The Ahar Culture and Beyond: Settlements and Frontiers of 'Mesolithic' and Early Agricultural Sites in South-Eastern Rajasthan c. 3rd-2nd Millennia B. C. 9780860545309, 9781407346939

Table of contents :
Blank Page
Front Cover
Copyright
Preface and Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
Tables and Figures
Maps
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Scope and Methodology
Chapter 3: The Background Setting: Geography, Geology, & History of the Region
Chapter 4: The Ahar Culture
Chapter 5: A Pattern Emerges: Other Ahar Culture Sites
Chapter 6: The Mesolithic Sites
Chapter 7: Tradition and Change: Modern Settlements in S.E. Rajasthan
Chapter 8: The Bhils
Chapter 9: Discussion and Conclusion
Appendix: Gazeteer of Sites and Related Information
Bibliography

Citation preview

The Ahar Culture and Beyond Settlements and Frontiers of 'Mesolithic' and Early Agricultural Sites in South-Eastern Rajasthan c. 3rd-2nd Millennia B.C.

Rinia Hooja

BAR International Series 412 1988

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BARS 412,1988:' Tbe Ab ar Culture and Beyond'.

© Rima Hooja,1988 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9780860545309 paperback ISBN 9781407346939 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545309 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

P ref ace a nd A cknow ledgemen t s

D isp lay ing a r ema rkab ly i n qu is i t ive f r ame o f m ind , t h e s econd la s t s t anza o f t h e R ig V eda 's ' C r ea t ion H ymn ' ( Manda l X , S uk ta 1 29 , s t anza 6 ; d a tab le t o a r ound 1 500 B .C . ) h ad q ue r ied : Who r e aly k now s? Who w i l l h e r e d ec la re when t h is C r ea t ion o ccu r red? Whence i ti s ? T he g od s c ame a f t erwa rd s , w i th t h e c r ea t ion o ft h is U n ive r se ; Who t h en k now s w hen ce i th a s a r isen? T he a bove l i ne s a r e , p e rhap s , e qua l ly a pp l icab le t o i s sue s g e rmane t o t h e d i sc ip l ine o f a r chaeo logy , w i th t h e d if e r ence t h a t a r chaeo log is t s c an h ope t o o b ta in a tl e as t s ome o f t h e a n swe r s , h oweve r t e n ta t ive t h ey m ay b e , a bou t t h e s i te s , ' c u l tu r e s ' o r o the r a spec t s o f t h e p rob lem s u nde r c on s ide ra t ion . S uch h a s b een t h e a t temp t o f t h i s w o rk . I mu s t , r ue f u l ly , a ccep t f u l l r e spon s ib i l i ty f o r a ny i nhe ren t f l aw s o r d r awba ck s o f t h i s w o rk . Iw ou ld , a tt h e s ame t ime , l i ke t o t a ke t h i s o ppo r tun i ty t o t h ank a l l t he i nd iv idua l s , i n s t i tu t ion s a nd o rgan iza t ion s who h ave , i n o ne w ay o r a no the r , p l ayed a p a r t i n t h e c omp le t ion o f t h i s b ook . F i r s t o f a l l , Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank my P h .D s upe rv iso r a tC amb r idge Un ive r s i ty , D r . F .R . Alch in , f o r h i s c on s t an t g u idance a nd e ncou ragement Imus t a l so e xp r es s my o b l iga t ion t o t h e A s soc ia t ion o f C ommonwea l th Un ive r s i t ie s a nd t he c once rned G ove rnmen t s f o r a wa rd ing me a C ommonwea l th S cho la r sh ip t o u nde r take r e sea rch w o rk . G ran t s t owa rd s t h e c os t s o f f i e ldwork w e re made b y t h e Smu t s Memo r ia l F und , C amb r idge , t h e A nc ien t I nd ia a nd I r an T ru s t , C amb r idge , a nd Wo lf son C o l lege , C amb r idge , a nd a r e g ra tefu l ly a cknow ledged . I n I nd ia , Iw ou ld l i ke t o t h ank membe r s o f t h e A r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia a nd t h e R a ja s than D epa r tmen t o f A r chaeo logy & Mu seums , a mong o the r s . A t t h e A r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia , N ew D e lh i , Ia m g ra tefu l t o D r s . D . M i t ra a nd J . P . J o sh i f o r a r rang ing a cce ss t o p a r t o f t h e G i lund c o l lec t ion h ou sed a tD e lh i 's P u rana Q i la , a nd t o t h e g enu ine ly h e lpfu l s t a f f a t t h e P u r ana Q i la Mu seum . D r . B .K . T hapa r ( f o rme r ly D i r ec to r -Gene ra l , A r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia ) a l so p rof f e r ed a dv ice a nd e ncou r agemen t p r io r t o t h e c ommencemen t o ft h e f i e ldwo rk . A t t h e R a ja s than D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy & Mu seums , D r s . V i jay Kuma r , P .L . C hak rava r ty a nd V .S . S r iva s tava , a nd Mr . G .L . L odha , Mr . K .L . Meena a nd Mr . K ishan L a l , a mong o the r s , p rov ided i n fo rma t ion a nd h e lp , a s d id D r . R .C . A g rawa la , t h e f o rmer D i rec to r o f t h e R a ja s than D epa r tmen t o f A r chaeo logy & Museum s . Iw a s a l so g enerou s ly a l lowed a cce s s t ot h e D epa r tmen t 's l i b ra ry , f o r wh ich Ia m g ra tefu l . D r s . R .C . A g rawa la 's a nd V i jay K uma r 's k een i n te re s t i n my w o rk i s d eep ly a pp r ec ia ted . S eve ra l o the r i n s t i tu te s a nd r e sea r ch c en t r e s a nd t h e i r membe r s a l so p rov ided v a r iou s d eg ree s o f a s s is tance . A t U da ipu r , D r . N .N . V ya s , Mr . R oop S ingh B h i l , a nd o t her s o f t h e Man ikya la l V e rma T r iba l R e sea rch I n s t i tu te , D r . R .S . Mann a nd o t he r s o f t h e An th ropo log ica l S urvey o f I nd ia , a nd D r s . C .M . J a in , L .P . Ma thu r , N .K . B ha rgava a nd o the r s a t t h e Un ive r s i ty o f U da ipu r , w e r e g enerou s w i th t h e i r t ime a nd l c now legde . A t J a ipu r , t h e I n s t i tu te o f D eve lopmen t S tud ie s , a nd D r . Dhab r iya , a l lowed a cce s s t o L and sa t i mage ry . A l so a t J a ipu r , t h ank s a r e o wed t o t h e D i rec to ra te o f C en su s O pe ra t ion s , t h e Un ive r s i ty o f R a ja s than , a nd K ano r ia C olege , a nd t h e ir membe r s f o r p rov id ing i n fo rma t ion , l i b ra ry -acce s s a nd o ppor tun i t ie s f o r g ene ra l d i scu s s ion s . I wou ld a l so l i ke t o t h ank f ou r g eog raphe r s , ( i n a l phabe t ica l o rde r ) D r s . S .S . Dhab r iya , R .N . M i s ra , H .S . S hanna a nd L ak shm i S huk la , f o r g ene r a l d i scu s s ion s r e ga rd ing t h e g eog raphy o f R a ja s than . D r s . Dhab r iya , M is ra a nd S hu l c la a l so p e rm i t ted me t o r e f er t o t h e ir r e spec t ive t h ese s . D r s . V .N . M i s ra a nd H .D . S anka l ia o f t h e D eccan C olege , P oona , a nd Mr . V .S . Wa l can I ca r o f t h e

1 1

V ik r am Un ive r s i ty , U j ja in , p rov ided v e ry o cca s iona l c ommen t s p r io rt ot h e f i e ldwo rk p e r iod , v i a t h e med ium o f t h e I nd ian p o s ta l s e rv ice , f o r wh ich Imu s t t h ank t h em . Ia m g r a tefu l t o b o th D r . V .N . M i s ra a nd D r . M . N aga r f o r a l low ing a cce s s t ot h e ir t h e se s v ia I n te r - L ib ra ry l o an s . Many p eop le , r ang ing f r om v ilage r s t o c i ty -dwe l le r s of e red v a ry ing d eg r ee s o f h o sp i ta l i ty d u r ing t he p e r iod t h a t Is pen t i nt h e f i e ld , w h ich Id eep ly a pp rec ia ted , a nd w h ich Ic anno t a dequa te ly t hank a l l o ft h em f o r . O ft h e se , Ia m e spec ia l ly g ra te fu l t o Mr . a nd Mr s . M .M . G o swam i a nd t h e ir f am i ly a t C h i t to rga r t r , a nd K amna a nd J . P . S ingh ( t h en a t U da ipu r ) . A t C amb r idge , Iw ou ld l i ke t o s pec ia l ly t h ank ( i n a l phabe t ica l o rder ) , D r s . J ohn A lexander , G ina B a rne s , I an H odde r a nd P au l Me l ia r s , a nd Ms . N and in i R ameshwa rR ao f o r r e ad ing t h rough t h e manu sc r ip t a nd o f f e r ing much -app r ec ia ted c r i t ica l c ommen t s . Imu s t a l so t h ank v a r iou s s t af f -membe r s , f r iend s a nd c oleagues a tt h e D epa r tmen t o f A r chaeo logy f o r t h e ir p a r t i n t h e n ume rou s d i scu s s ion s , c onve r sa t ion s , s em ina r s a nd l e c tu r e s wh ich h ave e ncou raged , d i smayed o r s t imu la ted m e d u r ing my s t ay a tC amb r idge . D r . P au l C raddock o f t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum 's R e sea rch L abo ra to ry a na ly sed s ome o f t h e me ta l s lag s amp le s t h a t Ih ad c o l lec ted i n t h e c ou r se o f f i e ldwo rk a nd a l so made a va i lab le s eve ra l of -p r in t s a nd r e f e rence s d ea l ing w i th p r e sen t -day m e talu rgy -o r ien ted w o rk i nI nd ia , f o r b o th o f wh ich Ia m g ra tefu l . Is hou ld a l so l i ke t o t h ank Ms . B obb ie C oe a nd Ms . S h ir ley S ea l f o r d ec iphe r ing my c a l l ig raph ic e ndeavou r s , a nd t yp ing t h i s b ook . T hank s mu s t a l so g o t o v a r iou s f r iend s a nd r e la t ive s , b o th a t C amb r idge a nd e l sewhe r e ( e spec ia l ly t h e o ne s I ' ve u sed a s p unch ing -bag s ) , who h ave h e lped i n d if e ren t w ay s o ve r t h e se p a s t f ew y ea r s . Once a ga in , t h e g r a t i tude i s g enu ine , e ven i f n o t i nd iv idua l ly e xp r e ssed . Iwou ld , h oweve r , l i ke t o s pec ia l ly t h ank Ma s i , U nc le A r thu r a nd t h e S hee shnag e x tended f am i ly , a nd C hand ra B ua f o r a l l t h ey h ave d one f o r me d u r ing my s t ay i nB r i ta in . I ti sa l so f i t t ing t o a cknow ledge h er e t h e i mpac t o f ac hance -mee t ing s ome y ea r s a go , s oon a f te r Ih ad t aken my s choo l leav ing e xam ina t ion s , w i th D r s . B r idge t a nd R aymond Alch in a nd D r . And rew G oud ie , a t B ikane r , i n t h e m idd le o f t h e T ha r D ese r t . T h e re i s o bv iou s ly much t r u th i nt h e d i c tum " c a tch t h em y oung " . F ina l ly , Iw ou ld l i ke t ot ake t h i s o ppor tun i ty t ot h ank my f am i ly a tJ a ipu r f o r t h e i r a c t ive a cadem ic s uppo r t o ver t h e c ou r se o f t h i s r e sea r ch -wo rk . T h i s i n c luded f i nd ing a n swe r s f o r f r enz ied i nqu i r ie s o ve r t h e t e lephone a nd p o s t ing r e f e renc e s , a r t ic les a nd n ew spape r c u t t ing s o n s eve r a l o cca s ion s . T he t e rm ' Thank y ou ' i st o o i n adequa te t hough t o f u l ly e xp r e s s my f e e l ing s f o r a l l t ho se o the r t h ing s w h ich Iw an t t o t h ank t h em f o r —a nd i tw ou ld b e l i ke mou th ing ap l a t i tude i f It r ied !

i v

CONTENTS

P age P ref ace a nd A cknow ledgemen t s 1 .

I NTRODUCT ION 1 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 1 . 2 P lan o ft h e Wo rk

1 1

1 6

2 .

SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY 2 . 1 T he P rob lem 2 . 2 S cope o ft h e P resen t Wo rk 2 . 3 P r ev iou s Wo rk 2 . 4 T e rm ino logy 2 . 5 Me thodo logy

8 8 1 0 1 3 1 5 1 6

3 .

THE BACKGROUND S ETT ING : GEOGRAPHY , GEOLOGY & H ISTORY OF THE REG ION . 3 . 1 I n t roduc t ion P hy s iog raphy o fR a ja s than 3 . 2 3 . 3 R ive r s o fR a ja s than 3 . 4 G eog raphy o fR a ja s than 3 . 5 S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than : G eog raphy & P hy s ica l F ea tu re s eo logy 3 . 6 S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than : G 3 . 7 S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than : P a laeo -C l ima te o i l s S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than : S 3 . 8 3 . 9 S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than : R ive r s 3 . 10 S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than : F lo ra a nd F auna 3 . 11 S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than : M ine r a l s 3 . 12 S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than : P r e - a nd E a r ly H is tory

2 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 2 5 3 0 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 5 3 8 3 8

4 .

THE AHAR CULTURE 4 . 1 I n t roduc t ion . 4 . 2 T he Aha r C u l tu r e 4 . 3 T he A rcha eo logy o f A ha r 4 .4 T he A r chaeo logy o fG i lund 4 . 5 O the r Aha r C u l tu re S i te s 4 .6 T he P o t te ry o ft h e Aha r C u l tu r e 4 . 7 S umma ry

4 2 4 2 4 2

5 .

A PATTERN EMERGES : OTHER AHAR CULTURE S ITES 5 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 5 . 2 E xp lo ra t ion a nd F ie ldwo rk 5 . 3 AT en ta t ive S yn the s i s

6 4 6 4 6 4 7 0

6 .

THE MESOL ITH IC S ITES 6 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 6 . 2 T he D a ta 6 . 3 T he Hypo the s i s

8 7 8 7 8 7 9 8

4 5 1 5 4 5 5 6 3

7 .

TRAD IT ION AND CHANGE : MODERN S ETTLEMENTS I N S .E . RAJASTHAN 7 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 7 . 2 Modem S .E . R a ja s than 7 . 3 P r e -modem a nd Med ieva l Mewa r 7 . 4 T rad i t ion a nd C hange : t h e i mpac t o f moder n i sa t ion a nd t h e p r esen t p a t te rn s o fs e t t lemen t s i n S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than

P age 1 02 1 02 1 04 1 08 11

8 .

THE BHILS 8 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 8 . 2 T he S chedu led T r ibe s o fR a ja s than 8 . 3 T he T r iba l s i nL i te ra tu r e , My th a nd P opu la r P e r cep t ion 8 . 4 T he B h i ls o fR a ja s than 8 . 5 R a ja s than i B h i l s a nd t h e ir r e la t ion sh ip w i th n on -T r iba l s

1 24 1 24 1 25 1 29 1 33 1 38

9 .

D ISCUSS ION AND CONCLUS ION 9 . 1 AS umma ry R ev iew 9 . 2 D iscu s s ion : t h e f o rmu la t ion o f amode l a nd t h e d ef ence o f ah ypo the s is 9 . 3 T he C on c lu s ion

1 44 1 44 1 46 1 60

APPEND IX : G aze t tee r o f S i te s a nd R e la ted I n f o rma t ion

1 62

GAZETTEER OF AHAR CULTURE S ITES

1 86

B IBL IOGRAPHY

2 21

v i

TABLES AND F IGURES

P age T ab le 4 : 1

F auna l R ema in s f r om Aha r

5 0

T ab le 5 : 1

F ie ldwo rk p o t te ry -colec t ion s c ompa r ab le t o A ha r

7 1

F igu re 5 :2

S i te s o ccup ied d u r ing p e r iod s c o r re spond ing , o n t h e b a s is o ft ypo log ica l c o r r e la t ion o f f i e ldwo rk p o t te ry c o l lec t ion s , w i th in A ha r I a , I b , I c a nd I ( a , b& c )

7 2

F r equency o f a n ima l b one s i nt h e t h r ee c u l tu ra l p ha se s a tB ago r

9 5

T ab le 6 : 1

MAPS 1 : 1

Adm in is t ra t ive d i s t r ic t s o f moder nR a ja s than

3

2 : 1

D i s t r ibu t ion o f Aha r C u l tur e s i te s i nR a ja s than

9

3 : 1

P hy s iog raphy o fR a ja s than

2 2

3 : 2

R a ja s than : D ra inage

2 4

3 : 3

S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than

2 6

3 : 4

S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than : R e l ief

2 7

3 : 5

S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than : G eo logy

3 1

3 : 6

S ou th -eas ter nR a ja s than : S o i l s

3 3

3 : 7

S ou th -ea s ter nR a ja s than : D ra inage

3 4

3 : 8

S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than : F o r e s t

3 6

3 : 9

S ou th -ea s ter nR a ja s than : M ine r a l s

3 9

6 : 1

D i s t r ibu t ion o fE a r ly a nd M idd le S tone A ge ( Pa laeo l i th ic ) s i te s i nR a ja s than

8 8

6 : 2

D i s t r ibu t ion o fL a te S tone A ge ( Me so l i th ic ) s i t es i nR a ja s than

8 9

8 : 1

P opu la t ion d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e S chedu led T r ibe s o fR a ja s than ( ba sed o n t he C en su s o fI nd ia , 1 971 )

Map o f Aha r C u l tu r e a nd Me so l i th ic S i te s

1 27 v i i i

v i i

2 7 °N

r. sodra •

0 TONK

0

• 0 0

9 .ko lhar l 0 0 AGOR

OH 0

WAR A •

•

cchambat

G ILUND

PR ADESH

GUJAR AT

1 0

7 30

5

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

k n is.

7 40

7 50

AHAR CULTURE AND MESOL ITH IC S ITES I N RAJASTHAN

7 6 °E

1 .I NTRODUCT ION

1 . 1 I n troduc t ion T he d eve lopmen t o f a r chaeo logy i n t h e I nd ian S ubcon t inen t d if e r s s i gn if ican t ly f r om m any o the r r e g ion s , i n t h a t i n I nd ia a n of i c ia l a r chaeo log ica l b ody u nde r G ove rnmen ta l s upe rv i s ion h ad b ecome e s tab l ished b y A .D . 1 86 1 . I n s ub sequen t y ea r s , t h is A r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia , t h rough i t s v a r iou s i n ca rna t ion s , g u ided a nd g ove rned t h e g row th o f a r chaeo logy i n ama rked ly s i gn if ican t m ann e r . ' T hu s , I nd ian a r chaeo logy , a s i te x i s t s t oday , m ay b e c on s ide r ed t o b e a n a ma lgam o f s eve r a l t r end s a nd f a c tor s , t h a t h ave b een i nf luenced b y t h e a c t iv i t ie s o f v a r iou s 1 8 th , 1 9 th a nd 2 0 th C en tu ry ' t ra i l -b laze r s ' , a nd g ove rnmen t p o l ic ie s . ' I n a dd i t ion t o t h i s , c e r ta in e ven t s h ave a l so h ad a n i mpac t o n t h e d eve lopmen t a nd s t ruc tu r e o fI nd ian a r chaeo logy . O ne o f t h e mos t c ruc ia l o f t h e se e ven t s i n r e cen t t ime s w a s t h e l o s s f a ced b y I nd ian a r chaeo logy when s ever a l c he r ished a r chaeo log ica l s i te s b ecame p a r t o f t h e n ew ly c r ea ted n a t ion o f P ak i s tan i n 1 947 ; t h e y ea r t h a t I nd ia w a s p a r t i t ioned i n to t wo s epa ra te n a t ion s — I nd ia a nd P ak is tan . T h i s p o l i t ica l e ven t h ad o bv iou s r epe rcu s s ion s o n a l a spec t s o f c on tempora ry l i f e i n t h e S ubcon t inen t . I n t h e c on t ex t o f a r chaeo logy , i t mean t t h a t t h e w o r ld r enowned s i te s o f t h e I ndu s V a l ley C iv il iza t ion , i n c lud ing Mohen joda ro , C hanhuda ro a nd H a r appa ; t h e G andha r an o r I ndo -G reek s i te s l i ke T ax i la ; t h e f amous S oan ( Sohan ) V a l ley whe r e e a r ly s t one i n du s t r ie s h ad b e en n o ted , a nd many o ther s , n ow b ecame i n acce s s ib le t oI nd ian a r chaeo log is t s . I nd ia , f i gu ra t ive ly s peak ing , h ad l o s t av a lued p o r t ion o fh er p reh is to ry a nd e a r ly h i s to ry . C on sequen t ly , d u r ing t h e i mmed ia te ly p o s t -pa r t i t ion y ea r s , I nd ia 's a r chaeo log is t s c oncen t ra ted t h e i r a t ten t ion o n e x ten s ive a r chaeo log ica l w o rk a l l o ve r t h e c oun t ry , a s i f c ompen sa t ing f o r t h e l o s s o fc e r ta in p r e s t ig iou s s i tes b y l ook ing f o r n ew o nes . B e tween t h e 1 920 's a nd 1 940 's , c on s ide r ab le e xcava t ion w o rk a nd e xp lo ra t ion s h ad b een c oncen t ra ted i n t h e w e s ter n a nd n or th -wes ter n a r ea s o f ( und iv ided ) I nd ia , f olow ing t h e d i scove ry o f H a r appa a nd Mohen joda ro , a nd o the r ' I ndu s C iv il iza t ion ' s i tes ( Mackay 1 935 , 1 938 , 1 943 ; Ma r sha l l 1 931 ; Ma jumda r 1 934 ; V a t s 1 941 ; D eva a nd McCown 1 949 ; H a rg r eaves 1 929 ; Whee le r 1 968 ) , Ma r shal 's i n te r es t i n G andha r an s i te s ( 1951 , 1 960 ) , D e T e r ra a nd P a te r son 's w o rk ( 1939 ) , a nd o the r s t ud ie s . T he a r chaeo log ica l s equenc e s o f t ho se a r ea s , ( mo s t o f wh ich b ecame p a r t o f P ak is tan i n 1 947 ) , w e re t hu s , b e t te r s t ud ied t h an t h o se o f s ome o the r p a r t s o f t h e S ubcon t inen t . T he s t ra t ig raphy o f R a ja s than ( t hen c a l led R a jpu tana ) , f o r e xamp le , h ad a t t rac ted l e s s i n te re s t , t hough S t e in ( 1942 ) , a nd o the rs h ad r e co rded s i te s i nN o r ther nR a ja s than a l ong t h e ' l o s t ' S a ra swa t i r i ve r . ' T hu s , i n t h e 1 950 's a nd 1 960 's , I nd ian a r chaeo log i s t s w o rk ed t o e x tend t h e e x is t ing a r chaeo log ica l map s a nd t h e s t a te o fk now ledge , a s w el a s t o d i scove r n ew s i te s t o r ep lace t h o se t h ey h ad l o s t . T h e ir me thodo logy i n vo lved ag ene ra l e xp lo ra t ion o f l a rge s e c t ion s o f t e r r i to ry , w i th l im i ted e xcava t ion a t a f ew s e lec t ed t ype -s i te s . T he r epo r t s i n t h e A r chaeo log ica l S ur vey o f I nd ia 's j ou rna l , I nd ian A rchaeo logy — A R ev iew , ' t e s t if y t o t h e s pa te o f a r chaeo log ica l a c t iv i ty d u r ing t ho se d ecade s . An a t temp t w a s made t o g ene ra te n ew

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T h i s i sa n i mpo r tan t f a c to r t o b ea r i n m ind , b ecau se , " f rom 1 861 u n t i l n ow , b a r r ing a f ew e xcep t ion s , a r cha eo logy h a s r ema in ed aG ove rnmen tp re se r ve " ( S anka l ia 1 979a :3 ) .

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S ee A g rawa l a nd C ha l c raba r t i 1 979a ; A lch in 1 973 ; C la rk 1 979 ; F e rgu s son 1 884 ; F oo te 1 9 14 , 1 916 ; G ove rnmen t o f I nd ia 1 950 , 1 961 ; R ay 1 963 ; R oy 1 953 , 1 961 ; S anka l ia 1 962c , 1 974 , 1 977b , 1 979a ; Whee le r 1 950 .

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S ee D e shpande n . d . [?1967 ] ; G ho sh 1 953 , 1 960 ; M i s ra n . d . [?1967 ] ; a mong o the r s f o r ar e v iew o f t h a t p e r iod .

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H ence fo r th r e f e r red t oa sJ AR .

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ma te r ia l i n a l l b ranche s o f t h e d i sc ip l ine . T hu s , s t ud ie s o n I nd ian p reh is to ry , t h e d i scove ry o f a dd i t iona l ' I ndu s ' , o r H a r appan , s i te s ( i nc lud ing K a l ibangan , L o tha l , R upa r a nd A lamg i rpu r ) , a nd s t ud ie s o n H i s tor ica l p e r iod s i te s l i ke U j ja in a nd K au samb i , w e r e ma tched b y v er t ica l e xcava t ion s , c e ram ic a na ly ses a nd d i scu s s ion s o n ' c o lon iza t ion s ' a nd s o f o r th . S ome s cho lar s c oncen t ra t ed o n t h e c or re la t ion o f I nd ian t e x t s a nd p opu la r h i s to ry , w i th a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , wh i le o the r s e xp lo r ed d i f f e r en t g eog raph ica l t e r ra in s f o r s i gn s o f h i ther to u nknown ' c u l tu r es ' .5 I tw a s a s i ft h e d i sc ip l ine h ad d i scove red a f r e sh r a i son d ' e t r e . T he mo t iva t ing f a c to r a ppea r s t o h ave b een a n a t temp t t o d raw u p ac u l tu r a l c h rono logy f o r I nd ia t h a t c ou ld s pan a nd i n te r l ink I nd ian p r e - a nd p ro to - h i s to ry w i th h i s to ry . T he d i scove ry o ft h e s i te o fA ha r ( 24 ° 3 5 ' N , 7 3° 4 4 ' E ) , n ea r U da ipu r i nR a ja s than , a nd s ub sequen t i n te r es t i n t h e ` Aha r C u l tur e ' , d u r ing t h e 1 950 's a nd e a r ly 1 960 's i sr e la ted t o t h i s b ackg round . I n i t ia l e xcava t ion s a t A ha r ( J AR 1 954 -55 ) , h ad e xpo sed e v idence o f a c oppe r -u s ing a g r icu l tu r a l s i te , d i s t ingu ished b y a b lack -and red w a r e . C oncu r r en t e xp lora t ion s i n t h a t p a r t o f R a ja s than b rough t t o l i gh t s i tes d a t ing f r om t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod o nwa rd s ( JAR 1 956 -57 o nwa rd s ; S anka l ia 1 974 ) . T hese i n c luded a n umbe r o f s i te s w i th b lack -and red w a re w h ich w e re b e l ieved t o h ave a ff in i t ie s w i th t h e s i te o f A ha r . S ub sequen t e xcava t ion s a t A ha r a nd a t a no the r s i te , G i lund , a l ong w i th t h e e xp lo ra t ion s m en t ioned a bove , c onf i rmed t h e e x i s tence o f agr oup o f ' c oppe r -age ' a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lemen t s d a t ing , o n t h e b a s is o f r ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om A ha r , t o a tl e a s t c .2 000 B .C . ( i b id ; S anka l ia e ta l 1 969 ; M is ra 1 969 ) . T he se s i t es w e re c l a s s if ied b y t h e ir d i scove re r s a s b e long ing t o t h e ` Aha r C u l tu r e ' ( Sanka l ia 1 962b ) , a f t e r t h e t ype s i te o f A ha r , t h ough s ome a r chaeo log is t s p r ef e r r ed t h e t e rm ` Bana s C u l tur e ' ( La l 1 963 ) , s i nce e a r ly e xp lo ra t ion s , wh ich w e r e c onf ined t o t h e B ana s b a s in , h ad i nd ica ted t h a t t h e ' c u l tu r e ' e x tended a l ong t h e B ana s r i ve rv a l ley . T h is d i scove ry o f ah i the r to u nknown c ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re i n S ou th -eas te rn , o r a cco rd ing t o s ome S ou the rn , R a ja s than w a s r e cogn i sed a s s i gn if ican t ,6 a nd s ome a t temp t s w e re made t o l i nk t h e p ro toh is to r ic s equence s o f C en t r a l I nd ia w i th t ho se o f R a ja s than . H owever , b o th A ha r a nd G i lund w e re o n ly p a r t ia l ly e xcava ted , a nd t h e f u l l r epo r t o n t h e l a t te r e xcava t ion h a s y e t t o b e p ub l i shed . T he o the r Aha r C u l tu r e s i te s w e re n o t r e inve s t iga ted o r f uly a na lysed e i the r , f olow ing t h e i n i t ia l e xp lo ra t ion s o ft h e 1 950 's -60 's . T hu s , d e sp i te t h e p re l im ina ry i n ves t iga t ion s o n t h e Aha r C u l tu re b e twe en 1 952 -62 a nd t h e l im i ted e xcava t ion s a t A ha r a nd G i lund , i n f orma t ion a bou t t h e A ha r C u l tu re h a s

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S ee J AR 1 954 -55 o nwa rd s ; S anka l ia 1 969 , 1 974 ; A g rawa l 1 982 ; S ubba rao 1 958 ; M i s ra a nd N aga r 1 972 ; L a l 1 964 ; f o r d e ta i l s o fp o s t Independence a r chaeo logy i nI nd ia . T he t e rm ' Sou th -ea s te rn ' i sa ppl icab le t o U da ipu r , C h i t to rga rh a nd B h i lwa ra d i s t r ic t s ( e r s twh i le Mewa r ) , w he re t h e k nown A ha r ian s i te s a r e c oncen t ra ted , a l ong w i th d i s t r ic t s B an swa ra , D unga rpu r , K o ta , B und i , J ha lawa r a nd T onk ; w h i le ' Sou th e rn ' w ou ld i n c lude a r id a nd s em i -a r id d i s t r ic t s l i ke J a lo r , P a l i a nd B anne r ( Map 1 : 1) . I n g eog raph ica l t e rm s , t h e r eg ion i d en t if ied a s t h e A ha r C u l tu re ' s ' h e a r t land ' l i e s t ot h e s ou th e a s t o ft h e A rava ll i s . T h i s h il range f o rm s an a tu ra l g eophy s ica l b ounda ry b e tween t h e a r id / sem i -a r id w e s t a nd n or th -we s t o f R a ja s than , a nd t h e w e t te r C hamba l -Bana s r i ve r -ba s in s o f t h e e a s t a nd s ou th -ea s t ( Map 3 : 1 C hap te r 3 ) . U s ing t h e w o rd ' S ou the rn ' w ou ld , t h u s , i mp ly t h e i n c lu s ion o f a r ea s w e s t o f b o th t h e A rava l l i d iv ide a nd t h e A l t a r C u l tu re z one i n to t h e g eog raph ica l s cope o f t h i s w o rk . O n t h e o the r h and , t h ough t h e t e rm ' Sou th -e as te rn ' R a ja s th an , s t r ic t ly s peak ing , e ncomp a s se s a r ea s l i ke K o ta a nd B und i , w he re n o A ha r ian s i te s a r e k nown a tp r e sen t , i ti sa l so am o re p rec i se g eog raph ica l , g eo -eco log ica l a nd c u l tu ra l d ema rca t ion o ft h e A ha r C u l tu r e r e g ion . H av ing t a ken a l l t h i s i n to c on s ide ra t ion , a nd f olow ing t h e c onven t ion s e t b y e a r l ie r w o rke r s ( Sanka l ia e t a l 1 969 ; S anka l ia 1 979b ) , t h e t e rm ' S ou th -ea s t e rn ' h a s b een u sed , i n p r ef e ren ce t o ' S ou the rn ' , t h roughou t t h i s t e x t . T he a bb r ev ia t ion ` S .E . R a ja s than ' , w h e r e i to ccu r s , i n d ica te s t h e s ame .

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A dm in i s t r a t ive d i s t r ic t s o f modem R a ja s than

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r ema ined l im i ted . ' D a ta r ega rd ing t h e e conomy , s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s , t r ade a nd c on tac t , a nd many o the r a spec t s o ft h e ` Aha r C u l tu re ' i ss c an ty a nd r e s t r ic ted , e ven t oday , s i nce o n ly t wo s i t e s , Aha r a nd G i lund , w e r e e xcava ted o u t o f t h e t h i r ty p lu s s i te s d i scove r ed a tt h e t ime ( t hough o ve r e i gh ty s i t e s may n ow b e l i s ted ) , a nd o n ly o ne , Aha r , f u l ly p ub l ished ( Sanka l ia e ta l1 969 ) . T h is h a s r e su l ted i n a r chaeo log i s t s g ene ra l iz ing a bou t t h e A ha r C u l tu re o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e e xcava t ed r e su l t s f r om Aha r a nd , t o al e s se r d eg ree , G i lund . O the r s i te s , c l a s sed a s b e long ing t o t h e ` Aha r C u l tu r e ' , h ave n o t b een d a ted , e xcava ted , o r e ven t h o rough ly r e co rded . T hu s , t oday , i n t h e m id 1 980 's , t h er e i ss t i l l o n ly a l im i ted u nde r s tand ing o f t h e ' c u l tu re ' r ep r e sen ted b y Aha r . V e ry l i t t le a dd i t iona l d a ta i sa va i lab le s i nce h a rd ly a ny w o rk h a s b een u nde r taken o n t h e A ha r C u l tu re s i nce t h e e a r ly 1 960 's , a pa r t f r om t h e d i scove ry o f af ew mo re s i te s . I n t h e se c i r cum s tanc e s , i th a s b ecome ac ommonp lace f o r a r chaeo log is t s t o t a ke t h e b ody o f i n f o rma t ion o b ta ined f r om t h e 1 961 -62 s e a son ( Sanka l ia e t a l 1 969 ; J AR 1 961 -62 ) a sb e ing f i na l a nd i n f a l l ib le ! T he re r ema in , h oweve r , many u nan swe r ed q ue s t ion s o n v a r iou s i s sue s c once rn ing t h e ` Aha r C u l tu re ' . T he o r ig ina l e xcava to r s t h emse lve s w e r e a wa r e o ft h ese i n t h e 1 960 's . T he se q ue s t ion s p e r ta in t o t h e o r ig in s , a ff in i t ie s o r c on tac t s , s e t t lemen t p a t t e rn s , d emog raphy , a nd t e chno log ica l a b i l i t ies o ft h e g roup s t h a t l i ved a tt h e ` Aha r C u l tu re ' s i te s d u r ing t h e t h ird t o s e cond m ilenn ia B .C . , a nd aw ho le r a nge o fo the r a s soc ia ted i s sue s . F o r e xamp le , C 14 d a t e s f r om A ha r w ou ld p l ace s ome o f i t s l e ve l s a t a d a te c on tempor aneou s w i th t h e l a te r p a r t o ft h e H a r appan c i v il iza t ion , wh i le r e la t ive d a t ing o ft h e p o t te ry -ev idence f r om G i lund a nd t h e C en t r a l I nd ian s i te o f N avda to l i ( Sanka l ia e ta l 1 958 ; 1 971 ) s ugge s t s t h e t empo ra l c o r re spondenc e o f t h e u ppe r l e ve l s a t G i lund w i th t h e l owe r l e ve l s ( c . 1 500 B .C . ) a tN avda to l i ( J AR 1 959 -60 :44 ) . T h i s may l e ad o ne t o q uery whe the r , i f s ome o ft h e o the r s i tes f r om R a ja s than c l a s s if ied a s b e long ing t o t h e ` Aha r C u l tu re ' may b e p r esumed t o b e c on tempo ra ry w i th Aha r a nd G i lund , t h ey s hou ld a l so , h ypo the t ica l ly , b e c on tempo ra ry w i th s ome o f t h e L a te r H a rappan s i te s o n t h e o ne h and , a nd w i th t h e e a r l ie r C ha lco l i th ic s i te s o f C en t ra l I nd ia , o n t h e o the r ? I f s ome o f t h e ` Ha rappan ' a nd ` Aha r C u l tu re ' s i te s w e r e c on tempora ry , w a s t h e r e a ny f o rm o f c on tac t b e tween t h em? I fs o , w hy h a s n o a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r c on tac t b e en f ound? I n t h e c on tex t o f t h e r e cen t w o rk i n N o r ther n R a ja s than a t t h e s i te o f G ane shwa r ( Ag rawa la 1 981 ) , w h ich a ppea r s t o h ave b een c oppe r -p roduc ing , b u t n on -ag r icu l tu ra l , i th a s b een p o s tu la ted t h a t t h e r e c ou ld h ave b een t r ade l i nk s b e twe en G ane shwa r a nd t h e H a rappan s . ' A s a no the r c opp e r -p roduc ing z one , d i d t h e A ha r C u l tu r e s i te s o f R a jas than p l ay a ny r o le i n t h e e conomy o f t h e H a rappan s? Wa s t h e A ha r C u l tu re a r ea o ne o ft h e r eg ion s s upp ly ing p a r t o f t h e c oppe r r equ i r emen t s o f t h e H a rappan s , ( who , a s mo s t H a rappan s pec ia l is t s a r e q u ick t o p o in t o u t , d i d n o t p o s se s s s u i tab le s ou r ce s f o r c opper w i th in t h e ir o wn ' t er r i to ry ' )? T he r e cen t d i scove ry o f c oppe r c e l t s f r om t h e v i l lage o f P ada l iya i n D is t r ic t C h i t to rgar n ( 3 km . f r om t h e A ha r ian s i te -mound a t P ind ) , wh ich c o r r e spond i n w e igh t a nd t ype w i th t h e H a rappan a r t if ac t s , h a s r e -empha s i sed s uch q uer ie s . H oweve r , wh i le t h e q ue s t ion o f H a rappan t r ade c onnec t ion s ( Ra tnaga r 1 981 ; A s thana 1 976 ) c an b e mo re f i t t ing ly a n swe r ed b y w o rk er s i n t h a t f i e ld , t h e q ue s t ion o f A ha r ian t r ade l i nk s w i th i t r ema in s u nan swe r ed . '

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T h i s i s i n c on tra s t t o d a ta a va i lab le o n s eve ra l o the r s i t e s i n v a r iou s p a r t s o f I nd ia , wh ich w e r e a l so d i scove red d u r ing t h e 1 950 's -60 's , b u t wh ich w e r e s ub sequen t ly s t ud ied i nd e ta i l . Navda tol i ( Sanka l ia e ta l 1 958 ; S anka l ia e ta l1 971) , I namgaon ( Sanka l ia , A n sa r i a nd D hava l ik a r 1 971 , 1 975 ; Dhava l ik a r 1 977 ) , a nd K aya tha ( Ansa r i a nd Dhava l ika r 1 975) , f o r e xamp le , a r e r e p r e sen ta t ive t yp e s i te s o f o th e r C ha lcol i th ic ' c u l tu re s ' , where c on t inued i n ve s t iga t ions h ave a l lowed a r cha eo log i s t s ab e t te r c o mp r ehen s ion o f s ome o f t h e p a s tp roces se s . I b id :60 -61 ; p er s . c omm . V i jay K uma r ; p e r s .comm . R .C . A g rawa la .

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Wh i le t h e p o ss ib i l i t ie s e x i s t f o r t r ade o r e xchange o fc oppe r o r c oppe r a r te f ac t s f r om S .E . R a ja s than t ot h e I ndu s V a l ley , n o ma te r ia l e v idence — I ndu s s ea l s , p o t ter y , e t c . —h a s b een f ound i n t h e e xcava t ion s a tA h a r t oc o r robo ra te s uch ah ypo the s is .

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T he o ppo r tun i ty t os e cu r e a dd i t iona l i n fo rma t ion o r e ven f o rmu la te c er ta in q ue s t ion s may s oon b e l o s t , h oweve r , d ue t o t h e p roce s se s o f mode rn iza t ion a nd c hange . D eve lopmen t p ro jec t s , r o ad b u i ld ing , c on s t ruc t ion o f i r r iga t ion d ams a nd b a r r age s , i n ten s if ied a nd i nnova t ive a g r icu l tu ra l p r ac t ice s , t h e e x t en s ion o f u rban l im i t s i n to p r ev iou s ly r u ra l c oun t ry s ide , modem b u i ld ing m a ter ia l s a nd t e chn ique s , a nd o the r f a c tor s , a r e a dd ing t o t h e e ra su re o f a r chaeo log ica l e v idence . W i th s oc ie ty i n as t a te o f ' mode rn iza t ion ' a nd t r an s i t ion , a spec t s o f n a t iona l d eve lopmen t h ave , q u i te n a tu r a l ly , g r ea te r p r io r i ty t h an a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch , b u t a tt h e s ame t ime , t h i s h a s a l r eady r e su l ted i n t h e r ap id o b l i te ra t ion o f p a r t o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e cord . S i t es i d en t if ied a s ` Aha r ian ' b u t n o t s t ud ied i n t h e 1 960 's h ave b een d i s tu rbed i n t h e i n te r im . A t B an sen a nd D a r au l i , f o r e xamp le , l a rge , o bv iou s mound s h ave b e en p a r t ly d e s t royed ." T hu s , a dd i t iona l w o rk i sn ece s sa ry t o o b ta in mo re i n f o rma t ion , b efo re t h e s ou rce s b ecome e l im ina t ed a nd t h e o p t ion o fc a r ry ing o u t a r chaeo log ica l w o rk o n t h e A ha r C u l tu r e a ts ome f u tu re d a te i sp e rmanen t ly l o s t . G iven t h e p r esen t c i r cum s tance s , t hough , i ti s n o t p o s s ib le t o e xcava te , f o r r e a son s d i scu s sed i n t h e f olow ing c hap te r , a l l , o r e ven s ome , o f t h e s i tes e x ten s ive ly , o r o b ta in a e r ia l p ho tog raph s o f t h e r e g ion . I n t h e f a ce o f t h e se a nd s im i la r p rob lem s i n c a r ry ing o u t a r chaeo log ica l w o rk i n t h e a r ea a t t h i s p o in t i n t ime , o ne i sf a c ed w i th t wo a l ter n a t ives : A r chaeo log is t s c an e i the r d e s i s t f r om a ny f u r the r w o rk o n t h e A ha r C u l tu r e u n t i l s uch t ime a s a dd i t iona l d a ta b ecome s o b ta inab le o r i s a t ta inab le , o r , a l te rna te ly , t r y t o f o rmu la te t e n ta t ive h ypo the se s a bou t c e r ta in a spec t s o f t h e A ha r C u l tu r e o n t h e b a s is o f t h e f ew k nown f a c t s , wh ich may t h en b e t e s ted . T he l a t te r a l t e rna t ive i s f r augh t w i th a g r ea te r d eg ree o f e r ror s i nce o ne w ou ld b e w o rk ing f r om a n i n adequa te d a ta -ba se , b u t i s d oub ly i mpor tan t , d ue t o t h e t h rea t t o a r chaeo log ica l s i te s , a nd h ence , d a ta -ba se , b y t h e v a r iou s a genc ie s , l i ke d eve lopmen t w o rk s e t c , men t ioned a bove . T hu s , i n t h i s c a se , t h e l onger w e w a i t , t h e mo re i n fo rma t ion w il b e l o s t t o a r chaeo logy . I ti si mpor tan t , t h e r ef o re , t o t r y a nd g a in ab e t t e r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e Aha r C u l tu r e b y c ola t ing a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a nd a t temp t ing t o a dd t o i t . T h i s k ind o f a c omp i la t ion h a s n o t b een u nde r taken p rev iou s ly , b u t s uch a g en e r a l f r amework i s a n ece s sa ry p r e requ i s i te f o r f u r the r s t ud ie s . I n v i ew o ft h e l im i ted n a tu r e o f a va i lab le d a ta , t h e ` Aha r ian ' d i scu s s ion i sb a sed o n i n f o rma t ion t h a t may b e d e sc r ibed a s m in ima l . N one the le s s , t h i s ' m in ima l d a ta ' n eed s t o b e c o l lec ted a nd d e sc r ibed , i n o rde r t o f o rmu la te mode l s a nd f u tu r e s t r a teg ie s f o r w o rk o n t h e A ha r C u l tu r e . T he f i r s t o b jec t ive o f t h is w o rk , t h e re fo re , h a s b een t o c olec t a nd c o l la te d a ta , b o th p ub l ished a nd t h a t g a the red f r om my o wn f i e ldwo rk i n t h e r eg ion ." S uch a c omp i la t ion o f d a ta p e r ta in ing t o t h e A ha r C u l tu r e r a i ses a n umbe r o f b a s ic q ues t ion s a nd r e la t ed i s sue s . T he se i n c lude t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e twe en t h e A ha r a nd H a rappan ' Cu l tu re s ' , a nd b e tween Aha r a nd o t he r c ha lco l i th ic ' Cu l tu r e s ' ( Kaya tha , Ma lwa , J orwe , e t c ) ; t h e r o le o f m e ta l lu rgy , e spec ia l ly c oppe r , i nt h e Aha r C u l tu r e ; t h e p o s i t ion , i nr e la t ion t ot h e Aha r C u l tu r e , o f wha t A g r awa la ( 1981) c a l l s t h e ` Gane shwa r Jodhpu ra C u l tu re ' o f No r th e rn R a ja s than , d i s t ingu i shed b y q uan t i t ies o f c oppe r a r t ef ac t s , a l ong w i th s l ag , m ic ro l i th s a nd a s l ipped r e d w a re ( b ea r ing i n c ised l i nea r d eco ra t ion s o n t h e e x te r io r , a nd l a be l led a s " O .C .P (? ) " [ i b id ] ) ; t h e ' o r ig in s ' o f t h e A ha r C u l tu r e ; t h e B lack -and -Red w a r e i s sue ; t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween Aha r a nd o t he r l o ca l gr oup s , a s d emon s t ra ted a t' Me so l i th ic ' B agor , a nd v a r iou s o the r s uch i s sues t h a t h ave y e t t ob e f uly a r t icu la ted ."

T he i mp l ica t ion i s n ' t t h a t R a ja s than 's S t a te A rchaeo logy D epa r tmen t o r t h e A r cha eo log ica l S u r vey o fI nd ia h a ve b een g u i l ty o f g ro s s n eg lec t o r i re spon s ib il i ty . O n t h e c on t ra ry , t h ey h ave u t i l ised l im i t ed f i n anc ia l a loca t ion s p roduc t ive ly . H oweve r , a s m any a r cha eo log ica l s i te s a r e n o t r e a l ly k nown a nd r e cogn i sed b y t h e p ubl i c , e xcep t w he r e a r ch i tec tu ra l r ema in s a nd s t a tue s e t c . o ccu r , l o ca l d ec i s ion -make r s l i ke a dm in i s t ra to r s , v ilage P an chaya t S am i t i s a nd p ol i t ic ian s h ave o f t en r ema ined i g no r an t a bou t t h e i mpo r tan ce o fp r e ser v ing t h em . 1

D u r ing t h e c ou r se o f my f i e ldwo rk , s i te s p rev iou s ly c l a s s if ied a s ` Aha r C u l tu re ' w e re v i s i ted a nd e xam ined . P r ev iou s ly u n reco rded n ew s i t e s w e re a l so f o und ( s ee C hap te r 5 ) .

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S ome o ft h e se a r e d i scu s sed i nt h e c ou r se o ft h i s w o rk .

5

O u t o f t h e se , Ih ave f o cu s sed u pon o ne — n ame ly t h e p o s s ib le r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e A ha r C u l tu r e s i te s a nd c on tempo r aneou s n on -ag r icu l tu r a l h un t ing -ga the r ing s i te s c l a s s if ied a s ' Me so l i th ic ' b y a r chaeo log i s t s , k nown f r om t h e s ame r e g ion . T he p o s s ib i l i ty f o r p a r t ia l c on tempo rane i ty a nd s ome k ind o f i n te r ac t ion b e tween t h e a g r icu l tu ra l , c oppe r -u s ing Aha r C u l tur e g roup o f s i t e s a nd n on -ag r icu l tu r a l h un t ing -ga the r ing , m icro l i th -u s ing o ne s i s s ugge s ted b y t h e r e su l t s o b ta ined t h rough a r chaeo log ica l e xp lo ra t ion s i n S ou th -ea s ter n R a ja s than , a nd b y t h e e xcava t ion s a tt h e m ic ro l i th -u s ing s i t e o f B ago r ( M i s ra 1 971 , 1 973a ) ." T he s econd t a sk o f t h is w o rk , t h e r ef o re , i sa n e xam ina t ion o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s i te s l i ke Aha r a nd s i tes l i ke B ago r . I fA ha r a nd B ago r c oex i s t ed w i th in a c ommon s pa t io t empora l s pan , c an o ne h ypo the s ize t h a t a tl e a s t s ome o f t h e o the r A ha r C u l tu r e a nd B ago r t ype s i te s c ou ld a l so h ave b een c on tempo ra ry? I f s o , w ha t c on tac t s c an b e r e cogn i sed b e tween t h e t wo? Wha t k ind o fi n te r ac t ion , i fa ny , e x is ted? T o o b ta in a no ther p e r spec t ive o n t h i s p rob lem , t h e t h i rd o b jec t ive o f t h e w o rk i s t h e a na ly s i s o f a no the r ' c a se s tudy ' o f i n t e r re la t ion sh ip b e tween t wo e conom ie s o r ' c u l tu r e s ' o r ' l i f e -s ty le s ' , —n ame ly t h e i n te rac t ion b e tween mode rn -day r u ra l a g r icu l tu ra l c ommun i t ie s ," a nd moder n -day h un t ing -ga the r ing a nd i n c ip ien t f a rm ing p eop le k nown a s B h i l s . T he l a t te r g roup h ave b een c l a s sed a s ` t r iba l s ' b y aG ove rnmen t o f I nd ia S chedu le ." T he se s epa ra te e conom ie s t o day o ccupy t h e r e g ion whe r e t h e Tha lc ,o l i th ic ' A ha r C u l tur e a nd t h e B ago r s i te s h ave b e en d i scove red . T he e xamp le o f moder n i n te r re la t ionsh ip i s n o t mean t , t hough , a s ad i r ec t a na logy w i th p reh is to r ic i n t e r ac t ion s . I ti su sed o n ly a s a n ' a l te r n a t ive mode l ' o f c oex i s t ing g roup s a nd e conom ie s i n t h e p r e sen t , w h ich may p rov ide t e n ta t ive h ypo the se s t o u nde r s tand a nd i n te rp r e t s ome o f t h e p a s t p roce s se s d u r ing t h e A ha r p e r iod ." 1 . 2 P lan o f t he Work T h is w o rk i sd i v ided i n to f ou r p a r t s . T he f i r s t p a r t i n t roduce s t h e m a in t h eme ( Chap ter 1 ) , d i scu s se s t h e s cope , m e thodo logy , p r ev iou s w ork a nd h ypo the se s ( Chap te r 2 ) a nd p rov ide s s ome g ene ra l i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e g eog raphy , g eo logy a nd o the r a spec t s o f t h e s t udy -a r ea ( Chap ter 3 ) . T he s econd p a r t d ea l s w i th t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . P r ev iou s ly r e por ted o r p ub l ished d a ta o n Aha r , G i lund a nd ( whe re a va i lab le ) o the r s i tes o ft h e A ha r C u l tu r e ( Chap te r4 ) , a nd a dd i t iona l d a ta , c olec ted d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f my own f i e ldwo rk ( Chap te r 5 ) , a r e d i scu ssed . A r chaeo log ica l e v idence s ugge s t s t h a t s ome s i te s , c l a s s if i ed a s ' Mesol i th ic ' , ( Bagor i n R a ja s than , L anghna j i n G u ja ra t ) , c on t inued t o e x is t i n to t h e s o -ca l led Tha lco l i th ic ' p e r iod a nd e ven l a te r . C hap te r 6d i scu s se s t h e Mesol i th ic i n S .E . R a ja s than a nd e xam ine s t h e i s sue s o f c on tempo rane i ty b e tween s ome o f t h e ' Me so l i th ic ' a nd s ome o f t h e ` Cha lco l i th ic ' s i te s , a l ong w i th t h e p o s s ib il i ty o f i n te r r e la t ion sh ip ( w i th v a ry ing d eg r ee s o fc on tac t a nd i s o la t ion ) b e tween t h em . I n o rde r t o f u r the r u nde r s tand t h e n a tu re o f s uch i n te rac t ion s , as t udy i s a t temp ted o f mode m g roup s , wh ich , t i l l e s s t h an f i f ty y ea r s a go , f o l lowed a s e qua l ly d i s t inc t e conom ic p a t te rn s a nd e co log ica l h ab i t s , a nd , s t emm ing f r om t h a t b u t n o t n ece s sa r i ly d ependen t u pon t h a t , s oc io -pol i t ica l p rac t ice s , a s t h e g roup s d e l inea ted b y e xcava t ion s a t Aha r a nd B agor a ppea r t oh ave d one .

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C 14 d a te s f r om B ago r ( Pd I ,p ha se I ) , a` Me so l i th ic ' s i te , i nd ica te i t s c on tempo rane i ty w i th Aha r . O th e r , s can ty , e v id ence s ugge s t s t h a t t h e re may h ave b een c on ta c t b e tween B ago r a nd A ha r C u l tu r e s i te s .

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T he i r v ilage s a r e f r equen t ly l o ca ted , i n te re s t ing ly e nough , o n t op o fo rn ea r A l t a r C u l tu re s i t e -mound s .

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T he Gove rnmen t o f I nd ia 's 1 950 ` S chedu le o f T r ibe s ' ( r ev i sed i n 1 976 ) , i sb a s ed o n t he G ove rnmen t 's 1 936 l i s t ing o f ` Backwa rd T r ibe s ' .

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Th is p e r iod o f c .2 500 B .C . s eems t o p rov id e t h e e a r l ie s t d a ta f o r a g r icu l tu re i n S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s th an f r om t h e Aha r C u l tu re s e t t lemen t s . H oweve r , e ven t h i s a spec t i si n su ff ic ien t ly s t ud ied .

6

T hu s , i nt h e t h ird p a r t o ft h is w o rk t h e modem c ond i t ion o f t h e a r ea o f s t udy , a nd o f t h e p r esen t -day p opu la t ion s l i v ing t h e r e i s o u t l ined . C hap te r 7 l o ok s a t t h e modem , r u r a l a g r icu l tu ra l is t s —a n a ma lgam o f d if e r en t s oc ia l g roup s , c a s te s a nd s ub -ca s te s , a nd r e l ig ion s ; w i th d if e r en t o ccupa t ion s a nd s oc ia l a nd e conom ic r o le s . T he se make u p t h e u n i t s a nd s ub u n i t s o f t h e h am le t s a nd v i l lage s o f r u ra l S .E . R a ja s than , w i th a c ommon b ackg round o f s e t t led a g r icu l tu re a nd a s soc ia ted c r af t s a nd o ther s pec ia l iza t ion s . T hey a r e d i s t ingu ishab le i n ' c u l tu ra l ' t e rms f r om t h e t r iba l B h i l s ( and o the r t r iba l s ) , b u t i n d is t ingu ishab le , g ene ra l ly s peak ing , f r om t h e o ve r a l l c u l tu ra l e t ho s o f t h e a g r icu l tu re -and indu s t r ie s b a sed r u r a l -u rban i nhe r i tance o f t h e S ubcon t inen t . T he B h i l s , c on s idered b y e a r ly a n th ropo log i s t s a nd mo s t v ilager s a s s urv ivo r s o f a n o l de r , ' p r im i t ive ' ( e ven a bo r ig ina l ) , p eop le , a r e d i scus sed i n C hap ter 8 . Wh i le s ome o f t h e p re sen t B h i l s o f R a ja s than h ave b een ' H indu ised ' o r i n teg ra ted , d ue t o p rox im i ty t o n on t r iba l v i l lages a nd o the r f a c to r s , o the r s h ave r e ta ined t h e ir o wn ` c u l tu re ' t o s ome e x ten t ." T he c onc lud ing s e c t ion o f t h i s w o rk ( Chap te r 9 ) , a t temp t s t o i n teg ra te b o th t h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd t h e modem c a se -s tud ie s i n to a g ene ra l d i scu s s ion o n i n te r r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween d i s t inc t t e chno -econom ic a nd ' c u l tu ra l ' g roup ing s . I t a l so s e ek s t o d eve lop a t e n ta t ive mode l s ugge s t ing i n te rac t ion b e tween Tha lco l i th ic ' , a g ra r ian , Aha r C u l tu re s i te s a nd c on tempo raneous B ago r P e r iod I ,p ha se I , t ype o f h un t ing -ga the r ing ' Me so l i th ic ' o ne s i nS ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than , d u r ing t h e t h i rd t o s econd m ilenn ia B .C .

1 7

T he t r an sfo rma t ion o f t r iba l s oc ie ty w i th in t h e l a s t t wo c en tu r ie s i s d ocumen ted i n p a r t . F o r e xamp le , d u r ing t h e m id t o l a te 1 9 th C en tu ry , B h i ls o f p a r t s o f B an swa ra a nd Dunga rpu r w e re a l loca ted l a nd a nd f o rced t os e t t le i n to ' d e cen t ' o ccupa t ions l i ke f a rm ing , i n s tead o fh un t ing , b y t h e B r i t i sh a dm in i s tra t ion . A t Khe rwa ra ( s ou th o f Uda ipu r ) , a` Mewa r B h i l C o rp ' w a s e s tabl i shed i n 1 840 t o k eep o rde r a mong t h e t r iba ls t h rough u s ing o t he r t r iba ls , a s h ad b een d on e i n K hande sh , i n B ombay P re s iden cy , w he re t h e f i r s t Khande sh Bh i l C o rp s w a s r a i sed u nde r Ou t ram i n 1 825 .

7

2 . SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY

2 . 1 T he P rob lem T he ma jo r c oncen t ra t ion o f t h e e a r ly a g r icu l tu ra l s i t e s b e long ing t o t h e Aha r C u l tu r e a r e l o ca ted t o t h e s ou th -ea s t o f t h e A raval i r a nge , b e tween ( app rox ima te ly ) l a t i tude s 2 3 -27 d eg ree s N , a nd l ong i tude s 7 3 -76 d eg r ee s E( Map 2 : 1 ) . O ve r e i gh ty Aha r C u l tu re s i tes a r e n ow k nown t o e x is t . T he se ` Cha lco l i th ic ' s i te s ' h ave b e en f ound i n p a r t s o f S ou th -ea s ter n R a ja s than a nd Madhya P rade sh , ' i n t h e d i s t r ic t s o f U da ipu r , C h i t to rga rh3,B h i lwa r a , A jme r , J a ipu r a nd T onk i n R a jas than ; a nd a s f a r a s J awad , Mand so r , K aya tha a nd D angwada i n Madhya P rade sh ( J AR 1 954 -55 ; 1 955 -56 ; 1 956 -57 ; 1 957 -58 ; 1 958 -59 ; 1 959 -60 ; 1 960 -61 ; 1 961-62 ; 1 969 -70 ; 1 970 -71) . F rom s u r f ace e v idenc e , t h e A ha r C u l tu r e s e em s t o c ove r a n a r ea o f a r ound 3 2 ,000 s q km , o r 2 0 ,000 s q m i le s i nR a ja s than a l one ( i b id ) . H oweve r , i ti ss i gn if i can t t on o te t h a t a pa r t f r om Aha r a nd G i lund , n o o the r ` Aha r C u l tu r e ' s i te f r om R a ja s than h a s b een e xcava ted . ' T hu s , i n e f ec t , a r chaeo log is t s h ave b een g ene ra l i s ing a bou t t h e ` Aha r C u l tu re ' , o n t h e b a s is o f t wo p a r t ia l ly e xcava ted s i te s . T h is i sa n o bv iou s d rawback f o r a ny c omp r ehen s ive s t udy o ft h e e a r ly ` c u l tu r e s ' a nd p ro toh i s to ry o fR a ja s than . I ta l so m ean s t h a t t h e re c ou ld b e p os s ib le f l aw s i n h ypo th ese s p romu lga ted o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e l im i ted k now ledge t h a t i s a va i lab le . T her e i s , t hu s , ag enu ine n eed t o e xam ine t h e o the r s i te s a s c r ibed t o t h e A ha r C u l tu re mo r e t h o rough ly a nd i n co rpo r a te t h e d a ta i no rde r t oo b ta in amor e h ol i s t ic p o r t ra i t . ' T he t h re e o b jec t ive s o f t h i s w o rk , t h e r efo re , a r e d e s igned k eep ing i n m ind t h e e x is t ing s t a te o f k now ledge a bou t t h e A ha r C u l tu r e , t h e n eed t o g a the r f u r the r d a ta w h i le i ti ss t il p os s ib le , a nd t h e n eed t o u se t h is i n f o rma t ion t o g ener a te f u r the r i n ter e s t i n t h e a r chaeo logy o f t h e r eg ion u nde r s t udy . T he se o b jec t ive s , a s o u t l ined i nt h e I n t roduc t ion ' , a r e , f i r s t ly , t o c omp i le a va i lab le d a ta a nd t o a dd t o i tt h rough f i e ldwo rk . S econd ly , t o u se t h is d a ta c omp i la t ion t o f o cu s o n o ne , o u t o ft h e many , u nexp lo r ed i s sue s i n vo lv ing t h e A ha r C u l tu re : n ame ly , t h e r e la t ion sh ip o f ` Aha r ian ' s i te s w i th ( ? )con t empo ra ry ` Me sol i th ic ' s i te s , k nown f r om t h e s ame r e g ion . T h ird ly , t o s t udy t h e i n te r re la t ion sh ip b e tween t wo modem -day s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s a nd e conom ie s , t h a t o f t h e s e t t led a g r icu l tur a l i s t s a nd t h e ` t r iba l ' B h i l s , who t oday l i ve i n t h e a r ea whe r e t h e e a r ly a g r icu l tu r a l s e t t lemen t s o f t h e A ha r C u l ture a nd t h e ` Me sol i th ic ' s i te s h ave b een f ound , t o o b ta in s ome p e r spec t ives o n t h e i s sue o f c on tempor ane i ty a nd c oex is tence . T h is ` c ompa r i son ' b e tween t h e p a s t a nd pr e sen t , h oweve r , i s n o t i n tended a s ad i rec t a na logy . N o r i s a ny r a c ia l d e sc en t b e tween t h e A ha r ian s a nd moder n a g r icu l tu ra l is t s ; a nd

1

T he Aha r C u l tu re h a s b een l a beled a s ` Cha lco l i th ic ' b y ag ene ra l c on sen su s o f I nd ian a r chaeo log i s t s b ecau se t h e n omenc la tu re f i t s i n w i th t h e e v idence f o r e a r ly c oppe r -u s ing s e t t lemen t s o f b e tween 2 500 1 000 B .C . o ve r many p a r t s o f n o r th -we s te rn a nd c en t ra l I nd ia . E xcava to r s o f t h e 1 961-62 s ea son a t Ah a r s t re ssed t h e a b sence o fl i th ic t o o l s a tt h a t s i te , b u t G i lund a pp e a r s t oh ave h ad b o th l i th ic a nd c oppe r t o o l s .

2

E r s twh i le Mewa r a nd Ma lw a .

3

C h i t to rgarh i s a l so s pe l t a s Ch i torga rh . C h i t tau rga rh a nd C h i tau rga rh i n v a r iou s o ff ic ia l a nd o the r , i n c lud ing a r chaeo log ica l , p ubl ica t ions . I n t h i s b ook , Ih ave u sed t h e ' Ch i t to rga rh ' f o rm , w h i ch i st h e mo s t o f ten r e cu r r ing v e r s ion i n t h e r e levan t a r cha eo log ica l l i t e ra tu re , a nd i n mo s t o the r l i te ra tu re p r io r t oa round 1 970 A .D , f o r t h e s ake o fc on s is tency a nd c onven ience .

4

T hough l im i ted e xcava t ions a t s ome C ha lco l i th ic s i te s i n Madhya P rade sh , l i ke K aya tha a nd D angw ada , h ave i nd ica ted t h e s t ra t ig raphy ( Kaya tha C u l tu r e , Ah a r C u l tu r e , Ma lwa C u l t u re ) , a nd r e la t ive p o s i t ion o f t h e Aha r C u l tu re i nt h a t r eg ion .

5

S uch b a s ic d a ta -comp i la t ion i sn ece ssa ry b e fo re w e a r e i n ap o s i t ion t o a pp ly s pa t ia l a na ly s i s ( C la rke 1 972 :47 -52 , 1 973 :13 -14 , 1 977 ; Hodde r a nd O r ton 1 976 ) , a nd o the r me thod s , o r w o rk o u t g ra v i ty mode l s o r c ompu te r s imu la t ions ( Hodde r 1 978b ) .

8

t . R A D ES H C.

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' Me so l i th ic ' h un te r -ga the r e r s a nd p r e sen t -day t r iba l s i mp l ied .6 2 . 2 S cope o ft he P re sen t Work E xcava t ion s a tA ha r ( J AR 1 954 -55 , 1 955 -56 , 1 96 1 -62 ; S anka l ia e t a l 1 969 ) , u nea r thed a p ro toh i s to r ica l a nd a h i s to r ica l p has e . I n t h e f onne r w a s i nd ica ted a n a g r icu l tu ra l c oppe r u s ing s e t t lemen t , d a t ing b e tween c . 2 000 t o 1 200 B .C . (W i th MASCA c a l ib ra t ion s , t h e se d a te s r e ad a s c .2 580 -1500 B .C . [ Alch in a nd Alch in 1 982 :262 ] ) . T her e w a s e v idence f o r t h e o ccu r rence o f r i c e , ( ? )m ile t , d ome s t ica ted c a t t le , s heep , g oa t , d og a nd o th e r d omes t ica ted a nd w i ld f aunae , a l ong w i th c oppe r a r t ef ac t s a nd s l ag . A c i r cu la r ( ? )fu rnac e p i t , mea su r ing 1 . 5 i n d i ame te r a nd 0 . 6 i n d ep th , a nd c on ta in ing a she s a nd c oppe r s l ag , w a s n o ted (M is ra 1 969 :300 ; S anka l ia e t a l 1 969 ) . T e r raco t ta o b jec t s a nd s t ruc tu ra l r ema in s a l so o ccu r red . T he c ha rac te r i s t ic c e ram ic w a s aw h i te -pa in ted b l ack -and red w a re . T h is h a s u sed a s ad i agno s t ic t r a i t . T h i s p o t te ry t r ea tmen t o ccu r red i n a dd i t ion t o d i s t inc t ive r ed w a r e , a l ong w i th p o t te ry i n g r ey a nd b u rn i shed b l ack f ab r ic s . e i gh ty s uch s i te s h ave b een i d en t if ied , t o d a te , o n t h e b a s i s o f s u r f ace f i nd s R a ja s than a l one . A d i f f e r en t c a tego ry o f s i te , k nown t h rough s u r f ace c o l lec t ion s s i x ty -seven s i te s ( J AR 1 956 -57 :79 , 1 966 -67 :30 , 1 970 -71 :31 ; M is ra 1 977a , 1 977b ) , a nd a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f r om t h e e xcava t ion (MR 1 967 -68 :4 1-42 ; M is ra 1 971 , 1 973a , n . d . [?1971 ] ; M i s ra a nd f r om t h e s ame r eg ion .

s i n ce b e en a n e qua l ly Mo re t h an f r om S .E .

o fm ic ro l i th ic t oo l s f r om 1 961 , 1 966 , 1 967 , 1 968 , o f o ne s uch s i te , B ago r N aga r 1 981 ) , i s k nown

T h r ee p ha se s w er e i d en t if ied i n t h e e xcava t ion s a t B ago r . T he f i r s t , y i e ld ing a r i ch m icro l i th ic i n du s t ry , as ub s tan t ia l q uan t i ty o f f a una l r ema in s , ah uman b u r ia l ( l a id o u t i n a n e x tended manne r ) , a nd s t one -paved f l oo r s a nd c i r cu la r a l ignmen t s o f s t one s ( b e l ieved t o b e e v idence f o r c i rcu la r h u t s , a cco rd ing t o t h e e xcava to r s ) , w a s C 14 d a ted b e tween c . 4 500 B .C . t o 3 000 B .C . ( Ag rawa l e ta l1 971a , 1 971b ) . I ti sk nown a sP e r iod I ,p ha se I( Lukac s e t a l 1 982 :1) . N o e v idence f o r e i the r c oppe r o r p o t te ry w a s f ound i nt h is p e r iod . T he s econd p ha se , P e r iod I , p ha se I , w a s C 14 d a ted b e tween c . 2 700 t o 2 000 B .C . (Ag rawa l e t a l 1 971a , 1 971b ) . T he re w a s am a rked r e duc t ion i n t h e q uan t i ty o f m icro l i th s a nd a n ima l b one s d u r ing t h i s p ha se , b u t c oppe r a nd h and -made p o t t e ry o ccu r red f o r t he f i r s t t ime . Human b u r ia l s , t h i s t ime i n af l exed p o s i t ion , w i th a s soc ia ted p o t s , c oppe r t oo l s , or namen t s a nd f ood -of f e r ing s w e r e a l so f ound . T he t h i rd p ha se , P e r iod I , w h ich h a s n o t b een r a d io -ca rbon d a ted , w a s a s c r ibed b y t h e e xcava to r s , t o t h e l a t te r h a l f o f t h e f i r s t m i l lenn ium B .C . ( Lukac s e t a l 1 982 ) . I r on t o o l s , whee l -made p o t te ry , g l a s s b ead s , b r ick s a nd t i l e s w e r e f ound i n t h i s p ha se , a l ong w i th a s ma l l q uan t i ty o f a n ima l b one s a nd m ic ro l i th s . T hese m ic ro l i th s a r e b el ieved t ob e i n t ru s ion s a s ac onsequence o ft h e s andy s u r f ace o ft h e s i te ( M isr a 1 965 ; M i s ra a nd N aga r 1 981 :7 ) . T he re , t hu s , a ppea r s t o b e e v idenc e f r om r a d io -ca rbon d a t ing t o s ugge s t c on tempo rane i ty b e tween P e r iod I ,p ha se I , o f B ago r a nd t h e C ha lco l i th ic l e ve l s o f Aha r , d u r ing t h e t h i rd t o s e cond m ilenn ia B .C . H oweve r , a s i nt h e c a se o f t h e r e s t o f t h e a g r icu l tu r a l ` Aha r C u l tu r e ' s e t t lemen t s , t h e re i se qua l ly i n su f i c ien t d a ta a bou t t h e b u lk o f t h e m ic ro l i th ic s i te s . T he se h ave b een s umma r i ly a s c r ibed t o t h e ' Me sol i th ic ' o r ' La te S tone Age ' o n t h e b a s is o f s u r f ace c olec t ion s . H oweve r , t h e e v idence f r om B ago r d emon s t ra te s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f s ome m ic ro l i th ic s i te s e x is t ing i n to t h e t h ird t os econd m ilenn ium B .C .

6

S ee O rme 1 973 , 1 981 ; H odde r 1 982a ; B in f o rd 1 967 ; a mong o t he r s f o r d i scu s s ion s o n a na logy a nd i t s a pp l ica t ion b y a r cha eo log i s t s . K rame r 1 979 ; G ou ld 1 978a , 1 978b , 1 980 ; B in fo rd 1 978 , 1 981 ; Y e l len 1 977 ; S ch if f e r 1 978a , 1 978b ; S t i le s 1 977 ; U cko 1 969 ; T r ingham 1 978 ; a nd o t he r s h ave a na ly sed t h e r o le o f e t hnoa rchaeo logy i nc u r ren t a r chaeo log ica l t h ink ing .

1 0

S uch a p oss ib i l i ty i s a l so s ugges ted b y e xcava t ion s a t L anghna j ( Sanka l ia 1 956 , 1 965 ; S anka l ia a nd K arve 1 949 ) , a nd d a ta f r om s eve ra l s i te s , where h un t ing -ga ther ing ' Me so l i th ic ' s i tes a ppea r t o h ave c o -ex is ted w i th ' Neo l i th ic ' o r ` Cha lco l i th ic ' s i tes a nd e ven l a te r . ' E v idence o f c on tac t b e twe en s e t t led a gr icu l tura l a nd h un t ing -ga ther ing g roups , p rov ided b y p o t tery a nd me ta l o b jec t s f ound a tt h e s i te s o f t h e l a t te r , i sa s y e t v e ry s ke tchy t hough , a nd i s me re ly i nd ica t ive o f t h e p robab i l i ty o f s uch c on tac t , t hough n o t i t s d eg ree . F ur the r e xcava t ion w ork o r w ide -sca le s amp l ing wou ld n eed t o b e u nder taken a ts evera l o f t h e s i tes f r om b o th c a tegor ies b efore w e c an a ppend a Q .E .D . t o a ny o f o ur h ypo these s c oncern ing t h em . I n t h e mean t ime , wo rk ing w i th a va i lab le d a ta a nd r e sou rces , w e c an p os tu la te s ome t e n ta t ive h ypo the se s t o a i d o u r i n terp re ta t ion s . T hu s , i fC 14 d a t ing s hows B ago r P er iod I , p ha se I , ( a ' Mesol i th ic ' , h un t ing - g a ther ing ( ? )pa s to ra l s i te w i th a s mal q uan t i ty o f c opper t oo l s a s soc ia ted w i th b ur ia l s , a nd p o t tery ) , t o b e a pp rox ima te ly c on temporaneou s , i n t empora l t e rms , w i th Aha r P e r iod I( a ` Cha lco l i th ic ' a g r icu l tu ra l s i te w i th s evera l t ypes a nd f ab r ic s o fp o t tery , a nd e v idence f o r o n -s i te me ta l lu rgy ) , t h en o ne may p os tu la te t ha t s ome o f t h e o ther m icro l i th ic s i te s k nown f r om S ou th -ea s tern R a ja s than c ou ld a l so h ave b een c on tempora ry w i th s ome o ft h e ` Cha lcol i th ic ' Aha r C u l tur e s i te s o ft he s ame a r ea . I n t h e c on tempora ry c on tex t , g enera l s pa t io tempora l c on tempo rane i ty c an b e o b ser ved b e tween t wo t ype s o f mode r n s e t t lemen t s o f S .E . R a ja s than — t he s eden ta ry a g r icu l tura l c ommun i t ie s w i th t he ir a s soc ia ted s oc io -pol i t ica l a nd e conom ic s t ruc tur es ; a nd t he c ommun i t ies c l a ss if ied a s ' t r iba l ' b y t he Gove rnmen t o f I nd ia . T he l a t te r , i n t h is r eg ion , ma in ly c omp r ise t he B h i ls ( w i th s ma l l n umber s o f G ar as ia s , M inas , B h i l -M ina s e t c ) . T hese ` t r iba l s ' , u n t i l f a ir ly r ecen t ly , p rac t iced am ixed e conomy w i th a s ub s tan t ia l e l emen t o ff ood c olec t ing a nd h un t ing , a nd a d ependence o n f o re s t -p roduce , a l ong w i th a s oc io -po l i t ica l s t ruc ture a nd s e t t lemen t p a t te rn ma rked ly d i s t inc t f r om t ha t o f t he a gr icu l tura l c ommun i t ie s . A s t udy o f s uch a mode r n e xamp le o f i n terac t ion c ou ld a i d a r chaeo log is t s i n c omp rehend ing s ome o f t h e f a c tor s i nvo lved i n i n terac t ion s b e tween t wo a r chaeo log icaly d i s t inc t c a tegor ie s o f s i tes . However , Ia m a wa re o f t h e d rawback s a nd l im i ta t ion s o f u s ing e thnoa rchaeo log ica l c ompa r ison s . I ti so bv ious , f o r e xamp le , t ha t p re sen t -day t r iba l s c anno t b e a rb i t ra r i ly c on s idered t o r ep re sen t t he r ema in ing s urv ivor s o f t he s t one -us ing p eop le o f 4 ,000 a nd more y ear s a go , t hough t hey may b e f olow ing p rac t ices t ha t a ppea r , t o s ome , t o b e s urv iva l s f r om p reh is to r ic t imes . I n a dd i t ion t o t he t ime d i f f er ence o f n ea r ly 4 ,000 y ea r s , a t t h e v ery l e as t , s epa ra t ing t h e P er iod I ,p hase I h un te r -ga ther e r s o f B agor a nd t h e ir c on tempora r ies f r om t he t r iba l s o f t oday , t h ere a r e s o me o ther f a c tor s wh ich h ave a l tered . F or e xamp le , t h e re h a s b een a c on t inuous r e duc t ion i n t h e s i ze o f t h e h ab i ta t s o f c on tempo ra ry h un ter -ga the re r s a s ar e su l t o f " enc roachmen t s " b y a g r icu l tura l p opu la t ion s ( Hu tch in son e t a l 1 977 ) . T hus e ven f i f ty y ear s a go , t he f o rmer i nhab i ted a r educed a nd ma rg ina l p or t ion o f t h e ir f o rme r ' t er r i tor ies ' , d ue i n s ome p a r t t o t h e e xpan s ion , o ver t he c en tur ie s , o f c ompe t ing a gr icu l tura l a nd i ndu s t r ia l s y s tems . C on sequen t ly , t h ey s ub s is ted u pon a l e s s a bundan t a nd s t ab le s upp ly o f u ndomes t ica ted r e sou rce s t h an d id t he h un ter -ga the re r s o f5 ,000 o r 1 0 ,000 y ear s a go ( i b id ) .

7

" La te S tone A ge i ndus t r ie s s how e v idence b o th o f e vo lu t ion i n t e chno log ica l t e rm s f r om t h o se o f t h e M idd le S tone A ge wh ich p recede s t h em , a nd o f s ub s tan t ia l e x te rna l i n f luence s . . .They a ppea r i n many r eg ion s t o s pan a c on s ide rab le p e r iod o f t ime . R o ck s he l t e r s wh ich h ave b een e xcava ted i n C ey lon a nd C en t ra l I nd ia , a nd t h e o p en -a i r s i te o f L anghna j i nG u ja ra t . .. s how ac on s i s t en t p a t te rn . I n e ach c a se i n t h e l owe r l e ve l s t h e re i s aL a te S tone Age c u l tu re w i th ah i gh ly d eve lop ed s t one i n du s try , b u t w i thou t p o t te ry , me ta l s o r o the r ma ter ia l e v idence o f c on tac t w i th mo r e a dvanced c u l tu re s . T he s t one i ndu s t r y c on t inue s i n to h ighe r a nd l a te r l e ve l s w i th t h e a dd i t ion o f s ma l l q uan t i t ie s o f p o t te ry a nd o b jec t s o f b ronze o r i r on s uch a s a r row -head s , k n ive s a nd me re f r agmen t s , a l l o f w h ich a r e c l ea r ly t h e r e su l t o f c on tac t w i th mo re a dvanced p eop le s . T he p o t te ry i so f ten i n v e ry s ma l l f r agmen t s , b ü t w he re i th a s b een p o s s ib le t os t udy i t , i ta ppea r s t or e semb le t h a t f r om n e ighbou r ing N eo l i th ic -Cha lco l i th ic , l i on A ge o r l a t e r s i te s . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t i t mu s t h ave b een o b ta ined t h rough t r ade o r o the r c on ta c t s r a the r t h an made b y t h e L a t e S tone A ge p eop le t h em se lve s" ( A l lch in & A l lch in 1 974 :46 -47 ) .

1

S oc ia l f a c tor s may h ave b een r e spon s ib le f o r o the r c hange s . F or e xamp le , t h e ` San sk r i t iza t ion ' ( S r in iva s 1 962 ) , o f t h e t r iba l s , o r o ther a t temp t s t o ' c iv i l ise ' t h em , a r e h i s tor ica l ly r e cogn ised p henomena . On t h e o ther h and , i t s eems t ha t t h e s urv iva l o f p r eh is tor ic /h is tor ica l p er iod p rac t ices , t r a i t s o r n o rms i n I nd ian s oc ie ty , i sn o t af a r -f e tched n o t ion . C er ta in V ed ic r i tua l s i n amod if ied f o rm c on t inue t o b e ap a r t o f modem I nd ian l i f e . ' H owever , wh i le i t i s t r ue t h a t t h e b ehav iour , h ab i t s a nd c u l tu ra l i nhe r i tance o f modem R a ja s than ( and modem I nd ia ) , i sd er ived t o ac on s ide r ab le d egree f r om t h e p a s t o ne mus t t ake i n to a ccoun t t h e c hange s t h a t w ou ld o ccur t h rough t ime . T hus , e ven i n s i tua t ion s t h a t s eem t o m ir ror t h e p robab le l i f e -s ty le o f p reh is tor ic h un te r -ga the rer s , t h e v a s t t ime -span s epa ra t ing t h e p a s t f r om t h e p resen t w il b e av i ta l f a c to r . As t udy o f t h e B h i l s , f o r e xamp le , c anno t e nab le a r chaeo log is t s t o r e con s t ruc t t h e m ic ro l i th ic s e t t lemen t s o f c .5 000 y ear s B .P . i n t o ta l i ty , h owever u sefu l i t may b e i n c on s truc t ing ah ypo the t ica l mode l . T he k ey wo rd h e re i s ' To ta l i ty ' . T he B h i ls , u n t i l t h e b eg inn ing o f t h is c en tury , w e re p rac t ic ing a n e conom ic t r ad i t ion t h a t w a s i n i t ia l ly n o ted d ur ing t h e Me so l i th ic p er iod o f t h e a r ea u nde r s t udy . I n t h a t s en se , t h ey may b e s a id t o r e p r esen t ' Me so l i th ic ' t r ad i t ions i n a mod if ied w ay . H owever , mode r n B h i ls a r e n o t wholy d ependen t o n h un t ing -ga ther ing , n or d o t hey u se l i th ic t oo l s t o t h e e xc lus ion o f a l l o ther ma ter ia l s . P resen t -day B h i ls u se i r on a nd i n t he p as t y ea r s h ave p rac t iced s l a sh -and -bu r n o r ` wa la r ' a gr icu l ture . T he ir l i f e -s ty le h a s p redom inan t ly d epended o n am ix ture o f h un t ing -ga the r ing , w i th ma rg ina l s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion . P a s tora l i sm a nd s eden tary a gra r ian p rac t ice s a r e b o th r e la t ive ly r e cen t a spec t s o f t h e ir l i ve s , h av ing b een ' a dop ted ' p r ima r i ly d ur ing t h e p as t f ew d ecade s , i n t h e ma jor i ty o f c a ses . ' Dur ing t h e p a s t 6 00 a nd mor e y ear s o f d ocumen ted R a jpu t h i s tory t r iba ls h ave o ccup ied a n i mpor tan t , t hough p e r iphera l , p os i t ion i nt h e n on t r iba l w or ld -v iew ." I n t h e e a r ly 1 950 's , t h e h i s tor ian D .D . Kosamb i , f o rmu la ted o ne o f t h e f undamen ta l p ropos i t ion s o f I nd ian s oc ia l h i s tory , w i th r e f erence t o t h e t r iba ls a nd ' d ep ressed ' o r ' p er iphera l s oc ia l g roup s ' ( who h e s aw a s " p r ice less e v idence f o r t h e i n te rpr e ta t ion o f s ome a nc ien t r e cord o r a r chaeo log ica l f i nd ; [ t hough ] t h e ir s urv iva l a s b ackwa rd g roup s a l so f u rn ishe s t h e r ea l p rob lem f o r e xp lana t ion i n t h e l i gh t o f h i s tor ica l d eve lopmen t " [ Kosamb i 1 956 :7 -8 1 ) ." h i K osamb i 's v i ew , t h e " en t ire c our se o f I nd ian h i s tory s hows t r iba l e l emen t s b e ing f u sed i n to a g ene ra l s oc ie ty . T h is p henomenon . .. i s a l so t h e g r ea t b a s ic f a c t o f a nc ien t I nd ian h i s tory . T he d i f f e ren t me thods wher eby t h e d i f f er en t e l emen t s w e re f o rmed i n to a s oc ie ty o r a b so rbed i n to e x is t ing s oc ie ty a r e p r ime e t hn ic ma ter ia l f o r a ny r e a l h i s tor ian " ( Kosamb i 1 956 :25 ) . 1' T he c on ten t ion , t h erefore , i s n o t t h a t t h ere i s ad i rec t l i neage c on t inu i ty b e tween t h e g roups l i v ing a tB agor type Meso l i th ic s i te s a nd p resen t -day t r iba l s ( e ven i ft h a t may b e t h e c a se ) , o r t h a t t r iba ls d emon s t ra te f o ss i l ized ' Me so l i th ic ' b ehav iour , b u t r a ther , t h a t as t udy o f

8

I n t h i s c on tex t , i ti s i n te re s t ing t o n o te t h a t Nunez ( 1981 :121-143) make s o u t ac a se f o r t h e ' poss ib le s urv iva l o f r e l ig ious i d ea s i n F in land f r om t h e Meso l i th ic t o t h e H i s tor ica l L app s d esp i te s t rong c on tes t ing c u l tu ra l i n te rac t ion ' , o n t h e b a s is o f h i s to r ica l a nd c on tempo ra ry i n fo rma t ion a bou t t h e L app s , a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , a nd F inn i sh a r t f o rm s a nd t h e i r c on t inu i ty .

9

Th is b reak w i th ' t rad i t iona l ' e conom ic d ependence o n h un t ing a nd g a ther ing i s ap henomenon l i nked ma in ly , b u t n o t s o le ly , w i th 2 0 th C en tu ry e ncou ragemen t f o r c hange , a nd ' d eve lopmen t ' d r ives , a n i s sue d i scu ssed mo re f uly i nC hap te r 7 .

i o

T he emb lem o f t h e e r s twh i le k ingdom o f Mewa r wa s a Bh i l a nd a R a jpu t f l ank ing t wo s i de s o f af o r t , i n memory o f t h e a s s i s tance g i ven b y t h e Bh i ls t o Maha rana P ra tap i n h i s u n succe ssfu l b ids t o r e take h i s a nce s t ra l c ap i ta l f r om Mugha l o ccupa t ion f o rce s i n t h e l a te 1 6 th C en tu ry . S im i la r ly , t h e c orona t ion c e remon ie s o f t h e Maha rana s o f Mewa r , a nd t h e r u le r s o f l a unga rpu r , B an swa ra , a nd c e r ta in f euda l c h ief s , i n wh ich t h e c on sec ra t iona ry ' r a j -Wa le , o r ma rk o f i n ve s t i tu re o n t he f o rehead o f t h e mona rch , w a s p e r formed b y Bh i l s d escended f r om c er ta in l i neage g roup s o r c l an s ( Vya s 1 978 ; Mann 1 978a ; S hyama lda s 1 886 ; T od 1 829 -32 ; C hauhan 1 968 ) , a nd s im i la r l o ca l c u s tom s , p os s ib ly h ave t h e i r r oo t s i n t h e d ays when t h e i nun ig ra to ry R a jpu t s e s tab l i shed t h e i r d om inance b y s ubdu ing , a t l e as t n om inaly , t h e t h en i mpor tan t p opu la t ion g roup s .

1

One may q ue s t ion Ko samb i 's p e rcep t ion o f I nd ian t r iba l l i f e a s p re serv ing p reh i s tor ic c us to m s i n a ' f os s i l ized f o rm ' ( Kosamb i 1 967 :104 ) .

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T he i s sue o f t r iba l s b e ing a s s im i la ted i n to " a g ene ra l s oc ie ty" ( op .c i t .) , i sd i scu s sed i n C hap te r 8 .

1 2

t h e se p r e sen t -day t r iba l s , i n r e la t ion w i th ' p ea san t ' v i l lage c ommun i t ie s , s hou ld g ene r a te i n f o rma t ion t h a t c an b e o f r e levance i n c on s t ruc t ing a g ene ra l mode l o f i n t erac t ion b e twe en h un t e r -ga the r e r s a nd e a r ly a g r icu l tu ra l is t s o f t h e A ha r C u l tu r e i n S .E . R a ja s than , d u r ing t h e 3 rd -2nd m ilenn ia B .C . I f t h e h un te r -ga the r e r s o f Me so l i th ic B ago r a nd o t he r s i te s e xp lo i ted t h e i r a va i lab le r e sou rce s i n ac e r ta in m ann e r , a nd t h e c oppe r -u s ing g roup s o f t h e A ha r C u l tur e p rac t iced s e t t led a g r icu l tu re a nd ( po s s ib le , b u t a s y e t u np roven ) t r ade b ecaus e t h a t w a s t h e i r w ay o f e x t r ac t ing o p t imum b enef i t s f r om t h e i r e nv ironmen t , t h en t h e d i f f e r ence b e twe en t h e se t wo a dap t ion s s hou ld n o t b e l o ok ed u pon i n t h e l i gh t o f g r ea te r o r l e s ser a b i l i ty , o r i n tel igence , b u t i n t h e a va i lab i l i ty , u t i l iza t ion a nd c on sc iou s managemen t o f r e sou r ce s a nd s u r round ing s . ( See H igg s a nd V i ta -F inz i 1 972 ; C la rk 1 972 ; V i ta -F inz i a nd H igg s 1 970 ; V ayda 1 969 ; S ahl in s 1 972 ; S ch if f e r 1 976 ; L ee a nd D eYo re 1 968 ; C h i sho lm 1 968 ; a mong o the r s ) . A t t h e s ame t ime , i ti sr e cogn i sed t h a t t h e i n te rp lay o f v a r iab les i n f luenc ing d i f f e rence s b e tween ( and w i th in ) c u l tu r e type s , o r l e ve l s o f e x is tenc e , a r e much mo re c omp lex , a nd e x tend b eyond a ny s i ng le s imp le e xp lana t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l ly v i s ib le p henomena .' I ti s n o t w i th in t h e s cope o f t h i s w o rk , h oweve r , t o a t t emp t as o r t o f m e taphy s ica l , i d eo logy l a den c u l tu ra l r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e r e a son s b eh ind a l l t h e a c t ion s o fp r eh i s tor ic g roup s , s i nce t h e c u l tura l b ehav iou r o r t h e b e l ief s o f g roup s o f t h e p a s t a r e o bv iou s ly d if i cu l t t o r e cove r f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s .' T he se b e l ief s a r e , h oweve r , u ndoub ted ly i mpo r tant 's G iven t h is g ene ra l b ackg round , t h e h ypo the s is i sa s f olow s —I fB ago r ( Pe r iod I ,p has e I ) w a s c on tempo ra ry w i th A ha r , t h er e i s ap o s s ib il i ty t h a t s ome o f t h e o the r ` Me sol i th ic ' s i te s ( s o f a r u nexcava ted ) , w e r e a l so c on tempo r aneou s w i th t h e Aha r C u l tu re s i te s . I f t h i s p robab le c on tempo rane i ty c an b e a s sumed , u n t i l p roven e i the r w ay t h rough f u tu r e a na ly se s a nd e xcava t ion s , t h en o ne m ay b u i ld amode l i n vo lv ing p o s s ib le i n te rac t ion s b e twe en s e t t led a gr icu l tu ra l i s t s a nd h un te r -ga the r ing (? )pa s to ra l Me sol i th ic g roup s ( a s k nown f r om B ago r ) d u r ing t h e t h ird t o s e cond m ilenn ium B .C . T o o b ta in a no th er p e r spec t ive o n t h is i s sue o f c o -ex is tence , w i th v a ry ing d eg r ee s o f c on tac t a nd i s o la t ion b e tween t wo d i s t inc t e conom ie s , t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e s e t t led a g r icu l tu ra l c ommun i t ie s a nd B h i l t r iba l s , b o th o f whom i nhab i t t h is p ar t o fR a ja s than i nt h e p r e sen t c on tex t , h a s b een s t ud ied . I n t h e a b sence o f a dequa te e xcava ted d a ta , h oweve r , a ny mode l s c on s t ruc t ed u s ing a va i lab le d a ta -ba se s mu s t r ema in ' t en ta t ive ' p ro jec t ion s .' 2 . 3 P rev ious Work

1 3

Is hal n o t e n te r i n to a d eba te r ega rd ing t h e a pp l icab il i ty a nd r e la t ive v a lue s o f t h e C u l tu ra l E co logy o r S ys tem s T heory a pp roache s h e re .

1 4

I n o rde r t o g a in s uch i n fo rma t ion , a r chaeo log is t s n eed t o a sk t h e ' r igh t ' s o r t o f q ue s t ion s f r om t h e d a ta . Wha t t h e ' r igh t ' s or t o f q ue s t ion s a r e , a nd h ow o ne c an f o rmu la te t h em w i th a m in imum o f b i a s a nd p reconce ived f r ame s o fr e f e r ence i ss t i l l b e ing c l a r if ied i n c u r r en t w o rk o n a r cha eo log ica l t h eor y . ( B in f o rd a nd B in f ord 1 968 ; B inf ord 1 967 , 1 968 , 1 972 , 1 980 ; H odde r 1 978a , 1 982c ; Ma l ik 1 974 ; R en f rew 1 973 ; R en f rew e ta l 1 982 ) .

1 5

A cco rd ing t o L ev i -S t rau s s ( 1972 ) , b eh ind e ve ry i d eo log ica l c on s t ruc t , p r ev iou s c on s t ruc t s s t and o u t , e cho ing e ach o the r b ack i nt ime t o t h e f i c t ive s t age w hen , h und red s o f t h ou sand s o fy ea r s a go a n i n c ip ien t mank ind t h ough t o u t a nd e xp re ssed i t s f i r s t i d eo logy .

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A ccord ing t o a nd c oncep t s p a s t . .Al o ur o n t h e u se o f

R enf rew ( 1974 :2 ) " t he o n ly w ay w e c an d i scu s s t h e p a s t i sb y m ean s o f c on s t ru c t s —t e rm s o f o u r o wn d ev i s ing , wh ich w e c an a pp ly t o t h e s ol id a nd o b s t ina te ly mu te r ema in s o f t h e d i scu s s ions , o u r p e r iod d i v is ion s , c u l tu ra l g roup ing s a nd t ype n ame s a r e e n t i re ly d ependen t s uch c on s truc t s , a nd i ndeed a r e c ons t ruc t s t h emse lve s ."

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T he mound a tA ha r ( 24° 3 5 ' N a nd 7 3° 4 4 ' E ) ," k nown i nl o ca l t r ad i t ion a s ` Tambava t i ' ( c i ty o f c oppe r ) , a nd ` Dhu l -ko t ' ( mound o f d u s t ) , w a s f i r s t e xpo sed i n 1 952 , when t h e R a ja s than S t a te D epa r tmen t o f A r chaeo logy , u nde r t h e s upe rv is ion o f R .C . Ag r awa la , e xcava ted as i ng le t r ench ( J AR 1 954 -55 :14 ) . ' s T he e xcava t ion s w e re r e sumed i nt h e n ex t t wo s e a son s ( J AR 1 954 -55 :14 -15 ; 1 955 -56 :10 -11) . D u r ing t h e 1 961-62 s eason , at e am o f a r chaeo log is t s f r om t h e D eccan C olege P o s t g radua te a nd R e sea rch I n s t i tu te ( Un ive r s i ty o f P oona ) , t h e Un ive r s i ty o f Me lbou rne ( Au s t ra l ia ) , a nd R a ja s than S ta te 's D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy , c olabor a ted o n t h e e xcava t ion s a t Aha r u nde r t h e d i r ec t ion o f H .D . S anka l ia ( JAR 1 961-62 ; S anka l ia e ta l 1 969 ; S anka l ia 1 962b ) . T he e xcava t ion s e s tab l i shed t h a t t h e s i te h ad b e en o ccup ied d ur ing ` p ro toh is to r ic ' a nd ' e a r ly h i s to r ic ' t ime s , t h e f o rme r i d en t if iab le a s P e r iod I a , l b a nd I c ; a nd t h e l a t te r , wh ich f olowed a f te r ab r eak i n t h e o ccupa t ion a cco rd ing t o t h e e xcava to r s , a s P e r iod H a , I b a nd H e ( Sanka l ia e t a l 1 969 ) . P e r iod I a , I b a nd I c w e re l a t er r a d io -ca rbon d a ted ( i b id ) , t o c .2 000 -1200 B .C . (W i th MASCA c a l ib r a t ion r e ad t h e se a s c .2 580 t o 1 500 B .C . a nd p o s s ib ly l a te r [ Alch in a nd Alch in 1 982 :262 , 2 97 ] ) .1 9 P er iod Iy i e lded e v idence f o r c oppe r me talu rgy , s e t t led a g r icu l tur e , r e c tangu la r b u i ld ing s made f r om mud , mud -b r ick a nd s ch is t , a nd , i n a dd i t ion t o c e r am ic s i n r ed a nd g r ey f a b r ic s , ad i s t inc t b l ack -and red w a r e , o f t en p a in ted i n g eome t r ica l p a t te rn s w i th wh i t e p igmen t ( J AR 1 961-62 :45 -50 ; C u l ican 1 963 :75 -89 ; S anka l ia e ta l 1 969 ) . A s ac on sequence o ft h e d i scove ry o f A ha r , a nd i t s r e cogn i sed i mpor tanc e i n t h e c on tex t o f t h e c u l tu r a l c h rono logy o f R a ja s than , s ever a l s i te s w e r e f ound d u r ing t h e e xp lo ra t ion s o f t h e B ana s -Be rach r i ve r v a l ley s , wh ich w e r e c l a s s if i ed a s b e long ing t o t h e ` Aha r C u l tur e ' .' O ne o f t h ese , G i lund , w a s e xcava ted f o r o ne s e a son b y t h e A r cheo log ica l S ur vey o f I nd ia ( h er ea f ter r e f e r red t o a s AS I ) , a nd t h e s t uden t s o f t h e A S I 's S choo l o f A r chaeo logy ( J AR 1 959 -60 :41-46 ) . T h i s s i te h a s n o t b een r e -excava ted s ub sequen t ly . P o s s ib le ' a ff in i t ies ' o f t h e Aha r C u l tu re w i th We s t A s ia h ave b e en b r ief ly d i scu ssed b y S anka l ia ( 1963 :312 -322 ; 1 962c :322 -325 ; 1 969 :36 ) , w ho b e l ieve s t h a t t h e A ha r C u l tu r e h a s t r a i t s a cqu i red o r i n sp i red f r om s i tes i n Ana to l ia a nd Wes t A s ia . A g rawa l ( 1966 :114 -117 ) , t hough , b el ieves t h a t t h e re w e r e s t rong H a rappan e l emen t s a t G i lund . H e v i ew s t h e b u rn t b r ick s t ruc tu re s , t e r r aco t ta b u l l s , ' g ame smen ' a nd f i gu r ine s , e t c . a s i n d ica t ion s o f e x ter na l i nf luence o n t h e r eg ion . S uch p o s s ib le l i nk s o f A ha r w i th t h e I ndo -A ryan s , t h e P a in ted G rey War e C u l tu r e , a nd o th er p os t -Ha r appan c u l tu r e s , h ave i n t r igued a r chaeo log is t s . H oweve r , v ery f ew o f t h ese s ub jec t s h ave b een c r i t ica l ly e xam ined , a nd many o f t h e c on jec tu r e s r ema in u n suppo r ted b y a c tua l d a ta . Meanwh i le , i nt h e 1 960 's , N aga r ( 1966 , 1 969 :55 -73 ) , s t ud ied t h e e t hnoa r chaeo logy o ft h e mode rn v ilage o fP a r la , n ea r t h e A ha r mound , i n a n a t temp t t o f i nd l i nk s b e tween t h e B h i l s

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T he v i l lage o f Aha r i s k nown i n i n sc r ip t ion s o f t h e m ed ieva l p e r iod a nd i n J a in m anu sc r ip t s a s ' Agha tapu ra ' a nd ` A tpu ra ' . I tb ecame t h e c ap i ta l o f t h e Guh i la s , t h e r u l ing d yna s ty o f Mewa r , i n t h e 1 0 th C en tu ry A .D . , b e fo re t h ey e s tab l i shed C h i t to rga rh a s t h e i r c ap i ta l . P r io r t o t h i s t ime , A ha r w a s r e cogn i sed a s ap lace o f p i lg r image , a nd w a s a l so c a l led ` Gangobhedha t i r tha ' . T he t r an sf e r o f c ap i ta l s p robab ly o ccu r red d u r ing t h e r e ign o f Ala ta ( a round 9 50 A .D . ) , w hen N agda c e a sed t o b e t h e R oya l c ap i ta l i n f avou r o f Aha r . Aha r a ppea r s t o h ave b een a ma jo r t r ade c en t r e d u r ing t h i s p e r iod , v i s i t ed b y me rch an t s f r om ` Kama ta ' , ' Madhya d e sa ' , ` La ta ' a nd ` Ta l cka ' ( J a in 1 972 :2 19 -224 ) .

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A l l r e f e rences t o R a ja s than 's A rchaeo logy D ep a r tm en t i n t h i s w o rk i nd ica te t h e S ta te 's D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy & Mu seums , Gove rnmen t o fR a ja s than .

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Wh i le Ag rawa l & Ku s tunga r ( 1974a , 1 974b ) h ad n o t f a vou red t h e c a l ib ra t ion o f C 14 d a te s f o r I nd ia , r ecen t d eve lopmen t s i n r ad ioca rbon d a t ing me thod s ( s ee R a lph e t a l 1 973 ; C la rk 1 975 ; a mong o the r s ) , wh i le n o t b e ing u n i form a nd n on -con t rove r s ia l , i nd ica te t h a t r ad ioca rbon d a te s s hou ld b e c o r rec ted . T hu s , t h e X th I n te rna t iona l R ad ioca rbon C on f e r ence ( Bu r le igh 1 980 ) , h a s d ec ided i n f a vou r o f c a l ib ra t ing s t anda rd C 14 d a te s .

z o

S ee J AR 1 956 -57 :8 ; 1 957 -58 :43 -45 ; 1 958 -59 :4 1-45 ; M i s ra 1 967 :151 -152 ; N aga r 1 966 :78 -83 ; L e shn ik 1 968 ; K .L . Meena & I C ishan L a l ( pe r s . c omm . [ bo th f r om t h e R a ja s than S t a te D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy ] ) ; Ag rawa la 1 981 :62 .

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l i v ing a tP a r la a nd t h e p ro toh i s to r ic i n hab i tan t s o f Aha r . T he t wo a cknow ledged a ims o f h e r s t udy w e re a ) t o r e con s t ruc t a p i c tu re o f t h e A ha r C u l tu r e u s ing a r chaeo logy a nd e t hnog raphy ( Naga r 1 966 :3 ) ; a nd b ) t o e xam ine t h e t r ace s o f c u l tu r a l c on t inu i ty f r om t h e A ha r c u l tu r e t ot h e p r e sen t -day c u l tu r e o ft h e r e g ion ( Naga r 1 966 :4 ) . C e ram ic s h ave a l so b een s t ud ied ( Deo 1 963 :105 -111 ; S anka l ia e t a l 1 969 ) . S eve ra l p eop le , i n c lud ing S r iva s tava ( n .d .P1980 1 ) , S ingh ( 1979 :267 -283 ; 1 982 ) , a nd B ane r j i ( 1963 , 1 964 ) , h ave d i scu ssed t h e A ha r ian B lack -and -Red w a r e i nt h e c on tex t o f t h e ' B lack -and -Red Wa r e o f I nd ia ' . T h i s i s ap o t tery t r ea tmen t f ound i n C ha lco l i th ic , S ou th I nd ian Mega l i th ic , a nd I r on a ge l e ve l s a l l o ve r t h e c oun t ry . T h i s p rob lem h a s i n t r igued I nd ian a r chaeo log i s t s f o r o ve r t h i r ty y ea r s ( s e e S inha 1 969 ) . S ho r t g ene ra l s umma r ie s o n t h e A ha r C u l tu r e a r e a l so a va i lab le ( M is ra 1 969 :296 -310 , 1 967 :148 -199 ) . 2 . 4 T er m ino logy T he ` Aha r C u l tu r e ' ( Sanka l ia 1 962b :77 ) , n amed a f te r t h e t ype s i t e w he re e v idence f o r a c oppe r -u s ing a g r icu l tu r a l s e t t lemen t o f c . 2 500 B .C . f i r s t c ame t o l i gh t , h a s a l so b een r e f e r red t o a s t h e ` Bana s C u l tu r e ' ( La l 1 963 :214 ) , i n t h e l i t e ra tu r e , a f te r t h e r i ve r v a l ley w he re t h e se s i tes w e r e i n i t ia l ly f ound . T he l a be l s o f ` Aha r ' o r ` Bana s ' C u l tu re w e re u sed t o i d en t if y ag roup o f s i te s , mo s t u sua l ly o n t h e b a s is o f c u l tura l a s semb lage s , c h ief ly p o t te ry , r e cove red f r om t h e ir s u r f ace s , wh ich w e r e p e rce ived a s b e ing s im i la r t o A ha r . T he p rac t ice s t il c on t inue s . H oweve r , t h e k nown e x t en t s o ft h e A ha r /Bana s c u l tu re a r e n o t l im i ted t o t h e B ana s B a s in , a s w e a r e n ow a wa r e . T he t e rm ` Aha r C u l tu r e ' i s , t h e refo r e , p e rhap s mo re a ccu ra te t h an Ta m s C u l tu r e ' ( M is ra 1 969 :297 ) . T h is i sa l so i n k eep ing w i th t h e c onven t ion o f u s ing t h e n ame o f t h e f i r s t s i te t o b e d i scove r ed t o d e sc r ibe t h e g roup . F or e xamp le , t h e ' I ndu s V a l ley C iv i l iza t ion ' , w h ich i ss p read b eyond t h e c onf ines o f t h e I ndu s V a l ley , i sn ow u sua l ly r e f e r red t o a s t h e ` Ha r appan C iv i l iza t ion ' a f te r t h e s i t e o f H a rappa w he r e i tw a s f i r s t r e cogn ised . F olow ing e s tab l ished c onven t ion , t h er e for e , a nd w i thou t n ece s sa r i ly i mp ly ing a l l t h e c onno ta t ion s i nhe r en t i n t h e u sage , t h e t e rm ` Aha r C u l tu r e ' w il c on t inue t o b e u sed i n t h i s w o rk a s ac onven ien t g ene ra l l a be l , f o r t h e c oppe r -u s ing a g r icu l tu ra l s i te s o f c .3 rd t o 2 nd m i l lenn ia B .C . , c l a s s if ied u nde r t h a t t e rm b y p r ev iou s w o rke r s . S im i la r ly , ' Cu l tu r e ' , v a r iou s ly d ef ined , i su sed h e re i n ag ene ra l a r chaeo log ica l s en se , t o i n d ica te " con s is ten t g roup s o f c on tempo ra ry t ype s o ccu r r ing w i th in a r e s t r ic ted a r ea . T he se h ave n o n ec e s sa ry c o inc idence w i th r a c ia l o r s oc ia l u n i t s b u t f o rm c onven ien t e n t i t ie s f o r g ene r a l iza t ion s f r om p a r t icu la r s i te s . T hey p rov ide a f r amewo rk w i th in wh ich t o i n te rp re t c hanges i nt h e w ay o f l i f e t h a t c an b e r e con s t ruc ted f r om monumen t s , a r t if ac t s a nd r e s idue s o f f ood -ga the r ing s uch a s a n ima l b one s , s hel s , s e ed s a nd o ther o rgan ic r ema in s " ( She r ra t t

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1 980 :10 ) .2 1 2 . 5 Me thodo logy A rchaeo log ica l w o rk i n I nd ia d u r ing t h e 1 950 's t o 1 970 's w a s c oncen t ra ted , t o al a rge e x ten t , o n u nea r th ing s uff ic ien t d a ta t o d el inea te a n o ve ra l l c u l tu r a l c h rono logy f o r t h e c oun t ry . T he r e w e r e , h oweve r , s ome s ho r tcom ing s i n t h i s a pp roach , s i nce , f r equen t ly , a l im i ted n umbe r o f s i te s ( g ene ra l ly s e lec ted b ecau se t h e i r s i ze a nd s u r f ace f i nd s i n d ica ted a ' r i ch s i te ' ) , w er e p a r t ia l ly e xam ined a nd t h e r e su l t s u sed f o r g ene r al i s ing a bou t t h e w ho le o f t h e ' Cu l tu r e ' t h a t t h ey a ppea r ed t o r e p re sen t . S ome o ft h e s i te s a nd a r ea s w er e l a te r s t ud ied i n g r ea te r d e ta i l . O ther s i te s a nd p rob lems , o n t h e o the r h and , s t il r equ ir e f u r the r w o rk . T he e a r ly a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lemen t s o f S .E . R a ja s than , k nown a s t h e ` Aha r C u l tu r e ' a nd t h e Me so l i th ic h un t ing -ga the r ing ( ? )pas tora l s i t e s a s r e p r e sen ted a t B ago r , P e r iod I p ha se I , c ome i n to t h is l a t te r c a tegory . G iven t h e p resen t c i r cum s tanc e s , h oweve r , w he r e o ne c anno t e xcava te a l l , o r e ven a p ropo r t ion o f t h e k nown Aha r ( o r Meso l i th ic ) s i te s f o r r e a son s g i ven b e low , a r chaeo log i s t s a r e ( a s o u t l ined i n C hap te r 1 ) , f a c ed w i th a c ho ice . We c ou ld e i ther s e t t h e who le i s sue i n vo lv ing t h e A ha r C u l tu re s i te s a s ide f o r t h e p r e sen t , u n t i l s uch t ime a s l a rge -sca le s amp l ing a nd l im i ted e xcava t ion s , o r as e r ie s o f s ma l l -sca le e xcava t ion s , a ts eve ra l Aha r ian s i tes p rov ide u s w i th a dd it iona l d a ta ; o r , a l te rna t ive ly , w e c ou ld t r y t o f o rmu la te t e n ta t ive h ypo the se s a bou t s ome o f t h e i s sues a nd p rob lem s o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n f o rma t ion a va i lab le a nd o b ta inab le , wh ich c ou ld b e c r i t ica l ly e xam ined a nd e i the r p roved o r d i sp roved . T he f o rme r c ou r s e mean s t h a t many mo re o f t h e s i te s w il b e l o s t , t h rough d eve lopmen t a nd o the r a c t iv i ty i n t h e c oun t ry s ide , b efo re w e a r e i n ap o s i t ion t o e xcava te t h em . T he a l ter na t ive mean s w o rk ing w i th a l im i ted d a ta -ba se . T he r ef o r e , t h e h ypo the se s a nd mode l s c on s t ruc ted f r om s uch i n f o rma t ion m ay e a s i ly b e o ve r se t i nt h e f u tu r e when a dd i t iona l d a ta b ecomes a va i lab le . K e ep ing i n m ind b o th t h e n eed t o e xpand e x i s t ing a cadem ic k now ledge a bou t t h e a r chaeo logy o ft h e r e g ion , a nd t h e r e a l i t ie s o ft h e c u r ren t s i tua t ion , Ic ho se t h e l a t te r c ou r se . C e r ta in e s sen t ia l p o in t s h ad t o b e k ep t i n m ind , t h ough , wh i le d eve lop ing a r e levan t m e thodo logy : - F i r s t ly , al im i ted b ody o f d a ta , p er ta in ing t o t h e a g r icu l tu ra l A ha r C u l tu r e s e t t lemen t s o f t h e 3 rd t o 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C . , m a in ly c olec ted d u r ing t h e 1 950 's a nd 1 960 's , e x is t s w i thou t a dequa te f olow -up w o rk . C on sequen t ly , t h e re a r e o bv iou s p rob lem s i n c on s t ruc t ing s u i tab le me thodo log ica l f r amewo rk s a nd i n u s ing d a ta e f f ec t ive ly , f r om t h i s 2 1

T he c oncep t s a nd d ef in i t ion s o f ' Cu l tu re ' h ave d eve loped c on s ide rab ly s i n ce T y lo r ' s c h a r te r d ef in i t ion t h a t " Cu l tu re o r C iv i l iza t ion , t a ken i n i t s w ide e t hnog raph ic s en se , i s t h a t c omp lex who le w h ich i n c lude s k now ledge , b el ie f , a r t , mora ls , l aw , c us tom , a nd a ny o the r c apab i l i t ie s a nd h ab i t s a cqu i red b y man a s a membe r o f S oc ie ty" ( Ty lor 1 871 v o l .1 :1 ) . K roebe r &K luckhohn ( 1952 :181) d ef ine c u l tu re a sc on s i s t ing o f " pa t te rn s , e xpl ic i t a nd i mp l ic i t , o f a nd f o r b ehav iou r a cqu i red a nd t r an sm i t ted b y s ymbo l s , c ons t i tu t ing t h e d i s t inc t ive a ch ievemen t o f h uman g roup s , i n c lud ing t h e i r e mbod imen t s i n a r t if ac t s . " V a r iou s a spec t s o f c u l tu re a nd c u l tu re c hange h ave b een t h e s ub jec t o f r e cen t w o rk ( s ee p ape r s b y S inge r , B idney , Wh i te , C ame i ro a nd V og t i n S il s 1 968 :527 -558 f o r as ynop s i s ) , a nd t h e c oncep t i ss t il u sef u l f o r a r cha eo logy ( Ren f rew 1 974 :38 ) . I n t h e a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t , Ch i lde ( 1951 :40 ) , d ef in ed a r chaeo log ica l c u l tur e s a s " an a s semb lage o f a s soc ia ted t r a i t s t h a t r e cu r r epea ted ly ." "We f i nd " , w ro te C h i lde ( 1929 :v -v i ) , " ce r ta in t ype s o f r ema in s — p o t s , i mp lemen t s , o rnamen t s , b u r ia l s i te s , h ou se f o rm s —c on s tan t ly r e cu r r ing t o ge the r . S uch a c omp lex o f r egu la r ly a s soc ia ted t r a i t s w e s ha l l t e rm a ' c u l tu ra l g roup ' o r j u s t a' c u l tu re ' . We a s sume t ha t s uch a c omp lex i st h e ma te r ia l e xp re ss ion o f wha t t oday w ou ld b e c a l led a ' p eop le ' . T he s ame c omp lex may b e f ound w i th r e la t ive ly n eg l ig ib le d imens ion s o r a dd i t ion s o ve r aw ide a r ea . " I n t h e l a nguage o f ' New A rchaeo logy ' , ' Cu l tu re ' i s " t h e s y s t em o f t h e t o ta l e x t ra soma t ic mean s o f a dap ta t ion . S uch a s y s tem i nvo lve s c omp lex s e t s o f r e la t ion sh ip s a mong p eop le , p lace s a nd t h ing s w ho se ma tr ix may b e u nde r s tood i n mu l t iva r ia te t e rm s " ( B in f o rd 1 965 :209 ) ; a nd a " po ly the t ic s e t o fs p ec if ic a nd c omp rehen s ive a r t ifac t type s w h ich c on s i s t en t ly r e cu r t o ge the r i n a s semb lage s w i th in a l im i ted g eog raph ica l a r ea " ( C la rke 1 968 :285 ) .

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T he s i te o f I namgaon , f o r e xamp le , h a s p rov ided a v e ry u se f u l d a ta -b a se . Wo rk a tt h i s s i te h a s c on t inued f o r n ea r ly f ou r teen s ea sons ( Dhava l ika r 1 977 , 1 979 ) . S im i la r ly , N avda to l i ( Sanka l ia e ta l 1 971) , K au samb i ( Sharma 1 960 ) , a nd L o tha l ( Rao 1 973 ) , wh ich c ove r d ife ren t p a r t s o f I nd ia , a nd d i f f e ren t t ime -pe r iod s , h ave a l so b een e xam ined s ub sequen t t ot h e i n i t ia l ' t e s t -d ig s ' .

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' m in ima l d a ta -ba se ' . A t t h e s ame t ime , t h er e a r e l im i ta t ion s o n f r e sh a r chaeo log ica l w o rk . D a ta -colec t ion t h rough e xcava t ion s , f o r e xamp le , i sn o t p os s ib le a tp r e sen t .' T her e a r e o the r d r awback s t oo , i n c lud ing t h e n on -ava i lab i l i ty o f a e r ia l p ho tog raph s f o r a r chaeo log ica l s u rvey p u rpose s , t h e c on t inued o ccupa t ion a ts eve ra l a r chaeo log ica l ly i mpor tan t s i te s a nd t h e ir r a p id d i sappea rance u nde r p r e s su r es o f c hange a nd mode rn iza t ion . T hu s , w e n eed t o f o rmu la te a m e thodo logy t h a t c an e x t rac t m ean ingf u l i n f o rma t ion f r om a n i n adequa te d a ta -ba se i n c ond i t ion s whe r e a dd i t iona l d a ta -ga the r ing i sd i ff icu l t a nd e x ten s ive a r chaeo log ica l w o rk i s n o t i mmed ia te ly f e a s ib le , f o r r e a son s d i scu s sed b e low . A n i d ea l c ou r se , i n dub i tab ly , w ou ld i n vo lve t h e u se o f e xcava t ion s ; a dvanced d a ta r e t r ieva l t e chn ique s a nd s amp l ing t o e xpand t h e d a ta -ba se ; t h e s ecu r ing o f as e r ie s o f r a d io c a rbon d a tes f r om b o th A ha r type a nd B ago r type c a tego r ie s o f s i te s ; a nd t h e d eve lopmen t o f a p rob lem -o r ien ted t e s tab le mode l . T her e w e r e s ome o b s tac les , h oweve r , t o s uch a c t iv i t ies . T o b eg in w i th , t h e AS I a nd t h e S t a te A r chaeo logy D epa r tmen t s a r e n o t e xcep t iona l ly e n thu s ia s t ic o ve r c u l tu ra l p rospec to r s t a k ing a s pade t o I nd ian s o i l . T he b u lk o f a r chaeo log ica l w o rk , t h e r ef o re , i sc onduc ted b y t h e A S I o r t h e v a r iou s S ta te A r chaeo logy D epa r tmen t s t h em se lves , o r b y as e lec t f ew I nd ian Un ive r s i t ie s , w ho h ave b een p e rm i t ted t o e xcava te ,2 4 o r , o n r a re o cca s ion s , i nc olabor a t ion b e tween t h e C en t ra l o r S t a te a r chaeo log ica l b od ies a nd n on Ind ian t e am s ( a s a tS onkh a nd V i jayanaga ra ) . H owever , a tp re sen t , f u r the r c olec t ion o f d a ta a bou t t h e A ha r C u l tu r e i sn o t f or emo s t o n t h e l i s t o f p r io r i t ie s o f e i the r t h e R a ja s than S ta te 's D epa r tmen t o f A r chaeo logy o r t h e AS I . W i th a l im i ted a nnua l a l loca t ion o f f und s , t h e se a r chaeo log ica l b od ie s h ave n e i the r t h e f i nanc e s n o r a ny s pec ia l i n c l ina t ion f o r r e -exam in ing t h e a r chaeo logy o f ar e g ion t h a t h a s a l r eady b een e xam ined , h ow s o e ve r b r ief ly . T hu s , a dd i t iona l e xcava t ion s a nd of i c ia l s t ud ie s o n t h e A ha r C u l tu re a ppea r t o b e a n u n l ike ly p o s s ib il i ty , i n t h e i mmed ia te f u tu re . H oweve r , wh i le t h e G ove rnmen t a r chaeo log ica l b od ie s c anno t o r w il n o t r e -open t h e Aha r C u l tu re i s sue f o r t h e p r e sen t , t h ey d o n o t a l low p r iva te ( t ha t i s , n on -Gove rnmen t o r n on s e lec ted Un ive r s i t ies ) , e xcava t ion s e i the r . ( Thu s , Iw a s n o t p e rm i t ted t o c a r ry o u t a ny e xcava t ion w o rk a ta l ) . T he re r ema in s t h e m e thod o f d a ta -colec t ion t h rough m ean s o the r t h an e xcava t ion , l i ke f u r the r s ur vey s a nd e xp lo ra t ion s ( s ee F o ley 1 981a , 1 981b ; C la rke 1 977 ; H odde r a nd O r ton 1 976 ) . An e x t en s ive a e r ia l -cum su r f ace s ur vey o f R a ja s than , u s ing mode m t e chn ique s , s hou ld p roduce amo re c l ea r -cu t p i c tu r e o f s i te -d i s t r ibu t ion s e t c . , b u t t h e re a r e n o i n d ica t ion s t h a t s uch a s t udy i s b e ing c u r r en t ly c on s ide r ed b y t h e c once rned a u thor i t ie s o r b y o the r s cho la r s . ( I n f a c t , t o t h e b es t o f my k now ledge , n o o ne e l se i sw o rk ing o n t h e a r chaeo logy o f t h e A ha r C u l tur e o f R a ja s than a t p r e sen t ) ." A e r ia l p ho tog r aph s c an b e av a luab le h e lp . H owever , n o a e r ia l p ho tog r aph s h ave b een u sed t o s u rvey t h e a r ea , s o f a r , b y t h e R a ja s than A r chaeo logy D epa r tmen t . N o r may w e d epend u pon s uch a s u rvey i n t h e i mmed ia te f u tu re , g i ven t h e I nd ian Governmen t 's p o l icy o n t h e s ub jec t o f a e r ia l p ho tog raphy a nd s e cu r i ty

T h is i s d ue t o t h e f a c t t h a t wh i le t h e Gove rnmen t 's A S I a nd S t a te D epa r tmen t s d o n o t a l low p r iva te e xcava t ion s , n e i the r t h e A SI n o r t h e R a ja s than S ta te ' s D epa r tmen t o f A r chaeo logy h ave p l an s t o e xca va te a ny o f t h e Aha r C u l tu re s i te s o f R a ja s than i n t h e i mmed ia te f u tu r e . N o r , i ts eem s , d o t ho se o f t h e I nd ian Un ive r s i t ie s who h ave b een g r an ted p e rm is s ion t oc a r ry o u t e xcava t ion w o rk i nI nd ia . 2 4

T he se i n c lude t h e Un ive r s i t ie s o f P oona , A l lahabad , a nd B a rod a , b u t n one o f t h e t h ree U n ive r s i t ie s o f t h e S ta te o f R a jas than , n ame ly , t h e Un ive r s i ty o f R a ja s th an , t h e U n ive r s i ty o f J odhpu r , a nd t h e U n ive r s i ty o f Uda ipu r . T h i s d oe s n o t mean , h oweve r , t h a t i fa n i mpor tan t d i scove ry w e re t ob e made i n t h e r eg ion , p robab ly a s a r e su l t o f a g r icu l tu ra l o r b u i ld ing a c t iv i ty o r d ue t o s o i l d i s tu rbance t h rough s ome d eve lopmen t p ro jec t , t h e Gove rnmen t b od ie s w ou ld p rove i nd if fe ren t . A t t h e s ame t ime , t h ey a r e c u r ren t ly i n te r e s ted i n ma r sha l l ing t h e i r e f fo r t s a nd r e sou rce s o n o the r a r ea s a nd s ub jec t s , a bou t w h ich w e k now e ven l e ss t h an w e d o a bou t t h e Aha r C u l tu re ( f o r e xamp le , G ane shwa r ( Ag rawa la 1 981 ) , n ea r N eem -ka -Thana , D i s t . S ik a r , N o r the rn R a ja s than ) .

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S uch a l a rge -sca le s u rvey o f t h e e n t i re r e cogn i sed A ha rC u l tu r e r eg ion w a s b eyond my r e sou r ce s a s al one worke r , g i ven t h e f i e ldwork c ond i t ions i n o pera t ion , a nd t h e s i ze o f t h e t o ta l a r ea t o b e s u rveyed ( e ven u s ing a 1 0% s amp l ing s t ra tegy ) , wh ich w ou ld h ave n ece s s i ta ted s ome d eg ree o f t e amwo rk t h a t w a s n o t a t my d i sposa l .

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( w i th e ven a cce s s t o d e ta i led S ur vey o f I nd ia map s r e s t r ic ted ) .' ( Though Iw a s a b le t o r e f e r t o LANDSAT i mage ry o f We s ter n I nd ia ) .2 8 F o r t h e p r e sen t , t h e r ef o re , t h e k nown e x ten t o f t h e Aha r C u l tu r e s i te s , a nd t h e ir l o ca t ion , r ema in s d ependen t o n t h e a c tua l , p hy s ica l e xp lor a t ion o ft h e r e g ion . G iven t h is s i tua t ion , w he re mor e c onven t iona l a nd r ewa rd ing m ean s o f d a ta -colec t ion w e re n o t f e a s ib le , a n a pp roach wh ich , i t w a s h oped , w ou ld b e p r ac t ica l a s w el a s p roduc t ive , i n vo lv ing t h e f olow ing s t age s w a s a dop ted : 1 . F ie ld w o rk ( i nvo lv ing s ur vey a nd s u r f ace c olec t ion s a t s i t e s , b u t n o e xcava t ion w o rk ) , a nd l i t e ra tu r e s ur vey t og a the r a nd c omp i le d a ta a bou t i )t h e a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lemen t s o ft h e Aha r C u l tu re ; i ) t h e Mesol i th ic s i te s ; i i ) modem s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s o fn on t r iba l s ; i v ) mode rn s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s o f B h i l s . 2 . T he c on s t ruc t ion a nd t e s t ing o f amode l o f i n te r re la t ion sh ip s o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e d a ta c omp i la t ion , b e tween A ha r a nd c on tempo ra ry ' Me so l i th ic s i te s ' a nd b e twe en modem s e t t led a g r icu l tura l a nd B h i l c ommun i t ie s . H av ing e mba rked o n t h e l i t e r a tu re s ur vey , Ir e a l ised t h a t w h i le o n t h e o ne h and , t h e A ha r C u l tu r e s i tes , b y t h em se lve s , r e qu i red c on s ide rab le w o rk , o n t h e o t her h and , i tw ou ld h ave b een d i ff icu l t , i n t e rms o f t ime a nd o the r r e sou rce s , t o c a r ry o u t d e ta i led f i e ld w o rk a tb o th c a tego r ie s o f a r chaeo log ica l a nd b o th c a tego r ie s o f moder n s i te s . I ,t h er ef o re , d ec ided t o c oncen t ra te t h e f i e ld s t udy o n t h e s i te s o f t h e A ha r C u l tu r e , a nd t o u se o the r s ou rce s f o r d a ta o n t h e Mesol i th ic , B h i l a nd modem a g r icu l tu ra l c a t ego r ie s o fs i t es .n T he me thodo logy u sed f o r Aha r ian s i te s i s b r ie f ly d e sc r ibed b e low a nd d e ta i led i n C hap ter 5 . L i te ra tu r e s u rvey o n t h e mode rn , r u ra l a g r icu l tu ra l a nd B h i l c a tego r ie s w a s f olowed u p w i th g ene ra l f i e ld -ob se rva t ion s a tp r e sen t -day s e t t lemen t s . T he se , f o r t h e f o rme r , w e re c onc en t ra ted i n d i s t r ic t s U da ipu r , C h i t to rga rh a nd B h i lwa r a ( wh er e Aha r ian mound s a l so o ccur ) , a nd , f o r t h e l ate r , i n t r ad i t ionaly ' t r iba l ' p a r t s o f d i s t r ic t s U da ipu r a nd C h i t to rga rh ( e g . i n t e h s i l s l i ke K herwa ra , J hado l , S a lumba r e t c ) , wh e r e B h i l s s t il c omp r i se t h e b u lk o ft h e p opu la t ion . Two l e ve l s o f w o rk s t ra tegy w e re u sed i n c omp i l ing d a ta o n t h e Aha r C u l tur e . A t t h e i n i t ia l l e ve l , p ub l ished ma te r ia l o n Aha r , G i lund a nd a s soc ia ted s i te s w a s s t ud ied . T h i s i n f o rma t ion h ad b e en p ub l ished o ver a n umbe r o f y ea r s a nd i n d i f f e r en t j ou rna l s , b u t a s umma r i sed v e r s ion t h a t c ou ld f a c il i ta te f u r the r s t ud ie s w a s l a ck ing . S uch f u r the r s t ud ie s w e re a l so h ampe r ed b y t h e meag r e d a ta f r om s i te s o the r t h an A ha r a nd G i lund . A t t h e s e cond l e ve l , t h e refor e , s i te s r e cogn ised a s b e long ing t o t h e Aha r C u l tu re w e r e e xam ined t h rough f i e ldwo rk i n S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than . Ih ad a l r eady r e a l ised t h a t n o c omp rehen s ive l i s t — r e cen t o r o u t -da ted — c on ta in ing s i te -name s , l o ca t ion s a nd s ub s tan t ia l g ene ra l i n f o rma t ion a bou t s i te s o the r t h an Aha r a nd G i lund w a s i n p ub l ic c i r cu la t ion ." T he f i e ldwo rk , t h er efo re , w a s f o rmu la ted w i th t h e i d ea o f g a in ing a b e t te r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e ` Aha r C u l tu re ' t h rough t h e d a ta o b ta inab le f r om t h e s i te s . T h i s w ou ld b e u sed w i th t h e 2 7

T he i n c rea s ing u se o f s a t el i te image ry a nd LANDSAT m ap s i n s e lec t s c ien t if ic f i e ld s i n I nd ia s hou ld e ven tua l ly make t h a t t e chno logy a c ce s s ib le f o r p u rpose s o fI nd ian a r chaeo logy . S ee , f o r e xamp le , Dh inwa a nd Ma jumde r 1 983 ; S ha rma 1 984 ; D hab r iya 1 984 ; Dhab r iya e t a l 1 984 ; P a l e ta l 1 980 ; o n t h e u se o f s u ch t e chn ique s f o rm app ing t h e p a laeogeog r aphy , g eomo rpho logy a nd s im i la r a spec t s o fR a ja s than .

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C ou r te sy o f t h e I n s t i tu te o f D eve lopmen t S tud ie s , J a ipu r , t h e B i r la I n s t i tu te o f S c ience a nd T echno logy , J a ipu r , a nd D r .Dhab r iya .

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H av ing s a id t h i s , i t mu s t b e p o in ted o u t t h a t , i na c tua l f a c t , al a rge n umbe r o f modem s e t t lemen t s o f b o th c a tego r ie s w e re v i s i ted , t h ough o n ly l im i ted a n th ropo log ica l w o rk w a s c a r r ied o u t a tt h em .

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T he s cho la r s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e i n i t ia l s u rvey a nd e xp lo ra t ion ( e g . s ee S r iva s tava n .d . [?1980 1 ) o bv iou s ly p o s se s s s u ch i n fo rma t ion , b u t mo s t o ft h e r epo r t s a r e v e ry b r ie f a nd r e f e r t og r oup s o f s i te s i nt h e d i s tr ic t s o f U da ipu r , C h i t to rga rh , B h i lwa r a , e t c . w i th h a rd ly a ny f u r the r d e ta i l s . E ven t h e ma te r ia l c o l lec ted ( p r ima r i ly p o t te ry ) d u r ing t h e 1 950 's a nd 1 960 's i sn o t e a s i ly a c ce s s ib le , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e A ha r a r t if a c t s w h ich a r e o n d i sp lay a tt h e s i te mu seum , A ha r , a nd a tt h e D eccan C o l lege , P oona . Iw a s a l so p e rm i t ted ( c ou r te sy t h e A S I ) t ov i ew s ome o f t h e G i lund ma te r ia l k ep t a tP u rana Q ua , N ew D e lh i .

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p ubl i shed d a ta ( o r t h e s e conda ry s ou r ce s ) . I n t h e i n i t ia l s t ages o f p l ann ing my r e sea r ch , Ih ad w an ted t o s y s tema t ica l ly s u rvey a nd s amp le t h e e n t ir e a r ea o ccup ied b y t h e A ha r C u l tu r e s i te s i n R a ja s than ( Che r ry e t a l 1 978 ; F o ley 1 978 :49 -64 ) . Two f a c to r s , h oweve r , d i s suaded m e f r om u nde r tak ing t h is w o rk f o r t h e p r esen t . F i r s t o f a l , t h e c u r ren t ly k nown e x ten t o f t h e A ha r C u l tu re c ove r s o ve r 3 2 ,000 s q km ( a bou t 2 0 ,000 s q m i le s ) , i n R a ja s than a l one . T hu s , e ven a 1 0% r andom s amp le o f t h e a r ea w ou ld mean c ove r ing 3 , 200 s q km ( 2 ,000 s q m i le s ) . F o r mo re r e l iab le r e su l t s , h oweve r , a r andom s amp le o f a t l e a s t 1 5 -20% o f t h e a r ea w ou ld h ave b een d e s i rab le , s i nce a 1 0% s amp le n eed n o t g ene ra te s uff ic ien t ly mean ingfu l i n fo rma t ion f o r f o rmu la t ing r e levan t h ypo the se s a bou t a n a r ea a s v a s t a s t h a t o f t h e A ha r C u l tu re , u n le s s i tc an b e a ccompan ied b y o the r me thod s o f d a ta -co l lec t ion i n c lud ing p u t t ing i n t r ia l t r ench e s e t c . S uch a s amp l ing p rocedu re w ou ld a l so h ave n ece s s i ta ted a m in imum o f xh ou r s o f s u rvey w o rk o n my p a r t , b ecau se Iw orked w i thou t a ny a s s i s tance , w i thou t n ec e s sa r i ly p roduc ing d a ta t h a t w ou ld b e o f i mmed ia te i mpo r tance o r r e levanc e? ' T he s econd f a c to r w a s t h a t t hough t h e n umbe r o f k nown Aha r C u l tu r e s i te s w a s , a s I f ound d ur ing t h e c ou r s e o f my r e sea r ch , o ver e i gh ty , mo s t o f t h e se s i tes h ad n o t b een s t ud ied o r e xam ined i nd e ta i l , a nd v e ry s ke tchy d e sc r ip t ion s w er e a va i lab le a bou t t h em e ven a t a t ime wh en t h e se s i te s a r e b e ing t h r ea tened b y a w o r ld o f moder n isa t ion a nd t r an sf o rma t ion . ( Thu s , s i te s l i ke D a rau l i a r e s l ow ly b e ing e ngu l f ed i n t h e e xpand ing u rban l im i t s o f U da ipu r C i ty , wh i le m ic rol i th ic s i te s l i ke D abok ( J AR 1 956 -57 ) h ave b een " r e o ccup ied " b y 2 0 th c en tury c emen t w o rk s a nd o r e -c ru sh ing p l an t s ) . I n t h e l i gh t o f t h e se f a c to r s , a nd f i e ld c ond i t ion s , Id ec ided t h a t , g i ven t h e p r e sen t s t a t e o f r e sea r ch , i tw ou ld b e mo re u sefu l t o l o ok a ts ome o f t h e r epor ted A ha r C u l tu r e s i tes i n d e ta i l a nd t o a na ly se t h e d a ta t h u s g ene ra ted , i n s tead o f s u rvey ing a nd s amp l ing t h e r eg ion f o r ' unb ia sed d a ta ' , a tl e a s t f o rt h e t ime b e ing . T h is a pp roach may b e l a be l led a s a n e xamp le o f ' J udgemen t S amp l ing ' ( Che r ry e t a l 1 978 ) i n a c t ion . J udgemen t s amp l ing ( Muele r 1 975 :2 ; c a l led ' p rob ing ' o r ' pu rpo se fu l s e lec t ion ' b y C owg il 1 975 ) , i n vo lves , a cco rd ing t o C he r ry e t a l , t h e c on sc iou s , o r o f t en u ncon sc iou s , s e lec t ion o f a r ea s f o r i n ve s t iga t ion o n t h e b a s i s o f w ha t t h e a r chaeo log is t c on s ide r s t ob e t h e e xamp le s wh ich a r e t h e b e s t / mo s t p roduc t ive / mo s t r e p re sen ta t ive / mo s t i mmed ia te ly t h rea tened , a nd s o f o r th ( i b id :23 ) . B e ing o pen t o p o ss ib le b i a se s r e su l t ing f r om p r econce ived o r f a l se n o t ion s a bou t t h e p opu la t ion e t c . , ' J udgemen t s amp l ing ' c anno t b e a n a l te rna t ive t o ' r andom ' o r ' p robab i l is t ic ' s amp l ing i n t h e l ong r un . H oweve r , g i ven t h e e x is t ing c ond i t ion s a nd l im i ta t ion s , Imade a d el ibe ra te c ho ice i n f a vou r o f t h e f o rme r f o r t h e p u rpo ses o ft h e p r esen t s t udy . T he f i e ldwo rk s t ra tegy w a s o r ien ted t owa rd s t h e d oub le g oa l s o f o b se rva t ion a nd d a ta c olec t ion . I n t h e f o rme r c a tego ry c ame t h e t a sk o f l o ca t ing s i te s , o b se rv ing t h e l o ca l g eog r aphy a nd e nv ironmen ta l c on s t r a in t s , p a s t a nd p re sen t l a nd u sage a nd s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s e t c . o f t h e s i te s a nd t a k ing n o te o f t h e p re sence ( o r a b senc e ) o f o ccupa t iona l d epo s i t s o f t h e Aha r C u l tu r e p e r iod a tt h e se s i te s . T h is i n f o rma t ion i s s umma r ized i n t h e ' S i te G aze t te e r ' .

3 1

I n t h e o p in ion o f C he r ry e t a l ( 1978 :22 ) , " t he r a te s a t wh ich i n ten s ive s u rvey s p roceed a r e v e ry s l ow i ndeed , g ene ra l ly i n t h e r ange o f 4t o 1 2 man -day s p e r s qua re . k i lome t re , a nd o f ten mo re ." S ch i f f e r a nd G iune rman ( 1977 :186 ) c i te t ime labou r d a ta i nd ica t ing r a te n ece s sa ry f o r i n ten s ive s u r vey o f b e tween 1 0 a nd 6 0 man -days p e r s qua re m i le ( 4 t o2 4 man -day s p e r s qua re k i lome t re ) , a nd n o te s ome o f t h e v a r iab le s t h a t c on t ro l t h e a moun t o f e f fo r t a c tua l ly r equ i red u nde r d i f f e r en t c i r cum s tance s . E qua l ly h igh l a bou r i npu t s a r e n ece ssa ry f o r " s i te les s" s u rvey s , w he r e i n te re s t i s f o cu ssed n o t o n d i sc re t e s i t e s , b u t o n t h e v a r iab le d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r tefac t d en s i t ie s r e la t ive t ot h e t r ac ts o fl a nd s u rveyed ( Che r ry e ta l1 978 :22 ) .

1 9

I n t h e l a t te r c a tego ry w a s t h e w o rk o f a c tua l d a ta -colec t ion f r om t h e s i te s . I n l i eu o f e xcava t ion w o rk , wh ich w a s n o t a lowed , s ma l l s amp le s w e r e c olec ted f r om t h e s i te s ." T he se s amp les o f p o t te ry , b one a nd m e ta l s lag w e re g a the r ed b o th f r om t h e s u r f ace a nd s i des o f t h e mound s , a s w el a s f r om s t ra t if i ed l e ve l s , e xpo sed d ue t o t h e w ea the r ing a nd g uly ing o ft h e mound s a nd a s ac on sequence o f h uman a c t iv i t ies . T he ma te r ia l c olec ted i n t h i s manne r w a s l a ter s t ud ied , a nd t e n ta t ive ly c l a s s if ied a ccord ing t ot h e t ypo logy d eve loped b y S anka l ia e t a l f r om t h e e xcava t ion s a t Aha r ( Sanka l ia e t a l 1 969 ) . T h is f i e ld s t udy w a s c a r r ied o u t b e tween N ovembe r 1 982 a nd A p r i l 1 983 . S urvey a nd e xp lor a t ion o f t h e a r ea i n vo lved t a ck l ing i r k some i s sue s , w h ich i n c luded f i nd ing t h a t mos t o f t h e Aha r C u l tu re s i te mound s h ave a n o ve r lay o fl a te r c u l tu ra l d epo s i t s , i nt h e f o rm o f p r e -Ku shan a nd K u shan ( 200 B .C . -200 A .D . ) , G up ta ( 300 -600 A .D . ) , e t c . a nd R a jpu t p e r iod ( 700 A .D . o nwa rd s ) o ccupa t ion ma te r ia ls ." F u r the rmo r e , s i nc e m any o f t h e s i tes w i th Aha r C u l tu r e r ema in s a r e s t il u nder o ccupa t ion i tw a s d i ff icu l t t o a lway s p l ace g r id s , s e cu r e " r andom " s amp le s o f p o t t e ry , a nd o b se rve s ome o f t h e g o lden r u le s f o r a s c ien t if i ca l ly u nb ia sed a nd s y s tema t ic s u rvey a l t h e t ime .' T he m e thodo logy f olowed i n my w o rk w a s a dap ted f r om c u r ren t ly p r eva len t a r chaeo log ica l b e l ief s y s tems t o f i t t h e c ond i t ion s o f my f i e ldwork a r ea a nd t h e l im i ta t ion s i mpo sed b y t h e m eag r e d a ta -ba se a va i lab le , a s w el a s i n r e spon se t o t h e o t he r s pec if ic p rob lems r e f e r r ed t o a bove . T hu s , i n l i eu o f e xcava ted d a ta , as i te s g aze t tee r w a s p r epa r ed o n t h e b a s is o f f i e ldwo rk . S ome o f t h e i d ea s g ene ra ted t h rough t h e u se o f t h i s me thodo logy m ay r e qu ir e mod if ica t ion when f u r the r l a rge sca le w o rk o n t h e A ha r C u l tu r e i sc onduc ted a ts ome f u tur e d a te , a nd t h e h ypo the se s s ugges ted i n t h i s w o rk m ay b e o ve r se t o nce f u r the r i n f o rma t ion i s o b ta ined . T h i s , p e rhap s , i sa s i ts hou ld b e ! A s S t ewa rd n o ted , " f ac t s e x is t o n ly a s t h ey a r e r e la t ed t o t heo r ies , a nd t h eo r ie s a r e n o t d e s t royed b y f a c t s —t h ey a r e r e p laced b y n ew t h eo r ie s w h ich b e t te r e xp la in t h e f a c t s " ( S tewa rd 1 955 :209 ) .

3 2

S ee C hap te r 5f o r ad escr ip t ion o ft h e a c tua l f i e ldwo rk a nd f i e ld -me thodo logy .

3 3

T he re w as a t emp ta t ion t o s t udy t h e se a s w e l l , s i nce a l o t o f t h i s h i s to r ica l p e r iod i n f o rma t ion h a s n o t b een a r chaeo log ica l ly r e co rded .

3 4

I n a dd i t ion , t h e re w ere o cca s ions when , P i ed P ipe r l ike , t h e e n t i re p opu la t ion o f t h e v i l lage w ou ld f olow me a bou t my w o rk , o f f e r ing ' h e lpfu l h in t s ' , t e a , g ene ra l s ugge s t ion s , e t c . a nd a sk ing a s e r ie s o f q ue s t ion s t h a t r anged f r om my mo t ive s t o my o p in ion o f t h e n a t iona l e conomy a nd t h e c e l lu lo id s t a r s o f t h e B ombay f i lmwor ld . T he f a c t t h a t Iw a s n o t a' f o r e igne r ' n o r ama le , a l so i n t r igued t h em i mmen se ly .

2 0

3 . THE BACKGROUND S ETT ING : GEOGRAPHY , GEOLOGY & H ISTORY OF THE REG ION . 3 . 1 I n troduc t ion R a ja s than , k nown t o T od ( 1 829 ) a nd o ther s a s ` Ra jpu tana ' , ` Ra jwa r ra ' a nd ` Rae than ' , i s t h e n ame g iven t oo ne o f t h e I nd ian S t a te s l o ca t ed b e tween l a t i tude s 2 3° 3 'Nt o 3 0 ° 1 2 ' N , a nd b e tween l ong i tude s 6 9 ° 3 0 ' Et o 7 8° 1 7 ' E . R a ja s than i sd e sc r ibed a sb e ing r hombo id i n s hape . T he S ta te i sb ounded o n i t s w e s t a nd n or th -we s t b y P ak i s tan , o n t h e n or th a nd n or th e a s t b y t h e I nd ian S t a te s o fP un jab , H a ryana a nd U t ta rP rade sh , t ot h e s ou th -ea s t b y Madhya P rade sh a nd t o t h e s ou th -we s t b y G u ja ra t . T he t o ta l a r ea o f t h e S t a te i sa bou t 3 42 ,274 s q . k i lome t r es . 3 . 2 P hy s iography o fR a ja s than T he mo s t s t r ik ing f e a tu r e i n t h e t opog r aphy o f R a ja s than i s t h e A rava l l i R ange . T he A raval is t a ke t h e ir n ame f r om t h e t enn ' Ada -va la ' , m ean ing ab eam o r a n o b s t ruc t ion l y ing a c ro s s t h e p a th , wh ich t h e R ange , q u i te l i t e r a l ly , d oe s . T he R ange i s o l de r t h an t h e H ima layan i n g eo log ica l t ime , a nd i s c on s ide red t o b e o ne o f t h e o lde s t f o lded moun ta in r ang e s i nt h e w o r ld ( V .C . M i s r a 1 967 ) .1 R unn ing i n an or th -ea s t t o s ou th -we s t d i r ec t ion , t h e A r aval i R ange d iv ide s t h e S ta te o f R a ja s than i n to t wo d i s t inc t g eog raph ica l u n i t s . T he w e s ter n p a r t , c omp r is ing n ea r ly 6 0% o f t h e t o ta l a r ea o fR a ja s than , i sa r id o r s em i -a r id . T he e a s t e rn p a r t i sc ompa ra t ive ly f e r t i le a nd s em i -hum id . I np hy s iog r aph ic t e rms , R a ja s than c an b e b road ly d esc r ibed a s f olow s : ( Map 3 : 1) T o t h e n o r th a nd w e s t o f t h e A raval is l i e t h e S andy A r id P la in s ( i nc lud ing t h e T ha r D e ser t ) , a nd t h e S em i -A r id T r an s i t iona l P la in s ( i nc lud ing t h e L tu t i b a s in ) , o f ` Ma ru s thar o r ` Ma rwa r ' , t r ad i t iona l ly ar e g ion o f s and , s and -dune s a nd a r id c ond i t ion s . T h i s a r ea t oday c omp r ise s t h e mod em a dm in is t ra t ive d i s t r ic t s o f B a rme r , J a i sa lme r , B ikane r , J odhpu r , C hum a nd P a l i , a mong o the r s . T o t h e e a s t a nd s ou th -ea s t o f t h e A raval i R ange a r e t h e f e r t i le p l a in s o f r i ve r s l i ke t h e B ana s a nd Mah i , a nd t h e ir t r ibu ta r ie s , a nd t h e h igh land s a nd p l a teaux o f B ho ra t , t h e ' Pa tha r ' r eg ion a nd t h e No r th -Ea s te rn H i l ly ' t r ac t s . T h i s r eg ion c on t ra s t s w i th t h e a r id a nd s em i -a r id a r ea s , f o r t h e s o i l i n t h e v a l ley s i s f r equen t ly t h e b l ack , l o amy a luv ium , a nd t h e h ighe r l a nd w a s u n t i l r e cen t ly c ove r ed w i th f o re s t s ( now d enuded ) . T he d i s t r ic t s o f U da ipu r , C h i t to rga rh , B an swa r a , D unga rpu r , B h i lwa ra , K o ta , B und i , J ha lawa r , A jmer a nd A lwa r a r e s i tua ted w i th in t h is r eg ion . T he A raval i R ange w a s o r ig ina l ly f o rmed d u r ing t h e Dha rwa r p e r iod . I t h a s s ub s equen t ly b e en p enep laned a nd u p l if ted d u r ing t h e P a laeozo ic , Me sozo ic a nd T e r t ia ry e r as . S ome o f t h e o lde r s u r f ace s a r e n o l onger t o b e s e en t hough , a nd t h e e a r l ie s t o f t h e p enep lane s p r eser ved i nt h e r e l ief o ft h e A raval i R ange d a te f r om t h e l a te Me sozo ic ( He ron 1 936 , 1 953 ) . G eomo rpho log ica l ly , t h e r a nge may b e d i v ided i n to t h ree s e c t ion s : n or the rn , c en t r a l a nd s ou the rn . Q ua r tz i te s o f t h e A lwa r s e r ie s a nd o the r b a sa l g r i t s f o rm t h e ma in r i dge s i n t h e n or the r n s e c t ion , wh i le t h e r e s is tan t g ran i te s a nd r o ck s o f t h e A raval i s y s tem a r e t h e c o r e o f s e ve ra l h igh land s i nt h e s ou the rn s e c t ion . T he s of t e r p hy l l i te s a nd l ime s tone s h ave b een e roded t of o rm l ow h il s a nd b road v a l ley s . T he p r e sen t r e l ief o f t h e A rava l l i R ange i so n ly a r ema inder o f aw omdown moun ta in r ang e , wh ich i sb el ieved t o h ave f o rme r ly e x tended much b eyond i t s p re sen t l im i t s . T he re

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a r e many d i scon t inuou s r i dge s . S eve ra l o f t h e i s o la ted h il s a r e p rom inence s l ef t s t and ing w h i le t h e s u r round ing s o i l a nd r o ck s h ave b een w a shed a way . T he a ve rage e l eva t ion o f t h is r ange i s mo re t h an 6 00m . a bove m ean s e a l e ve l , t h ough s umm i t s e xceed ing 1 000 m . c an b e n o ted , e spec ia l ly i nt h e A bu r e g ion , whe r e t h e G u ru S h ikha r p eak i s1 727 m e t r e s a bove s ea l e ve l . L ow , s ca t te red r i dge s e x tend f r om n ea r D e lh i t owa rd s t h e s ou th -we s t . T h e e l eva t ion g r adua l ly i n c rease s n ea r J a ipu r , Uda ipurwa t i a nd K he t r i , t ot h e s ou th -wes t o f D e lh i , w i th t h e A rava l l i s f o rm ing a w e l l ma rked c on t inuou s r a nge . P eak s l i ke B aba i ( 780m . ) , Kho ( 9 20m . ) , R aghuna thga rh ( 1 ,055m . ) a nd H a r shna th ( 820m . ) o ccu r h e r e . F rom A jme r o nwa rd s , s ever a l p a ra l le l r ange s b ecome c on sp icuou s . T he A r aval i h i l l s b eyond A jme r - Merwa ra u p t o B eawa r , o ccupy a w id th o f a bou t 5 0kms . T h i s i st h e c en t r a l A rava l l i r eg ion o f R a ja s than f r om whe re t h e R ange f an s o u t t owa rd s t h e A bu B lock o rP la teau o fS i roh i , t h e h igh land s o f Mewa r a nd t h e r ugged c oun t ry o f Dunga rpu r a nd B an swa ra i n t h e s ou th a nd s ou th -ea s t ( s ee G up ta 1 934 ; H e ron 1 938 ) . T he s ou the rn A raval i r eg ion c omp r ises t h e h igh p eak s l i ke G u ru S h ikha r ( 1 ,727m . ) i n t h e Moun t A bu B lock , a nd Kumbha lga rh ( 1 ,206m . ) a nd G ogunda ( 1 ,090m . ) t o t h e n o r th -we s t o f U da ipu r . T he r ange g e t s r e duc ed f u r ther s ou th -we s t t o s c a t te red b u t t s a r ound 6 0m . i nh e igh t a r ound P a lanpu r a nd K hedb r ahma ( Dhab r iya 1 971 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ) . 3 3 R ivers o fR a ja s than T he A raval is f o rm t h e ma in w a te r shed f o r N o r th I nd ia , c hannel ing t h e d ra inage o f t h a t p a r t o f n or the rn I nd ia i n to t h e A rab ian S ea a nd t h e B ay o f B enga l . T he L un i r i ve r s y s t em r i s ing f r om t h e w e s ter n s l op e s o f t h e A raval i R ange f l ow s t h rough t h e s em i -a r id t r an s i t iona l p l a in s i n to t h e A rab ian S ea , wh i le t h e B ana s a nd o the r s t r eams , r i s ing f r om t h e e a s te rn s l ope s o f t h e A raval i s , j o in t h e C hamba l , wh ich i nt u rn f l ows i n to t h e Y amuna -Ganga r i ve r s y s tem wh ich d ra in s i n to t h e B ay o f B enga l . T he ma in w a te rcour se s , l i ke t h e B ana s , S abanna t i , e t c . a nd t h e t r ibu ta r ie s o f t h e L un i , a r e mo re o r l e s s p a ra l le l t o t h e A raval i R ange , o ne g roup f l ow ing t o t h e n or th -ea s t a nd t h e o the r t owa rd s t h e s ou th -we s t ( Map 3 : 2 ) . T he C hamba l a nd B ana s b ea r s i gn s o f s upe r imposed d ra inage f olow ing a Me sozo ic u pwa rp ing o ft h e R ange a nd t h e D eccan T rap a c t iv i ty r e spec t ive ly . T he se s t ruc tu r a l r e la t ion s h ave i nf luenced t h e p a s t h yd rog r aphy o f t h e A raval i a nd i t s n e ighbou rhood , t hough t h e p re sen t d ra inage p a t ter n i ss a id t o b e d evo id o f a ny g eo log ic c on t ro l . A l l t h e m a jo r s t r eam s h ave b a se leveled t h e ir c ou r se s a nd t h e i r c u rve o f e ros ion i sf r ee f r om i r r egu la r i t ie s . T he n or th -we s ter n s l op es o f t h e A raval i R ange a r e i nf luenced b y t h e b lown s and s o f t h e T ha r d e se r t , wh ich h a s a lmo s t c hoked t h e d ra inage c hanne l s . O n ly s ea sona l s t r eam s f e ed t h e d r a inage o f t h e L un i ( l i te ra l ly : S a l ty o r B rack i sh ) r i ve r . T he h yd rogr aphy o f t h e s ou th e a s te rn s l ope s i sb e t te r d ef ined . T he h il s h ave p ro tec ted t h is r eg ion f r om t h e d e se r t s and s , a nd t h e B ana s a nd S abanna t i f l ow i n o ppo s i te d i rec t ion s w i th n ume rou s p e r enn ia l a f f luen t s . 3 . 4 G eography o f R a jas than T he a r id a nd s em i -a r id r eg ion t o t h e w es t a nd n o r th -wes t o f t h e A raval i s i s av a s t e xpan se o f f l a t p l a in . I t s o l d n ame s — Ma rubhum i a nd Mam s tha l i — mean ' d e ser t l a nd ' . T he T ha r D e se r t l i e s i n t h is p a r t o fR a ja s than , a nd e x tend s w e s twa rd s i n to S ind i nP ak is t an . T he c ommon l o ca l n ame f o r t h is w e s te rn h a lf o f R a ja s than i s Ma rwa r , t h ough s t r ic t ly s peak ing o the r e r s twh i le k ingdom s a l so s ha r ed t h i s r e g ion . I ti s b el ieved t o b e an a tu r a l n or the r ly e x ten s ion o f t h e G u ja ra t p l a in s w i th t h e p rog r e s s ive d e s s ica t ion c u lm ina t ing h e r e i n at r ue d e ser t ( Alch in e t a l 1 978 ; L eshn ik 1 968 :299 , 1 973 ) . Nume rou s s and d une s , o f ten s t r e tch ing f o r m i le s , a nd i s o la ted l ow h i l l s a nd l ime s tone o u tc rop s , a r e c ha rac te r is t ic . T he a nnua l r a in f a l l v a r ie s b e tween 5 0 c m . t o 1 0 c m . a nd l e ss . T he ma in r i ve r i st h e L un i , w i th an umbe r o f t r ibu ta r ies , a l l b u t o ne o f wh ich j o in i tf r om t h e s ou th . T he se r i ve r s c a r ry w a te r f o r o n ly af ew w eek s o r e ven d ay s d u r ing t h e mon soon , r un d ry i n s umme r , a nd

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L ike t h e Meena s a nd o ther t r iba l s , t h e m a jo r p a r t o ft h e B h i l p opu la t ion i sb a sed i nr u ra l , ( a s d i s t inc t f r om u rban ) , a r ea s . B h i l s h ave g radua l ly t a ken t o c u l t iva t ion , ac hange t h a t h a s b een e ncou raged i nt h e p a s t h und red o r s o y ea r s . H oweve r , t h e m a jo r i ty s t il c on t inue t o s i t e t h e ir h ab i ta t ion s i ns c a t t e red s e t t lemen t s o n t h e t op s o fh il s a nd r i se s . B h i l s a ppea r t o h ave b een p u shed s ou thwa rd s a nd w e s twa rd s o n b o th f l ank s o f t h e A rava l l is ( A t la s 1 969 ) .T he ir m ax imum c oncen t ra t ion h a s b een i n h ily a nd , t i l r e c en t ly , f o res t ed a r ea s o f s ou th -we s t a nd s ou th -ea s t R a ja s than . H oweve r , t h e se f o r e s t s , p ro tec ted b y t h e r u ler s o f U da ipu r a nd o the r S t a te s t i l 1 947 , h ave b een d ep le ted i n t h e l a s t f ew d ecade s — ap henomenon c ommon t om any f o res ted a r ea s p opu la ted b y t r iba l s .7 G ara s ia — T h i s n ame i sd e r ived f r om t h e S an sk r i t w o rk ` g r a s ' , mean ing ` a mo r se l ' o r ` a me r e s ub s i s tence ' . A ccord ing t o o ne t r ad i t ion , t h e G a ra s ia s a r e d escended f r om t h e C hauhan s o f J a lo r e , aR a jpu t K ingdom . I n 1 388 , t h e C hauhan r u le r o f J a lo re , K anhad D eo , w a s d ef ea ted b y t h e Mu s l ims a nd f l ed t o t h e h il s . H e re , h e a ppea r s t o h ave o ve r -powe r ed t h e l o ca l B h i l s , h av ing f i r s t a cc ep ted b o th t h e ir h osp i ta l i ty a nd t oken s ub s is tence r i gh t s o f a mo r se l , o r ' g ra s ' , o fl o ca l p roduce . H oweve r , t h e o the r R a jpu t c l an s f e l t t h a t K anhad D eo , h i s s on a nd t h e C hauhan R a jpu t s o f J a lor e w ho h ad a c compan ied t h e ir k ing h ad b ecome d eg raded a nd p olu ted b ecau se o f t h e ir c on tac t w i th t h e B h i l s a nd s t opped a l i n te r -ma r i ta l r e la t ion s w i th s uch R a jpu t s . C on sequen t ly , K anhad D eo a nd h i s s on , k nown a s t h e R ao o f Me rpu r , a nd t h e ir r e t inue i n ter -ma r r ied w i th t h e l o ca l B h i l s , whom t h ey h ad a l r eady s ubdued , a nd t h e ir d e scenden t s c ame t o b e k now a s G a ra s ia s . G a ra s ia s h ave , t h e r efo r e , b e l ieved t h emse lves t o b e s oc ia l ly s upe r io r t o B h i l s a nd o the r ` p ur e a bo rg ina l s ' , a nd g ene ra l ly u se R a jpu t c l an -name s a nd ` g o t ra s ' . T hey a r e f ound m a in ly i n t h e d i s t r ic t s o f S i roh i , P a l i a nd U da ipu r . Whe the r t he a ccoun t s o f t h e i r g enea logy a r e h i s to r ica l ly a ccu r a t e o r n o t ; i n s o f a r a s s ome i nd ica te t h a t K anhad D eo p e r ished i n t h e d ef en se o f h i s c ap i ta l a nd , t hu s , t h a t t h e w ho f l ed t ot h e h il s f o r s a f e ty w e r e n o t o f ' r oya l ' b i r th , t h ey a pp ea r t o r e i te ra te t h e s t o ry o f R a jpu t s w r e s t ing l a nd f r om i n d igeneou s p opu la t ion s , e ven i n to t h e 1 4 th A .D . '

G a ra s ia r e co rd s R a jpu t s f am i l ia r c en tu ry

S ahar iya — T he S aha r iya w e r e r e po r ted a s b e ing l i t t le r emoved f r om a " s avage l i f e " l e s s t h an a h und r ed y ea r s a go . T hey a r e s t il c on s ide r ed t o b e " backwa rd ." T he S aha r iya s a r e f ound i n t h e d i s t r ic t s o f K o ta , J ha lawa r , U da ipu r , D unga rpu r , J a ipur , S awa i Madhopu r , B ha ra tpu r a nd C hum , t hough 9 9 .2% w e r e c oncen t ra ted i nd i s t r ic t K o ta i n t h e 1 961 C en su s ( ou t o f at o ta l o f2 3 ,284 ) . S aha r iya c u s tom s b ea r ag r ea t r e semb lance w i th t h e i r C a s te H indu f olow ing a t temp t s t o ' c iv il i se ' t h e f o rme r b y t h e l a t te r . T he S aha r iya , who t o n on t r iba l C a s te -H indu s , a r e c on s ide red t o b e u n touchab le s b y t h em S urvey Monog raph , 1 961 , o n S anwa ra v ilage , S hahabad t e h s i l , i n D is t r ic t s t udy ) .

n e ighbour s n ow , l i ve i np rox im i ty ( Censu s V ilage K o ta , f o r ac a se -

Damor — T he D amor s a r e as mal c ommun i ty , whose my th s l i nk t h em w i th m ig ra t ion f r om Gu ja r a t . T hey s t i l l h ave s oc ia l c on tac t w i th G u ja ra t , a nd mo s t o f t h e D amo r p opu la t ion i s l o ca ted o n t h e R a ja s than -Gu ja ra t b o rde r i n t h e d i s t r ic t o f D unga rpu r . T hey a r e d i v ided i n to t wo s ub -g roup s , o ne o f wh ich c l a ims ah ighe r s oc ia l s t a tu s o n a ccoun t o f i t s b e t te r a nc e s t ry . B h i l - Meena — T h i s i s av e ry s ma l l g roup , f ound ma in ly i n d i s t r ic t A jme r , w he r e t h e Meena ( o r M ina ) c ommun i ty i sn o t as chedu led t r ibe . B y a l l a ccoun t s , t h ey s e em t o b e as ec t ion o f 7

T he r e su l t s o f d efore s ta t ion c an b e s een i n a n a cu te f o rm w hen f am ine a nd d rough t o ccu r s —a s , a tp re sen t i n t h e t r iba l d i s t r ic t o fJ habua i n Madhya P rade sh ( s ee S unda y 2 6 J u ly -3 A ugu s t 1 985 , p p 3 2 -35 ) .

8

D ave ( 1960 ) a nd Meha rda ( 1985 ) h ave d e sc r ibed t h e G a r a s ia s .

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t h e B h i l c ommun i ty , w ho , d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f t h e 1 930 's t o 1 960 's , b egan s t y l ing t h em se lve s a s B h i l - Me en a s ( 1961 C en su s ) . T h is i sa s c r ibed t o t h e f a c t t h a t Meena s h ave a h i gh er s oc ia l s t a tu s i n t h e r e g ion . T hu s , p rox im i ty t o Meena s w ou ld g r an t B h i l - Meena s a mo re ' c iv il i sed ' l a be l . 8 0 .8% o f B h i l - Me ena s ( i n t h e 1 961 C en su s ) w e re f ound i n A jme r d i s t r ic t , w i th t h e o ther r e s id ing i nD unga rpu r , B an swa ra a nd J a ipu r d i s t r ic t s . ' I n a dd i t ion t ot h e a bove m en t ioned g roup s , t h e r e i sa l so as ma l l p opu la t ion o f ` Ka thod is ' , o r t a ppe r s o fK a tha ( Ca techu — ab e te l leaf a dd i t ive ) , who a r e r e ga rded a s " s avage s " b y t h e i r n e ighbou r s , a nd b y t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e p opu la t ion . T he K a thod i c ommun i t ie s l i ve i n r emo te p ocke t s o f S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than , e a rn ing al i v ing t h rough t a pp ing C a techu t r ee s . B el ieved t o b e d e scendan t s o f 1 5 th 16 th c en tu ry A .D . C a s te -H indu ( i . e . n on t r iba l ) m ig ran t l a bou re r s f r om t h e D eccan , t h e K a thod is t oday a r e c on s ide red t o b e o u t ca s te s b o th b y t h e t r iba l s a nd n on t r iba l s . T h e t r iba l s r e cogn ise t h e K a thod is a s o ne t ime c a s te -H indu s , n ow ' d eg raded ' a nd , t h e r ef o r e , i n f e r io r t o t h e t r iba l s . T he n on t r iba l s l o ok d own u pon t h e ' unc iv i l i sed ' e x is tence o f t h e K a thod i s a nd t h e ir l o s s o f c a s te s ta tu s , a nd b e l ieve t h em t o b e i n f e r ior t o n on t r iba l s . H oweve r , t h e K a thod is h ave n o t b een a dequa te ly r e sea rched . 8 . 3 T he T r iba ls i n L i tera ture , My th a nd P opu lar P ercep t ion T r iba l s , a cco rd ing t o D el iege , a r e " . .mo r e e a s i ly d ef ined n ega t ive ly ; mo s t o ft h e ir c u l tu re p a t te rn h a s b een b or rowed a nd t h e ir r e l ig ion i sb y n o m ean s o r ig ina l . I ft h e H indu s h ave v i ewed .. some p eop le s a s s oc ia l ly d if e ren t a nd p o l i t icaly i n dep enden t , i ti s b ecause t h e l a t te r h ave n e i the r b een f uly s ubm i t ted n o r c omp le te ly i n teg ra ted i n to t h e f onne r 's s oc ie ty . O cca s iona l f ug i t ive s , b an i shed p eop le , d ef ea ted s o ld ie r s , m ixed w i th t h e se p eop le s o f t h e H i l l s a nd t i nged t h e ir c u l tu re w i th H indu e l emen t s . T he c on s tan t r e f e r en ce t o t h e ' d eg raded c ha rac te r ' o f t h e t r iba l s w ou ld make s en se w i th in t h a t c on tex t . T he B h i l s s e em t o b e t h ose p eop le w ho l i ved i n t h e moun ta in s , h un te r s a nd s h if t ing c u l t iva to r s w ho h ad n o th ing i n c ommon b u t as im i la r r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e P la in s a nd i t s i nhab i tan t s . I n v i ew o f t h is , i ti s n o t l i ke ly t h a t t r iba l p eop le h ave b een c ha sed f r om t h e P la in s t o t h e H il s . T h is e xp lana t ion i sp u r e ly c on jec tu ra l a nd i sn o t b a sed o n e mp ir ica l e v idenc e . T he t r iba l s a lway s a ppea r a s t h e H il p eop le p a r e xcelence , t h ey a r e t h ose w ho i nhab i t t h e f o re s t s a nd l i ve o u t s ide t h e ma in s t r eam o f c u l tu r a l l i f e . T hey h ave t a ken a dvan tage o f t h e ir i s o la t ion a nd s ub s is ted i n t h e ir ' b ackwa rdne s s ' . "( De le ige 1 981 :125 -126 ) T he re a r e s eve ra l v i ew s a bou t t h e t e rm A cco rd ing t o o ne c ommon e xp lana t ion , i t i s d e r ived f r om t h e r oo t w i th i t s many d e r iva t ive s l i ke Tee l ' , ` B ilu ' , Wi l lan ' , W ilavan ' , a nd 'M i le , o ft h e D rav id ian l a nguage s , aw ord s i gn ify ing ' b ow ' —t i l r e cen t ly t h e c ha rac te r is t ic w eapon o f t h e B h i l s . O the r s d e r ive i t f r om t h e S an sk r i t w o rd ` Bh id ' m ean ing ' t o p i e rce , s hoo t o r k i l l ' . I n s p i te o f t h e p robab le D rav id ian o r ig in o f t h e t e rm , l i ngu is t ic r e sea rch h a s s hown l i t t le e v idence o f D rav id ian e l emen t s i nt h e d i a lec t s s poken b y modem B h i l s , wh ich mo s t ly c on ta in w o rd s o f I ndo -A ryan o r ig in a t p re sen t ( Dave 1 948a , 1 948b ) . C a ldwel ( 1913 ) , c on s ide r s Th ila ' t o m ean a b ow ( Mann 1 978a :13 ) . C rooke ( 1 896a ) , a nd R u s sel a nd H ir a L a l ( 1916 ) i mp ly t h a t t h e t e rm ` Bh i l ' i s a pp l icab le t o a l b owmen .' B h i l s a r e g ene ra l ly b e l ieved t o b e o ne o f t h e o l de s t t r ibe s o f I nd ia , b o th a cco rd ing t o v a r iou s e t hnog r aphe r s a nd i n p opu la r i mag ina t ion ( Venka tacha r 1 933 ; G hurye 1 959 ; Meh ta

9

T he ' Meenas ' o fv i l lage B a rapa l ( ' twe lve p ha la s ' o r s ubd iv i s ion s ) , 1 5 m i le s s ou th o fU da ipu r , r e semb le t h e l o ca l Bh i l s i n a l l c u l tu ra l t r a i t s a nd p a t te rn s , w h i le a ppea r ing s i gn if ican t ly d i f f e r en t w hen c omp a red w i th Meena s f r om J a ipu r , S awa i Madhopu r o r o the r a r ea s o f Meena c oncen t ra t ion . T he re i se v iden ce o f B h i l s c a l l ing t h emse lves Meena s o r Bh i l - Meena s t o s ecu re a h ighe r s oc ia l s t a tu s i n p r edom inan t ly Bh i l a r ea s ! T hu s , i n t h e p a s t t wo t o t h ree d ecade s t h e n umbe r o f Meena s i n d i s tr ic t s Uda ipu r , Ch i t to rga rh e t c . , h a s i n c reased d e sp i te t h e a b sence o f a ny f r e sh m ig ra t ion s . T h i s i sb e l ieved t ob e t h e r e su l t o fB h i l s i d en t i fy ing w i th at r ibe ( Meena ) t h a t i sh e ld t ob e s oc ia l ly s upe r io r ( Vya s a nd Mann 1 980 ) .

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One 1 9 th C en tu ry ' d ef in i t ion ' o f aB h i l s t a ted t h a t , "Wh en h e mee t s y ou i n h i s j ung le , h e s hoo t s y ou i n t h e b ack w i th a n a r row a nd t h rows y ou r b ody i n to t h e d i tch . T hu s y ou may k now t h e Bh i l" ( M ichae l O 'Dwye r a s q uo ted i n Mann 1 978a :13 -14 ) .

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1 938 :265 -266 ; S ha f er 1 954 :7 -13 ; S r iva s tava 1 946 :70 ; V ya s 1 978 :1) ." T he re i s s ome e v idence t o s ugge s t t h a t I r iba l s ' o nce r u led p a r t s o f modem G u ja r a t , Ma lwa , Madhya P rade sh a nd R a ja s than .' I n R a ja s than t h e R a jpu t /Bh i l r e la t ion s ( d iscus sed b e low ) , a s r ef l ec ted t h rough R a jpu t r e co rd s a nd s t o r ie s , s uppor t s uch a p o s s ib i l i ty ( A sopa 1 976 ; a r ch iva l r e co rds a nd i n sc r ip t ion s q uo ted b y O jha 1 925 -1929 ; S ha rma 1 966 ; J aM 1 972 ; S ha rma 1 968 , 1 973 ; a r ch iva l d ocumen t s [ o f v a r iou s e r s twh i le k ingdom s a nd f e uda l e s ta te s ] i n c lud ing ` Van shava l is ' , ` Khya t s ' , ` Bah i s ' , ' Ba s ta s ' , ` P arwana s ' , a nd s o f o r th , w h ich a r e c u r r en t ly l ooked a f t e r b y t h e R a ja s than S t a te A r ch ive s a tB ikane r ; a r e a mong o u r s ou r ces ) . Of t en t h e t e rm 'M i l ' i s u sed i n d isc r im ina te ly b y n on t r iba l s , w ho f r equen t ly d o n o t d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t h e d if e r en t s ub t r ibe s . T h is c olec t ive c l a s s if i ca t ion c an b e o b se rved when c er ta in t r iba l g roup s a r e r e f e r red t o a s b e ing G ond s o r S an tha l s e t c . , f o r e xamp le , r ega rd le ss o f t h e n omenc la tu r e o r g roup p e rc ep t ion o f t h e t r iba l s t h em se lves . Many w r i te r s h ave c ome t o t h e c onc lu s ion t h a t t h e t e rm 'M i l ' h a s b een u sed b y n on t r iba l s t o i n c lude g roup s l i v ing i n f o res t s a nd h i l l s , i n r e la t ive a l oofnes s f r om t h e c u l tur a l mo r e s o f t h e n on t r iba l s , a nd w i th a mo re p ronounced d ependence o n h un t ing -ga the r ing a nd s l a sh -and -bum a g r icu l tu r e t h an t h e n on t r iba l s . A cco rd ing t o D el iege ( 1981 :117 ) , 'M i l ' i s ag ene r ic t e rm t h a t i n c ludes a l t h e " t r iba l p eop le o f t h e r e g ion " . T he se B h i l s may b e v i ewed a s " t he i n hab i tan t s o f t h e H il s a s o ppos ed t o t h e P la in s H indu s " ( i b id ) . S he r r ing ( 1881) r u efu l ly n o t ed t h a t " The B hee l t r ibe s a r e n ume rou s , a nd i t i s much t o b e r eg r e t ted t h a t s o l i t t le i s k nown r e spec t ing t h em . " Ma lco lm ( 1827 :67 ) c ommen ted t h a t , " The re a r e s o m any d if e r en t t r ib es a mong t h em t h a t i t h a s b een c on jec tu red b y s ome t h a t t h e g ener a l n ame o f B h i l o n ly d eno te s ac on f ede r acy o f m ixed a nd d eg r aded r a ces o f H indu s , a s soc ia ted b y p o l i t ica l e ven t s a nd c i rcum s tance s . " E a r ly e t hnog r aphe r s i n c lud ing R u s sel a nd H ir a L a l ( 1916 ) , T od ( 1839 ) , a nd o t he r s h ave v a r iou s ly d e sc r ibed B h i l s a s e xcelen t w ood smen , w ho k new t h e t e r ra in t h o rough ly a nd c ou ld w a lk t h e r oughes t p a th s a nd c l imb t h e s t eepe s t o f c r ag s w i th e a se , b e ing ' t he c h i ld ren o ft h e f o re s t ' ( Vanpu t r a ) , a nd ' Lo rd o ft h e P a s s ' ( Pa l I nd r a ) , t e rms u sed i n S an sk r i t w o rk s t o d e scr ibe ` t r iba l s ' ; a nd a s r ep re sen ta t ive s o f ar a ce w h ich i nhab i ted I nd ia e a r l ie r t h an t h e A ryan s a nd D r av id ian s ." S eve ra l s t o r ies e xp la in t h e o r ig in s o f t h e B h i l s , i n c lud ing o ne P u ran ic v e r s ion w h ich r e la tes h ow t h e ` r i sh is ' ( s age s ) , p l aced a s ma l l d a rk man o n t h e t h rone , i n p l ace o f t h e ir c rue l r e ign ing mona rch . T he d e scendan t s o ft h is d a rk m an w er e t h e B h i l s a nd o t he r N ishada g roup s . A no ther P uran ic a ccoun t d e sc r ibes h ow V ena , s on o f A nga a nd a d escendan t o f Manu Swayambhu , r ubbed h i s t h igh s a nd p roduc ed as ho r t , d a rk man w i th a f l a t f a ce , l i k e a c ha r red l og . T h is man w a s t o ld t o s i t d own ( N ishad ) a nd , t h encefor th b ecame k nown a s N ishad . F rom N i shad s p rang t h e r a ce o f N i shada s a nd o th er ' w i ld ' p eop le , w ho l i ved i n t h e V indhyan moun ta in s a nd c omm i t t ed ' w icked d eed s ' . T he se P u ran ic s t o r ie s , n a tu ra l ly , r ef lec t t h e w o r ld v i ew o ft h e n on t r iba l s l o ok ing a t" backwa rd p eop le . " T he B h i l s o f B an swa r a -Dunga rpu r ( o r ` Vaga r ' ) a r ea b e l ieve t h a t t h ey a r e d e scendan t s o f t h e ir L o rd Mahadeo ( S iva ) a nd a f i sh e rman 's d augh te r , w ho l i ved o n t h e b ank s o ft h e r i ve r 1

" The p os i t ion o f t h e Bh i ls a s t h e o ldes t i nhab i t an t s o f t h e c oun t ry i sr ecogn ised b y t h e i r emp loymen t i n t h e c apac i ty o f v ilage w a tchmen . A w a tchman mu s t k now t h e v ilage b ounda r ie s a nd k eep w a tch a nd w a rd o ve r t h em a nd i tw as s upposed t h a t t h e o lde s t c l a s s o f r e s iden t s w ou ld k now t h em b e t te r " , w a s t h e o p in ion o f R u s se l l a nd H ira L a l ( 1916 ) .

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T od 1 829 -32 ; S hyama lda s 1 886 ; t h e R a ja s than i Ihya t s ' , C rooke 1 907 , a nd o the rr eco rd s .

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V enka tacha r ( 1933 ) a nd Meh ta ( 1938 :265 -266 ) a r e a mong t h o se who p o s tu la ted t h a t t h e B h i l s w e re p robab ly a s e c t ion o f ar a ce o ccupy ing p r e -D rav id ian a nd p r e -A ryan I nd ia . A cco rd ing t o V enka ta cha r , " i n t h e p re sen t s t age o f o u r An th ropo log ica l k now ledge w e c an n o t "say w he the r t h e B h i l s a r e a u toch thone s o r n o t . . .The re i sn o d oub t t ha t t h ey r ep re sen t ar a ce w h ich i n h ab i ted I nd ia e a rl ie r t h an t h e A ryan s a nd t h e D rav id ians . . .The B h i ls a r e o ne s e c t ion o f t h e g r ea t M tmda r a ce wh ich o ccup ied t h e p re -D rav id ian I nd ia a nd h ad f o r i t s h ome t h e c en t ra l r eg ion s a c ro s s t h e p en in su la r I nd ia w i th p o s s ib le e x t en s ion s i n t h e G ange t ic p l a in" ( Venka tacha r 1 933 :239 ) .

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Mah i .' A no the r t r ad i t ion d esc r ibed B h i l s a s d e scendan t s o f o ne o ft h e s on s o f Mahadeo a nd af o r es t g i r l . T h is s on w a s u g ly a nd v i c iou s a nd w a s e ven tua l ly e xpe l led f r om t h e h ab i ta t ion o f m en b ecause h e s l ew h i s f a the r Mahadeo 's f a vou r i te b u l l . T he B h i l s , d e scendan t s o f t h i s s on , w e re t h us c ondemned t ol i ve i nf o r e s t s a nd h il s . O th e r t r ad i t ion s a nd s t o r ie s a bou t B h i l o r ig in s a l so e x is t ( Na ik 1 956 ; T od 1 829 -32 ; E r sk ine 1 908 ; V enka tacha r 1 933 ; C rooke 1 896a , 1 896b , 1 907 ; B anne rman 1 902 ) . A cco rd ing t o t h e H a r ivamsa , f r om t h e s ho r t s ta tur ed a nd b l ack N ish ida , d e sc r ibed i n r a the r mo re d e roga to ry t e rms i n t h e Mahabha r a ta , V isnu P u rana , a nd B hagava t P u rana a mong o the r s ( Shaf e r 1 954 :8 ) , d e scended t h e N i shada s , T u sa r a s , T umba ra s , G ond s , K o l s a nd o t he r t r ibe s l i v ing i n t h e V indhya s . I n l a ter t e x t s N i shada s b ecame s ynonymou s w i th B h i l s . P eop le l i v ing i nt h e A raval i H i l l s w e r e k nown a s ` A tav i S h ika ra ' i ns ome t e x t s . I nd ian l i t e ra tu re f r equen t ly men t ioned t h e e x is tenc e o f f o re s t -dwele r s a nd o t her t r iba l p eop le , t h roughou t t h e ' a nc ien t ' a nd ' med ieva l ' p e r iod s o f I nd ian H is to ry . T he se p eop le a r e d e sc r ibed a s b e ing c u l tu r a l ly d i s t inc t f r om t h e ' A ryan ' a nd ` Aryan ised ' c i ty -dwe l ler s a nd v ilager s . I n V ed ic l i t e r a tu re s ome o f t h em w er e c l a ssed a s ' l ow ' o r o u tca s te g roup s ( e g . C handa la s ) , a nd o the r s a s g roup s n o t f a ll ing w i th in t h e f ou r -fo ld s oc ia l s y s t em o f t h e A rya J a t i . B h i l s , a l ong w i th N ishada s a nd o the r s , f i nd m en t ion i n e a r ly t h e E p ic s , t h e R amayana a nd Mahabha ra ta .' W i th u sage , t h e b ecome s ynonymou s w i th o the r f o r es t t r ibe s . T he c ommen ta to r ` N ishada ' , u sed i n Y ak sa s N iruk ta ( Mann 1 978a :11) , a nd t h e 1 954 :8 ) , t om ean B h i l o r B h ila .

S an sk r i t l i t e ra tu r e i n c lud ing w o rd B h i l a ppea r s t o h ave Mah ind ra e xp la in s t h e t e rm V a ja saney i S amh i ta ( Sha f e r

Gunadhya 's ` Ka tha -Sa r i ta -Saga ra ' , ac olec t ion o f s t o r ies , make s f r equen t men t ion o f B h ila s ( Bh i l s ) , ( s ee T awney 1 884 ; P enze r 1 924 ) . I n t h e se t a le s t h e B h ila s a r e d esc r ibed a s d emon s , h un te r s , s avage s , b r igand s , l ow c a s te e t c . , a nd y e t , a l so a l l ie s o f n on t r iba l s . T hey c an b e c rue l a nd g ra tefu l , f o e a nd f r iend ( Del iege 1 981 :124 ) . I n te r -ma r r iages b e tween t h e B h ila s ( and o the r ' w i ld t r iba l s ' ) a nd ' A ryan s ' , t hough s oc ia l ly f r owned u pon , f i gu re i n t h e K a tha -Sa r i ta -Saga ra s t o r ie s . F o r e xamp le , S r ida t ta , a w a r r io r -Br ahm in f r om P a t l ipu t ra ma r r ied S unda r i , t h e d augh te r o f aS ava ra c h ief ; wh i le i n a no the r s t o ry , aBh ila c h ief a nd h i s s on ma r r ied t h e Q ueen o ft h e D ek l can a nd h e r d augh t er , ( Penze r 1 924 ) . T he l i t e ra tu r e i n d ica te s t h a t t h e t r ibe s w e re n o t c omp le te ly s epa ra ted f r om t h e r e s t o f t h e p opu la t ion . I tw a s p o ss ib le t o ' s ink ' i n to t r iba l c ond i t ion , a s h appened w i th Maka rand ika , a p r ince s s , who b ecame a N i shada , ( Tawney 1 884 v o l . I I :25 ) , o r w i th E kak ike sa r in , aB rahm in w ho s ough t s anc tua ry i n t h e V indhya s , w a s a dop ted b y aB h i l c h ief a nd b ecame aB h ila ( Penze r 1 924 ) .

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Ch i ld ren o f ' m ixed ' ma r r iages w e re f r equen t ly c a tego r ised a s ' o u tca s te s ' ( Chanda la s e t c ) i n l a te r l i t e ra t ur e , t hough f r om s t or ie s r e la t ing t o t h e e a r l ie r , i . e . , V ed ic p e r iod ( c . 1 500 -800 B .C .? ) , i ts eem s t h a t m a r r iage s b e tween ' A ryan ' h e roes a nd ' t r iba l ' o r ' d emon ' w omen d id t a ke p lace a nd w e re a ccep ted . Mos t o f t h e p eop le f o l low ing o ccupa t ions l i ke h un t ing , t r app ing , f i sh ing , ( wha t may b e c a l led ' c la s s ic ' t r iba l a c t iv i t ie s ) , w e re r ega rded a s b e ing a s l ow -ca s te o r o u t -ca s te a s t h o se e ngaged i n t a nn ing a nd c u r ing l e a the r e t c . , b y a bou t t h e 2 nd c en tury B .C . t o 2 nd c en tu ry AD . , i fn o t e a r l ie r . T hese w e re a c t i v i t ie s t h a t w e re c on s ide red t ob e t o o d eg raded a nd i gnob le f o r w el -bo rn A ryan s w ho c ame w i th in t h e f ou r -fo ld l a t i ' s cheme . L a te r , w i th i n c rea s ing r i g id i ty w i th in t h e C a s t e S y s tem , a nd t h e r i se o f s ub -ca s te s , t h e c oncep t s o f ' a nu loma ' a nd ' p ra t i loma ' ma r r iage s w e re i n t roduced . T he se r ef lec ted t h e s oc ia l t a boo s o n m en ma r ry ing women f r om a h ighe r c a s te , o r o n men o r w omen m a r ry ing o u t -ca s te s . I n t h e l a t te r e ven tua l i ty t h e i r o f f sp r ing w e re c l a ssed a so u tca s tes ( o r Chanda la s ) t o o !

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A ccord ing t o p opu la r b el ief , S habar i , who f i gu re s i n ap e r iphe ra l m anne r i n t h e R amayana w a s a' Bh i l ' woman . E ka lavya , w ho se mas te ry o ve r a r che ry a nd s ub sequen t s a c r if ice h a s b een i mmo r ta l i sed i n t h e Mahabha ra ta , w a s aB h i l a nd /o r aN ishada . S ome t r ad i t ion s c on s ide r t h e s age V a lm ik i t o h ave b een b or n a Bh i l . T he Bh i ls a ccord ing t o R oy ( 1924 :97 ) , a r e o ne o f t h e a bo r ig ina l t r ibe s o f I nd ia w ho se n ame i s f am i l ia r t o mos t I nd ians , a nd who a r e r e f e r red t o i n t h e R amayana , Mahabh a ra t a , S an sk r i t l i t e ra tu r e a nd t h e a nna ls o f t h e med ieva l p e r iod Mus l im c h ron ic le r s a s w el a s l a te r B r i t i sh w r i te r s .

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T he se s t o r ie s , i n w h ich N i shada s , P u l inda s , B h i l la s , S ava ra s , D a syu s o r e ven Ma tanga s a r e e f f ec t ive ly s ynonymou s c onf i rm , a cco rd ing t oD e le ige , t h e g ene r ic c ha rac te r o f t h e t r iba l n ame s . T hu s , V indhyak e tu i sc a l led K ing o f t h e P u l inda s , K ing o f t h e B h i l la s a nd K ing o f t h e S ava r a s ( Penz e r 1 924 v o l1 1 1 :157 ) . " Bh ila s , P ul inda s , N ishada s a nd S ava ra s a r e i n va r iab ly c on f ounded a nd r e f e r i n d iscr im ina te ly t o t h e i n hab i tan t s o f t h e h aun ted w ood o f t h e V indhya s . N ishada s a nd P u l inda s a r e c on s tan t ly r e f e r red t o i n t h e S an sk r i t l i t e ra tu r e w he rea s B h ila s a r e h e r e i n t roduced f o r t h e f i r s t t ime ( s ee L aw 1 943 :98 , 1 72 -175 ) . T he mora l s o ft h e se t r ibe s a r e g ene ra l ly c on s ide red b ad a nd r ude . T hey a t tack t r avele r s , c a ravan s a nd e ven a rm ie s ; t h ey b u tcher c ow s a nd c a r ry o f f w omen ; b u t t h e mo s t s t r ik ing f e a tu r e o f B h ila s t o r ie s i s t h e ' Ve ry c on s tan t p a r adox ica l p o r t r a i tu r e o f g ood B h i l la s , a nd , mor e p a r t icu la r ly , B h i l la s g r a tefu l t o v i c t ims whom t h ey r e cogn ize a s f o rmer b enef ac tor s , o r a s r e la t ive s o fb enef ac to r s ' ( B loomf ie ld 1 926 :220 ) " ( De l iege 1 981 :124 ) . I ti si n te r e s t ing t on o te t h a t s ome o ft h e o lder w o rk s i n c lude t h e se f o re s t -dwel ing t r iba l s a mong t h e `M lechcha s ' . ' M lechcha ' w a s a t e rm n o rma l ly e mp loyed a s ad eroga to ry d e sc r ip t ion o f af o r e igne r ; o ne w ho w a s o u t s ide t h e ' p a le o f s oc ie ty ' b y b e ing o u t s ide t h e I nd ian c a s te s y s tem .1 6 M lechcha s i n c luded t h e p o s s ib ly u nab so rbed r emnan t s o f f o r e ign i mm ig r an t s l i ke t h e S aka s ( Scy th ian s ) , Y avana s ( G r eek s ) a nd H un s , a s w el a s p eop le s b e l ieved t o b e i n d igenou s t o I nd ia l i ke t h e B h i l s , S ava r a s , K ir a ta s , K ha sa s , O dr a s , Gond s , P u l inda s , e t c . ( Sha rma 1 966 :426 ) . T h is may b e d ue t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e se g roup s w e re n o t a n i n teg ra l p a r t o f t h e d om inan t ' A ryan ised ' c u l tu r e . T he M lechcha s a cco rd ing t o t h e K uva l yama la ; P ra snavyakarna ; J a ina A gama S ah i tya -mam G u jarat , a nd S amarad i tya l ca tha l i s t s ( quo ted i n S ha rma 1 966 :426 ) , may b e c l a s s if ied a s a ) ' f o r e igne r s ' o r i mm ig ran t s — S aka , Y avana , R oma sa P a ra sa , Murunda , B a rba r a , S imha la , A rvag -Huna ; ( b ) A d iva s is o r o r ig ina l dwele r s —S aba ra , K aya , K i ra ta , B h i l la , K ha sa , P u l inda , A ndh ra , K ocha , B ha r ruya , B ok l ca sa , L aku sa ; ( c ) t o tem is t ic t r ibe s l i ke H ayamukha e t c . , a nd ( d ) o the r s i n c lud ing D rav ida , K udah l cha , K ekaya e t c . T he o n ly t h ing c ommon i n t h ese g roup s w a s t h e i r l a ck o f ' Var na ' a nd o the r p a rapher nal ia o f B r a lunan ica l c u l tu r e a t t h e t ime t h e l i s t s w er e c omp i led . T hey h ad t h e i r o wn o rgan iza t ion s e t c . , t h e i r l i f e s ty le w a s d if e r en t , a nd t h ey d id n o t f olow t h e u sua l e t h ica l c ode o f A rya s . U ddyo tana S u n ( Kuva l yama la ) d e sc r ibe s t h e M lechcha s a s " s in fu l , e x t reme ly f e roc iou s , c r ue l a nd m e r c i le ss " p eop le w ho w ou ld n o t u se t h e w o rd ` Dha rma ' e ven i n t h e i r d r eams . D e sc r ib ing a ` M lechcha -pal i ' o r s e t t lemen t , i nt h e V indhya s , U ddyo tana S u r i d r aw s ap i c tu r e o f u t te r d ep rav i ty . D r iven i n to t h e h il s b y mo re " cu l tu red " A rya n e ighbou r s , s ome o ft h e M lechcha s h ad t a ken t ob r iganda ry . ( See C hauhan 1 978 :29 -40 o n ` T r iba l iza t ion ' ) . T he D ho lpu r I n sc r ip t ion o f K ing C handa rnaha sena ( V .S . 8 99 o r 8 42 A .D . ) , s t a te s t ha t t h e l o rd s o f t h e M lechcha s s e t t led o n b o th s i des o f t h e r i ve r C hamba l p a id h im h omage . I ti s p os s ib le t h a t t h e se M lechcha l o rd s w er e ` t r iba l s ' r a the r t h an f o r e igne r -M lechcha s ." T he B r iha tka thako sa men t ion s ab eef -ea t ing s e t t lemen t o f Meda p eop le . T he o l d t e x t s l i s ted t h e n ame s a nd g eog r aph ica l l o ca t ion s o f s e ve ra l t r ibe s . G iven t h e ma rked c or r e spondence b e tween t h e se a nd s ome pr e sen t -day t r ibe s , i t i s h a rd ly s u rp r i s ing t h a t p opu la r v i ew b e l ieve s t h e l a t te r t ob e d e scendan t s o ft h e f o rmer . H oweve r , ad ef in i te i d en t if ica t ion o f c on tempo ra ry g roup s w ho h ave b een c l a ss if ied a s ' t r iba l ' , a nd l i ve , a tl e a s t i n p a r t , b y h un t ing -colec t ing rud imen ta ry a g r icu l tu re , i n t h e s ame a r ea s a s t hose m en t ioned i n t h e l i t e ra ry s ou r ce s , w i th p reh is to r ic a nd /o r e a r ly h i s to r ic M lechcha s a nd ` t r iba l s ' may b e p r e sump tous u n le s s w e c an b e d ef in i te a bou t t h e v a r iou s d if e r en t c onno ta t ion s o f ap a r t icu la r ' t r iba l ' n ame a nd i t s u sage , d u r ing t h e V ed ic , Mau ryan , 1 6

T he V i snu -dha rma -su t ra , 8 4 .4 s t a te s t h a t w he reve r t h e s y s t em o f t h e f ou r v a rna s i s n o t i n v ogue i s M lechcha t e rr i to ry , w hose p eop le a r e M lechcha s o r o fM lech cha ja t i ( Kane 1 930 1962 , 5v o l s ) . I n P a r a sa r a 1 X .36 m lechchas a r e r e fe r red t oa s e a te r s o fc ow f l e sh ( i b id ) .

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A cco rd ing t o h i s to r ica l e v idence , t h e ma in ' i nd igenou s ' g roup s o f S ou thea s te rn R a ja s th an a ppe a r t o h ave b een t h e B h ila s ( Bh il s ) a nd Me c la s . A round 6 26 A .D . N agad i tya , t h e R a jpu t r u le r o fI da r , a nd f ou r th r u le r o f t h e Guh i lo t d yna s ty , f ounded t h e c ap i ta l c i ty o fN agda w i th t h e h e lp o f t h e B h i l s .

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G up ta e t c . p e r iod s . I n t h e c a se o f E ka lavya , f o r e xamp le , t h e t emp ta t ion t o i d en t ify t h i s f o r es t -dwe l l ing a r che r , w ho w a s n o t a n A rya a nd h ence a n on -e l i te , d e sc r ibed i n t h e Mahabha ra ta a s ad a rk -hued , d i r ty N ishada w i th m a t ted h a ir , w i th B h i l s h a s n o t b een p a s sed u p b y l a te r r e cen ss ion c omp i le r s . S uch i d en t if i ca t ion s a r e b a sed o n p reconce ived n o t ion s a nd n eed c r i t ica l t e s t ing . T he g ene ra l ly h e ld v i ew t h a t ` t r iba l s ' a nd g roup s l i v ing i n ' j ung le b a ckwa t er s ' u s ing p r im i t ive o u tda ted e qu ipmen t r ep re sen ted a s t agnan t c u l tu ra l s t age , w h ich c ou ld b e t r aced b ack t o t h e p r eh is tor ic a bor ig ina l p opu la t ion o f I nd ia , h a s r ema ined p r eva len t e ven i n to t h e m id 2 0 th C en tu ry .1 8 F ü re r -Ha imendo r f ( 1948a : 8 7 -90 ) , o n t h e b a s i s o f h i s w o rk a mong v a r iou s I nd ian t r ib e s , i n c lud ing t h e C henchu , R edd i , B ondo , G adaba s a nd G ond i -speak ing t r ibe s a r t icu la ted t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f c o r r e la t ing s ome o f t h e e x is t ing t r iba l g roup s w i th p r eh is to r ic c u l tu r e s ; t h e " l iv ing r emnan t s o f a r cha ic r a ce s w i th t h e p reh i s to r ic i mp lemen t s p roduced b y t h e i r d i s tan t f o rbea r s?" H e a dm i t s , h oweve r , t h a t b ecause s ome o f t h e " o lder p opu la t ion s h ave b een s aved f r om e x t inc t ion o r a b so rp t ion b y a n e nv ironmen t wh ich d ef lec ted t h e ma r ch o f mo r e d ynam ic n ewcome r s , w e s hou ld n o t a s sume t h a t t oday w e c an f i nd s ur v iva l s o f e ve ry p eop le t h a t c on t r ibu ted t o t h e c u l tu r e p a t tem . . . [Howeve r ] , i n ac oun t ry l i ke I nd ia w i th i t s h igh ly d eve loped h i s to r ic c i v il iza t ion s t h e s u rp r is ing f a c t i sn o t t h a t s ome o f t h e o lde r p opu la t ion s h ave d i sappea red f r om t h e s c ene , b u t t h a t s o many n ume r ica l ly i n s ign if ican t t r ibes h ave s ur v ived a nd ma in ta ined t h e i r c u l tu ra l i d en t i ty " ( Fü re r -Ha imendo r f 1 948a : 8 9 -90 ) . C on tac t d oe s n o t a lway s , o r o f n ec e ss i ty , i n vo lve a ma lgama t ion , h oweve r . A s H od son ( 1922 ) w ro te , " Im i ta t ion , w i th t h e l im i ta t ion s o f d if e r ence s o f s peech a nd o f ma te r ia l r e sou rce s , t h er e h a s b een p l en ty , s i nce t h e p re s t ige o f t h e s upe r io r c u l tu r e l e ad s s u re ly t o t h i s . I n t h e p roce s s o f i m i ta t ion w e may e xpec t t o f i nd t h a t much t h a t w a s v i ta l i n t h e o r ig ina l mode l s h a s b e en l o s t , t r an sf o rmed a nd m e tamo rpho sed s o t h a t t h e c omp rom ise f o rma t ion s w h ich r e su l t d o n o t r e semb le e i the r o r ig ina l s i ne s sen t ia l s " ( i b id :13 ) . 8 . 4 T he B h i ls o fR a ja s than Wh i le t h e r e a ppea r s t oh ave b een s uf i c ien t g ene ra l u n if o rm i ty i nt h e p a s t , a s i st h e c a se i n t h e p r e sen t , f o r c er ta in s egmen t s o f t h e I nd ian t r iba l p opu la t ion t o b e c l a s s if ied a s B h i l s ( s ee D el iege 1 981 :117 ) , t h e r e i sa l so ad eg r ee o fd i ve r s i ty wh ich s hou ld b e b or n e i nm ind . B h i l s f r om d if e ren t s pa t ia l z one s l i ke R a ja s than , G u ja ra t a nd Maha ra sh t ra , o r B h i l s l i v ing i n e i the r c l o se p rox im i ty o r r e la t ive i s o la t ion w i th n on t r iba l s d emon s t r a te d if e r ing

1 8

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" Even t o t h e p resen t d ay t h is p roce ss o f t h e d eve lopmen t o f f a vou red a r ea s a nd t h e s t agna t ion o f l e s s f a vou red a r ea s c an b e s een i n many c on tempo r ary c u l tu r a l s t age s e x i s t ing s i de b y s i de " ( Go rdon 1 958 :15 ) . ' Thu s o ld a nd n ew c o -ex i s t i n t ime , a nd a mong m any o fI nd ia 's a bo r ig ina l t r ib e s w e f i nd f o rm s o fc u l tu re t h a t s t em f r om p reh is to r ic p e r iod s . P a laeo l i th ic a nd n eol idüc s t one i ndu s t r ie s h ave b ecome o b so le te , b u t t h e w ays o f l i fe a nd t h e e conom ic p a t te rn o f b o th t h e o lde r a nd y ounge r s t on e a ge s t il p e r s i s t i n a bor ig ina l I nd ia " ( Fü re r -Ha imendor f 1 948b :208 ) . " I s i t l e g i t ima te " , h e a sk s , " t o b r ing t h e s p l in te r s o f a n c ien t p r im i t ive c u l tu r e s i n to s ome s o r t o f c h rono log ica l o rde r? C an t h ey b e v i ewed a s l i nk s i n as equence , o r o n ly a s i s o la ted f r agmen t s wh ich c anno t b e c o r re la ted w i th p reh is to r ic s ucces s ion s o f c u l tu re s ?T he s t udy o f av a r ie ty o f I nd ian a bo r ig ina l t r ibe s h a s c onv inced me t h a t i n c e r ta in c a se s s uch a c o r re la t ion i sl e g i t ima te , a nd t h a t t h e d i scove ry o f p a ra l le l s i n p reh is tor ic a nd c on tempo ra ry c i v il iza t ion s c an t h row l i gh t o n b o th a r chaeo log ica l a nd a n th ropo l ica l p rob lems" ( Fü re r -Ha imendo rf 1 948a87 ) .

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d ynam ic s a nd l e ve l s o f i n t ra - a nd i n te r -ac t ion .2 0 I ti si mpor tan t , t h e r efo re , t o r e cogn i se t h e r o le o f r eg iona l v a r ia t ion s , s ub s is tence s pec ia l iza t ion , e nv ironmen ta l a d ju s tmen t s o r a dap ta t ion s , l o ca l i n te r ac t ion , a va i lab i l i ty o fr e sour ce s a nd s im i la r f a c to r s . F o r e xamp le , a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie s i n f o rm u s t h a t B h i l s o f We s te rn I nd ia s p eak B h i l i , a d i a lec t o f G u ja ra t i ( Na ik 1 956 ; a nd o the r s ) . I n S ou the rn R a ja s than , h oweve r , t h e B h i l s s peak V aga r i , a l so k nown a s B aga r i , a nd Mewa r i , u s ing m any l o ca l R a ja s than i w o rd s . I t i s , t h e r ef o r e i n adv i sab le t o g ene ra l ise a bou t B h i l p rac t ice s a nd e conomy o ve r t h e w ho le o f t h e , n o t i n con s ide rab le , a r ea t h a t t h ey l i ve i n , w i thou t k eep ing t h e v a r ia t ion s i nm ind . W i th in R a ja s than , t h e B h i l s s ha re s ome c ommon f a c to r s , b u t t h e e t hnog r aph ic d e sc r ip t ion s ( Vya s e t a l 1 978 ; R oy 1 924 ; T od 1 829 -32 ; C en su s 1 961 ; E r sk ine 1 908 ; N aga r 1 966 ) , i n d ica te t ha t n o s i ng le c a se s tudy c an b e u sed a s a mode l f o r t h e e n t i re B h i l p opu la t ion o f t h e r e g ion . T echno -econom ic v a r ia t ion s m ay b e o b ser ved a mong B h i l g roup s t h emse lve s , r e s id ing w i th in t h e b o rde r s o f ag eog raph ica l r e g ion .' C a se s t ud ie s o n B h i ls r e s id ing i n d if e ren t a r ea s o f Mewa r a nd C en t ra l I nd ia ( Roy 1 924 ; Meh ta 1 938 ; e t c ) , empha s ise t h e d i ve r s i ty i nt h e B h i l e conomy a nd l i f e -s ty le . R oy ( 1924 :97 13 ) , f o r e xamp le , g a the red d e ta i l s a bou t t h e ' B lack B h i l s o f J a i samand L ake ' , n ea r U da ipu r , ( app rox ima te ly 3 5 m i le s f r om U da ipu r C i ty ) . T he ' B lack ' o r K a l ia B h i l s w ho r epor ted ly i nhab i ted t h e " h ily f a s tne s se s o f t h e K herwa ra d i s t r ic t o f t h e U da ipu r s t a t e a nd t h e i s le t s i n t h e J a isamand L ake i n t h e Mag r a d i s t r ic t o f t h e S t a te " , h ad b een d esc r ibed t o R oy a s " d if f e r ing i n ma te r ia l r e sp ec t s f r om t h e o rd ina ry o r U j la B h i l s " , b o th p hy s ica l ly a nd c u l tu ra l ly ( Roy 1 924 :98 ) . A cco rd ing t oR oy , t h is d i s t inc t ion b e tween K a l ia ( d a rk o r b l ack ) a nd U j la ( pu r e o r wh i te ) B h i l s w a s r e cogn ised b y B h i l s a nd n on -Bh i l s a l ike i n Mewa r , t hough t h e r e w e re d i f f e renc e s i n t e rm ino logy . T hu s , wh i le t h e U j la B h i l s ( a n ame g i ven t o t h em b y t h e i r H indu n e ighbou r s ) a nd o the r Mewa r i p opu la t ion g roup s t a lked a bou t t h e B lack B h i l s w ho p o sses sed " Neg ro id f e a tu re s " ( i b id ) a nd l i ved a way f r om o ther r u r a l p opu la t ion s , t h e K a l ia B h i l s r e f e r red t o t h e s o -ca l led p u re o r U j la B h i l s a s ' Pa l ia B h i l s ' —t ho se B h i l s who h ad a Par ,o r f e de r a t ion o f v ilage s , o rgan iza t ion ( Roy 1 924 :99 -100 ) . H av ing s e t o u t t o d i scove r " whe the r t h e K a l ia B h i l s c ou ld r e a l ly b e as epa ra te t r ibe w i th ad if er en t o r ig in a nd h e red i ty o r whe the r t h e i nf luence o f p hy s ica l e nv ironmen t c ou ld b e s uch a s t o c onve r t as e c t ion o f t h e s ame t r ibe w i th in af ew g ene r a t ion s i n to a n a l toge the r d if e r en t t ype w hen r emoved f r om o ne e nv ironmen t t o a no the r " , R oy o b se rved n o o verwhe lm ing d i s t inc t ion b e tween t h e K a l ia a nd U j la /Pa l ia B h i l s . H e n o ted t h a t , a l though " s ome U j la B h i l s d i d a ppea r t o h ave f i ne r f e a tur e s t h an t h e K a l ia s , t h e K a l ia B h i l s a s aw ho le a ppea red t ob e o bv iou s ly a s e c t ion o f t h e s ame p eop le a s t h e U j la B h i l s , s uch d if er ence s i n p hy s ica l f e a tu r e s a nd c u l tu ra l c ha r ac te r is t ic s a s o ccu r h av ing p r esumab ly a r isen t h rough d i f f e r ence s i n p hy s ica l e nv i ronmen t a nd s oc ia l h i s to ry — t h rough c ompa ra t ive p hy s ica l a nd s oc ia l s eg r ega t ion i n t h e o ne c a se a nd i n t h e o the r c a se t h rough c on tac t w i th h igh er c u l tu r es a nd b o r row ing a nd a l so t o ac e r ta in e x ten t a ppa r en t ly o f r a c ia l m i scegena t ion " ( Roy 1 924 :99 ) . H av ing c l o se ly e xam ined t h e K a l ia B h i l s a n th ropo log ica l ly , R oy c onc luded t h a t w h i le t h e B lack B h i l s o f L ake J a isamand d id n o t e xh ib i t ap hy s ica l t ype t h a t w a s e s sen t ia l ly d if e r en t f r om t h a t o f o the r Mewa r B h i l s , t h e r e

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An e xam ina t ion o f t h e b ody o f l i t e ra tu re a va i lab le o n t h e B h i l s e mpha s ize s t h i s p o in t . S ee , f o r e xamp le , C rooke 1 896a ; F or sy th 1 889 ; F uch s 1 973 ; K a rve 1 961 ; K oppe r s 1 952 ; K opp e r s a nd J ungb lu t 1 976 ; Ma jumda r 1 942b ; Ma jumda r 1 927 ; Meh ta 1 938 ; Na ik 1 956 ; N a th 1 960 ; R u s sel a nd H i ra L a l 1 916 ; S a le tore 1 938 ; Vya s e t a l 1 978 e t c . , f o r a ccoun t s a bou t B h i l s f r om v a r iou s r eg ion s a nd t h e r eg iona l v ar ia t ion s t h e rew i th . S im i la r ly C a r s ta i r s 1 954 , 1 957 ; N aga r 1 966 ; R oy 1 924 ; V y a s e t a l 1 978 ; a nd C en su s r epor ts 1 961 e t c . , u nde r l ine t h e d eg ree s o f i n te ra c t ion , i n teg ra t ion o r a l oofne s s o fB h i ls l i v ing n ea ro r a way f r om n on t r iba l s i nR a jas than .

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T hough t h is i n n o w ay d i spose s o f t h e c a se f o r t h e e x i s tence a nd r e cogn i t ion o f t e chno -econom ic v ar ia t ions b e tween Bh i ls , ( o r o the r ' t r iba l? ) , a nd n on t r iba l s , h oweve r . C a r s ta i r s ( 1957 ) , f o r e xamp le , f ound t h a t h i s v i l lage r s d i s t ingu i shed b e tween B h i l s a nd n on -Bh i l s .

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w e re ma rked d i f f e r enc e s i nt h e i r e conom ic l i f e a nd s oc ia l s y s tem . T he se , h oweve r , w e re n o t s u ff ic ien t t oj u s t ify t h e d e scr ip t ion o f K a l ia a nd U j la B h i l s a s s epa ra te c u l tura l t ypes ( Roy 1 924 :100 ) . T od ( 1829 -32 ) , h ad a l so n o ted t h e i n t r a t r ibe v a r iab il i ty , f o r wh i le s ome B h i l s w e r e d ependan t o n h un t ing a nd l i ved i nf o r e s t s , o the r s h ad a dop ted a g r icu l tur a l p rac t ice s . I n s ome p a r t s o f Mewa r , B h i l s c u l t iva ted " s eve ra l c o s s in a r ea s i n wh ich w hea t , g rams , y am ( r a ta loo ) , t u rme r ic ( hu ld i ) a nd t h e . . .roo t s ( a rv i ) a r e a bundan t ly g rown . T hey e ven e xpor t s uperf luou s p roduce t ot h e n e ighbou r ing s t a te s . " T he 1 961 C en su s V ilage S ur vey Monog r aph s a bou t t h e v i l lage s o f P anarwa a nd K a i la shpu r i i n U da ipu r D i s t r ic t , K ha joo ra a nd P eepa lkhoon t i n B an swa r a D is t r ic t , S anwa ra a nd G ag ron i nK o ta D i s t r ic t , K ya s ra i nJ ha lawa r D is t r ic t , a nd G o r iya i nP a l i D i s t r ic t , a mong o the r s , t h row s ome l i gh t o n ` t r iba l s ' i n t h e modem c on tex t , i n t h e A raval i a r ea . T he se r epor t s g i ve s umma ry i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e h i s to ry a nd l e gend s o f t h e l o ca l t r iba l s , i n c lud ing B h i l s a nd G a r a s ia s e t c , a nd o the r c ommun i t ies o r c a s te s , e spec ia l ly t h e ir ` o r ig in ' my th s , b efo r e b r ief ly d e sc r ib ing t h e ma in g roup s , t h e i r ma te r ia l e qu ipmen t , b el ief s a nd c u s tom s , s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c ond i t ion , a nd c u l tu ra l l i f e . S ome p ho tog raph s a nd d r aw ing s a r e i n c luded i nt h e r epo r t s , a nd t h e se g i ve av i sua l p i c tu r e o f c on tempo ra ry l i f e i nt h e S t a te i nt h e e a r ly 6 0 's . Meh ta ( 1938 ) , d e sc r ibed t h e B h i l s l i v ing i n t h e e r s twh i le S ta te o f Gwa l io r a s c omp r i s ing t wo c a tego r ie s : t hose o f t h e P la in s , " s u rv ivo r s o f t h a t s e c t ion o f t h e r a ce wh ich s t ayed w i th t h e n ew A ryan s e t t le r s t o s e rve t h em a s a g r icu l tu ra l s e r f s a nd w a tche r s o f t h e v ilage s . .. [ who ] c u t o f f f r om t h e p a ren t s t ock , a r e n ow i n d i s t ingu ishab le f r om t h e d ep res sed H indu s l i v ing o n t h e o u t sk i r t s o ft h e v i l lage s " ; a nd t hos e l i v ing i n t h e " moun ta in f a s tne s s o f o u r ' h e rm i t ' d i s t r ic t o f Am jher a ( whe re ] t h e t r ue a u toch thonou s s t ock i sf ound " ( 1938 :265 ) . T he c u s tom s o f t h e f o rme r w e re i nf luenced b y t hose o f t h e ir mo re d om inan t n on t r iba l n e ighbou r s .' Ano the r ' c a se s t udy ' c an b e s ough t f r om t h e d e ta i l s a bou t B h i l s l i v ing i n t h e S ou ther n R a ja s than d i s t r ic t o f B an swa ra , a n a r ea t ha t f o rme r ly o wed a l leg iance t o Mewa r . T il r e cen t ly , B an swa r a w a s ar e la t ive ly u ndeve loped r e g ion , c on s ide red t o b e ' b ackwa rd ' l i ke D unga rpu r , b y mo s t n e ighbou r ing S ta te s . T he d i s t r ic t o f B an swa ra i s5 , 037 s q . km i n a r ea . T he p opu la t ion ( 654 ,586 i n t h e 1 971 c en su s ) i sp r edom inan t ly B h i l . B h i l s f o rm o ve r 7 0% o f t h e p opu la t ion o f t h e d i s t r ic t ( 73% i nt h e 1 971 c en su s ) e ven t o day , d e sp i te a c on s ide rab le a moun t o f p opu la t ion movemen t s a s a c on sequence o f e mp loymen t a nd o the r f a c i l i t ie s , a nd t h e r e s t ruc tu r ing o f f o rme r ' t e r r i tor ie s ' i nt h e m ind s o ft h e y ounger I nd ian s . S ince 1 947 t h e r e h ave b een c hange s i n B an swa ra , w i th n o t icab le l e ve l s o f mode rn isa t ion a nd ' d eve lopmen t ' . T he a r ea u nder c u l t iva t ion h a s i n c rea sed f r om 2 3% i n 1 951 t o 4 0% i n 1 979 -80 . C o t ton i s a ma jo r c a sh c rop . R ic e , ma ize , w hea t a nd m ile t s a r e a l so c u l t iva t ed . S ome o f t h e t r iba l s s t i l l p rac t ic e s h if t ing -cu l t iva t ion , t hough o n as ma l l sca le , d esp i te p rog r es s ive d i scou ragemen t s i nc e t h e 1 800 's . Many B h i l s w e re f o rced t o a dop t s e t t led a g r icu l tu ra l p r ac t ice s d u r ing t h e l a s t c en tury a s ar e su l t o f t h e i mp lemen ta t ion o f t i le s t o l a nd , b ounda ry a nd p rope r ty d ema r ca t ion , a nd e n for ced l a nd se t t lemen t b y t h e a dm in i s t r a t ion . T he r e a r e n ow f i ve u rban c en tr e s a nd 1 442 r u ra l s e t t lemen t s . V i l lage s a r e , h oweve r , s t il l o ca ted i ni s o la ted p l ace s , a nd a way f r om r o ad s . T he e conomy i sp r edom inan t ly r u ra l . T he w eek ly ma rke t s , o r ' h aw s ' , a r e a n i mpor tan t med ium f o r e xchang ing v a r ious k ind s o f p roduce . P la s t ic s a nd o the r g oods manuf ac tu red i n

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I n a dd i t ion t o e t hnog raph ic i n fo rma t ion , Meh ta g i ve s ah ypo the s i s a bou t Bh i l movemen t s , d ue t o d i sp lacemen t b y o the r g roup s , i n to t h e V indhya a nd S a tpu ra h i l l s . T he se , h e b e l ieved , w ou ld b e r e s tr ic ted a s o the r g roup s w e re a l ready l i v ing t h e re ( Meh ta 1 938 :264 -284 ) .

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v a r iou s u rban i n du s t r ia l c en t re s o f I nd ia a r e t o b e s e en a tt h ese ma rk e t s . H oweve r , t h is w a s n o t t h e c a se u n t i l f a ir ly r e c en t ly .2 3 H oweve r , i n s p i t e o f f e r t i le s o i l , a bundan t r a in f a l l , a dequa te d r a inage , f o re s t , a nd , t i l r e cen t ly , f a una l w ea l th a nd m iner a l r e sou rce s , B an swa r a h a s r ema ined l a rge ly i s o la ted f r om ' ma in s t ream e ven t s ' . T h is i s a t t r ibu ted t o i t s g eog raphy o f u ndu la t ing h ily t e r ra in . R a jpu t i nf luence p ene t ra ted i n to t h e a r ea i n t h e f o rm o f c onque s t . R a jpu t s o f t h e R a tho re c l an , a cco rd ing t o t h e ir h i s to ry n a r ra t ives , k iled K u sha la B h i l , aB h i l c h ief o f ` Ku sha lapada ' , a nd e s tab l ished t h e ir k ingdom a r ound t h a t r e g ion . T hu s , 'Ku sha lga rh ' w a s n amed a f t e r K u sha la B h i l , j u s t a s D unga rpu r w a s n amed a f te r D unga r ia B h i l , a nd t h e K o t ia B h i l s l e n t t h e ir n ame t o t h e R a jpu t k ingdom o f K o ta . T he s ame R a jpu t c l an w r e s ted a no the r a r ea f r om B an s ia B h i l , ( h ence t h e n ame ` Ban swa ra ' , o r l a nd o f b amboo s ) . O nce a ga in , t h e l o ca l c o rona t ion p rac t ice s g i ve i mpor tance t o t h e a nno in t ing , o f t h e R a jpu t r u le r 's f o rehead , b y d e scendan t s o ft h e B h i l c h ief s d ef ea ted a nd k iled many c en tu r ie s p r ev iou s ly . H oweve r , i nhab i ted ( a s t i l l r e cen t ly , r emo te a r ea s .

t hough r u led b y R a jpu t s , mo s t o f t h e modem d i s t r ic t o f B an swa ra w a s i ts t i l l i s ) , b y B h i l s a nd s ma l le r g roup s o f o t he r ` t r iba l s ' . T hey w e re p rac t ic ing a mod if ied h un t ing -ga the r ing a nd s h if t ing -cu l t iva t ion e conomy i n t h e mor e P opu la r b e l ief t a ke s t h a t ' o ccupa t ion ' b ack al o ng t ime .

R .N . M is ra 's w o rk o n t h e h uman g eog raphy a nd s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s o f modem B an swa r a p rov ide s i n f o rma t ion o n t h e p re sen t -day t r iba l a nd m ixed t r iba l -non t r iba l v ilage s a nd s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s ( R .N . M i s r a 1 981) . I n B an swa ra , B h i l s e t t lemen t s a r e g ene r a l ly o f t h e d i sper sed t ype , s e t o n t op o f h il s , a l ong s l ope s o r a m id s t t h e f o re s t s ( o r w ha t r ema in s o f t h em ! ) . E ach ' v ilage ' i s made u p o f an umbe r o f t h e se s c a t te r ed B h i l h u t s , o r l apa ra ' , i n t h e c a se o f t r iba l , a nd ac l us te r o f d wel ing s i nt h e c a se o f m ixed a nd /o r n on t r iba l v i l lage s . Mo s t v i l lage s w ou ld h ave s eve ra l m embe r s o f aB h i l c l an . T r ad i t ionaly , t h e ' Mukh i ' , ` Sakha ' o r ' Mukh iya ' ( h ead man ) , s e t t led d i spu te s a nd g ave p e rm i s s ion t o n ew f am i l ies t o s e t t le i n t h e a r ea . T he l o ca l d oc to r , ' b ho rh ' o r ` v a idya ' , t r a ined i n t r ad i t iona l , o r a yu rved ic o r Y unan i s y s tem s , t h e d rum b ea te r s , ' c l ho l i ' , t h e ir s haman , ' b hopa ' o r ` d eva lo ' , t h e med ia tor f o r d i spu te s , ' b han jga d eo ' , a nd t h e v ilage c ounc i l , ' p anchayar , w e r e o the r i mpor tan t f i gu r es . T he f am i ly s t ruc tu re , s oc ia l c u s toms a nd o the r h ab i t s o f B h i l s i n B an swa r a a nd D unga rpu r d o n o t d if e r much f r om t h o se o f B h i l s f r om U da ipu r , C h i t torga rh e t c . Ma r r ied s on s l i ve i n t h e ir own l apa r a s ' a nd t h e c a s te -H indu j o in t f am i ly o r e x tended f am i ly s y s tem d oe s n o t e x is t . Women h ave h ad a mo r e i mpo r tan t r o le p r io r t o t h e r e cen t l a rge sca le c on tac t w i th n on t r iba l c u s toms . T hu s , t h e re i sn o p u rdah a nd w omen a t tend v ilage ma rke t s ( ' haar ) a nd p a r t ic ipa te i n f e s t iva l s . H indu i nf luenc e o n s oc ia l c u s tom s i s mor e o bv ious . H oweve r , r e -ma r r iage i s s oc ia l ly a pp roved , u n l ike i n n on t r iba l s oc ie ty . Ma ize a nd l o ca l m i l le t s a r e t h e s t ap le s e a ten . Whea t a nd p u lses a r e s e ldom e a ten b u t i n tox ican t s a nd ` r abd i ' , ag rue l made w i th f l ou r a nd b u t te r -m i lk , a r e c on sumed i nq uan t i t ies? '

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Mos t o f B answa ra i sh i l ly , f o rm ing p a r t o f t h e A ra val i r ange , b u t t h e re i s am ixed l a nd scape w i th p la in s i n t h e w e s t , h il s t ot h e n or th -ea s t , ap la teau t ot h e s ou th , a nd i s o la ted h i l lock s e ve rywhe re . T he r i ve r Mah i a nd i t s t r ibu tar ies d ra in t h e r eg ion . T he re i s ah igh l e ve l o fe ro s ion a nd t h e c r ea t ion o fd eep r a v ine s d ue t o t h e r i ve r a c t ion s . T he c l ima te i sm i ld , w i th a n a b sence o fe x t rem e c ond i t ion s . T h i s f a c to r , a l ong w i th a bou t 8 44 mm . o f r a infa l l p e r a nnum a nd f e r t i le s o i l s , h a s b een c ondu c ive t o mode rn a g r icu l tu r e . H oweve r , e xcep t f o r t h e r a iny s ea son ( m id J une t oS ep tembe r ) , i r r iga t ion i sn ece s sa ry . T e r ra ced f a rm ing i sp rac t iced i n t h e h i l ly t e r ra in . E ros ion a nd d enuda t ion a r e h az a rd s . F o rme r ly , t h e r e w e re e x ten s ive f o r e s t s i n t h e r eg ion , b u t t h ese h ave c ome u nde r s ome t h rea t i n t h e p a s t d ecade . A long w i th a n a bundan t f o re s t w ea l th , m ine ra l r e sou rces l i ke manganese , t a lc , l ime s tone , m ica , r ock -pho spha t e a nd g ame t s o ccu r . T he se d o n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een w ide ly e xp lo i ted i n t h e p a s t . O f t h e t h ree ma jo r s o i l type s , t h e med ium b l ack s o i l i s f e r t i le a nd s uppor t s c o t ton a nd ma ize c rop s , t he g rey ( o r B hu r i ) s o i l i s mo r e f e r t i le a nd i ss u i tab le f o r g row ing ma ize , whea t a nd r i ce , wh i le t h e r ed a nd b lack s o i l i sc oa r se -g ra ined a nd i n f e r io r , a nd c u l t iva t ion o f m i l le t s a nd b a jra i sp o ss ib le o n ly a t af ew p lace s .

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S ee C haudhary 1 978 ; Mann 1 978d ; V ya s 1 983 ; V ya s e t a l 1 978 e t c . f o r d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion s o f B h i l s oc ie ty a nd s oc ia l c hange s i nt h e 1 970 's -80 's .

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Un for tuna te ly , s i nce b o th l i t e ra ry a s w el a s a r chaeo log ica l d a ta p r e -da t ing t h e a dven t o f t h e P a rma r R a jpu t s i n c . 1 0 th C en tu ry A .D . i sn eg l ig ib le i ti sd if i cu l t t o a s ses s t h e e a r l ie r c ond i t ion s p reva len t i nt h e a r ea i n a ny c omp r ehen s ive m anne r . H oweve r , i ti sg ene ra l ly h e ld t h a t t h e r ugged t e r ra in , d en se f o r e s t s a nd i n a ccce s s ib i l i ty o f t h e r e g ion a lowed t h e B h i l s t o c a r ry o u t t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s w i th ma rg ina l o u t s ide i n te r f e renc e t i l l t h e m id 1 9 th c en tu ry . W i th a bundan t f o r e s t l a nd s t om an ipu la te , t h e B h i l s u sed t ol i ve b y h un t ing , g a th er ing , f i sh ing a nd s ome s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion . S e t t lemen t s , o f t h e s c a t te red l apa r a ' k ind , w e r e l o ca t ed a l ong s t r eam s a nd o n t h e t op s a nd s l ope s o fh i l l s . T he c on s t ruc t ion o f r o ad s a nd s choo l s i n t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry Mewa r - Ma lwa r eg ion o pened t h e s e c luded t r iba l a r ea s t og rea te r o u t s ide i nf luence . N on t r iba l a nd m ixed v ilage s i n c rea sed i nn umbe r . When t h e B r i t i sh a dm in is t ra t ion e n cou raged l a nd s e t t lemen t o pe ra t ion s i n vo lv ing t h e d ema r ca t ion o f f i e ld a nd v ilage b ounda r ie s a nd r e venue c olec t ion , ( a c t iv i t ies i n comp rehen s ib le t o a p eop le n o t u sed t o p e rmanen t s e t t lemen t s , a nd modeled o n a dm in i s t ra t ive p a t ter n s k nown t o a g r icu l tu ra l c ommun it ie s i n I nd ia t h roughou t h i s to ry — w he re t h e S t a te 's s ha re f l uc tua ted b e twe en 1 / 6 th t o 1 / 3rd o f t h e p roduce , l a nd g ran t s w e r e g i ven a nd t h e c oncep t o f a g r icu l tu ra l f i e ld s a nd b ounda r ie s w a s k nown f r om c . 1 000 B .0 o nwa rd s ) , i nt h e 1 9 th c en tu ry A .D . , t h e t r ad i t iona l mob i l i ty o ft h e t r iba l s w a s r e s t r ic ted . T he d i s t r ic t , t eh s i l a nd t a luk l e ve l a dm in is t ra t ive n e two rk e ncou raged t h ese ' b ackwa rd ' B h i l s t o s e t t le d own a nd p r ac t ice s e t t led a g r icu l tu re . O nc e t r iba l s s e t t led , t h e ir movemen t ' a t w i l l ' w i th in t h e i r f o rme r t e r r i to r ies w a s c u r ta i led . Map s o f t h e s e t t lemen t s d u r ing t h e l a s t q ua r ter o f t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry A .D . s how t h e s udden man if e s ta t ion o f i nnume rab le i n d iv idua l f i e ld s a nd c ompac t v ilage s ( R .N . M is ra 1 981 ) . W i th a l t h e s udden c hange s i nt h e r e la t ive ly s hor t s pace o f t wo c en tu r ie s o r l e s s , e x is t ing s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s r ange f r om c ompac t a nd s em i -compac t o r h am le ted c l u s te r s t o h am le ted , r e la t ive ly d i spe r sed , a nd d i sper sed t o l i nea r t ype s ( i b id ) . A s w i th B an swa ra , B h i l s l i v ing i n moder n D unga rpu r a l so p rov ide ad eg re e o f i n t ra t r iba l v a r ia t ion f r om B h i l s l i v ing i n U da ipu r , C h i t to rga rh o r B h i lwa r a . B h i l s f r om B an swa r a a nd D unga rpu r a ppea r t o h ave h ad a l e s se r d eg ree o f c on tac t w i th t h e b u lk o f n on tr iba l c ommun i t ie s . T hus , t h e ' i nd igenou s c u l tu r e ' o f t h e se a r ea s r ema ined l e s s o ve r laden w i th n on t r iba l b el ief s , c u s toms a nd more s t h an h appened e l sewhe r e . H oweve r , ad eg r ee o f c on tac t w a s k nown a nd r e cogn ised . D unga rpu r , f o rme r ly aP r inc e ly S ta te , a nd n ow ad i s t r ic t o fR a ja s than , w a s a l so k nown a s Ta p" ' o r V aga r ' i n t h e p a s t . H av ing a n u ndu la t ing t opog r aphy o f A rava l l i H il s , w i th p ocke t s o f f o re s t s a nd p l a in s , t h i s a r ea h ad a n umbe r o f s ma l l R a jpu t p r inc edom s ( un t i l 1 947 ) , wh ich h ad b een e s tab l ished , a cco rd ing t o t h e i r own a nd o the r a nna l s , a f te r c onque s t o ve r t h e l o ca l B h i l s . T he se p r incedoms w e r e c a rved o u t a tv a r iou s p o in t s o f t ime f r om t h e 7 th -8 th C en tu r ie s A .D . o nwa rd s , a nd w e re a l l i n e x is tenc e c er ta in ly b y t h e 1 5 th C en tu ry A .D . T he c h ief s o f V aga r w e re R a jpu t s o f t h e G eh lo t o r S i sod ia c l an , w hose a nc e s tor s h ad i mm ig ra ted i n to t h e r e g ion a r ound t h e 1 3 th -14 th C en tu ry A .D . T hey c l a imed d e sc en t f r om t h e f am i ly wh ich r u led Mewa r a nd a s sumed t h e t i le o f ` Rawar , mean ing K ing ( E r sk ine 1 908 :304 ) . A cco rd ing t o l o ca l r e co rd s , d u r ing t h e r e ign o f o n e o f t h e se c h ief s , Maha rawa l V eer S ingh D eo ( A .D . 1 303 ) , t h e c oun t ry a r ound t h e p re sen t t own o f D unga rpu r w a s h e ld b y a p owe r fu l B h i l c h ief ta in c aled D unga r ia . T he r e i s a n i n te re s t ing s t o ry a cco rd ing t o wh ich D unga r ia w ished t o m a r ry t h e d augh te r o f aw ea l thy ( non t r iba l ) m e r chan t , S a la S hah . T he m e r chan t s e c re t ly o b ta ined V ee r S ingh 's h e lp , a nd w hen D unga r ia a nd h i s s uppor te r s a r r ived f o r t h e w edd ing , V ee r S ingh s ucce eded i n k i l l ing t h em a l l . S ub sequen t ly , V ee r S ingh t ook p o sse ss ion o f Dunga r ia 's v ilage , w h ich w a s l o ca ted a t t h e s i te o f t h e p r e sen t t own o f D unga rpu r . H oweve r , i n f u lf i l lmen t o f ap rom ise made t o Dunga r ia 's w idow s , a s w e l l a s t o a t one f o r h i s s i n ( ? fo r k i l l ing t h e r i gh tf u l ma s te r o f t h e t e r r i to ry? ) , V e e r S ingh e r ec ted

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s h r ine s , wh ich s t il e x is t a nd a r e v ene ra ted b y p i lg r ims , i n t h e m emo ry o f D unga r ia o n t h e h il o ver look ing t h e o r ig ina l v ilage ; n amed h i s n ew t own , e s tabl i shed o n t h e s i te o f D unga r ia 's v ilage , a f t er t h e d ead B h i l c h ief ; a nd g ave h i s o a th t h a t t h e c o ron a t ion o f e ach n ew r u le r o f h i s l i ne w ou ld b e p e r fo rmed b y ad escendan t o f D unga r ia . T h is c u s tom w a s p r eva len t u n t i l t h e a bo l i t ion o f t h e P r ince ly S t a t es a nd t h e me rge r o f D unga rpu r w i th t h e I nd ian Un ion i n 1 949 . T oday , D unga rpu r d i s t r ic t , w i th 1 . 1 p e r c en t o f t h e t o ta l a r ea o f R a ja s than , p opu la t ion ( 1971 C en su s ) o f 5 , 30 ,258 , o f wh ich 6 6 .83% a r e t r iba l . O f t h e se 7 3 .85% t r iba l s a r e B h i l s . T he re a r e n ow o ve r 8 30 v i l lages i n t h e d i s t r ic t , a nd a s V ya s ( 1980 ) w h i le t h e re a r e s ome e xc lu s ive ly B h i l v ilage s , t h e re a r e a l so t h e ' m ixed v ilage s ' B h i l s l i ve w i th C a s te -H indu s a nd o the r d enom ina t ion s .

h a s a o f t h e n o ted , w he r e

" The t r iba l v i l lage s l o ca ted o n h ilock s a nd t h e m ixed v ilage s , l y ing i n t h e f oo th i l l s o r p l a in s , r epr e sen t t wo t ype s o f t r iba l a nd r u ra l c ha rac te r is t ic s . T r iba l v i l lage s a r e d i spe r sed a s o pposed t o t h e c l u s te red v ilage s o f t h e p l a in s " ( Vya s 1 980 :19 ) . A s i n o the r B h i l a r ea s , a ' pha la ' i s a n i mpor tan t u n i t o f t h e r e s iden t ia l p a t te rn o f t h e t r iba l s oc ie ty . " T r iba l p eop le l i v ing i n t h e s ame p ha la u sua l ly b e long t o t h e s ame c l an w i th k in sh ip r e la t ion s a nd h ave a n e conom ic i n te rdependence . T hus , a tt h e p ha la l e ve l , t h e c ommun i ty f e e l ing i st h e s t ronge s t . C lu s te r s o f mo r e t h an o ne p ha la c on s t i tu te ap a l wh ich i s amu l t i -pha la o r e ven , a tp l ace s a mu l t i -v ilage o rgan i sa t ion " ( i b id ) . T he m ixed v ilage s o f t h e p l a in s , o n t h e o the r h and , a r e made u p o f c a s te -g roup s a nd o the r p eop le . A g r icu l tu re i s a ma in s tay a tt h e se m ixed v ilage s . T rade a nd c ommerc e a r e i mpo r tan t i n t h e l a rge r m ixed v ilage s , a l ong w i th o t he r t r ad i t iona l o ccupa t ion s ( Vya s 1 980 :20 ) . B h i l s l i v ing i n U da ipu r , C h i t to rga rh , o r B h i lwa ra d i s t r ic t s d if e r o n ly m a rg ina l ly . T rad i t iona l B h i l s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s , b ehav iou r , p hy s io logy , c u l tu ra l t r a i t s , b e l ief s a nd r el ig iou s p rac t ice s , l a nguage a nd s o o n h ave b een w e l l d esc r ibed e l sewhe re ( Vya s , Mann a nd C haudha ry 1 978 ; T od 1 829 -32 ; R oy 1 924 , N a ik 1 956 , K a rve 1 961 ; G r ie r son 1 908 ; a mong o the r s ) . I n S .E R a ja s tan B h i l s l i ve i ns c a t te red l apa ra s ' o r h u t s , wh ich c olec t ive ly f o rm a ' pha la ' — au n i t o f B h i l s f r om a c ommon c l an a nd k in sh ip g roup ( Chaudha ry 1 978 ; V ya s 1 981 , 1 983 ) . C lu s te r s o f mor e t h an o ne ' p ha la ' c on s t i tu te a ' p a l ' , wh ich may b e c a l led a mu l t i p ha la v i l lage o rgan iza t ion ( Vya s e t a l 1 978 ) . ' Pa l s ' a nd ' pha la s ' a r e e conom ica l ly i n te r d ep enden t . Mo s t B h i ls l i v ing i n f o r e s ted a nd /or h i l ly a r ea s l i ved i n s c a t terd ' p a l s ' w her e t h e ' p a l ' b ounda r ie s a ppea r ( t o a n o u t s ide o b ser ve r ) , t o o ve r lap . T oday , mo re v i l lage s w i th n on t r iba l p a t te rn s a r e t ob e f ound . 8 . 5 R a jas than i B h i ls a nd t he ir r e la t ionsh ip w i th n on -Tr iba ls I n t h e p a s t , e spec ia l ly d u r ing t h e med ieva l p e r iod , s ome B h i l s h ad s e t t led i n p r edom inan t ly n on -Bh i l a g r icu l tu ra l v ilage s . T he se s e t t led B h i l g roup s p ref e r t o i d en t ify t h emse lve s w i th t h e b u lk o f t h e ir l o ca l ( non t r iba l ) n e ighbou r s , a nd p rac t ice s im i la r o ccupa t ion s a nd c u s toms . S uch B h i l s l o ok d own o n ' t r iba l ' B h i l s a s s oc ia l ly i n f e r io r . T he l a t te r p r ev iou s ly u sed t od ep lo r e t h e a dop t ion o fn on t r iba l h ab i t s b y t h e f o rme r a nd b el ieved ' t r iba l ' B h i l s t o b e p ur e . H oweve r , t o day mo s t B h i l s , o f w ha teve r c a tego ry , t r y t o p a s s of a s n on t r iba l s , i n t h e f a ce o f s oc ia l pr e jud ice f r om ' Ca s te -H indu s ' a nd o t he r s e t t led a g r icu l tu ra l p eop le . T he c u l tu re c on tac t b e tween B h i l s a nd n on -Bh i l s i sr e cogn ised mo r e e a s i ly i n modem c on tex t s . T he re i s , h oweve r , ag r ea t d ea l o f h i s to r ica l d a ta s uppor t ing s uch c on ta c t i ne a r l ie r p e r iod s t oo ( Vya s e t a l 1 978 ; T od 1 829 -32 ; S hyama lda s 1 886 ; S ha rma 1 966 ; S ha rma 1 968 , 1 971 , 1 973 ) .

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S uch t r iba l —n on t r iba l c on tac t d u r ing t h e e a r ly h i s to r ica l p e r iod h a s a l r eady b een b r ief ly men t ioned . T he B h i l s a r e k nown i nt h e a nna l s o fR a ja s than a s t h e i mp lacab le e nem ie s o f t h e R a jpu t s ( s ince t h e l a t te r d i sp laced a nd d i spu ted w i th t h e e a r l ie r s e t t le r s , t h e B h i l s ) . G radua l ly , i ta ppea r s , t h e B h i l s w e re d r iven f r om t h e f e r t i le l a nd a tt h e f oo t o f t h e A rava l l i s i n to t h e h il s . T ha t t h e R a jpu t s r e cogn i sed t h e B h i l s a s f o rmer r e s iden t s a nd o wne r s o f t h e l a nd s o ccup ied s ub sequen t ly b y t h e R a jpu t s i sr e f lec ted i nc e r ta in R a jpu t c u s tom s . T hough t h e B h i l s w e re s ub juga ted , i tw a s c on s ide red ama rk o f r e cogn i t ion a tt h e t ime o f c o rona t ion t o h ave t h e f o rehead o f t h e R a jpu t c h ief s =m in t ed b y aB h i l , w i th a d rop o f b l ood f r om t h e t humb o f t h e B h i l . T od w i tne s sed o ne s uch c o rona t ion , a nd w ro t e t h a t " t he B h i l l a nd h o lde r s o f O guna a nd U nd r i s t il c l a im t h e p r iv i lege o f p e r f o rm ing t h e t i ka f o r t h e S i sod ia s " ( t he c orona t ion o f t h e Maha r ana o f Mewa r w ho se c l an t o ok t h e n ame o f S i sod ia f r om t h e o r ig ina l c l an n ame o f G uh i la o r Guh l io t /Geh lo t ) . T od ( 1829 -32 ) , a l so r e la t es h ow G oha , t h e a nce s to r o f t h e Mewa r r u l ing h ous e , t o ok o ve r t h e S t a te o f I da r ( now i n G u ja ra t ) , f r om a B h i l . T he 1 9 th c en tu ry b a rd -h i s to r ian , S hyama lda s , a u tho r o f t h e V eer V inod ( 1 886 ) , r e co rd s t h a t t h e B h i l s o f t h e v ilage s o f D hambo la a nd P ada r i nD unga rpu r , r e ga rded t h em se lve s a s d escendan t s o f R a jpu t s w ho h ad l o s t t h e i r s oc ia l s t a tus b y ma r ry ing B h i l w omen o r b y e a t ing b e ef w i th B h i l s . Many o ft h em s t il ma in ta ined t h e ir R a jpu t g o t ra s l i ke P a rma r , C hauhan , S i sod ia , R a thor e e t c . R a jpu t s c r ibe s , p oe t s a nd w r i te r s f r equen t ly r e f e r r ed t o B h i l s , t o B h i l l i f e s ty le a nd c u s tom s , a nd t o B h i l - n on -Bh i l c on tac t s , i nt h e i r w o rk s . T he i n i t ia l B h i l -Ra jpu t c on tac t s w e re p e rhap s n o t g ove rned b y s t r ic t r u le s o f s oc ia l d i s tance . T od r ema rk s t h a t t h e R a jpu t s w ou ld " s t il t a ke f ood w i th U j la B h i l s o r t h o se o f p u r e a bo r ig ina l d escen t a nd a l l c a s te s w ou ld t a ke w a te r f r om t h em " ( Tod 1 829 -32 ) . I ts e em s h owever , t h a t a s t h e r i g id i t ie s o f H indu ism c ame t o w o rk o n o r thodox l i n es i n t h e i n te r io r v ilages o f R a ja s than , t h e B h i l s ( a long w i th o th e r t r iba l s ) s ank t o t h e p o s i t ion o f s em i o u tca s te s .2 5 I n R a ja s than , t h e re a r e o l d c l a im s o f g enea log ica l l i nk s w i th R a jpu t s , w i th s ome B h i l s , f o r e xamp le , t h e H e ra t , N eba t , R a tna t , Me ta t , R anga t , T e ja t , Khe ta t , Amsa t , J aga t , N ikya t b ranche s , t r ac ing t h e ir o r ig in t oR a jpu t c l an s . Modem a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie s h ave a l so d emon s t ra ted t h e i n te rac t ion b e tween ` t r iba l s ' a nd n on t r iba l s , o r b e twe en t wo o r mo r e ' c u l tu r a l ly ' d i s t ingu ishab le g roup s ( Ab ruzz i 1 980 :3 3 1 ; B a r th 1 956 :1079 -89 , 1 969b ; V ayda 1 969 ; S inha 1 972 :371 -403 ; G a rdne r 1 972 :404 -447 ; Mo r r is 1 982 ; Mu rphy a nd S t ewa rd 1 956 ; F ox 1 969 ; T ur nbu l l 1 961 , 1 965 , 1 968 ; F ü r e r H a imendo r f 1 982 ; a mong o the r s ) . T he r e la t ion sh ip may i n vo lve v a ry ing d eg r ee s o f i s o la t ion o r c on tac t , i n a ccordance w i th e ach s pec if ic s i tua t ion . T he P a l iyan s , f o r e xamp le , ( Ga rdne r 1 972 :404 -447 ) , s eem t o p r ef e r m in imum c on tac t w i th t h e i r T am i l n e ighbou r s . T he C en t ra l I nd ian B i rho r s , o n t h e o th e r h and , h ave s l igh ly mo r e c on tac t w i th ' o u t s ide r s ' a tt h e l e ve l o f t r ad i t iona l i n t e r t r iba l ma rke t s ( S inha 1 972 :37 1-403 ) . 2' Y ogend ra S ingh ( 1968 ) i so f t h e o p in ion t h a t s ome k ind o f c on tac t b e tween t h e t r iba l c u l tu r e a nd t h e p ea san t a nd e l i te c u l tu r e s i n I nd ia h a s e x i s ted o ve r t h e c en tu r ie s , w h i le C hauhan ( 1968 ) s peak s o f ` T r iba l iza t ion ' , a p h enomenon whe re p u sh ing b ack i n to i n acce s s ib le a r ea s o f c e r ta in p eop le l e ad s t o t h e ir a cqu i r ing t r iba l t r a i t s ; a nd S u re sh S ingh ( 1972 ) t a lk s o f a" H indu i sa t ion " o f t r iba l s , o r t h e p l an t ing o f ' H indu ' b e l ief s , r e l ig ion a nd i d eo logy a mong t h e o r ig ina l s . T he i d ea o f ` San sk r i t iza t ion ' ( S r in iva s 1 962 ) , h a s a l so b een

2 . 5

I n t h is c on tex t , s ee S r in iva s ( 1956 ,1962 ) , o n t h e c oncep t o f ` San s l c r i t iza t ion ' .

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L ike many t r iba l g roup s , t h e B i rho r e conomy i s b a sed o n t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f f o re s t r e sou r ce s . S ome b yp roduc t s o f t h e i r a c t iv i ty a r e u sed b y t h e t r iba l h ou seho ld s t h em se lve s . T he se i n c lude t h e g a the r ing o f w i ld f r u i t s , r oo t s a nd l e ave s , a nd t h e t r app ing o f s ma l l a n ima l s i n c lud ing p o r cup ine , h a re , r a t a nd monkey . O the r b yp roduc t s a r e p repa red f o r s a le [ f o rme r ly e xchange? ] .a t a n i n te r t r iba l ma rke t . T he ma rke tab le p roduce c on s is t s o f r ope s made f r om f o re s t v ine s , w ood en v e s se l s c a rved f r om f o re s t t imbe r , c ole c t ed w i ld h oney a nd b eeswax ; w i ld f l owe r s l i ke ` mahua . f o r l i quo r -f e rmen ta t ion , a nd c u red monkey h ide s wh ich a r e u sed f o r mak ing d rum s . T hu s , w h i le t h e B i rho r s h ave l im i ted s oc ia l c on ta c t w i th o the r g roup s t h ey d o h ave a n e conom ic mee t ing -po in t i nt h e i n te r t r iba l ma rke t .

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d i scu ssed i n t h e c on tex t o f t r iba l s b y v a r iou s a n th ropo log is t s ( A iyappan 1 965 , a mong o the r s ) . T he re t hu s , s e ems t o b e ag ene ra l c onv ic t ion a mong mos t a n th ropo log i s t s /s oc io log i s t s a bou t t h e e x is tence o f c u l tu ra l ly d i s t inc t c ommun i t ie s t h rough t h e c en tu r ie s , a s w el a s t h e p robab i l i ty o f al im i ted d eg re e o f e xchange b e tween t h e se c u l tu raly d i s t inc t c ommun i t ie s ." ( I n t h e f i na l a na ly s i s , i ts e em s t o b e t h e t e chno logy r a ther t h an t h e r a c io logy wh ich c r ea ted t h e d i v i s ion l i ne b e tween t h em ) ." A ccord ing t o D el iege ( 1981 :117 ) , " Phy s ica l , l i ngu is t ic a nd my tho log ica l e v idence s t e nd t o d emon s t ra te t h a t t h e B h i l s h ave b e en f o r av e ry l o ng t ime i nc l o se r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e ir H indu n e ighbou rs o f t h e P la in s a nd t h is r e la t ion sh ip — wh ich i ss ome t imes a n o ppo s i t ion — i sp e rhap s t h e c h ief d i s t inc t ive f e a tu re o ft h e B h i l s . " C on tac t w i th n on t r iba l c ommun i t ie s h a s c r ea ted ag r ea te r d eg r ee o f s oc io -cu l tu ra l c hange w i th in t h e l a s t t wo c en tu r ie s . T h i s m ay b e d ue t o t h e e x t r eme ly e nhanc ed l e ve l o f c on tac t , a nd t h e d e s ir e o fn on t r iba l e l emen t s t o mo ra l ly a nd s oc ia l ly u p l if tt h e a bo r ig ina l p opu la t ion s b y a dvoca t ing s oc ia l , r e l ig iou s , e conom ic a nd mo ra l c ompa tab i l i ty w i th n on t r iba l mo r e s . T hu s , H indu a nd C h r is t ian p ro se ly t iza t ion , s oc ia l w o rk movemen t s , B h i l r e fo rm is t s a nd c on s tan t n on t r iba l e f or t s h ave l e d t o as i tua t ion w he r e p r esen t -day t r iba l s a r e c augh t u p i n a n u nenv iab le i d en t i ty c r i s is . T he o nce -ca s te le s s t r iba ls t oday d i s t ingu ish b e tween B haga t a nd n on -Bhaga t B h i l s . D r ink ing i sc on s ide r ed i mmora l e ven t h ough i tf o rmed p a r t o f t r iba l s oc io r el ig iou s r i tua l s f o rme r ly . V ege ta r ian ism i sa dvoca ted i n o rde r t o ' r i se ' t o t h e l e ve l o f h igh -ca s te H indu s , a nd t r iba l s a r e t r y ing t o e mu la te n on t r iba l s i n d re s s , c u s toms a nd l i f e s t y le ." Is ha l l n o t d e lve i n to s eve ra l i mpo r tan t a spec t s c onc e rn ing moder n -day B h i l s a nd o t he r t r iba l s , i n c lud ing i s sue s o f ' t r iba l d eve lopmen t ' , s oc ia l c hanges , i mpac t o f mode rn isa t ion , a nd s o o n , i n d e ta i l h e re , s i nc e t h ey a r e o u t s ide t h e d i r ec t s cope o f t h is b ook . T he se i s sue s w il , h owever , n eed t o b e t a ken i n to c on s ide ra t ion f o r a ny f u r the r s t ud ie s o n I nd ian t r ibe s .' T he t r iba l e conomy h a s u nde rgone ma rked c hange s w i th in t h i s c en tury . T he B h i l s o f R a ja s than h ad , t i l r e cen t ly , r e l ied o n f o r e s t p roduce , h un t ing , l im i ted a g r icu l tu re a nd ma rg ina l t r ade f o r s ub s is tence . T he i r e conomy w a s s e lf -su ff ic ien t t ot h e e x ten t t h a t i tc a ter ed t ot h e ir i mmed ia te n eed s , a nd a l lowed t h e o p t ion o fc on tac t w i th o the r g roup s , t h rough f a i r s a nd v i l lage ma rke t s a nd s o o n , w hen d e s ir ed . T hu s t h e i r i s o la t ion w a s n o t a lway s c omp le te ,

A ccord ing t o Kennedy ( 1984 :181) , t h e " su r v iv ing t r iba l p opu la t ion s t h a tr e ta in ac e r ta in n umbe r o fc u l tu ra l f e a tu re s o f t h e h un t ing -ga the r ing l i f eway o b ta in a h igh p ropo r t ion o f t h e i r n u t r ien t s i n t h e f o rm o f g ra in a nd l uxu ry f ood s f r om n e ighbou r ing s e t t led a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s a cco rd ing t o a nc ien t c u s tom s o f b a r te r . S uch t r iba l e nc lave s h ave l ong b een i n co rpo ra ted a s s ymb io t ic s ubcu l tu re s w i th in t h e e conom ic p a t te rn s o f s eden ta ry mac ropopu la t ion s s u r round ing t h em , a nd g ene f l ow h a s s e r ved f o r c en tu r ie s t o t i e t h e f o re s t dwe l ler s t ot h e f ood p roduce r s o ft h e f e r t i le v a l ley s a nd p la in s ." I n t h is c on tex t n o te h ow F ü re r -Ha imendo r f( 1951 ) d i s t ingu i shed b e tween t h e mo r e a dvan ced t r ibe s l i ke t h e Gond , O raon , Munda e t c a nd t h e r e la t ive ly b a ckwa rd t r ibe s l i ke t h e B a iga , K ama r , H il R edd i , K o lan a nd D iday i . T he f o rme r g roup o f t r ibe s a r e b y a nd l a rge s e t t led h oe a nd /o r p lough c u l t iva to r s , wh i le t h e l a t te r p redom inan t ly p rac t iced , t i l l r e cen t ly , a g r icu l tu r e w i th u n soph i s t ica ted d igg ing s t ick s . A cco rd ing t o F ü r e r H a imendo rf t h ese t wo g roup s r ep resen t t wo m ig r a t ion s , t h e h oe /p lough -cu l t iva to r s b e ing t h e l a te r m ig r an t s . F ur the rmo re , i n o the r f a ce t s o f e conomy t h e d igg ing s t ick a g r icu l tu r i s t s r ep re sen t p r im i t ivene s s a nd a r e c ha rac te r ised b y as imp le r s y s tem o f s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion . F ü r e r -Ha imendo r f a l so c on t end s t h a t p eop le o f a s t i l l e a rl ie r m ig ra t ion a r e r ep resen ted b y c e r ta in i s o la ted t r ib e s s p read o ve r c en t ra l a nd s ou the rn I nd ia . T hey a r e c on s ide red t oh ave b een e xc lu s ive ly h un te r s a nd f ood g a the re r s o nce . R emn an t s o f t h a t mod e o f l i ve l ihood a r e e ncoun te red a mong t r ibes a s d i ve r se a s t h e B i rho r o f C hho ta N agpu r , t h e C henchu o f t h e Na l la rna la i H i l l s , a nd t h e Ma lapan ta ram o f K e ra la ( Rak sh i t 1 982 ) . 2 9

One c anno t , f o r l a ck o f s pace , d o j u s t ice t o af u l l d i scu s s ion o f t h e se c hange s . S ee V ya s e ta l 1 978 ; V ya s 1 983 ; Mann 1 978b ; Dube 1 977 ; D osh i 1 969 ; D o sh i 1 971 ; N a ik 1 956 ; S ahay 1 977 ; S u re sh S ingh 1 972 ; F ü re r -Ha imendor f 1 982 ; a mong o the r s .

3 0

S ee , f o r e xamp le , B o se 1 964 ; D o sh i 1 971 ; C ha t topadhyaya 1 978 ; V ya s 1 980 ; S u r e sh S ingh 1 972 ; V ya s , Mann a nd C haudha ry 1 978 ; F ü re r -Ha imendo r f 1 982 ; D o sh i 1 969 ; F uch s 1 973 ; D ube 1 977 ; Y ogend ra S ingh 1 968 ; Vya s 1 978 ; Vya s 1 981 , 1 983 ; Mann 1 978c .

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a nd c on tac t , o f v a ry ing d eg re e s , w a s k nown b e tween t r iba l s a nd n on t r iba ls . ( The B h i l s o f D unga rpu r h ad l e s s i n te r ac t ion w i th n on t r iba l e l emen t s t h an t h o se l i v ing a r ound U da ipu r c i ty , f o r e xamp le ) . T he n a tu r e o f B h i l e conomy i n t h e 1 980 's h oweve r , i sd if e r en t . T he r e su l t o f v a r iou s f a c tor s o f c hange h ave m ean t g r ea ter d ep endence o n n on t rad i t iona l mean s o f l i vel ihood . F o re s t s c an n o l onge r b e e xp lo i ted i n t h e t r ad i t iona l B h i l manne r , f o r e xamp le . An a na ly s is o f p r e sen t -day B h i l e conomy u nde r l ine s t h e e conom ic p rob lems f a ced b y modem t r iba l s i n t h i s p e r iod o f t r an sfo rma t ion a nd f l ux ( Mann 1 978c :69 -85 ; V ya s a nd C haudha ry 1 978 :86 -95 ; V ya s a nd Mann 1 980 ) . T he f i nd ing s o f t h e Dheba r C omm is s ion R epor t o n p resen t B h i l e conomy n o ted t h a t " i t w a s o n ly i n t h e l a te r p a r t o f t h e l a s t c en tu ry t h ey h ave s e t t led d own t o c u l t iva t ion .. pr ev iou s ly m any o f t h em w e re n omad ic . B ef o re t h a t t h ey u sed t o s ub s i s t o n w i ld f r u i t , b e r r ies a nd o t he r f or e s t p roduce a s w e l l a s a n ima l s t a ken i nt h e h un t . E ven n ow a f ew a r e i n t h e f ood g a the r ing s t age . A l a rge n umbe r o f B h i l s , w ho h ave n o l a nd s , h ave m ig ra ted t o n ea rby t own s a s l abou re r s . E conom ic d es t i tu t ion h a s l e d s ome o f t h em t o w o rk u nde r as y s tem o f b onded l a bou r b y wh ich n o t o n ly t h ey b u t t h e m embe r s o f t h e ir f am i l ie s a r e p l edged t or ende r s e r v ic e t or e de em t h e i r d eb t s " ( quo ted b y Mann 1 978c :70 ) . Wh i le w e c anno t d i scu s s t h e e conom ic s i tua t ion i n d e ta i l , t h e r e i s a mp le e v iden ce t o s uppo r t t h e c onc lu s ion s t h a t B h i l e conomy i n t h e p as t w a s b a sed o n c o l lec t ing -hun t ing , s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion a nd e xchange , a nd i st oday b e ing t r an sfo rmed i n to t h e c ommon s e t t led a g r icu l tur e , i n du s t r ia l l a bou r e t a l I nd ian e conom ic p a t te rn . T he i n t roduc t ion o f l a rge sca le s e t t led a g r icu l tu r e , money e conomy a nd l im i ta t ion s o n B h i l r i gh t s o ve r t r ad i t iona l ly e xp lo i tab le l a nd s a nd f o r e s t s , a l ong w i th o the r d rawback s l i ke ' p r im i t ive ' me thods o f c u l t iva t ion , p opu la t ion g row th , e xp lo i ta t ion b y ' c i ty -s l icke r s ' l i ke money l e nde r s , t r ade r s a nd c on tr ac to r s , h ave a l te red t h e e conom ic s t ruc tur e a s w el a s s oc io -behav iou r o ft h e B h i l s . T he B h i l s a r e l a rge ly d ependen t o n t h e c u l t iva t ion o f l a nd n ow , e i ther a s t e nan t -f a rme r s o r owne r s . L and le s s B h i l s w o rk a s a g r icu l tu ra l l a bou re r s . Mo s t f am i l ie s a l so t e nd c a t t le , s heep a nd g oa t o r p ou l t ry . D u r ing t h e s l ack s e a son , t h ey s e ek e mp loymen t a s l abou re r s i n c on s t ruc t ion w o rk s , r o ad b u i ld ing o r f o res t ry p ro jec t s . R e la t ive ly f ewe r B h i l s c an s ub s is t o n ac olec t ing a nd h un t ing e conomy n ow , d ue t o t h e c ur ta i lmen t o f c e r ta in ( wha t t h ey c on s ide r ed ' o r ig ina l ' a nd t r ad i t iona l ) r i gh t s . S ome o f t h e f o re s t p roduce c olec ted — wood , h oney , l a c , g um , med ic ina l h e rb s , w i ld f r u i t s a nd s o o n —i se i the r l o caly u sed o r g i ven t o n on t r iba l t r ade r s i n e xchange f o r o the r ma te r ia l . E duca ted B h i l s h ave s ough t e mp loymen t i n p ub l ic a nd p r iva te s e c to r s , o f ten a s p o s tmen , t e ache r s , ' g r am s evak s ' ( v ilage w o rke r s ) e t c . i nt h e i r own v i l lage s o r n ea rby u rban c en t re s . O nce k nown a s ' c h i ld r en o f t h e f o re s t s ' , t h e B h i l s a r e t oday f a c ing a l iena t ion f r om w ha t w a s f o rme r ly t h e i r s ou rce o f l i vel ihood a nd t h e ir b i r th r igh t . T oday t h e f o r es t s a ccoun t f o r a bou t 3 0% o f t h e t r iba l e conom ic b a se , a s c ompa red t o a bou t 5 4% f o r a g r icu l tu re . F o r es t s , w h ich t r ad i t ionaly s uppl ied mo s t o f t h e t r iba l d emand s , t oday s uppo r t t h e t r iba l e conomy o n ly i nt h e l e an s e a son s , a nd p rov ide m inor f o re s t p roduce — t h eo re t ica l ly ! H owever , t hough t h e c once s s ion a l lowed t o t h e t r iba l s ( Ru le s o f 1 955 ) , p e rm i t ted t h em t o c o l lec t d ead a nd d r y t imbe r f o r f u e l /wood e t c . mo s t o f t h e f o re s t s u sed b u t c ons erved b y t h e t r iba l s a nd p ro tec ted a nd p re served b y t h e Maha rana s o f Mewa r i nt h e p a s t , a r e r epor ted t o b e d enuded a l ready ! T hu s , i n mo s t o f t h e a r ea , t h e t r iba l s c anno t m ee t t h e ir r equ iremen t s o f t imbe r a nd f u e lwood . Wh i le t h e S t a t e Gove rnmen t h ad p ropo sed t h a t t h e w o rk o f t h e c o l lec t ion o f m ino r f o r e s t p roduce i n t h e t r iba l a r ea s s hou ld b e h and led b y ' Fo r e s t L abou r e r C o -ope ra t ive S oc ie t ie s ' — t h e w o rk ing o fs uch c o -op e ra t ive s h a s n o t b een a n u nqua l if ied s ucce s s . Ma jor f o re s t p roduce i sh and led t h rough t h e S t a te T rad ing S cheme o f t h e F o r e s t ry D epa r tmen t , w i th t h e t r iba l s g e t t ing e mp loymen t i nt h e D epa r tmen t p ro jec t s .

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T oday , f o re s t s c on s t i tu te l e s s t h an 1 0 .1 p e r c en t o ft h e t o ta l g eog raph ica l a r ea o f modem R a ja s than . T he a r ea u nde r f o r e s t s h a s d ec r ea sed r a p id ly o ve r t h e l a s t 3 0 -40 y ea r s . B y 1 977 , t h e e x ten t o f t h e d ec r ea se o f t h e f o r e s t s i n t h e t r iba l a r ea s o f R a ja s than w a s 3 3 .5 p e r c en t . T h is h a s , n o d oub t , a f ec ted t h e e co sy s tem . A t t h e s ame t ime , p opu la t ion p r e s su r e f r om o the r c ommun i t ie s , d eve lopmen t p rog r amme s , m in ing o pe ra t ion s , a nd o ther s cheme s , h ave a l te red t h e e nv ironmen t o f t h e ` t r iba l a r ea s ' i n t h i s c en tu ry . T he c l ose r e la t ion sh ip o f t h e B h i l s a nd t h e ir f o r e s t s , i st h u s , u nde r s ome t h r ea t? ' F lora a nd f o res t p roduce h ave l ong b een i mpo r tan t t o B h i l e conomy a nd r i tua l s , a nd s eve ra l s t o r ie s c en tr e a r ound f o re s t s . B amboo , f r u i t , r oo t s , t u ber s a nd l e aves f r om t r ee s , l a c , h oney , g um , a nd r e s in a nd med ic ina l h e rb s a r e a mong t h e f o r e s t p roduce w h ich B h i l s c o l lec ted . C er ta in t r ee s ( l oca l n ame s b e ing ` Ha l le r ' , ` Vahad i ' a nd ` Khemda ' ) , a r e s a c r ed t o a l l B h i l s o f Mewa r . S ome B h i l c l an s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th c e r ta in t o tems , wh ich t h ey r e ga rd a s s a c red a nd w or sh ip . F o r e xamp le , t h e B h i l s o f t h e J amn ia , K anv i , B a rbe r ia , D ang i , G anava , B i lwa l , Ma san ia , P a la s ia , S eml ia , Anwa l ia ` g o t r a s ' , h ave l i nk s w i th t h e t r ees f r om wh ich t h ey h ave t a ken t h e i r g o t r a ( c lan ) n ames . ( i . e . , J amun , K a lam , B a rbe r ia -be l , B amboo s , G an ia r , P a la s ia , S ewa l , R oh in i , A nwa la , e t c . ) . T he se t r e e s a r e w o r sh ipped b y t h e i r r e spec t ive c l an s a nd a r e n o t f eled , o n a ccoun t o f t h e ir s pec ia l n a tu re . O n t h e o cca s ion o f ma r r iages , w ood f r om t h e S a la r t r ee i sr equ ired t o make t h e c anopy ( 'mandap ' ) . F o r t h is , t h e S a la r t r e e n e ed s t o b e p rop ia ted w i th r i ce a nd w ine o f f e r ing s b e fo r e a ny B h i l c an c u t i t .T he m en w ho r e tu r n w i th t h e w ood a r e w e lcomed b y u nma r r ied y oung g i r l s c a r ry ing e a r them l amp s o r ` d iya s ' . T he w ood i s t h en h anded o ve r t o t h e c anopy -make r s ( o r ` mand iv iya ' ) , who u se l e ave s f r om t h e p eepa l a nd mango t r ee s a s a dd i t iona l r i tua l d eco r a t ion . I n t h e p a s t , c anc ela t ion s o f b e t ro tha l s w e re e xp re s sed a mong t h e B h i l s b y p l ac ing s ome l e ave s f r om a p eepa l t r ee o n as t one a nd s p r ink l ing w a te r o ver t h em . C orp se s w ou ld b e b r ief ly p l aced u nde r b e r ( Z i zyphus j u juba ) t r ee s , e n r ou te t o t h e c r ema t ion g round s , t o p r even t t h e s ou l o ft h e d ead f r om b ecom ing g ho s t s o r e v i l s p i r i t s . Ano the r e xamp le o f t h e s pec ia l r e la t ion sh ip o f t h e B h i l s f o r t h e ir f o re s t s i sf ound i n t h e w o r sh ip o f B abadeo , a' v ilage ' ( o r n on t r iba l ) d e i ty . B h i l s c olec t ive ly w o r sh ip B abade ,o , a nd l a nd of er ed t o h im c anno t b e c u l t iva ted , n o r i t s f l o r a d i s tu rbed . S im i la r ly , i n t h e f o r es t o f G ange shwa r Mahadeo , n ea r t h e v i l lage o f G amd i A hada , 1 4km f r om D unga rpu r , ( wh ich h ad b een d ed ica ted t o Mahadeo S iva ) , i tw a s c on s ider ed a mo ra l c r ime t o p l uck e ven a s i ng le l e a f f r om at r ee w i th in L o rd Mahadeo 's f o re s t . F o re s t s h ave p l ayed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i n t h e e conomy a nd l i f e o f d if e ren t t r iba l c ommun i t ie s . T h i s s ymb io t ic r e la t ion sh ip h a s l ong b een r e cogn ised , t hough n e i the r d ef ined n o r i n te rp r e ted i n t e rms o f modem s t ud ie s ( s ee V ya s 1 981) . F o re s t s f i gu re i n s t o r ie s c once rn ing V ed ic p e r iod s age s , w ho l i ved , t a ugh t a nd m ed i ta ted i n f o re s t s , f a r f r om t h e b u s t l ing a nd n o i sy s e t t lemen t s . T he l o ca t ion s a nd d e ta i l s f o r m any , f o rme r , f o r es t s a r e men t ioned ( Law 1 934 ) t h roughou t t h e h i s to r ica l p e r iod , a l ong w i th r e f e rence s t o e i the r t h e ir managemen t o r c l ea rance ( i b id ) . D u r ing t h e p e r iod o f t h e Mau ryan Emp i re , ( c . 3 25 B .C . -2 00 B .C . ) , t h er e s e em s t oh ave b een a d ef in i te S t a te p o l icy o n f o r e s t s a nd f o r es t p roduc e .3 2 A sokan e d ic t s s pec if ied t h a t f o r e s t s w e r e n o t t o b e b u rn t w i thou t g ood r e a son . S uch a ccoun t s o f S ta te h u sbanda ry o f n a tu ra l r e sou r ce s a l so o ccu r f r om o the r p e r iod s o f I nd ian h i s to ry , a l ong w i th r e po r t s a bou t t h e c l ea rance o f c er ta in f o r es t a r ea s whe r e c i t ies w e re f ounded , a nd t o wh ich ' c iv i l isa t ion ' w a s c a r r ied .

3 1

T i l l t h e m idd le o ft h e 1 9 th C en tu ry t h e B h i l s c on s ide r ed t h em se lve s t ob e t h e c h i ld ren a sw e l l a s t h e l o rd s o f t h e f o r e s t s a nd b rooked n o i n te r f e ren ce f r om o u t s ide . T od ( 1 839 ) , d e sc r ibed h ow t h e B h i l s , s u r round ed b y l o f ty moun ta in s , d e f ended b y n ume rou s d ef i le s a nd f o r e s t s , a nd a lmo s t i mpe r v iou s t o e x te rna l i n te r ven t ion , " en joyed " al i f e o fp e r f ec t i n dep enden ce , s ub jec t o n ly t ot h e i r o wn c h ie f .

3 2

S ee v ar iou s t r an s la t ion s o fK au t i lya 's A r thashas t ra .

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T hu s , o n t h e o ne h and , w r i t ten r e co rd s a nd V ed ic my th s i nd ica te t h e e x i s tence o f f o re s ted a r ea s , w he r e ' b ackwa rd ' , o f t en ' unc iv i l i sed ' c ommun i t ie s l i ke t h e N aga s a nd N ishada s a nd ` A tav ika s ' ( dwele r s o f f o r e s t s o r ` a tav i ' ) a nd o the r s l i ved ; a nd o n t h e o the r h and , w e h ave r e f e renc e s t o t h e c l ea rance o f f o r e s t s b y e a r ly ( Ved ic /Aryan ) s e t t le r s , a s a t Ma thu ra , H a s t inapu r , V ideha a nd o the r p l ace s ." I ta ppea r s t h a t , ( p e rhap s d ue t o t h e p os se s s ion o f a g r icu l tu r a l t e chno logy a nd p opu la t ion p r e s su r e ) f o r e s t s w e r e i mp inged u pon , c l ea r ed ( w i th t h e h e lp o f Agn i ) a nd s e t t led , o ve r t h e p a s t 5 000 y ea r s . I ti s f e a s ib le t h a t s uch e x ten s ion s o f s e t t led a g r icu l tu ra l p r ac t ice s i n to f o rme r ly f o r e s ted a r ea s p u shed o the r c ommun i t ie s , who se e conomy d epended o n g a the r ing a nd h un t ing , r a the r t h an f u l l t ime s e t t led a g r icu l tu r e , i n to t h e i n te r ior s o f r ema in ing f o re s t s a nd i n to t h e h il s —t h e h ab i ta t wh ich s u i ted t h e i r e conom ic p rac t ice s mo re ef i c ien t ly . A t t h e s ame t ime , i t r e in f o r ced t h e d ependence b e tween m ig ran t h un t ing -ga the r ing -sh if t ing c u l t iva to r s a nd f o r e s t s . T he A l lahabad P ila r I n sc r ip t ion , d a t ing f r om t h e r e ign o f S amud ra G up ta ( c . 3 25 A .D . ) , d e sc r ibed t h e K ing 's v i c to r ie s o ve r h i s n e ighbou r s a nd t h e S ta te 's r e la t ion sh ip w i th f ou r d if e r en t c a tego r ie s o f p o l i t ica l g roup s . T her e w e r e ( i ) k ingdom s t h a t h ad b e en c onque r ed a nd a nnexed ; ( i ) k ingdoms wh ich w e re c onque r ed , b u t wh er e t h e f o rme r ( d e f ea ted ) r u le r s w e re r e in s ta ted a nd a sked t o p ay t r ibu te a nd h omage t o t h e i r v i c tor , ( i i ) f o r e s t -dwe l l ing p eop le a nd o the r s , w ho se c h ief s h ad a ccep ted t h e n om ina l s uz r e ign i ty o f S amud ra G up ta a nd p rom i sed t op rov ide h im w i th m i l i ta ry a i d i fi tb ecame n ec e s sa ry ; a nd w e r e a l lowed t o c a r ry o n w i th t h e i r l i f e s ty le i no the r w ay s ; a nd ( i v ) n e ighbou r ing k ingdoms who h ad e n t e red i n to t r ea t ies o r s en t n om ina l t r ibu te s t o t h e G up ta c ap i ta l , i n a cknow ledgmen t o f S amud ra G up ta 's s up remacy . T hu s , t h e t h ird c a tego ry m en t ioned i n t h e Alahabad P i l la r I n scr ip t ion , t e s t if ie s t o t h e e x is tence o f f o r es t -dwel ing g roup s ( a s d i s t inc t f r om u rban a nd r u ra l ' c iv i l ised ' c ommun i t ie s t h a t w e r e c l a s s if iab le w i th in t h e ` j a t i ' o r ' c a s te ' s y s tem ) , i nt h e 3 rd c en tury A .D . L iv ing i n f o r e s t s a nd i s o la ted a r ea s , B h i l s f olowed a n e conomy a dap ted t o t h e i r e nv ironmen t a nd t h e ir r equ ir emen t s . T hey p o s se s sed t h e t e chno log ica l s k il s n ece s sa ry t o man ipu la te t h e ir s u r round ing s . Why t h e se g roup s r ema ined a t t h e t e chno log ica l l e ve l t h ey d id , i s ac omp lex q ue s t ion ( s ee H oo ja 1 984 ) . T he r e la t ion sh ip t h e se h un t ing -ga the r ing g roup s h ad w i th o the r c ommun i t ie s w i th in t h e h i s to r ica l t ime s s how s t ha t ad eg ree o f c on tac t d id e x is t . L e s s i n su la ted g roup s h ad g r ea te r i n te rac t ion w i th n on t r iba l n e ighbou r s , mor e i s o la ted a r ea s h ad m in ima l c on tac t . T he p o s s ib il i ty o f t h e se k ind s o f i n te rac t ion o r i n te r re la t ion sh ip i n p reh is to r ic t ime s i s s ugge s ted b y a r chaeo log ica l d a ta f r om v a r iou s s i te s . T he i n te r re la t ion sh ip b e twe en Me so l i th ic s i te s a nd s e t t led a g r icu l tu ra l Aha r C u l tu r e s i te s i n S ou thea s te rn R a ja s than i n t h e t h i rd t o s e cond m i l lenn ia B .C . may b e a no ther e xamp le o f c on tac t a nd i n te rac t ion b e tween t wo e conom icaly d i s t ingu ishab le g roup s ( Hoo ja 1 984 ) .

3 3

T he a l luv ia l p la ins o f t h e G anga -Jamuna d oab w a s d en se ly f o r e s ted i n t h e p a s t , a cco rd ing t o t r ad i t iona l l i t e ra tu re . T he S a tapa tha B ra lunana r e fe r s t o t h e c l ea r ance o f t h e w i ld , f o r e s ted r eg ion b e tween t h e r i ve r s S a raswa t i ( now ' l os t ' ) a nd S adan i ra ( mode rn G andak ) b y A ryan s e t t le r s , w i th t h e a i d o f A gn i , t h e G od o f F i re . I n t h is manne r , V ideha ( e as te rn U t ta r P rade sh -B iha r ) b ecame h ab i tab le , a nd a g r icu l tu ra l p r ac t ice s s p read t o i t . ( Th i s may i nd ica te t h e b u rn ing o f f o re s t s a nd s ub sequen t s e t t lemen t t h e re . ) S im i la r ly , H a s t inapu r , t h e c ap i ta l o f t h e Ku ru s wa s s i tua ted i n ac l ea r ing w i th in a f o re s ted a r ea ( t he l curu j ung le ' ) , a ccord ing t o t h e Mahabha ra ta . When i n t ra -fam i l ia l r i va l ry r e su l ted i n t h e P andava p r ince s , ( a l so o f t h e s ame l i neage , a nd f i r s t -cou s in s t o t h e p r ince ly h e i r s t o t h e K u ru t h rone ) f ound ing t h e i r o wn n ew c i ty , t h ey c l ea red t h ick f o res t s , k nown a s ` Khandava -van a , t h e h ome o fN aga s ' , a nd e s tabl i shed I nd rap ra s tha .

3 4

A cco rd ing t o a no the r l e gend , Ma thu ra w as f ounded w hen Madhu , t h e ' d emon -k ing ' who l i ved i n af o r e s t k nown a s Madhu -vana ( l i t . f o re s t o f Madhu ) , w a s d e f ea ted a nd k i l led b y n ob le A rya h e roe s , who r azed h i s f o re s t k ingdom t o t h e g round a nd e s tab l ished t h e i r o wn c i ty . ( They i n t e r -ma r r ied w i th t h e s ub jec t s o f Madhu a nd t a ugh t t h em V ed ic r i tua l s !) .

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9 .D ISCUSS ION AND CONCLUS ION

9 . 1 AS ummary R ev iew I n t h e i n t roduc to ry c hap te r Ih ad o u t l ined t h e t h r ee ma in a im s a nd o b jec t ive s o f t h e p r esen t w ork . T he f i r s t o f t h e se e n ta i led ac omp i la t ion o f d a ta p er ta in ing t o t h e C ha lco l i th ic Aha r C u l tu r e k nown f r om R a ja s than i n c . 2 500 B .C . T he s e cond e xam ined o ne o f t h e v a r iou s i s sue s a r is ing f r om s uch a d a ta -cola t ion , n ame ly , t h e i n te r r e la t ion sh ip d u r ing t h e t h i rd t o s e cond m i l lenn ia B .C . , b e tween t h e s e t t led a g r icu l tu r a l A ha r C u l tu re s i te s , c a t ego r ized a s ` Cha lcol i th ic ' b y a r chaeo log is t s , a nd c on tempo raneou s h un t ing -ga the r ing ( ? pa s tora l ) s i te s , c l a s s if i ed i n a l l t h e r e levan t l i t er a tu r e a s ' Me so l i th ic ' . T he t h ird o b jec t ive i n vo lved t h e s t udy o f amodem e xamp le o f i n ter ac t ion b e tween t wo d i s t inc t , b u t c oex is t ing , e conom ie s —s e t t led a g r icu l tu r e , a nd h un t ing -ga the r ing w i th s h if t ing -cu l t iva t ion — w i th t h e i r r e spec t ive a s soc ia ted s oc io -cu l tu r a l a nd o the r s ub sy s t em s , k nown f r om t h e s ame r eg ion o f R a ja s than a s whe re t h e A ha r ian a nd Mesol i th ic a r chaeo log ica l s i t e s u nde r a na ly s is h ave b een f ound . I n u nder l in ing t h e c on tex t a nd mo t iva t ion s f o r my s t udy , a s w el a s t h e l im i ta t ion s o n a va i lab le a pp roache s a nd c ho ice s , Ib r ief ly d i scu s sed t h e d i scove ry o f Aha r , t h e t ype s i te o f t h e ` Aha r C u l tu r e ' , a nd o the r s i te s c a tego r ized a s A ha r ian b y a r chaeo log is t s , a ga in s t a b ackg round o f p re - a nd p o s t Indep endence I nd ian A r chaeo logy ( Chap te r 1 ) . T he u rgen t n eed , i n my o p in ion , t o c omp i le e x is t ing d a ta a nd a dd t o i t , g i ven t h e p r e sen t s i tua t ion w he re h uman a c t iv i t ie s i n c lud ing d eve lopmen t w o rk , mode rn iza t ion , c hange s i n t r ad i t iona l b u i ld ing t e chn iques a nd m a t e r ia l s , a mong o the r t h ing s , a s w el a s n a tu ra l e ro s ion a nd o the r f a c tor s , a r e c omb in ing t o o b l i te ra te mo r e a nd mo re o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd w a s a l so e mpha s ized ( Chap te r s 1a nd 2 ) . A t t h e s ame t ime , v a r iou s c on s t r a in t s g ove rn ing e xcava t ion s a nd s y s tema t ic l a rge -sca le w o rk o n t h e a r chaeo logy o f t h e A ha r C u l tu r e i n t h e i mmed ia te f u tu r e h ad t o b e r e cogn i sed ( Chap te r 2 ) . T he se l im i ta t ion s d ecr ea sed t h e r a nge o f m e thodo log ica l o p t ion s a va i lab le . T aken t oge the r , a l t h e se f a c to r s p rov ided a c on tex t f o r , a nd h ave i nf luenced t h e c on ten t s o f t h e r e sea rch d es ign wh ich w a s e ven tualy a dop ted f o r t h i s w o rk . T he f o rma l a r t icu la t ion o f amode l s ugge s t ing p o s s ib le i n te rac t ion b e tween ` c ha lco l i th ic ' a nd ` me so l i th ic ' s i te s i nS ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than d u r ing t h e t h ird t o s econd m ilenn ium B .C . s t ems f r om d a ta p roduced b y e xcava t ion s a t` Cha lco l i th ic ' A ha r a nd G i lund ( Chap te r 4 ) , a nd ' Me so l i th ic ' B ago r ( Chap t e r 6 ) . R ad io -ca rbon d a te s f r om A ha r a nd B ago r p o in t t o t h e g enera l c on tempo rane i ty b e tween c e r ta in l e ve l s a nd s t r a ta f r om b o th , i . e . A ha r P e r iod Ia nd B ago r P e r iod I ,p ha se I , r e spec t ive ly . T h i s t empo ra l c oex t en s ivene s s i sp a r t ia l ly s uppor ted b y al im i ted r a nge o f ma t e r ia l o b jec t s f o und a t B ago r . T he se i n d ica t e p robab le c on ta c t b e tween t ha t s i te a nd s i te s b e long ing t ot h e C ha lcol i th ic , s eden ta ry a g r icu l tu ra l , Aha r C u l tu re c a tego ry Mo re t h an s even ty s i te s b e long ing t o e ach c a tego ry , h un t ing -ga the r ing m icro l i th ic , a s e xemp lf ied b y Meso l i th ic B ago r , a nd c ha lco l i th ic s e t t led a g r icu l tu ra l , a s k nown f r om Aha r , h ave a l r eady b een d i scove red i n S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than ( Chap ter s 5a nd 6 ) . I n s p i te o ft h i s , h owever , i n fo rma t ion p e r ta in ing t o v e ry f ew o f t h e se s i te s i s a va i lab le f r om t h e e x tan t l i t e ra tur e . An e ven s ma l le r n umbe r o f t h ese , n ame ly A ha r , G i lund a nd B ago r , h ave b een e xcava ted t od a te . T hu s , t h er e i s ma rked ly i n adequa te a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a tp re sen t o n mo s t a spec t s o f t h e p r edom inan t ly h un t ing -ga the r ing m icro l i th -u s ing ` me so l i th ic ' s i t es , a nd t h e s eden ta ry a g r icu l tu ra l c oppe r -u s ing ` c ha lcol i th ic ' s i te s o f t h e t h ird t o s e cond m ilenn ium B .C . , t yp if ied b y B ago r a nd A ha r r e spec t ive ly . ' T h is p auc i ty i n c ludes a r chaeo log ica l e v idence t h a t c an i n dub i tab ly c o r robora te o r r e f u te i n te r ac t ion b e twe en t h em . I n t h e a b sence

1

H ence t h e a uemp t o f t h i s w o rk t oc o l lec t , c ola te , d i scu s s a nd s umma r ize e x i s t ing a nd f r e sh a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i nC hap te r s 1t o 6a nd t h e S i tes G aze t tee r

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o f s uch a b so lu te p roof , t h e r efo re , t h e mode l o f p robab le c on tempo rane i ty a nd s ome f o rm o f i n t e r r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s ome ` me so l i th ic ' a nd ` c ha lco l i th ic ' , o r h un t ing -ga the r ing -pa s to ra l a nd a g r icu l tu r a l , s i tes o f S ou th -ea s ter n R a ja s than , d u r ing t h e t h ird t o s e cond m ilenn ia B .C . , a s d emon s t r a t ed b y t h e e x is t ing a r chaeo log ica l d a ta f r om B agor a nd A ha r , r e ta in s i t s v a l id i ty . B o th s pa t io tempo ra l c on tempo r ane i ty a nd a r a nge o f i n te rac t ion s , s pann ing c on tac t t o r e la t ive i s o la t ion , a r e k nown b e tween g roup s f olow ing d i f f e r ing e conom ie s a nd /o r s o c io c u l tu ra l , r el ig iou s a nd o t he rp rac t ice s f r om s ever a l h i s to r ica l a nd modem c on tex t s i nI nd ia a s w el a s o the r p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld ( Chap te r s 7a nd 8 ) . I n S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than , t h e r eg ion o f my a r chaeo log ica l s t udy , t h e e x i s t ing , a nd h i s to r icaly k nown , r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s eden ta ry a g r icu l tu ra l v ilage s , o r ` p ea san t c ommun i t ie s ' ( Chap te r 7 ) , a nd B h i l t r iba l s ( Chap te r 8 ) , p rov ide s o ne e xamp le o f s uch i n t e rac t ive b ehav iou r , b e tween t wo e conom ie s , a nd t h e i r r e spec t ive r e la ted s t ruc tu re s a nd a c t iv i t ie s . H oweve r , t h i s e xamp le i sn o t m ean t a s ad i rec t , o r ` f o rma l ' ( Hodde r 1 982a ) , a na logy . I t s hou ld n o t b e v i ewed a s as i tua t ion n ece s sa r i ly i d en t ica l w i th t h e i n te r re la t ion sh ip , p o s tu la ted i nt h is b ook , b e tween I ne sol i th ic ' a nd ` c ha lco l i th ic ' , o r B ago r type a nd A ha r ian , s i te s d ur ing c . t h ird t o s e cond m ilenn ia B .C . , b u t r a ther , a s a n a l te rna t ive , p r e sen t -day , mode l o f i n te rac t ion b e twe en t wo d i s t inc t p a t te rn s o f e conom ic s ub s is tence a nd a s soc ia ted s ub s y s tem s , wh ich may a i d t h e e l uc ida t ion o f s ome a spec t s o f p r eh is tor ic p henomena . T he f a c t t h a t t h e modem a nd a r cha eo log ica l d a ta c ome f r om t h e s ame r eg ion ( Chap te r 3 ) , a nd t h a t t h er e i s ac er ta in e s tab l i shed h i s to r ic i ty f o r t h e modem e xamp le , i s t hu s , o n ly ma rg ina l ly mean ingfu l t o t h is w o rk , i n s o f a r a s i tu nde r l ine s c oex ten s ivene s s , t h e i mpo r tance o f c u l tu r a l e co logy , a nd a h i s to ry o f i n te rac t ion s a nd s o o n , o ve r al ong p e r iod o f t ime . I n o the r w o rd s , i t d emon s t r a te s t h e e t hnog raph ic r e a l i ty o f a n a r chaeo log ica l h ypo the s i s , w i thou t b e ing , i na ny w ay , c onc lu s ive . Adm i t ted ly , t h e u se o f e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s c an h ave g r ea te r s i gn if icance i f t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta -se t s , t o wh ich t h ey a r e a pp l ied , o ccu r i n r e la t ive ly s im i la r s pa t ia l , e nv ironmen ta l a nd o the r c ond i t ion s . ' I n t h a t r e spec t , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e modem a nd a r chaeo log ica l mode l s o f i n te rac t ion d e sc r ibed i n t h i s b ook s ha re a c ommon g eog r aph ica l t e r r i tor y h a s s ome r e levan ce . ' A t t h e s ame t ime , i ti se s sen t ia l t h a t a r chaeo log ica l mode l s b e i n dependen t ly s e lf -su s ta inab le , a t ac oncep tua l l e ve l . Ana log ie s d rawn b e tween e x i s t ing s e t s o f d a ta s hou ld n o t , t h e r ef o r e , b e d ependen t s o le ly o n t h e o ccu r renc e o f b o th mode rn a nd p reh is to r ic e xamp les f r om t h e s ame a r ea , b u t mu s t a l so b e s uppor ted b y e v idence a t o the r l e ve l s . ( A s t h is i s sue h a s b een r e cogn i sed a nd d i scu s sed i n r e c en t e t hnoa r chaeo log ica l l i t er a tu re h oweve r , i tw il n o t b e s t re s sed f u r the r ) . Meanwh i le , c u r ren t a r chaeo log ica l a nd e t hnoa r chaeo log ica l t hough t a ccep t s t h a t t h ough t h e c r i t ica l u se o f e t hnoa r chaeo logy c an , a nd c on sc iou s ly a nd s ub con sc iou s ly d oe s , h e lp i n u nde r s tand ing a nd i n terp r e t ing a spec t s o f a r chaeo log ica l i n fo rma t ion , t h e p re sen t c anno t p rov ide a b so lu te , c o r re la t ive , c ompa r i son s w i th t h e p a s t . ' T he a im o f t h i s w o rk , t h e refo re , h a s n o t b een t o e x t r apo la te b l ind ly f r om t h e p re sen t i n o rde r t o d ec iphe r o r i n te rp re t t h e

2

An a spec t s t re ssed i n t h e ' d irec t h i s to r ica l a pp roach ' , u sed , i n p a r t icu la r , b y Ame r ican s cho la r s s i nce t h e l a te 1 9 th C en tu ry ( Thoma s 1 894 ; S t rong 1 935 ; S tewa rd 1 942 ) .

3

T he " i n te rp re ta t iona l u se s o f e t hnog raph ic a nd o the r e v idence f o r a r cha eo logy a r e mo s t l i ke ly t o b e mean ingfu l whe re t h e re c an b e s hown t o b e med ia f o r b o th g eog raph ica l a nd c u l tu ra l c on t inu i ty" ( A lkh in 1 963 :89 ) .

4

A ccord ing t o H odde r ( 1982a :9 ) , ' The p as t i s t h e p re sen t i n t h e s en se t h a t o u r r e con s t ruc t ion s o f t h e mean ing o fd a ta f r om t h e p a s t a r e b a sed o n a na log ie s w i th t h e w o r ld a r ound u s . . . A l l a r chaeo logy i sb a sed o n a na logy a nd t h e p roce ss o f a na log ica l r e a son ing c an b e e xp l ic i t a nd v igo rou s . B u t w e c anno t , a s h a s o f ten b een c l a imed , s t r ic t ly t e s t t h e a na log ie s a nd t h e h ypo the se s wh ich r e su l t f r om t h e i r u se . A rchaeo log i s t s c anno t p rove o r f a l s i fy t h e i r h ypo th e se s o n i ndependen t d a ta . A l l t h ey c an a ch ieve i s a d emon s t ra t ion t h a t o ne h ypo the s is o r a na logy i sb e t te ro r w o r se , b o th t h eo re t icaly a nd i nr e la t ion t od a ta . . . Ou r k now ledge o f t h e p a s t i s b a sed o n t h e p re sen t a nd . . . the t a sk o f t h e r i go rou s a nd c on sc ien t iou s a r chaeo log i s t i st or emove t h e s ca le s o f a s sump t ion s a nd t o a ch ieve c r i t ica l s e l f -know ledge , p a r t icu la r ly i n r e la t ion t oi d eo log ie s o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re -ma ter ia l a r chaeo log i s t s d ig u p f r om t h e p a s t . "

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a r chaeo logy o f t h e r e g ion . Ih ave t r ied t o p r esen t t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , wh ich , a mong o ther i s sue s , s ugge s t s a mode l f o r s ome l e ve l o f i n t e rac t ion b e tween h un t ing -ga the r ing a nd s e t t led a g r icu l tu ra l s i te s i n S ou th -ea s ter n R a ja s than a r ound t h e t h ird t o s econd m ilenn ia B .C . , a nd modem d a ta , wh ich a cknow ledge s t h e e x is tence o f i n te r re la t ion sh ip , ( no t f uly a na ly sed ) , b e tween c ommun i t ie s f olow ing d if e ren t e conom ic a nd a s soc ia ted a c t iv i t ie s , a s s epa ra te c a se s tud ie s . T he se n eed t o b e c r i t ica l ly a na ly sed , c ompar ed a nd s yn the s ized i n o rde r t ob ecome mu tua l ly r e levan t , a nd a r chaeo log ica l ly m ean ing fu l . ' T h is p r esen t s t udy h a s p r ima r i ly b een u sef u l i n c olec t ing a r chaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic d a ta ( a t f i r s t h and a nd s econda ry l e ve l s ) , t h e v o ic ing o f s ome q ue r ie s , a nd t h e f o rmu la t ion o f a t e n ta t ive a r chaeo log ica l mode l h ypo the s i s ing i n ter ac t ion b e tween I ne so l i th ic ' h un te r -ga the r e r s a nd ` c ha lco l i th ic ' a g r icu l tura l i s t s , a h ypo the s is t h a t i s s t r eng thened b y o the r a r chaeo log ica l , h i s to r ica l o r c on tempo ra ry mode l s o f g ene ra l i n t erac t ion .6 9 . 2 D iscu s s ion : t he f ormu la t ion o f a mode l a nd t he d ef ence o f ah ypo thes is T he a r chaeo log ica l i n fo rma t ion s umma r ised i n t h i s b ook r a ise s s eve ra l i s sue s , wh ich l e ad f r om t h e h ypo the s i s o fi n te r ac t ion b e twe en t wo c a tego r ie s o fs i te s t oo the r b a s i s q ues t ion s . T he se i n c lude f a c to r s i nf luenc ing t h e i n i t ia l t e chno log ica l t r an s i t ion f r om P a laeo l i th ic t o Me so l i th ic a nd l a te r p e r iod s , a nd t h e a s soc ia ted s oc io -cu l tu ra l c onno ta t ion s o ft h e se c hanges , t h e c a ta ly s t s f o r c hange , t h e o r ig in s o f a g r icu l tu r e , p a laeoeconom ic ef i c iency a nd t h e v a r iab le s a f f ec t ing t h e p rac t ice o f as pec if ic s ub s is tence p a t te rn , t h e r e a son s f o r s ome g roup s b ecom ing s eden ta ry f a rme r s , t h e r i se o f c omp lex s oc ie t ie s a nd p e r s is t enc e o f l e s s s oph i s t ica ted s t ruc tu re s , t h e r o le o f t r ade a nd e xchang e b e tween t h e d if e r en t g roup s d u r ing p r eh is to ry a nd h i s to ry , a nd o the r g ene ra l b u t r e la ted a r chaeo log ica l p rob lems . ' T he p henomenon o f i n te rac t ion b e tween g roup s h a s b een t h e s ub jec t o f c on s ide r ab le i n ter e s t f o r a r chaeo log is t s , a n th ropo log is t s , s oc io log is t s , e conom i s t s a nd o the r s . ' I n t h e c on tex t o f a r chaeo logy , h oweve r , t h e p roce s s o f i n te rac t ion , i t s d i f f e ren t f o rm s a nd t h e i r r e cogn i t ion f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , t h e i n te rp lay o f o the r v a r iab le s a nd a s soc ia ted mo t iva t ing o r r e s t r a in ing f a c to r s t h a t i nf luen ce i n te r ac t ion s , a nd s o o n , h ave o n ly b e en p a r t ia l ly d ef ined , u nde r s tood a nd e xp la ined . C onsequen t ly , n o ' g ene ra l l aw s o f i n te rac t ion ' , wh ich may b e a pp l icab le t o a l l p o s s ib le i n te rac t ive s i tua t ion s , h ave b een d i scove red ( o r f o rmu la ted ) e i the r . ' T ha t i n te rac t ion , b e tween i nd iv idua l s a nd b e tween g roup s , u sua l ly o ccu r red i s , h oweve r , a n a ccep ted p r inc ip le , a nd r e f e rence h a s b een made , i nt h e c ou r se o f t h i s b ook , t o e xamp le s o f i n ter ac t ion k nown t o a r cha eo logy a nd a n th ropo logy ( s ee C hap te r s 7a nd 8 ) . 5

T he e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l s i gn if icance o f t h e modem e xamp le o f i n te r re la t ion sh ip b e tween R a ja s than i v i l lage r s a nd t r iba l . s a nd i t s p o ten t ia l i n u nde r s tand ing s ome f a ce t s o f p r eh i s to r ic ma te r ia l r ema in s r e cove r ed f r om t h e r eg ion , s t i l l r equ i re s c on s ide rab le f u tu re a na ly s i s , a nd a t a mo re t h o rough l e ve l t h an h a s b een p o ss ib le i n t h is wo rk .

6

I t

7

S uch i s sue s a r e t h e s ub jec t o f c oncen t ra t ed w o rk a l ready , a nd c an o n ly b e b r ief ly men t ioned . T hey a r e , h oweve r , i n te rconnec ted w i th e ach o the r . T hu s , i n t a L k ing a bou t t h e c oex i s tence o f ' Me so l i th ic ' a nd ' Cha lcol i th ic ' s i te s , i ti s v i ta l t o q ue ry w hy a c e r ta in g roup b egan t o p ra c t ice s e t t led a g r icu l tu re a nd a no the r d id n o t , whe the r c u l tu ra l a nd p a laeo -env i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s w e re r e spon s ib le f o r c e r ta in e conom ic p rac t ice s , a nd s o o n . H oweve r , t h e se , a dm i t ted ly i mpo r tan t , i s sue s c anno t b e d i scu s sed a tl eng th h e re , b e ing p e r iphe ra l t ot h e ma in s cope o ft h i s b ook .

i sh oped t ha t t h e d a ta -bank wh ich h a s b ecome a va i lab le a s ac on sequence o f w o rk ing t owa rd s t h e f i r s t o b jec t ive o f t h i s wo rk , i . e . c omp i l ing e x i s t ing d a ta a nd a dd ing t o i t( Chap te r s 4a nd 5 , S i te s Ga ze t tee r ) , w i l l p rove u sefu l f o r f u tu re w o rk o n t h e A ha r C u l t u r e a nd r e la t ed i s sue s .

B inford 1 972 ; B oham ian a nd P log 1 967 ; D a l ton 1 975 ; D eA t ley a nd F ind low 1 984 ; E a r le a nd E r ic son 1 977 ; G ode l ie r 1 977 ; H a l l e t a l 1 984 ; H a rd ing 1 967 ; H odde r 1 978a , 1 982c ; P o lany i e t a l 1 957 ; R en f rew 1 975 ; R en f rew e ta l 1 982 ; S ab lof fa nd L ambe rg -Ka r lovsky 1 975 ; a mong o the r s . 9

Is ha l l n o t e n te r t h e u n re so lved d eba te w i th in c u r r en t ( p roce ssua l o r ' New ' ) a r chaeo logy r ega rd ing w he the r o r n o t a r chaeo log ica l i n fo rma t ion c an b e c od if ied w i th in l aw s , a s i sp o s s ib le a mong t h e d i sc ip l in e s o fp u re a nd n a tu ra l s c iences ( 1 3 in ford 1 967 , 1 968 , 1 982 ; a nd o the r s ) , s i n ce t h i s i sb eyond t h e s cop e o ft h i s b ook .

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T hu s , o n t h e b a s i s o f a va i lab le d a ta , wh ich a l so e s tabl i she s t h e t empo r a l c on tempo rane i ty o f t h e s eden ta ry , a g r icu l tu r a l , c oppe r -wo rk ing A ha r C u l tu re s i te s o f S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than ( d iscu s sed i n C hap te r s 4 a nd 5 ) , w i th t h e l a rge ly h un t ing -ga the r ing m ic ro l i th -u s ing s e t t lemen t o f B ago r , P e r iod IP ha se I ,' a nd p robab ly s e ve ra l o f t h e o the r ' Me so l i th ic ' s i te s o f t h e r eg ion ( d iscus sed i n C hap te r 6 ) , Ih ave s ugge s ted t h a t s ome d eg ree o f i n te rac t ion o r i n t e r re la t ion sh ip c ou ld h ave e x i s ted b e tween t h e se t wo , a r chaeo log ica l ly d i s t ingu ishab le , c a tego r ie s o f s i tes d u r ing t h e t h i rd t os econd m i l lenn ia B .C . ( Chap te r s 1 , 2a nd 6 ) . S uch c on tac t , a s y e t u nquan t if ied , h a s b een a s sumed i n t h e r e cen t w r i t ing s o f s eve r a l a r chaeo log is t s who h ave c ommen ted o n t h e s i te o f B ago r . L ukacs e t a l ( 1982 ) h ave e xp r ess ed t h e o p in ion t h a t i n t h e t h ird m ilenn ium B .C . t h e m ic ro l i th ic u s ing h un t ing g a the r ing i nhab i tan t s o f B ago r c ame i n to c on tac t w i th s e t t led f a rme r s , who u sed me ta l t o o l s a nd p o t te ry . T he B ago r ian s , t h u s a cqu i red t h e se t r a i t s f r om t h e l a t te r ( i b id :1) . A g rawa l ( 1982 :65 ) b a s ing h i s v i ew s o n t h e r a d io -ca rbon d a te s f r om B ago r a nd t h e m a te r ia l o b jec t s f ound t h e re , s t a ted t ha t t h e re w a s c l ea r ly s ome s ymb io t ic r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e Meso l i th ic c u l tu r es o fR a jas than a nd t h e c on tempo ry a dvanced c u l tu r e s .' A ccord ing t o M is ra a nd N aga r ( n .d :351) t h e " h igh ly d eve lop ed n a tu r e o f p o t tery a nd m e t a l t oo l s r u le s o u t t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e se i t ems o f ma te r ia l c u l tu r e w e r e t h e i n ven t ion o f B agor ean s . T hey w e r e c e r ta in l y d er ived t h rough c u l ture c on tac t w i th s ome o the r c ommun i t ie s . T hu s wh i le B ago r i t se lf w a s n o t af ul -f ledged a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lemen t , i t s e a r ly d a te h in t s a t t h e p o s s ib i l i ty , i n deed c er ta in ty , o f t h e e x i s tence o f w e l l -deve loped v ilage s e t t lemen t s s ome whe r e i nt h e r e g ion ." [ empha s is m ine ] A c tua l a r chaeo log ica l e v idenc e f o r B ago r -A ha r c on tac t , i n t h e s hape o f r e cogn isab le ' e x te rna l ' o r i nnova t ive t r a i t s , h oweve r , i sl im i ted t o t h e ma te r ia l c u l tu r e o b jec t s f ound a t B ago r , d u r ing i t s P e r iod I p ha se I , d a t ing b e tween c . 2 800 B .C . -1 000 (? ) B .C . T he se i n c lude t h e p r e sence o f as ma l l n umbe r o f c opper a r t if ac t s , f ound w i th t h e h uman b u r ia ls o f t h a t p ha se , a nd t h e a ppea r ance o f p o t te ry a nd b ead s . C oppe r -sme l t ing a nd c a s t ing i sk nown f r om t h e s i te o f Aha r ( Sanka l ia e t a l 1 969 ) . T he o the r A ha r C u l tu r e s i te s a r e , t hus , a l so b e l ieved t oh ave p os se s sed t h e k now ledge a nd t e chn ique o fc oppe r m e ta l lu rgy ( M i sra 1 969 ) . O n t h e o the r h and , t h e r e i sa s y e t , n o e v idence f o r me ta l lu rgy , i n t h e f o rm o f s l ag , f ur n ace p i t s o r o the r p a raphe rna l ia ( wh ich d o o ccu r a t Aha r a nd A ha r ian s i t es , s ee S i te G aze t te e r a nd C hap te r 5 ) , a t t h e s i te o f B ago r . T he d i scove ry o f c oppe r a r t if ac t s a t B ago r i s , t hu s , b e l ieved t o i nd ica te s ome k ind o f c on tac t b e tween t h a t s i te a nd c on tempo ra ry , n e ighbou r ing c oppe r -wo rk ing g roup s . S im i la r ly , p o t tery , w h ich i sn o t k nown d u r ing t h e p u re ly Me so l i th ic P e r iod I ,p ha se Io f B ago r , o ccu r s f o r t h e f i r s t t ime i n P e r iod I ,p ha se I ( s e e C hap te r 6 ) . 7 1% o f t h i s p o t te ry i s s a id t o b ea r s ome s l igh t r e semb lance t o t h e A ha r ian c e r am ic s ( M is ra 1 968 ) . T hough , u n l ike t h e b u lk o f t h e Aha r C u l tu re c e ram ic s , t h e p o t te ry f r om B ago r i sh and -made a nd i l -f i red , i t d i sp lay s " c raf t a ff in i t ie s w i th p o t te ry f r om o the r C ha lco l i th ic s i te s i n t h e r eg ion , s uch a s i o

" t he a nc ien t B agor ians w e re c on temporar ie s o f t h e H a rappan s a nd o f C ha lcol i th ic p opu la t ion s o f c en t ra l a nd p en in su la r I nd ia . A na lys i s o f t h e a r t if ac t t e chno log ie s a nd f a una l r ema in s i nd ica te s t ha t t h ey p a r t ic ipa ted i n t h e t r an s i t ion f r om h un t ing t o p a s to ra l , a nd p o s s ib ly a g r icu l tu ra l , e conom ic l i f eway s o ve r t h e c ou r se o f s eve ra l m ilenn ia " ( Lukacs e ta l1 982 :4 ) .

1 1

Agrawa l 's a na lys is o f B agor i s a s f o l lows : " Ph a se I i s m a rk ed b y e x ten s ive s t one p aved f l oo r s a nd o cca s iona l c i rcu la r a l ignmen t s o f s t one s p robab ly t oh o ld p l a s te red r eed w a l l s . Nume rou s b one s , m any o f t h em c ha r red a nd s p l i t o pen , a s a l so s t one p ebb le s , u sed b o th t o b r eak t h e b one s a nd t o make m ic ro l i th s , w e re f ound i n t h is p ha se . Que rn s a nd r ubber s i nd ica te ( t h e ) u se o f p lan t f ood . On ly o ne e x t ended a du l t b u r ia l w i th h ead p o in t ing w e s t wa s f ound , t h e g rave w a s i n s ide t h e h ab i ta t ion a nd h ad n o f une r a ry a ppendage . P ha se I s hows c on tac t s w i th t h e c on tempo rar y C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu res , i nd ica ted b y t h e u se o f c opp e r t oo ls a nd b ead s . O the r f e a tu re s o f P ha se I c on t inue b u t ah and mad e p o t te ry w i th i n c i sed a nd a ppl ique d e s ign s a ppea r f o r t h e f i r s t t ime . B ur ia l s a r e mo re e l abo ra te h av ing p o t s a nd p an s , c oppe r t oo l s a nd o rnamen t s . T he s ke le ton s —a l l i n t h e h ab i ta t ion a r ea — w e re f ound i n te r red i n af l exed p o s i t ion . F rom o ne g rave a l one t h i r ty s ix s t one a nd b one b ead s w e r e d i scove red . O ne s pea rhead , t h ree a r rowhead s a nd o ne a w l c o mp r ise t h e c oppe rr eper to ry — a l l f ound i nb u r ia l s " ( Ag rawa l 1 982 :60 -6 1 [ empha s i s m ine ] ) .

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Aha r " ( A l lch in a nd Alch in 1 982 :69 ) . F u r the rmo r e , i n sp i te o f t h e p oor f i r ing a nd ' h and f o rm ing ' t e chn ique s t h e p o t te ry s hape s a nd s t y le s f r om B ago r a r e , a cco rd ing t o t h e e xcava to r s , " s oph is t ica ted a nd s ugge s t a n e a r l ie r p e r iod o f e vo lu t ion e l sewhe r e " ( M i s ra a nd N aga rn .d :351 ) . A no the r a r chaeo log ica l ly v i s ib le c hange ( whe the r a n i nnova t ion o r a n a cqu i red t r a i t ) a t B ago r , i s t h e p re sence o f g rave g oods i n t h e f o rm o f p o t s , c oppe r t oo l s , b ead s a nd o rnamen t s , a nd f ood , d u r ing P e r iod Ip ha se I o f t h e s i te . N o g r ave g ood s w e re , a ppa r en t ly , i n te r r ed w i th h uman b u r ia l s d ur ing t h e p reced ing p e r iod ( i . e . P e r iod Ip ha se I ) . T he re i s a no the r ma jo r d i f f e r ence b e tween P ha se I a nd P ha se I b u r ia l s a t B ago r . I n p l ace o f t h e b u r ia l w i th t h e b ody l a id o u t i n a n e x tended f a sh ion f o und f r om P e r iod Ip ha se Il e ve l s , t h e b u r ia l s d u r ing P e r iod Ip ha se I a r e i n af l exed p o s i t ion .' Un fo r tuna te ly , t h e re i sn o i n fo rma t ion , a tp re sen t , a bou t t h e b u r ia l p rac t ice s o f t h e A ha r C u l tu re , e i the r f r om s i tes i n R a ja s than o r f r om t h e A ha r C u l tu r e l e ve l s , i d en t if ied a t C ha lco l i th ic s i te s l i ke K aya tha e t c . , i n Madhya P r ade sh o r e l sewher e . A t p r e sen t , t h e r ef o re , n o c ompa ra t ive s t ud ie s o n t h is s ub jec t c an b e u nder taken b e tween B agor a nd t h e A ha r C u l tu r e s i te s , u n t i l f u r the r d a ta r ega rd ing t h e s k e le ta l r ema in s a nd mo r tua ry p rac t ice s o f t h e l a t te r c a tegory b ecome a va i lab le . T hu s , w e c anno t f u l ly g auge t h e s i gn if icance , i fa ny , o ft h e a ppea r ance o f g rave -good s a nd t h e c hange s i n b u r ia l p r ac t ice s a tB ago r , d u r ing t h e p e r iod t h a t c u l tu ra l c on tac t w i th A ha r ian s i te s h a s b een p o s tu la ted . G iven , t h e ref o r e , t h e e x is t ing , i n adequa te b ody o f d a ta ( swnma r ized i n C hap ter s 4 , 5a nd 6 , a nd t h e S i te G aze t tee r ) , o n w ha t b a s i s c an t h e h ypo the s is o f c on tac t o r i n te r ac t ion b e tween A ha r C u l tu r e s i te s a nd c on tempo ra ry h un t ing -co l lec t ing g roup s b e s u s ta ined? A c ompa r i son o f ' c u l tu r e t r a i t s ' , a t as imp l is t ic l e ve l , p r e sen t s ap i c tu re wh ich m ay b e s ummed u p a s f olow s : A har

B ago r

1 .

C oppe r o re , s l ag , f i n ished a r t if ac t s i n c lud ing b ang le s a nd a xe s , e v idence f o r o n s i te me talu rgy

1 .

Sma l l n umbe r o ff i n i shed o b jec t s o fc oppe r o n ly . N o e v idence f o r s me l t ing o r o n s i te me ta l lu rgy

2 .

An umber o fd i s t inc t ive p o t te r ie s , i nv a r iou s f ab r ic s , s hape s , t ype s a nd s u r f ace t r ea tmen t s

2 .

S ome h and -made p o t te ry , s a id t od i sp lay a ff in i t ies w i th o t he r c ha lcol i th ic s i te s , i n c lud ing Aha r

3 .

Appa r en t ly n o m ic ro l i th s a t a l , ( bu t g ood l i th ic i n du s t ry , s e e C hap te r 5 )

3 .

Al a rge q uan t i ty o fm ic ro l i th s

4 .

E v idence f o r a g r icu l tu re , o ccu r rence o fr i ce , ( ? )m ile t ; q uem s a nd g r ind ing s t one s f ound

4 .

U nc lea r s i tua t ion , p o s s ib i l i ty o fi n c ip ien t a g ra r ian p rac t ice s ; q uer n s a nd g r ind ing s t one s f ound

5 .

As mal q uan t i ty o fa n ima l b one s . C a t t le r ema in s p re d om ina te f o rm ing 7 8% o ft h e

5 .

C on s ide rab le q uan t i ty o ff auna l r ema in s . S heep /goa t mak e u p n ea r ly 6 3% o ft h e t o ta l a s sem -

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T he s t udy o ft h e h uman r ema in s f r om B ago r b y L u l ca c s e ta l( 1 982 ) , l e d t h em t oc on c lude t h a t p a ra l le l s o f t h e mo r tua ry p rac t ice s a t B ago r a nd a t L ang luu t j , a' Me so l i th iebn ic rol i th ic s i te f r om G u ja ra t , s ugge s t " c u l tu ra l c on tac t s o f s ome d eg ree a mong s t t h e se a nc ien t p opu la t ion s , i n c lud ing t h e p eop le w ho se r ema in s a r e f ound a tl a t e r C ha lco l i th ic s i t e s i nw e s te rn I nd ia " ( i b id :4 ) .

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b l age f r om P e r iod Ip ha se I . C a t t le b one s f o rm 1 7% , p ig 4% a nd d if e r en t s o r t s o fc e rv id s 1 4% o ft h e o t he r f a una l d a ta ( s ee T ab le 6 : 1)

t o ta l . S he ep /goa t c omp r i se 8% , p ig 4% a nd d ee r ( c er v id s ) 4% o ft h e f a una l a s emb lage ( s ee T ab le 4 : 1 )

6 .

B ead s made o u t o fd if e r en t ma te r ia l s , i n c lud ing t e r r aco t ta , c ar n e l ian , s he l l , s ch i s t , g l a s s , f a ience , e t c . O ne b ead o fl a p is l a zu l i i n d ica te s p robab le t r ade b e twe en A ha r a nd s ome o the r c on tempora ry c omp lex s oc ie ty

6 .

B ead s made f r om a ga te , g a rne t , c a rne l ian a nd o the r ma te r ia l s , o f t en f ound w i th h uman b u r ia l s a s g ravegood s . T h ir ty -s ix b one a nd s t one b ead s r epor ted f r om o ne b u r ia l

7 .

N o i n fo rma t ion r e ga rd ing d i s p osa l o ft h e d ead , o r mo r tua ry p rac t ice s

7 .

O ccu r r enc e o f f l exed b u r ia l s , w i th a s soc ia t ed g ravegood s . B u r ia l s f ound w i th in t h e s e t t lemen t a r ea

8 .

E v idence f o r s i zeab le r e c tang u la r b u i ld ing s made o fe i the r u nbaked mud -b r ick s , o r s ch is t a nd mud , o r b o th . P robab ly c over ed w i th d aub a nd t h a tch . D e ta i l s f r om G i lund s ugge s t ac omp lex & i mp r e s s ive a r ch i t ec tu ra l s k il ( t hough n o t c ompa rab le t ot h e H a rappan t own -p lann ing a nd b u i ld ing s ) .

8 .

R ema in s o fc i r cu la r a l ignmen t s o fs t one s a nd s t one -paved f l oor s . F ragmen t s o f g n e is s a nd s ch i s t , p robab ly " s uppo r t s f o r r e ed a nd b amboo h u t s o r w ind s c reen s " ( M is ra 1 968 ) , a l so o ccu r , a l ong w i th t wo s ma l l p i ece s o fr e ed imp r e s sed d aub

H owever , t h e a bove c ompa r ison b e twe en t h e ma te r ia l a s semb lage s e xcava ted f r om A ha r a nd B ago r r e spec t ive ly of e r n o s imp le s o lu t ion s t o t h e i s sue o f i n te rac t ion s a nd i n te r re la t ion sh ip s e i the r: 3 T hu s , wh i le c e r ta in o b jec t s , o r ' c u l tu ra l t r a i t s ' , may b e i n d ica t ive o f c on tac t o r t r ade a nd e xchange b e twe en t h e C ha lco l i th ic Aha r C u l tur e s i tes a nd B ago r , a va i lab le a r chaeo log ica l d a ta d oe s n o t f a c i l i ta te t h e r e -con s t r uc t ion o ft h e i t em s , me thod s a nd mode o f i n t e r change . F o r e xamp le , i ti sp robab le t h a t t h e A ha r C u l tu r e c ommun i t ie s t r aded a t t h e l o ca l a nd l ong -d is tanc e l e ve l s , b u t i n suf f ic ien t i n fo rma t ion pr ec lude s , a t p r e sen t , a r el iab le mode l o f Aha r ian e xchange p a t ter n s . I n s hor t , t h e e v idenc e f o r i n te rac t ion b e twe en t h e Tha lcol i th ic ' Aha r a nd ' Meso l i th ic ' B ago r c a tego r ie s o f s i te s i sb a sed o n t h e ir e s tab l i shed c on tempo rane i ty , a nd t h e p r e sence o f c er ta in ' i n t ru s ive ' o b jec t s , o r t r a i t s , a t B agor . T he g ener a l c on tempo rane i ty o f o t he r Tha lco l i th ic ' a nd ' La te S tone A ge ' , o r ' Meso l i th ic ' , s i te s h a s b een c on s t rued f r om d a ta g a the red f r om , a mong o t he r s , e xcava t ion s a t L anghna j i n G u ja ra t , a nd B h imbe tka a nd A damga rh i n Madhya P rade sh ( s ee A g r awa l 1 982 :71) , i n We s te rn a nd C en t ra l I nd ia . O the r a r chaeo log ica l e xamp le s e cho s uch a p o s s ib il i ty . T he se i n c lude t h e , a dm i t ted ly s ke tchy , e v idence f r om P u shka r i n C en t ra l R a ja s than ( Alch in e t a l 1 978 ) , a nd G ane shwa r i n N or ther nR a ja s than ( Ag rawa la 1 981 , 1 982 ; p e r s . c omm . R .C . A gr awa la & V i jay K uma r ) . A t P u sh i ca r , s i t es r a ng ing f r om t h e P a laeo l i th ic t o Me sol i th ic c l u s te r a round t h e B udha , Madhya a nd P u sh l ca r R a j l a ke s ( Alch in e ta l 1 972 ; A l lch in a nd G oud ie 1 974 ; A l lch in e ta l 1 978 ) . T he se " appea r t o r e p r e sen t ac on t inuou s l o ca l c u l tu ra l a nd t e chno log ica l t r ad i t ion " ( Alch in a nd Alch in 1 982 :58 ) .

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S ee v a r iou s e s says i nC la rke 1 977 ; G reen e ta l1 978 ; H odde r 1 978a ; Megaw 1 977 ; M i l le r a nd T iley 1 984 ; R en f rew 1 973 ; R o ss 1 980 ; U cko e ta l1 972 ; a mong o the r s .

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O ne o f t h e s i te s , B udha P u shka r J( Alch in e ta l1 978 ) , p roduced aw ide ly s p r ead s u r f ace s c a t te r o f p o t te ry , wh ich i sr epor ted t o b e b road ly c oex ten s ive w i th t h e me so l i th ic i n du s t ry ( i b id :331) . T he b u lk o f t h e p o t she rd s h ave b een a s s igned , o n t h e b a s i s o f " b road c ompa r ison s w i th f o rm s f r om A ha r ( Sanka l ia e t a l 1 969 ) a nd t h e B er ach B a s in ( M i sr a 1 967 ) , t o t h e s e cond m ilenn ium B .C . " , wh i le t h e r e s t a r e d a ted b e tween t h e l a t e c en tu r ie s B .C . t oA .D . ( Alch in e ta l1 978 :331 -333 ) . As ma l l c opp e r h ook , 3 2 mm x 1 2 mm , w a s a l so f ound . T h is i ss a id t ob e t ypo log ica l ly d i s s im i la r t ot h e s t anda rd H a r appan h ook s . B udha P u shka r C , f r om wh ich a s ma l l c o l lec t ion o f s herd s w a s made i n t h e a r ea o f t h e m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry , i s a l so r epor ted a s h av ing p o t te ry s im i la r t o B udha P u shka r J , a nd p robab ly o f s im i la r a ge ( i b id :335 ) . H oweve r , s u r f ace c olec t ion s f r om a n " open s i te " ( i b id ) , d e s igna ted Madhya P u shka r C , i n t h e v aley , m idway b e twe en Madhya P u shka r a nd P u shka r R a j , a ppa r en t ly i n c luded p o t te ry a nd a n umbe r o f b roken r ubb ing -s tone s a nd q ue rn s , b u t s ca r ce ly a ny m ic ro l i th s ( i b id :336 -337 ) . T he f ab r ic , f o rm , s hape s a nd t ype o f t h e Madhya P ushka r Cp o t te ry r a is e s s ome i n te r e s t ing i s sue s , b ecause , a l though many o ft h e f o rm s a r e s a id t o b e c ompa r ab le w i th " t ho se o f A ha r , G i lund a nd t h e B er ach B a s in , s ome o f t h e r egu la r f e a tu r e s o f t h e se s i t e s a r e a b sen t . N one the le ss , t h e w ho le a s semb lage , w i th t h e r ubb ing s t one s a nd q uer n s a nd t h e n umbe r o f l a rger p o t s i ss ugge s t ive o f amo re s e t t led c ommun i ty t h an a r e t h e r ema in s f r om t h e d une s i t e P u shka r J . We s ha l l p robab ly n o t b e f a r w ide of t h e . ma rk i n c ompa r ing t h e p o t t e ry w i th A ha r a nd G i lund , wh e re t h e b l ack -and red w a r e , t h e h eav ie r v es se l s o f r e d w a re , t h e r oughen ing o f t h e e x te r io r s u r f ace s o f b ow l , e t c . , a r e a l i n e v idence . I t may t h e r ef o re b e t e n ta t ive ly a s s igned t ot h e s e cond m i l lenn ium B .C ." ( F .R . Alch in i n B . Alch in e ta l1 978 :337 ) . Alch in 's g ene ra l c onc lu s ion ( i b id ) , r ega rd ing t h e p o t t e ry f r om s u r f ace c olec t ion s a t a n umbe r o f s i te s a r ound B udha P u shka r , Madhya P u shka r , H ok r a a nd D evan aga ra , i s t h a t t h e r e r ema in s ac on s i s ten t g roup o f f o rms a nd w a r e s w h ich h ave t h e i r c l ose s t a na log ie s a t B ago r o r , a l te rna te ly , A ha r ( Alch in e ta l 1 978 ) . A l lch in s t r e s se s t h e d if e renc e b e tween t h e g roup o fp o t te r ie s c ompa r ab le t oB ago r a nd t o A ha r . A cco rd ing t o h im , " we n o ted i n p a r t icu la r t h e c on t r a s t b e tween t h e a s semb lage f r om P u shka r J ,f ound i n a s soc ia t ion w i th ac ha rac te r i s t ic L a te - Me so l i th ic s t one i ndu s t ry , a nd t h e p o t t e ry f r om Madhya P u shka r C wh ich s eems t o b e long t o a mo r e p e rmanen t C ha lco l i th ic s e t t lement Wha t w a s t h e c h rono log ica l r e la t ion sh ip o ft h e se t wo g roup s o fp o t t e ry o r i n de ed o f e i the r t o t h e m ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t ry mu s t r ema in t e n ta t ive , b u t w e a r e i mp re ssed b y t h e r egu la r i ty w i th wh ich r e la ted p o t t e ry w a s f ound a mong t h e s c a t te r s a to the r s i t e s , a nd w e a r e i n c l ined t o b el ieve t h a t t h ey may i n d ica te g ene ra l c on tempo rane i ty . T he c i r cum s tance s i n wh ich t h e p o t t ery w a s f ound , t h e l im i ted q uan t i t ie s a nd e v idence o f p o t f o rm s , make a ny mor e p r ec i se c ompa r ison s u nwa r r an ted " ( F .R . A l lch in i nB . Alch in e ta l 1 978 :338 ) . Meanwh i le , t h e r e cen t d i scove r ies a tG ane shwa r ( Nor the rn R a ja s than ) o f c opp e r -wo rk ing a nd i t s a ccompany ing i mp l ica t ion s ( i nc lud ing h ypo the se s r e ga rd ing t r ade o f c oppe r a r t ic le s t o H a r appan s i te s ) , h a s o pened u p f u r th er p o s s ib i l i t ies f o r p o s tu la t ing r e la t ion s b e tween g roup s w ide ly s epa ra ted b o th s pa t ia l ly a nd i ne conom ic t e rm s ( Ag r awa la 1 981 , 1 982 )2 4 H oweve r , wh i le t h e p o s s ib il i ty f o r c on tac t a nd i n te rac t ion b e tween Aha r a nd B ago r c a tego r ie s o f s i t e s may b e s uppo r ted b y s e conda ry e v idence o f t h e k ind c i ted a bove , s uch e v idence d oe s n o t e xp la in t h e s pec if ic n a tu re o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip . N o r d oe s i t a n swe r q ue s t ion s r e ga rd ing t h e c au sa t ive f a c to r s i n vo lved . F o r e xamp le , i f ' Me so l i th ic ' s i te s l i ke B ago r r e ce ived o r l e a rn t c e r ta in t r a i t s a nd i d ea s f r om n e ighbou r ing a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lemen t s , w ha t w a s ' o f e red i n r e tu rn? I s t h e p roce s s a r chaeo log ica l ly r e cogn izab le? Wa s t h e re r e c ip roca l e xchange? I fs o wha t w a s e xchanged? I f

1 4

Add i t iona l i n fo rma t ion o n G aneshwa r a nd t h e ` Gane shwa r -Jodhpu ra C u l tu r e ' i sa wa i ted .

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t h e t wo c a tego r ies o f s i t e s , t yp if ied b y t h e e xcava ted A ha r a nd B agor , d id i n te rac t o r t r ade w i th e ach o the r , c an ` c u l tu r e c hange ' b e r e cogn ised f r om t h e e x i s t ing b ody o fd a ta ? T he a r t icu la t ion o f s u ch q ue s t ion s l e ad s o n t o o the r , p o s s ib ly mor e a b s t rac t q uer ies l i ke , t o wha t e x ten t c an ` c u l ture s ' d eve lop i ndependen t o f e x te rna l i nf luence s? D oe s c on tempo rane i ty n eces sa r i ly i n vo lve i n te rac t ion ? S hou ld t h e p re senc e o f as ma l l n umbe r o f n ew t r a i t s a lway s b e a t t r ibu ted t o i n t erac t ive s i tua t ion s? I f s o , h ow c an ` i n te rac t ion ' b e d i s t ingu i shed f r om ` d if f u s ion '? Wha t , i n f a c t , a r e t h e mechan ism s o f i n te rac t ion a nd why d o b ounda r ie s o r f r on t ie r s e x i s t b e tween d if e r en t a r chaeo log icaly d i s t ingu i shab le c u l tu r e sr A ccord ing t o D eA t ley a nd F ind low ( 1984 :2 ) , " i t i s a ma t te r o f r e co rd t h a t v i r tua l ly a l h uman g roup s make d i s t inc t ion s b e tween s egmen t s o f ap opu la t ion . T h is r a i se s t h e q ue s t ion o f t h e s i gn if icance o f b ounda ry f o rma t ion i n g ene r a l , a nd h ow i t o pe ra ted i n d i f f e ren t c on tex t s . B ounda r ies a r e n o t s t a t ic p henomena , b u t a r e a n i n teg ra l p a r t o f t h e i n te rac t iona l p roce sse s d ef in ing a nd i n teg ra t ing c u l tu ra l u n i t s . T h is c ha rac te r is t ic o f b ounda r ie s i s p a r t icu la r ly i mpor tan t w hen t h e i n te rac t ion s s t ud ied i n vo lve v a r iab le d i s t r ibu t ion s o f d i f f e r en t t y pe s o f ma te r ia l c u l tu r e , o r when t h ey s e lec t ive ly i n vo lve s ome b ehav iou r s a nd n o t o the r s , f o r e xamp le e conom ic d ec i s ion s b u t n o t l i ngu is t ic a ff i l ia t ion . T hu s t h e w ay i n wh ich c u l tu ra l l im i t s med ia te i n t h e i n t e rac t ion s b ecome s i n te r e s t ing . A s t h e l o c i f o r many k ind s o f i n t e rg roup i n te rac t ion , t h ey a r e c r i t ica l i nu nde r s tand ing h ow a nd why s e lec t ive t r an sm i s s ion o fg oods a nd i d ea s o ccu rb e tween g roup s o r b e twe en ag roup a nd i t s .e nv i ronmen t ." S ome E u ropean a r cha eo log i s t s h ave l i nked t h e s t udy o f i n t erac t ive p roc es ses ( i nvo lv ing t h e ` Roman iza t ion ' o f t e r r i tor ie s o r ig ina l ly o u t s ide , o r p e r iphe ra l t o , t h e R oman Emp ire o f t h e e a r ly c en tu r ie s B .C . -A .D . , i n We s te rn a nd N or th -we s te rn E u rope , wh ich w er e l a t e r i n co rpora ted w i th in i t s t e r r i to r ia l b ounda r ies o r s phe r e s o f i nf luence ) , w i th t h eor ie s o f ` a ccu l tu ra t ion ' ( Brand t a nd S lof s t ra 1 983 ) . T heo r ie s a bou t a ccu l tu ra t ion d a te f r om a r ound 1 930 . T he p ub l ica t ion o ft h e i n i t ia l s t ud ie s o n a ccu l tu ra t ion ( Thumwa ld 1 932 ; B ea l s 1 932 ) c o inc ided w i th , a nd w e re r e la ted t o , t h e i n c rea s ing a n th ropo log ica l i n te re s t i nc hange s i nn on -we s ter n s oc ie t ie s a s ar e su l t o f c o lon ia l d om inance . A n e a r ly d ef in i t ion e xp la ined a ccu l tu ra t ion a s c omp r eh end ing " t ho se p henomena w h ich r e su l t w hen g roup s o f i n d iv idua l s h av ing d if er en t c u l tu re s c ome i n to c on t inuous f i r s t h and c on tac t , w i th s ub sequen t c hange s i n t h e o r ig ina l c u l tu r e p a t te rn s o f e i the r o r b o th g roup s " ( Redf ie ld e ta l1 936 :149 -152 ) . T he S oc ia l S c ience R e sea rch C ounc i l ( SSRC 1 954 :973 -1002 ) , d e sc r ibed a ccu l tur a t ion a s " c u l tu re c hange t h a t i s i n i t ia ted b y t h e c on junc t ion o f t wo o r mor e a u tonomou s c u l tu ra l s y s tems " , a nd d i s t ingu i shed f ou r p rob lem a r ea s t h a t n eeded r e sea r ch ing . T he se w e r e : i )t h e c ha rac ter iza t ion o f t h e p rope r t ie s o f t wo o r mo re a u tonomou s c u l tu r a l s y s tems w h ich c ome i n to c on tac t ; i ) t h e s t udy o f t h e n a tu r e o f t h e c on tac t s i tua t ion ; i ) t h e a na ly s is o f t h e c on junc t ive r e la t ion s e s tab l i shed b e twe en t h e c u l tu ra l s y s tem s u pon c on tac t ; a nd , i v ) t h e

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R ecen t w o rk s wh ich h ave b een c once rned w i th t h e se q u e s t ion s i n c lude B a r th 1 969b ; B ohannan a nd P log 1 967 ; B rand t a nd S lof s t ra 1 983 ; D eA t ley a nd F ind low 1 984 ; E a r le a nd E r ic son 1 977 ; F ranc i s e t a l 1 981 ; Ha l l e t a l 1 984 ; Hodde r 1 978a ; Megaw 1 977 ; M i l le r a nd S te f f an 1 977 ; R en f rew 1 973 ; W i lm sen 1 972 ; Wyman a nd K roebe r 1 972 ; among o the r s . R oymans ( 1983 :43 -69 ) , s t udy ing ' Roman iza t ion ' o f Nor th B e lg ic t r ibe s o f E u rope d u r ing t he f i r s t c en tu ry B .C . , ( i .e . t h e i mpac t o n t e r r i to r ie s a nnexed o r i nf luenced b y t h e R om an Emp i re ) , f ound t ha t t h e " Nor th G a l l ic r eg ion w a s s t i l l i nhab i ted b y r e la t ive ly p r im i t ive t r iba l s oc ie t ie s i n t h e i s t c en tu ry B .C . , whe rea s e l sewhe re i n Gau l t h e se h ad a l ready e vo lved i n to mo r e c omp lex s oc ie t ie s wh ich may h ave b een s im i la r o r ig ina l ly" ( i b id :55 ) . A ccord ing t o R oyman s , o ne e xp lana t ion f o r " t h e c on t inu ing e x i s ten ce o f r e la t ive ly p r im i t ive t r iba l s oc ie t ie s i n t h e No r th B e lg ic r eg ion , wh en , a t t h e s ame t ime , much mo re c omp lex s oc ie ta l f o rm s w e re d eve lop ing e l sewhe r e i n G au l . . . seem s t o b e a b sence o f i n te rac t ion p roce sse s w i th t h e R oman Emp i re wh ich w e re t h e i mp e tu s b eh ind i n c r ea s ing c omp lex i ty i n C en t ra l a nd E a s te rn Gau l . E x te rna l c on tac ts w i th t h e R oman wo r ld , w he the r p o l i t ica l , m i l i ta ry , o r e conom ic i n n a tu re , h ad b a re ly t a ken p lace i n t h e No r th B e lg ic r eg ion a t t h e t ime o f C ae sa r 's a r r iva l . C on sequen t ly , p roce s se s o f s econda ry S t a te f o rma t ion , i . e . g row th o f c omp lex i ty d ue t o i n te rac t ion p roce sse s w i th a d eve loped s t a t e , d id n o t o ccu r . D is tance may h ave b een o ne o f t h e e xp la in ing f a c to r s i n t h i s c a se ; t h e r eg ion o ft h e B e lga e o ccup ied ap e r iphe ra l p o s i t ion s een f r om t h e Med i t e r ranean c o re a r ea " ( i b id ) .

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s t udy o ft h e c u l tura l p roce s se s w h ich f olow f r om t h e c on junc t ion s o ft h e s y s tem . V a r iou s a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie s f o cu s sed u pon t h e t r an sm is s ion o f c u l tu r a l e l emen t s ( t r a i t s , c u s tom s , i d ea s ) a nd t h e w ay s i n w h ich t h ey c ou ld b e a cc ep ted o r r e jec t ed b y t h e r e c ip ien t p a r tne r i n t h e s pec if ic c on tac t s i tua t ion ( S lof s t r a 1 983 ) . A ccep tance b e ing u sualy d i s t ingu i shed b y t h e i n co rpo r a t ion o fe x te rna l t r a i t s i nt h e e x is t ing s y s tem , b y r e p lacemen t o f o l de r t r a i t s , o r b y s ync re t i sm ( Bee 1 974 ) . I n t h e 1 950 's S t ewa rd ( 1951) , h owever , h ad c r i t ic iz ed t h e n o rma t ive c onc ep t o f c u l tu r e e mbod ied i n t h e a ccu l tura t ion t h eo ry , a r gu ing t h a t t h e p rob lem o f a ccu l tu ra t ion n eeded r eph ra s ing s o t h a t t h e p henomena c ou ld b e h and led n o t mer e ly i n t e rm s o f c a tego r ie s o f e l emen t s a nd t o ta l p a t te rn s b u t a l so o f f unc t iona l l e ve l s . B ea ls ( 1953 ) h ad a l so a rgued i n f a vou r o f ar e fo rmu la t ion . T h i s w a s p a r t ia l ly a ch ieved b y t h e S SRC memor andum ( 1954 ) . Meanwh i le t h e d eve lopmen t o f n ewe r a nd mo re s oph i s t ica ted t h eo r ie s o f s oc io -cu l tur a l c hange i n t h e d i sc ip l ine s o f a n th ropo logy a nd s oc io logy d ur ing t h e 1 960 's e c l ip sed t h e a ccu l tu ra t ion t h eo ry w i th a n umbe r o f mo re c omp r eh en s ive a nd e xp lana to ry t h eor e t ica l f r ameworks f o r l ook ing a td ynam ic s o f i n te rac t ion b ecom ing a va i lab le t o a n th ropo log is t s a s a l te rna t ive s t ot h e o ld a ccu l tu ra t ion mode l .' A r chaeo log is ts a ppa r en t ly made o n ly l im i ted u se o f t h e a ccu l tu ra t ion t h eo ry (W i l ley 1 953 :369 ; D e L ae t 1 976 ) t h roughou t t h e p e r iod o f i t s a scendance a nd d ec l ine i n t h e d i sc ip l ine s o f a n th ropo logy a nd s oc io logy ( S lof s t ra 1 983 : 7 3 -74 ) . H owever , w i th t h e r e cen t i n te re s t i n t h e p roce s s o f ' h e l len iza t ion ' a nd ` r oman iza t ion ' ( Brand t a nd S lof s tra 1 983 ; D y son 1 971) t h e t heo ry a nd c oncep t o f a ccu l tu ra t ion i sb e ing r e v iewed a nd r e f o rmu la ted i n o rde r t o a na ly se t h e c u l tu ra l c hange s i nt h e i n te r ac t ion s phe re b e twe en ' n a t ive s ' a nd G reek s , o r ' n a t ive s ' a nd R oman s r e spec t ive ly ( S lof s t r a 1 983 ) . A s t h ing s s t and a tp r e sen t , h owever , t h e t h eory o f a c cu l tura t ion s t il r equ ir e s c on s ide rab le r e f in ing f r om i t s e x is t ing p e r spec t ive , w he r e c u l tur e c hange i sd esc r ibed o n t h e b a s i s o fl i s t s o fc u l tu re e l emen t s ( t ra i t s a nd i d ea s ) wh ich h ave c hanged a s ar e su l t o fc on tac t b e tween t wo o r mo re c u l tu r es . T he l e ng th o f s uch t r a i t l i s t s i s s uppo sed t o i n d ica te h ow f a r c u l tu r e c hange h a s p r og r e s sed . V an d e r L eeuw ( 1983 ) v i ew s a ccu l tu ra t ion a s i n f o rma t ion p roce ss ing , a nd c u l tu r a l i n s t i tu t ion s a s i n f o rma t ion p roce s s ing s y s tems .' H i s ' f l ow o f i n fo rma t ion ' mode l o f a ccu l tu ra t ion i n vo lve s f ou r s t ages ( i b id : 2 4 -25 ) . T he se a r e a s f olow s : a ) f i r s t ly , t h e d i f fu s ion o f o b jec t s o f ma te r ia l c u l tur e , b u t n o t o f s ymbo l s o r i d ea s , b ) f o l lowed b y t h e d ifu s ion o f s ymbo l s /mean ing , c ) t h en t h e e va lua t ion , b y t h e c once rned g roup s , o f t h e p r ev iou s p rocess es , d ) a nd , f i naly , i n teg ra t ion , w h ich c an t a k e t h e f o rm o f ( i ) i n co rpo r a t ion , ( i ) s ub s t i tu t ion , ( i i ) s ync r e t i sm , ( i v ) i s o la t ion , o r ( v ) r e ac t ive a dap ta t ion ( i b id ) .

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Among t h e se a l te rna t ive f r ameworks may b e i n c luded t h e c on t r ibu t ion o f t h e ' F rench S choo l ' w i th t h e i r a na ly se s o f t h e s t ruc tu re a nd d ynam ic s o f t h e r e la t ion s b e tween c omp lex a nd s imp le r s o c ie t ie s , a mong o the r i s sues . ( See K ahn a nd L lobe ra ( 198 1 : 2 63 -329 ) f o r as umma ry o f p o s t Wo r ld Wa r 1 F r ench An th ropo logy a nd Ma rx ism , t h e S t ruc tu r a l i sm a nd d yn am ic f unc t iona l i sm s choo l s o f t h ough t , t h e c on t r ibu t ion s o f L ev i -S t raus s , G ode l ie r , Me i l la s soux , R ey , T ef fay , a nd o the r s , a nd t h e r o le o fB raude l a nd o the r membe r s o f t h e ' Anna le 's , t h e ma jo r h i s to r iog raph ica l s choo l i nF r ance ) .

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" A s t h e re a r e n a tu ra l l im i t s t o t h e n umbe r o f p eop le w i th w hom a ny o ne i nd iv idua l c an i n te ra c t o n ao ne t o o ne b as is t h e re w il b e at e ndency o n t h a t p l ane t owa rd s t h e d eve lopmen t o f i n t e ra c t ive g roup s a nd i n te rac t ion b oundar ies , o r i n o the r w o rds , d ife r ence s i ni n te r a c t ion f r equency . B ecau se o fs uch d if e ren ce s , t h e i n fo rma t ion c on ten t p rocessed b y e ach o f t h e i n te rac t ive g roup s w i l l b ecome mo r e a nd mo re s pe c if i c f o r t h a t g roup : mo re i n fo rma t ion i ss ha red a mong membe r s o f ag roup t h an i ss ha red a c ro s s i n fo rma t ion p roce ss ing b o tmda r ie s . . . We mu s t c onc lude t h a t w ha t k eep s ag roup t oge th e r i st h e i n f o rma t ion wh ich t h e membe r s o f ag roup s ha re . .. [ and ] c on s ide r h uman i n s t i tu t ion s a s i n fo rma t ion t ran s f e r s y s tem s , wh ich a r e e ven tua l ly h e ld t o ge the r b y t h e i n fo rma t ion wh ich t h ey t r an s f e r . I ti st h e f l ow o f i n fo rma t ion i n ac u l tu re wh ich g i ve s t h a t c u l tu re i t s i d en t i ty , wh ich k eep s t h ose t h a t p a r t ic ipa te i n ac u l tu r e t o ge the r . I ti s b y h av ing c on tac t a nd p a ss ing i n fo rma t ion , t h a t p eop le c ome t o s ha re ama te r ia l c u l tu re . T h i s m a t e r ia l c u l tu re i n t u rn c on s tra in s o the r p a r t s o f t h e c u l tu ra l s y s tem . . .Bu t t h i s a l so o f se t s t h e p a r t ic ipan t s i n t h e i n fo rma t ion f l ow f r om o the r s who p a r t ic ipa t e l e ss i ni t ,o rn o t a ta l l , a nd t hu s d o n o t b low t h e l a nguage a s w el , a nd h ave c ome t ou se o the r o b jec t s" ( Van d e r L eeuw 1 983 : 1 2 -13 ) .

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A ccu l tu ra t ion t h eo r ie s d o n o t , h oweve r , e xp la in o r e ven t a ke i n to a ccoun t a l l t h e c on s t ra in t s a nd v a r iab le s i n vo lved i n i n ter ac t ion . F o r e xamp le , i n t h e s pec if ic c a se o f t h e A ha r ' Cu l tu re ' a nd B ago r P e r iod Ip ha se I t y pe o f s i te s , s ome a r chaeo log i s t s b e l ieve t h a t t h e A ha r C u l tu r e w a s t h e p roduc t o f i mm ig r an t a g r icu l tu r a l c o lon ize r s ( Sanka l ia 1 974 ; S anka l ia e t a l 1 969 ) , a nd t h a t t h e ' Me so l i th ic ' h un te r -ga the re r s w e re i n d igenou s t o t h e r e g ion . Wha t f o rm o f c on tac t c an b e p o s tu la ted i n s uch a s i tua t ion? Wha t k i nd o f r e la t ion sh ip c an b e h ypo the s ized b e tween t h em? T he ` F ron t ie r T heo ry ' , o r t h e c oncep t o f a' f ron t ie r ' b e tween f a rme r s a nd n on -fa rme r s , m ay h ave s ome r e levanc e h er e . ' F ron t ie r S tud ie s ' h ad i n i t ia l ly d eve loped a mong moder n h i s to r ian s s t udy ing t h e l a te 1 9 th a nd e a r ly 2 0 th c en tur ie s , who w e re i n te re s ted i nt h e s p r ead o f f a rmer s o f E u ropean o r ig in i n N o r th Ame r ica ( Bu r t 1 940 ; T u rne r 1 962 ) . D ef ined a s ' t he t empo ra ry b ounda ry o f a n e xpand ing s oc ie ty a t t h e e dge o f s ub s tan t ialy f r ee l a nd s ' b y T u rne r i n 1 893 ( s ee T u rne r 1 962 ) , t h e ' f ron t ie r ' c oncep t w a s a pp l ied t o u nde r s tand t h e p a t te rn s o f i n te rac t ion b e twe en i mm ig r an t f a rme r s a nd i n d igenou s h un te r -ga the rer s . I n t h e e a r l ie r w o rk s , h oweve r , t h e r e w a s ab i a s t owa rd s l ook ing a tt h e i s sue f r om t h e p o in t o fv i ew o f t h e f a rm ing g roup s , a s d emon s t rab le i n T urne r 's o r ig ina l d ef in i t ion o f af r on t ie r a s ' t he e xpan s ion o f f a rme r s i n to r e la t ive ly f r ee l a nd s ' ( 1962 ) . I n r e cen t y ea r s , g eog r aph e r s a nd h i s to r ian s h ave d eve loped t h e ' f ron t ie r t h eory ' a nd h ave a pp l ied i ti n aw ider c on t ex t t h an p r ev iou s ly v i sua l izab le , e xam in ing t h e i n te rac t ion a nd r e spon se s o f f a rme r s a nd h un te r -ga the r e r s t o c hang ing c ond i t ion s i n d i f f e ren t p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld ( M ike sel 1 960 ; M ile r a nd S t ef f an 1 977 ) . A r chaeo log is t s a nd a n th ropo log i s t s ( A lexande r 1 977 , 1 978 ; A lexande r & E l A bba s 1 982 ; E lk in 1 951 ; H a l l e t a l 1 984 ; S ha rpe 1 967 ; Wyman & K roebe r 1 972 ) h ave a t temp ted t oe xam ine t h e i mp l ica t ion s o ft h e ' f ron t ie r ' f r om a n a r chaeo log ica l a nd a n th ropo log ica l p e r spec t ive . T h i s c oncep t may h ave s ome i mpor tanc e f o r a r chaeo logy . S tudy ing t h e d eve lopmen t o f a g r icu l tu re a nd a n ima l h u sband ry i n ar eg ion , a l ong w i th t h e i n terac t ion b e tween f a rme r s a nd h un t e r -ga the r e r s a nd t h e mod if ica t ion s ( i n t h e ir t e chno logy , m a t e r ia l r ema in s , e conom ic p rac t ice s e t c . ) o n b o th s i de s , o n t h e b a s is o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta may r e su l t i n u nde r s tand ing s ome o f t h e p roces ses o f c hange ( Ba rne t t e ta l 1 954 ) .1 8 T he b ounda ry d el im i t ing t h e s pa t ia l e x ten t o f ac u l tu r e h a s o f t en b een c ha rac te r ized a s a f r on t ie r b u t t hough many a r chaeo log is t s h ave i n ve s t iga ted p r eh is to r ic a nd h i s tor ic f r on t ie r s i tua t ion s t h e re i sn o s i ng le , c on s is ten t , d ef in i t ion o f t h e p henomenon . A cco rd ing t o L er n e r ( 1984 :67 ) , " exp l ic i t mode l s d o n o t e x is t wh ich p e rm i t t h e r e cogn i t ion o f f r on t ie r s i tua t ion s . A s ar e su l t , i ti so f ten d i ff icu l t t o d ef ine t h o se a r chaeo log ica l p a t te rn s wh ich c ha rac ter ize a f r on t ie r (Weave r 1 980 ) . T he f r on t ie r i s ad ynam ic , d emog raph ic , s oc ia l a nd e conom ic p henomenon i n wh ich c hange i s c on s tan t . . .A k ey t o s t udy ing a f r on t ie r s i tua t ion i s r e cogn iz ing t h a t i ti s n o t as t a t ic p henomenon . T hu s , t h e s t udy o f af r on t ie r r equ i re s a d i ach ron ic a na ly s is o f h uman a c t iv i ty a s i tr e la te s t o c u l tu ra l c hange , c u l tura l c on t inu i ty a nd a dap t ion t o n ew e nv i ron s . " A s D eA t ley ( 1984 :5 ) p o in t s o u t , " f ron t ie r s d o n o t s imp ly d ema r ca te t h e l im i t s o f a c u l tu re . T hey h ave a d ynam ic a sp ec t : t h e p roce s se s i n vo lved i n t h e f o rma t ion a nd ma in t enance o f f r on t ie r s a c t i n s uch a w ay t h a t n o t o n ly d o t h e c ha r ac t e r is t ic s o f p a r t icu la r b ounda r ie s c hange t h rough t i me , b u t f r on t ie r s d i f f e r i n c ha rac ter i s t ic s f r om o ne s i tua t ion t o a no the r . No t o n ly may d if e r en t c u l tu re s d eve lop d i f f e r en t t ype s o f f r on t ie r s , b u t i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a t t h e b ounda ry a c ro s s as i ng le c omp lex c u l tu ra l e n t i ty m ay b e man if e s ted a s mor e t h an o ne f r on t ie r t y pe . " S eve ra l d ef in i t ion s a nd r e cen t c a se s tud ie s o n b ounda r ies a nd f r on t ie r s a r e a va i lab le . B i l l ing ton ( 1967 ) , f o r e xamp le , d i s t ingu ishe s af r on t ie r a s b o th a g eog r aph ica l a r ea — a m ig ra to ry z one o f v a ry ing w id th — a nd a s as oc ia l p roce s s . H e a l so d i s t ingu ishe s b e twe en

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S ee , f o r i n s tan ce , D ennel ' s a na ly s i s ( 1 984 :93 -115 ) , o f t h e e xpan s ion o f N eol i th ic e conom ie s i n to t h e B a lkan s a nd C en tra l E u rope , a nd t h e i r s ub sequen t r e la t ion s w i th Me so l i th ic h un te r -ga the re r s .

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p ion ee r s ( i n t ru s ive e l emen t s ) who d epended o n n a tu re , o r n a tu r a l r e sou rc e s , b u t d i scove red r ou te s , a dve r t ised f a vour ab le a r ea s a nd l e ss ened i n d igenou s s e lf -suff ic iency , a nd t h o se w ho s ubdued n a tur e , a nd i n t h e p roce s s , t h e i n d igene s . ( S ee A lexande r 1 984 ; D enne l l 1 984 ; i n t h i s c on tex t ) . S inc e h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s h ave b een i d en t if ied a s p r eced ing f ann ing i n mo s t m a jo r g eog r aph ica l r e g ion s , i ti ss ugges ted t h a t ' f ron t ier s ' w ou ld e x is t b e tween f a rme r s a nd h un t er -ga the r e r s whe r e e ve r f a rm ing w a s d eve lop ed o r i n t roduced ( DeAl ey a nd F ind low 1 984 ; B ohannan a nd P log 1 967 ; A lexande r 1 977 , 1 984 ; D enne l l 1 984 ) . D is t inc t ion h a s b e en made b e tween t wo k ind s o f f r on t ie r s — t h e ' mov ing f r on t ie r ' , wh ich e x i s ted u n t i l a l l c u r r en t ly u sab le l a nd w a s t a ken o ve r , o r u n t i l t h e n a tu r a l b ounda r ie s o f t h e r e g ion c once rned , o r t h e l im i t s o f p l an t a nd a n ima l c l ima t ic t o le ranc e w e re r e ached ; a nd t h e ' s ta t ic f r on t ie r ' wh ich d eve loped o nce t h e ' mov ing f r on t ie r ' h a s c ea sed a nd t h e f a rm ing a nd h un t ing -ga the r ing c ommun i t ie s h ad e s tab l ished amo r e s t ab le r e la t ion sh ip ." T he ' mov ing f r on t ie r ' , a cco rd ing t o A lexande r ( 1977 ) , i sd i v is ib le i n to t wo p ha se s o f a c t iv i ty . I n t h e f i r s t p ha se ( Pha se A ) , s mal g roup s o r i n d iv idua l s f r om e s tab l ished f a rm ing c ommun i t ie s move o u t i n to a w i lde rne s s i nhab i ted , i fa t a l l , b y h un ter s a nd g a the re r s , a nd e xp lo i t s ome o f i t s r e sourc es , o f t en u s ing t h e s t r a teg ie s o f t h e h un te r s a nd g a the r e r s t h ey mee t . T he se g roup s may s ome t ime s b e a cc ep ted b y t h e i n d igene s , a nd i nf luence t h em o ve r d i s tance s c on s ider ab ly r emoved f r om t h e s e t t lemen t s o f t h e mo r e s eden ta ry f a rmer s ( 18 th c en tury C anada b e ing o ne e xamp le ) . I n t h e n ex t p ha se ( Pha se B ) , t h e f a rm ing g roup s m ay b eg in t o s ubdue t h e w i lde rnes s , i np l ace o ft h e s e lec t ive e xp lo i ta t ion t h a t m ay h ave g one o n d u r ing t h e e a rl ie r P ha se A ( Amme rman a nd C aval i -Sfo rza 1 973 ) . T he i r o ccupa t ion i sl i ke ly t o b e mo re v i s ib le a r chaeo log ica l ly t h an t h a t o f t h e " Pha se A p i oneer s " . I ti sa l so l i ke ly t o b e mo re d i srup t ive t o t h e h un t ing -ga the r ing p a t te rn s i ft h e a r ea s a r e s u i tab le f o r a g r icu l tu r e . S uch g roup s c ou ld a l so b e r e sen ted a nd r e s is ted much mo r e b y t h e i nd igene s ( o r ' e a r l ie r ' o ccupan t s o ft h e r eg ion ) . B o th p ha se s o f t h i s mov ing f r on t ie r may b e a r chaeo log ica l ly r e cogn i sab le ( A lexande r 1 984 :13 -14 ) . E ven tualy , i f ar eg ion wh ich h a s h ad i mm ig ran t f a rme r s r e ache s as i tua t ion w he re t h e l im i t s o f t h e a r ea u sab le b y f a rmer s , g i ven t h e ir e x is t ing c r op s , a n ima l s , a nd t e chno logy , h ave b een r e ached , n ew p roces se s w il c ome i n to o p er a t ion . T hu s , m a jo r c hange s i n e conom ic a nd s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion o f t h e f a rme r s m ay b ecome n ece s sa ry . T h is c ou ld r e su l t i n t h e f o rg ing o f n ew r e la t ion sh ip s w i th h un t ing a nd g a the r ing n e ighbou r s ( Bohannan a nd P log 1 967 ) . T h i s p e r iod o f d if i cu l ty a nd d i srup t ion may b e a r chaeo log ica l ly v i s ib le t oo ( A lexande r 1 984 :13 -15 ) . ' S ta t ic f r on t ie r s ' d eve lop i fa nd when ' mov ing f r on t ier s ' h ave c ome t o a n e nd , a nd w hen h un t ing -ga the r ing g roup s s t il e x is t b eyond o r i n s ide t h em . L ong te rm r e la t ion sh ip s m ay d eve lop b e twe en f a rmer s a nd h un te r -ga ther er s . S in ce ' s ta t ic f r on t ie r s ' a r e b e l ieved t o b e p o ss ib le f o r al ong p e r iod ( s ee A lexande r 1 977 , 1 984 ) , t h e se l ong te rm r e la t ion sh ip s may l e ave s ub s tan t ia l a r chaeo log ica l e v idence . T he r e la t ion sh ip s may r ange f r om mu tua l i s o la t ion t oc omp le te a ma lgama t ion ( Bende r 1 978 ) , a s i lu s t ra ted b y A lexande r ( 1984 :16 ) .2 0 T he i d ea o f mov ing a nd s t a t ic f r on t ie r s o f f e r s o ne mode l f o r l ook ing a t i n t e rac t ion b e tween d if e ren t g roup s o f e conom ies .' Wh i le s ub s tan t ia l a r chaeo log ica l w o rk w i l l b e n ece s sa ry t o d e te rm ine a spec t s o f t h e ' f ron t ie r ' i n S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than , a nd t h e a pp l icab i l i ty o f t h e mode l , t h e A ha r : B ago r o r C ha lco l i th ic : Me so l i th ic r e la t ion sh ip , e xam ined i n t h i s l i gh t , p rov ide s a n i n t r igu ing mode l f o r ' f ron t ier ' r e la t ion sh ip s . I t i s 1 9

2 0

2 1

T he c oncep t o f ' mov ing f r on t ie r s ' t hu s i mpl i e s t h e e xp an s ion o f f a rm ing s oc ie t ie s o r t h e i r t e chno logy , ( i nc lud ing d ome s t ica ted p l an t s a nd a n ima l s ) , i n to r eg ion s w h ich p rev iou s ly l a cked t h em . T h is may b e d e sc r ibed a s a' mov ing z one o n t h e p e r iphe ry o f mo re s e t t led f a rm ing ' ( B il ing ton 1 962 , i n A lexande r 1 984 :12 ) . A t l e as t t wen ty -n ine f r on t ie r s h ave b een r e cogn i sed t h roughou t t h e w o r ld ( A lexande r 1 977 ) . S ee A lexande r a nd E l Abba s 1 982 :32 -45 , o n t h e Nub ian a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r i n te rac t ion b e tween f a rme r s a nd n on -fa rme r s . H a l l e ta l( 1984 ) h ave d i scu ssed f r on t ie r s i nS ou the rn A f r ica .

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i n te r e s t ing t o n o te h ow t h e c oex is tenc e o f A ha r a nd B ago r , t h e h ypo the s ized c ommun i ty movemen t s i n to t h e a r ea ( a s s ugges ted b y S anka l ia 1 962b , 1 963 ; S anka l ia e ta l 1 969 :1) , a nd t h e d i s t inc t c u l tu ra l a s semb lages o f c .2 500 -1000 B .C . R a ja s than c an b e v i ewed i n t h e l i gh t o ft h e ' f ron t ie r t h eo ry ' , a tl e a s t h ypo the t ica l ly . T hu s , i ft h e B ago r e t c . h un t ing -ga the r ing g roup s o f t h e ' Me so l i th ic ' l e ve l s , ( Pe r iod I P ha se I ) d a t ed a t B ago r a r ound 4 000 B .C . a r e c on s ide red t o b e i nd igene s , t h en B agor 's m idd le l e ve l s ( p e r iod I , P ha se I ) d a ted a r ound c . 2 500 -2000 B .C . , a nd d i sp lay ing a r e duc t ion i n a n ima l b one s a nd m ic ro l i th s , b u t t h e a ppea rance o f ' c rude ' h and -made p o t te ry , s ome c oppe r i t ems , a nd a s add le q uer n e t c . , m ay b e s e en a s r ef lec t ing t h e i nf luence o f ' f a rm ing ' g roup s , o nc e t h e ' mov ing f r on t ie r ' h ad b e en s e t i n to mo t ion b y t h e f a rm ing c ommun i t ie s . T he s ub sequen t r e duc t ion o f s i tes t h a t c an b e a r chaeo log icaly r e cogn ised a s ' h un t ing -ga the r ing ' , a nd t h e i n c r ea se i n t h e n umb e r o f s i t e s t h a t a r e s a id t o b e long t o a g r icu l tu ra l , C ha lco l i th ic , A ha r C u l tu re , may b e r ef lec t ing t h e e nd o f t h e ' mov ing f r on t ie r ' a nd t h e e s tab l ishmen t o ft h e ' s ta t ic f r on t ie r ' ( a t l e a s t t empo ra r i ly ) . I f s uch a mode l i sp romu lga ted , o ne may e xp ec t t o f i nd a s p r ead o f a gr icu l tu r e i n t h e u sab le p a r t s o f t h e r eg ion , a nd c oncu r r en t ly , ap o s s ib le r e t i r emen t , i n to i s o la ted a r ea s n o t r e qu ir ed b y f a rme r s , b y t h o se h un te r -ga ther e r g roup s wh ich h ave b een d i sp laced b u t h ave n o t b een i n teg r a ted , d u r ing t h e Aha r C u l tu r e p e r iod .' C u r r en t ly a va i lab le a r cha eo log ica l d a ta f r om S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than a r e t oo i n suff i c ien t t o g auge t h e a pp l icab il i ty o r o therw ise o f t h e f r on t ie r t h eo ry c onc ep t . H oweve r , w h i le t h e ' f ron t ie r s ' a nd ' b ounda r ie s ' b e tween t h e A ha r C u l tu re a nd c on tempo ra ry ' Me so l i th ic ' s i te s a r e , a s y e t , u n te s ted h ypo the ses , t h e R a jpu t t r iba l r e la t ion sh ip f r om t h e p os t s ix th c en tu ry A .D . p e r iod may b e v i ewed a s e xh ib i t ing s ome a spec t s o f b o th t h e ' mov ing ' a nd ' s ta t ic ' f r on t ie r s d i scu s sed a bove . S im i la r ly , t h e E p ic s , P u rana s , a nd o the r L a te r V ed ic p e r iod l i t e ra tu re , h ave r e f er red t o c onf l ic t s b e tween t h e A ryan h e roe s a nd ` r ak sha sa s ' a nd o t he r ' d emon s ' a nd ' e v i l b e ing s ' ( s ee C hap te r s 7a nd 8 ) . T he l a t te r g roup i s f r equen t ly d e sc r ibed a s f o r e s t -dwele r s w ho i n ter f er ed w i th V ed ic s a c r if ic ia l r i tua l s , a nd /o r t e r ro r ised t h e s ages who l i ved , med i ta t ed , t a ugh t o r p e r fo rmed V ed ic p rac t ice s i n f o r e s ted a r ea s . T he t a les e nd w i th t h e d emon ic v ila in s b e ing s ubdued a nd p un i shed , o r c onve r ted t ot h e V ed ic w ay o f l i f e , b y o ne o r mo r e o f t h e ' n ob le ' A ryan w a r r io r s . T he f o rm o f i n ter ac t ion r e coun ted h er e may r ef lec t t h e ' mov ing f r on t ie r ' p ha se ! Wh i le t h e f r on t ie r t h eo ry may b e o ne e xp lana t ion o f f a rme r -nonf a rmer i n te rac t ion h owever , i tl e ave s s e ve ra l q ue s t ion s u nan swe red . I t a l so w o rk s o n t h e b a s is o f c er ta in p r er equ is i te p r em ise s . T he i d ea o f f a rme r s e xpand ing t h e ir t e r r i to r ie s a nd c a r ry ing t h e ir c u l tu ra l m echan i sm s w i th t h em , f o r e xamp le , a pp ea r s t o b e a no the r v e r s ion o f t h e o l d d ifu s ion c oncep t . Wha t a r e t h e f o rc e s t h a t g ove rn t h e i r i n i t ia l movemen t s , t hough? I s i ta s e a r ch f o r a dd i t iona l r e sou r ces i n t h e s hape o f l a nd a nd f ood? S hou ld c ommun i ty movemen t s b e n ec es sa r i ly t i ed -up , t h er efo re , w i th p eop le w ho p os se s s t h e k now ledge t o m an ipu la te p l an t s a nd a n ima l s , i n s tead o f me re ly u s ing t h em? I n o the r w o rd s , c an o n ly f a rme r s c r ea te ' mov ing f r on t ie r s '? F u r the rmo re , d oe s t h e n a tu r e o f t h e ir s ub s is tence p a t ter n , r e qu ir ing l a nd a nd w a te r , r e su l t i n t h e d om ina t ion b y f a rme r s o f wh icheve r r eg ion t h ey c hoose t oo ccupy? A t t h e s ame t ime , w ha t a r e t h e f o rce s wh ich l e ad c e r ta in g roup s , who a r e h un te r g a the re r s , t o r ema in s o? Why d o s ome g roup s a dap t t o , o r a dop t , f a rm ing , when o ther s may n o t ? I fs u i tab le e nv i ronmen t s a r e ap r e requ is i te f o r t h e a dap t ion t o d ome s t ica ted p l an t s a nd 2 2

F u re r -Ha imendor f ( 1948a :87 ) b el ieve s t h a t , " t h roughou t t h e a ge s g r ea t c i v i l iza t ion s h ave r i sen w i thou t o bl i te ra t ing o r a b so rb ing a l l t h a t h a s g one b ef o re : t h e o lde r , mo re s t a t ic c u l tu re s g ave w ay n o t b y d i s in teg ra t ing , b u t b y s e ek ing r e fuge i n r emo te a r ea s u ncongen ia l t o c i v i l iza t ion s b a sed o n a n a dvan ced a g r icu l tu ra l e conomy ." T h i s c ou ld f i t i n w i th t h e g ene ra l c oncep t o f a' f ron t ie r ' , whe the r ' mov ing ' o r ' s ta t ic ' .

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a n ima l s , a nd s eden ta ry f ood -p roduc t ion , why s hou ld f a rm ing g e t ' d if f u sed ' , v i a t h e mov ing f r on t ie r p ionee r s , t oa r ea s n o t a s o p t ima l ly s u i ted?" Q ue s t ion ing t h e mechan i sms a nd mo t iva t ion s i n vo lved i n t h e s p r ead o f a g r icu l tu ra l p rac t ice s i n to a g i ven a r ea a nd s o o n , h oweve r , l i nk s t h e i s sue w i th a w ide r r ange o f p rob lems . T he se i n c lude , a mong o the r s , q ue s t ion s i n vo lv ing t h e v e ry o r ig in s o f a g r icu l tu re , t h e i n i t ia l d ome s t ica t ion o f p l an t s a nd a n ima l s , a nd t h e v a r iou s c au sa t ive f a c to r s i n vo lved i n t h e i nnova t ion , ' d i scove ry ' , o r a dop t ion o f as e t t led f a rm ing e conomy .' I n t h e c on tex t o f I nd ia , w h i le a s ma l l q uan t i ty o f d a ta h a s b een c olec ted a nd a na ly sed , ( Ka ja le 1 974 :55 -74 ; V ishnuM i t t r e 1 968 :87 -106 ; S ha rma e t a l 1 980 ; A lch in 1 969 ) , p rov id ing a g ene ra l o ve rv iew f o r t h e d ome s t ica t ion o f p l an t s a nd a n ima l s , a nd t h e o ccu r r ence o f a g r icu l tu ra l o r f ood -p roduc ing s e t t lemen t s i n S ou th A s ia ; t h e d a ta -ba se f r om S ou th -ea s ter n R a ja s than i s , a t p r e sen t , i n adequa t e f o r a n swe r ing q ue s t ion s c onc e rn ing t h e o r ig in s a nd s p read o fa g r icu l tu re i nt h a t r e g ion ." T he A ha r e xcava t ion s p roduced e v idenc e f o r t h e p r e sence o f d ome s t ica ted p l an t s , i n c lud ing r i ce , a nd a n ima l s , i n c lud ing c a t t le ( Sanka l ia e t a l 1 969 ) . T hu s , t h e m a in s ub s is tence b a se o f Aha r 's C ha lco l i th ic p opu la t ion i s b el ieved t o h ave b een s e t t led a g r icu l tu r e ( Ag rawa l 1 982 ; Alch in a nd A l lch in 1 982 ; M i s ra 1 969 ; S anka l ia 1 974 ; S anka l ia e t a l 1 969 ) . C on sequen t ly , a l t h e o the r s i te s c l a s sed a s b e long ing t o t h e Aha r C u l tur e a r e b e l ieved t o b e long t o t h e s eden ta ry , f ood -p roduc ing , e a r ly v i l lage c a tego ry t h a t Aha r r ep r e sen t s . A t t h e s ame t ime , d a ta f r om t h e B ago r e xcava t ion s u nde r l ined a mo r e ma rk ed d ependence o n h un t ing a nd f ood -co l lec t ing e ven i n to t h e t h i rd t o s econd m ilenn ia B .C . Wha t i st h e r e a son f o r t h is c oex is tence o fb o th e conom ie s i nS ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than a r ound c .2 500 B .C .? Wha t w e r e t h e f a c tor s o r v a r iab les r e spon s ib le f o r t h e e me rgence o fs eden ta ry a g r icu l tu ra l , C ha lco l i th ic , s i te s a l ong t h e B ana s -Be ra ch r i ve r s y s tem d ur ing t h e t h ird t o s e cond m ilenn ia B .C .? Why d i d f ood -p roduc t ion b ecome i mpo r tan t? C onve r se ly , why d i d c e r ta in g roup s , a s k nown t h rough t h e B agor e xcava t ion , c on t inue t o r e ly o n h un t ing g a the r ing i fa g ra r ian s e t t lemen t s h ad b ecome w el -es tab l ished i nt h e ir v i c in i ty? Wh i le t h ese q ue s t ion s c anno t b e d i scu s sed a t l e ng th h e re , t h e s i gn if i cance o f s uch a t r an sf o rma t ion f r om f ood -colec t ion t o f ood -p roduc t ion , w i th t h e ir r e spec t ive , i nhe ren t t e chno log ica l , s oc io -cu l tu r a l a nd e conom ic c onno ta t ion s h a s t o b e u nde r l ined . F rom t h i s c hange -ove r t o f ood -p roduc t ion i n c e r ta in a r ea s a nd a mong c e r ta in g roup s , a nd f r om t h e p e r s is tenc e o f f ood -ga the r ing a mong s t o the r s , f l ow n o t o n ly t h e i s sues o f i n te r r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t wo e conom ic t r ad i t ion s , o r t wo c a tego r ie s /g roup s o f a r chaeo log ica l s i te s f r om S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than t h a t a r e b e ing s t ud ied i n t h i s w o rk , b u t a l so o the r b a s ic q ues t ion s

S ubba rao ( f olow ing R icha rds 1 933 ) , d i f f e r en t ia ted b e tween t h ree k ind s o f z one s , wh ich h e r e f e r red t o a s a r ea s o f a t t rac t ion , r e la t ive i s o la t ion a nd i s o la t ion r e spec t ive ly . " Accep t ing t h i s f undamen ta l c oncep t . . . th e who le p a t te rn o f d eve lopmen t o f ma te r ia l c u l tu r e i n I nd ia may b e d ef ined a s o ne o f t h e h o r izon ta l e xpan s ion o f t h e h i ghe r c u l tu re s , l e ad ing t o ad i sp lacemen t , c ont rac t ion , a nd i s o la t ion o ft h e l owe r c u l tu r e s i nd i f fe ren t p a r t s o ft h e c oun t ry , a td if e ren t p e r iod s , a nd a td i f f e r en t c u l tu ra l l e ve l s . T he d i ve rgence i n t h e c oun t ry i sd ue t o t h e d i f f e rence i n t h e c u l tu ra l m i l l ieu o f t h e f i r s t l a rge s ca le a g r icu l tu ra l c ommun i t ie s i n t h e d i f f e ren tr eg ion s " ( Subba rao 1 958 :12 ) . 2 4

T he d eba te r ega rd ing a gr icu l tu re a nd i t s o r ig in s i ss t il o ngo ing a s n ew i n fo rma t ion , b o th a r cha eo log ica l a nd e thnoa rchaeo log ica l , c on t inue s t o b ecome a va i lab le . S e e , a mong o the r s , B ende r 1 975 , 1 978 ; B in fo rd 1 968 , 1 983 :195 -213 ; B ra idwood 1 960 ; B ra idwood a nd H owe 1 960 ; B ra idwood a nd R eed 1 957 ; B ron son 1 975 ; Ch i lde 1 928 ; C ohen 1 977 ; F lanne ry 1 965 , 1 968 , 1 969 , 1 973 ; H a r lan 1 967 ; H a r r i s 1 969 , 1 972 , 1 973 ; H assan 1 977 ; H iggs 1 972 , 1 975 ; H iggs a nd J a rman 1 969 ; H u t ch in son e t a l 1 977 ; MacNe i sh 1 971 ; R eed 1 969 , 1 977 ; R o th 1 887 ; Sm i th a nd Young 1 972 ; U cko a nd D imb leby 1 969 .

2 5

S ee a l so G u rd ip S ingh ( 1971) .

2 . 6

I n fo rma t ion r ega rd ing p reh i s tor ic s h if t ing -cu l t iva t ion o r i n c ip ien t f a rm ing i st o o i n su f i c ien t t o c on jec tu re a bou t t h e a gr icu l tu ra l , o r o the rw i se , a spec t o f t h e B ago r e conomy . T he p r e senc e o f s add le -que m s , o f t h e t ype f ound a t s eve ra l Aha r C u l tu re s i te s ( M i s ra 1 967 , 1 969 ) , f r om B ago r P e r iod I , p ha se I l e ve l s , h oweve r , i nd ica tes a tl e a s t t h e u t i l iza t ion o fc e rea ls a tt h e s i te o fB ago r ( s ee C hap te r 6 ) .

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r e ga rd ing t h e i mpe tus o r c au se s f o r t h e ' Neo l i th ic R evo lu t ion ' ( t o u se C h i lde 's w o rd s ) , a nd i t s i mmed ia te a sw e l l a s l o ng te rm i mpac t o n h uman e x is tence . A d e ta i led a nd t ho rough e xam ina t ion o f t h ese c au sa l f a c to r s , a nd o f t h e i mpac t o f t h e ' a g r icu l tu ra l r e vo lu t ion ' e t c . i s o u t s ide t h e s cop e o f my p r e sen t s t udy . T hu s , s i nce t h e r e e x is t s ac on s ide r ab le b ody o f l i t e ra tu r e ( s ome o f w h ich h a s a l ready b een c i t ed ) , t h a t h a s a na ly sed t h e se a nd o the r p rob lems , Is ha l l a ccep t , a s g i ven , t h e g ene r a l a rgumen t s a nd c onc lu s ion s s e t o u t i n t h es e v a r iou s , r e levan t , s t ud ie s r e ga rd ing i s sue s l i ke p l an t a nd a n ima l d omes t ica t ion , t h e o r ig in s a nd s p r ead o f a g r a r ian a c t iv i t ie s , a nd s o f o r th .» O ne o f t h ese c au sa l f a c to r s mo t iva t ing t h e t r an s i t ion t o s e t t led a g r icu l tu ra l p rac t ice s i s b e l ieved t o b e p r e s su re o n r e sou rce s d ue t o ag row th i n p opu la t ion s i ze s ( Cohen 1 977 ; a mong ot h e r s ) .» A cco rd ing t o C ohen ( 1 977 ) t h e s t ab le f ood r e sou r ce b a se d u r ing t h e i mmed ia te p o s t P l e i s tocene t h a t a l lowed f o r ap opu la t ion g row th , w a s u nab le t o s uppor t a n e ve r inc r ea s ing p opu la t ion i n def in i t e ly . T he i n c r ea sed e xp lo i ta t ion o f c er ta in f ood -p lan t s e t c . t h a t r e su l ted w a s a n a n swe r t ot h e p rob lem o fo ve r -popu la t ion . Whe the r p opu la t ion p r e s su r e ( Bo se rup 1 965 ; C ohen 1 977 ) , w a s a ma jo r f a c to r i nf luenc ing t h e t r an sfo rma t ion f r om a p r edom inan t ly h un t ing -ga the r ing t o ap redom inan t ly s eden ta ry , f ood -p roduc ing s oc io -econom ic s t ruc tu r e o r n o t , i ts e em s t o h ave b e en o ne o f t h e p o ss ib le c a ta ly s t s f o r s uch a n e conom ic t r an s i t ion . C ohen 's mode l ( 1977 ) , d e r ived p a r t ly f r om B oserup ( 1965 ) , t hu s l i nk s t h e o r ig in s o f a g r icu l tu r e w i th a f ood c r i s i s i n p reh is to ry r e su l t ing f r om o ve r -popu la t ion , a nd , h enc e , ap r es su r e o n e x i s t ing r e sou rc e s .» S uch a mode l i sp a r t ly s uppor ted b y r e cen t s t ud ie s i n vo lv ing h uman p a laeopa tho logy a t t h e o r ig in s o f a g r icu l tu r e ( Cohen a nd A rme lago s 1 984 ) , w h ich h ave s hown t h a t " t he a dop t ion o f i n ten s if ied u t i l iza t ion a nd p roce s s ing o fv ege tab le f ood s ou rce s b y N eol i th ic a nd l a te r p opu la t ion s p e rm i t ted i n c r ea s ing p opu la t ion d en s i ty b u t l e d t o l owe r q ua l i ty n u t r i t ion a nd a n i n c rea se i n c e r ta in p a tho log ie s . T he r e a r e i n d ica t ion s o f ah igh ly s ucce sfu l e conom ic h omeo s ta s i s f o r many p r eag r icu l tu ra l Me so l i th ic p opu la t ion s , b u t i t i s s ugges ted t h a t p opu la t ion g row th may h ave p l aced s t r es s o n t h e se g roup s a nd e ncou raged t h e i r g r ea te r e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e f ood r e sou rce b a se t h rough i n c ip ien t p a s to ra l ism a nd p l an t c u l t iva t ion " ( Kennedy 1 984 :169 ) . I n t h e c on tex t o f h uman r ema in s f r om S ou th A s ia3° K ennedy h a s a na ly sed t h e p a laeopa tho logy , i . e . g row th , n u t r i t ion , p a tho logy , e t c . o f t h e p r e -and -p ro toh i s to r ic h uman p opu la t ion s o f t h e S ubcon t inen t , d u r ing t h e t r an s i t ion f r om ( Me so l i th ic ) h un t ing -ga the r ing t o

2 7

Above r e f e rences ; a l so C la rk 1 972 ; H e r re 1 963 ; H a r r i s 1 967 ; J och i rn 1 976 ; Megaw 1 977 ; a nd s eve ra l p ape r s i nH iggs 1 972 , 1 975 ; a nd U cko a nd D imb leby 1 969 .

2 8

" Fa i r se rv is ( 1975 ) h as s ugge s ted t h a t t h e p e r iod o f t h e p o s t -P le i s toc ene h un t ing -ga the r ing l i f eway b rough t w i th i t ad rama t ic p opu la t ion e xp los ion f olow ing t h e l onge r a nd mo re s t ab le P a leo l i th ic p e r iod . C e r ta in ly mo re p e rmanen t s e t t lemen t s a nd a h un t ing -ga the r ing l i f eway t h a t w a s c omb ined i n s ome a r ea s w i th i n c ip ien t p as to ra l ism , e xp lo i ta t ion o f n ew h ab i ta t ion s i te s i n av a r ie ty o f e co log ica l s e t t ing s , a nd mo re e f f ic ien t me thods o f h un t ing a nd g a the r ing w i th t h e a cqu i s i t ion o f t h e d og , b ow a nd a r row , a nd p rec i s ion m ic ro l i th ic t o o ls a r gue f o r i n c rea s ing r eg iona l iza t ion a nd a h ighe r p opu la t ion d en s i ty o f l o ca l ized c ommuna l b ands " ( Kennedy 1 984 :173 ) .

2 9

B oserup 's w o rk h as c ha l lenged t h e t r ad i t iona l Ma l thu s ian mode l s o f p opu la t ion g row th , r eve r s ing g ene ra l p e r spec t ive s r e ga rd ing t h e c au se a nd e f fec t r e la t ion sh ip b e tween p opu la t ion g row th a nd t e chno log ica l c hange . Ana ly s ing a g r icu l tu ra l s y s tem s , s he h a s a r gued t h a t i ti sn o t s o much t e chno log ica l p rog re s s a s p opu la t ion d en s i ty t h a t d e te rm ine s wha t t y pe o f a g r icu l tu re w i l l b e e mp loyed . A cco rd ing t o B o se rup , t h e r e la t ive e f ic iency o f v a r iou s a g r icu l tu ra l t e chno log ie s i sl a rge ly a f unc t ion o f p opu la t ion d en s i ty , a nd t h e v a r ious k nown t e chno log ie s r ep re sen t ac on t inuou s s e r ie s o f mo re o r l e s s e l a s t ic r e spon se s t o g row ing p opu la t ion s .

3 0

Gup ta 1 975 , 1 976 ; J acob son 1 979 ; K ennedy 1 969 , 1 973 , 1 975 , 1 976 , 1 980 , 1 982 ; L uka c s 1 978 , 1 982 ; Mu r ty 1 974 ; among o the r s . T he re a r e v e ry f ew c omp r ehen s ive s t ud ie s o n p a leodemog raphy a nd s o o n a t p resen t , t h ough , a s t h e re a r e c on s ide reab le l a cunae i n t h e d a ta -ba se . T he h uman r ema in s f r om A ha r a r e o n ly a f ew f r agmen ta ry p i ece s wh ich S hah h a s n o t d i scu s sed ( Shah i nS anka l ia e ta l1 969 ) , f o r e xamp le .

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i n ten s ive ( Neol i th ic -Cha lco l i th ic ) f ood -p roduc t ion s t r a t eg ies .' K ennedy 's c onc lu s ion s h ave i mpor tan t c onno ta t ion s . A cco rd ing t o h im , t h e " a dop t ion o f i n ten s if ied u t i l iza t ion a nd p roce s s ing o f v ege tab le f ood s ou r ce s t h a t a lowed f o r g r ea te r f ood s t ab il i ty l e d t o l owe r q ua l i ty n u t r i t ion a nd i n c r ea se i nc e r ta in p a tho log ie s w i th t h e o n se t o f a g r icu l tu ra l e conom ic p a t ter n s i n S ou th A s ia , a l though p opu la t ion d en s i ty i n c r ea sed i n v ilage a nd u rban c en te r s b ecause o f ah e igh tened c apac i ty t o f e ed mo r e p eop le . T he se p a tho log ica l v a r iab le s a r e r e p r esen t ed i n s ke le ta l r ema in s b y h igher i n c iden ce s o f p o ro t ic h ype ros tos i s , c a r ie s , a b sces s a nd ab road s pec t rum o f s p ec if ic d i sea se s .. Ev iden ce s o f t r auma a r e h ighe s t i n f a rm ing c ommun i t ie s . .. Den ta l a t t r i t ion o ccu r s t o s ome d eg re e i n a l l S ou th A s ian p reh is to r ic s kul s , b u t i ti s mo s t s eve r e a mong h un te r s a nd g a the r e r s . Mode ra te t o s l igh t d en ta l a t t r i t ion c ha rac te r ize s t h e a nc ien t f a rm ing c ommun i t ie s a nd t h i s v a r iab le c on t inue s i n to t h e I r on A ge a nd h i s to r ic p e r iods " ( Kennedy 1 984 :183 ) . H oweve r , wh i le t h e re a r e i n d ica t ion s o f " s ucce sfu l e conom ic h omeo s ta s is f o r many p r eag r icu l tu ra l p opu la t ion s , i n c r ea s ing p opu la t ion g row th may h ave p l aced s t re s s o n t h e se g roup s a nd e ncou raged g rea te r e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e f ood r e sou rce b a se b y p r ac t ice s o f i n c ip ien t p a s tor a l ism a nd p l an t c u lt iva t ion . .. F a rm ing c ommun i t ie s t h roughou t t h e s ubcon t inen t whe r e t h e ir r ema in s a r e f ound a ppea r t o h ave c omb ined a h igh p ropo r t ion o f f l e sh f oods w i th t h e ir c u l t igen s , b u t t h is p r ac t ic e w a s s ub s t i tu ted f o r t h e o ne o f b a r te r w i th f o r es t dwel ing ' t r iba l ' p opu la t ion s a s a luv ia l v a l ley s a nd t e r r aced , h i l l s ide a r ea s l e d t o a r e duc t ion i n g ame . N omad ic h e rd ing p opu la t ion s h ave b een ap o ten t ia l s ou r ce o f f l e sh f ood s t o s eden ta ry c ommun i t ie s , b u t d ome s t ica ted a n ima l s h ave t h e i r c h ief v a lue a s b ea s t s o f b u rden a nd p roduce r s o fw oo l a nd h a i r o r m i lk " ( i b id :183 -184 ) . T hu s , d u r ing t h e " t ran s i t iona l p ha se b e tween m ixed h un t ing -ga the r ing a nd f ul f a rm ing h e rd ing s y s tems , f ood s ho r tage s o ccur red , as i tua t ion t h a t b ecame mo r e f r equen t w i th i n ten s if ica t ion o f a g r icu l tu ra l p rac t ice s . A s ymb io t ic r e la t ion sh ip o f v ilage c u l t iva tor s w i th f or e s t h un ter s a nd g a the re r s m i t iga t ed t o s ome d eg re e t h e e x t r eme s o f f ood s ho r tage s a nd n u t r i t iona l d ef ic ienc ie s , ap rac t ice t h a t c on t inue s i n s ome S ou th A s ian c ommun i t ie s t o t h e p r esen t d ay . E v idenc e f o r n u t r i t iona l f l uc tua t ion s a ppea r s i n t h e h ighe r i n c iden ce s o f d en ta l e name l h ypop la s ia , H a r r is l i ne s , a nd b ow ing o f d i aphy se s o f l ong b one s i n i n d iv idua l s f r om f ood p roduc ing p opu la t ion s . . . S t a tu r e a nd b ody s i ze d ec r ea se i n many l o ca l a r ea s w i th t h e a bandonmen t o f af u l l t ime h un t ing -ga the r ing e conomy , a nd i ti si n te re s t ing t h a t s pec imen s who se a ge s a t t ime o f d ea th a r e e s t ima ted t o b e i n t h e f i f th a nd l a ter d ecade s o f l i f e a r e s e ldom o b se rved i ns eden ta ry a nd a g r icu l tu r a l c ommun i t ie s " ( i b id :184 -185 ) . T he se c onc lu s ion s b a sed o n h uman p a laeopa tho logy e mpha s i se t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c au sa l f a c to r s mo t iva t ing t h e t r an s i t ion t o f ood -p roduc t ion s hou ld h ave b een i mpo r tan t , o r a t t rac t ive , e nough t o c ompen sa te f o r t h e a ccompany ing d rawback s o f al i f e -s ty le a s soc ia ted w i th s eden ta ry f ann ing . T h is may , i n p a r t , b e t h e r e a son t h a t n o t e ve ryon e m ade t h e e conom ic t r an sfo rma t ion t o as e t t led f ood -p roduc ing ' p ea san t s oc ie ty ' a tt h e s ame t ime ." A d i scus s ion i nvo lv ing t h e f a c to r s a nd v a r iab le s m o t iva t ing t r an s i t ion s b e tween v a r iou s t e chno log ica l a nd s oc io -econom ic l i f eway s a l so l e ad s o n e t o q ue s t ion t h e b a s ic d ef in i t ion s a nd modes wh ich h ave b een , a nd c on t inue t o b e , u sed f o r d i s t ingu ish ing b e twe en a nd d ema rca t ing d if e ren t ' c u l tura l s t age s ' l i ke Me so l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic , o r N eol i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic , wh ich a r e r e cogn i sab le t h rough a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s . I t i s , h oweve r , u n ive r sa l ly a cknow ledged t h a t t e rms s uch a s P a laeo l i th ic , Meso l i th ic , N eo l i th ic , C ha lco l i th ic

3 1

" I n S ou th A s ia , c u l tu ra l a s soc ia t ion s w i th r e spec t t o t e chno logy , s ub s is tence p a t te rn s , a nd f ood p repa ra t ion a r e more s i gn if ican t t h an c h rono log ica l c on t ex t s b ecau se s o c ioeconom ic t r an s i t ion s h ave b een i n i t ia ted a t d i f f e ren t t ime s i n d i f f e ren t r eg ion s , a nd c e r ta in c u l tu r a l h o r izon s a r e e n t i re ly a b s en t i n s ome a r ea s . .. Neve rt he les s , b io log ica l t r end s ma rk ing t h e s oc ioeconom ic t r ans i t ions f rom f ood c o l l ec t ing t of ood p roduc ing l i f eways a re d i scern ib le i n t h e p reh is to r ic s ke l e ta l r eco rd . " ( Kennedy 1 984 :183 [ emph a s i s m ine ] ) .

3 2

S im i la r ly , t he r o le o f o the r v ar iab le s , i n c lud ing c u l tu ra l e co logy ( Vayda 1 969 e t c . ) , a nd p a l eo economy ( H igg s 1 972 , 1 975 ) , n eed t ob e t a ken i n to a c coun t .

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a nd s o o n , a r e mo re r e levan t a s c onven ien t l a be l s t h a t s t r e s s t h e p redom inan t a spec t s o f v a r iou s s ub s is tence b a se s o f ' c u l tu r e s ' ( f o r e xamp le , h un te r -ga the re r s , p a s to ra l n omad s , o r s e t t led a g r icu l tu ral i s t s ) , a nd t h e i r t e chno log ica l s t anda rd s ( mak ing u se o f h and -axe s , b l ades , s c rape r s , a nd /o r m ic rol i th ic i n du s t r ie s , o r E th ic a nd m e ta l t oo l s , a nd s o o n ) , r a the r t h an a s r i g id t a xonom ic s y s tem s o f c l a s s if ica t ion , t h a t s e ek t o p l ac e h uman e x is tence o ve r t h e m i l lenn ia i n to n ea t ly c ompa r tmen ta l ised s t age s o fp rog re ss ive d eve lopmen t . I n t h is c on t ex t , a r chaeo log is t s h ave r ema rked o n t h e o ver lap b e twe en v a r ious s t age s i n I nd ia ( A l lch in a nd Alch in 1 982 ; G o rdon 1 958 ; a mong o the r s ) , a ccep t ing t h e f a c t t h a t t h e t r an s i t ion t o f ood -p roduc t ion a nd t h e e mergence o f n ew e conom ie s h a s v a r ied c on s ide rab ly i n d if er en t p a r t s o f t h e s ubcon t inen t . T hu s a l l t h e ' c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion s ' n eed n o t b e r e p r e sen ted i n e ve ry r e g ion . I n f a c t , " surv iva l s ' o f mo r e a n c ien t l i f eway s may f o rm s ymb io t ic r e la t ion sh ip s w i th ' mo re a dvanced ' c u l tu r e s i n ag i ven a r ea s uch t h a t ac h rono logy o fu n ifo rm c u l tu r e p e r iod s d oe s n o t r e ad i ly a pp ly " ( Kennedy 1 984 :170 ) ." D i s t ingu i sh ing b e twe en ' Me so l i th ic ' s i te s a nd t ho se c l a s s if ied a s ' Neo l i th ic ' , Tha lco l i th ic ' o r ' I ron A ge ' a l so l e ad s t o t h e i s sue o f t h e e me rgence o f c omp lex s oc ie t ie s ( Adam s 1 965 , 1 966 ; A dams a nd N is sen 1 972 ; B u tze r 1 964 ; C h i 1de 1 951 , 1 957 , 1 958 ; F lannery 1 972 ; R enf rew 1 972 ; S erv ice 1 962 ; Webb 1 975 ; Wh ea t ley 1 975 ; a nd o the r s ) . I n t h e p re sen t s t udy , h oweve r , ad i scu s s ion o f i s sue s i n vo lv ing E a r ly S ta te Modu le s ( Ren f r ew 1 975 ) , s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion a nd o rgan isa t ion , r ank ing , h i e ra r chy a nd c h ief doms , u rban iza t ion , C en t r a l P lace a nd L oca t iona l t h eor ies ( Ch r is ta l ler 1 966 ; H agge t t 1 965 ; J ohn son 1 975 ) , a nd o the r a spec t s r e levan t t ot h e e me rgence a nd d eve lopmen t o f t h e Aha r C u l tu r e a s a' c omp lex s oc ie ty ' i sh ampe r ed b y t h e i n adequacy o ft h e a va i lab le d a ta ( s e e C hap te r 4 ) . S im i la r ly , t h er e i si n su f i c ien t e xcava ted d a ta t o e va lua te t h e r o le o f t r ade a nd e xchange i nt h i rd t o s econd m ilenn ium B .C . R a ja s than i n ac omp r ehen s ive manne r ( s e e A dams 1 974 ; D a l ton 1 975 ; E a r le a nd E r ic son 1 977 ; H a rd ing 1 967 ; R en f r ew 1 969 , 1 975 ; S ab lof f a nd L ambe rg -Ka r lovsky 1 975 ; S ah l in s 1 972 ; W i lmsen 1 972 ; Wr igh t a nd J ohn son 1 975 ; a mong o the r s ) . T he l im i ted n a tu re o f t h e d a ta f r om b o th A ha r a nd t h e A ha r C u l tur e s i te s , a nd B ago r a nd o the r ' Me so l i th ic ' s i te s , h a s a l so p r ec luded a n e xam ina t ion o f s eve ra l o the r s ub jec t s wh ich a r e p er t inen t , y e t p e r iphe ra l , t o t h is w o rk . T hu s , i n t ra -s i te a nd i n te r -s i te v a r iab i l i ty , u se p a t te rn s o f ma te r ia l o b jec t s , b e l ief s y s tems , m echan isms i n vo lv ing t h e d eve lopmen t a nd s p read o f p l an t a nd a n ima l d omes t ica t ion a nd a g r icu l tu ra l p r ac t ice s , a na ly se s o f t h e r a nge , t ype a nd r a t io o f v a r iou s f ood s c on sumed a nd o b jec t s u sed , t e r r i to r ia l b ounda r ie s , p a leodemog raphy , t h e e xp lana t ion o f ' c u l tu r e c hange ' , a nd o the r s im i la r a spec t s h ave b een d i scu s sed i n adequa te ly ( i f a t a l l ) , b o th i n t h is w o rk a s w e l l a s b y p r ev iou s a r chaeo log is t s . ( See S anka l ia 1 963 ; S anka l ia e ta l 1 969 ; M is ra 1 967 , 1 969 , 1 973 ; t h e J AR r epor t s ; e t c . f o r i n s tance ) .'

3 3

Gordon ( 1958 :16 ) a cknow ledged t h a t t h e t e rm s "Me so l i th ic a nd N eol i th ic , u sed b y a r chaeo log i s t s a s t e rm s o f c onven ience t o d eno te t h e M idd le a nd N ew S tone A ge s , h a ve l i t t le s i gn if icance w hen d ea l ing w i th a l a rge a r ea l i ke I nd ia . R ecogn i s ing t h a t t h e se t e rm s a r e n ow mo r e g en e ra l ly u sed t o d ef ine mode s o f l i v ing r a the r t h an t h ose o f p repa r ing s t one i mp lemen t s , t wo f a c to r s mu s t b e t a ken i n to c on s ide ra t ion ; t ha t t h e t r an s i t ions f r om o ne mode t o a no the r w e r e n o t c l ean c u t , t h e ma rg ina l s t age s mu s t b e s omewha t b lu r r ed w i th f ood p roduc t ion a nd s t ock k eep ing a t av e ry p r im i t ive l e ve l , a nd t h a t t h e se v a r iou s mode s o fl i f e a nd s t ages o f d eve lopmen t p e r s i s ted s i de b y s i de i n v a ry ing c ond i t ion s o f e nv i ronmen t . " One may e x tend Go rdon 's s t a temen t t o i n c lude t h e t e rm ` Cha lco l i th ic ' , a nd a r gue t h a t t h e i n t h e s pec if ic c ase o f S .E . R a jas than , t h e t r an s i t ion b e tween t h e Meso l i th ic a nd t h e C ha lco l i th ic w a s , t h u s , s im i la r ly b lu r red , a nd t h a t ' t he se v a r iou s mode s o fl i f e a nd s t age s o fd eve lopmen t p e r s i s ted s i de b y s i de i nv a ry ing c ond i t ion s ' .

3 4

S im i la r ly , i n d i scu ss ing p re sen t -day s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s o f t h e r eg ion ( Chap te r 7 ) , Ih ave n o t d e sc r ibed t h e v i l lage a nd i t s s oc io -econom ic a nd c a s te mechan i sm s , t h e v a r iou s i n t e r l inked s ub sy s tem s , ' p ea san t s oc ie t ies ' , t h e r o le o f b onded s e r f s i n t h e ` j a jman i ' ( bonded s e r v i tude ) s y s tem p reva len t i n t h e s eden ta ry a g ra r ian s e t t lemen t s , a spec t s o fe ne rgy i npu t i nc ompa r i son t ot he c omp rehen s ive o u tpu t o f a g r icu l tu ra l a nd n on -agr icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion , a nd s uch i s sue s i n a ny d e ta i l . T he se a spec t s h a ve b een , a nd c on t inue t o b e , s t ud ied , o f t en u nde r a b e t te r magn i fy ing l en s , b y s oc io log i s t s , e conom i s t s , p ol i t ica l s c ien t i s t s , a n th ropo log is t s a nd o the r s (e . g . A iyappan 1 965 ; B e ide lman 1 959 ; B o se 1 967 ; D ube 1 965 ; F i r th 1 969 ; H u t ton 1 946 ; K a rve 1 965 ; K uma r 1 965 ; L ea ch 1 960 ; S r in iva s 1 962 ; W i se r 1 936 ) .

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93 T he C onc lus ion G iven t h e e x is t ing d a ta -ba se , i t i s d i ff icu l t t o o f e r s imp l i s t ic e xp lana t ion s f o r t h e t e chno log ica l , c u l tu r a l a nd s oc io -econom ic t r an sf o rma t ion f r om t h e Me so l i th ic t o t h e C ha lco l i th ic i n S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than , t hough s uch a p henomenon i s v i s ib le i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T h i s b e ing t h e c a se , i ti s e qua l ly d i ff icu l t t o d e te rm ine t h e c au sa l f a c to r s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e c on t inued p e r s i s tence o f t h e f o rme r a t s ome s i te s d ur ing t h e c . t h i rd t o s e cond m i l lenn ia B .C . w hen t h e C ha lco l i th ic f ood p roduc ing A ha r C u l tur e h ad a l r eady b ecome e s tabl i shed i nt h e r eg ion . O ne may c on jec tu r e a nd h ypo the s ize a bou t t h e B ago r P e r iod Ip ha se I t ype Meso l i th ic s i te s a nd t h e A ha r C u l tu r e t ype s e t t led a g r icu l tu r e b a sed C ha lco l i th ic o ne s , a nd t h e i r p o s s ib le i n te r re la t ion sh ip s a nd i n te r ac t ion s ; o ne may d i scu s s , a s h a s b een a t temp ted a bove , r e la t ed i s sue s o f c u l tu ra l i n te rac t ion , t h e o r ig in s o f a g r icu l tu r e , t h e g row th o f c omp lex s oc io e conom ic s t ruc tu re s , o r e ven t h e s eman t ic s o f t h e t e rms ' Me so l i th ic ' , ' Neo l i th ic ' , o r ' Cha lco l it h ic ' ; o r o ne may e xpand t h e t empo ra l l im i t s o f t h e s t udy t o l ook a tt h e e a r l ie r P le i s tocene -Ho loc ene t r an s i t ion b e twe en t h e P a laeol i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic , o r t h e l a ter -day g row th o f U rban i sm , a nd s o f o r th . H oweve r , t h e n a tu re o f t h e e x i s t ing a r cha eo log ica l i n fo rma t ion , a nd c on sequen t r e con s t ruc t ion s , b e ing w ha t t h ey a r e , t h e se c on jec tu r e s , h ypo these s , d i scu s s ion s a nd a na ly se s w ou ld ( a nd d o ) , r e qu ir e f u r the r t e s t ing . Meanwh i le , t h e a ccompany ing c a se -s tud ie s ( Chap te r s 7a nd 8 ) o f e x is t ing a nd h i s to r ic p e r iod B h i l s a nd n on t r iba l p ea san t c ommun i t ie s f r om S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than d emon s t r a te t h e p rac t ice o ft wo k ind s o fl i f eway s . T ha t o ft h e f o rme r h a s b een b a sed p redom inan t ly o n a h un t ing -colec t ing - s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion e conomy , w i th a n a s soc ia ted s oc io -cu l tu ra l l i f e s ty le , wh i le t h a t o f t h e l a t te r h a s d epended p r edom inan t ly o n as e t t led a g r icu l tu ra l e conom ic s y s tem , w i th i t s a s soc ia ted s oc io -cu l tu ra l , p o l i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou s p r ac t ice s ." T he a r chaeo log ica l a nd mode rn c a se s tud ie s h ave b e en d i scu s sed i nt wo s eper a te s e c t ion s i n t h e c ou r se o f t h is w o rk . T h is h a s b een a d e l ibe ra te a nd c on sc iou s c ho ice . I n t h e a r chaeo log ica l s e c t ion t h e a va i lab le d a ta h a s b een u sed t oc on s t ruc t ac e r ta in mode l —t h a t o f p o s s ib le i n te rac t ion . I n t h e mode rn s e c t ion a k nown e xamp le o f s oc io -cu l tu ra l a nd t e chno log ica l i n te r r e la t ion sh ip b e tween a h un t ing -ga the r ing s h if t ing -cu l t iva t ion a nd a n a g ra r ian ' p ea san t s oc ie ty ' e conomy i sd i scu ssed . E ach s e c t ion s hou ld b e a b le t o w i th s tand s c ru t iny o n i t s o wn : t h e f o rme r a s a n e xe r c i se i n a r chaeo log ica l mode l -bu i ld ing u s ing l im i ted d a ta , a nd t h e l a t t e r a s a n e xamp le o f s uch a p o s tu la ted mode l i na c t ion . T hey a r e , t h u s , p a ra l le l s t ud ie s o f i n te r ac t ion , b u t w i th t h e d rawback s o f u s ing a na log ie s b e tween t h e p a s t a nd t h e pr e sen t c l ea r ly u nde r l ined . I t i s o bv ious t h a t many o f t h e a s soc ia ted c on s t ra in t s a nd v a r iab le s t h a t may h ave b een i n o pe ra t ion a bou t f i ve t h ou sand y ea r s a go i nt h e a r ea s t il n eed t ob e c l a r if ied . T he a r chaeo log ica l mode l i s b a sed , t h e ref o r e , p a r t ly o n a r chaeo log ica l e v idenc e a nd p a r t ly o n h ypo the ses d r awn f r om o the r i n s tance s o f r e cogn ised i n te rac t ion b e tween g roup s . T he modem s e c t ion p rov ide s o ne s uch e xamp le . T he r e t h u s i se v idence f o r t h e e s tab l i shed t empor a l c on t empo rane i ty a nd s pa t ia l c oex is tenc e b e tween t wo g roup s i n S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja s than d u r ing t h e h i s tor ica l ly -known a nd modem p e r iod . D if f e r ing d eg ree s a nd l e ve l s o f i n te r r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h em c an b e n o t ed . T he re i sa l so a r chaeo log ica l d a ta f r om S ou th e a s te rn R a ja s than i n d ica t ing t h e t empo ra l c on t empo rane i ty a nd s pa t ia l c oex i s tence b e tween s i te s b e long ing t o ' Me so l i th ic ' h un te r -ga the r e r s a nd ' Cha l col it h ic ' s eden ta ry a g r icu l tu r a l i s t s , d u r ing t h e t h ird t os e cond m i l lenn ia B .C .

3 5

B o th c a tego r ie s a r e i n as t a te o ff l ux a nd c hange t oday .

1 60

O n t h e b a s is o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a nd t h e modem -day c a se -s tudy , Ih ave c on s t ruc ted at e n ta t ive mode l , p o s tu la t ing c on tempo rane i ty a nd a n a sy e t u nquan t if ia l d eg ree o f i n te rac t ion b e tween t h e Me so l i th ic a nd A ha r C u l tu r e c a tego r ie s o f s i te s i n S ou th -ea s te rn R a ja st h an .

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Append ix : G aze t tee r o f S i te s a nd R e la ted I nfo rma t ion

T he G aze t tee r o f ` Aha r C u l tu re ' s i t es o f R a ja s than i ss umma r ised b e low i n t h ree t a b le s wh ich c ove r a l l t h e k nown s i tes . T he f i r s t t a b le g i ve s t h e l o ca t ion -coo rd ina t e s a nd i n i t ia l r e f e rence s o f e ach s i te ( whe r e a va i lab le ) , w h i le t h e s econd a nd t h ird i nd ica te t h e ma te r ia l r ema in s ( po t tery a nd o ther f i nd s ) k nown f r om t h em . I n t h e l a t te r t wo t a b le s , ' X ' s i gn if ie s t h e o ccu r r ence o f ag i ven o b jec t o r c a tego ry a t as i te , a nd i t s a b sence , a nd /o r i n adequa te i n f o rma t ion r ega rd ing i t . T he se t a b le s a r e p r eceded b y al i s t o f s i te s e xam ined i nt h e c ou r se o f my f i e ldwo rk . E a ch s i te -name i s a ccompan ied b y t h e f i e ld -s tudy n umbe r a l loca ted t o i tf o r t h e c ou r se o f t h e f i e ldwo rk . ' F ou r t een p age s o f i lu s t ra t ion s s how ing e xamp le s o f t h e c e ram ic d a ta r e cove red d u r ing t h e f i e ldwo rk f olow . ( Fo r t ypo logy a nd s o f o r th , s ee C hap te r 5a nd t h e s e c t ion o n ' The P o t te ry o f t h e A ha r C u l tu r e ' i n C hap te r 4 ) . F olow ing t h e se i lu s t r a t ion s i s t h e c omp le te G aze t tee r o fs i te s .

AHAR CULTURE S ITES EXAM INED DUR ING F IELD WORK ( NOVE MBER 1 982 -APR IL 1 983 )

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1 62

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