC comics universe reboot and, 216; in other media, 216 Red Hulk/“Thunderbolt” Ross, 216–219; “America Lost” storyline, 223; in Captain America: Civil War (2016 film), 219; controversy of Red Hulk-Thor battle, 217 Red Robin/Robin III, 219–221 Red Skull, 167, 209, 221–224; Golden Age of Comics and, 221–222 Reed, Peyton, 58 Rev. Stryker, 31, 322, 325, 328, 330, 333, 334–335, 336 Riber, John Ney, 47 Rico, Don, 94 Riddler, 71, 76, 78, 79, 81, 82, 86, 202, 214, 219, 224 Robbins, Frank, 79, 171 Robbins, Trina, 6 Robin/Robin IV, 224–226; death of, 226; in other media, 226; Teen Titans member, 226 Robinson, James, 86 Robinson, Jerry, 72, 79, 181 Rogers, Marshall, 239 Rogues’ galleries: Batman, 79–83; Spider-Man, 253–256; Superman, 278–282; X-Men, 333–335 Romita, John, Jr.: Brother Voodoo cocreator, 100; Iron Man “Demon in a Bottle” story line, 177 Romita, John, Sr., 102, 166; Brother Voodoo creator, 28, 100; Luke Cage/ Power Man cocreator, 193; Punisher cocreator, 208; Wolverine cocreator, 305 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 4, 6

Index 365 Rosie the Riveter campaign, 6, 10, 141, 311 Ross, Alex: Kingdom Come, 40–42, 72, 116, 219, 225, 244, 273; Marvels, 39 Roth, Werner, 177, 272 Rudd, Paul, 58 Russo, Anthony and Joe, 58, 66, 91, 103, 168, 173, 219 San Diego Comic Con (SDCC), 24, 45 Sandman, 120, 227–229, 243; complex history of, 227–228; enemies, 245, 250, 256; Justice Society founding member, 189, 227–228; Sandman (graphic novel), 228; Sinister Six member, 255 Scarecrow, 71, 76, 79, 80, 202, 214, 219, 224 Scarlet Witch/Quicksilver/Vision, 58, 64–65, 101, 131, 229–231, 234, 237, 328–329, 334; backstories, 230; in Captain America: Civil War (2016 film), 230; iconic story lines, 230; intellectual property rights and, 230; in other media, 230–231 Schwartz, Julius:Atom, Silver Age reimagining of, 61, 62; Batman and, 67, 83; career of, 145; Green Lantern Corps cocreator, 156, 157; Justice League cocreator, 60, 185–187; Silver Age and, xxi, 4, 14–15, 61, 62, 137, 144–145, 154, 186, 191, 243; Time Traveler (science fiction fan magazine) cocreator, 145, 268 Seduction of the Innocent (Wertham), 3, 10, 72, 83, 143, 203, 271. See also Wertham, Fredric Sekowsky, Mike, 315; Justice League cocreator, 185, 186 Senate Sub-Committee on Juvenile Delinquency, 9–10, 83; Comic Books and Juvenile Delinquency (report), 10 Senator Robert Kelly, 322, 328, 330, 333, 334 Sentinels, 322, 328, 330, 333, 334 September 11, 2001: attacks of, 46; as shared experience, 53; See also Post– 9/11 Era Severin, Marie, 257 Sexism, 5–6, 18–20, 95, 190 Shadow, The, 120, 227, 231–233; in print, 232; prototype for American superhero, 232; radio program, 231–232

Shadow King, 333, 334 Sharp, Hal, 294 She-Hulk, 28, 165, 233–235, 239, 308; Avengers and, 234; Byrne, John, and, 138; Fantastic Four and, 139, 234 Sherman, Howard, 129 Shield (1940s), The, 235–237; attempted 1990s revamping of, 237; Captain America compared with, 236, 237; first patriotically themed superhero, 107, 236; in other media, 235; Pep Comics #1, 236 Shorten, Harry, 235–236 Shuster, Joe: collaboration with Jerry Siegel, 271; Golden Age of Comics and, 4; Lex Luther cocreator, 278; Superman cocreator, 269–271, 273, 275–276 Siegel, Jerry: collaboration with Joe Shuster, 271; Golden Age of Comics and, 4; Lex Luthor cocreator, 278; Spectre creator, 243; Superman cocreator, 269–271, 275, 276 Silver Age of Comics (1956–1970), 14–21; Aquaman and, 14–15; Atom and, 62; baby boom generation and, 14, 16; Batman and, 14–15, 81; Black Panther and, 17–18; Captain America and, 15–17, 108; Daredevil as representative of, 124; DC Comics universe reboot as beginning of, 85, 144–145; DC versus Marvel characters, 16; definition, xxiii; Fantastic Four and, 15–20; Flash and, 14, 155; Green Lantern and, 14, 26–27, 154–155, 157; Justice League as culmination of, 14–15, 186–187; Justice Society and, 191; Marvel Comics Universe and, 15; Martian Manhunter and, 14–15; Marvel Method and, 15–17; Mr. Freeze as first major villain in, 81; nonconformist heroes of, 15–16, 272; racism and, 18, 20–21; rogues’ gallery and, 254; Schwartz, Julius, and, xxi, 4, 14–15, 61, 62, 137, 144–145, 154, 186, 191, 243; sexism and, 18–20; Shield and, 236–237; Spectre and, 243–244; superheroes remaining from Wertham crusade, 14; Superman and, 14, 18, 272; Wonder Woman and, 14–15; World War II references removed from Wonder Woman comics, 315

366 Index Silver Surfer, 237–240; allies, 136, 237; creation of, 20; Defenders member, 116, 237, 239; enemies, 237; Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer, 128, 139; “Galactus Trilogy” story line and, 237–238; in other media, 239–240; philosophical aspect of, 20, 138, 239; powers, 237, 238; in Silver Surfer (1978 graphic novel), 239; team affiliations, 237; weapons, 237 Simon, Joe, 170, 238; Bucky/Young Allies cocreator, 102; Captain America cocreator, 4–5, 107, 108, 112–113; collaboration with Jack Kirby, 113; Fighting American cocreator, 142–143; Golden Age of Comics and, 4–5, 229; Red Skull cocreator, 221; Sandman (Dr. Garrett Sanford) and, 228 Simone: Batgirl and, 70; career of, 69; Deadpool and, 126; Women in Refrigerators (blog), 69; Wonder Woman and, 69, 316, 319 Simonson, Louise: Apocalypse cocreator, 333; Doomsday cocreator, 279 Simonson, Walt, 291 Smalle, Jon, 104 Snyder, Scott, 80 Snyder, Zack, 61, 188, 277, 305 Spawn, 37, 40, 240–243; McFarlane, Todd, and, 247; origin story, 241–242; Spawn (1997 film), 43, 51; Spawn (1997–1999 HBO animated series), 242; Spawn (2018 film), 247 Spectre, The, 243–244; in Kingdom Come (1996 miniseries), 244; in other media, 244; Silver Age of Comics and, 243–244 Spider-Man: comics, 245–249; collectors’ bubble and, 248; Comics Code Authority and, 24, 27, 246; Marvel’s Ultimate Universe and, 248; New Fantastic Four and, 248; origin story, 245 Spider-Man: other media, 249–253; Amazing Spider-Man, The (live-action series), 250; Amazing Spider-Man, The (2012 film), 251; Amazing Spider-Man 2, The (2014 film), 251; in Captain America: Civil War (2016 film), 252; guest on Electric Company, 250; record albums, 250–251; Spider-Man (2002 film), 251; Spider-Man 2 (2004 film), 251; Spider-Man 3 (2007 film), 251–252;

Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017 film), 252; Spider-Man: The Animated Series (1994–1998), 251; Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends (1981–1983 animated series), 251 Spider-Man: rogues’ gallery, 253–256; Carnage, 245, 250, 251, 254, 256; Doctor Octopus, 245, 250–252, 253, 254, 255, 257, 260; Electro, 245, 250, 253, 255– 256; Green Goblin, 24–25, 245, 246, 250, 253, 254–256; Kraven, 245, 250, 253, 255; Lizard, 81, 245, 250, 253, 254–256; Venom, 245, 247, 250, 251, 253, 254–256 Spider-Woman, 27, 257–259, 326; origin story, 257–258; in other media, 259; “Secret Invasion” story line, 259 Spirit, The, 4, 260–262; as comic book insert, 260; Spirit #3, The, 260; media adaptions of, 261; origin story, 261 Stan, Sebastian, 103 Star Trek (1966–1969 television series), 18 Star Trek (franchise), 24, 45 Star Wars (1977 film), 276 Star Wars (franchise), 24, 40, 45, 53, 183, 326 Starlin, Jim, 182, 239 Static, 40, 91 Steinem, Gloria, 6, 19, 27, 315, 318 Storm, 28–29, 87, 89, 90, 322, 323, 327, 328 Straczynski, J. Michael, 47 Striker, Fran, 151, 152 Sub-Mariner, 107, 138, 169, 262–264; All Winner’s Squad and, 170, 263; “big three” of Timely era of Superheroes, 108, 109, 169; Captain America and, 63; the Defenders and, 131, Doom and, 127; 239; first underwater superhero, 262; Illuminati and, 132, 163, in other media, 263–264 Suicide Squad, 69, 209, 218, 264–266; backstory and premise, 265; Harley Quinn and, 162–164; in other media, 266; Suicide Squad (2016 film), 77, 183 Supergirl/Power Girl, 28, 191, 266–269, 279, 320; Bronze Age of Comics and, 27–28; Crisis on Infinite Earths event and, 267, 272; other media appearances, 268; Power Girl’s origin story, 267; Silver Age of Comics and, 19; Supergirl (live-action series), 52, 193, 277, 281; Supergirl’s origin story, 267 Superman: comics, 269–275; Action Comics #1, 270; as first American comic

Index 367 book superhero, 270; first superhero to have own self-titled comic book, 270; Golden Age of Comics and, 3–6, 9–11; in Kingdom Come, 273; legal and copyright issues, 271; Man of Steel (miniseries), 272; origin story, 270; Post–Cold War Era, 37–38, 42; Post– 9/11 Era and, 47, 49; Silver Age of Comics and, 14, 18, 272; Superman as immigrant, 5; Wertham crusade against, 3, 9, 83; World War II and, 271 Superman: other media, 275–278; Adventures of Superman, The (1940– 1951 radio program), 6, 76, 270, 275; Adventures of Superman, The (1952– 1958 television program), 9, 267, 270, 276; It’s a Bird . . . It’s a Plane . . . It’s Superman! (play and musical), 276; Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman (television program), 38, 277; Man of Steel, The (2013 film), 277, 281; New Adventures of Superman, The (1966–1970 animated series), 276; Smallville (2001–2011 television series), 49, 52, 61, 86, 130, 151, 191, 193, 268, 277, 280, 281; Super Friends (1973–1985 television cartoon), 276; Superman (1948 movie serial), 275–276; Superman: The Movie (1978 film), 276, 276–277; Superman II (1980 film), 277, 281; Superman III (1983 film), 277; Superman IV: The Quest for Peace (1987 film), 277 Superman: rogues’ gallery, 278–282; Bizarro, 267, 269, 272, 275, 279, 280; Brainiac, 269, 279, 280; Darkseid, 185, 203, 220, 225–226, 267, 275, 279, 281, 316; Doomsday, 38, 269, 272, 273, 275, 278, 279, 281; General Zod, 269, 275, 279, 281; Lex Luthor, 88, 116, 185, 225, 267, 269, 275, 278–280; Metallo, 269, 275, 279, 280; Weisinger, Mort, and, 280 Swamp Thing, 282–284; in animated series and home video releases, 283; Marvel Comics’ Man-Thing and, 284; origin story, 282; popularity of, 283; Return of the Swamp Thing, The (1989 film), 283; Saga of the Swamp Thing, The, 283, 299, 300; Swamp Thing (1982 film), 283 Tea Party movement, 103 Teen Titans, 285–288; Aqualad and, 59, 60, 285, 286; Cyborg, 285, 286; Kid

Flash, 144, 145, 285, 286; New Teen Titans (reboot), 29, 65, 286; New Teen Titans #1, 287; Nightwing/Robin I and, 202, 203, 287; Red Robin/Robin III and, 219, 221, 287; Robin IV and, 224, 226, 287; Teen Titans (2003–2006 cartoon series), 204, 287; Wonder Girl and, 286; Young Justice as offshoot team, 286, 287 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, 288–289; animated series, 289; live-action films, 289; origin story, 288; toy lines, 289 Terrell, John, 7 Thomas, Roy, 58, 90, 109, 127, 177, 194; Ghost Rider cocreator, 147; Invaders cocreator, 171; Iron First cocreator, 175; Ms. Marvel (Carol Danvers) cocreator, 196; Vision cocreator, 229; TNT and Dan the Dyna-Mite cocreator, 295; Wolverine cocreator, 305 Thor, 289–293; animated features and series, 291–292; Avengers and, 63–65, 177, 186, 291; Hulk and, 168; live-action portrayals, 292; Marvel “Cosmic” Universe and, 290; origin story, 290; Red Hulk and, 217; Silver Age of Comics and, 15; Simonson, Walt, and, 291; Thor: Ragnarok (2017 film), 133, 168; Thor: The Dark World (2013 film), 292, 292 Thrasher, Frederic, 8–9 Thunderbird, 29, 322, 323 Tick, 288, 293–294; live-action series, 294; origin story, 293–294; parody of comic book superheroes, 293–294; Tick, The (1994–1997 animated series), 210, 294 Timely Comics (later Atlas Comics and Marvel Comics), xx–xxi; anti-Nazi superheroes, 169–170, 221; “big three” superheroes of, 169; Black Widow, 94; Bucky/Young Allies/Winter Soldier, 102; Captain America, 5–6, 107–108, 112, 169; Comics Code Authority and, 170; Fantastic Four creation, 142, 145; history of, 170; Human Torch (Golden Age), 169, 170; Lee, Stan, and, 238; Millie the Model, 170; Red Skull, 221; Simon-Kirby collaboration and, 113; Sub-Mariner, 169, 170, 262; Thin Man, 207; Whitewash Jones, 6–7; Young Allies, 6–7, 102–104, 169

368 Index Timm, Bruce: Batman: The Animated Series, 39, 70, 183; Batman Beyond, 39; Harley Quinn cocreator, 162; Justice League, 39, 187; Justice League Unlimited, 39, 187; Superman: The Animated Series, 39, 277 TNT and Dan the Dyna-Mite, 294–295; death of TNT, 295; as earliest Golden Age comic book superhero attempts, 295; modern DC continuity and, 295 Trendle, George W., 151, 152 Trump, Donald, 52 Tuska, George: Black Goliath and, 58; Luke Cage/Power Man cocreator, 193 Two-Face, 71, 74, 76–77, 79–80, 79, 80, 202, 214, 219, 224 Uncle Sam, 107, 236, 296–298; “Crisis on Earth X” story line, 296; as “Spirit of America,” 296–297: Uncle Sam (or U.S.), 297 Uslan, Michael, 24, 77 V/Vendetta, 299–301; origin story, 299–300; social commentary of, 299; V for Vendetta (graphic novel), 48, 51, 299–301; V for Vendetta (2006 film), 48, 51, 300–301 Vietnam War, 17, 20, 23, 25, 36, 177, 209 Vision. See Scarlet Witch/Quicksilver/ Vision Von Eeden, Trevor, 87 Waid, Mark, 143, 145; Flash (Bart Allen) cocreator, 143, 145; Kingdom Come, 40–42, 72, 116, 219, 225, 244, 273; X-Men’s “Onslaught” story line, 64 Waititi, Taika, 168 Ward, Burt, 17, 77, 78, 86 Wasp, 57–58, 63 Watchdogs, 103, 107 Watchmen, 302–305; collectors’ bubble and, 304; Comedian, 32, 302, 303–304; Doctor Manhattan, 32, 302, 303–304;legacy of, 32, 73, 300, 302, 304; Nite Owl, 32, 302, 303–304; origin story, 303–304; Ozymandias, 302, 303; plot structure, 303; Rorschach, 32, 302, 303–304; Silk Spectre, 32, 302, 303; Watchmen (1986–1987 graphic novel), xxi, 23, 32, 79, 299, 300, 302–304;

Watchmen (2009 live-action film), 305; Watchmen: Tales of the Black Freighter (2009 animated feature), 305 Wein, Len, 166; Bronze Age Comics and, 28; Brother Voodoo cocreator, 28, 100; Plastic Man and, 207–208; Swamp Thing cocreator, 282, 300; Wolverine cocreator, 305, 306; X-Men cocreator, 322, 323, 327 Weisinger, Mort: Aquaman cocreator, 59–60, 268; Green Arrow cocreator, 120, 149, 268; career of, 268; primary Superman editor at DC Comics, 193, 267, 268, 272, 280; Time Traveler (science fiction fan magazine) cocreator, 145, 268; TNT and Dan the Dyna-Mite cocreator, 294 Wertham, Fredric: on Batman-Robin relationship, 10, 72, 83, 203; career and research of, 7–8; Comics Code Authority and, 10–11, 83; legacy of, 3, 10–11, 14, 39; Seduction of the Innocent, 3, 10, 72, 83, 143, 203, 271; Senate Sub-Committee on Juvenile Delinquency and, 9–10, 83; on Superman as fascist, 9, 83; on Wonder Woman as unsuitable role model, 10, 83 West, Adam, 17, 77, 78, 86 West Coast Avengers, 169, 171 Wheeler-Nicholson, Malcolm, 3, 8 Whitewash Jones, 6–7, 102, 261 Wieringo, Mike, 143 Wildenberg, Harry, 3 Wilson, David, 276 Wilson, G. Willow, 196 Wilson, Lewis, 76 Wilson, Samuel, 296 Winter Soldier. See Bucky/Young Allies/ Winter Soldier; Captain America: The Winter Solder (2014 film) Wizard (magazine), 36, 37 Wolfman, Marv: Blade, the Vampire Hunter cocreator, 96, 97; Crisis on Infinite Earths, 65, 84, 99, 116, 130, 145, 158, 187, 203, 212, 215, 267, 272, 280, 295, 315–316; collaboration with Perez, George, 65; Cyborg cocreator, 286; Invaders, The (under pen name Thomas Roy), 109; Nightwing cocreator, 202; Red Robin/Robin III cocreator, 219; Teen Titans and, 65, 286–287

Index 369 Wolverine, 166, 168, 305–310, 322–324, 326, 328–329; Deadpool and, 124–126; Giant-Size X-Men #1 and, 29; mutant, 306; New Fantastic Four and, 139, 148, 248; in other media, 308; Post–Cold War Era and, 39; Hulk v.. Wolverine (2008 animated feature), 126; Logan (2017 film), 52; Ultimate Wolverine vs Hulk (motion comic book), 235; Wolverine, The (2013 film), 309, 329, 335; Wolverine and the X-Men (2009 animated series), 308, 329, 337; X-groups and, 331–332; X-Men Origins: Wolverine (2009 film), 126, 329 Woman in Red, The, 141, 310–311; first female masked vigilante in comics, 310 Women’s Liberation Movement, 19–20 Wonder Woman: comics, 312–317; Aquaman and, 60; in Batman vs. Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016 film), 319; Bronze Age of Comics and, 27, 315–316; creation of, 5–6; Golden Age of Comics and, 3, 5–6, 10–11; Infinite Crisis (seven-issue comic), 316; Justice League member, 185, 186–188; Justice Society and, 189; in Kingdom Come, 273; “Paradise Island Lost” story line, 316; Perez, George, and, 65; Post–Cold War Era and, 42; second wave of feminism and, 27; Silver Age of Comics and, 14, 19; Simone, Gail, and, 69; Wertham crusade against, 3, 10, 83 Wonder Woman: other media, 318–321; Ms. Magazine cover, 315, 318; Wonder Woman (1975–1979 live-action television series), 318–319; Wonder Woman (2017 film), 52, 188, 319, 320 Wrightson, Bernie, 282 X-Factor (X-Men group), 124, 125, 322, 326, 330, 331, 332, 333 X-Force (X-Men group), 124, 125, 306, 322, 332, 333, 336, 337 X-Men: comics, 322–237; Angel, 131, 322–324, 331, 332; Banshee, 29, 211, 131, 322, 323, 330, 332, 334; Beast, 131, 322–324, 327, 328, 331; Bronze and Copper Ages of Comics, 24, 27–31; and civil rights era, 31, 323; Claremont, Chris, and, 324, 326; collectors’ bubble and, 39; Colossus,

29, 322, 323, 326, 331; creation of, 323; crossover events, 326–327; Cyclops, 29, 31, 322–325, 327, 330, 331–332, 334, 335, 337; “Days of Future Past” story line, 326, 334–335; Giant-Size X-Men #1, 28–29, 306, 323–324; “God Loves, Man Kills” story line, 326; “House of M” story line,” 118, 230, 327; Iceman, 250, 251, 322, 323–324, 327, 328, 331; Marvel Girl/Phoenix, 19, 27, 322–326, 327, 331, 334–335; Nightcrawler, 29, 322, 323, 328, 331; origin story, 323; “Onslaught” story line, 64, 177, 326; “Phoenix Saga” story line, 27, 326, 334; Post–Cold War Era and, 37, 39, 43; Post–9/11 Era and, 51; Professor X, 16, 29, 31, 322, 323, 325–331, 334; Silver Age of Comics, 15; Storm, 28–29, 87, 89, 90, 322, 323, 327, 328; Thunderbird, 29, 322, 323; Uncanny X-Men, The, 29, 175, 193, 266, 307, 324–326, 331. See also Wolverine X-Men: other media, 327–330; animated television series, 328–329; Deadpool (2016 film), 52, 126, 329; Deadpool 2 (2018 film), 126, 329, 332; live-action television series, 329; Logan (2017 film), 52, 309, 329, 337; in Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends (1983 television cartoon), 328; Wolverine, The (2013 film), 309, 329, 335; X-Men (1992–1997 Saturday morning series), 328–329; X-Men (2000 film), 308, 329; X-Men: Apocalypse (2016 film), 230, 309, 329, 335; X-Men: Dark Phoenix (2019 film), 329; X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014 film), 126, 230, 309, 326, 329, 334–335; X-Men: First Class (2011 film), 309, 329; X-Men: The Last Stand (2006 film), 308, 309, 329; X-Men Origins: Wolverine (2009 film), 126, 329; X2: X-Men United (2003 film), 308, 335 X-Men: other X-Groups, 330–333; Alpha Flight, 138, 306, 322, 330, 331; EXcalibur, 330, 331; Generation-X, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334; New Mutants, 330, 331; X-Factor, 124, 125, 322, 326, 330, 331, 332, 333; X-Force, 124, 125, 306, 322, 332, 333, 336, 337

370 Index X-Men: rogues’ gallery, 333–335; Apocalypse, 306, 307, 322, 326, 328, 330, 331, 333, 335; “Dark Phoenix Saga” story line, 27, 326, 334; Hellfire Club, 263, 306, 322, 324, 330, 332, 333, 334; humans, 334–335; Magneto, 64–65, 128, 224, 229–230, 306, 307, 322, 323, 326–327, 328–331, 333, 334–335; Mister Sinister, 322, 330, 333, 335; mutants, 333–335; Rev. Stryker, 31, 322, 325, 328, 330, 333, 334–335, 336; Senator Robert Kelly, 322, 328, 330, 333, 334; Sentinels, 322, 328, 330, 333, 334; Shadow King, 333, 334; two types of, 333–334; X-Men: Apocalypse (2016 film), 230, 309, 329, 335; X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014 film), 126, 230, 309, 326, 329, 334–335; X-Men: God Loves, Man Kills, 31, 325, 326, 335

X-23/Wolverine II, 336–337; in Logan (2017 film), 337; in NYX (miniseries), 336–337; origin story, 336; in Wolverine and the X-Men (2009 animated series), 337 Yale, Kim, 67 Yellowjacket. See Ant-Man/Giant-Man/ Goliath/Yellowjacket Yeltsin, Boris, 35 Young Allies (comic series), 6–7, 102–104, 169 Young Allies (group of child heroes): Bucky as member of, 102, 169; Whitewash Jones as member of, 6–7, 102, 261. See also Bucky/Young Allies/ Winter Soldier Zeck, Mike, 29–30